PAGES MISSING
IN THE BOOK
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This Volume is for
REFERENCE USE ONLY
THE NEW
INTERNATIONAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA
SECOND EDITION
VOLUME IX
NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1928
Copyright, 1903, 1904, 1005, 1900, 1007, 1(H)9, i'W., 1912, 1915
BY DODD, MKAD \ND COMPANY
All rights rewved
Copyright, 1917, 1921, 1022
BY DODD, Mi' AD AND COMPANY, INC
l nghts reserved
Printed in the USA,
VAIL RAU.QU Prass* INO , BINDJUMTON* N, y«
J F TVPLBY Co, Lojfa ISLAND Cm, N I,
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IX
COLORED PLATES
FACING
FUNGI, Edible . . . ........ 352
FUNGI, Poisonous . . 354
MAUINK GASTROPODS . . . . . 500
MAPS
FRANCE, Northern . . . „ . . . „ , . . , 124
FBANCK, Southern 126
FRENCH INDOCHINA . . 244
GEOGRAPHY, The World . . . . . 586
GEOGRAPHY, The Known World at Various Times ... . 592
GEORGIA . ... 622
GERMAN EMPIRE . . . . 670
ENGRAVINGS
FORTIFICATION, United States Forts , . , 52
FORTIFICATION, Typical Diagrams . . , 53
FORTIFICATION, Batteries for United States Coast Defense « . . .... * 56
FORTIFICATION, Heucoa&t Batteries and Guua , . 57
FOUNDATION**, Moran Air Lock , , , , , 90
FOUNDATIONS OF A MODERN OFFICE BUILDING, General View . , .... 01
FOXES AND JACKALS , , , , . . 108
FHANKUN, BKNJVMIN . . . 182
FKI'IDKIUCK THK GttKAT , . . 210
FiiN<»t? Typc^s of . . ... 350
FUNGI, Typ(fcs of , 3<r>l
FUH-BKAKINO ANIMALS , , . , 358
FUHNITUHK, Historic Types . , . . , . * . ^ .... 306
FURNITUKK, Historic Types , . . . . 307
GAINKBOROUOH ("The Blue Boy J>) ,390
''GARDEN OF TUB GOIJH" , , . .... 464
(rAKIBALDI, GldhEFPE . - ....... 472
GAB ENGINES . 498
ANB SMALL ANTELOPES . , .... . . * * 528
Y - - &&®
GEOLOOT ' « - .604
GETSEES , • - * *^22
GIIIBEBTI , . ... • . . • • - 730
(rt Nativity of the Virgin Mary ") * 732
IV
GIANT'S CAUSEWAY
GIBRALTAR Rock of
GINKGO AND KENTUCKY COFFEE TREK
GIORGIONE ("The Conceit")
GIRAFFE AND OKAPI
73»5
742
77 1
77S
780
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
For a full explanation of the various sounds indicated, see the KEY TO PRONUNCIATION in Vol I.
a
a
a
a
a
a
e
e
g
g
e
i
i
?
6
5
o
oi
55
ou
u
fl
i in ale, fate
" senate, chaotic
" glare, caie, and as e in there
" am, at
" aim, father
" ant, and final a in America, armada, etc
" final, regal, pleasant
" all, fall
eve
elate, evade
end, pet
fern, her, and as ^ in sir, etc
agency, judgment.
ice, quiet
quiescent
ill, fit
old, sober
obey, sobriety
oil), nor
odd, forest, not.
atom, carol,
oil, boil
food, fool, and as u m rude, rule
house, mouse
use, mule
unite
cut, but
full, put, or as oo m foot, book
urn, burn.
yet, yield
Spanish Habana, C6rdoba, where it is like
English v but made with the lips alone.
ch as m chan, cheese
D " " Spanish Ahnodovar, pulgada, where it is
neaily like th m Englihh then
g « " go, get
G " " German Landtag = ch in Ger ach, etc,
H " 3 in Spanish Jijona, g in Spanish gila, like
English h m hue, but stionger
hw " wh in which
K " ch m Gcnnan ich, Albrecht « g m German
Arensbeig, Mecklenburg, etc,
n " m sinker, longer
ng " " sing, long
N " " Fionch bon, Bouibon, and nt in Iho French
fitumpos, hen4 it. indicates aawihzmg of
the preceding vowel.
sh " " shine, shut
th " " thrust, thm.
TH " " then, this
zh u 2 in axure, and 6H in pleasure*
An apostrophe ['] IB sometimes used as in tS'b'l
(table), kaz"m (chasm), to indicate the ehaion of
a vowel or its reduction to a more murmur,
For foreign sounds, the nearest English equiva-
lent is generally used In any case when* a special
symbol, as a, H, K, N, is used, those* unfamiliar with
the foreign sound indicated may substitute the Eng-
lish sound oidmanly indicated by the lot tor. For
a full description of all such sounds, see the article
on PEONUNCIATION.
A PARTIAL LIST OF THE LEADING ARTICLES IN VOLUME IX
FQRAM1NTFERA
Mr 0 William Beebe
FOREIGN MONEY, VALUE OF
Profeswn Alvm SaundeiB Johnson.
FORKKKOWLRDGE AND KORKOKDINATION
Profeasoi hvtug F Wood
FOREST LAWS, IN ENGLAND.
Di Ne\\ton D MeieneHB
FORESTRY
Di Alfred (ihiulos True; Di Edwin
Went Allen, Mi John W. JRuBHcll
FORFEITURE
Piofemor Geoi^e W Kirch wey,
FORMOSA
ProfeHHor Rlngeo Ko)ima*
Mr Oscar Phelps Auntm.
FORTIFICATION
Lieutenant Colonel Edgar Jadwin,
U S A
FORUM
ProfeHHor Arthur L, Frotlnngham ,
Piofennor A D F Hamhn, Professor
ChatlcH Knapp.
FOSSIL.
Mr. David Hale Rowland
FOUNDATION
Mr Daniel E. Moran
FOUNDING
!)» Uielnud Moldenke
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL
ProfeHHor Alvin Sannders Johnson.
FOUNTAIN
ProfeBBor A D F, Tlamlin
FOWL.
Mr. (5. William Beebe
FOX,
Mr. (J, William Beebe
FRACTION,
PiofeHBor David Eugene Smith
FRANCE,
Professor Dana Carleton Munro, Mr
David Hale Newland, Dr W J Me-
Cee*; PiofenHor Krlwm A, Ktatt,
ProfeHHor Robert M Btowri, Mr
Edwaid Latin op Engle, Mr, llerbeit
Treadweil Wade; Dr, (Hark Wisnler,
Mr, Ontiir Phehw AuHtiti, Major Lo-
11<»V S Lyon, U S A., and others,
FEANCIHCANS, OltDKU OK
Mr. ThornaH F Meehan
FRANCXM1KHMAN WAR OF 1870-71.
MIHH Grace A Owen,
Professor J Nalwyn Scliapiro.
FllAHKFOUT,
Mr, Kdward Latbrop Kngle; Mr, Irwin
Heolield (Juerrmey; J'rof(»«Hor J Bal-
wyn KeJuipIr<K
FRANKLIN,* BENJAMIN,
William Petwficld Trent,
John KrwkSno, Profeasor
FBANKMN, WB JOHN.
Oetioral A W. Grerfy,
FRANKH, THK.
I*rof<»«ft«r Dana Otrleton Hunro
FEATKENAL IHBORAKfOB.
Dr- Allan Hwbort Witkti
Professor Alvift B*tun4or$ Jolmnon.
FRATERXITTKS
Di Maicus Benjamin
FRKDKRICK n (The (jVeat)
Miss (?raee A 0\\en.
Professor J Sah\yn Rchapiro.
FREE TRADE,
Professor Ah in Saunders Johnwon
FREE WILL
Professor TSvandcr Bradley MeGilvary.
FUKKXTNd POINT.
Dr Marcus Benjamin
f Piofessoi Martin A, 12
PHKMONT, JOHN C^IIAEJ.EM
Mr Kredenck S
FRENCH LANGUAGE.
Piofessor Albeit S
Piofesaor John Lawience G«
FKENCII LITER VTl 11
Piofeasor Albert Rclnnz; Mt. IT G,
Olm^er, Mi Ed\\aid J Kortier; Dr,
floiatio S KiaiiH
FRENCH RF3VOHTTION
J'rofesHoi George Mattliew Duichci ;
MIHH Graec* A 0\vent Piofehhor J,
Salwyn Kdiapno
PRES(K), OR FRRJHCO PAINT]N(J,
Dr Geoij^e Knohn*
FEIEFDS, THE.
Professor Allan Clapp Thomas.
Dr Isaac Slwrpleas
FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LtTKRATUEB.
Dr Louis II Giay
PjofewHor John Lawrence Goner,
FROBEL,
Piofensor Pawl Momoe
ProfewHOi Inaat Loon Kunclcl
FROG.
Profi'Hsor Charl(vs B Davenport, Mr.
Gilbert Van Ingen, Mr. 0- William
Becbe.
FROST
Professor Cleveland Abbe; Profemor
(Jharles F Marvmj Mr, John W.
Russell
FRUIT
Dr. Alfred (Jliarles True, Profcwor
tfolm Merle Coulter; Dr Edwin W<knt
Allen,
FRUIT, CULTIVATED.
Dr. Edwin Wwt Alien
FUEL
Mr Frederick It, Hutton
FUERO.
ProfeB$or Roscoe R
FUGUE.
Professor Alfred Remy,
FUNCTION
Professor David Eugene $rr»itL
FUNGI
Professor Jolm Merle? Coulter.
FUNGI, EDIBLE AND POISONOUS*
Dr, Edwin West Allen.
FUNGICIDE,
Dr, Mmn West Alkjt .
FUR
Mr, Herbert Treadweil Wade.
FURNITURE,
Mr, George JUtattd Hunter.
OF
FUSE
Mr Louis I) Huntoon, Professor
Chailes Edward Munroe, Ma] or Le-
Roy S Lyon, USA
FUSION
Professoi Edward Bradford Titchencr
GALICIA
Mr Edward Lathrop Engle, Mr Irwm
Scofield Guernsey, Piofessor J Sal-
wyn Schapiro
GALILEO
Professoi T W Edmondson
GALLICAN CHURCH
Dr James J Walsh
Dr Patrick A Halpin
GALL INSECTS
Mr C William Beebe
GALLS
Professor John Merle Coulter
GALVANOMETER
Mi Herbeit Treadwell Wade
GALVESTON
Galveston Commercial Association
GAMBLING, OK GAMING
Professor George W Kirchwey
GAME LAWS
Piofessoi George W Kirchwey
GAME PRESERVE
Mr Gooii>e Gladden
GARBAGE AND REFUSE, DISPOSAL
Mi Moses Nelson Baker
GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM
Di Neviion D Mereness
GARIBALDI
Miss Giace A Ch\en
Piofessor J Salwyn Schapiro
GAS
Mr Alficd Edxnond Forstall
Professoi Herman T Vulte
GAS, NATURAL
Professor Heinnch Ries
GAS ENGINE
Mr Frederick Remsen Hutton
GASES, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
Professor Joseph Sweeiman Ames
GASTROPODA
Mr C William Beebe
GAUL
Professor Charles Knapp
GAUTAMA BUDDHA
Piofessor John Lawrence Gerig
GEMS
Professor Arthur L Frothingham
Mr George Leland Hunter
GENDER
Professor John Lawrence Gerig
GENESIS
Professor Nathaniel Schmidt
GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY
Professor Edward Bradford Titchener
GENEVA
Mr Oscar Phelps Austin, Mr Irwm
Scofeld Guernsey, Professor J Sal-
wyn Schapiro
GENGHIS KHAN
Mr Irwm Sconeld Guernsey
Professor J Salwyn Schapiro
GENOA
Mr Oscar Phelps Austin
Professor Dana Carleton Munro
GENTILES
Professor Edward E Nourse
GEODESY
Mr William Bowie
VI
GEOGRAPHY
Mi Henry Gannett", Mr Cyrus C
Adams, Mr Geoige Paikoi Winship,
Mi Wolfgang L G Joeig
GEOLOGY
Piofessor Ralph Stockman Tarr *
Mi David Hale Newlancl
GEOMETRY
Professor David Eugene Smith
GEORGE III
Dr Newton D Mereness
GEORGIA
Dr Roland M Harper, Mi Allen Leon
dim chill, Piofessor Alvin Saunders
Johnson
GEOTROPISM IN PLANTS
Professoi John Merle Coulter
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
Professor Robert M Brown, Mr Ed-
ward Lathrop Engle, Mr Irwm Sco-
field Guernsey, Professor J Salwyn
Schapiro
GERMANIA
Professor Charles Knapp
GERMAN LANGUAGE
Professor Hermann Colhtz, Professor
John Lawrence Gerig, Mr Oscar
Phelps Austin
GERMAN LITERATURE
Dr Benjamin Willis Wells
Piofessoi Lawience McLouth
GERMAN SOU1HWEST AFRICA
Professor Robert M Brown, Mr Ed-
ward Lathrop Engle, Mr Iiwm Sco-
neld Guernsey, Professor J Salwyn
Schapiro
GERMAN THEOLOGY
Professor Irving F Wood
GERMANY
Mr Cyrus C Adams, Professor Dana
Caileton Munro, Professor Edwin A
Start, Dr W J McGee*, Mr Ernest
Ingersoll , Dr James Wilford Garner ,
Professoi Robert M Biown, Mr Os-
car Phelps Austin, Piofessor J Sal-
wyn Schapiro, Majoi LeRoy S Lyon,
U S A , Mr Herbert Treadwell
Wade, Mr Edward Lathrop Engle,
Dr Clark Wissler, and others
GERMINATION
Piofessor John Merle Coulter
GESTURE, GESTURE LANGUAGE
Piofessoi Edward Bradford Titchener
GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF
Lieut Col C DeWitt Willcox, USA
GHIBERTI
Dr George Kriehn
GHIRLANDAIO
Dr George Kriehn
GHOSTS
Professor Edward Bradford Titchener
GIANTS
Dr Robert H Lowie
GIBRALTAR
Mr Edward Lathrop Engle, Mr Irwm
Scofield Guernsey, Professor J Sal-
wyn Schapiro
GILL, OR BRANCHIA
Mr C William Beebe
GIOTTO
Professor Arthur L Frothingham
Dr George Kriehn,
f Deceased
THE NEW
INTERN ATI ON AL
E NO Y C LO P M D IA
OBAM'INTE'ERA (Neo-Lat nom
pi , from Lat fot amen, hole + ferre,
to bear) A name given by the
French zoologist D'Oibigny, in 1826,
to a gioup of minute animals, winch
at that time were legaided as rnol-
lusks, because of their remarkable and beautiful
shells They weie even ranked with the cephalo-
poda because many of them possess shells spirally
coiled, like that of the nautilus In 1835, how-
evei, Dujardm leeogmzed their true nature, and
bince his day the Foranrmifera have been con-
si deied a subdivision of the Piotozoa They are
now i anked as an order of Rhizopoda { q v ) , dis-
tinguished from the amoeba and its neai allies
by the form of the pseudopodia, which are very
extensile and threadlike, and are constantly an-
astomosing so that they form a beautiful net-
woik of gianulai protoplasm Another feature
which serves to distinguish the Foramimfera
i-s the piesence of a shell, although not all
rhizopods which have shells aie of this order
The shell 01 "test" of the Foi ammif era may
be clutmous, or calcareous, or aienaceous (le,
made up of particles of sand, mud, sponge
spicules, or other foieigii material nimly glued
togethei ) , but it is nevci siliceous The shells
aitx distinguished as "peifoiate" or "imperfo-
rate," according as they have their walls pene-
trated, or not, by minute openings or canals
through which the pseudopodia pio]ect In
nearly all cases there is a laige opening through
which the animal within the shell comes in
contact with the sui rounding water, and often
there are two or moie of these "geneial aper-
tures " In the imperforate forms the pseudo-
podia are extended only through these gen-
eral apeitures The Foramimfera with chiti-
nous shells are all Imperfoiata^ those with
erenaceous shells are usually Imperforata; but
there are many perforate forms, those with cal-
careous shells show two very distinct soits of
tests — one group having them white, opaque,
like porcelain, and imperforate, while the other
has them transparent, glassy, and perforate
Marking or sculpturing of ttj.e surface of the
shell is very common in both groups In regard
to the form of the shell we find a most extraoi-
dinary variety, but the most important point
is whether they are monothalamous (unilocu-
lar), le, composed of a single chamber, or
polythalamous (plunlocular), ie, made tip of
4evQral or many chambers The latter forms
arise by budding, from a single chamber, the
buds lemammg attached to the parent JSTow,
since the monothalamous shells may be spherical,
ovate, spindle-shaped, stai -shaped, or tubular
(straight, curved, or coiled) and symmetrical or
quite asymmetrical, it follows that the polythala-
mous shells may be very complex, and inegular
They are often very beautiful and sometimes
reach a considerable size The great majority of
the foramimfera are kno\vn by their shells alone,
comparatively little being1 known of the animals
themselves In those which are known the con-
tractile vacuole is wanting, and even the nucleus
is usually indistinguishable, so that their struc-
ture would seem to be extremely simple
In legaid to their physiology we know that
food is taken into the body in the form of mi-
nute 01 game particles, by means of the flowing
or streaming movements of the protoplasm
which makes up the pseudopodia In addition
to this food it is possible that some organic
matter in solution in the water is also absorbed
and used, for the ability to take carbonate of
lime in solution and make use of it to form their
shells is one of the most characteristic and ob-
MOUS featuies of these animals Their methods
of repioduction are only partially understood
The processes of fission and of budding aie con-
stantly going on In certain forms leproduction
takes place by the formation of sporelike young
These exceedingly iminute germs move about by
a single flagellum Such a flagellum-bearing
embiyo is called a ' flagellula " The Foramimfera
are chiefly marine animals, but those with Gluti-
nous shells are found mostly in fresh water
They are all very small, practically microscopic,
though 'the white shells of many of the marine
forms aie large enough to be seen with the naked
eye, quite a number are from 1 to 2 millimeters
in dia>meter, and the well-known genus Qrbi,to*
lites has a polythalamous shell, sometimes 20
millimeters across, while Nummulitis is an inch
in diameter
The shells of Foramimfera are found alj over
the ocean floor except in the Arctic regions, and
in many places form deposits of great extent
and thickness It was formerly supposed that
the animals lived swimming about in the sea, and
that it was only at death that the shells sank
to the bottom, but it is now known that compara-
tively few species are pelagic, and it is probable
that most species live on the bottom throughout
life Gteqlogically the Foraminifera occur from
FOBAMINIFERA
Cambrian tunes down to the present, though
they have been most abundant apparently since
the close of the Paleozoic eia
The classification of the Foraminifera is a
matter of unusual difficulty, owing to the very
great individual variation that occurs in the
form and appearance of the shell It is very
doubtful whether the "species" of this order are
comparable with the species of higher groups,
since little is known in regard to their repro-
duction and limits of vauation Ten families
are now generally recognized, the lines of divi-
sion being based on the composition of the shell,
whether polythalamous 01 not, whether perfo-
rate or not, and on the relative arrangement of
the chambers The best-known families are the
Giomid^e, which includes the fresh-water forms,
of which 0-romia and Microgromia are familiar
examples,, the MiliohcUe, including the huge
QrbitoUtes, the Globigermidse, with the wide-
spread Globigerma,, and the Nummulmidse, in-
cluding the well-known and charactenstic fossil
foims Fusuhna and Nummulites
Fossil Foraminifera. The oldest-known
Foraminifera appear in the Lower Cambrian
rocks of the Province of New Brunswick, Canada,
-« here occur some minute spherical shells that
cannot be distinguished in respect of either size,
form, or microscopic structure from the modern
species Ot bulina umvei sa Associated \\ ith
these are species of Globigerma, veiy like those
of modern times Many Foraminifera aie scat-
tered through the o\erlying formations up to
the Carbonifeious system, where they suddenly
appear in great abundance Whole beds of lime-
stone in Europe, Asia, Japan, and North
America are foimed by the closely crowded
shells of the genera Sacca-mina, Endofhyra, Fusu-
lina, and Schwagerma The two latter genera
are not found above the Permian Other extinct
genera m the Carboniferous rocks are associated
with species of genera that are still living in the
Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea The
Mesozoic rocks have also their Foraminifera in
abundance The genera of the family Lagenidae
are predominant in the Liassic and Jurassic sys-
tems The chalk deposits of the Cretaceous age
of Europe and America consist laigely of foia-
mmiferan shells (especially Grlobigenna and Ro-
talia) , together with spicules of sponges The
members of the order reached their greatest de-
\elopment in Tertiary time, though most of the
genera and species found in the rocks of that
period are still living in the modern seas The
majority of these were more abundant in the
earlier period than they are now Certain other
forms, like Orbitoides allied to Nummuhtes,
are restricted to rocks of Tertiary age Num-
mwlites (qv) is an important index fossil of
the Eocene series, in which its coin-shaped shells
constitute great limestone beds in the Alps and
Egypt
The well-known Eozoon ( q v ) , found in Lau-
rentian limestones in Canada, has long been con-
sidered by some authors to be the oldest fora-
minifer, and likewise the oldest-known fossil
organism Careful investigation has proved it
to be a mineral concretion
Bibliography. Calkins, The Protozoa, (New
York, 1901), Flint, Recent Foraminifera
(Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1889),
Butschli, "The Protozoa," in Bronn's Klassen
und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, vol i (Leipzig,
1897) , Zittel and Eastman, Text-Book of Pale-
ontology, vol i (New York, 1900) , Chapman,
l FOBBES
The Foramimfera An Introduction to the
Study of the Protozoa (London, 1902), Brady,
"Report on the Foraminifera," in Report on the
Scientific Results of the Challenger Expedition,
Zoology, vol xi (ib, 1884), Parker and Jones,
"Nomenclature of the Foramimfeia," in Annals
and Magazine of Natural History (ib, 1858-
75 ) , Sherborn, "Index to the Genera and Species
of the Foraminifera," Smithsonian Miscellane-
ous Collections, vol xxxvii (Washington, 1893-
95) , Lister, 'The Foraminifera," in Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology (London, 1903) , Cushman,
Monograph of the Foraminifera of the North
Pacific Ocean (Washington, 1910) , Mmchin,
Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa (New
Yoik, 1912) , Bagg, Pliocene and Pleistocene
Foraminifera pom Southern California (United
States Geological Survey, Washington, 1912).
See also PEOTOZOA, RADIOLABIA, RHIZOPODA,
and articles on the generic names mentioned in
the text
FOKBACH, fOr'baG A town in Lorraine,
Germany, at the foot of the Schlossberg, on an
affluent of the Rossel, 5y2 miles southwest of
Saaibrucken (Map Germany, B 4) Much
truck farming is carried on Glass, soap, and
pasteboard aie its manufactures The place is
mentioned as early as the tenth century under
the name of Fui pac After the battle of Spichern,
fought on the neighboring heights, Aug 6, 1870,
the town was occupied by the victorious German
troops Pop, 1900, 8209, 1910, 10,107
FORBES, fOrbz, ALEXANDER PENKOSE (1817-
75) Bishop in the Episcopal church of Scot-
land He was born in Edinburgh and studied at
the Edinburgh Academy and under Rev
Thomas Dale, the poet, in Kent, he also at-
tended the Glasgow University (1833) and won
distinction as an Oriental scholar In 1836 he
obtained an appointment in the Indian civil ser-
vice and left England for Madras Returning
to his native country m 1839, lie obtained a
Sanskrit scholarship in Brasenose College At
Oxford lie became associated with Pusey, New-
man, and Keble, leaders of the Oxford move-
ment, and in 1844 was ordained deacon and
priest in the Church of England and held a
cuiacy In 1846 he returned to Scotland foi
a while, but afterward became 'vicar of Leeds
(1847) After the death of Bishop Moir lie
was called to the see of Brechin (1848) In
I860 he was prosecuted for heresy, because lie
inculcated the doctrine of the Real Presence,
but he made a powerful defense and was ac-
quitted with censure and admonition His Short
Explanation of the Nicene Creed (1853) and
Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles (1867-
68), and various commentaries, reviews, etc,
were highly esteemed He edited the original
lives of St Ninian, St Kentigern, and St Co-
lumba in the Historians of Scotlandt vols v
and vi (Edinburgh, 1875), also The Kalendars
of Scottish Saints (1872) He died at Dundee,
Scotland, Oct 8, 1875 Consult Mackey, Bishop
Forbes A Memoir (London, 1888)
FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900), An Eng-
lish journalist He was born in Morayshire,
Scotland, in 1838 He studied at the University
of Aberdeen, served for some years in the Royal
Dragoons, and then became special correspond-
ent foi the London Daily News, m which capac-
ity he accompanied the Prussian army during
the Franco- German War, witnessed the. close of
the Commune, visited India during the famine
of 1874, accompanied the Prince of Wales on Ms
FORBES
tour through India (1875-76) , and was m the
Carlist War with Spain, the Servian War, and
the Russo-Tuikiah War of 1877, etc He lec-
tuied in Gieat Britain, the United States, and
Austiaha Among Ins many works are a mili-
tary novel called Diawn from Life (1870) , My
Experiences- in the Franco-German Wai (1872) ,
Life of Chinese Gordon (1S84), William I of
Germany (1888), The Afghan Wars (1892),
Tzar and Sultan (1894) , Napoleon III (1898) ,
Black }Vatch The Record of an Historic Regi-
ment (new ed, New York, 1910) He died
Mdich 30, 1900
FORBES, DAVID (1828-76) A British geol-
ogist and chemist, bi other of Edwaid Forbes
Boin at Douglas, Isle of Man, he specialised in
chemistry at the Umveisity of Edinburgh, when
19 years old became supei mtendent of mining
and metallurgical works at Especial, Noiway,
and 10 years latci returned to England as a
member of the firm of Evans and Askins, Bir-
mingham, nickel smelteis In 1857-60 he traveled
tlnough Bolivia, Peru, and Chile in search of
nickel arid cobalt, latei he explored the Cordil-
leias in South America and the South Sea
Inlands, and the year 1866 he spent in Euiope
and Af i ica He was f 01 eign seci etary of the Iron
and Steel Institute, whose reports he published
from 1871 to 1876 He is author of 58 papeis,
published chiefly in the Geological Magazine,
the Quarterly Journal of- the Geological Society,
and the Journal of the Chemical Society
FORBES, DUNCAN, of Culloden (1685-1747).
A Scottish judge and patriot, born Nov 10,
1085, piobably at the family seat near Inverness
He was educated at Inverness grammar school
and after completing his studies at the univer-
sities of Edinburgh and Ley den became advocate
at the Scottish bar in 1709 Through family in-
fluence he was soon appointed shenff of Midlo-
thian and rapidly acquired political power and
a lucrative practice In 1722 he became mem-
ber of Parliament for Inverness, in 1725 was ap-
pointed Lord Advocate, and in 1737 reached the
summit of his profession as Lord President of
the Court of Session His loyalty to the English
ciown had been conspicuous in the rebellion of
1715, and at the outbreak of 1745 he hastened
noith and by his presence and influence did
much to counteract the uprising For advo-
cating arid exercising humanity towards the
i ebels he was accused as a suspect by Lord Lovat,
who attacked Culloden House, his residence, but
Lovat was spiritedly beaten off by the President
and his people The rebellion spread, and
Forbes fled for refuge to the Isle of Skye
Aftoi the battle of Culloden he returned and
zealously discharged his duties until he died,
Dec 10, 1747 He was the author of some im-
portant theological works, and a Treatise on the
dignities, etc, bestowed by English kings on
their eldest sons Consult Duff, Memoir at-
tached to the Culloden Papers (London, 1815) ,
Bannatyne, Memoir attached to Works of Dun-
can Fotbes of Culloden (Edinburgh, 1816) , and
Burton, Lives of Simon, Lord Lovat, and Duncan
Forbes oj Culloden (London, 1847)
FORBES, EDWARD (1815-54) An English
zoologist He studied medicine and other
sciences in Edinburgh and Paris and in 1841 be-
came naturalist of the surveying ship Beacon
during a voyage to Asia Minor In 1843 he
became professor of botany at King's College,
London, in 1852 professor of natural history at
the School of Mines and president of the Geo-
l
logical Society, in 1S53 professor at Edinburgh
He was a brilliant and voluminous writer,
Important among his works are History of Brit-
ish Starfishes (1841) and History of British
Mollusca (with Hanley, 1853) Consult Wilson
and Geikie, Memoir of Edward Forbes (Edin-
burgh, 1861)
FORBES, EDWIN (1839-95) An American
animal and landscape painter and etchei He
was born in New York, studied under A F
Tait, arid began as an animal and landscape
painter During the Civil War he was special
aitist for Frank Leslie's Maf/avme, and the
spurted etchings he did at this time were pre-
sented by General Sheiman to the government
They are now preserved in the War Office at
Washington because of their historic value
Afterward he painted landscape and cattle
scenes, among which are "Orange County Pas-
ture" (1879) and "Evening— Sheep Pastuie"
(1881) In 1877 he was made an honorary
member of the London Etching Club
FORBES, GEORGE (1849- ) A British
electrician, &on of James David Forbes the
physicist He was educated at St Andiews and
at Cambudge, became professor of natural phi-
losophy at Anderson's College, Glasgow, and was
electrical engineer for the power plant at Niag-
ara Falls Among his published works are
Lectures on Electricity (1888) , Alternating and
Interrupted Electric Currents (1895), Elefc
trische Wechselstrome und unterbrochene Strome
(1896), History of Astronomy (1909), Pup-
pets A Workaday Philosophy (1911)
FORBES, GEOBGE, EAEL OF GBANABD (1685-
1765) See GRANABD
FORBES, HENBY OGG (1851- ) A Scot-
tish traveler, born at Drumblade In 1878-83
he made extensive scientific travels through
Sumatra, Java, Timor, and other islands of the
East Indies In 1885 and 1886 he explored
British JSTew Guinea He was elected a fellow of
the Zoological Society of London and of the
Royal Geographical Society and served as direc-
tor of the Free Public Museums of Liverpool
from 1894 to 1911 In 1911-13 he piepared a
leport on the birds of the Guano Islands for the
government of Peru He published A Natural-
ist's "Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago
(1885) and Natural History of Sokotra (1903).
FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-68) A Scot-
tish physicist and geologist He was educated at
the University of Edinburgh with a view to the
law, but his natuial inclinations led him to the
study of physics At the age of 19 he was elected
to membership in the Royal Society of Edinburgh
arid five years later succeeded Sir John Leslie as
professor of natural philosophy in the univer-
sity, although opposed by Sir David Brewster.
His studies on thermal radiations resulted in
the important discovery of the polarization of
heat, for which the Royal Society of London
awarded him the Rumford medal While travel-
ing in the Alps, Forbes collected a vast amount
of information bearing on the origin and move-
ment of glaciers, and his book, which appeared
in 1843, was the most valuable contribution
on glacial phenomena that had been published
up to that time His investigations were
limited to the collection and arrangement of re-
liable data, but they were the means of over-
throwing many crude conceptions and of direct-
ing future studies in the proper channels
Forbes received the degree of LLD. from the
University of Edinburgh and was elected to
FQBBES
membership in the Royal Society of London, the
Geological Society, and many foreign scientific
societies, including the Institute of France He
contributed a great number of scientific papeis
to the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edin-
buigh His nioio extended publications are
Travels through tJie Alps of ftauoy and Other
Parts of the Pennine Oham, with Observations
on the Phenomena of Glaciers (1843) , Norway,
and G-laeiers Visited in 1851 (1853), A Tour
of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa (1855)
FOKBES, JOHN (1710-59) A Scottish sol-
diei Foi some time he was a physician in Scot-
land, but he entered the aimy, seivcd in the War
of the Austnan Succession, became a colonel in
1757, and served for a time as quartei master-
general under the Duke of Cumberland In
December, 1757, he was sent to America as
adjutant general for seivice against the French
and Indians, accompanied the Louisbuig expedi-
tion early in 1758, and in the summer of that
yeai led a foice of 6000 to 7000 acioss Pennsyl-
vania, and on Novembei 25 took possession of
Foit Duquesne, which had been evacuated by the
French on the preceding day, and which he re-
naimed Pittsburgh In March, 1759, Forbes,
who had been dangerously ill through the ex-
pedition, died in Philadelphia Consult Park-
man, Mont calm and Wolfe (Boston, 1884)
FOUBES, SIB JOHN (1787-1861) A Scot-
tish physician, born at Cuttlebrae, Banff shire
He studied at Aberdeen from 1805 to 1807 and
from the latter year to 1816 acted as assistant
surgeon in the navy In 1817 he giaduated in
medicine at Edmbtiigh and practiced at Ponzanco
and Chichester until 1840, when he removed to
London He was physician to the Queen and
Pi nice Consort, and was knighted in 1853 He
was a fellow of the College of Physicians and
the Royal Society of London, and a member of
numerous foreign societies Jointly with Drs
Tweedie and Conolly, he edited the Cyclopaedia
of Practical Medicine (4 vols , 1832-35). In
1836 he founded the British and Foreign Medi-
cal Review, which, he earned on, for 12 years.
In 1831 he published the first edition of his
translation of Lcennec's Treatise on Ausculta-
tion (5th ed, 1838) Among his other works
are Physician's Holiday ( 1849 ) , Memoranda
Made in Iceland (1852) Sightseeing in Ger-
many and Hie Tyrol (1856) , Nature and Art in
the Cure of Diseases (1857)
FORBES, JOHN COLIN (1846- ) A
Canadian portrait and landscape painter, boin
at Toronto He was already proficient in his
art before he went to London, where he studied
at the Koyal Academy, South Kensington Mu-
seum, and afterward on the Continent He lived
in New York City for several years, but in 1911
settled in London, England Among his works
are the "Mount of the Holy Cross/3 "The Foun-
dering of the Hibernian" "The G-lacicr of the
Selkirk/' and many portiaits, including those of
the Marquis of Duflerin, Gladstone, Sir Charles
Tupper, Sir John A. Maedonald3 Sir Hemy
Campbell-Bannerman, King Edwaid VII, and
Queen Alexandra (Canadian Houses of Parlia-
ment, Ottawa)
FORBES, JOHN MUEBAY (1807-85). An
American clergyman He was born in ^Tew
York and graduated at Columbia College in
1827 and at the General Theological Seminary
in 1830 He was oidained to the Episcopal mm-
istiy in the same yeai and m 1834 became rector
of St Luke's Church, New Yoik, also acting
I, EOBBES
for a time as professor of pastoral theology in
the seminary In 1849 he became a Roman
Catholic and after reordmation was appointed
pastoi at St Ann's Chuich, New York He
acted as theologian for the Bishop ot Charles-
ton in the council at Baltimoie (1852) In
1859 he leturned to the Episcopal church and
fiom 1869 to 1872 was dean of the General
Theological Seminary
PORBES, STANHOPE A (1857- ) An
Irish genre painter He was born in Dublin,
studied at Dulwich College, the Lambeth Art
School, the Royal Academy, and under Bonnat
in Pans, and in 1889 received a first-class medal
at the Pans Exposition After spending several
Ycais in Brittanv, he took up his residence
about 1884 in Cornwall, where he became the
leadei of the so-called Newlyn School of paint-
el s, who are distinguished by naturalism, broad
brushwork, and sense of atmosphere Forbes
is especially noted for his interior effects, which
show much cleveiness in the treatment of light
His paintings usually treat of the simple life of
the Cornish fishermen Among the best known
are "The Health of the Bnde" (Tate G-alleiy) ,
"The Village Philharmonic Society" (Birming-
ham) , "OIF to the Fishing Giound" (Liver-
pool), "Sii Peter Code" (Norwich), "Mignon"
(Sydney) , "The Lighthouse" (Manchester) ;
"Forging the Anchor" (1882) , "The Pier Head"
(1910), "The Old Piei Steps" (1911), and a
decorative painting of "The Fne of London,"
in the London Stock Exchange Forbes was
elected a correspondent of the French Institute
in 1905, a Royal Academician in 1910, and re-
ceived gold medals at Beilm, Munich, and Pans
(1900) His wife, ELIZABETH ARMSTRONG
FORBES, is also a distinguished painter and
etcher Consult monograph by Hind (London,
1911)
FOUBES, STEPHEN ALFRED (1844- )
An American entomologist, born at Silver Creek,
111 , and educated at Rush Medical College, the
Illinois State Normal University (where he
taught zoology in 1875-78), and Indiana Uni-
veisity (PhD, 3884) As a youth, he had
served in the Civil War He became promi-
nently identified with scientific interests m
Illinois, as curator for five yeais of the Museum
of the State Natural History Society, founder
(1877) and director of the State Laboratory of
Natural History, State entomologist (after
]882) and director of the Illinois Biological
Station (after 1894) , and, at the University of
Illinois, professor of zoology (1884-1909), dean
of the college of science (1888-1905) and pro-
fessor of entomology (after 1909) He organ-
ized the International Congress of Zoologists at
the Chicago Exposition in 1893, was piesident
of the Western Society of Naturalists* in 1890
and of the American Association of Economic
Entomologists in 1893 and 1908, and prepared
numerous entomological reports and studies
FOBBES, SIB WILLIAM, of Pitshgo (1739-
1806) A Scottish banker and writer, born at
Edinburgh and educated at Aberdeen In 1761,
after being seven years in their employ, he was
admitted as a partner in the bank at Edinburgh
of Messrs John Coutts & Co , and two years
later a new company was formed, of which he
became the head in 1773 In 1781 he purchased
the estate of Pitshgo, Aberdeenshire, which had
been forfeited by Lord Forbes of Pitshgo for
his part in the rebellion of 1745 He introduced
the most extensive improvements on it and laid
POBBES •
out and built the village of New Pitshgo He
was a member, with Johnson, Burke, G-arrick,
Beynolds, and others, of the celebrated Literary
Club of London, was a friend of Dr Beattie the
poet, and published An Account of the Life and
Writings of James Bcattie (2 vols , 1806) He
also wiote Memoirs of a Banking House (1803).
His bank became, in 1838, the Union Bank of
Scotland
FORBES, W(ILLIAM) CAMERON (1870-
) An American public official, born at
Milton, Mass Graduating from Harvard Uni-
versity in 1892, he was foi a time a clerk in a
Boston banking house, from 1897 to 1902 had
charge of the financial department of the en-
#> meeting Jiim of Stone and Webster, and after
3Sl)9 was a paitnei of J M Forbes & Co , bank-
ers, Boston In the government of the Philip-
pine Islands he was a member of the Philip-
pine Commission and secietary of commerce and
police from 1904 to 1908, Vice Governor in 1908-
00, and Governor-General fiom 1909 to 1913,
TV hen he was succeeded by Francis Burton Hai-
nson (qv )
FOBBES QITABKY See MAN, ANCIENT
TYPES OF
FORBES-ROB'ERTSOH, SIR JOHNSTON
(1853- ) An English actoi, born in Lon-
don He caily won some success as a painter,
but went upon the stage when he was 21 yeais-
old, and was theioafter a member of various
companies, including those of Sir Henry living
and Sir Squiro Bane i oft In 1895 he appeared
with Mis Patuck Campbell in the fiist pro-
duction of The Notoiiou? Mrs Eblsmith, play-
ing the pait of Lucas Clceve The same year he
made his fiiat venture in London management,
opening with Romeo and Juliet, in which he and
Mis Campbell played the title roles Three
yeais later he followed this with Othello and
Hamlet^ and scored the greatest success of his
careei in the latter In 1898 he took his com-
pany to Berlin, whoxe he appeared successfully
in The Second Alts Tanqueray, Macbeth, and
Jfamlct His fiist appeal ance in America was
in 1885 as Orlando He returned in 1906 and
pi educed Shaw's Cccsar and Cleopatra, and
again in 1009, when he appeared in The Passing
of the Third Floor BacL, which ran through the
entire seasons of 1009-10 and 1910-11 In 1912
he began a farewell tour of the English, prov-
inces, appealing in a repertoire of his former
successes He extended this to include America,
wheie he appealed with Gertrude Elliott,, his
wife, during the season of 1913-14 He was
knighted at the termination of his faiewell sea-
son at Diuiy Lane in 1913 He came to be
regai ded as one of the most distinguished actors
of his time Consult William Winter, The Wal-
let of Time (2 vols, New York, 1913)
POKBIDDE3ST FBUIT A name fancifully
given to the fiuit of different species of the
genus Cittus In the shops of Great Britain, a
small vanety of the shaddock (Citrus decu-
mana) generally receives this name, but on the
continent of Europe a different fruit, regarded
by some as a variety of the orange and by some
as a distinct species (Citous Umetta,}, is known
as the forbidden fruit, or Adam's apple The
name "forbidden fruit" has also been given to
the fruit of Tabermemontana dichotoma, a tree
of Ceylon, of the family Apocynacea? The shape
of the fruit, which is a follicle, containing pulp,
suggests the idea of a piece having been bitten
off, and the legend runs that it was good be-
POBCE
fore Eve ate of it, although it has been poison-
ous ever since See POMELO, SHADDOCK,
CITRUS
FORBIGKEB, for'big-er, ALBERT (1798-1878)
A Gei man classical scholar, born m Leipzig
He studied at the Univeisity of Leipzig, in 1824
was appointed an instructor in the Nikolaischule
in Leipzig, and m 1835 became its associate
lector From 1863 to his death he was at
Diesden His publications include an edition of
Vergil (4th ed , 1872-75), flandbuch der often
Geogt aplne ( 1842-43 ) , a tranalation into Ger
man of Strabo (1856-62), Hellas und Rom
(1871-82), with A Wmckler Consult Sandys,
A History of Classical Scheldt ship, vol 111
(Cambridge, 1908)
FORBID, fdr'baisr', CLAUDE, COUNT DE (1056-
17S3) A French mariner, born at Gardanne
(Piovence) After a wild boyhood he entered
the navy and distinguished himself by reckless
biavery in the campaigns of Messina (1675),
the Antilles (1680), and Algeria (1682-83)
He was sent to Siam as Ambassador in 1685
and so pleased the King of that countiy that
he made him his giand admiral In 1688 For-
bin returned to Fiance and undei Jean Bait
fought against England and was taken pusoner
From 1690 to 1707 Forbm was very active He
fought at La Hogue and Lagos and at the tak-
ing of Barcelona and captured numeious Eng-
lish and Dutch vessels as commander of the
Fiench fleet m 1706-08 In 1708 he commanded
the expedition to conduct the Pretender to
Scotland, but failed, as the coast was too well
guarded In 1710 he retired from active life
and lived at Marseilles, where he wrote his en-
tertaining MSmoires, which were edited by Rc-
boulet and first published in 1729 Consult the
biogiaphy by Richer, 4th ed (Paris, 1816)
FORBONNAIS, for'b6-n3/? FRANgois VtfJRON
DUVERGEB DE (1722-1800) A French political
economist, born at Le Mans (Sarthe) After
study of business methods at Nantes, and travel
in Italy and Spam, he became inspector general
of the Mint in 1756, and in 1759 the head of
the office of Silhouette, Comptroller General of
the Finances In 1763 he was forced to retire
His advice was frequently sought by the Con-
stituent Assembly of 1790, in the reform of the
monetary system He was elected a member of
the Institute of France in 1794 He wrote ex-
tensively on economic questions, contributing to
the Encyclopedic the article "Commerce" and
opposing the physiocrats, especially Quesnay
He possessed judgment of a high order and clear
style, and his works influenced the administra-
tion of his day and are still valuable These
include Elements du commerce (2 vols, 1754) ,
Rechev ches et considerations sur les finances de
France depuis 1595 yusqu'en 1121 (1758) 9 Prin-
cipes et observations &conomiques (1767) , Ana-
lyse des principes su? 7& circulation des denre&s
(1800) Consult Delisle de Sales, 7ie littera&re
de ForbonntMS (Paris, 1801)
FOUCADOS, fdr-ka'dSs A town and poit
of call on the delta of the river Niger in south
Nigeria It is built on land which has been re-
claimed from the river and is the centre of a
large project for reclamation and sanitation
Pop , about 3000
FORCE (Fr force, OSp , It form, from ML
fottia, force, from Lat fortis, strong, connected
with Skt brhan, high) If tne motion of a body
is observed to be changing, i e , if it is observed
to have an acceleration (qv ), it is said to be
TOKGE
under the "action of a force" As illustrations,
changes in motion arc observed if a heavy body
as allowed to drop from the hand, if a piece of
iron is brought near a, magnet, if a piece o±
paper or dust is brought near an electrified body,
etc , and tbeiefore one speaks of the "foice of
gravitation/' "magnetic force," "electric force/
etc In every case, however, when there is a
change in the motion of a body, it may be shown
that this change is in some way due to the
piesence of some other body, eg, the earth, the
magnet, the charged body, and it is shown m
mechanics (q v ) that the proper measure of this
influence on the body which receives the accelera-
tion is the pioduct of the numerical value of its
mass and the numerical value of the accelera-
tion received Thus, if a body whose mass is m
grams is moving with an acceleration a (meas-
ured in centimeters and seconds), an "external
force" of ma, dynes is said to be "acting on it/'
since in the C G S system the dyne is the unit
of force This acceleration may, of course, be
due to the simultaneous "action" of several
forces, each of which by itself would have pro-
duced a different acceleration. In particular, if
there is no acceleration, this does not necessarily
mean an absence of external action, but may
mean that there are two forces acting m opposite
directions which are numerically equal There
are two general methods for measuring forces
one is to measure the mass and the acceleration,
the other is to balance the force by one whose
value is known Thus, as all bodies fall towaids
the earth at any one place on the earth with the
same acceleiation when allowed to fall freely,
viz , with an acceleration which may he called g
and which nearly equals 980, the force of the
earth on a body, whose mass is m grams, i e ,
its "weight," is mg Consequently, if this body
is kept from falling by being suspended by a
cord, the cord must exert on the body an upwardt
force whose numerical value is mg If, theie-
fore, it is required to apply a force F m a par-
ticular direction, it is simply necessary to attach
a body whose mass m equals F/# to one end of
a cord, pass the cord ovei a pulley (qv ), and
attach its other end to the body on which the
force F is to act, in such a manner that the cord
pulls in the specific direction Similarly, if any
force can be neutralized by the weight of a body
of mass m, this force must have the numerical
value mg dynes In this way "magnetic" or
"electric" forces can be measured
T^he "field of force" of a body is the region
through which it is possible to detect the action
of forces on other bodies due to its presence.
Thus, the field of force of gravitation of the
earth extends far beyond the moon out into
celestial space, the field of magnetic force of the
earth also extends far out into space — how far,
it is not known, the field of electric force due
to a charged body is m general a limited region
quite near it The "direction of the field" at
any point is that in which a specific particle of
matter placed at that point would move under
the action of the given kind of force if allowed
to move freely. Thus, the direction of the field
of gravitational force around the earth is always
vertically towards the centre of the earth, the
direction of a magnetic field of force is that in
which the north pole of a mmute magnet would
move, the direction of an electric field of force
is that ijpi which a particle of mattei; positively
charged would move The subject of force plays
an important part in all conditions involving-
5 FOBCB SILL
physical measuiements The student of physies
is referred to one of the modern treatises on
physics Consult Everett, Centimetre- Gramme-
Second System (London, 1902) , Hertz, Prin-
ciples of Mechanics (ib, 1899) , F Soddy, Mat-
ter and Energy (ib, 1912), J Weir, Energy
System of Matter (ib, 1912) , W Ostwald, Die
Enetgie (2d ed , Leipzig, 1912), A H Gibson,
Natural Sources of Energy (New York, 1913)
FORCE, LA See LA FOKCE
FORCE, MANNING FERGUSON (1824-99). An
American soldier, writer, and lawyer, the son of
Peter Force (qv ) He was born in Washing-
ton, D C , and graduated at Harvard College in
1845 and at the Harvard Law School in 1848
On the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the
Fedeial army as major of the Twentieth Ohio
Volunteers , at the close of the war was brevetted
major general of volunteers Refusing a col-
onelcy in the regular army, he resigned from the
service, practiced law, and was judge of the
Court of Common Pleas of Hamilton Co , Ohio
(1867-77), judge of the Superior Court of
Cincinnati (1877-87), and commandant for
many years of the Ohio Soldiers' Home He
published Prehistoric Man (1873), To What
Race did the Moundlmlders Belong® (1879),
jF?ow Fort Henry to Corinth (1881) , Marching
across Carolina (1S83) , Personal Recollections
of the Vickslurg Campaign (1885) , Life of Jus-
tice John McLean (1885), a biography of Gen
W T Sherman (1899) He edited Walker's
Introduction to American Law (1878) and
Hairis's Principles of Criminal Law (1880)
FORCE, PETER (1790-1868). An American
scholar and historian, born near Passaic Falls,
N J He became a printer, served in the War
of 1812, went to Washington in 1815, and in
1820-36 published the National Calendar , a
statistical annual From 1823 to 1830 he was
proprietor and editor of the National Journal,
a semiweekly which became a daily in 1824
He was mayor of the city of Washington m
1836-40 and in the latter year was elected the
first piesident of the National Institute for the
Promotion of Science In 1836-46 he published
Tracts and Other Papers Relating principally to
the Origin, Settlement, and Progress of the
Colonies w North America, from the Discovery
of the Country to the Year 1116 (4 vols ) But
he is best known for his American Archives, a
documentary history of the English colonies m
North America, edited by him and Matthew St
Clair Clarke, and published at the expense of the
government under an Act of Congress of 1833.
Nine volumes, covering the period from 1765 to
1776, appeared in 1837-53, but the work was
then discontinued because Marcy, Secretary of
State, refused to approve further volumes
Force's unique library, including 30,000 pam-
phlets and more than 20,000 volumes and con-
sisting principally of Americana, of which he
was the earliest important collector, was pur-
chased by the government m 1867 for $100,000
and incorporated with the Library of Congress.
Force was also an authority on the literature of
Arctic discovery and wrote Qrimell Land
(1852)
FORCE BILL. In American political his-
tory, the name applied to several bills passed by
the United States Congress. (See NTJIXIFICA-
TION, RECONSTRUCTION, Ku-Kiux KLAN.) The
Force Bill of 1890 was introduced to the House
by Representative Lodge, of Massachusetts. It
provided that on petition of 500 voters in any
:FOB,CE BE CHEVAL
local district Federal officials of both parties be
appointed on election boards The bill was
aimed at the Southern States, -wheie the negro
had been illegally excluded from the polls It
aroused a storm, and though it passed the House
never came to a vote in the Senate
FORCE DE CHEVAL, fOra de she-val' (Fr,
horse power) A French unit of power, also
known as cheval-vapeur, equal to 736 watts
(qv ), and corresponding to the English "horse
power,1' which is equivalent to 746 watts. It is
the rate of work or activity equivalent to 75
kilogi ammeters per second See MECHANICAL
UNITS
FORCED MARRIAGE, THE A tragi-
comedy by Mrs Aphia Behn, produced at the
Duke's Tlieatie in 1671
FORCEI/LINI, fGr'chel-le'ne-, EGTDIO (1688-
1768) An Italian philologist He was born
in a village near Padua Owing to the limited
means of his family, Forcellini was deprived of
early instruction and was already verging- to-
wards manhood when enabled to commence a
regular course of study in the seminary at
Padua His ability and industry won the ad-
miration of the principal, Giacomo Facciolati
(qv ), who associated him with some of his
own scientific labors Forcellini's main life-work
was the compilation of a highly important lexi-
con (For the correct account of the preparation
of this work, one of the most valuable acquisi-
tions to philological science of the age, see
FACCIOLATI ) In addition to the Italian and
Greek signification of the Latin word, the literal
and figurative application of each expression is
given in a collection of examples, embracing the
customs, laws, arts, sciences, religion., and his-
toTY of the Romans
FORCEPS (Lat, pincers) An instrument
of great antiquity, used as a substitute for the
ringers, and consisting of two levers of metal
jointed together ciosswise, usually nearer to one
end than the other The hand grasping the
longer ends of the levers, or handles, closes the
shorter ends, which are shaped so as to seize
firmly the intended object There is scarcely a
surgical operation in which it is not applied
The variety is almost innumerable In addition
to the forms used in dentistry there are in com-
mon use the dissecting forceps, which has rough-
ened point a, to lay hold of small portions of
tissue which are to be divided by the knife, the
lithotomy forceps, which has blades concave like
spoons, while other forms of this forceps are
adapted for seizing stones of various shapes and
sizes, and artery forceps, with locks for seizing
and holding the extremities of "bleeding vessels
By means of Liston's cutting forceps, a powerful
hand can divide a great thickness of bone One
of the most important of all forceps is the
obstetric forceps, an invaluable invention m
cases of difficult delivery It consists of two
concave fenestrated blades, forming a cavity
into which the head of the child fits The blades
are applied separately, one to each aide of the
head, and then locked together Holding by the
handles, the accoucheur aids the natural efforts
of labor, The instrument does not necessarily
or generally injure either mother or child
FOBCHHAMMER, fOrs^ham-m5r, JOHANIST
GEOE^ (1794-1865) A Danish geologist He
was "born ift Husum, $chleswig? studied ^ at Kiel
and Copenhagen, and was associated with Oer-
sted adaa Esmarch in a mmeralogical exploration
of Bornholm In 182 a he became lecturer on
7 POROHHEIM
chemistry and mineralogy in Copenhagen Uni-
versity, in 1831 professor of mineralogy, and in
1848 curator of the geological museum He suc-
ceeded Oersted in 1851 as director of the Poly-
technic School and secretary of the Academy oi
Sciences His researches (jointly with Steen-
strup and Worsaae) an the prehistoric anthro-
pology of the north of Europe have yielded
results of great importance Among his publi-
cations are Krysttollographze (1833), Dan
marks geognostiske Forhold (1835) , Bidrag til
ftkildringen of Danmarks geogra-phiske Forlwld
(1837)
FORCHHAMMER, PETER WILHBLM (1801-
94) A German classical archaeologist and mv-
thologist, brother of Johann Georg Forehham-
mer He was born at Husum, Schleawig, and
studied at the University of Kiel, where he be-
came professor extraordinary in 1836 In 1830-
34 he visited Italy and Greece and in 1838-40
undertook a second journey to Greece, Asia
Minor, Egypt, and Rome, winch bore fruit in
valuable contributions to the topography of an-
cient Hellas and the Greek settlements in Asia
Among these works weie HeUeniko, (1837) and
Ueler die Reinh&it dei Baukunst (1856), in
which he traced the four styles of Greek archi-
tecture to climatic conditions and differences in
materials He also wrote treatises on the phi-
losophy of Aristotle and on the archaeology and
mythology of Greece In his works on the
latter subject he invariably regarded the Hellenic
myths as personified embodiments of natural,
and especially aquatic, phenomena, he held that
the Greeks had converted the annually recurring1
processes of nature into acts of heroes and gods
Among these publications mention should b**
made of his Aohill (1853), in which he explained
the Trojan War as based ultimately on the con-
flict of the elements in the winter season in the
Troad, Daduchos (1875) , Die Wanderungen dcr
Inachostochter lo (1881) , Erklarung der Iliads
auf Orund der topischen und physischen Eigen-
tumhchkeiten cfer troiscJien Ebene (1884) , P» o
legomena, zur Afythologie als Wissenschaft und
Leonkon der Mythensprache (1891), Homer
Seine Sprache, die Kampfplatze seiner Hero en
und hotter in der Troas (1893) His early
work, Die Athener und Sokrates (1837), con-
tained many original ideas that were at first
ridiculed, but were afterward accepted by promi-
nent historians On topography he wrote also
Topography von Atfien (1841) and Bvschrei'bung
der Elene von Troja (1850) Forchhammer sat
in the Prussian Diet from 1868 to 1870 and from
1871 to 1873 was a member of the German
Beichstag Consult Alberti, in Bursian's Bio*
giaphisohes Jahrluch fur Altertumskunde, vol
xx (Berlin, 1897)
PORCHHEIM, fdrK^im A town m Upper
Francoma, Bavaria, near the junction of the
Wiesent with the Regnitz, on the Ludwigskanal,
16 miles south-southeast of Bamberg It has a
castle and the Gothic Collegiate Church, with
paintings by Michael Wohlgemut and sculpture
by Veit Stasz Its manufactured produce ia-
elude machinery, cloth, textiles, optical and
leather goods, tinfoil, water and oil colors, ferti-
lizer, glue, beer, and paper Forcfeheim was an
important town in tne days of Charlemagne and
in the ninth and tenth centuries was the meet-
ing place of many royal diets From 1007 to
1802 it Was held by the bishops of Bamberg,
except during an interval of abotit 30 years In
its vicinity the French, on Aug 7, 1796, gained
FORCIBLE ENTRY
a victory over the Austrians Pop, 1910,
9150
FORCIBLE ENTRY AND DETAINER.
Ihe taking and keeping possession of real prop-
erty through thieats or force, without authority
of law To make an entry forcible and, as such,
unlawful, there must be such acts of violence
or menaces as may give reason to anticipate
personal injury or danger in making a defense
But the force must be more than is implied m
mere trespass There are in most of the States
statutes regulating proceedings in cases of
forcible entry, directing the manner of proceed-
ing for the restoration of property unlawfully
withheld and the punishment of the offender
The plea of ownership is not a justification for
the use of force in recovering property, for no
one may enter even upon his own property in
any other than a peaceable manner ISTor can the
owner be excused on the plea that he entered
to enforce a lawful claim or make a distress
The policy of this legislation is to prevent the
disturbance of the public peace and to compel
disputants to settle their controversies in a court
of justice
Originally by the common law of England the
right of entiy upon land of which one had been
unlawfully deprived might be exercised by force
if necessary But by a series of early statutes,
the first of which dates back to the time of
Richard II (5 Rich II, c 7,1381), this remedy
was limited to an entry in peaceable and easy
manner, and not with force or strong hand See
ENTRY, RIGHT or
FORGING, IN HORTICULTURE The accelera-
tion of vegetation by application of artificial heat*
The term is not usually applied to the cultiva-
tion of exotic plants in hothouses, where the ob-
ject is to imitate as much as possible then native
climate, but it is strictly applicable to the sys-
tem usually pursued with various flowers, grapes,
pineapples, tomatoes, and other plants, to secure
the production of bloom and fruit at desired sea-
sons, and by different plants of the same kind
in succession through a considerable peiiod, the
heat being increased for one set of plants sooner
than for another. Many of the fruits and vege-
tables which grow well in the open air are very
commonly forced, in order that they may be pro-
cured out of their natural season Thus, rhu-
barb is forced by means of the heat produced
by heaps of fermenting manure Asparagus,
salads, radishes, lettuce, onions, etc , are often
forced by means of hotbeds, or m flued pits, or a
place is found for them in hothouses Straw-
berries aie treated in the same way See HOT-
BED, HOTHOUSE
FOB'CITE See EXPLOSIVES
FORCKENBECK, fark'en-bgk, MAX VON
(1821-92) A German Liberal politician, born
at Munster, Westphalia In 1858 he was elected
to the Prussian House of Representatives, in
1862 he founded the Fortschnttspartei, or Party
of Progress, and in 1866 the National Liberal
party He was elected president of the House
in 1866 From 1867 until his death, except for
the years 1887-90, he was a member of the
Reichstag, and from 1874 to 1879 its president
He sat in the Prussian House of Peers from
1873, as chief burgomaster of Breslau, and from
1878 until his death he was chief burgomaster
of Berlin, but he took little part in politics
after the downfall of the National Liberal party
In 1877 Bennigsen refused Bismarck's offer of a
portfolio because he would not give a portfolio
8 FORD
to Forckenbeck The latter broke with Bennig-
sen in 1880 and with Bamberger and StaufTen-
berg formed the Liberal Union (Liberal Veremi-
gung) . In 1884 he joined the Deutschfrcismnige
party Consult the biography by Philippson
(Dresden, 1898)
POUD, EDWARD ONSLOW (1852-1901). An
English sculptoi He was born in London and
studied painting at the Antwerp Academy and
sculpture at the Munich Academy under Wag-
muller He became an associate of the Royal
Academy in 1888 and a Royal Academician m
1895 He was also elected a corresponding
member of the Institute of France He is best
known for his portrait statues and busts which
are delicately modeled and truthful likenesses
Among the best of his busts aze those of Her-
komer, Millais (National Portrait Gallery, Lon-
don), Alma-Tadema, Dagnan-Bouveret, Buton
Riviere, and Sir Frederick Bramwell (Royal In-
stitution, London) His best statues include
those of Sir Rowland Hill (1882), at the Roval
Exchange, Gladstone (1894), at the city Liberal
Club, London, Sir Henry Irving as Hamlet
(1883, Guildhall Art Gallery, London), C G
Gordon ("Chinese" Gordon) (1890), at Chatham
and Khartum, the Marlowe Memorial at Canter-
bury, the Shelley Memorial at University Col-
lege, Oxford, a statue of Huxley (1900), at the
British Museum of Natural History, the eques-
trian statues of Loid Strathnairn at Knights-
bridge, the Maharajah of Mysore (1898),
and the colossal statue of Queen Victoria at
Manchester (1901) He also modeled many
dainty nude statuettes, such as "Folly" and "The
Singer," m the Tate Gallery, "Peace" (1890),
"Echo" (1895), "Glory to the Dead" (1901).
Ford possessed a strong feeling for the beauti-
ful and the picturesque, his treatment is realis-
tic, but the sculptural effect of some of Ins
finest works is marred by excess of decorative
detail Consult Spielmann, British Sculpture
and Sculptors of To-Day (London, 1901)
FOUD, EMANUEL (fl. 1607) An Elizabethan
romancer He was the author of Parismus, in
two parts (1598-99), long exceedingly populai,
and of the similai romances, Ornatus and Artesw
(1607) and Montehon (1633, but probably pub-
lished earlier)
POBD, SIB FRANCIS CLARE (1828-99). An
English diplomat, son of Richard Ford He was
commissioned a lieutenant in the Fourth Light
Dragoons, but left the army in 1851, entered
the diplomatic service, and became Secretary of
Legation at Washington, wheie he was acting
charge d'affaires m 1867-68. In 1S71 he was
appointed Secretary of Embassy at St Peters-
burg and in 1872 was transferred to Vienna He
represented the British government in 1897 at
Halifax before the International Commission, by
decision of which $5,500,000 was awarded to
Great Britain for superior advantages obtained
by the United States m the Washington fisheries
treaty of 1871 In 1878-79 he was United
States Minister to the Argentine Republic and
during a portion of the time to Uruguay also.
He was afterward appointed to similar posts
at Rio de Janeiro and at Athens, in 1884 be-
came Minister (from 1887 Ambassador ) to
Spain, in 1884-85 was commissioner to settle the
Newfoundland fisheries question, in 1892 was
tiansf erred to Constantinople and in 1893 to
Rome His services to British diplomacy won
for him frequent official recognition, including
appointment to the Privj Council in 1888.
FOBD
FOKB
POBB, HENEY (1863- ) An American
automobile manufacturer He was born at
Greenfield, Mich , where he was educated in the
district schools He learned the machinist's
trade and after 1887 lived in Detroit For a
time he was chief engineer of the Edison Illumi-
nating Company In 1903 he organized the
Ford Motor Company, of which he became presi-
dent This corporation is the largest manufac-
tory of automobiles in the world, it employs
16,000 men and has turned out about 1000 auto-
mobiles in a day, a specialty being made of low-
priced cars In January, 1914, Ford attracted
national attention by his announcement of a
profit-sharing plan involving the distribution of
$10,000,000 annually to his employees See
PROFIT- SHVEING
EOBD, HENEY JONES (1851-1925) An
American journalist and professor of politics
He was born at Baltimore, Md , and graduated
fiom the Baltimore City College m 1868 He
was editorial writer in 1872 and managing
editor in 1875-79 of the Baltimore American,
served for a time as city editor and in 1883-85
as staff member of the Baltimore Sun, held the
managing editorship of the Pittsburgh Commer-
cial G-azette from 1885 to 1895 and of the
Pittsburgh Ohromcle Telegraph from 1895 to
1901, and was editor of the Pittsburgh Gazette
in 1901-05 He lectured on political science at
Johns Hopkins University in 1906 and 1907, and
in 1908 became professor of politics at Prince-
ton University Besides special articles on po-
litical science, Ford is author of The Rise and
Growth of American Politics (1898) and The
Cost of our 'National Government (1910)
EOBD, JAMES LAUEEN (1854- ). An
American humorist He was born at St
Louis, Mo , and received an academic edu-
cation at Stockbridge, Mass , but moved early
to New York, where he held many editorial
positions on newspapers and periodicals, either
as editor, dramatic critic, literary critic, or as
a special wnter He devoted much of his time
to dramatic woik and is the author or adapter
of two successful plays His humorous writings
are, for the most part, in the form of satirical
comments on current tendencies and affectations
in American literature, drama, and life His
writings include The Literary Shop and Other
Tales (1894, 3d ed , 1899), Hypnotic Tales
(1804), The Third Alarm (1893, new ed ,
1908), Bohemia Invaded (1895); Dr Dodd's
Nchooly Dolly Dillen"beck (1895) , Cupid and the
Footlights (1899), The Story of Du Barry
(1902) , The Brazen Calf (1903) , The Wooing of
Polly ( 1906 ) He also edited, with Mary K. Ford,
Every Day in the Year (1902, new ed , 1914)
FOKD, JEKEMIAH DENIS MATIIIAS (1873-
) An American professor of Romance lan-
guages He was born at Cambridge, Mass , grad-
uated (1894, PhD, 1897) from Harvard Uni-
versity, and studied also in various French
schools At Harvard he was instructor, assist-
ant professor, and, after 1907, professor of the
French and Spanish languages In 1910-11 he
was vice president of the Modern Language As*»
sociation He edited Goldoni's Qurioso Accn*
dente (16,99), Moratin's Bt de las ninas (1899),
Alarc6n's Capitdn Veneno (1900), A Spamsh
Anthology (1901), The Romance of Chivalry v$
Italian Verse (1904, 2d ed, 1906), Old Spanish
(1906, new enlarged ed, 1911)^ Select
from Don Qmjote (1908) , and published
Old Spam&k Sibilants (1900), Exercises, m
Spanish Composition (1901), Spanish Grammar
(1904). Ford was a contributor to the NEW
INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
FORD, JOHN (fl 1639), An English drama-
tist of good county family and singular among
his contemporary playwrights in not being de-
pendent upon his pen for his support He ma-
triculated at Exeter College, Oxford — no uni-
versity record of him remains, however — and
became a bencher of the Middle Temple in
November, 1602 His first publication was
Fame's Memorial (1606), an elegy on the Earl
of Devonshire In 1606 also appeared Honor
Triumphant and The Monarches Meeting, which
present him in the light of one ready to use his
pen for the entertainment of the court An
III Beginning Has Good End, which has been,
attributed to Ford, was played at the Cockpit
in 1613 If this attribution be correct, it marks
the beginning of his dramatic career In col-
laboration with Dekker he wrote The Fairy
Knight and The Sristowe Merchant (both li-
censed m 1624, but neithei of them published) ,
in collaboration with Webster, A Late Murther
of the Son upon the Mother (licensed 1624),
in collaboration, probably with Dekker and
others, The Sun's Darling (acted 1624, printed
1657) , and in collaboi ation with Dekker and
Ixowley, The Witch of Edmonton ( acted probably
c 1621, but printed 1658) Of the plays by Ford
alone, The Fancies, Chaste and 'No'ble (acted
1636, printed 1638) and The Lady's Trial (acted
1638, printed 1639) are by general consent dra-
matically failures, and his reputation rests
mainly upon 'Tis Pity She's a Whore (acted
c 1626), a tragedy of extraordinary power, deal-
ing with the passion of a brother for a sister;
(translated into French by Maeterlinck in
1894 and played in that year in Paris under
the title Annabella} , The Lover's Melanclioly
(acted 1628, printed 1629), impressive by the
depth of its pathos, but weak in its comic
scenes, The Broken Heart (acted c!629)5 as
good as anything of this author's, unless 3Tis
Pity She's a Whore be given first place, and
notable among his plays for its skillful construc-
tion, for its comparative freedom from the mor-
bidity of theme to which he was prone, for its
tragic intensity, and for various other excel-
lences, both major and minor, and Perkin War-
leek (printed 1634, probably acted 1635), an
historical drama, which Hartley Coleridge doubt-
less overpraised in declaring it the best his-
torical play outside of Shakespeare's national
histories, but which still ranks high among its
contemporaries of the same kind Regarding
Ford's place as a dramatist, Lamb declared in
effect that Ford was of the first order of dra-
matic, poets, and Swinburne, m one of his
essays., has gone almost an equal length in the
way of praise On the other hand, Hazlitt re-
gards the weakness of his comic vein, his ex-
travagance, and "a certain perversity, of spirit"
ag sufficient seriously to mar his fame X&ough
Ford lacks the magic of ver&e and phrase that
distinguish the greatest of his contemporaries,
hip blank yerse is still at its best a nojble medium
of music and expression , and this, together with
the ^dramatic beauty and intensity of scenes and
passages scattered through his plays, gives him
a secure pl,ace in the great succession of Eliza-
bethan Dramatists The best edition of Ford is
that of Gifford, revised by Dyce, which contains
a memoir (1869) Consult also Dramatic
Works of Massinger a-nd Ford (1840, 1883),
PORD
10
FOBDHAM
•with introduction by Hartley Coleridge, Best
Plays of Ford ("Mermaid Series," 1888, 1903),
ed by Havelock Ellis, Emil Koeppel, Quellen
Studien (Strassburg, 1897), W Bang, Materi-
alen zur Xunde des alteren enghsohen Dramas,
vol xin (Leipzig, 1906)
FORD, JOHN DONALDSON (1840-1918) An
American naval officer, born at Baltimore, Md
He graduated from the Maryland Institute
School of Design in 1861 and from the Potts
School of Mechanical Engineering in 1862 En-
tering the navy as third assistant engineer, he
was at Baton Rouge, La (1863), Mobile Bay
(1864), and on the ill-fated Arizona (1865)
In 1867 he was \\recked in the S act amenta on
the Coromandel coast of India He was de-
tached from regular service in 1884 to organize
the Baltimore Manual Training School In
1894-96 he taught at the Maryland Agricultural
and Mechanical College, and m 1898, becoming
fleet engineer of the Pacific station, was with
the Asiatic fleet dm ing the Spanish-American
War In 1902 he was promoted captain and
later in the same year was retired with the
rank of rear admiral, but continued to serve as
inspector of ordnance and machinery until 1908
He published pamphlets on manual training in
public schools, professional papers, and An
American Cruiser in tJie East (1898)
POBD, JOHN THOMSON (1829-94) An Amer-
ican theatrical manager, born at Baltimore Ho
became manager of the Holhday Street Theatre
in Baltimore, where he was elected president of
the municipal council (1858) and was acting
mayor for two years In Washington, D C , he
built three theatres, one of which was that known
as Ford's Theatre, the scene of the assassination
of President Lincoln by Booth on April 14, 1865
On suspicion of complicity, he was arrested, but
after 40 days* imprisonment was released, as no
evidence was adduced against him In 1871 he
built Ford's Grand Opera House at Baltimore
FORD, PAUL LEICESTER (1865-1902) An
American historian and novelist, born in Brook-
lyn, N Y He was privately educated, and after
wide travels in both hemispheres he devoted
himself to investigations in the sources of
American history and edited the Writings of
Thomas Jefferson (10 vols , 1892) , the Writings
of John Dickinson (2 vols, 1893) , The Feder-
alist (1886) , etc These studies led to The True
George Washington (1896) , The Many-Sided
Franklin ( 1899 ) , and The New England Primer,
with many minor writings of like character.
To fiction he contributed The Honorable Peter
Sterling (1894), The Great K & A Train
Robbery (1897) , The Story of an Untold Love
(1897), Tattle Tales of Cupid (1898), Janice
Meredith ( 1899 ) , Wanted A Matchmaker
(1901)? Wanted A Chaperon ( 1 902 ) Mi-
Ford also did valuable work in the Bibliogra-
pher, which he founded, and of which he was
editor at the time of his death
FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858). An English
writer He graduated at Trinity College, Ox-
ford, in 1817, and was afterward called to the
bar, but never practiced He spent four years
traveling in Spain and in 1845 published his
delightful Handbook for Travelers in Spain, in
tw^ volumes A second edition (1847) was in
one volume, and the material left out was pub-
lisMI In Gatherings from Spain (1846) Ford
also contributed important papers on Spanish
art to the Quarterly Review and other periodi-
cals 3Ete wroto letterpress for several ait
works, notably the Tauromachia (1852) of Lake
Price
FORD, SIMEON (1855- ) An American
hotel proprietor, born at Lafayette, Ind , and
educated in the public schools For many years
he was proprietor of the Grand Union Hotel,
New York City — until it was closed in 1914 He
became a member of the firm of Ford & Shaw,
president of the Official Hotel Red Book and
Directory Company, of the Rye Land and Im-
piovement Company, and of the Zeeland Realty
Company, and director in various corporations
AVidely known for his after-dinner speeches, he
published some of these, together with addresses,
as A Few Remarks (1903)
FORD, WILLIAM WEBBEB (1871- ) An
American bacteriologist He was born at Nor-
'walk, Ohio, and graduated from Western Reserve
University in 1893 and from Johns Hopkins
University (MD) in 1898 He was also a
fellow of McGill University (1899-1901) and
of the Rockefeller Institute, New York City
(1901-02) At Johns Hopkins he was instruc-
tor (1903-05), associate (1905-06), and associ-
ate professor of bacteriology and hygiene and
lecturer on legal medicine (after 1906) He be-
came a member of several scientific and profes-
sional societies He is author of papers on in-
testinal bacteria, diseases of the livei, toxins and
antitoxins, water supplies, milk, sewage, and
typhoid fever
FORD, WOETHINGTON ClIAUNCEY (1858-
) An American author and statistician,
born and educated in Brooklyn, N Y He was,
from 1885 to 1889, chief of the Bureau of Statis-
tics of the Department of State in Washington,
from 1893 to 1898 chief statistician of the
Treasury Department, and from 1902 to 1909
chief of the division of manuscripts in the
Library of Congress In 1900 he became editor
of the publications of the Massachusetts His-
torical Society and in. 1910 lecturer at Harvard
He wrote The American Citizen's Manual
(1883), The Standard Silver Dollar (1884),
George Washington (1899, rev ed , 1910),
and numerous monographs on historical, bio-
graphical, and economic subjects He revised
David A Wells's Natural Philosophy (1879),
and edited the Con espondencc and Journals
of Samuel Blachley Webb (1893-94), The
Writings of George Washington (1889-91); the
Journals of the Continental Congress , Bibliog-
raphy of the Massachusetts Souse Journals,
1115-16 (1905), John Quvnoy Adams (1902),
List of B Franklin's Payers in the Library of
Congress (1905), Writings of John Quinoy
Adams (3 vols, 1013)
FOBD CITY A borough in Armstrong Co ,
Pa, 40 miles northeast of Pittsburgh, on the
Pennsylvania Railroad, and on the Allegheny
River (Map Pennsylvania, C 5) It is in an
agricultural and coal-mining region and has
manufactories of plate glass The water works
and electric-light plant are owned by the city
Pop, 1900, 2870, 1910, 4850
FOBIXHAM. Formerly a village in West-
chester Co , N Y , situated on the east bank
of the Harlem River (Map Greater New York,
E 3), but since 1898 included in the city of
Greater New York The first permanent set-
tlement in this vicinity was made in 1671 by
a Dutchman named Jan Area, who bought the
tract from Andnan Van der Donck and the In-
dians' Fordham University ( q v ) was founded
here in 1841 as St John's College. There IB
FORDHAM UNIVERSITY
also the cottage in which Edgar Allan Poe lived
from 1844 to 1849
FORDHAM ITNTVERSITY, formerly ST
JOHN'S COLLEGE A Roman Catholic institu-
tion, directed by the Fathers of the Society of
Jesus in Bronx Borough, New York City, ad-
joining Bronx Park and the Botanical Gardens
which were formed in part out of land formerly
belonging to the college St John's College was
begun as the New York Diocesan College and
Seminary by Archbishop Hughes in 1839 He
purchased for that purpose, in the village of
Foidharn, for $30,000, the old Rose Hill manor
house and 98 acres of land Tradition says that
this was where Cooper found the scene for his
novel The Spy St John's College was opened
with six students, June 24, 1841 The Rev John
McCluskey (afterward the first American Car-
dinal) was its president, and its faculty was
secular priests and lay instructors The ec-
clesiastical part or seminary was called St
Joseph's and was in charge of Italian Lazansts,
with the Rev Dr Felix Villanis at its head It
had 14 students After several years of this
secular administration Archbishop Hughes in-
vited the Jesuits to take charge, and a number
of the older came to New York from St Mary's,
Washington ( now Marion ) Co , Ky , for that
purpose The Rev Augustus J Th^baud was
the first rector of both college and seminary
The New York Legislature granted the college
its charter to give degrees in theology, arts, law,
and medicine, April 10, 1846 In 1856 Arch-
bishop Hughes resumed direct control of St
Joseph's Seminal y and returned its management
to secular priests It was moved to Troy and
opened there Oct 18, 1864 In 1896 it was
moved to its present location, Dunwoodie, West-
chester County On June 21, 1904, the board
of trustees of St John's authorized the opening
of law and medical departments in addition to
the Arts course and on March 7, 1907, the
charter was amended by the regents of the
State University to formally establish this, and
allow St John's College to change its cor-
porate name to Fordham University In 1912
a College of Pharmacy was opened The
giounds cover 70 acres, upon which are erected
10 buildings for the use of the faculty and
students In 1914 the number of students
at the university was 1500 There were 140
professors and instructors, and the library con-
tained 60,000 volumes The president in 1914
was Thomas J McCluskey, S J Consult T G
Taafe, History of St John's College, Fordham,
N Y (New York, 1891)
FORDIL'LA (Neo-Lat, named in honor of
the discoverer, S W Ford) A small bivalve
shell found in the limestones of Lower Cambrian
age of Rensselaer and Columbia counties, New
Yoik See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM, PELECYPODA
FORD'S THEATRE A Washington thea-
tre, in which President Lincoln was assassinated
by Booth, April 14, 1865 The building was
purchased in 1866 by the United States govern-
ment and was used until 1887 as the Army
Medical Museum and later as the Pension and
"Records Bureau of the War Department It
collapsed, with the loss of many lives, on June
0, 1893
FORDTTW, JOHN OF (?-c!384) A Scottish
historical writer , He wak probably a chantry
priest m the cathedral of Aberdeen He is said
to have traveled on foot through Britain and
Ireland in search of materials for a chronicle of
VOL IX —2
ii
FORECLOSURE
Scotland, which he had set himself to compile
This was probably between 1363 and 1384. He
died probably in 1384, or a little latei His
Chromca (f-entis ttcotoium consists of five books,
extending to J 153, and a part of book vi, which
deals with English history His Gesta AnnaUa
extend from 1153 to 1383 The work which
John of Foidun left unfinished was continued
by Walter Bower (qv ) Bower gives him
ciedit for the first five books of the Chromca
Mentis Rcotorum and part of the sixth, but
claims the last 10 books (G-csta AnnaLia) as his
own He used Fordun's matenal, however, up
to 1371 The whole was published under the-
name of Scotichromcon, and it is the chief au
thority for the history of Scotland pnor to the
fifteenth century, its value being greatest foi
the fourteenth, where it is contempoiary Four
printed editions have been published, of which
the best is that by Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-
72 ) , from the text of the Wolf enbuttel and other
standard manuscripts Bower's interpolations
and additions are separated from Fordun's text
Consult Maxwell, Early Chronicles Relating to
Scotland (Glasgow, 1912)
FORDYCE, fOr'dls A town and the county
seat of Dallas Co , Ark , 78 miles south of Little
Rock, on the Chicago, Eock Island, and Pacific,
and the St Louis Southwestern railroads (Map
Arkansas, C 4) Its chief industry is the manu-
facture of lumber, staves, and spokes Pop ,
1900, 1710, 1910,. 2794
FORECAST, WEATHEB See METEOBOLOGY,
WEATHER BUREAU
FORECLOSURE. The legal process whereby
a mortgagor's right, or "equity/* of redemption
is cut off and the mortgagee's title to the mort-
gaged lands or goods perfected In order to put
a limit on the "equity of redemption" of the
mortgagor (see EQUITY OF REDEMPTION) the
remedy of foreclosuie was devised by the Court
of Chancery It is available to the mortgagee
at any time after default and is instituted by a
bill of foieclosure praying- that an account may
be taken of the principal and interest due under
the mortgage, and that the mortgagor, on failing
to pay the mortgage debt by a specified date,
may forfeit his equity of redemption If on the
day fixed for payment the money be not forth-
coming, the mortgagor will be declared to have
forfeited his equity of redemption, and the
mortgagee will be allowed to retain the estate in
perpetuity This method of enforcing the se-
cunty of the mortgagee of lands is still in use
in England and in many of the United States
In a few of the American States, however, in
which the mortgage has come to be regarded as
a meie hen, and not as a legal estate in the
mortgagee, a statutory process, known also as a
foreclosure, has been adopted in lieu of the fore-
going process of "strict" foreclosure This diffiers
from the older method principally in the sfiaci
that it involves the satisfaction of the deH, not
by a forfeiture, but by a sale of the mortgaged
premises The suit, which is also in e^iinty, is
instituted by the mortgagee as plaintiff, the
mortgagor and all creditors, subsequent lienors,
and other parties in. interest, beim^ made de-
fendants The demand is for a judgment that
the defendants be foreclosed and cwt off from
all their interest in the mortg^ge<l. premises, and,
that the same be sold to aatts^f the mortgage
debt The sale is made tip one Notice and 19 at
public auction, generally % tfoe sheriff or *
referee appointed by the cotirt. After the
FOREFANG 12
the money in the hands of the referee will be
applied to the payment of the mortgage, and
any surplus may be claimed by subsequent
mortgagees, or, if there is no other claim upon
it; it will be paid to the mortgagor Other
methods of effecting a foreclosure, by legal rather
than equitable process, as by a writ of entry or
of ejectment directed by the moitgagee against
the mortgagor, also occur in a few States bee
EQUITY OF REDEMPTION, MORTGAGE, and the
authorities there referred to
FOREFANG See FOKFANG
FOREIGKKT ATTACHMENT A process
which a few local courts of England have au-
thority, by immemorial custom, to issue The
custom of the Mayor's Court of London is that
when a foreignei defendant, of whom the court
has jurisdiction, does not appear in response to
a summons served on him, the plaintiff may at-
tach his goods or debts due to him as security
to enforce his appeal ance Recent decisions of
the House of Lords have so nariowed the custom,
and have pointed out so many difficulties of pro-
cedure under it that it has fallen into disuse In
this country the attachment or garnishment of
the goods or debts of nonresidents is regulated
by statutes in the several States See ATTACH-
MENT, GABNISHMENT, and the authorities there
referred to
FOREIGN JUDGMENT The judgment of
a tubunal in a jurisdiction independent of that
in which it is sought to be enforced The effect
to be given to such a judgment depends either
upon treaty or the comity of nations A gov-
ernment is not bound to enforce a judgment ren-
deied in another country, nor even to recognize
its existence, unless it has bound itself by treaty
to do so As a matter of courtesy, however, to-
wards sister states, as well as from considera-
tions of convenience to suitors, every civilized
nation is accustomed to treat a foreign judg-
ment as conclusive upon the parties thereto
concerning the matters decided by it, unless it
is shown that the judgment was obtained by
fraud, or that the court granting it did not have
jurisdiction.
The States of the United States are foreign
to each other so far as their judicial systems
are concerned They are subject, however, to
the Federal Constitution, which declares that
ufull faith and credit shall be given in each
State to the public acts, records, and judicial
proceedings of every other State And the Con-
gress may by general laws prescribe the manner
m which such acts, records, and proceedings
shall be proved, and the effect thereof" (Art
IV , Sec 1 ) This does not mean that a judg-
ment obtained in one State can be enforced by
an execution issued in another State It only
means that if an action is brought upon such
judgment in another State, or if the judgment
is pleaded there in bar to an action brought for
the same cause, it shall receive the same credit
that it would receive in similar circumstances
in the State where it was rendered The refusal
of ^ome States to recognize a judgment or
decree (as a decree of divorce) rendered in
another State is based on the finding that such
•judgment or decree is a nullity because fraudu-
lently obtained or because the court rendering
it acted beyond its jurisdiction In other words,
a foreign judgment is entitled to recognition
only if it is a valid judgment in accordance with
the law governing the tribunal by which it was
rendered
FOREIGN MONEY
By common law a foreign judgment is proved
by an exemplified copy under the great seal of
the State, or by a true copy proved to be such
by a witness who compared it with the original,
or by the proper certificate of an officer duly
authorized by law Special methods of proving
such judgments are provided by statute in the
various States (See DIVORCE, JUDGMENT )
Consult A C Freeman, Treatise on the Law of
Judgments (4th ed , San Francisco, 1892), H
C Black, Handbook on the Law of Judicial
Precedents (St Paul, 1912), H W Seton
Forms of Judgments (7th ed , Toronto, 1912),
J K Rood, Leading and Illustrative Gases with
Notes on the Law of Judgments (3d ed , Ann
Aibor, 1913)
FOREIGN LAW The law of a foreign
country The law of a state is, under modem
conditions, entirely without authority in any
other country, though foreign states may, as a
matter of international comity, recognize the
validity of acts legally perfoimed in other coun-
tries, and may even, under proper conditions,
administer the rules and principles of foieign
law in its own tribunals As to the circum-
stances under which this will be done, see CON-
FLICT OF LAWS
For judicial purposes the several States of the
Union are foreign to each other, though the
comity subsisting between them is of the strong-
est character, and the Constitution of the United
States (Art IV, Sec 1) requires the lecogmtion
by one State of the validity of judicial acts of
another See FOBEIGN JUDGMENT, EXTRADITION
The courts of a country do not take judicial
notice of foreign laws, but, where they are in
issue, require them to be proved as matters of
fact Foreign statutory law may be proved by
duly certified copies of the statutes in question,
01 even by printed compilations issued by the
authority of the state enacting them Foreign
customary, or unwritten, law, however, can be
proved only by the sworn testimony of properly
qualified experts, though it has been held in the
United States that the law of a kindred system
like that of England may be established for judi-
cial purposes by the citation of reported cases
and textbooks of recognized authority The
Federal courts of the United States, however,
even in matters in which they have no jurisdic-
tion, will always take judicial notice of the laws
of all the States See COMITY OF NATIONS, IN-
TERNATIONAL LAW
FOREIGN MONEY, VALUE OF, For the
purpose of tang the rates at which the differ-
ent foreign coins shall be computed for the
purpose of determining the values of goods im-
ported into the United States, it is made the
duty of the Director of the Mint to publish
from time to time the values of foreign coins
This was formerly done annually, but the fluctu-
ating value of silver coins led in 1890 to a
change in the law, requiring the statement to be
made quarterly Grold coins are reckoned by
comparing the number of grains of fine gold
which they contain with the amount of gold in
the dollar Silver coins are reckoned at the
average value of the pure metal they contain
during the three months prior to the determina-
tion of their value When the values are deter-
mined by the Director of the Mint and pro-
claimed by the Secretary of the Treasury, they
are valid in estimating the value of imports for
the succeeding three months See accompanying
statement for April 1; 1914.
-winner
MOHEY
FOBEIGN HONEY
VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS
COTJNTBT
Legal standard
Monetary unit
Value in
terms of
XT S
money
Remarks
Argentine Republic
Gold
Peso
$0 9648
Currency Paper, normally convertible at 44
per cent of face value, now inconvertible
Austria
Gold
Krone
2026
Belgium
Bolivia
Gold and silver
Gold
Franc
Boliviano
1930
3893
Member Latin Union, gold is actual standard
12M bolivianos equal 1 pound sterling
Brazil
Gold
Milreis
5462
Currency Government paper normally con-
British Colonies in Aus-
Gold
Pound sterling
48665
vertible at 16 pence (—10 3244) per rnilreis
tralasia and Africa
British Honduras
Gold
Dollar
10000
Bulgaria
Gold
Lev
1930
Canada
Gold
Dollar
10000
Chile
Gold
Peso
3650
Currency Inconvertible paper
Amoy
8318
Canton
8293
Cheefoo
7955
Chin Kiang
8125
Fuchau
7694
Haikwan
8463
The tael is a unit of weight, not a com The
(customs)
customs unit is the Haikwan tael The
Hankow
7782
values of other taels are leased on their re-
Tael <
Kiaochow
8060
lation to the value of the Haikwan tael
Nankin
8237
The Yuan silver dollar of 100 cents is the
China
Silver
Niuchwang
Ningpo
7800
7997
monetary unit of the Chinese Republic, it
is equivalent to 644+ of the Haikwan tael
Peking
Shanghai
8109
7598
Swatow
76S3
Takau
8370
Tientsin
8060
Yuan
5390
Dollar 1
Hongkong
5471
British
5471
Mexican
5511
Mexican silver pesos issued under Mexican
decree of ISTov 13, 1918, are of silver con-
tent approximately 41 per cent less than
the dollar here quoted, and those issued
under decree of Oct 27, 1919, contain
about 51 per cent less silver
Colombia
Gold
Peso
9733
Currency Government paper and gold
Costa Rica
Gold
Colon
4653
Cuba
Gold
Peso
10000
Denmark
Gold
Krone
2680
Ecuador
Gold
Sucre
4867
Egypt
Gold
Pound (100 piasters)
49431
The actual standard is the British pound ster-
ling, which is legal tender for 97 y% piasters
Finland
Gold
Markka
f
1930
France
Gold and silver
Franc
1930
Member Latin Union, gold is actual standard
Germany
Gold
Mark
2382
Great Britain
Greece
Gold
Gold and silver
Pound sterling
Drachma
48665
1930
Member Latin Union, gold is actual standard
Guatemala
Silver
Peso
5074
Currency Inconvertible paper
Haiti
Gold
Gourde
2000
Currency Inconvertible paper
Honduras
Silver
Peso
5074
Currency, bank notes
India [British]
(Gold
\ Silver
MohuT and sovereign
Rupee
48665
2411
) The British sovereign and half sovereign are
J legal tender in India at 10 rupees per
sovereign
Indo-Chma
Silver
Piaster
5480
Italy
Gold
Lira
1930
Member Latin Union, gold is actual standard
Japan
Gold
Yen
4985
Liberia
Gold
Dollar
10000
Currency Depreciated silver token coins
Customs duties are collected in gold
Mexico
Gold
Peso
4985
Netherlands
Gold
Guilder
(florin)
4020
Newfoundland
Gold
Dollar
1 0000
Nicaragua
Gold .
Cordoba
10000
Norway
Gold
Krone
2680
Panama
Gold
Balboa
10000
Paraguay
Gold
Peso (Argentine)
9648
Currency Depreciated Paraguayan paper
Persia
Silver
Kran
0934
currency
Currency Silver circulating above its metallic
value Gold com is a commodity only,
normally worth double the silver
Peru .
Gold
Libra
48665
Philippine Islands
Portugal
Gold
Gold
Peso
Escudo
5000
10805
Currency Inconvertible paper
Rumania
Gold
Leu
1930
Russia
Gold
Ruble
5146
Salvador
Gold
Colon
5000
$anto Domingo
Gold
Dollar
1 0000
Serbia
Gold
Dinar
1930
Gold
Tical
3709
Spam
Gold and silver
Peseta
1930
Valuation is for gold peseta; currency is notes
of the bank of Spain.
Straits Settlements
Gold
Dollar
5678
Sweden
Switzerland
Gold
Gold
Krona
Franc
2680
1930
Member Latin TJnion, gold is actual standard.
Turkey
Uruguay
Gold
Gold
Piaster
Peso
0440
10342
(100 piasters equal -ftp the Turkish £ )
Currency IncxntveirtCble paper
Venezuela
Gold
Bolivar
1930
FOREIGN TBADE 14
FOBEIGKKT TRADE See IMPORTS AND EX-
PORTS, FREE TRADE, TABIFF, BALANCE OF
TRADE
POBEIGH WARS, MILITARY OEDEE OF An
hereditary patriotic society instituted in New
York City in 1894, as the Military and Naval
Order of the United States, but known under its
present name since 1895 The objects of the
order are to honor and preserve the names and
memory of those who aided in maintaining the
United States government in the five foreign,
wars in which it has been engaged — viz , the
War of the Revolution, the War with Tripoli,
the War of 1812, the Mexican War, and the War
with Spain—and to collect the records and docu-
ments relating to these wars It admits to
membership Veteran Companions, consisting of
commissioned officers of the army, navy, and ma-
rine corps of the United States who participated
in any of these foreign wars, and also Hereditary
Companions, direct lineal descendants of com-
missioned officers in the male line The national
oigamzation is made up of 20 State command-
eries The order had in 1914 a membership of
over 1500 companions, among whom were many
of the leading officeis of the army and navy
This order has been officially recognized by sev-
eral European monaichs
FOUEIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
FOREEROWREDGKE AKTB FOREOHDI-
HATIOJST Terms of theology, signifying God's
knowledge of all things before tliev come to pass
(foreknowledge), and the eternal purpose which
finds its execution m the history of man (fore-
ordination )
There have been various theories of fore-
knowledge (a) It is viewed simply as one of
the divine peifections, absolute because the na-
ture of God is infinite, and thus embracing all
events whatsoever, including the volitions of free
beings, but capable of no explanation except that
it is a fact of the nature of God Foreknowl-
edge is no more of a mystery upon this view
than any knowledge, or any other attribute of
God (6) A kindred view adds an element of
explanation from the "ideality of time." There
is no time to God, and hence , foreknowledge,
m the human sense of that word, does not exist
To know the future does not essentially differ
from the knowledge of the present, for all the
future is present to God (<?) Foreknowledge
depends upon foreordmation God has m some
sense foreordained all things, and what He fore-
ordains He knows, not with an immediate vision,
as is supposed by the previous theories, but by
the knowledge of inference and imagination
(d] The foreknowledge of God is limited by the
freedom of man, inasmuch as he cannot fore-
know contingent volitions which are essentially
uncertain This is a voluntary self-limitation,
since God has Himself given His creatures free-
dom This theory has been pioposed at various
periods in history, btit haa always met with
criticism as militating against the infinity of
God It is, however, rinding increased favor at
the present day in many quarters
The proofs of God's foreknowledge have been
derived from the perfection of God and from the
Scriptures Even men have a certain kind and
degree of foreknowledge, which is absolutely
essential to them in the regulation of life If
God were nothing more than an infinite man,
He must have at least the same sort of fore-
knowledge and in an infinite degree This proof
FOBErOTOWLEDGE
is reenforced by the Scriptures, which ascribe
the most various and minute foreknowledge to
God Yet neither of these proofs goes so far as
they have often been supposed to go Nothing
in Scripture answers the question whether free
volitions are in themselves subject to fore-
knowledge Many are, for, though free in their
essential nature, they are made in conformity
with the balance of motives and may be fore-
known This fact is the foundation of society
But, while volitions remain free, are there none
that are unaccountable, against the balance of
motives, and hence uncertain9 That is the ques-
tion of free will (qv ) , and it would be false
exegesis which would rest its determination upon
passages of Scripture
Foreordmation pertains to all events So much
is maintained by all theologians Some teach
that all events are embraced in foreordmation
in the same sense and way This theoiy differs
from fatalism because intended to be consistent
with the freedom and responsibility of the crea-
ture, and it may be consistent if determinism
(see FREE WILL) is consistent, as was main-
tamed by Edwards and manv others Some
types of Calvinism made a distinction between
foreordination and permission The first sin of
man is then said to have been permitted, and the
lost are said not to have boon "reprobated,"
but "passed over" by electing grace, i e, left in
the sinful state into which they have voluntarily
bi ought themselves (so the Westminster Con-
fession) Others, with moie direct reference
to fice will and with a conception of the divine
government as a moral government — i e , one
through persuasives acting upon the will — have
said that foreordmation is the determination in
the first instance as to what God will Himself
do From what He does, often follows immedi-
ately what men do, as in regeneration which
leads to conversion, 01 when He does not do what
would prevent sin Thus He often indirectly
foreordains what men shall do This indirect
foreordmation will ultimately extend to the en-
tire circumference of the government of God, and
it will be in such a sense that it can be said that
God foreordains "whatsoever cometh to pass "
The divine government embraces all things even
when it is m part a government of permission
The existence of God involves the idea of plan
(teleological argument), and plan is foreordi-
nation Conceived as the plan of the world and
of the history of man, foreordmation may be
interpreted by the actual course of events*
The grounds of this plan aie to be found in
the infinite wisdom and goodness of God. What-
ever may be the success with which various
schools have made this clear, such has been the
meaning of all theologians The most extreme
schools of supralapsanans have believed that the
lost were lost in consequence of their own sin,
for which they were guilty, and which deserved
in justice precisely the punishment they re-
ceived, and they have also believed that justice
must be done, and that neither wisdom nor good-
ness could permit it to go unsatisfied The dop-
trine of election, which is but a corollary of
foreordmation, has often been regarded as a doc-
trine of favoritism But theologians have never
meant this by it They have always founded
it in the wisdom and goodness of God They
have often maintained that God elected every one
who could be gained to righteousness by all the
resources of His government They have some-
times taught that more efforts were put forth
for the finally lost than for some who were
actually saved The differences between the
schools upon this doctrine have often been re-
solvable into this, that some referred a given
fact to God, because it was under His govern-
ment though by permission, while others as-
cribed it purely to man because done by him,
though confessedly under a governmental per-
mission
The consistency of plan with free agency must
be a real consistency under the divine govern-
ment because it is real under human govern-
ments A human governor can successfully
determine to conquer a country under the condi-
tions in which he is placed, and can successfully
carry out his determination, as when Fredeuck
the Gieat conquered Silesia God can do the
same The attempts of philosophy to explain
this consistency do not affect its reality, whether
more or less successful Calvinism has been
especially concerned with these doctrines Con-
sult Calvin's Institutes, Edwards's Freedom of
the Will j the Westminster Confession, Mozley,
Treatment on the Augustiman Doctrine of Pre-
destination (London, 1855) , McCabe, The Fore-
knowledge of God and Cognate Themes (New
Yoik, 1878) , Bruce, The Providential Order of
the World (New York, 1899), Richards, God's
Choice of Men (New York, 1905) See FREE
WILL
POEEL, fd'rel', ATJGTJSTE [HENRI] (1848-
) A Swiss entomologist and psychologist.
He was born at Merges (Canton of Vaud),
studied at the universities of Zurich and Vienna,
became a lecturer at Munich m 1877, and after
1879 held the chair of psychiatry at Zurich,
from which he resigned in 1897 He was con-
nected as assistant and dnector with various
institutions for the insane His works include
the prize essay Les fourmis de la Suisse (1874) ,
Der ffypnotismus (1889, 6th ed , 1911, Eng
trans by Armit, 1906) , Qehirn und Seele
(1894, llth ed, 1910) , Die psychischen Fahig-
keiten der Ameisen und eimger anderen Insekten
(1901-04, trans by Wheeler, Ants and Some
Other Insects, 1912) , Hygiene der N erven und
des Qeistes (1903, 4th ed , 1913, Sng trans
by Aikins, Hygiene of the Nerves and Mind,
1907) , Die seosuelle Frage (1905, 9th ed, 1909,
new ed , 1913, The Sexual Question, trans by
Marshall, 1908) , Sinnesleben der Insekten
(1886, 1910, Eng trans by Yearsley, 1908)
POBEL, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1841-1912).
A Swiss physician and naturalist, brother of the
preceding, born at Merges (Canton of Vaud)
After medical studies he was appointed professor
of anatomy and physiology in the University of
Lausanne His studies concern the glaciers and
lakes of Switzerland and earthquakes, on which
he became an international authority He in-
vented a xanthometer His writings appeared
m Le Leman (3 vols , Paris, 1892-1904) and in
the Handbuch der Seenkunde (Stuttgart, 1901)
EOBE'LAND, NORTH AND SOUTH Two
promontories on the east coast of Kent, Eng-
land— NORTH FORELAND, the Cantmrn of Ptol-
emy, forms the northeast point of the county,
and is in lat. Sl° 22' N, 2 miles east of Mar-
gate, on the Thames estuary (Map England,
& 5) Its chalk cliffs, 188 feet high, pro-
jecting into the North Sea, are crowned by
a lighthouse, with a fixed light, 184 feet high,
visible 24 miles — SOUTH FOBELAND, also com-
posed of chalk cliffs, 13 miles south of North
Foreland and 3 miles northeast of Dover, has
25 FOREST
two fixed lights, respectively 375 and 290 feet
above the sea and visible about 25 miles (Map
England, H 5) They indicate the proximity of
the dangerous Goodwin Sands (qv ) and the
anchorage of the Do\vns (qv )
FOKElsT'SIC MEDICINE See MEDICAL JU-
RISPRUDENCE
FOBEOBDINATIOlSr See FOREKNOWLEDGE
AND FOREORDINATION
FORE'SHOKE. In English law, the sea-
shore, the strip of land subject to the ebb and
flow of the tide and lying between the ordinary
high-water and low-water mark The title to
the foreshore is at common law prima facie in
the cro\vn, but may be shown to have become
vested in a subject either by grant from the
crown or by evidence from which a grant can
be presumed It ha,s been contended by eminent
authority (Stuart Mooie, History of the Fore
shore) that the piesumption should be the other
way, in favor of the subject's title instead of
that of the cioYvn, but, however tins may be,
the law has come to be settled the other way,
m this country generally (though not univer-
sally) as well as in England Foi the rights
and liabilities with lespect to the foieshore, es-
pecially of the public and of adjoining owners,
see the title SEASHORE
FORESHQRT'EITIN'G That view of a
figure or portion of a figure which, obeying the
laws of perspective, diminishes in actual extent
according to the angle at which it is seen For
example, a figure looked at from below becomes
condensed, as it were, in length, arid in portray-
ing such an abrupt view there would be less
space demanded than, if the figure stood up-
right on the same level as the observer In the
same sense an arm extended and pointing di-
rectly out of the picture would requne less
actual space on the canvas than an aim. later-
ally extended The repi esentation, then, of this
effect of reduced space suggesting at the same
time the actual length of the object, is termed
foreshortening It is practiced more or less by
all painters as occasion demands, and it is al-
ways called for in the painted ceiling, where
figures are represented as above one's head
Some of the chief masters of foreshortening
among the Italians weie Melozzo da Forl!, Luca
Signorelh, Michelangelo, Tintoretto, and, espe-
cially, Correggio, who m his frescoes of the
cupola of Parma went further than had any
before him His example was followed by
painters of the baroque and rococo period, who
often introduced foreshortening into their works
merely for the purpose of parading their tech-
nical skill In modern times gi eater care pre-
vails, -and foreshortening is practiced only with
reference to the laws of perspective Consult
G A Storey, The Theory and Practice of Per-
spectwe (London, 1910)
FOE/EST (OF forest, Fr foret, It, ML fr*
resta, forest, from Lat foras, foris, out of
fores, door, Gk Otpa,, thyra, OChurch Slav*
Lith dtirys, Goth daurons, OHG- tw\ Ger
Thur, AS duru, Eng door) A tract of land
covered with a natural growth of trwiff*' Prom
the standpoint of vegetation the vfroM may be
roughly divided into forest, grassland, and des-
ert, the area of each being determined by various
climatic factors Among the$$ eteaatie faetois
atmospheric moisture takes* <« prominent place,
as can readily be seen in 0om|wring a vegetation
chart of the world with, a mnfall chart Othen
things being equal, the greater the rainfall, tfefc
FOREST
richer the forest Forests seem to be in a meas-
ure independent of the seasonal distribution of
rain, since they occur in regions of daily ram,
of summer rain, or winter rain Endurance
through dry seasons is made possible by the
great depth of tree roots, and also by the thick
and leathery leaf texture m the case of ever-
gieens, or by the shedding of leaves in deciduous
trees Because of the heat, more water is re-
quired by a tropical forest to meet the demands
of transpiration than by a forest in the temper-
ate zone Another factor, perhaps of equal im-
portance with moisture, is wind Kihlman has
shown that the presence or absence of trees in
Arctic regions is not a question of cold, nor
even of a season's length, but of winter winds,
trees giow only where they aie protected from
the great loss of water by transpiration induced
by dry winter winds by being buried under the
snow, the height of the trees thus marks the
winter level of the snow Since the winds of
eastern Argentina are strong during the resting
peiiod, grassland is present, though the mois-
ture is sufficient for a forest
The forest formations of the world may be di-
vided into eight types, based chiefly on the eco-
logical characters of the leaves (See LEAF )
1 The evergreen forest of the tropical regions
of diurnal rainfall Tins forest is especially
well developed in the regions of the tiade winds
in oceanic climates, as of Brazil and Malaysia
This type is often called the rainy forest and
may be taken as representing the climax of the
world's vegetation Here plants grow in vast
profusion and great diveisity of form, and li-
anas, or climbing- plants, and epiphytes reach
their greatest development Simultaneous peri-
odicity is largely wanting, so that the forest is
always in active life 2 The deciduous mon-
soon forest, especially characteristic of the mon-
soon district of India, differs from the forest
first named chiefly in having simultaneous peri-
odicity The other characters of the rainy sea-
son are present, but in a less complete degree
3 The evergreen forest of the temperate zone is
essentially an extension of the tropical evergreen
forest into the cooler regions, especially of the
Southern Hemisphere It is peculiar to pro-
nounced oceanic climates with markedly uniform
temperature and moisture 4 The deciduous
forest of the north temperate zone is the typical
forest formation of the eastern United States
The forests of beech, maple, chestnut, oak, etc ,
are too familiar to need description The radi-
cal difference between the forests of the same
latitudes in the Northern and Southern hemi-
spheres is doubtless associated with the conti-
nental climates of the one and the oceanic cli-
mates of the other 5 The deciduous savanna
forest of the tropical and warm temperate re-
gions is transitional between forest and grass-
land (qv), having a parkhke aspect, which is
due to scattered trees m a district where grasses
form the chief undergrowth Such a forest
commonly has a moderate rainfall 6 The
thorny or scrubby forest of tropical and warm
temperate regions where the rainfall is slight is
transitional between forest and thicket (qv)
7 The forest of temperate regions where the
rainfall occurs in winter is finely shown in the
Mediterranean region, coarse and leathery but
large evergreen leaves, like those of the holly,
laurel, oleander, and the evergreen oaks, may be
taken as typical of such regions 8 The conifer
forests, the pines and firs with their leather v
1 6 FORESTERS
needle-shaped evergreen leaves, foim great for-
ests in the colder regions of the temperate zones,
especially of the Northern Hemisphere
The forests heretofore discussed aie all cli-
matic and widespread Edaphic (qv ) or local
forests also occur Indeed, in most of the re-
gions where the above climatic types are found,
there are localities in which other forest com-
binations are piesent For example, in a swamp
in the deciduous zone of the northern United
States there may be found tamarack, spruce, and
white cedar Close observation in such a place
for many years would doubtless show the gradual
dying out of these trees and their replacement
by the ordinary members of the deciduous forest
On a hill there may often be found a pine-plant
association, but this is not a permanent condi-
tion Pines are often likely to be followed in a
natural sequence by oaks, and they in turn by
maples and beeches These changeable plant
associations may be called edaphic, while the
ultimate forest towards which all are tending
may be called the climatic "formation Viewed
in this light, the eight great forest types out-
lined above are foiest formations
FORESTALLING. The buying of provi-
sions with a view to enhancing the price thereof
in open market This was a common-law offense
and was the subject of early and repeated legis-
lation It was desciibed by Statute of 5 and 6
Edw VI, c 14, as the buying or contracting
for any merchandise or victual coming in the
way to market, or dissuading persons from
bringing their goods or piovisions there, or per-
suading them to enhance the price when there
It was analogous to engrossing (qv ) and re-
grating ( q v ) Modern conditions of trade have
rendered these practices legitimate and the laws
intended to regulate them obsolete, while at the
same time the abuses referred to have, under
the name of "corners" and monopolies, become
more flagrant and oppressive The laws against
forestalling and allied offenses against trade
have long been obsolete and were formally re-
pealed in England by Statute 7 and 8 Viet ,
c 24 In the United States they have remained
unenforced Consult the authorities referred to
under CRIMINAL LAW
FOREST CANTON'S, THE FOUB The four
cantons of Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Lu-
cerne, in Switzerland
FOREST CITY. A borough in Susquehanna
Co , Pa , 23 miles north by east of Scranton, on
the Delawaie and Hudson, the Erie, and the
New York, Ontario, and Western railroads
(Map Pennsylvania, L 3) Coal mining and
silk manufacturing are the chief industries, and
there are important agricultural interests
Forest City was incorporated in 1888 and is
governed by a burgess, quadrienmally elected,
and a umcameral council Pop, 1900, 4279 ,
1910, 5749
FOREST CITY, THE A name given to
Cleveland, Ohio, famous for its shade trees
FOR'ESTER, FRANK A nom de plume of
Henry William Herbert (qv)
FORESTERS, ANCIENT OKDEB OF A frater-
nal organization founded in 1745 at Knaresbor-
ough Castle, in Yorkshire, England, The order
was introduced into the United States in 1832
by the establishment of Court G-ood Speed, 201,
in Philadelphia In 1914 there were three high
courts, and 439 suboidinate courts m the United
States, with a membership of about 50,000 The
order throughout the world has about 1 600 000
SfORESTEKS a
members The order has courts in 36 countries,
and a leseive fund of over $50,000,000 Funds
aie laised by fixed dues, and more than $5,000,-
000 annually are distributed in benefits
FORESTERS, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF A
fiateinal and benevolent society founded at New-
ark, N J, in 1874 and reorganized m 1881 The
order is geneial throughout the United States
and Canada and has branches in Great Britain,
Norway, France, India, and Australia Its gov-
ernment is vested in a supreme court, with dele-
gates from all the countries represented High
courts, coi responding to the grand lodges of
other societies, have supervision of the order in
various states and countries There were in the
United States in 1914 one high court and 4149
subordinate courts The members numbeied
246,463 The disbursements since its organiza-
tion aggregated nearly $40,000,000, and the
annual disbursement about $3,500,000
FORESTERS OF AMERICA A benevolent
and fraternal organization known tinder its
present title since September, 1895 Oiigmally
the order was part of the Ancient Older of Poi-
esteis, founded in England in 1745, and intro-
duced in the United States m 1832 In 1889,
however, the American order freed itself from
the jurisdiction of the high couit in England
and became a separate organization It had, in
1914, 18 grand courts and 1865 subcourts
Theie were about 245,000 members The dis-
bursements since its organization aggiegate
nearly $35,000,000
P QUEST FLY. The British name of a small,
widely distributed fly (Hippobosca eqmna), rep-
lesenting that aberrant division of Diptera
styled Eproboscidea (see FLY) and the family
Hippoboscidx These minute insects are louse-
like in appearance and habits, dwelling alto-
gether as parasites among the hairs of animals
and featheis of birds, and some forms aie called
"bird ticks" A common species on large buds
in America is Olfersia amewcana Species of an-
other genus, L^poptera) have wings when young
and live upon birds, but aftei a time they mi-
grate to some mammal, and there, having no
further use for their wings, wrench or bite
them off Another genus, Melo-pTiagus, includes
the wingless sheep ticks, a whole family, the
spidei-hke bat ticks (Nycteribiidoe), inhabit the
fur of bats alone, and another includes the bee
louse (Brauhdce) All obtain their living by
pieicmg the skin and sucking the blood with an
extensile tube thrust out from the mouth An
extraordinary feature in the economy of all
these flies is that they do not lay their eggs,
but retain them until they hatch into larvae,
and the larvae are almost ready to pupate, not
until then are they extruded by the parent, and
only one is produced at a time Hence the group
is sometimes named Pupipara by some sys-
temists
FORESTI, forreVtS, ELEUTAEIO FELICE (1793-
1858) An Italian patriot and scholar He
was born at Conselice, graduated at the Uni-
versity of Bologna, practiced law at Ferrara,
and in 1816 was made prsetor at Ciespino He
was a member of the Carbonari and from 1819
to 1836 was imprisoned He came in 1836 to
the United States He was for many years
frofessor of Italian in Columbia College, and in
858 he was appointed United States Consul at
Genoa He published an edition of OllendoriFs
Italian grammar (1846) and Crest oma^a ^ta/l•
iana (1846)
7 FOREST
FOREST LAWS, IN ENGLAND Laws for the
government of the foiests in the King's posses-
sion Such foiests -tfeie vast tracts of country,
containing not only woodland, but pastures and
even villages Smaller tracts of woodland were
called chases, or, if inclosed, parks, and might
be included in a royal foiest The foiests varied
in number and extent at different times and
were situated in different parts of the kingdom
Among the best known were New Forest, in
Hampshire, Windsor Forest, and Eppmg Foiest
Most of them, indeed, dated from the Anglo-
Saxon period and, having their origin m the
unmclosed woodlands which had been national
piopcity, became royal demesne in the eleventh
centuiy But all the Norman and early Plantag-
enet kings attempted, with varying success, to
increase the forest aiea by afforestment — a sum-
mary pioceeding, which consisted in simply pro-
claiming the desired tract a forest, after it had
been inclosed with metes and bounds by royal
commission Sometimes the people were allowed
to remain, but subject to the strict forest law;
often they weie ruthlessly diiven away The
increase of the forest area was attempted not
only by such high-handed monarchs as William I
and his sons, but until the fourteenth century it
was a reemrmg source of complaint against the
kings Such wise kings as Henry II and Ed-
waid I were guilty of the same practice, and it
was not until 1301 that the latter finally yielded
to the wishes of his people and permanently put
an end to afforestment by force When Henry
VIII created Hampton Couit Forest, he was
obliged to pay the freeholders for the lands of
which he deprived them, and even Charles I is
said to have followed a like course when he
created Richmond Park From early times a
king had occasionally alienated a forest to an
individual with authonty to enforce the forest
laws over them as he had done In the four-
teenth century all the forests in the County of
Lancaster were held by the earls of Lancaster
subject to the same laws as those held elsewhere
by the King
We have no means of determining the state of
the law at the time of the Conquest A series of
enactments attributed to Canute is of such un-
certain authority as to have been rejected by
Coke in 1548, and Dr Liebermann has recently
shown that it is a forgeiy of about 1184 AH
that we know of his legislation on this subject
is that he permitted every man to hunt m his
own wood, but forbade trespassing in the King's
forest
The terrible severities of the Norman period
are usually said to have been introduced under
Henry I, but in his charter of liberties Henry
professes merely to retain the forests as his
father had held them His law claimed supreme
jurisdiction over private forests as well as over
his own and prescribed terrible penalties for the
killing of game, among which were death, blind-
ing, and emasculation The Assize of the Forest,
issued by Hemy II in 1184, retains these punish-
ments, but mitigates others and prescribes the
limits of the jurisdiction of forest courts The
extreme rigor with which this otherwise just
King enforced the forest law gave cause for
great complaint In the Great Charter John re-
nounced his afforestments, promised reform of
all bad customs, and excused from attendance
on the forest courts those not living in the for-
est The Charter of the Forests, issued by the
Earl Marshal for Henry III m 1217, was a still
LAWS s
more liberal document, greatly diminishing the
punishments, the severest of \\hich is now im-
prisonment for a year and a day Besides con-
firming the provisions of Magna Charta, it per-
mits freemen to exercise many othei rights,
such as those to mills, fish ponds, marlpits, ara-
ble land, falcons, etc , on their own land, within
the forest Renewed by Edward I and supple-
mented by anothei ordinance in 1306, it re-
mained the basis of the forest la\^s of the
kingdom
In general, the inhabitants of the forest folds
were subject to the royal rights of forestry
These were both of vert, i e , to eveiy kind of
tree and biush in the forest, and venison, le,
to every wild beast of the forest They were
not allowed to hunt or cut wood or brush on
their own land without license of the loyal
official They indeed retained some rights of
pasture for commonable beasts (excluding sheep,
goats, geese, and swine), but they might not
use as much as would deprive the King's beasts
of food
The officers of the forest were numerous and
important In 1238 two provinces, divided by
the river Trent, were established for forest ad-
ministration, and a justice was appointed for
each province Under such -justice was usually
a warden for each particular foiest, verdeiers,
•whose chief duties \\eie discharged at the forest
court and who were responsible to the King and
not to the warden, foresteis, whose duties weie
similar to those of a modern gamekeeper Still
othei officeis were the foiesteis in fee, wood-
wards, langeis, regarders, and agisteis
The foiest couits were tlnee in number, run-
ning parallel with the ordinary couits of justice
There was the uoodmote, or court of attach-
ments, held before the verderers every 40 days
It tried minor trespasses only and could not
convict The swanmote was held three times a
year by the same officials, all freeholders of the
forest being bound to attend Presentments
were made by a jury which tried and convicted,
but did not pass judgment This was reserved
for the justices in eyre, who every third year
held the court of justice seat, a supreme court
of civil and criminal jurisdiction over all
offenses committed in a forest, whether against
the forest law or not
The last important general forest legislation
was passed by the Long Parliament m 1640
Charles I had been exacting fines for alleged-
encroachments on his forests, and Parliament
replied with an act for the "certainty of forests,"
exempting from prosecution any alleged en-
croachments which were considered valid m the
second year of James I Since that act the
laws of the forest have practically ceased The
crown still retains ancient forestal rights over
private lands m Dean Forest and New Forest,
but such rights survive as curious legal anoma-
lies, During Queen Victoria's reign three of the
royal forests, viz , Hamault, Whittlewood, and
Wichwood, were disafforested by act of Parlia-
ment It would be better, however, if the re-
mainder, and particularly such as are near large
•cities, could be held as national parks and recre-
ation grounds This has recently been done in
the case of Epping Forest near London and
seems to be the probable destiny of others as
well
The royal forests of Scotland were nearly as
numerous as those ot England, and their area
was larger in proportion to that of the country.
As in England, there was a special code for
them Indeed, this code is so much like the
English that it seems to have been derived from
it The penalties, however, are not so severe,
nor did afforestation play such a prominent part
m the Scottish constitutional stiuggle as m the
English The best edition of the Scottish forest
code is in the Acts of the Parliaments of Scot-
land (Edinburgh, 1844) The best study of the
English forest law and procedure is Turner, Se-
lect Pleas of the Forest (London, 1901)
Bibliography. Most of the laws are given
in convenient form by Stubbs, Select Charters
(Oxford, 1895) , they are published in full in
the Statutes of the Realm,, Recoid Commission,
vol i (1810), Coke's Fourth Institute of the
Laws of England (London, 1548) is the earliest
legal authority, and the most complete is Man-
wood's Treatise of the Laius of the Forests ( ib ,
1598) For good brief modern descriptions, con-
sult Stubbs, Constitutional History, i (Oxford,
1896-97), 'Forest Laws," in the Encyclopedia
of the Laws of England, ed by Ranton (London,
1895-98) , Cox, The Royal Forests of England
(ib, 1905), Townley, English Woodlands and
then Stoty (ib, 1910)
FOREST OAK A name sometimes given in
commerce to the timber of Casuaiina torulosa,
and other species of the same genus, all Austia-
han trees In Queensland the wood is consid-
eied as one o-f the most valuable for fuel and is
also split into shingles It is light yellowish
biown and prettily marked with short red
veins It is exported for use in cabinetwork
for which purpose it is employed as veneer
FOREST PARK. A village in Cook Co ,
111 , 4 miles west of the city limits of Chi-
cago, on the Chicago, Great Western, the Balti-
more and Ohio Chicago Terminal, and the
Minneapolis, St Paul, and Sault Ste Mane
railroads, and on the Des Plainea Biver It is
mainly a residential suburb of Chicago and con-
tains the well-known Harlem race track There
are several cemeteries here, among them Forest
Home and Waldheim — the latter of note as the
site of a monument to the anarchists executed
for complicity in the not in 1886 (See CHI-
CAGO ) Settled in 1854, Forest Park was in-
corporated as Harlem in 1883, a-nd its name was
changed in 1907. It adopted the commission
form of government in November, 1912 The
village owns the water works and electric-light
plant Pop , 1900, 4085, 1910, 6594, 1920, 10,768
FOREST PRESERVATION. See FOR-
ESTRY, LUMBER INDUSTBY.
FOREST RESERVES See FOEESTBY
FORESTRY (from ML forestena, fores-
tana, forestage, from forest a, forest). The
economic management of trees as communities
It is distinct from, arboriculture, which is more
strictly concerned with the individual tree
Forestry looks to the conservation and utiliza-
tion of the various forest products in order that
the greatest returns may be obtained It may
apply to the planting of a new forest or the
preservation of an old one, the reforestation of
a mountain side, the prevention of ruthless for-
est destruction, or the utilization of the forest
products as a crop The uses of a forest are to
supply timber, fuel, etc., to offer protection
against winds, to conserve moisture, by storing
up water or at least by checking its loss by
seepage and evaporation, and to minister to
the enjoyment of man in providing parks, game
covers, etc In many new countries forests are
19
FORESTRY
considered detrimental to the growth of the
varied interests upon which the new community
is dependent, and they are lemoved as rapidly
as possible In oldei regions the lack of forests
is keenly felt in various ways, and attempts
have been made to restore, in part, the former
wooded areas
History. In some form forestry has been
practiced in Europe for seveial centuries The
growing scaicity of timber and fuel began to be
felt in England eaily in the sixteenth century,
and attempts weie made to supply the failing
resources by making new plantations and by
more scientific cutting of the native growth
About the beginning of the eighteenth century
plantings were begun in Scotland and later in
Ireland, now the artificially planted areas ex-
ceed the natural ones About this time there
was great activity in the introduction of foreign
species of forest trees, many of which were so
well adapted to their new conditions that in
places there are to-day more exotic than native
trees In France, Belgium, Germany, and other
parts of Europe extensive areas of forests are
now under systems of management that result
in increasing rather than in decreasing produc-
tion Old native forests have been caied for, and
denuded areas reforested Governmental, com-
munal, and private forests alike aie so managed
as to provide the various objects for which they
were designed In Germany and France the
management of forests has received the greatest
attention and has been most systematically and
scientifically conducted Government schools
aie maintained for the education of skilled for-
esters, and special attention is paid this im-
poitant subject
Forestry in the United States Forest regu-
lation did not for a time seem as necessary in
the United States, with its great forest wealth,
as in Europe However, with the destructive
methods of lumbering and the enormous waste
by forest fires, the supply has been so en-
croached upon that means have been taken to
repair the damage and to provide against its
continuance Various States have enacted laws
designed to correct the former abuses by grant-
ing bounties for tree planting and remission of
taxes upon purely forest areas The general
government has also attempted to aid by laws
providing for the acquirement of land upon the
condition of planting a portion to trees Since
the laws enacted by the general government
were improperly prepared, interpreted, and en-
forced, and have resulted in little good, they
have been repealed The greatest good has
probably come from the reservation of extensive
areas about the watersheds and sources of some
great rivers On July 1, 1913, there were m the
United States 163 national forest reserves — or
national forests, aa they are designated — em-
bracing 186,616,648 acres, situated m whole or
in part in Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colo-
rado, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, Minne-
sota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico,
North. Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Da-
kota, Utah, Washington, Wyoming, Alaska, and
Porto Rico These reserves were created by
presidential proclamation, and their manage-
ment is now confided to the Forest Service of
the United States Department of Agriculture,
having been transferred from the Department
of the Interior in 1905 The Forest Service pa-
trols the reserves as a protection against fire
and trespass, devises plans for the conservative
use of the foiests, sells timber under proper
regulations, and supervises the grazing privileges
and movement of stock through the reseives.
Under what is called the Weeks Law the gov-
ernment is purchasing foiest lands to protect
\\atersheds m the White Mountain and south-
em Appalachian regions, and to June 30, 1913,
713,415 acres had been approved foi purchase
In addition to national forests there are a num-
bei of State reserves, the object of which is
mainly to prevent the too rapid escape of water
in floods, and the eucceeding peiiods of scanty
water supply for irrigation and other uses
They are situated at the sources of water sup-
plies and are patrolled to insure their safety
against marauders and fires
Forestry in Canada The administration
of all matters pei taming to the public forests
of Canada is vested m a Director of Forestry
under the Department of the Interior The or-
ganization and objects are similar in many
ways to those described above and include stud-
ies of forest lesources, timber surveys, refores-
tation, fire protection, etc Hangers are pro-
vided for the vast forest aiea, and much good
has been accomplished in the suppression of
forest fires By the Act of May 19, 1911, and
the amending Act of June 6, 1913, a system
of Dominion forest reserves was piovided, and
there weie set aside 23,017,504 acres, comprising
31 reserves, 13 being in British Columbia, 8 in
Saskatchewan, 5 in Manitoba, and 5 m Alberta
The largest of these is the Kocky Mountains re-
serve in Alberta, on the east slope of the Rocky
Mountains, containing, in 1914, 13,373,772
acres, divided into 5 administrative units each
in charge of a forest supei visor The width of
the reserve varies fiom 32 to 100 miles, and it
extends fiom the international boundary line
northward 500 miles The cutting of timber in
the reserves is peiraitted under restrictions, also
grazing, but permanent settlement is forbid-
den, although, leases are gi anted for summer re-
sorts, mining claims, and other specified pur-
poses The Province of Ontario has reserves
amounting to 12,824,320 acres, and the Province
of Quebec has 111,401,280 acres The Dominion
has a large area set aside for national parks,
the chief of which are Rocky Mountain Park,
Alberta, 1,152,000 acres, Yoho Park, British
Columbia, 358,400 acres, Glacier Park, 299,520
acres, Jasper Park, Alberta, 640,000 acres.
The parks are in charge of a general superin-
tendent, assisted by five local superintendents
Forest Trees Forests are of two kinds, pure
and mixed The former aie less common than
the latter and are usually, though not always,
composed of coniferous trees One advantage
of a pure forest is the greater ease m lumber-
ing; one disadvantage is its liability to destruc-
tion by drought, insects, diseases, etc
species adapted to pure forests are
spruce, silver fir, Douglas fir, beech, and j
Those doing best in mixed woods are Jwrch,
birch, poplar, ash, oak, chestnut, an<J Fahiut
Mixed forests can be grown, and often are
grown, as a series of small colonies 4@voted to
single species, but for general purposes mixed
woods are most satisfactory. Sm©& tke require-
ments of different species differ as to light,
moisture, 3-nd soil, the trees of mixed forests
protect each other and tke fcmt fioor, as the
ground is called, better tfteuoi those of pure
forests
Reforestation Foresi» when once depleted
FOBESTBY 20
are restocked in several ways Although tlie
setting out of young trees is one of the most ex-
pensive methods of restocking, it has been prac-
ticed to some extent in the plains region of tlie
United States and extensively in England The
seeds are sown and the young trees reared in
nurseries where the peculiar requirements of
the seedlings can be carefully met After a
growth of several seasons the trees are set in
the places where they are to grow Where the
surface of the land will permit, they aie often
cultivated like any other ciop until they attain
a size sufficient to care for themselves Fre-
quently, too, various crops aie giown in the
spaces between the rows While expensive, this
method is best adapted to the conditions in the
prairie region of the western United States A
second method is that of hand seeding the
region designed for the future forest This
method is followed in many places, but the dif-
ficulties of collecting and caring for the seed
prior to seeding are so great as to make tins
method unsatisfactory, except where the former
forest has been destroyed by fire or other
means. Natural seeding is largely depended
upon to restock scientifically managed forests,
occasional seed-bearing trees being left for the
purpose In some places the practice of thin-
ning out the growth is followed to give tlie new
stock of seedlings the air and light they require.
Lastly, sprouts or suckers from the stumps and
loots" of trees that have been cut aie often
used for restocking This method will apply
mainly to such bioad-leaved species as renew
themselves in this way They should be cut
while dormant This is about the only way em-
ployed in the leproduction of coppice woods
(See COPSE ) As a lule, the conifers do not
sprout from their stumps Pruning and thin-
ning must be given, some attention Natural
pruning is most satisfactory and will be done
by the trees themselves if they are planted close
enough In natural pruning the lower twigs
and branches die because close planting prevents
their obtaining sufficient light In time these
dead parts are broken off and their stubs aie
buried t>y the trunk as it increases in girth
Thinning, on the other hand, must be done from,
time to time so as to prevent overcrowding.
When branches are cut off, the cut should be
close to the mam trunk, and where the wound
is too large to heal over in a single year or pos-
sibly two, the cut surface should be protected
against the entrance of fungi by painting it
Economic Beturns. The financial returns
from forests depend upon a number of factors,
but in any case they are tardy. In copses the
whole area may be cut over every 20 or 30
years, while forests grown for timber must of
necessity be of greater age By conservative
management, where the land is not too valuable
at the beginning and markets are convenient,
it is believed that 4 per cent can be realized in
European forests, and there are records of even
greater returns in the United States A 10-year-
old plantation of hardy catalpa in Kansas is
said to have yielded a net gain of $197 55 per
acre, which sum could have been increased by
continuing the marketing over a longer period
Since it has been shown that private holdings
of forest areas can be so managed as to be a
source of continual revenue without impairing
the original capital, many large owners are
availing themselves of the opportunity offered
by the government to secure the aid of expert
FOBESTBT ASSOCIATION
foresters in planning their management To
piovide experts schools of forestry have been es-
tablished at Cornell and Yale universities, and
forestry instruction is given in the agricultural
and other colleges of a number of States
Climatic Influence The climatic influences
of forests are very great Whether forests are
actually instrumental in secuiing greater rain-
fall is somewhat problematical Observations
covering a long period of years and a large ex-
tent of forest are not sufficiently abundant to
determine this point That they do aid very
materially in conserving moisture is not to be
denied, and as a factor in the distribution of
water they are equally important In temper-
ing hot and cold winds and as wind breaks, they
are of great importance The teinpjeratuie in a
forest is lower in summer and warmer in winter
than in an adjacent tract, and this influence
may be exerted to a considerable distance The
use of forests as a means for reclaiming tracts
of almost barren sand and for protecting re-
gions against wind-shifted sand is well shown
by some of the forests of France
Forest Enemies The worst enemy of for-
ests is man5 through the agency of destructive
lumbering, forest fires, grazing of animals,
especially sheep, insect attacks, and fungous dis-
eases Mixed forests are not so subject to great
loss from the last two causes as pure woods,
since the same fungus or insect seldom attacks
any great number of species of trees Consult
Fernow, Economics of Forestry (New York,
1902), History of Forestry (Toronto, 1911),
Gifford, Practical Forestry (New York, 1902) ,
G-ieen, Principles of American Forestry (ib ,
1903), Brucken, 'North American Forests and
Forestry (ib , 1908) , Fron, Sylviculture (Paris,
1909) , Forbes, The Development of British For-
estry (London, 1010) , Graves, The Principles
of Handling Woodlands (New York, 1911) , Al-
len, Piactical Forestry in the Northwest (Port-
land, Oreg , 1911)., Nisbet, Elements of British
Forestry (London, 1911), Schlick, Manual of
Forest) y (ib, 1911), Hawley and Halves, For-
estry in New England (New York, 1912) ,
Noyes, Wood a-nd Forest (Peona, 111, 1912),
Repot ts of the Director of Forestry (Ottawa,
Canada) See ARBORICULTURE, FOREST
FORESTRY ASSOCIATION", AMERICAN.
An association organized in 1882 and incorpo-
rated in January, 1897, with the following gen-
eral objects ( 1 ) the promotion of a business-
like and conservative use and treatment of the
forest resources of the United States, (2) the
advancement of legislation tending to this end,
both by the States and the Congress of the
United States, the inauguration of forest ad-
ministration by the Federal government and by
the States, and the extension of sound forestry
by all proper methods, (3) the diffusion of
knowledge regarding the conservation, manage-
ment, and renewal of forests, the proper utiliza-
tion of their products, methods of reforestation
of waste lands, and the planting of trees The
association accepts as members all who are in-
terested in promoting the objects for which
it is organized It has taken an important part
in the movement for the conservation of the for-
est resources of the United States which char-
acterize the l first decade of the twentieth cen-
tury It carries on an educational propaganda
by which it enlists support in securing the
proper use and conservation of the forests in
every State of the Union, every province in Can-
FOEEY
ada, and every civilized or semi-civilized foreign
country The association is generally recog-
nized as the leading exponent of forest conser-
vation in the Western Hemisphere In 1913, 11
committees investigated various forest condi-
tions and reported at the meeting of the Na-
tional Conservation at Washington in Novem-
ber of that year These reports represent the
most advanced thought of theoretical and prac-
tical experts in forestry in the United States
and Canada The menibeiship of the Association
is over 5000 It publishes a monthly magazine,
American Forestry, which is the only national
publication on forestry m the United States.
The headquarters are in Washington, D C
.FOUEY, ft'rtL', ELIE FERRIC (1804-72)
A French soldier He was born in Pans, was
educated at Saint Cyr, accompanied an expedi-
tion to Algeria in 1830, was made a bngadier in
1848, aided Napoleon III in 1851 — notably by
clearing the Hall of Deputies of those who op-
posed the coup d'etat — and in 1852 attained
the rank of general of division He fought in
the Cumean War and in the Italian campaign
of 1859 and in 1862 went to Mexico as military
and civil administrator and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary He pioimsed the Mexicans that their
liberties should be preserved and their rights
respected, but he sequestered the goods of many
who were opposed to Maximilian. Puebla sur-
rendered to him on May 17, 1863, after a long
siege, and the city of Mexico was soon occupied,
and a provisional government was formed
Forey was accused of too great clericalism He
was replaced by Bazaine, became a marshal in
the same year, and soon afterward was given
command of a corps d'armee He retired in
1867, after a stroke of paralysis
FOBFAIT, fdr'fi', PIEEBE ALEXA.WDRE LATJ-
EENT (1752-1807) A French engineer, born at
Rouen In 1773 he TV as elected a member of the
Academy of Rouen, in 1781 became an engineer
in the French navy, and in 1787 was intrusted
with the construction of packet boats running
between France and the French colonies and to
the United States In, 1791 he was elected from
Seme-Inf4rieure to the Constituent Assembly
He was charged by Napoleon with the naval
preparations for the invasion of Egypt and
from 1709 to 1801 was Minister of Marine and
the Colonies Subsequently he was appointed
Councilor of State, and inspector general of the
fleet designed to be employed in the invasion ot
England He was the inventor of the Seine
boat, wrote many scientific papers, and pub-
lished a TraiH &lementaw e de la nature des VOA&-
seaux (1788)
FOB/FANG, or FORiErcANG (Sax /ore, De-
fore, and fangen, to take) In old English law,
the offense of buying up provisions, grain, etc ,
at a fair or market, before the King's purveyors
were served with necessaries for his Majesty
It is denounced in a charter of Henry I in 1133,
but has long been obsolete The term "for fang"
was also used in Anglo-Saxon law to describe
the lawful recovery, by force and arms, of stolen
or strayed cattle from a thief, or from those
having illegal possession of them, as well as the
reward fixed for such rescue.
FOBFAB, fdr'fer The county town of For-
farshire, Scotland, a parliamentary and royal
burgh situated on the Loch of Forfar, 14 miles
north-northeast of Dundee (Map Scotland, F
3) It has a courthouse, county hall with por-
traits by Haeburn, Bomney, and Opie, a public
21
FOBFEITUBE
library, and a public park. The county hall
contains a curious relic, a witches' bridle, or
gag for use on the way to executions Linen
and jute are its staple manufactures, it also
makes leather, rope, and iron castings Sup-
posed to be the ancient Orrea, it was once the
seat of the Scottish kings David I (1124-53)
made it a royal burgh In 1308 Bruce destroyed
the castle, and, according to Boece, Forfar by
1526 had dwindled to "a country village" Since
the middle of the eighteenth centuiy it has
grown into a prosperous town Pop , 1901,
12,061, 1911, 12,254 In the neighborhood is
Olamis Castle, the seat of the Earl of Strath-
more
FOB'FABSHIRE, or ANGUS A maritime
county in. the East-Midland division of Scot-
land, bounded east by the North Sea, north by
Kmcardineshire and Aberdeenshire, west by
Perthshire, and south by the Filth of Tay
(Map Scotland, F 3) Area, S73 square miles
The surface of the county is irregular, and inter-
sected with hills, the Sidlaw being 1400 feet
high, and Catlaw, the highest, 2264 feet The
chief rivers are the Tay, North Esk, South Esk,
and Isla Forfarshire is an agricultural county,
raises sheep and cattle, and is also the chief
seat of Scotch jute and linen manufactures
Capital, Forfar, other important towns are
Dundee, Montr ose, Arbroath, and Brechin Pop ,
1801, 00,000, 1901, 284,000, 1011, 281,417
Consult Wai den, Angus or Forfarskire (4 vols ,
Edinburgh, 1880-83), and A Jervise, Memori-
als of Angus and Mearns (Edinburgh, 1895)
FQK/PEITTJKE. The loss of title to prop-
eity, as a punishment for crime or other un-
lawful act Personal as well as real property
is subject to forfeituie, and the penalty may be
incurred for civil as well as for criminal of-
fenses The forfeiture of lands was a penalty of
the feudal law and was a direct consequence
jof the feudal relation of landlord and tenant
Ihis relation was primarily personal and con-
fldential, the lord owing protection to his vas-
sal, and the vassal being bound to the highest
degree of loyalty and devotion to his lord As
it was this feudal relation of interdependence
which made the vassal a legal person (homo
Ug&hs] — ie, a member of society protected by
the political organisation of the state and its
machinery of justjce — so the rupture of this
feudal relation by any disloyalty operated at
once to render the tenant a man without law,
a lawless man, or outlaw As he held his lands,
his goods, and even his life on the condition
of loyalty to this feudal bond, its breach natu-
rally involved the forfeiture of these
Forfeiture for Crime The penalty of for-
feiture for treason prevailed in England before
the Conquest, as is clear from the fact that
lands held m gavelkmd, which is a Saxon tenure,
may be forfeited for treason But after the
Conquest forfeiture of lands and goods came to
be regarded as the peculiar punishment of fel-
ony, of which treason against the sovereign was
the highest kind, being denominated high treason,
to distinguish it from all other felonies, which
were called petty treason In cases of treason
the offender forfeits all his lands absolutely to
the crown Upon conviction of felony, accord-
ing to tLe old law, the offender forfeited to the
crown the profits of all estates of freehold— i e ,
life estates— during his life, and all his estates
in fee simple for a yea-r and a day, aiter which,
they escheated to the lord of whom they were
FORFEITURE
held. The crown during the year of occupancy
was entitled to commit upon the lands what
waste (qv) it pleased By Magna Charta
this power of committing waste was lestrained,
but by 17 Edw II, c 16, the King's right to
waste of forfeited lands was again recognized
22 FORFEITURE
ant for life made a feoffment in fee The im-
mediate effect of this act was the forfeiture of
the land to the remainderman or reversioner
By 3 and 4 Wm IV, c 74, abolishing fines and
recoveries, and 8 and 9 Viet , c 106, § 4, declar-
ing that feoffment should not have a tortious
of the operation, forfeiture by tortious alienation has
Se^T^on^coS^o^forfated to the ceased to exist (See FEOFFMENT ) Forfeiture
crown, but forfeiture of the goods does not by wrongful disclaimer was where a tenant hold-
operate until conviction Where, therefore, a ing of a superior lord, on being summoned in
person has disposed of his goods before con- any court of record either disclaimed his alie-
nation, the crown cannot reach them Forfei- glance or did any act which amounted to a dis-
ture of lands does not take effect until sentence claunei Since excepting in a few ancient
of attainder (qv) has been pronounced So manors, all landowners in England now hold
tL a person (cqommitting felo de se (qv ), or directly of the crown th» form of orfeiture is
a rebel dyino- before sentence, or killed in open probably obsolete forfeiture by alienation . in
* icuci uy^0 ui.i ^ ^ , ^jr-j. i,.~ i-^j- moitmam is incurred by the conveyance of lands
rebellion, does not ipso facto forfeit his lands
But sentence of attainder, as soon as pro-
or tenements in favor of any corporation (qv
nounced has a retroactive' effect, and annuls sole or aggregate, ecclesiastical or tempoial As
all conveyances made between the act of treason by vesting the land in a tenant of this descrip-
... « ^lon tke over}or(} was deprived of all the duties
and services due by his vassal, this act was de-
clared by various acts of Parliament to involve
the forfeiture of the lands (See MORTMAIN )
Foifeiture of copyholds was incurred by commit-
ting waste, and by other acts of a wrongful kind
inconsistent with the fealty due to the lord By
the Statute of Gloucester (6 Edw I, 1278), the
penalty of forfeiture was affixed to the com-
mission of waste by any tenants for life or for
years, as well as by guardians in chivalry
(See WASTE ) Forfeiture on breach of condi-
01 felony and the pronouncing of sentence Con-
veyances made before the act of treason are
not affected Hence a wife's jointure is not
forfeited, because settled on her before the com-
mission of the act The same thing is true of
the wife's dower in all lands of which her hus-
band was seised prior to the commission of the
treasonable acts charged
Forfeiture for treason and felony is accom-
panied by corruption of blood, whereby the of-
fender is incapable of inheriting any lands or
of transmitting any title to an heir It was this
OJ, UiitllcSUlltljJ-Hii ciiiy LIJ.ULC uw CI/AA. .U.KJ..I. j- v r. 1*1^ «*-*.- ^ _ _ „ 1.1J,
doctrine which produced the escheat of foifeited tion subsequent is ^here an estate is held upon
" — ^ — — *— ' - ^- <"•*+• ^* ^
a condition contained in the grant itself On
failure of the condition the grantor or his heirs
>ee CONDITION, EN-
lands, to which reference has been made above
The tenant, having been cut off by his crime
from all human relationships, his blood being may enter upon the lands
corrupted— i e , bastardized and rendered illegal TRY, EIGHT OF
— by the attainder, has no lawful heirs to whom
the lands can descend, and there being thus a
failure of heirs, the- land escheats to the lord
of whom it is held. (See ESCHEAT ) By 7
Anne, c 21, it was enacted that after the death
of the Pretender and his sons no attainder for
treason should operate to the prejudice of other
than, the offender himself, but this provision
repealed (39 Geo III, c 93) In 1870,
however, the crown's claim of forfeiture was
In Scotland civil forfeiture may arise either
from statutory enactment, at common law, or
by agreement. By a Statute of 1597 it was en-
acted that vassals failing to pay their feu duties
for two years should forfeit their right. This
forfeiture must be established by an action to
iccover the feu duties m arrear and might be
avoided by payment at the bar At common
law a vassal forfeited his land by disclamation
or purpresture The former is analogous to the
abolished m all cases but outlawry (Forfeiture English disclaimer and consists in the denial
Act 33 and 34 Viet, c 23, § 1), and in 1879
(42 and 43 Viet, c. 59, § 3) outlawry in civil
cases was also abolished
In the United States conviction of felony has
never been attended with forfeiture, and the
penalty of forfeiture for treason is confined
within narrow limits by the Federal and State
constitutions See ATTAINDER
Civil Forfeiture Civil forfeiture may be
incurred m England in five ways — viz, by tor-
tious alienation, by wrongful disclaimer, by
alienation in mortmain, by breach of condition,
and by the commission of waste The first three
of these modes were incidents of the feudal ten-
ure of lands, the last two were introduced by
statute It must be observed that, according to
the earliest feudal customs, a gift of lands was
always made in favor of a particular person,
and that alienation, without consent of the
overlord, involved a forfeiture of the fee. But
this strictness having by degrees ceased to be
observed, forfeiture was only incurred in case
of a tortious alienation* Tortious alienation
was where the owner of a particular estate con-
veyed by common-law conveyance, as feoffment,
fine, or recovery, a greater estate than that to
which he was himself entitled, as where a ten-
by a vassal of his lawful superior Purpresture
was incurred by the vassal's encroachment on.
the streets, highways, or commonalties belong-
ing to the crown or other supenor These forms
of forfeiture have long since fallen into disuse
Forfeiture on special agreement depends wholly
upon the terms of the condition inserted in the
titles See FEE, FEUDALISM , IRRITANCY, TEN-UBB
In the United States civil forfeiture is gener-
ally limited to acts of waste committed by ten-
ants for life or years and to the breach of con-
ditions upon which lands are granted, and in
a few States even these have been abolished.
But there are certain offenses an regard to
which particular statutes have been enacted by
Congress exacting the forfeiture of property
employed as a means of committing the wrong-
ful act or used in an unlawful transaction, but
forfeiture in such cases applies only to the par-
ticular property designated, and not generally
to chattels or lands, as in the othei instances
which have been maintained Thus, laws have
been passed from time to time providing that
smuggling or importation of goods under fraud-
ulent invoices shall cause a forfeiture either o/f
the entire invoice or of the property wrongfully
imported Acts of piracy entail a forfeiture of
F0RG-ACH a
the piratical ciaft and its appurtenances The
same was true of vessels engaged in the slave
trade For forfeituies m wai, see PRIZK
FOBGACH, or POBGAOS, fOi'gach A noble
family of Hungary, \vhich tiaces its ongin to
the time of King Stephen I — FRANCIS FOEGACH
(1530-75) was Bishop of Grobswardem (155b-
67) He took part in the Council of Trent
He afterward traveled to Italy and wrote
Rerum, Hungawarum Sui Temports Oommen^
tarn Libri XXII, 1540-1572, republished in
1866 by Maior in the Monument® Hwigarice
Historic® (vol xvi ) The more recent members
of the family include Count IGNATIUS FOEGACH
(1702-72), a general of ordnance under Maria
Theresa, and Count ANTON FORGA\CH (1819-
85), who held several offices under Ferdinand
and Francis Joseph From 1861 to 1864 he was
High Chancellor and was a stanch supporter of
the old Conservative party and bitterly hated
by the Nationalists, whose reforms he opposed.
Aftei 1860 he was deputy in the Hungarian
Diet.
FOKGE, FOBGING (from OF forge, fiom
Lat fabric®, workshop, from faber, smith) A
forge is a furnace or open fire, commonly fitted
with a bellows or air blast, for heating metal
winch is to be formed into special shapes by
forging, forging is the process of hammering
or pressing hot metal into special shapes for
use in engineering and the arts Forges are
made in all sizes, from the miniature gas-heat-
ing device used by jewelers to the great fur-
naces for heating steel ingots, aimor plates,
engine shafts, etc, weighing many tons, and
they may be either fixed or portable Portable
forges are usually constructed of metal and
are of small size, they comprise a shallow pan
or hearth for the fire, a bellows or fan for blow-
ing the fire, and the hand or power mechanism
for operating the blast-producing device Fixed
forges are usually built of masonry with an
interior lining of fire brick or other refractory
material, and the blast is produced by power
blowers
Originally forging was a hammering process
solely, but with the advent of larger masses to
be treated, and the consequent need for very
heavy hammers if the effect of the blow is to
reach the centres of such forgings, presses have
come into use, especially for making heavy forg-
ings of steel Forging by hammering may be
done either by hand or by power Hand ham-
mering or forging is usually confined to the
production of small forgings or to finishing
large forgings produced by power hammers
The process is a simple one and is familiar to
any one who has observed a blacksmith fashion-
ing horseshoes or similaa small articles Power
forging by hammers is nothing more than the
hand-hammering process accomplished by means
of heavy hammers operated by steam or other
power. (See HAMMER,) It is employed in the
production of large forgings for engines and ma-
chinery Forging by presses consists in substi-
tuting for the power hammer, with its sudden
heavy blow, a hydraulic press which squeezes
the metal into shape by a comparatively slow,
steady pressure Steel forgings for engine
shafts, armor plates, etc, are usually made by
pressing The process may be illustrated by
tracing the operations conducted m forging a
modern hollow steamship shaft. An ingot of
open-hearth steel of proper chemical composi-
tion to give the necessary physical properties
3 POBG-EH.Y
is cast approximately twice the size of the fin-
ished shaft The metal is then submitted, while
liquid, to hydraulic pressure of 7000 tons, or
thereabouts, until cold, great care being taken
to cool the ingot &lowly and equally on all sides
to pi event strains or cracks from forming on
account of unequal contraction When the in-
got is cold, the sand from the mold which has
adhered to it is cleaned off, and then, if in-
tended for a small shaft, it is ready for the
foiging process proper If the shaft is to be of
moie than 12 or 14 inches in diameter, a hole
is bored through the axis of the ingot The size
of this hole varies according to the size of the
shaft and the service to which it is to be even-
tually subjected Generally speaking, however,
it is made from one-third to two-fifths the dia-
meter of the finished shaft The first operation
m the piocess of forging is the reheating of the
ingot This is a very delicate operation Great
caie must be taken to insuie a slow and um-
foim penetration of the rnetal by the heat, as
there is otherwise dangei of expanding the sur-
face metal so rapidly that it will crack away
from that underneath, which has not been heated
to the same temperature The hole in the cen-
tre of laige ingots allows the interior and ex-
terior to heat up and expand together, thus re-
lieving this tendency to ciack When the ingot
is heated, it is forged into shape under a slow-
moving hydraulic press of from 2000 to 5000
tons' capacity instead of the rapid steam ham-
mer of from 5 to 25 tons' falling weight In
the case of the hollow ingot a steel mandrel is
inserted, of a size to fit loosely into the hole,
and the metal is forged down in the same man-
ner as is employed with a solid shaft. Gener-
ally the shaft, if very long, has to be reheated
one or more times during the forging The fin
ashing piocess consists in annealing or temper-
ing the shaft, when it is ready to be machined
Many small articles of common use are forged,
by machinery Balls, screw and rivet blanks,
nuts, nails, etc , are among the more familiar
machine-forged articles In general the process
consists in inserting steel bars, heated to the
proper temperature and of suitable cross sec-
tion, into a machine automatically operating,
which cuts off the proper lengths and stamps or
presses them into shape between dies The proc-
ess is a continuous one, one heated rod being
inserted after another as fast as the machine
will handle them Many articles of intricate
pattern are drop-forged In this process an
upper and a lower die are employed The lower
die is placed on the anvil of a drop hammer,
the heated piece of metal placed on it, and the
upper die descends on top of the heated metal A
hammer falling from a height carries the upper
die and thus stamps the plastic metal into
shape between the dies Drop hammers are
made of various sizes, the largest now in opera-
tion has a 3000-pound hammer A very large
proportion of the shapes used in the motor vehicle
for levers, treadles, connecting rods, and the
like are drop-forged They would once have
been either cast and malleableized or hand-
forged with entailed cost of manufacture
Shaping or pressing of steel plate in dies is a
forging process and is done by heavy power-
driven presses A shaping process carried on
without heat is not properly a forging process
gee IRON AND STEEL
POR'GKEBY (Fr forger, to form metal into
shape, to fabricate) The crimen foist, of the
FOEGKET
24
Roman law is held in English common law to
be the fraudulent making or altering of a writ-
ing or seal, to the prejudice of another man's
right, or of a stamp to the prejudice of the
revenue As regards writings, the instrument
forged must be executed with such skill or in
such circumstances as to be capable of being
mistaken for a genuine document by a person
of ordinary intelligence and observation It 19
not necessary that there should be an attempt
at imitation of the handwriting of another or of
the form of the simulated document If there
was intention to deceive, and the circumstances
were such as to render deception possible, the
crime has been committed, and consequently it
is possible to forge the name of a person who
cannot write Any material alteration, how-
ever slight, is a forgery just as much as the
subscription of the name of the pretended
maker, or the fabrication of the entire writing
It will not lessen the crime, though the whole
writing should be genuine, the name only being
forged, or the name being really the hand-
writing of the party to whom it belongs, but
appended to a forged writing Even if the
name be a fictitious one, but appended for the
purpose of deceiving, a forgery has been com-
mitted The offense is not limited to the fab-
rication of writing, using that term in its literal
sense It includes the fabrication of printed or
engraved instruments, such as railroad tickets,
corporation certificates, bonds, etc Falsely
painting an aitist's name on a picture is not
forgery, however, for the picture is, not a
document or writing Moieovei, the document
fabricated must have an apparent legal efficacy
A letter o± introduction, though requesting a
personal favor for the bearer from the one to
whom it is addressed, is not a subject of crimi-
nal forgery, as it does not purport to confer any
legal right or to impose any legal duty At
common law forgery is a Mony punishable by
fine and imprisonment, or both
To secure a conviction for forgery it is neces-
sary to prove an intent to defraud, but it 13
not necessary that the purpose should have been
actually effected, it is sufficient to show that
the forgery would have proved injurious to an-
other's interests The different State laws in
this country generally define specific offenses
as constituting the crime of forgery, but these
laws do not materially change the character of
the offense at common law, but simply provide
a special and increased punishment in such
cases as they particularly enumerate Consult
Stephen, Digest of the Gummed LOAD (4th ed ,
London, 1904) , Osborn, Quest^oned Documents
(Rochester, 1910) , and the bibliography under
CRIMINAL LAW
FORGET, fSr'ga', AM^D^E EMMANUEL (1847-
) A Canadian statesman, born at Marie-
ville, Piovince of Quebec, and educated at Ma-
neville College Admitted to the bar in 1871,
he practiced in Montreal, but later he went
West, and became private secretary to the
Lieutenant Governor of the Northwest Terri-
tories (1876), clerk of the Legislative Assembly,
Regina, Saskatchewan (1888), and Assistant
Commissioner of Indian Affairs for Manitoba
and the Northwest Territories, and in the gov-
ernment of the latter was a member of the
Council of Public Instruction (appointed
1893 )? Indian Commissioner (1895-98), and
Lieutenant Governor (1898-1905) In 1905-
10 lie was Lieutenant Governor of Saskatche-
wan and in 1911 became a member of the Do-
minion Senate He was elected vice president of
the British Empne League and of the Domin-
ion Forestry Association
FOBGET, SIE JOSEPH DAVID KODOLPHH
( 1861- ) A Canadian capitalist and leg-
islator He was born at Teirebonne, Province
of Quebec, and was educated at Masson College
there He early engaged in business and in
1890 joined the Montreal Stock Exchange, after
which he rapidly acquired a foitune and be-
came president of, or a director in, a large
number of financial and industrial corporations
In 1908-11 he was chairman of the Monti eal
Stock Exchange, in 19] 1 he founded La
Banque Internationale du Canada, of which he
became president, and he also headed an im-
portant merger of Canadian navigation inter-
ests In 1907 he was appointed honorary lieu-
tenant colonel of the Sixty-fifth Carabmiers
Elected (1904) an Independent Conservative
member of the House of Commons, m 1911 he
declined a seat in the Conservative cabinet of
Premier R L Borden In 1912 he was knighted
FORGET-ME-3STOT (Myosotis) A genus of
annual or biennial herbs of the family Boiagi-
naceoe with small, generally blue fioweis The
genus is distributed over the temperate zones in
all quarters of the world, and a number of
species are common in America, growing chiefly
in ditches and damp meadows Myosotis
sco}p^o^des and the closely related Myosotis
laxa htwe ciooked, cieeping peienmal roots, an
angular stem 1 to 2 feet in height, and calyx
covered with appressed bristles Myosotis syl-
vatiGdj with calyx covered with stiff spreading
hairs, grows in bushy places and woods and is
often planted in flower gardens It is especially
admired for the size and brilliancy of its flow-
ers The dark-blue forget-me-not of the Azores
(Myosotis azorica) is cultivated in Euiope, but
requires the greenhouse The genus is a favor-
ite with most persons, both because of the bril-
liancy of the flowers and because it is generally
regarded as the emblem o± friendship The Eng-
lish name, scorpion grass, is now seldom heard
The German name, Vergissmwnmcht, corre-
sponds with the English, forget-me-not Myo-
sotis vetBicolor, very common in Great Britain,
often as a weed m gardens, and naturalized in
the eastern United States, is remarkable for the
change of color in the very small flowers, which
are first yellow, then blue Some species occur
in such great abundance m parts of Alaska as
to color the hillsides Myosotis virgimoa, is
rather abundant in dry places of the eastern
United States during May and June
FOBK (Fr fourchette, Ital forchetta, AS.
/ore, Lat furca) An instrument with two,
three, or four prongs, and a handle, that serves
to hold food while it is being cut and also
to convey food to the mouth The common,
use of individual table forks is European and
comparatively modern The Chinese and the
Japanese eat with, chopsticks, pencil-shaped
objects that they hold in one hand and wield
like a pair of tongs The Greeks and the
Romans ate with their fingers, as primitive
and half-civilized peoples still do During the
periods of transition from fingers to forks knives
were used for eating as well as cutting and still
are by the lower classes But with the develop-
ment of the wide, flat, four-pronged silver fort,
polite society has decided that the fork and
spoon alone may be brought to mouth, and tlie
FOKKBEARD s
use of fingers or knives is regarded as inele-
gant According to the Italian priest and
scholar Peter Damiani, who lived in the eleventh
century, individual table forks were first intio-
duced into Venice by a Byzantine princess and
from Venice spiead through the rest of Italy
In France table forks appear for the first time
m an inventory of Charles V dated 1379, and
as late as the sixteenth century the court use
of forks to eat with was satirized as a novelty
In French and Scottish convents forks were for-
bidden as sinful Into England forks are said
to have been introduced by Thomas Coryate,
who visited Italy in 1608, but as late as the
i evolution of 1688 few English noblemen owned
more than a dozen At first table forks had
only two prongs, later three, and four only to-
wards the end of the seventeenth century^ The
carving forks used m Italy in the sixteenth
century are illustiated and described in a fas-
cinating volume, published in Venice in 1593,
entitled II Ttinoiante (The Carver) Consult
Paul La Croix, Manners, Customs, and Dress
during the Middle Ages (London, 1874), and W
G Sumner, Folkways (New York, 1907) See
CUTLERY
FORK'BEARD (so called from the apparent
bifurcation of the ventral fins ) A British hake
(Phycis blennoides) , also called hake's dame
(qv), the ventral fins of which are long and
filamentous.
FOR/KEL, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1749-1818)
A German writer on music He was born at
Meeder, Saxe-Coburg, was organist to the Uni-
versity Church in Gottmgen, and later director
of music at the university Though he acquired
considerable reputation as organist and haipist,
his chief interests were the theory and the his-
tory of music Noteworthy are his Allgemeine
G-eschichte der Musik (2 vols , 1788-1801), and
Allgem&ine Litteratur der Mitsik, oder An-
leitung zur Kenntnis musikalischer Bucher
(1792), the first bibliographical work of its
kind
FORE/TAIL. A name applied to various
birds having noticeably forked tails, as the
scissor- tailed flycatcher (see Plate of FLY-
CATCHERS) or a kite Specifically it denotes a
group of black-and-white insectivorous birds of
moderate size, inhabiting mountainous regions
from northern India to Borneo, which have long
foiked tails kept incessantly in motion They
constitute the genus Hemcurus and place their
nests beside a stone or log, near the edge of
small streams
FORLi, fOr-le' (ancient Forum Limi) The
capital of the Province of ForlJ, in central Italy,
on the right bank of the Montone, 40 miles
southeast of Bologna (Map Italy, D 2) The
town lay on the ancient J3milian Way ( q v )
In the churches of Santi Biagio e G-irolamo and
San Mercuriale, named after the first Bishop of
Forli, are the tomb of Barbara Manfredi, paint-
ings by Palmezzano and others and, in the choir
stalls, fine wood carving by Alessandro dei
Bigm The imposing cathedral of Santa Croce
has been almost entirely rebuilt since 1844, but
the dome has fine frescoes of the Assumption
by Carlo Cignani The church of San Mercunale
has an imposing campanile The collection of
paintings in the municipal art gallery con-
tains a fresco by Melozzo da Forli The citadel,
built |n 1361 by Cardinal Albornoz, is now used
as a prison Forlt has a town hall, a lyceum, a
seminary, a technical institute, a technical
g FORM
school, a library, and a hospital (founded in
1636) It markets giain, wine, cattle, silk, and
hemp, and manufactures machinery, silk goods,
hats, pottery, and furniture It is the seat of a
bishop The ancient Forum Livii is said to have
been founded by and named after Livius Salina-
tor, in 207 B c , after his victory over Hasdrubal
in the battle of the Metaurus (See HASDRUBAL,
3, FOSSOMBKONE ) Early in the Middle Ages it
was part of the Exarchate of Ravenna It
changed masters during the struggles of Guelphs
and Ghibellmes, and was annexed to the Papal
States in 1504 by Julius II Pop (commune),
1901, 43,708, 1911, 45,994 Melozzo da Forti,
the painter, and Flavio Biondo, the Renaissance
topographer, were natives of Forlt Consult
Baedeker, Central Italy (15th Eng. ed, Leip-
zig, 1909)
FORLI, MELOZZO DA. See MELOZZO DA FOEL!
FORM 1 For perception of form, see
FIGURE 2 Form of Combination A pro-
posed rendering of the German G-estaltqualitat,
or quality of form Sonic psychologists find it
necessary to postulate a form of combination as
a distinct mental attribute or content They
say, e g , that a square is more than four linear
extensions, sensibly of the same length, and
occupying certain relative positions in the vis-
ual field, a square ]s a square, and squareness
is a new character common to all squares, but
not to be explained by attention, or by the laws
of sensory connection, or by those of imaginal
supplementing. A melody, again, is more than
rhythm and consonance and scale, a melody is
melodic, we recognize its melodic nature as
such, the melodic character is something new
and unique, common to all melodies, but not
found elsewhere. Hence, they argue, "the pres-
entation of a form of synthesis is as distinct
fiom the presentation of the elements combined,
considered apart from their union, as the pres-
entation of red is distinct from the presentation
of gi een "
As against this position, two things may be
said 1 It betrays a confusion of the ana-
lytic and genetic points of view The "square"
and the "melody" are given as perceptions, the
psychological task is, then, to analyze these given
perceptions and to formulate the laws under
which the elementary processes combine, how
these particular processes came to mean
''square" and "melody" is another question
Furthermore (2), there are psychologists who
on the basis of their own observations are un-
able to identify the form of combination as a
distinct mental attribute or content, and if
there are cases where a perception resists anal-
ysis, they believe it the better plan to suspend
judgment while awaiting more refined methods.
Consult Mach, On Analysis of the Sensations
(Chicago, 1897) , Stout, Analytical Psychology
(London and New York, 1902) , Bentley, "The
Psychology of Mental Arrangement," in Ameri-
can Journal of Psychology (Worcester, 1§'02) ;
Titchener, Text-Book of Psychology (New Tork,
1910)
FORM (Lat forma, shape). In botany, the
unit of ecology, as the species is tlife unit of
classification or taxonomy The textm is often
used in expressions such as "life form," "plant
form," etc See ECOLOGY, TAXOWCMCT.
FORM. In music, that eleipnetofc which unites
all the various parts into an harmonious whole
It is essential that these various parts should
have some intimate relation to one another^
otherwise they would only be loosely strung to-
gether and could never repiesent artistic unity
Musical unity is attained by various means,
such as the lepetition of musical motives or
phrases, the maintaining of a certain rhythm or
figuration, the choice of a fixed tonality Dis-
sonant or contrasting elements aie not ex-
cluded, but they must be resolved into a higher
unity The germ of all musical fonn is the
two-measure motive, 01 section A combination
of two sections forms a phrase, of two phrases
a period The fiist two phrases constitute
the antecedent, the last two the consequent
This is shown by the following example (1)
fiom Beethoven To this period Beethoven
adds anothei one (2) similarly constructed, and
standing to the fiist in the relation of conse-
quent to antecedent These two periods to-
gether constitute what is known as the simple
Liedform Symmetiy is one of the most essen-
tial featuies of all musical works, and a com-
position is unintelligible unless its themes are
so a i ranged that the architectonic structure of
the whole presents perfect symmetry The
thiee fundamental forms are the hedform, son-
ata form, and rondo form The grouping of the
themes in these forms is
I Liedform A— -B — A
II Sonata form [ A (key of tonic) , B (key
of dominant) ]— 4 — A — B (m key of tonic)
26 FORMALDEHYDE
translated from the French by Marchant, with
additions by Krehbiel (4th cd , New York,
1903) Consult also E Pauer, Musical Forms
(London, 1880) , L Bussler, M usikahsche For-
tnenlehre (Berlin, 1878), H Ricmann, Kate-
chismus der Kompositionslehre, pait n (Leip-
zig, 1904) , M H Glyn, Analysis of the Evolu-
tion of Musical Forms (New York, 1909) See
CYCLICAL FOBMS, FUGUE, LIED, RONDO, SO-
NATA, SYMPHONY
FORM. In philosophy, a term used by Plato
(Gk tola, eldos) to express the reality of a
thing, that which, besides the material of which
it is composed, makes it what it is, and which
is permanent, in contrast with appearances and
objects of sensation that pass away and aie
altered as they pass The metaphysical charac-
ter of Plato's forms, or ideas, has been the sub-
ject of much dispute, the question being whether
Plato conceived them as having an existence in
independence of the world of sense, or whether
they weie not for Plato very much what laws of
nature are for the modern scientist Aristotle
gave the authority of his great name to the
former interpretation, which has thus become
traditional Aiistotle himself used the word
form (elSos) as expressing the essence of a thing,
and tins meaning became current in scholasti-
cism especially m the expression "essential
foim" Bacon used the word fotms in the sense
of "the laws and modes of action which regulate
Period
III Rondo form (a) with two themes A — B
—A (m key of B), B (in key of A)— -A, (&)
with three themes A — B— A— C — A — B — A
The second and third time A appeals in keys
different from the onginal
These forms admit of considerable variety,
and the great masters, especially Beethoven and
Biahms, have been inexhaustible in ingenious
combinations of themes No definite rules can
be laid down in this respect, anything is per-
missible that does not destroy the symmetry of
the whola In cyclical compositions symmetry
between the various movements is maintained
by the proportion of the various movements to
one another, the relation of their keys, the
alternation of alow and fast tempo, and some-
times also the introduction of a theme from a
previous movement (Beethoven., Symphony No»
9) See CYCLICAL FORMS
Instrumental forms were originally developed
from simple vocal forms Their development has
been the slow product of centuries' Simple
dances were united in the suite ( q v ) , which
gradually developed and evolved the sonata,
Froni the stringing together of madrigals arose
the original dramma per musioa, which became
the opera (qv ) and culminated in the musical
drama (q/v.). For a careful study of musical
forms, consult Lavignac, Music and Musicians,
and constitute any simple nature, such as heat,
light, weight, in all kinds of mattei susceptible
of them., so that the form of heat and the law
of heat, or the form of light and the law of
light, are the same thing " But Bacon did not
succeed in keeping the term fiee from scholastic
connotation, even in his own use of the word
Kant used the term to designate any principle
of arrangement or organization, supplied by the
mind to the materials of sense. Kant recognized
two perceptual forms, space and ttme> and four
classes of conceptual forms, which he called cate-
gories. In this sense form is subjective, le, it
is not a characteristic belonging to an object as
it exists in. independence of experience, but only
as it appears in experience. Hegel pointed out
the impossibility of thus separating the objec-
tive and the subjective
FOBMAI/DEHYDE, H CHO A compound
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, discovered by
A W Hofmann in 1867 It is the simplest of
the class of aldehydes (qv ) It is obtained by
the oxidation of wood alcohol Dry air, satu-
rated with the vapor of wood alcohol, is passed
over a superficially oxidized spiral of copper
gauze, inclosed in a long glass tube The prod-
ucts of the reactaon — the vapors of formalde-
hyde and water — pass out of the glass tube into
empty receivers, in which the water vapor con-
FOBMALIH
27
FORMATION
densos to liquid watei, and the latter dissolves
much o± the formaldehyde vapor, the result being
a 35-per cent solution of formaldehyde m water
Such formaldehyde as passes unabsorbed through
€hese receivers is taken up in water, forming
more — this time weaker — aqueous f 01 maldehyde.
Attempts to condense formaldehyde vapor
alone, without water, have invariably failed, the
isolated compound undergoing chemical trans-
formations with great rapidity Formaldehyde
solutions, known commercially under the name
of formalin, are used as antiseptics and disin-
fectants, in the manufacture of certain dyes, etc
Subcutaneous injections of formalin have been
proposed as a remedy for septicaemia, but the
possible value of the drug is more than counter-
balanced by its highly poisonous nature In this
connection it may be interesting to note that,
while formaldehyde itself is poisonous, its com-
pound with acid sodium sulphite, CH2(OH)S03-
Na, whose properties resemble to some extent
those of formaldehyde itself, is harmless With
ammonia formaldehyde reacts to form a com-
pound known as hexamethylene-tetramine,
(CH2)eN~4 This reaction permits of determining
analytically the amount of formaldehyde in a
given solution When heated with phenol (car-
bolic acid), in the presence of a base, formalde-
hyde enters into reaction, the product being a
valuable substance known as lakehte ( q v ) ,
which is used as a substitute for hard rubber,
celluloid, horn, amber, ivory, and similar ma-
terials With casein formaldehyde forms a bone-
like substance known as galalith
Foi maldehyde has formed the starting point
in the modern synthetic work on the sugars
( q v ) If allowed to stand for some time in the
piesence of weak alkalies, it is transfoimed into
a mixtuie of simple sugars known as "formose"
and including ordinary fructose ("Isevulose")
It is probable that in the tiansfoimation by
plants of atmospheric carbonic acid into com-
plex carbohydrates, such as the sugars and
starch, the pioduction of formaldehyde is the
first step Formaldehyde itself has never been
found in plants and would probably kill them,
if produced in considerable quantities Btit pos-
sibly every tiaee of formaldehyde undeigoes
chemical change as soon as formed See FORMIC
ACID Consult J E Orloft, Formaldehyd
(Leipzig, 1909), and L Vaiuno, Der Formalde-
Jiyd (Vienna, 1901)
FOBM'ALIN. See FOEMALDEIIYDE.
EOROKAN, HARRY BTJXTON (1842- ).
An English author, born in London He entered
the civil service in 1860 and became assistant
secretary in the general post office and comptrol-
ler of packet services He is best known as a
scholarly and discriminating editor, notably of
Shelley (London, 1876-80) and Keats (ib,
1883) His work, editorial and other, also in-
cludes The Letters of Keats to Fanny Brawne
(ib, 1878), The Shelley Library (ib, 1886),
Jfl B Browmng and her Scarc&r Books (ib>
1896), The Books of Wdham Morns (ib,
1897) , Letters of Edward John Trelawn&y (ib,
1910), Note Books of Shelley Deciphered (ib,
1911) , Medwiris Life of Shelley, Enlarged and
Fully Commented (ib , 1913)
EORMAN, JUSTUS MILES (1875-1915). An
American author, born at Le Roy, Genesee Co ,
1ST Y He graduated from Yale University in
1898 and then studied painting for three years
in Europe Besides more than 100 short stories
published m the popular magazines, be is author
VOL IX.™ 3
of The Garden of Lies (1902), dramatized in
collaboration with Sydney Grundy and played in
London in 1904-05, Journey's End (1903)
Nonsigny (1904), Tommy Carteret (1905),
Buchanan's Wife (1906), A Stumbling Block
(1907), Jason (1909), Bianca's Daughter
(1910), The Unknown Lady (1911) , The Court
of the Angels (1912), The Opening Door
(1913) , The Bhnd ttpok (1914) , The 81® Rubies
(1914) He died on the Lusitama
FOUMAH, SIMON (1552-1611) A notori-
ous English astiologer and quack doctor He
claimed to have discovered his marvelous powers
in 1579 and thereafter piacticed as a quack
Strangely enough, he received later (1603) the
degiee MD from Jesus College, Cambridge At
tins time he was engaged in a most scandalous
practice among the ladies at court, with love
philtres and wax images Besides his Grounds
of the Long^tu(le (1591), he left behind him a
mass of manuscripts, small parts of which have
been published, as the Diary from 1564 to 1602
(J. 0 Halhwell-Phillrpps, 1843), and extracts
from the Book of Plays (Hallrwell-Philhpps,
Folio Shakespeare, 1853-65), giving the dates of
performances at the Globe Theatre of Macbeth
(April 20, 1610) and Winter's Tale (May 15,
1611).
FORTCA PATPPERIS, IN (Lat , m the char-
acter of a poor pei son) The phrase usually
employed in both England and America when a
pei son arranges to conduct an action in such
a way as to avoid certain expenses because too
poor to sue in the ordinary way In England,
the statutes 11 Hen VII, c 12, and 23 Hen
VIII, c 15, provide that such as will swear
themselves not worth £5 except their wearing
apparel and the matter in question in the cause,
shall be exempt when plaintiffs, but not when
defendants, from the payment of court fees, and
shall be entitled to have counsel and attorney
assigned to them by the court without fee
They are furthei excused from costs when un-
successful, a privilege which, according to
Blackstone, amounted in former times only to
the rather uncomfortable alternative of choosing
between, paying and being whipped In the
event of success, however, a person suing in this
foim is entitled to his costs, because his counsel
and agent, and the officers of court, though they
are bound to give their labor gratis to him, are
not bound to give it on the same terms to his
antagonist, unless he too be a pauper To pre-
vent the abuse of suing in the superior courts
at Westminster in this form in matters of small
amount, it is provided (19 and 20 Viet, c 108,
§ 30), subject to certain exceptions, that any
plaintiff who resorts to one of these, m a case
falling within the cognizance of a county court,
and recovers no more than £20, or in some cases
£5, shall have no costs, unless he satisfies 'the
court or a judge that he had suf&cient reason for
taking that course
In Scotland this benevolent arrangement was
introduced by statute more than half a century
before the date of the English act above
mentioned
Similarly, actions m forma pawpews may be
prosecuted in all of the United States The pro-
vision is deemed a part of the common law of
the several States, derived from the English
system of administering justice, though it is
now in many States governed by statute
FORHATES See FORMIC ACID.
FOBILA'TIOH (Lat formats, frow -
FOB.MATIOH 2
mare, to shape, from fotma, shape) In botany,
a widespioad assemblage of plants with similar
life relations, vthose presence is determined by
climatic factors — e g , one may speak of desert
formations or tiopical evergreen forest forma-
tions A second use of the woid applies to an
assemblage of similar plant associations 01 of
plant associations in similar habitats, eg, all
the peat-bog associations of a region taken as a,
whole make up the peat-bog formation of that
region, or the associations occumng upon sand-
stone constitute the sandstone plant formation
of the legion The formations first described
would be called climatic, in contrast to the more
lestncted edaphic formations, such as those of
the peat bog See ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION OF
PLANTS
FOUMATIOIsT In geology, a group of strata
united by some common characteristic, such as
age, origin, or composition It is loosely em-
ployed and may be synonymous with any of the
stratigiaphic divisions — eg, coal formation
(Carboniferous system), Canadian formation
(Canadian series), etc
IFOH'HA XTR'SIS BOMLaS (Lat, shape of
the city of Rome) A famous map of Rome
engraved on marble and affixed to the outer wall
of the so-called Tcinplum Sacrse Urbis (now the
church of SS Cosma e Damiano) This map is
known also as the Maible Plan 01 as the Capito-
hne Plan Between 1559 and 1565 many pieces
of this plan ueie found at the foot of the wall
of the temple and came into the possession of
the Fainese family In 1742 such of these
fragments as remained were put in the Capito-
hne Museum Other portions were found in
1867 and in 1884, in 1888 over 180 small pieces
were found From 1891 to 1901 about 425 more
pieces were discovered All these pieces are in
the Museum The map represents the plan of
the city and some of the suburbs as recon-
structed under Sevems and Caracalla, after the
fire of Commodus, and replaced a previous map
made under Vespasian The fragments have
been of great help in identifying existing ruins
Consult Platner, The Topography and Monu-
ments of Ancient Rome (2d ed , Boston, 1911),
and the references there
FOR/MEDOKT An ancient form of action,
m the law of England, belonging- to the class of
real actions, whereby the heir in tail, or the
reversioner or rcmaindeiman who had been
ousted by a discontinuance, was entitled to vin-
dicate his claim to tlie lands from which lie had
been ousted By 21 Jas I, c 16, it was enacted
that writs of formedon should be brought within
20 years after the cause of action arose The
writ of formedon is now abolished, simpler and
more convenient forms of action for the recov-
ery of lands having been substituted therefoi.
It" has never been employed in the United States
EORMENTEKA, fdr'm&Ji-ta'rgu One of the
Balearic Islands, in the western part of the
Mediterianean (Map Spam, F 3) It is a part
of the Spanish Province of Baleares The island
has an area of 38 square miles Pop , 1900,
2295, 1910, 2600 Wheat is grown, cattle rais-
ing, fishing-, and salt working are other occupa-
tions Formenteia was taken by Aragon in
1232
FOH1OJII AGE, THE A poem by Chaucer,
a metrical version of part of his translation of
Boethius. It was discovered by Bradshaw, and
published by Morris in 1866
FOBMIA, f6r'm4-a (ancient Formice, later
ACID
known as Mola di Gaeta, later still called
Formia) A city of the Piovince of Caseita, in
south Italy, beautifully situated on the noiih
shore of the Gulf of 'Gaeta, 68 miles by lail
northwest of Naples The lowei slopes ot the
mountains that rise behind it aie covered with
gloves of olives, lemons, oranges, and pome-
granates It lay on the ancient Appian Way
and once held the summer homes of many
wealthy Romans The entire surrounding coun-
try is dotted with the remains of homes and
public works of the Romans, who took advan-
tage of the mild climate and the view towards
the distant Bay of Naples The so-called Villa
of Cicero, or Villa Caposele, formerly the fa-
vorite summer residence of the kings of Naples,
contains two well-preserved ancient nymplw a
of Doric architecture These remains belong to
the first or second century AD There is some
coasting trade The town makes pottery and
oil Pop (commune), 1901, 8108, 1911, 8734
FORMXffi See FOBMIA
EOR/MIC ACID (from Lat formica, ant),
CH203 The simplest and one of the eailiest
known of the so-called fatty acids of oiganic
chemistry It derives its name from the cir-
cumstance of its having been fust obtained from
the Formica rufa, or red ant, by Rey, in 1G70
In a concentrated state it is a fuming liquid
with an irritating odor and causes vesication
if dropped upon the skin If pure, it solidifies
at mode lately low tempera tines, forming a crys-
talline mass that melts at 8 3° C It boils at a
slightly higher temperature than distilled water,
yielding a vapor that burns with a blue flame
It is a powerful antiseptic and acts chemically
as a reducing agent, eg, readily i educing the
salts of silver, mercury, platinum, and gold It
may be obtained in \anous ways For example
(1) by the distillation of icd ants with watei;
(2) by the action of acids or alkalies upon
hydrocyanic acid, (3) by the oxidation of van-
ous 01 game substances, such as sugar, starch,
wood alcohol, etc , (4) by the action of alkalies
upon chloral or chloiotorm, (5) synthetically
(Berthelot), by keeping carbonic oxide gas for
a prolonged period in contact with potassium
hydroxide at a temperature of 100° C Kolbe
and Schmitt obtained it also by the i eduction of
carbonic acid — a icaction of gieat impoitance,
as it suggests a possible explanation of the proc-
ess by which the transformation of carbonic acid
into complex organic substances is effected in
the oiganism of plants, for, since formic acid
itself is a very common product of the oxidation
of organic bodies, it is easy to conceive how
such bodies may be formed in plants by a re-
versed process — i e , by the reduction of formic
acid and hence of carbonic acid
The most convenient method of preparing
formic acid consists in gradually adding crystal-
lized oxalic acid to anhydrous glycerin at a
temperature slightly above 100° C , oxalic acid
decomposing into formic and carbonic acids ac-
cording to the following equation
C3H204 = CH203 -i- CO.,
Oxaho
aoid
Fonmo
acid
Carbonic
acid
In the animal organism formic acid occurs not
infrequently, either free or in combination, thus,
it is found not only in ants, but in the poison
of the bee and wasp, and in the hairs of the
procession caterpillar It has also been detected
in sweat, in the expressed juice of the spleen*
FOEMICATION
pancreas, thyinus gland, and muscles, in the
brain, the blood, and the urine
The salts of formic acid, called formates, or
formiates, are crystalline substances, soluble
in water, and, if heated above 400° C , readily
transformed into salts of oxalic acid Chem-
ically formic acid is both an acid and an alde-
hyde, its molecule containing both the acid group
COOH and the aldehyde group CHO
29
FOBMOSA
A
H
Formic acid
and it is to the presence of the latter group in
its molecule that formic acid owes its reducing
properties Formic acid is used as a food pre-
servative and in brewing as an antiseptic In
conjunction with certain mordants it is also used
as a reducing agent in dyeing See ALDEHYDES
EORMICA'TIOIT (Lat formicatio, from for-
micare, to crawl like an ant) A peculiar sensa-
tion of partial numbness and tingling of the
skin, such as might be produced by the creeping
of ants or other small insects over the surface
It is one of the forms of disordered tactile sen-
sation, or parsesthesia, and resembles the awak-
ening from numbness or from a limb being
"asleep " It is sometimes a symptom of spinal
disease It may be due to pressure on a nerve
or to poisoning by aconite, in the latter case
the feeling is experienced in the tongue and
cheeks It sometimes is a symptom of hysteria
FOBMICIBJE, for-nuVl-de (Neo-Lat nom.
pi , from Lat formica, ant ) The ant family,
sometimes regarded as a superfamily (Formi-
coidea) See ANT, Social Insects, under INSECT.
FOBMIGE fCr'm&'zha', JEAN CAMILLE (1845-
) A French architect, born at Bouscat
(Grironde) He studied architecture under J C.
Laisne" and prepared for the government a series
of plans and restorations of various public build-
ings, including the famous Roman Theatre at
Orange In 1885 he became architect of streets
and parks at Paris He constructed the build-
ings of Liberal Arts and Fine Arts at the
Exposition of 1889 and of Rumania at that of
1900 He became an officer of the Legion of
Honor and also of the Academy
FOKiMO'SA A Territory of Argentina,
South America, occupying the northeast portion
of the Republic, and lying between the rivers
Pilcomayo and Bermejo (Map Argentina, H 2)
It borders on Paraguay on the northeast and
east, the Chaco Territory on the south and
west, and the Province of Salta on the north-
west The area is estimated at 41,402 square
miles It is a part of the great Chaco plain,
having an elevation of about 350 feet The
surface is level, well watered, and covered with
forests The interior is inhabited by uncivilized
Indians and is unexplored. The chief products
are sugar cane and tobacco. Pop., 1912, 17,232.
The capital is Formosa, on the Paraguay River,
with about 6000 inhabitants. The town was
founded after General Victorica defeated the
natives of the Chaco in 188^-85
FORMO'SA A large and important island
of the western Pacific, which formed part of the
Empire of China until 1895, when it was ceded
to Japan by the treaty concluded at Shimonoseki
(qv ) (Map Japan, D 8) With the adjoining
group of 47 islands known to foreigners as the
Pescadores ( q v ) , ceded by China to Japan by
the same treaty, it forms a province of the Jap-
anese Empire under the name of Taiwan
Topography. Formosa lies off the east coast
of China, opposite the Province of Fukien, from
which it is distant about 90 miles It stretches
in a general northeast to southwest direction
from lat 25° 15' to 20° 56' N, and extends
east and west from long 120° to 122° E Its
length is about 235 miles, and its greatest
breadth 90 miles, estimated area, 13,841 square
miles Its shape is that of a long oval running
to a point known as South Cape Forty miles
east of this lies the island of Botel Tobago, a-nd
a little farther north the small island of Sama-
sana Formosa is regarded by some as a link in
the chain of volcanic islands which form the
eastern escarpment of a former Malayo-Chmese
continent Along the greater part of the west
coast facing China the water is shallow, while
on the east coast deep water is found at once
Throughout almost the entire length of the
island, but nearer the east coast than the west,
runs a great chain of forest-clad mountains,
with peaks ranging from 7000 to nearly 15,000
feet in height The two highest are Mount
Morrison, called Mukang Shang by the Chinese,
which the Japanese renamed Nutaka-yama,
14,270 feet, and Mount Sylvia, which they call
Setsu-zan, 12,480 feet East of this massive
backbone the country is mountainous, abruptly
terminating in a precipitous coast and a few
small rocky islands Some of the cliffs present
a sheer descent of from 3000 to 6000 feet. To
the west of this mountainous region lies a range
of low, barren clay hills, and to the west of
this is a broad alluvial plain stretching from
north to south, intersected here and there with
water channels, terminating in sand banks and
long muddy spits, the whole coast presenting a
remarkable contrast to the bold rocky face of
the east The land on the west side is regularly
gaming on the sea, owing, no doubt, to the
sediment brought down from the mountains by
the watercourses, especially during the rainy
season, when travel in some parts of the in-
tenor is rendered almost impossible
Climate. Except in the north, the climate
during the winter is delightful The excessive
rainfall of the north, and especially in the neigh-
borhood of Kelung, makes it unpleasantly cold,
though the temperature is generally higher than
in the same latitude on the mainland of China
At Tainan the atmosphere is said to be clear and
bracing On the whole, however, the climate is
very trying to many. The temperature seldom
rises to 100° F , but the general humidity
renders even a moderate degree of heat very-
enervating
Fauna As Formosa is included within $)&
"Oriental" zoogeographical region, formed te> in-
clude the Indo-Chinese coast and the Malayan
and Chinese islands, the general chaxaetejrfcstics
of its fauna will be found under toe title
ORIENTAL REGION The island has not been thor-
oughly explored by naturalists, tkoijgli Swinhoe
and others have done much invetsi^ating Its
denizens are largely the same as1 those of the
adjacent mainland, showing that ifchere formerly
was a land connection That 'tike- separation oc-
curred comparatively long a#p> iiowever, is prob-
able from the fact that tlwJ island possesses a
goodly number of peculu^ species, though very
FOUMOSA 3
few, if any, are of a peculiar genus The main
depaituies have been in small forest-keeping
birds and such small mammals as moles, flying
squirrels, and mice, though a special species of
foat antelope or "serow" (Nemorhcedus sibinhcei)
as been developed in the mountains, and one of
a forest deer (Cetius taevanus) , allied to Chi-
nese and Japanese species, which the natives
have half domesticated The tiger seems never
to have reached Formosa, where the largest beast
of piey is the beautiful "clouded tiger" (Felis
'tnac't oscehs}
Mining The interior has been but little ex-
ploied and little is kno^n of the geology of
the island Gold is found in the sticams, but
neaily all the* gold is obtained from quartz
The output of gold in 1909 was 160,000 momme
Bituminous coal abounds in over two-thirds of
the island, and the best-known mines are situ-
ated ncai Kelung and are -worked under foreign
superintendence Sulphur is found m great
abundance, especially in the north Peti oleum
and natuial gas are found, but are still unde-
veloped lion is also reported
Agriculture and Industries Agricultuie is
the chief industry and is carried on pimcipally
by the Chinese Camphor, tea, and sugar are
the staples, but there are also produced rice,
millet, coin, wrheat, barley, yams, sweet potatoes,
indigo, liemp, jute, peanuts, etc The forests
which cover the mountainous paits aie rich in
bamboo, camphor, banyan, betel nut, and other
trees The camphoi tree, which was foimeily
looked upon as the most inipoitant asset of the
island, as it gave to Japan a vntual contiol of
the natuial camphor supply of the woild, is
found principally in the eastern part of the
island The relative importance of this industry
has been greatly lessened by the production of
synthetic camphor, which has become a rival in
the world markets with that produced from the
forest growths Since the monopolization of the
camphor industiy in 1899, steps have been taken
for the elimination of the wasteful methods of
production, which under the old regime had
threatened the complete exhaustion of the cam-
phor supply of the island In 1904, 4,685,000
pounds of camphor and 3,712,000 pounds of
camphor oil were produced, and in 1912 the
output had increased to 7,077,100 and 7,733,922
pounds respectively Tea is giown chiefly in the
northern pait and sugar in the southern pait of
the island The manufacturing industries are
few and confined principally to the production
of sugar, camphor, mineral oil, etc
Commerce and Transportation. Formosa
has been open to foreign commerce since the
Tieaty of Tientsin (1858), which provided for
the opening of the four ports of Tainan, Takow,
Anping, and Tamsui There are 15 ports in the
island, though most of the imports and exports
Dccur at Tamsui and Kelung The two safest
harbors are those of Kelung, in the north, and
Takow, in the southwest The total value of
merchandise exported from the island in 1911
was $26,500,000 to Japan and $6,700,000 to
other countries, composed principally of tea,
sugar, rice, camphor and cajmphoi oil, hemp,
jute, etc The imports of merchandise for the
same year amounted to $17,300,000 from Japan
and $9 897,000 from other countries, and con-
sisted chiefly of fruit products, opium, textiles,
rmetals and metal manufactures, lumber, saki,
cigarettes and tobacco, etc After Japan, the
countries sharing most in the trade of Formosa
o FORMOSA
are China, Biitish India, the United States, and
Great Britain The imports direct from the
United States in 1912 amounted to nearly
$1,000,000, and the exports to the United States
nearly $2,500,000 The trade is carried on prin-
cipally by Chinese and a few European firms,
while the commeicial influence of Japan is con-
fined to the trade in camphor, opium, and salt —
all government monopolies Nearly all of the
tiade is carried in Japanese ships The princi-
pal bank of the island, the Bank of Foimosa, is
a private corporation under government super-
vision, and has the right of issuing notes, whose
cuculation, however, is confined to the island
The com in cuculation is that of the Japanese
government The construction of means of
transportation and communication is being
pushed by the Japanese government with gieat
lapidity A trunk line, from Takow in the
southwestern part of the island to Kelung in
the north, has been completed The total length
of railway is now 290 miles, besides 150 miles
of light railway The telegraph system has
about 700 miles of line and the telephone sys-
tem 800 miles
Government and Finance. The island 1-3
under the administration of a military goveinoi-
general, who is responsible to the cabinet at
Tokyo He is assisted by a council The civil
Governor, who lesides at Taipei, which is called
by the Japanese Taihoku, is responsible for the
civil admmisti ation Formosa and the Pesca-
dores are divided, for administrative purposes,
into seven districts, of which three are known
as kens, or prefectures of first rank, and the
other four as chos, or prefectures of the sec-
ond class The judicial code of the island is
different from that of Japan The finances are
still in an unsatisfactory condition, owing to the
unsettled state of the island, which necessitates
the maintenance of a large military force The
budget of the colony for 1913-14 estimated the
revenue at $21,940,000, and the expenditure at
a like sum The revenue is derived chiefly from
monopolies, customs, and subsidies from Japan
Japanese schools are being established all over
the island In 1910 there were over 20,000
native pupils in Japanese schools
Population According to the official esti-
mate of 1913 the population was 3,512,607, be-
sides a temporary population of 20,000 In 1910
the population was 3,3413217 The Japanese
number about 50,000 The chief towns are Dai
Hoku (95,000), Taiwan City (60,000), Tamsui,
and Kelung In the earthquake of March 17,
1906, 1228 persons were killed and 2329 were
injured
Ethnology The population consists of three
elements ( 1 ) the Japanese, who, apart from the
garrisons, aie mostly officials, teachers, traders,
and fishermen, (2)" the aboriginal tribes and
clans, and (3) the Chinese settlers, chiefly from
the provinces of Fukien and Kwangtung on the
mainland These occupy the plain which borders
the west coast, and the regions of the north
The Hakkas (qv) form an important feature
of this part of the population They live in
villages of their own and carry on the greater
portion of the barter trade with the aborigines
Until comparatively recent times no official was
allowed within their mclosures
So little is known regarding the aboriginal
inhabitants of Formosa that the question of
their relationship is very obscure When the
early Chinese settlers arrived in Formosa, some
EOBMOSA
time after the year 1430, they approached it by
the west coast, where they found many tribes
of savages Those first encountered they desig-
nated Pepohwan, 'Barbarians of the level plain '
These were gradually dispossessed and driven
eastward to the low hills which flank the moun-
tains on the \vest They have acquired a certain
amount of civilization and speak Chinese The
males for the most part dress like the Chinese
and in religious matters follow the Chinese,
though they still retain many of their original
notions and practices Inheritance is through
the mother By the Chinese they are now desig-
nated Sek-lrvvan, 'cooked/ or 'tamed, barbarians,3
as distinguished from the Chi-hwan, 'raw,' or
'untamed, barbarians/ whose habitat is in the
mountains beyond and in the south These are
divided into many tribes and clans, with a great
variety of languages and dialects, and preserve
in their wild independence their ancient cus-
toms and institutions — bodily ornaments and
mutilations, tattooing, head hunting, spirit and
nature worship, etc They live in villages, have
houses of stone roofed with great slabs of
slate, and are remarkably neat and clean
Those living on the hillsides build houses of
bamboo, grass, and 'mud Order prevails every-
where, and in marriage matters they are very
strict Often a laige house is piovided outside
the village where the unmarried men sleep
They cultivate millet and other crops
History Chinese records speak of an expedi-
tion against Formosa undertaken as early as
the year 603 Japanese adventurers are said
to have landed and made conquests in it in
the twelfth century, and we are told that
from the fifteenth century the eastern or abo-
riginal half was officially considered by the
Japanese as a part of their empire The first
Europeans to visit the island were Portuguese
TTiis was in 1590 The Spanish attempted to
hold a part of the island, but were driven out by
the Dutch, who had gained a footing in the Pes-
cadores in 1621 In 1624 the Dutch occupied a
point near Taiwan, where they built a fort and
a town which they called Zeelandia, began com-
mercial operations on a great scale, opened
schools, and inaugurated mission work When
in 1620 the persecution of native Christians
broke out in Japan, large numbers of them fled
to Formosa and formed a colony, but later dwelt
with the Dutch until the latter were forced in
1662 to withdraw, as the result of many con-
flicts with the Chinese settlers and with Koxmga
(qv ), the famous pirate, who succeeded m mak-
ing himself King of the island After a brief
and stormy reign his successor was dethroned
by the Manchu emperors The opening in 1858
of Formosa to foreigners was an important event
in the history of the island Roman Catholic
missions were established in 1859, Protestant
missions in 1860, and by 1864 a prosperous for-
eign trade had been established The aborigines,
however, continued to give trouble As the
result of the murder of a number of Japanese
sailors by the natives, China was appealed to for
redress, but disclaimed responsibility for the
acts of the savages In 1874 the Mikado sent
a punitive expedition under General Saigo On
the protest of the Peking government, however,
the Japanese retired, but only on conditions
secured in Peking by the Japanese envoy —
Soyeshima (qv) — that China should reclaim
and govern east Formosa and pay the expense
incurred by Japan In 1884 Kelung was taken
31
by the French under Admiral Courbet amd held
until June, 1885
One result of the Chmo-Japanese war over
Korea, in 1894-95, as specified in the Treaty of
Shimonoseki ( q v ) , was the cession of Formosa
to the Mikado's officers, June 2, 1895 The
Chinese oificials on the island, summoning the
Black Flag General Liu to their aid, declared a
k republic " Forthwith the Japanese Imperial
guard of 7000 men was dispatched, the rebellious
republic was duly crushed, and the natives were
chastised Then began the costly occupation and
development Outbreaks have been frequent, but
order is being rapidly evolved from the com-
plicated conditions of races and interests
Bibliography. This is extensive, but it may
be simplified by consulting Henri Cordier's B^b-
liographie des ouvrages relatifs a, Vile Formosa
(Paris, 1903) The works of the early annal-
ists contain much that is both useful and
curious See Imbault-Huart, L'lle Formose
(Paris, 1893) For those who can read French,
this is an excellent work to refer to Other
general works on Formosa are Campbell, Mis-
sionary Success in Formosa, (London, 1889),
Mackay, From Far Formosa The Island, its
People and Missions (New York, 1896) , &e-
schichte Formosa lis Anfang 1898 (Bonn, 1898) ,
Swinhoe, Notes on the Island of Formosa (1863)
— Mr Swinhoe was a naturalist, Le Gendre,
"Account of a Visit to the Southern Tribes," in
United States Commercial Relations -for 1868-
69 } House, The Japanese Expedition to Formosa
(Tokyo, 1875) The astonishing literary im-
posture may also be consulted Salmanazar,
Description of Formosa (London, 1705) David-
son, The Island of Formosa (1902), Y Take-
koshi, Japanese Rule in Fotmosa, trans by
G Braithwaite (London, 1907), and Terry,
The Japanese Empire, including Korea and
Formosa (Boston, 1914), are the most recent
works on the sub]cct
FORMO'SAW BEEB A species of deer
(Cervus taevanns] peculiar to the mountains of
Formosa, and frequently caught in traps by the
people and tamed as a pet It is one of the
"sika" group, which includes the spotted deer
of Japan and others of Manchuria It is lighter
in color than the others, while the spots have
a tendency to persist during winter, and the
tail is white with a black stripe down the
middle of its upper side See SIKA
FOIfcMXySTJS. Pope, 891-896 He was born
about 816, probably in Rome, and first appears
m history as Cardinal Bishop of Porto (864),
he was sent on an embassy to the Bulgarians by
Nicholas I m 866 and trusted with, important
missions by Adrian II His period was one of
strife between the factions which drove on the
disruption of the Empire of Charlemagne Hav-
ing sided with the German faction against Jofrn
VIII, he was excommunicated and banished,
but on taking an oath never to return to Borne
or again to assume his episcopal functions, he
was readmitted as a layman to the rites of the
church (878) From this oath he was absolved
by Marmus, the successor of John VIII, and
lestored to his dignities (883) , and on the
death of Stephen VI, m 891, he was cliosen Pope
The Italian faction had chosen SergiUsj and the
election of Formosus, which was in opposition
to an old rule against the translation of bishops
from one see to another, could not be confirmed
without violence, but lie was rendered secure for
a time by the success of tfoe arms of Arntilf of
FORMS 3
Germany Aftei the withdrawal of Arnulf For-
mosus was compelled to grant the Imperial
crown to Lambert, son of Guido of Spoleto,
but this act did not pacify the Italian faction,
and Formosus was released fiom very hard
straits only by the arrival of Arnulf, who cap-
tured Rome in the end of 895 In the following
year Arnulf was crowned Emperor by Formosus,
who died soon after His successor, Stephen
VII, had his body disinterred and treated with
contumely as that of a usurper of the papal
throne, but Theodoras II, in 897, restored it
to Christian burial, and at a synod presided
over by John IX, in 898, the pontificate of
Formosus was declared valid and all his acts
confirmed Consult A E McKilham, Chronicle
of the Popes from St Peter to Pius X (London,
1912)
FORMS, or QUANTICS In mathematics,
rational, algebiaic, integral, homogeneous func-
tions of r vanables, ojj, #2, #3, . . a? , the degree
of these variables being the order of the form
If r = 2 theie results a binaiy form, if r = 3,
a ternary, etc , terms due to Gauss ( 1801 )
Symbolically a binary form may conveniently be
i
represented by / (ool3 a?2) = 1
With algebraic forms is connected the study of
invariants and covanants, the whole subject
being sometimes called, by the English, the
theory of quantics, or modern highei algebra
The theory was first extensively investigated
by Gauss (qv ), although Lagrange had aheady
studied the invariant property of the discrimi-
nant (Sylvester, 1852, Gauss had called it the.
determinant, 1801) a0a2 = of, of the quadratic
form a0x2 + Za^y + azy2, finding, viz , that it is
unaltered by substituting co + \y for a? To
Boole (1841) is due the discovery of the in-
variant property of the discriminant of every
binary form Eisenstem, Hesse, Aronhold, and
Clebsch in Germany, Cayley and Sylvester in
England, and Brioscln in Italy, have been
among the most prolific contributors to the
theory The best historic survey is that of
Franz Meyer, "Bericht uber den gegenwartigen
Stand der Invariantentheone," in Jahresbericht
der deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung, vol i
(Berlin, 1892) The most important treatises
upon the subject are Cayley's "Memoirs upon
Quantics," in the Philosophical Transactions
(London, 1854 et seq ) ; Salmon, Modern Higher
Algebra (Dublin, 1859, and enlarged later edi-
tions) , Fiedler, Die Memente der neueren Geo-
metrie unter der Algebra der binaren For men
(Leipzig, 1862), Clebsch, Binare Formen (ib,
1872) , Fa<l di Bruno, Formes binaires (Turin,
1876, Leipzig, 1881), Gordan, Invariantentheo-
ne (ib, 1887), Elliot, Algebra of Quantics (2d
ed, Oxford, 1913) An important digest of the
theory, with bibliography and historical notes,
is Meyer, "Invanantentheone," in the Eneyklo-
padie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol i
(Leipzig, 1899).
FORMS OF ACTION. The approved classes
into which actions are divided under the com-
mon-law system of pleading and practice They
had their origin in the use of original wnts,
which were mandatory letters or processes issu-
ing in the King's name, containing a statement
of the alleged injury, and directing the sheriff
to first command the defendant to satisfy the
claim, and, on his failme to do so, to summon
him into court to answer and defend the com-
3 FORMS OF ADDRESS
plaint made against him Many of these writs
were of remote antiquity, some of them ante-
dating the Conquest, and others being shaped
by the clerks and judicial officers of the Norman
kings They were drafted in fixed and certain
forms, providing remedies for the more ordinary
and obvious civil wrongs These writs were
limited in number, and where an injured per-
son could not make the facts of his case fit
the allegations of a known writ, he was wholly
without remedy, as there was no other way in
which he could get his cause before the court
Thus they had the effect of limiting and defin-
ing the right of action itself, and for this reason
the enumeration of writs and causes of action
became identical This condition of affairs was
somewhat relieved by the introduction of curious
and arbitrary legal fictions, whereby an old writ
was made to do service for a new cause of action
Thus, there being no form of action for the re-
covery of goods unlawfully detained by a tort-
feasor, the action in trover, originally devised
to permit the recovery of lost goods from the
finder, was without change of form made avail-
able for the more geneial purpose For example,
if A, having B's goods in his possession, wrong-
fully withheld them from B, the writ would
allege that B had casually lost the goods and
A had found them, but, although knowing them
to be the goods of B, had refused to deliver them
to him B was not required to prove this ficti-
tious allegation, but could show the true circum-
stances, which might be that he had given A the
goods to store for him, to be returned on de-
mand, and that A had converted them to his
own use
A further important modification of the
ancient forms of action was effected by a statute
enacted in the reign of Edward I, which pro-
vided that where the facts of a new case were
similar to those covered by a known writ, the
clerks of Chancery should have power to frame
a new writ to meet the exigencies of the case
This caused an increase in the number of writs,
and consequently in forms of action, the new
foims being known as actions on the case, le,
actions in similar eases (in consimih casu), and
contributed very greatly to making the common-
law system more efficient in the administration
of justice Notwithstanding these changes, forms
of action have always tended to become inflexible
and insufficient for the relief of many civil
wrongs, and this inflexibility has been a potent
cause of the growth of equity jurisdiction
The following were the principal forms of
action at common law Assumpsit, Covenant,
Debt, Account, Trespass, Trover, Case, Detinue,
Replevin, Ejectment, and Writ of Entry They
have been abolished in England by the Judica-
ture Acts ( q v ) , and in several of the United
States have been superseded by modern forms
of action instituted by codes of procedure,
but they are still m use with some changes and
modifications in some jurisdictions See ACTION,
COMMON COUNTS, COMMON FORMS, PLEADING,
PBAGTICE
FORMS OF ADDRESS In those countries
where gradations of rank and title prevail there
is great complexity in the forms of address. As
those which are most often practically useful,
the ceremonious modes of addressing letters to
titled personages in England are given in the
accompanying table It must be understood that
in nearly all eases these forms are employed only
where strict formality is requisite, as from com-
FOBMS OF ADDRESS
plcte or compaiativc btiangeis In informal
conversation it is iiowheie the custom of persons
ot good social position to use the strict forms
here given unless theie aie peisonal or profes-
sional reasons for it Thus., e g , a very young
man of good manneis, speaking to an aged and
distinguished peer, 01 a cleigyman to his bishop,
may call him "My Loid", but the King or the
Prince of Wales is usually addressed by persons
with whom he is acquainted simply as "Sir," the
Queen as "Ma'am," a duke as "Duke," other
peers and their wives as "Loid " and
"Lady "
Forms of address in the United States are not
so rigidly governed by custom as in the older or
33 FORNEY
Archbishops "The Most Rev the Archbishop
of " (If a cardinal, "His Eminence the
Cardinal Archbishop of ")
Bishops in the Roman Catholic or Episcopal
churches "The Eight Rev the Bishop of ,"
or "The Right Rev " The Presid-
ing Bishop in the Episcopal chmch, "The Most
Rev/' etc , dean of cathedrals, "The Very
Rev ," etc , and archdeacons of dioceses as
"Venerable," usually shortened to "Ven" In
the Methodist chmch, "The Rev Bishop "
The use of the term "Esquire" was at one time
largely confined in America to addressing law-
yers, but more recently the English practice
which attributes it to any gentleman of position
PERSONAGE
Address of letter to
Beginning of letter to and reference to
Archbishop
Baron
Baron's aon
Baron's daughter
Baronet
Baronet's wife
Bishop
Countess
Daughter of Duke, Marquis, Earl
Duchess
Duke
Earl
Eldest son of Duke, Marquis, Earl
King
Knight
Knight's wife
Lord Lieutenant (of Ireland)
Lord Mayor*
Maid of Honor
Marchioness
Marquis
Members of Parliament
Officers in the Army and Navy
Prince
Princess
Privy Councilor
Viscount
Viscountess
Younger sons of Duke or Marquis
Younger sons of Earl or Viscount
His Grace the Lord Archbishop of
The Right Hon Lord
TheHon John
The Hon Mary
(If married, the Hon Mrs )
Sir John , Bart
Lady
The Right Rev the Lord Bishop of -,
simply, The Loi d Bishop of
The Right Hon the Countess of
The Lady Mary
Her Grace the Duchess of — — •
His Grace the Duke of
The Right Hon the Earl of — —
Uses the second title of his family, and is by
courtesy addressed as though he held the
title by law
His [Most Gracious] Majesty the King
Sir John
(If a knight commander of any order, its
initials follow name, asKCB.KCSI)
Like baronet's wife
His Excellency the Lord Lieutenant
The Right Hon the Lord Mayor
The Hon Mary S
The Most Hon the Marchioness of
The Most Hon the Mai quis oi
The letters M P are added to their usual
address
Their rank in the service, if above subaltern, is
prefixed to any other rank
Ilia Royal Highnes1* the Prince of , or
Prince , or (if the prince is a duke) His
Royal Highness the Duke of
Her Royal Highness the Princess of , or
the Princess , or the Ducheas of
The Right Hon
Her Majesty the Queen
The Right Hon Viscount
The Right Hon Viscountess
The Lord John
The Hon
My Lord Archbishop, your Grace.
My Lord, your Lordship
Sir
Madam
Sir
Madam
Aly Lord, your Lordship
Madam, your Ladyship
Madam, your Ladyship
Madam, your Grace
My Lord Duke, your Grace
My Lord, your Lordship
Sire, your Majesty.
Sir
According to rank
My Lord, your Lordship
Madam
Madam, your Ladyship
My Lord, your Lordship
Sir, your Royal Highness
Madam, your Royal Highness.
Madam, your Majesty
My Lord, your Lordship
Madam, your Ladyship
My Lord, your Lordship
Sir
*The title "Lord Mavor" is confined to the chief magistrate of the city of London a,ud d, few of the larger citiei
until recently York and Dublin alone
monarchical countries, but common usage has
sanctioned the following forms
The President of the United States is ad-
dressed simply as "The President of the United
States "
Governois of States and ambassadors and
ministers to foreign countries are addressed as
"His Excellency" (the Ambassador from Great
Britain)
The Vice President, heads of executive depart-
ments at Washington, justices of Supreme or Su-
perior courts, lieutenant governors of States,
mayors of cities, etc, "The Hon "
(Vice President of the United States, etc )
Senators and Representatives of tjbie United
States, or of the several States, "The Hon
/' to Which may be added their
official designation
Ex-presidents or othe,r former officials of the
abpve-mentioned ranks are commonly addressed
as "Tke Hon
not possessing another title has been gaining
ground,, although "Mr " is still a
common usage
FOR'MULA, CIIJEMICAL See CHEMISTRY
FORMULA OF CONCORD, See CONCORD,
BOOK OF
FORNARINA, foi'na-re'na, LA See RA-
PHAEL, SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO
FOR'NEY, JOHN WEISS (1817-81), An
American jouinahst and politician J0e was
born at Lancaster, Pa , and at the age of 16
entered the printing office of the Lancaster
Journal Foui years later he purchased the Lan-
caster Intelligencer, and in 1840 he Became pro-
prietor of the Journal and combined the two
papers under the name of the Jn^l^encer and
Journal In 1845 Piesident Polk appointed him
deputy surveyor of the port of Philadelphia,
where he purchased a half interest in the Penn-
sylv&mm, a Democratic pa$>$c of great influence,
which under his editorial control attained a
FORMICATION 34
national importance In 1851-55 he was clerk
of the United States House of Representatives,
and he edited the Union, the organ of the
Northern Democrats He conducted Buchanan's
successful campaign foi the presidency, and
Buchanan would have given him a cabinet office
if the appointment had been moie popular in
the South Buchanan's influence was not strong
enough to win Forney a seat in the United
States Senate, which went instead to Simon
Cameron (qv } In August, 1857, Forney es-
tablished the Philadelphia Press At first a
Douglas Democrat, he became, in the latter days
of the Buchanan administration, a Bepubhcan
and contributed to the oiganization of that
party and its eaily successes In 1859-61 he
was a second time cleik of the House, and he
published in Washington the Sunday Morning
Chronicle, which in 1862 was changed to a
daily, and was thioughout the Civil War looked
upon as the oigan of the Lincoln administi ation
After serving as secietary of the United States
Senate from 1861 to 1868, he disposed of his
mteiest in the Chronicle and returned to Phila-
delphia, where in 1871 he was made collector of
the poit by President Grant He was an earnest
promoter of the Centennial Exposition and vis-
ited Europe in its mteiest in 1875 In 1S77 he
sold the Press and established a weekly, the
Progress, which he edited until his death In
1880 he left the Republican paity and supported
Hancock for the presidency He published
Letters from Europe (1869), 'What I Saw in
Texas (1872) , Atiecdotes of Public 3Ien (2 volt. ,
1873) , Forty Yews of American Journalism
(1877), The "New Nobility (1881) Consult
McClure, Old Time Notes of Pennsylvania
(Philadelphia, 1905)
FOBNICA/TION (fornicatio, from format, an
arch vault, and by metonymy a biothel, because
brothels in Rome were in cellars and vaults un-
der ground) The illicit carnal intercourse by an
unmarried person with one of the opposite sex,
whether married or unmarried In most coun-
tries this offense has been brought within the
pale of positive law at some period of their
history, and prohibited by the imposition of
penalties more or less seveie, but it is now
usually left to the restraints which public opin-
ion imposes on it in every community which is
guided by the punciples of morality and religion
In England, in 1650, duiing the ascendancy
of the Puritan party, the repeated act of keep-
ing a brothel or committing fornication was
made felony without benefit of clergy on a sec-
ond conviction At the Restoration this enact-
ment was not renewed, and though notorious
and open lewdness, when carried to the extent
of exciting public scandal, continued, as it had
been before, an indictable offense at common
law, the mere act of fornication itself was
abandoned "to the feeble coercion of the spirit-
ual court " In a few of the United States the
offense is made a misdemeanor by statute, pun-
ishable by fine and imprisonment, but in most
of the States it is ignored as at common law
Consult the authorities referred to under CEIM-
INAL LAW
FOEO AMMO See FOBUM APPII
FOBREK, fo'ra', LUDWIG (1845-1921). A
Swiss statesman, born in Tshkon, near Winter-
thur, and educated at the University of Zurich
He was in the department of police and then was
cantonal attorney of Zurich, and in 1873 began
to practice law in Wmtertliur He went into
FORREST
politics, became president of the Nationalrat in
1891, director of the central office for railways
in 1900, and a member of the Bundesrat in
1902 and leader in it of the Radical party In
1906 and 1912 he was President of the Swiss
Confederation
FOR/REST, DAVID WILLIAM ( *— ) A Scot-
tish cleigyman, born m Glasgow He was edu-
cated at Glasgow and Leipzig universities and
the United Piesbyterian College, Edinburgh, was
pastor of Safironhall Church, Hamilton (1882-
87), the United Presbyterian Church of Moffat
(1887-94), the Wellington Church, Glasgow
(1894-99), and the United Free Church, Skel-
morlie, Wemvss Bay (1899-1903), and in 1903
became minister of the Edinburgh North Morn-
mgside United Free Chinch He was Kerr
lecturer at Edmbuigh in 1897, publishing his
lectures under the title The Christ of History
and of Experience (1897, 6th ed , 1908), and
was special lecturer at Yale University in 1901
He wiote The Authority of Christ (1906) and
was joint editor of The Letters of Dr John
Brown (1907)
FOR'REST., EDWIN (1806-72). An Ameri-
can tiagedian, long the most famous that our
stage had produced He was born m Philadel-
phia, Maich 9, 1806, of Scottish and German
descent Already he had atti acted attention in
amateur theatricals when, Nov 27, 1820, he
made his fiist regular appearance at the Walnut
Street Theatre, in Philadelphia, in Home's
Douglas By diligence and close study he rose
in the profession and m 1826, at the Park
Theatre, New Yoik, made a decided triumph in
Othello Henceforward his career was one of
distinction, both in this countiy and in England,
where he made his first appearance at Drury
Lane in The Gladiator in 1836 Theie in 1837
he married Catharine, the daughter of John
Sinclair, the singer In later years he became
jealous of her, and the tual by which, in 1852,
she obtained a divorce was one of the most cele-
brated cases of the time His quarrel with Mac-
ready, whom he hissed from a private box in
Edinburgh, was another affair which did him
little honor Much of the odium that has been
cast upon him for the Astor Place Eiot in New
York (1849), which was ostensibly in favor of
Forrest against his English nval, was certainly
undeserved, for that unfortunate outbreak was
i eally one of the episodes of the native American
movement of this period, but Forrest's relation
to the matter was far froim dignified Though
he lost the favor of many of the best people, his
success upon the stage was, nevertheless, uninter-
rupted He had already made a fortune and
built a castle on the Hudson, called Fonthill,
later he established himself in a home in Phil-
adelphia His last professional appearance was
in 1871 He died Dec 12, 1872, from apoplexy,
after an illness of half an hour In his will
he left a large portion of his ample estate to
found a home for aged and destitute players
Forrest has been called essentially a melo-
dramatic actor His robust physique and voice
made the assumption of sentimental parts al-
most impossible In Shakespeare his best rdles
were Richard III, Lear, Coriolanus, and Othello,
but he was even more effective in Virgmius,
Metamora, Spartacus, Damon, and characters of
that range His personal disposition wag im-
petuous and frank, though marred at times by
jealousy and an excessive opinion of his own
merits He was an arduous student of his pro-
FOKBEST
fession and gathered a splendid libraiy, in which
the Shakespeaiean collection was famous Con-
sult Bariett, Edwin Forrest (Boston, 1882) ,
Alger, Life of Edit>in Forrest, the American
Tragedian (Philadelphia, 1877), Rees, The Life
of Edum Forrest, with Reminiscences and Per-
sonal Recollections (ib , 1874), Winter, Other
Days (New York, 1908), id, The Wallet of
Time (2 vola , ib , 1913)
FORREST, FRENCH {1796-1866). An Ameri-
can naval officer, born in Maryland He distin-
guished himself as a midshipman in the War of
1812 and \vas piesent at the battle of Lake Erie
In 1817 he became a lieutenant, in 1837 com-
mandei, and in 1844 captain During the Mexi-
can War he was adjutant general He joined
the Confederates at the outbreak of the Civil
War, was appointed to the command of the navy
yard at Noifolk, and became Acting Assistant
Secretary of the Confederate navy
FORREST, SIR GEOKGE WILLIAM (1846-
I02C) A British administrator and historian
of India He was born in ISTasirabad, the son
of an English captain, and was educated at St
John's College, Cambridge In 1872 he was ap-
pointed to the Bombay Educational Department,
in 1882 was census commissioner in Bombay,
became professor of English history at Elphin-
stone College in 1887 and director of records for
Bombay in 1888, and was knighted in 1913 He
edited valuable Selections from the Bombay
State Papers, especially on the Indian Mutiny
(1897), and wrote The Administration of War-
ren Hastings (1892), The Administration of
the Matqms of Lansdoione (1894) , History of
the Indian Mutiny (1904-12), Life of Field-
Marshal Sir Neville Chamberlain (1909)
FORREST, SIR JOHN (1847-1918) An Aus-
tralian explorer and politician, born near Bun-
bury, in Western Australia He entered the
survey department of that colony in 1865, in
1869 commanded an expedition to the interior
to trace Dr Leichhardt, and in 1870 led an
exploring expedition from Perth to Adelaide
In 1874 he commanded a second exploring ex-
pedition, from Champion Bay on the west coast
to the overland telegraph line between Port Dar-
win and Adelaide, a distance of about 2000
miles He was appointed Deputy Surveyor-
General of Western Australia in 1876, and
Commissioner for Crown Lands and Surveyor-
General in 1883 From 1890 to 1901 he
seived as first Premier and Treasurer of West-
ern Australia In 1901 he became Postmaster-
General in the first cabinet of the Australian
Commonwealth, but in the same year was trans-
ferred to the Ministry of Defense, which he held
till 1903, was Home Minister till 1904, and Post-
mastei -General again in that year He was
Treasmcr in the Deakin cabinet in 1905-07 He
was knighted in 1891 His publications include
Explorations in Australia (1876), and Notes
on Western Australia (1884-87)
FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (1821-77) An
American cavalry leader on the Confederate
side during the Civil War He was born near
Chapel Hill, Tenn , on July 13, 1821, removed
with his father, a blacksmith, to Tippah Co ,
Miss , in 1834, attended school for only about six
months altogether, joined an uncle in the horse
and cattle trading business at Hernando, Miss ,
in 1842, later became a slave trader at Memphis,
Tenn , and by 1859, when he became a cotton
planter m Mississippi, had accumulated a for-
tune Though at first opposed to a dissolution
35
FORRESTER
of the Union, he entered the Confederate army
as a private in June, 1861, and in July was
called upon by Goveinor Harris of Tennessee to
organize a battalion of cavalry, of which, in
October, he became lieutenant colonel Soon
afteiward he was ordered to Fort Donelson,
where he remained until Grant's attack, and
with Floyd and the cavalry escaped on the night
of Feb 15-16, 1862, leaving Buckner to sur-
rendci on the 17th (See FORT HENRY AND FORT
DONELSON ) On July 21, 1862, he was promoted
to be brigadier geneial and thereafter served in
Kentucky for some time under General Bragg
He was transferred to northern Mississippi in
November, 1863, was promoted to be major gen-
eral on December 4 of that yeai, and in Novem-
ber of the following year was placed in command
of all the cavahy with the Aimy of Tennessee
On Jan 24, 1865, he was placed in command of
the cavalry in Alabama, Mississippi, and east
Louisiana, on February 28 became a lieutenant
general, in Maich was defeated at Selma, Ala,
by Gen J H Wilson, and in May surrendered
at Gainesville, his troops being included in the
arrangement made by Gen Richard Taylor with
General Canby In the North he became un-
favorably known as the leader of the Confeder-
ates at the so-called "massacie of Foit Pillow,"
though he unifoimly denied the chaiges that
weie brought against him (See FORT PILLOW )
After the war he worked his plantation for a
time, was president fiom 1868 to 1874 of a com-
pany which endeavored without success to build
a railroad between Memphis and Selma, and
subsequently until his death conducted two large
plantations, one on President's Island and the
other in Shelby Co , Tenn During part of the
Reconstruction peiiod he is said to have been
at the head of the Ku-Klux Klan ( q v ) Forrest
was G feet, 2 inches tall and weighed 185 pounds
A bom soldier, he suffeied not a little from his
lack of education A fine equestnan monument
to him by Niehaus was unveiled in Forrest Park,
Memphis, Tenn , in 1905 Consult Jordan and
Piyor, Campaigns of Nathan B Forrest (New
Yoik, 1868), Wyeth, Life of General Nathan
Bedford Forrest (ib , 1899), Mathes, G-eneral
Forrest (ib , 1902), one of the "Great Com-
manders Series "
FORREST CITY A city and the county
seat of St Francis Co, Ark, 90 miles (direct)
east by north of Little Rock, on the St Louis,
Iron Mountain, and Southern and the Chicago,
Rock Island, and Pacific railroads (Map Arkan-
sas, E 2) The city contains the Crowley Ridge
Institute and a courthouse It is the centre of
a fertile agricultural and stock-raising district,
and manufactures spokes, cottonseed oil, lumber,
cotton, veneer, ice, bottling-work products, etc
The water works, sewage system, and electnc-
light plant are owned and operated by the city
Pop, 1900, 1361, 1910, 2484
FOB/RESTEB, ALFRED HENRY (1804-72).
An English artist, whose pen name was AEF^ED
CROWQUILL He was born in London At the
age of 20 he began to contribute to vaiious
periodicals and afterward practiced drawing and
modeling, wood and steel engraving1 He con-
tributed sketches to Punch, the Illustrated Lon-
don News, other penodicals, and several an-
nuals, and illustrated many books, six of which
he wrote himself Phantasmagoria of Fun
(1843) is representative of jjiis best work, and
some of his other publications are A Bundle
of Crowquills (1854); The Comic Arrthm&tw
FOBBE&TEB
(1844) , The Book of Ballads (1849, with Boyle
and Leech) His eider brothel, CHARLES
EGBERT (1803-50), also employed the name of
Alfred Crowquill Charles was for a time on
the staft of the Few Monthly Magazine and
Bcntley's Miscellany He was the author of
several novels and tales
FOHE.ESTEB, CHARLES ROBEBT See FOB-
RESTER, ALFBED HENEY
FOKBESTEE, FANNY The pseudonym of
Miss Emily Chubbuck, who became the wife of
Adoniram Judson, the American missionary
See JUDSO^T, ADONIRAM
FORSBEBa, fCrs'ber-y', NILS (1842- ).
A Swedish historical and portrait painter He
was born at Hiseberga, Skane, the son of a peas-
ant, and was appi enticed to a house painter at
Goteborg A statue of Minerva which he mod-
eled having procured for him a government
stipend, in 1867 he wont to Paris, where he
studied painting under Bonnat The siege of
Paris, dining which he enlisted in the Ambu-
lance Department, afforded him opportunities
for studying and sketching the stirring scenes
that came under his observation. In 1877 he
exhibited "An Acrobat Family," now in the
Museum at Gotoborg, which contains nude
ligures. of great energy and virility ffThe Hero's
Death" (1888), for which he vias awarded the
great gold medal at the Paris Salon, now in
the National Museum at Stockholm, is an at-
tempt to reconcile the traditional historical
picture with modern painting Afteiwaid he
devoted himself more especially to historical
subjects, and still later to portiaits He re-
ceived a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition
of 1900 and was made Cbevalici of the Legion
of Honor in 1901
FOBSETE, fOr-set'e, or JORSETI, f6r-set'£
(Icel, Fore-seated) The son of Balder, and the
god of Justice, in Norse mythology
FORSH'EY, CALEB GOLDSMITH (1812-81)
An American engineer, born in Somerset Co ,
Pa He was educated at Kenyon College, Ohio,
and at West Point, but left the latter institution
in 1836 before graduating and became professor
of 'mathematics and civil engineering at Jeffer-
son College, Miss He was engaged in engineer-
ing work in the South wpstei n States for several
years, was engineer in chaige of the government
survey of the Mississippi River delta fiom 1851
to 1853, and from 1853 to 1855 was chief en-
gineer of the Galveston, Houston, and Hender-
son Railroad In 1855 he established the Texas
Military Institute and served as its principal
until 1861, when, on the outbreak of the Civil
War, he joined Sam Houston m actively oppos-
ing the Secession movement in Texas After
the secession of the State, however, he offered
his services to the Confederacy and was commis-
sioned a lieutenant colonel of engineers, in
which capacity he performed valuable services
both in Virginia, where he served on the staff of
General Magruder, and in Texas After the war
he engaged in railway engineering and in work
on the Mississippi River and its branches He
was one of the authors of The Physics of the
Mississippi Rwer (1861, new ed, 1876)
FOBSKAL, fm-'skal, PETER (1736-63) A
Swedish botanist He was boin in Kalmar,
studied at Gf-ottingen, and was professor at
Copenhagen In 1761 he took part m a scien-
tific expedition to Egypt and Yemen, where he
collected several hundred plants which had pre-
viously been unknown Seized with an attack
6 FORSTER
of the plague, he died on his journey in Arabia
Among his publications are Dubia de Pnncipns
Philosophies Recetitions (1756), Descriptions
Ammahum, A^ium, Amphibiorum, Piscium, IYI-
sectoruw, Vernnum quce in Itinere Onentali
Olservamt Petrus Foislal (1775) , Flora &gyp-
tiaco-Arabica (1775) The genus Forskalia is
named in his honor
FORSSELL, f6rs-sel', HANS LUDVIG (1843-
1901) A Swedish histonan, editor, and states-
man, born at Gelie He was educated at the Uni-
versity of Upsala, whei e he became an instructor
in 1866 In 1875-80 he was Finance Minister
and from 1S88 President of the Exchequei
From 1879 to 1897 he was a member of the
Upper House of the Riksdag He largely as-
sisted in the establishment of the gold stand-
ard for Swedish currency, and wrote Studier
och Entiker (1875-88), collections of essays,
ftvenges mre historia fran G-ustaf I (1869-75) ^
Anteckningar ur ftvenges yoid'brulsnaring i 16
seUet (1884)
FORST, fOrst A town m Brandenburg, Prus-
sia, on the Neisse, 44 miles south of Frankfort-
on-the-Oder (Map Prussia, F 3) Its chief in-
dustry is weaving cloth, in which 112 factories
engage more than 11,000 hands It also has
tanncnes, and manufactoiies of buckskin, leather
goods, artificial flowers, and dyestuffs Foist
was founded in the thirteenth century It has
belonged to Prussia since 1815 Pop , 1900,
32,075, 1910, 33,875
FORSTEMAETJST, fer'ste-man, EKNST WIL-
JIELM (lS'22-1907) A German philologist, born
in Danzig In 1865 he became chief librarian at
the Royal Libraiy m Dresden His services in
behalf of the reorganization of the Dresden Li-
brary were most important His principal pub-
lications include Altdeutsches Namenbuch (2
vols , 2d ed, vol i, 1900, 2d ed, vol n, 1872),
a valuable and interesting work devoted to a
discussion of old German proper names, the vol-
umes being respectively devoted to names of per-
sons and places, Qeschichte des deutsclien
Sprachstamms (1874-75), Aus dem alien Dan-
zig, 1820-40 (1900), and commentaries on the
Maya manuscripts in the libraries of Dresden
(1901), Madrid (1902), and Pans (1903)
FORSTER, fer'ster, AUGUST (1822-65) A
German anatomist, born at Weimar and edu-
cated at Jena He held piofcssorships at Gottm-
gen (1852-56) and Wurzburg (1856-65), where
his investigations on pathological histology and
teratology gave him a wide reputation His
chief publications include Lehrbuch der patholo-
gischen Anatomic (10th ed , 1875), Atlas der
nwkroskopischen pathologischen Anatomie (1854-
59 ) , Grundriss der EncyMopadie und Methodolo-
gie der Medissm (1857)
FORSTER, EKNST (1800-85) A German art
critic and painter, brother of Friedrich Chris-
toph, the historian and poet He was born at
Munchengosserstadt, Saxe-Memmgen, April 8,
1800, and at first studied theology and philoso-
phy, but, soon devoting himself to art, entered
the studio of Peter Cornelius at Munich He
was employed in painting the frescoes In the
Aula at Bonn, and those of the Glyptothek and
the arcades at Munich, but his reputation rests
chiefly on his researches and writings on the
history of art His greatest discovery was the
frescoes by Jacopo di Avanzo (1376), in the
chapel of San Gioigio at Padua Among his
paintings are ^Hellas Liberated" and portraits
i
of the Duke and Duchess of Altenburg and chil-
dren Among his frescoes are scenes from
Goethe's poems, and scenes from Wieland's
Musanon and Die @razienf Hoyal Palace, Mu-
nich Among his works are Die Wandgemalde
der Sanct G-eorgenkapelle su Padua (1841),
Torschule der Kunstgeschiclite (1862), Denl-
male deufscher Baukunst, Bildnerei und Malerei
(1855-69), G-eschichte der deutschen Kunst
(1851-60), Oeschichte der italienischen Kunst
(1869-78), Peter von Cornelius (1874) Most
of these \\orks were illustrated by woodcuts
after his own designs Pie wiote a life of Jean
Paul Richter, who was his father-in-law, and
edited seveial of his works He died at Munich,
April 29, 1885
FOBSTEE, for'star/, FRANQOIS (1790-1872)
A French engraver, born at Locle, Switzerland
He studied in Paris under the engraver Langlois,
and then entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
where he won the Grand Prix de Rome in 1814
He was one of the foremost engi avers on steel
of his time, and handled tho graver with re-
markable skill, elegance, and firmness He is,
however, often too coldly correct and fails to
render the spirit of the onginal Among his
most important plates are "Francis I and
Charles V Visiting the Church of St Denis"
(1826, after Gros) , "^Eneas and Dido," after
Gue>m (1828) ; "The Virgin of the Bas Relief ,»
after da Vinci (1835), "The Madonna of the
House of Orleans" (1838, after Raphael),
"Chn&t on the Cross," after Sebastiano del
Piombo (1851) 5 and the portraits of Raphael,
Durer, Humboldt, Wellington (after Gerard),
and others He was appointed a member of the
Institute in 1844
FOESTEB, fer'ster, FRANZ (1819-78) A
German junst He was born and educated at
Breslau, in 1868 became a member of the Prus-
sian Ministry of Justice, and in 1874 was ap-
pointed director in the Ministry of Ecclesiastical
Affairs He assisted in the compilation of the
new Prussian Code of Judicial Procedure and
wrote several standard works on Prussian law,
notably, Theorie und Praxis des heutigen ge-
memen preussischen Pnvatrechts (7th ed ,
1896-97)
FtfRSTEK, FEIEDEICH CHEISTOPH (1791-
1868) A German historian and poet, brother
of Ernst, the painter He was born near Kam-
burg, Saxe-Memmgen, and studied theology at
Jena, then chiefly archaeology and the history of
art On the uprising of Prussia against France
in 1813 he joined the Lutzow sharpshooters with
Theodor Korner and, like him, wrote spirited
war songs, many of which appeared in his
Credichte (1838) At the close of the war he
became professor in the school of engineering
and artillery in Berlin, but on account of demo-
cratic writings was dismissed in 1817 He then
worked on various literary journals, among them
the Neue Berliner Monatsschrift and the Vossi~
sche Zeitung9 and in 1829 was made curator in
the Royal Museum of Berlin His writings in-
clude Albrecht von Wallenstem (1834) ; Gus-
tav Adolf (1833), an historical drama, Preus-
sens Helden in Krieg und Frieden (1846), a
severely criticized history of Prussia from 1640
to 1815, and an unfinished autobiography pub-
lished posthumously in 1873, under the title
Kunst und Leben
POBSTEK, fer'stSr, HEEraicu (1800-81).
A German Koman Catholic prelate He was
^
born at Giossglog^u, was educated at Breslau,
took priest's orders m 1S25, and in 1837 was ap-
pointed chief preacher at the cathedral of Bres-
lau In 1853 he was elected Bishop of Bieslau
At numerous synods and councils he proved
himself a stanch defender of the oithodox Ro-
man Catholic creed, although he opposed the
dogma of infallibility at the Council of the
Vatican In 1875, after repeated conflicts with
the Prussian May laws (qv ), in which he ex-
communicated priests who submitted to the
state, and after violent demonstrations at the
tune of his jubilee as a priest, he was deposed
from his see He was a famous pulpit orator
His principal works are Der Ruf der Kirche
in die Gegenwart (4th ed , 1879), Die chnst-
hche Familie (6th ed , 1893), Kardmal Die-
peribrock (3d ed , 1878), G-esammelte Kanzel-
vortrage (5th, ed , 1879) Consult A Franz,
Forstcr, Furstbischof von Breslau (Breslau,
1875)
FOR'STEB, JOHAN GEORG ADAM (1754-94).
A German travelei and natuialist, born at Nas-
senhuben, near Danzig When 17 years old, he
accompanied his father, Johann Reinhold For-
ster, in Captain Cook's third voyage around the
world (1772) and on his letuin collaborated
with him in an account of it, written in Eng-
lish, and entitled Observations upon a Voyage
around the Wotld (2 vols, 1777) After some
time spent in Paris, where he made the ac-
quaintance of Franklin and Buffon, he accepted
a professorship of natural history at Cassel m
1778 and in 1784 was appointed to a similar
position at Vilna He now obtained the degree
of MD In 1787 he was called to Russia by
Catharine II to undertake a voyage of discov-
ery, which was abandoned on the outbreak of
the Turkish War In the following year he ac-
cepted the office of librarian to the Elector of
Mainz After the taking of Mainz by the French
in 1792, Forster, who had become an enthusias-
tic Republican, went to Paris as the representa-
tive of the city, to secure its incorporation in
the Republic. In the recapture of Mainz by
the Piussians in the next year he lost his li-
brary and collections and determined to remain
in Paris, where he died in 1794, while preparing
to make an extensive trip to East India Be-
sides numerous briefer works on scientific sub-
jects, he wrote Kleme 8chn,ften ein Beitrag
zur Lander- und Volkerkunde, Naturgeschichte
und Philosophie des Lelens (1879-97) and
Ansichten vom Niederrhem, von Brabant, Flan-
ders, Holland, England und Frankreich (1790-
91) His letters were published by his wife,
Therese, afterward There^e Huber (2 vols,
1829), and his complete works edited by his
daughter, with a characterization of the author
by Gervinus (1843). Consult Konig (2d ed,
Leipzig, 1858); Moleschott (Hamm, 1862),
Leitzmann (Halle, 1893)
FOR'STEB, JOHANN REINHOLD (1729-98)
A German traveler and naturalist, born m
schau, and educated for the clerical
at Halle In 1753 he became pastor at \
huben, near Danzig, but devoted most of his
time to mathematics and the natural sciences
In 1765 he accepted an offer made to him by the
Russian government to inspect and report upon
the new colonies founded on tibia banks of the
Volga His irritable temper \mm involved him
in difficulties with the Russia^ government, and
in the following year h& 'vtftinfc to England and!
became teacher of natural Mstory at Warring-
PORSTEE 2
ton, Lancashire In 1772 he was invited to take
pait in Cook's second expedition to the South
Seas In 1777 he published, in collaboration
with his son, his Observations upon a Voyage
around the World, containing the infoimation
he had gathered in course of that voyage In
the same year he returned to Germany and in
1780 became professor of natural histoiy and
mineralogy at Halle Besides the above work,
he published Zoologia Indica (1781) and Ge-
schiohte der Schiffahrt und Entdeckungen im
Nor den (1784)
FORESTER, JOHN (1812-76) An English
biographer and political and historical miter,
born at Newcastle He was educated for the
bar, but eaily devoted himself to periodical
writing His political ai tides in the London
Examiner, for which he began writing in 1832,
attracted unusual attention, owing to their
vigoi and outspoken honesty In 1846 he suc-
ceeded Dickens as editor of the Daily News, but
resigned the next year to assume the editorship
of the Examiner, a post which he held for nine
years Among his works- are Lives of the
Statesmen of the Commonwealth (1836-39) ,
The Debates on the Q-rand Remonstrance
(1860), Arrest of the Five Members (1860),
Sir John Eliot A Biography (1864) , The Life
and Adventures of Oliver G-oldsmith (1848,
enlarged, with a slight change in the title—Life
and Times of Oliver Goldsmith— 1S54, an ex-
cellent piece of woik) , Walter Savage Landoi
(1869) , The Life of Charles Diclens (1872-74),
indispensable to the student of Dickens, and the
first volume of a Life of Swift (1876) Forster
was appointed secretary to the Commissioners
in Lunacy m 1855, and Commissioner in Lunacy
in 1861. In 1911 appeared the "Memorial Edi-
tion" of The Life of Dickens (2 vols, New
York), with 500 illustrations, facsimiles, etc
Consult R Kenton, John Forster and his
Friendships (New Yoik, 1913)
FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-86) A
British surgeon He was. born at Lambeth,
London, and attended King's College School In
1841 he entered Guy's Hospital, where he was
demonstrator in anatomy (1850-55), assistant
surgeon (1855-70), and surgeon (1870-80),
and he became a member of the College of Sur-
geons in 1844, a fellow in 1849, and was presi-
dent of that body m 1884-85 He was peculiarly
successful in operations lequired by intestinal
diseases His publications include various pa-
pers in the Transactions of the Pathological and
Clinical Society, and The Surgical Diseases of
Children (1860).
FORSTER, fer'ster, KABL (1784-1841) A
German poet He was born at Naumburg, the
son of a clergyman in that city After studying
theology and philosophy at Leipzig he was ap-
pointed professor of the German language and
literatuie at the Military Academy m Dies-
den in 1807 He completed Wilhelm Muller's
BMiothek der deutschen Dichter des llten Jahr-
hunderts and wrote many poems, several of
which have been set to music. They were col-
lected and published in 1843 His translations
from the classic poets of Italy are also justly
celebrated
FORSTER, LTJDWIG VON (1797-1863). A
German architect, born at Bayreuth He is
chiefly remarkable for the impetus he gave to
German and Austnan architecture by the foun-
dation in 1836 of the Allgemeine Bauzeitung, a
8 FORSTER
review devoted to that subject Among the
buildings elected by him in Vienna are the
synagogue in the Leopoldstadt (1838) and the
Protestant Church of Gumpendorf (1849) He
was also architect toi the Elizabeth Bridge All
his work is in and near A7ienna and is executed
in Renaissance style
FORSTER, RICHARD (1843- ) A Ger-
man philologist and arch&ologist. He was born
at Gorhtz and was educated at Jena and Bres-
lau In 1890 he \\as appointed professor of
classical philology and m 1899 of archaeology at
the Univeibity of Bieslau His works include
Der Rank und die Ruolkehr der Persephone
(1874), Farnesina-8tudften (1880), Scnptotes
Physiognomici G-rceci et Latini (1893), Libann
opera (1903-13), and he edited Monte von
Schwindt's Philostratische Gemalde (1903) and
J C Handke's Selbstbiographie (1911)
FORSTER, WENDELIN (1844- ). A
German philologist and Romance scholar, born
at WildsclmtZj Bohemia, and educated in Vi-
enna He was piofessor at Vienna and Prague
fiom 1874 to 1876 and at Bonn after 1876
One of his most noteworthy achievements has
been the definite establishment of the Breton
oiigzn of the Aitlmrian legend His numeious
publications of the older Fiench wnteis include
Ehe de Saint Chile (1876-82) , Li Chevaliers as
dens espees (1877), Altfranzosische Bibhothek,
vols i-xi (1879-87), Homanische Bibliothek,
vols i-xx (1888-1913) , Die sammthchen Werke
ion CJinstian von Troycs, vols i-iv (1884-99) ,
Wortcrluch m Christian von Troyes (1914)
FORSTER, WILHELM (1832- ). A Ger-
man astionomcr, born at Grunberg, Silesia He
studied at Berlin and Bonn, became professor
of astronomy at Berlin in 1863, and was director
of the observatory flora 1865 to 1903 In 1868
he was also appointed director of the commis-
sion established by the North Geiman Confed-
eration for the determination of standards of
measurement In this capacity he superintended
the reorganization of the German system of
weights and measures on the metric basis He
was elected president of the International Bu-
reau of Weights and Measures in 1891 In 1892
he assisted in founding the Geiman Society for
Ethical Culture His publications include
Populare Miiteilungen (1879-84), JSammlung
von Vorttagen und AWiandlungen (4 parts,
1876-96), Studien zur Astrometrie (1888),
Leltensfragen und Lebensbilder (2 vols ,
1902-04)
FOR'STER, WILLIAM (1784-1854). An
English Quaker philanthropist, born at Totten-
ham He became a preacher in the Society of
Friends, labored in the United States, England,
and France, and in 1846 went to Ireland to
relieve the distress there caused by famine In
3 849 he was commissioned by the Quaker Yearly
Meeting in London to present an address on
slavery and the slave trade to rulers of the
Christian nations, and within the next few
years he had interviews with nearly all the
monarchs of Europe, with the President of the
United States, and with the governors of a
number of the Southern States Consult See-
bohm (ed), Memoirs of the Life of William
Forster (2 vols, London, 1865)
FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWABD (1818-86)
An English statesman, the only son of William
Forster, the Quaker missionary, and of his wife,
a sister of Sir Thomas F. Buxton He was born
FOBSYTH
39
EORSYTH
at Bradpole, Dorsetshire, was educated in
Friends' schools at Bristol and Tottenham, and
entered the woolen business at Bradford in 1841,
where in the following year he formed a part-
neiship with William Fison in that business,
which continued to the end of his life In 1850
he married a daughter of Thomas Arnold of
Rugby and was excommunicated from the So-
ciety of Friends He was defeated m 1839,
when he stood for Leeds, but in 1861 he was
elected fiom Bradford to the House of Com-
mons and continued to hold his seat by succes-
sive reelections until his death Forster at once
took a pi eminent part in pailianaentary debates
and became one of the principal leaders of the
advanced Liberals Pie often spoke on the
question of the reform of the suffrage, and on
the outbreak of the Civil War in America, with
Cobden and Bright, earnestly opposed eveiy at-
tempt to recognize the Confedeiacy, and de-
nounced the government's action in permitting
vessels of the Alabama type to be built and fit-
ted out in English ports In 1865 he became
Undersecretary of State for the Colonies in Lord
Russell's ministry, and in 1868 was appointed
by Gladstone Vice President of the Council on
Education and Privy Councilor In 1869, in
spite of opposition fiom Radicals both in the
Church of England and among Dissenters, he
seemed the passage of the Endowed Schools
Bill, and in 1870 introduced the Elementary
Education Bill, which he had prepared and
\thich is the foundation of the existing national
system of education in England In 1872 he
intioduced and piloted through the House of
Commons the Ballot Bill He visited Turkey
for the second time in 1876 and thereafter took
so moderate a position on the Eastern Question
as to put him partly out of sympathy with
Gladstone In the Gladstone ministry of 1880,
against his own inclination, he accepted the
position of Chief Secretary for Ireland In 1881
he introduced his diastic bill "for the protection
of person and pioperty in Ireland" (passed
Maich 2) During the winter of 1881-82 sev-
eial attempts were made on Forster's life by the
"Ijivmcibles," but he remained resolutely at his
post. In May, 1882, when a majority of the
cabinet determined upon the release of Parnell
and the other imprisoned leaders, Forster and
Lord Cowper, the Lord Lieutenant, protested
and resigned Although Forstei continued to
take part in the debates in Parliament — draw-
ing particular attention by his bold attacks on
Parnell — and was leelected as a Liberal by his
constituents in November, 1885, he acted on
many questions independently of his party, and
opposed the Gladstone Home Rule programme
He favored Imperial federation as early as 1875
and was first president (1884) of the Imperial
Federation League There is a statue of him
m the city of Bradford Consult Wemyss Reid,
Life of the Right Hon W E Forster (5th ed ,
London, 1889)
FORSYTH, fdr-sith', ANDREW RUSSELL
(1858- ) An English mathematician, born
at Glasgow He was educated at Liverpool College,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was
senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman
He was made fellow of Trinity in 1881, was
professor of mathematics at University College,
Liverpool, from 1882 to 1883, and lecturer in
Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1884 to 1895
He was made a fellow of the Royal Society in
1886 and succeeded Cayley as Sadlerian pro-
fessor of pure mathematics at Cambridge in
1895 He resigned this position a few years
later and became in 1913 professor in the Im-
perial College of Science and Technology, Lon-
don His principal publications aie Treatise
on Differential Equations (1885) , Theory of
Differential Equations (1890, 2d ed , 1901) ,
Theory of Functions of a Gompleso Variable
(1893, 2d ed, 1900) , Lectures on the Differen-
tial Geometry of Curves and Surfaces (1912)
He has also published numerous memoirs on
differential equations and the theory of func-
tions, in the Transactions of the Cambridge Phi-
losophical Society and in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society (London)
FOKSYTH, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1837-1915)
An American soldier, bom at Muncy, Pa At
the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted as a
pnvafce in the Chicago Dragoons He fought
thioughout the war successively in the Army
of West Virginia, that of the Potomac, and that
of the Shenandoah, and was four times wounded
m service He rose to be brevet brigadier gen-
eial of volunteers in 1865, was brevetted lieu-
tenant colonel, United States army, in 1867 (for
gallantry at Dmwiddie Court House) and lieu-
tenant colonel of the Fourth United States Cav-
alry in 1881 He was brevetted brigadier gen-
eial in the regular army in 1868 foi conduct in
battle with hostile Indians In 1875-76 he was
a member of the board of officers appointed to
inspect the armies of Europe and Asia, and
from 1866 until his retirement in 1890 was on
staff and frontier service He published Thril-
ling Days in Army Life (1900) and The Story
of the Soldier (1900)
FORSYTH, JAMES WILLIAM (1836-1906).
An American soldier, born in Ohio. He gradu-
ated at the United States Military Academy in
1856, in the Civil YV ar served as captain on the
staff of Major General McClellan during the
Peninsular and Maryland campaigns, was bie-
vetted major for gallant services at Chicka-
mauga, and in 1864-65 was assistant adjutant
geneial of volunteers and chief of staff of Ma-
jor General Sheridan. In 1865 he had attained
the rank of brigadier general of volunteeis and
brevet brigadier general, United States army
He was assistant inspector general of the De-
pal tment of the Gulf in 1866-67 and in 1869-73
was aid to Lieutenant General Sheridan From
1873 to 1878 he was military secretary of the
Division of the Missouri, in 1886 became colonel
of the Seventh United States Cavalry, and in
1894 brigadier general, and m 1897 was retired
with commission as major general He pub-
lished, with F D Grant, a Report of an E&pv-
dition up the Yellowstone River (1875)
EOBSYTH, JOHN (1780-1841) An Ameri-
can politician He was bom at Fredericksburg,
Va , graduated at Princeton in 1799, and in
1802 was admitted to the bar at Augusta, Gsu
He became Attorney- General of the State in
1808 and served as a Demociat in Congress from
1813 to 1818, when he was chosen United States
Senatoi In 1819 President Monroe appointed
him United States Minister to Spain At Mad-
rid he concluded the negotiations £or the sale
of Florida to the United States, On his retuin
to the United States in 1822 lie was again
elected to Congress and was reelected in 1824
In 1827 he was elected Governor of Georgia and
in 1829 was for a second time .sent to the United
States Senate He advocated Jackson s meas-
ures and in 1834= was appointed Secretary of
FORSYTE: A
State and lesigned his seat in the Senate He
was head of the State Department during the
remainder of Jackson's administration and was
continued in office thiough the entire adminis-
tiation of President Van Buren, whose friend-
ship he had won in 1831 when the Senate re-
fused to confirm his nomination as Ministei to
England
FORSYTH, PETER TAYLOR (1848- ) A
British Congiegafaonal clergyman He was
born in Aberdeen, studied and taught in the
University of Aberdeen, and then studied at
Gottingen under Ritschl— who influenced him
probably even more than did F D Maunce —
and at' New College, Hampstead Among his
charges ^ere chinches in Manchester, Leicester,
and Cambridge In 1901 he became principal
of Hackney Theological College, Hampstead
His Lyraan Beechei lectures at Yale University
in 1907 weic published under the title Positive
Preaching and Modci n Mind Pie published, be-
sides The Pet son and Place of Christ (1909,
Congregational Union lecture for 1909), The
Work of Christ (1911) , Christ on Parnassus
(1911), Faith, Fteedom, and the Future
(1912), The Principle of Authority (1913)
Consult Hermann in Homiletic Review (New
York, 1913)
FORSYTH, SIB THOMAS DOUGLAS (1827-86)
An Anglo-Indian legislator, born at Birkenhead
and educated at Sherbome, Rugby, Hailcybuiy,
and Calcutta He was in 1860 appointed com-
missioner in the Punjab, was sent to St Peters-
burg in 1869 about the Afghan boundaries, in
1870 and 1873 uent on missions to Yaikand
which were of gieat scientific importance, and in
1872 had the task of suppressing the insurrec-
tion at Malair Kotla In 1873 he was appointed
envoy to Kashgar and in 1875 was sent in the
same capacity to the King of Burma to effect
a settlement of the question of the Karens.
Consult his Autobiography (London, 1887 )3
edited by his daughter
FORSYTH, WILLIAM (1812-99) An Eng-
lish author, born at Greenock, Scotland, and
educated at Tunifcy College, Cambridge, where
he took his MA in 1837 From 1859 to 1872
he was standing counsel to the Secretary of
State for India, and from 1874 to 1880 was a
member of Parliament from Marylebone He
was editor of the Annual Register from 1842 to
1868 His published works include On the
Law of Composition with Creditors (1841),
Jlortensius (1849, 2d ed , 1874), an historical
sketch of the bar fiorn the earliest times, His-
tory of Trial by Jury (1852.) , History of the
Captivity of 'Napoleon at St. Helena (1853) ,
Civil Liberty and Self-Government (1856),
Jjife of Cioero (1863) , Novels and Novelists of
the Eighteenth Century (1871) , Hannibal in
Italy (1872), an historical drama in veise, Es-
says. Critical and Narrative (1874) , The Sla-
vonic Provinces South, of the Danube (1876)
FOBSYTHIA, for-sith'i-a (Neo-Lat, named
m honor of William Forsyth, a Scottish bota-
nist) A genus of shrubs of the family Oleaceas,
Forsythia wridtssima, Forsythia fortunei, and
Forsifthia suspensa, small Chinese shrubs now
commonly cultivated under the names "golden
bell" and "golden rain " They are hardy and no-
ticeable for then yellow flowers, which appear
before tlie leaves
IT OUT. In the United States all permanently
garrisoned posts, whether fortified or not, are
called forts In 1914 there were 159 of these
a FOUT ANN
posts, some of the most important of which are
desciibed in the following pages For a list
of garrisoned posts in the United States and
foreign possessions, giving post office, telephone,
telegraph, and railroad communication, con-
sult the monthly &my List and Directory, is-
sued by the Adjutant General's Office, Washing-
ton, D C In fortification (qv ), the term fott
is usually applied to a woik entirely inclosed
by defensible parapets and of great stiength,
either by leason of its tiace or its armament If
the trace is the outline of a star, we have a star
fort, if it includes bastions, a bastioned fort
FOKT AD'AMS A United States military
post, situated at Brenton's Point, Newport, R I ,
the site of which -was first occupied for defen-
sive purposes duung the Revolutionary War
and by a permanent gain^on m 1799 In 1914
it was the headquarters of the coast defenses
of Nairagansett Bay and had a garrison of five
companies of coast artillery m 1914
FORTALEZA, fOr'ta-la'za (from Fort Alexis) ,
or GEAR A. The capital o± the State of Ceaia,
Brazil, situated on an open bay, near the
mouth of the Bio CeaiS. (Map Brazil, K 4) It
is regularly built, with broad and well-paved
streets, and is one of the most beautiful cities
of Brazil Though suriounded by a sterile re-
gion, it is connected by lail with fertile inland
sections The harbor is subject to constant
silting and is difficult of access, but these de-
fects die being remedied by extensive harbor
woiks Fortale/a is the chief poit of the State,
and has an active trade in rubber, cotton, drugs,
coffee, sugar, and animal products The first
settlement here was a fort established by Ani-
paro, in 1611, to hold the Indians in check and
to prevent the Dutch from gaining a foothold
in this vicinity. The city is the residence of a
United States consul Pop (est)t 50,000.
POBT ANCIENT A prehistoric Indian
fortification m Warren Co , Ohio, which is now
preserved in a State park Consult Shepherd,
Antiquities of Ohio (Cincinnati, 1887), and
Moorebead, Fort Ancient (Andover, Mass,
1908), which contains a bibliography
FOET ANOXREWS, A United States mili-
tary post, forming one of the defenses of Bos-
ton Haibor, Mass, and consisting of a reseiva-
tion of 33 13 acres established m 1901 It is
9 miles distant from the city of Boston, which
selves as the nearest telegraph and railway
station, there being a post office at the post
The usual garrison is five companies of coast
artillery
POUT ANN. A village in Washington Co,
N" Y, 67 miles by rail north of Troy, on the
Champlam Canal, and on the Delaware and
Hudson Railroad (Map New York, 04) It Is
a summer resort, and manufactures knit goods,
lumber, and condensed milk Pop , 1900, 431 ,
1910, 436 In 16% Fitz-John Winthrop, in his
expedition against Canada, fortified a camp
here A fort, called Fort Peter Schuyler, was
built here by Colonel Nicholson on his Cana-
dian expedition in 1709 and was rebuilt in 1757
and named Fort Ann In 1758, during the
French and Indian War, Captain Robert Rogers
defeated near here the French and Indians un-
der Mann, and in 1777, during the Revolution-
ary War, a small force of Americans under
Colonel Long, fleeing from Ticonderoga, was de-
feated here by the British, who occupied and
partly destroyed the fortifications Fort Ann
was incorporated as a village in 1820
FOBT
FORT ASSINNIBOINE, as-sin'i-bom A
former United States militaiy post situated on
the Great Northern Railway, 7 miles distant
from Havre, Montana The leseivation num-
bers about 222,000 acres In 1912 this leserva-
tion was relinquished by the \Var Department
and turned over to the Interioi Department
FORT AT'KIJSTSON A city in Jeff ei son
Co , Wis , 55 miles west-southwest of Mil-
waukee on the Chicago and Northwestern Rail-
load, and on Hock Kivei (Map Wisconsin, E
6) It is in an agncultuial region and has
knitting mills, meat -packing houses, and manu-
factures hano^b, ventilatoi Sj dairy machinery,
chairs, sleighs, carnages, arid creameiy products
It is go\eined by a biennially elected mayor
and a unicamcial council and has municipal
water works and electric-light plant The city
denves its name fioin a foit built there in 1836
by General Atkinson during the Black Hawk
War, Pop, 1000, 3043, 1010, 3877
FORT BA'KEB. A United States military
post, a pait of the defenses of San Francisco
haibor, and situated near Sausalito, Cal , 6 miles
from the city of San Francisco It was estab-
lished in 1899 and consists of 189966 acres.
The garrison consists of thjee companies of
coast aitilleiy (1014)
FORT BAJtfKS A United States military
post located at Winthrop, Mass , established in
1889 as a pait of the defenses of Boston haibor
It is seven miles distant from Boston It had
in 1914 a garrison of two companies of coast
aitillery and an aimameiit of 10 12-inch breech-
loading moitars
FORT BARRAN'CAS A United States
military post situated in the haibor of Pensa-
cola, Fla , 8 miles distant from the town of that
name It was established m 1870, and connected
with it aie the two subposts of Fort Dickens
and Fort McRee Foit Banancas is the head-
quarters of the Aitillery Distiiet of Pensacola
and has (1914) a gairison of four companies of
coast artillery
FOBT BAY'ABD A United States military
reservation in New Mexico, no longer a gar-
risoned post, but a general (military hospital for
the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis It
has a post office and telegraph station and is 2
miles distant from the railway station of Bay-
aid The military reservation, which comprises
about 520 acres, was established as a post in
1866, but in 1900 was discontinued and turned
over to the surgeon-general for hospital pur-
poses, a detachment of the hospital corps form-
ing its garrison
FOBT BENJAMIN HARRISON A United
States military post located at Indianapolis,
Ind , 10 miles from the city
FOBT BLISS. A United States military
post situated at El Paso, Texas, with a garri-
son whose strength and character vary with
conditions on the Mexican frontier In 1914
all mobile arms of the service were stationed
heie
FOBT BOWYEB A fort, formerly situ-
ated on Mobile Point, at the entrance to Mobile
Bay It ivas built by General Wilkinson in
April, 1813, was garrisoned by General Jackson
with 160 men under Ma] or William Lawrence,
and on Sept 14, 1814, was unsuccessfully at-
tacked by a small naval and land force under
Capt W H Percy On Feb 8, 1815, after the
battle of New Orleans, it was again attacked by
the British, and on tin* llth it surrendered
l FOBT CLABK
Consult Adams, History of the United States,
vol vni (New York, 1889-91), and Lossmg,
Pictorial Field Bool of the War of 1812 (ib,
1868)
FOBT BBA'DY A United States military
post, established in 1822, compiising 75 acies
and located 1 mile horn Sault Ste Marie, Mich ,
and having a garnson of an infantry detachment
(1914)
FOBT BBAG-G A city m Mendocino Co ,
Cal, 125 miles (direct) north of San Francisco,
on the lines of the National Steamship Com-
pany and the Calif oinia Western Raihoad and
Navigation Company (Map California., J3 3)
It contains a public libraiy and has extensive
lumbering mills, canning works, and creameiy,
tank factory, sash and dooi stock shops, and bot-
tling works The city was named after Gen
Biaxton Bragg, who was stationed at the gov-
ernment post then heie, succeeding Capt U S
Grant The watei woiks aie owned bv the
municipality Pop, 1900, 1590 1910, 2408
FOBT BBOWN A fonnei United States
militaiy post situated on the fiontier at Browns-
ville, Tex, for man\ yeais In 1911 it was
relinquished by the War Depaitment and tuined
over to the Interioi Depaitment
FOBT CAN'BY A United States military
post, established in 1864, on the north side of
the mouth of the Columbia River, Washington,
and a subpost of Foit Stevens, Oieg , 10 miles
distant It was originally called Foit Cape
Disappointment, but the name was changed to
Canby m honor of the distinguished officer of
that name, killed by the Modoc Indians Its
garrison was tempoianly withdrawn in 1905-06
while the post was rebuilding and in 1914 was a
detachment of coast artillery Communication
is had by steamei and Northein Pacific Railroad
\uth Portland, Oieg, 114 miles, and Seattle,
Wash , 222 miles
FOBT CA'SEY A United States military
post, situated at Poit Townsend, Washington,
53 miles from Seattle, on Puget Sound, with a
gairison of three companies of coast artillery in
1914 and mounting important coast defenses
FOBT CASWELL, k^z'wel A United States
military post, established, 1825, on Oak Island,
at Southport, N C , 27 miles from Wilmington,
N C , with a gai rison of three companies of
artillery in 1914
FOBT CHIP'PEWY'AN", or CBCIPE-
WAYAW A trading station of the Hudson's
Bay Company at the southwest end of Lake
Athabasca, Province of Alberta, Canada, oppo-
site the mouth of the Athabasca River (Map
Canada, E 5) It is one of the most populous
of the far northern stations, owing to the loca-
tion here of a mission containing about 100
hardy orphans, sent thither to be trained as
future colonists
FOBT CHTJBCH'ILL A trading station of;
the Hudson's Bay Company, at the mouth of fcne
Churchill River on the west shore of Hudson
Bay (qv) (Map Canada, M 5)
FOBT CLABK. A United States military
post, established 1852, on Las Moras preek, near
Braekettville, Tex , which is the post; office The
reservation comprises 3963 acres „ it is 125 miles
west of San Antonio on the Southern Pacific
Railroad It was designed for ^protection of
the San Antonio and Eagle FaaS wagon road
and for the protection of tfoe Eio Grande border
against depredations by Mexicans and Indians.
In 1914 two squadrons w«re stationed here
FORT CI/OTTON A
FORT CLINTON. A Revolutionai y fort on
the Hudson, near West Point, intended to make
the river impassable for the Butish fieet in 1777
FORT COI/LINS A city and the county
seat of Larimer Co , Colo , 74 miles by rail north
of Denver, on the Cache la Poudie Rivei, and on
the Union Pacific and the Coloiado and Southern
raihoads (Map Colorado, D 1) It is the seat
of the State Agricultural College, opened in
1879, and connected with which is a United
States horse-breeding station A theological
semmai y (Lutheian) and the headquarters of
the Colorado National Forest aie also situated
here Othei fea tines include a Camegie libiary,
Fedeial building, couithouse, hospital, and sev-
eral fine parks The city is the centre of a fer-
tile region, watered by extensive and efficient
systems of iriigation It has a laige beet-sugar
factory, alfalfa sad flour mills, brick and tile
works, and a steel-headgate plant Foit Collins
adopted the commission form of government in
1913 The watei works are owned by the city.
Pop, 1900, 3053, 1910, 8210, 1914 (U S est),
10,407
FORT COLTJU'BTJS. See FOET JAY
FORT CROOK A United States military
post, situated on the Builington and the Mis-
souri Pacific railways in Nebraska, and having
(1914) a gam son of a detachment of infantiy
FORT D. A. RUS'SELL A United States
military post in Wyoming established in 1867,
occupying a reseivation of 4400 acres on a
branch of the South Platte Kivei, 3 miles fiom
Cheyenne, on the Union Pacific Railroad The
post was increased to accommodate a bugade
and has for its gamson bodies of tioops vary-
ing in stiength, but usually a foiee of cavalry
FORT DA'VTS A gamsoned post of two
companies, situated 3 miles east of Nome, Alaska.
FORT DEAR'BORH A fort built on the
site of Chicago in 1804-05, well known from a
massacre which occurred near by, on Aug. 15,
1812 On that day the garrison of 67 men, under
Capt Nathan Heald, evacuated the fort, under
injudicious orders from Gen William Hull,
and, accompanied by the resident settlers, some
30 in number, including women and children,
started for Detroit under the escort of a body
of Miami Indians At a short distance from the
fort they weie attacked by an ambushed force of
about 500 Indians, assisted by most of the
escort, and two-thirds of their number were
killed and the rest captured Most of the cap-
tives were subsequently lansomed at Detroit
The fort was destroyed on the following day by
the Indians, was rebuilt about 1816, was evacu-
ated in 1823, was reoccupied in 1828, and was
demolished in 1856 Consult Wentworth, Early
Chicago, Fort Dearlorn (Chicago, 1881), ICirk-
land, The Chicago Massacre of 1812 (ib , 1893) ,
an interesting narrative in Kmzie, Wau-bun, or
the Early Day, in the Northwest ( ib , 1857 ) ,
the version, largely from the Indian standpoint,
in an article, "The Massacre of Fort Dearborn,
Gathered fiom the Traditions of the Indian
Tribes Engaged in the Massacre," by Simon
Pokagon, in Harper's Magazine, vol xcviu (New
York, 1899), Quaife, Chicago and the Old
Northwest, 1613-1835 A Study of the Evolution
of the Northwestern Frontier, together with a
History of Fort Dearborn (Chicago, 1913)
FORT BE FRANCE, far de fraNs (foimerly
Fort Royal) The capital of Martinique (qv ),
situated on the west coast of the island (Map
West Indies, G 4) It has a good harbor and is
2 FORT EDWARD
strongly fortified In 1902 Fort de France be-
came important as the distributing centre for
supplies during the terrible eiuptions of Mont
Pelee (qv ) Pop, 27,069
FORT DE L'ECLUSE, far de la'kluz' A
fortress in the French Department of Am, about
14 miles south of Geneva It was erected by
the dukes of Savoy, but was repeatedly de-
stroyed by the Swiss during the sixteenth cen-
tury Rebuilt by Vauban at the command of
Louis XIV, it was dismantled by the Austrians
in 1815, but ha& been restored and stiengthened
It occupies a crag 1385 feet high, at the foot of
Mont Credo, which commands the passage of the
Rhone from Switzerland through the defile of
the Ecluse
FORT DES MOIWES, de mom' A United
States military post, 5 miles distant from the
city of the same name in the State of Iowa
The post is of modern construction throughout
and is usually garrisoned by an entire regiment
of cavalry
FORT DODG-E A city and the county seat
of Webster Co , Iowa, 89 miles north by west of
Des Moines, on the Minneapolis and St Louis,
the Illinois Central, the Fort Dodge, Des Moines,
and Southern, and the Chicago Great Western
railroads, and on the Des Moines River (Map
Iowa, C 2) Foit Dodge contains Tobin College,
St Joseph's Mercy Hospital, a fine courthouse,
and a Carnegie libraiy It is an impoitant
railroad centie and has great natural advan-
tages In the vicinity are vast coal fields, laige
deposits of glass sand and excellent clay, and
quarries of brown sandstone The city has ex-
tensive manufactures of gypsum and clay prod-
ucts, prints, brick and tile, foundry products,
oatmeal, pottery, shoes, work clothing, etc.
Ihere are also greenhouses, with a large whole-
sale trade, and repair shops of the four railroads
which enter the city Fort Dodge adopted the com-
mission form of government in 1911 It owns the
water -works system Pop, 1900, 12,126, 1910,
15,543, 1914 (U S est), 16,872, 1920, 19,347.
FORT DOlsT'ELSON. See FOBT HENBY AND
FOET DONELSON
FORT DOUGKLAS A United States mili-
tary post in Utah, established in 1858 and
occupying a reservation of 9250 acres at the
babe of the Wahsatch Mountains, 5030 feet above
the sea It was established to prevent depreda-
tions by Indians along the line of the overland
mail route There are a post office at the powt,
and a telegraph station at Salt Lake City, 3
miles distant It is 37 miles from Ogden on the
Union Pacific Railroad and has quarters for
500 cavalry or infantry, its garrison vaiymg in
strength
FORT DTJ PONT A United States military
post in Delaware occupying a reservation of 173
acres opposite Pea Patch Island in New Castle
County The nearest post office and telegraph
station are at Delaware City, Del The garrison
in 1914 was three companies of coast artillery
FORT DU QTTESWE, du'kan'. See PITTS-
BURGH
FORTE, fOr'ta. In music, the Italian term
for loud, fortissimo, very loud or forcible In
scores these expression marks are designated
respectively by f and ff Occasionally a double
fortissimo (fff) is required, especially in piano
arrangements of orchestral works
FORT ED'WARD A village in Washing-
ton Co , N" Y , 56 miles north of Albany, on the
Delaware and Hudson Railroad and on the
FOUTEGUEKRI
Barge Canal (Map New York, G 4) By means
of a dam at this point the Hudson Hiver fur-
nishes good water power, and the village has
extensive paper and pulp mills, a shirt factory,
a brewery, a pottery, etc First incorporated in
1849, Fort Edward is governed under a charter
of 1857, which provides for a president, chosen
annually, and a board of trustees, elected on a
general ticket The water works are owned by
the municipality Pop, 1900, 3521, 1910, 3762.
The site of Fort Edwaid was known to the
French and English in the latter part of the
seventeenth century and the early part of the
eighteenth as the Great Carrying Place because
of its accessibility to Lakes George and Cham-
plain In 1709 Colonel Nicholson, while on his
unsuccessful expedition against Canada, built a
stockade on the spot This fell into decay, but
in 1755, during the French and Indian War,
another fort, called Fort Lyman at first after
its builder, but soon renamed Fort Edwaid in
honor of the Duke of Yoik, was erected here.
In 1757 the survivors of the Fort William
Henry massacre took refuge within its walls
Throughout the French and Indian War and
the Revolution the fort was the starting point
for expeditions against Canada In 1777 it was
for some time the headquarters of General
Schuyler and later was occupied by General
Burgoyne Near here, on July 27, 1777, Jane
McCrea ( q v ) was killed by the Indians. Con-
sult Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (Boston,
1884), "Fort Edward in 1779-80," m the His-
torical Magazine, 2d series, vol 11 (ib, 1867),
The Fort Edward Booh (Fort Edward, 1903).
EOBTECHJEBEJ, for'ta-gwer'rS, NICCOLO
(1674-1735) An Italian poet, born at Pistoia
Being a younger son, he was destined for the
church, and in 1695 he was sent to Home to
his uncle, Cardinal Fabroni, He accompanied
an embassy to Spain, and, now in favor and
again disgraced, occupied successively many ec-
clesiastical offices, being secretary of the Propa-
ganda when he died During his life only a few
of his rhymes and prayers were published His
more important woiks, the CapitoU, the Epistole
poetiche, and the comic epic II Ricciardetto
(1738), wntten under the pseudonym Cartero-
maco, were published posthumously We owe
to him also a blank-verse translation into
Italian of the comedies of Terence (1736) In
his original works, which, as the form shows,
are largely improvised, the comic element pre-
dominates, though bitter attacks upon the mo-
nastic orders are not infrequent Consult the
edition of his works in the Classic italiam
(Milan, 1813), to which is prefixed an Italian
tianslation of Fabroni's biography in Latin, and
C Zacchetti, II Ricciardetto di Niccolo Forte-
guerri (Torino, 1899)
FOBT E'BIE. A fort, formerly situated in
Canada, at the head of the Niagara River, oppo-
site Buffalo, N Y, on the site of the present
village of the same name (pop 1911, 1146) ; the
scene of considerable fighting in the War of
1812 It was abandoned and partially destroyed
by the British on May 28, 1813, and in the
succeeding two months was occupied alternately
by the Americans and the British On July 3
it was captured, with a garrison of 170 men, by
the American General Jacob Brown (qv), and
after the battle of Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814,
the whole American army, numbering about
2000 men, was withdrawn thither by General
"Ripley, who was soon replaced by General Games.
43 EOBTESCTTE
During their stay the fortifications were com-
pleted for the first time The British under
General Drummond advanced to attack, and
fiom August 7 to August 14 kept up an almost
constant bombardment On Nov 5, 1814, the
fort was blown up by the Americans, and it was
never subsequently rebuilt Consult Adams,
History of the United States, vols vn and vm
(New York, 1889-91), and Dawson, Battles of
the U-mted States (ib, 1858)
FOB'TESCTJE, CHICHESTEE SAMUEL. See
C \ELINGFOED, ClIICHESTER SAMUEL FOBTESCUE,
BABOW
FOBTESCUE, HUGH, third EABL FOETESCUE
(1818-1905) An English author and politician,
born in London and educated at Harrow and at
Trinity College, Cambridge Lord Melbourne
made him his private secretary in 1840 Elected
in 1841 a member of Parliament, he was con-
tinued in the Lower House, except in 1852-54,
until shortly before he succeeded to his father's
title (1859, he had been Viscount Ebrington
since 1841 ) and took his seat in the House
of Lords (1861) He was a Loid of the Trea-
suiy in 184G-47, and Secretary of the Poor Law
Board from 1847 to 1851 In politics he was a
Liberal and a Liberal Unionist He wrote
several pamphlets, including Lectures on the
Health of Towns (1845), Official Salaries
(1851), Representative Self -Government for
London (1854), Public Schools for the Middle
Classes (1864), Our Next Leap in the Dark
(1884)
FOBTESCITE, SIB JOHN (c 1394-c 1476)
An English judge, who came of an old Devon-
shire family and received his education at Exeter
College, Oxford He was King's Serjeant at law
in 1430 and m 1442 became Chief Justice of the
King's Bench It is known, from many records
of the time, that in the early part of his career
Fortescue was popular as a judge, but later
fell into disfavor, because he belonged to the
court party, hence he also supported Henry VI
against Richard of York, and later against
Edwaid IV Many of his works were written
to support the Lancastrian claims Until the
final defeat of the house of Lancaster at Tewkes-
bury, in 1471, he shared all their fortunes, and
during the wanderings abroad, where Fortescue
seems to have received the empty title of Chan-
cellor from Henry VI, he wrote, for the instruc-
tion of young Prince Edward, his celebrated
work, De Laudtbus Legum Anglice, a masterly
eulogy of the laws of England At Tewkesbury
he fell into the hands of Edward IV, who par-
doned him He died at an advanced age, but the
date has not been ascertained A valuable and
learned work by Fortescue, written in English,
discussing the differences between an absolute
and limited monarchy, was reedited by Plummer
in 1885, under the title The Governance of Eng-
land His other works are numerous, but have
little interest Consult- Plummer, introduction
to The Governance of England (Oxford, 1885) ,
Gairdner, The Paston Letters (London, 1872-
75) , Clermont's edition of Fortescue' s works,
in which all writings attributed to Fortes-
cue are published (ib, 1869), Foss, Lives of
the Judges (Boston, 1870) , Oman, History of
England from Accession of Richard II to Dearth
of Richard ///, 1377-1485 (London, 1906).
FOBTESCUE, SIB JOHN (ai531-1607). An
English statesman, son of Sir Adrian Fortescue,
great-grandson of Sir John, the Chief Justice,
and a distant cousin of Queen Elizabeth. His
FORT ETHAK" ALLEK"
44
fathei was executed in 1539, but the son— pos-
bibly educated at Oxford— had his property re-
stored by an Act of Parliament in 1551 During
Mary's reign his mothei \\as in favor, and he
was 'appointed instructor to the Princess Eliza-
beth On the accession of Elizabeth lie was made
keeper of the great wardrobe He enteied Par-
liament in 1572, in 1589 succeeded Mildmay as
Undertreasurer and Chancelloi of the Exchequer
a, very lucrative post, was knighted in 1592, and
in 1601 became Chancellor of Lancaster This
post in the Exchequei lie lost when James came
to Jie throne, but the patents for the other two
offices were reissued, and he to ice entertained
the King In 1604 he was candidate foi the
seat foi Buckinghamshire m an election declared
\oid by the Couit of Chancery (because Fortes-
cue's opponent ^as outlawed) , he was returned
on a second election The Commons challenged
the right of Chancery to decide in such a case,
and after compiomise on a third election Foites-
cue was letumcd in 1606 He was an honest
and able admmistiator— -Queen Elizabeth said
he outdid her expectation "foi integrity"— no
mean scholar, and an intimate friend of Sir
Thomas Bodley, whose hbraiy owed much to
Fortescue,
FORT E'THAN AI/LEK A United States
military post in Vermont, established m 1892
and occupying a reservation of 761 acies The
post office is Essex Junction, Vt , distant 2
miles, and the nearest telegraph station is Bur-
lington, Vt (6 miles away) Theie are quar-
ters foi a substantial force of eavahy and artil-
lery and adequate stables In 1914 a full
regiment of cavaln \ias quartered heie
PORT FAIR'FIELD A town in Aroostook
Co, Me, 140 miles noith of Bangor, on the
Bangor and Aroostook and the Canadian Pacific
railroads, and on the Aioostook River (Map
Maine, E 2) It contains a Carnegie library,
pictuiesque falls, and the old fort site The
town is a rich, agricultural region, producing
large quantities of potatoes. Pop, 1900, 4181,
1910, 4381
FORT FISH'ER An. earthwork in North
Carolina, on the peninsula between the Atlantic
Ocean and Cape Fear River, defending the en-
trance to the port of Wilmington In the last
year of the Civil War this was almost the only
port open to the Confederates, and it became a
matter of importance to the Federals to close
it To this end a formidable fleet under Admnal
Porter left Hampton Eoads on Dec 13, 1864,
and arrived in sight of the fort on December 20
At 1 40 A M on the 24th the powder boat Louisi-
ana, laden with 215 tons of powder, was exploded
within 200 yards of the beach and 400 yards of
the fort, but the latter sustained no appreciable
damage Later in the day the fleet opened fire,
and in a little over an hour the guns of the
foit were silenced On the 25th the bombard-
ment was renewed in older to cover the landing
of the land forces under Gen Benjamin F Butler,
but though a reconnoitring force went within
150 yards of the fort, an assault was deemed
anadvisable, and the troops reembarked and re-
turned to James River The fleet, however, re-
mained near the fort, and on Jan 13, 1865,
another military force of 8000 men, under com-
mand of Gen A H Terry, was landed, The
bombardment was renewed on the 13th and 14th,
and on the 15th a joint assault of soldiers,
sailors, and marines carried the fort, capturing
more than 2000 prisoners and 169 gung> The
FORTH
Union loss was 266 killed and 1018 wounded
Early on the 16th a magazine explosion, prob-
ably the result of an accident, killed more than
100 of the Federals and about as many of the
Confederates The Confederates then blew up
their remaining woiks, the control of the mouth
of Cape Feai River passed from their hands,
and Wilmington was evacuated Consult Am-
men, The Atlantic Coast (New York, 1883), and
Johnson and Btiel, Tlie Battles and Leaders of
the Civil Har, vol iv (ib, 1887)
FORT FLAGKLER. A United States mili-
taiv post, a pait ot the defenses of Puget Sound,
situated at Port Townsend, Washington, 53 miles
by boat from Seattle, and having a garrison of
three companies of coast artillery
FORT GAINES See MOBILE BAY, BATTLE oi<
FORT GAI3STES A city and the county seat
of Clay Co , Ga , 140 miles southwest of Macon,
on the Chattahoochee Rivei and on the Central
of Georgia Railroad (Map Georgia, A 4) It
is the centie of a cotton and fruit-growing
legion and has cottonseed-oil mills, brickyards,
fertilizer factories, etc The water works and
olectiic-hght plant are owned by the city Pop ,
1()00 1305, 1010, 1320
FORT GrAR'RY See WINNIPEG
FORT GEORGE A fort, formerly situated
on the Canadian side of the Niagara River
almost opposite Fort Niagara (qv ), and in the
Milage of Newaik (now Niagara), On May 27,
1813, it was taken by an American force of 6000
imdor the actual command of Col Winfield Scott
and Commodore Perry (the commanding officei
General Deaiboui, being ill) On December 10
the foit was evacuated by General McClure, to
avoid an attack by a superior British force
Consult Dawson, Battles of the United States
(New York, 1858), and Lossing, Pictorial Field
Book of the War of 1812 (ib , 1869)
FORT GIB'BOIT A garrisoned post of thice
companies, situated on the north bank of the
Yukon Biver, Alaska, at its junction with the
Tanana Adjoining it is the town of Tanana
(pop, 398 in 1910), and also the St James
( Episcopal ) mission
FORT GRANT. A former United StatCb
military post m Arizona, occupying a reserva-
tion of 42,341 acres, originally called "Camp
Grant," 26 miles from Wilcox, Ariz In 1011
it was relinquished by the War Department
and turned ovoi to the Interior Department
It is situated 2500 feet above the sea, 5C miles
north of Tucson, and was established about 1863
by the California Volunteers as a protection
against the Apaches to the southern line of
travel to Calif 01 ma Old Fort Grant was estab-
lished in 1865, the new Fort Grant in 1872
FORT GRE'BLE. A United States military
post on Dutch Island, K I , in Narragansett
Bay There is a post office at the post, and the
telegraph and railway station is Newport, R T
The garrison in 1914 consisted of three com-
panies of coast artillery The post is named
after Lieutenant Greble, USA, killed at the
battle of Big Bethel, Va , in 1861
FORT GRISWOLD, griz'wold, Conn See
GEOTON
FORTH A river and estuary of Scotland,
The river is formed by the junction near Aber-
foyle of two main head streams — the Duchray
Water, 16 miles long, and the Avondhu, 12 miles
long, which rise in the mountains between Lochs
Katrine and Lomond in the northwest of Stir^
Imgshire (Map Scotland, J) 3) It traverses
FORT HAMILTON
a counti y rich in romantic scenery From Aber-
foyle the Forth winds 39 miles southeasterly
across the Carse of Stirling to Stirling, and at
Alloa, 12 miles beyond, widens into the Firth
of Foith (Map Scotland, F 3) The Firth ex-
tends 6 miles southeast, then, with an aveiage
breadth of 2y2 miles, continues 10 miles to
Queensferry, where it contracts to a mile in
width and is spanned by the celebrated canti-
lever railway budge, 8295 feet long, with t\\o
main spans of 1710 feet each, opened in 1890
A little to the \*est of the Forth Bridge is the
modem naval base of Kosyth The Firth extends
36 miles farther to the North Sea, expanding in
width to 15 miles The river is navigable to
Alloa by vessels of 300 tons and to Stirling by
vessels of 100 tons A canal 38 miles long
connects it with the Clyde Important salmon
and herring fisheiies and numerous pleasure
resorts aie located along its lower course
FORT HAM'ILTOlsr A United States post,
estabhbhed in 1831, on the southwest shore of
Long Island It is one of the principal defenses
of New York City, commanding "the Narrows "
The post-office and telegraph station is Fort
Hamilton, Brooklyn, N Y In 1914 the gain-
son was five companies of coast artillery Dur-
ing the American Revolution the British landed
here prior to the battle of Long Island, 1776
POUT HANCOCK A United States mili-
tary post established in 1892, at Sandy Hook,
N J , and commanding with its high-powered
rifles and mortars one of the entrances to New
York harbor There are post-office and tele-
graph stations at the post It was named after
Ma]or General Wmfield Scott Hancock, USA,
and the fort is the headquarteis of the artillery
coast defenses of southern New York, embracing
also Foits Hamilton and Wadsworth There is
an artillery garrison, and in 1914 six com-
panies of coast artillery were stationed here
Here is located also the Sandy Hook Proving
Giound of the Ordnance Department
FORTH BRIDGE, THE A cantilever bridge
erected over the Firth of Forth at Queensferry,
Scotland, in 1883-90, famous on account of the
length of its spans The two main spans are
each 1710 feet long, and the total length of
the bridge is 8295 feet The towers are 343
feet in height The bridge contains 51,000 tons
of steel, and the whole cost of construction was
about $13,000,000 Consult Philip Phillips, Tlie
Forth Bridge in its Various Stages of Construc-
tion (Edinburgh, nd)
FORT HEN'RY AND FORT DOUTELSOW.
Two forts, 12 miles apart, in Tennessee, promi-
nent in the early period of the Civil War — the
first situated on the right bank of the Tennessee
"River, and the second on the left bank of the
Cumberland River, both standing near the line
between Tennessee and Kentucky They were
built and strongly manned by the Confederates
in 1861 and were the two most important works
in the first line of defense in the West They
weie especially important in that they controlled
the entrance to two avenues by which Tennessee
and the States farther south might be entered
Early in 1862 General Grant, stationed at Cairo,
asked and received permission to attempt their
capture On February 2 a flotilla of gunboats
under Com A H Foote, followed by land troops
under Grant, left Cairo, and on the 4th arrived
before Fort Henry, which was then defended
by 3000 men under General Tilghman A com-
bined attack by land and water was planned for
45
FORT HOWARD
the 6th, but the fort was taken within an
hour on that day by the naval forces alone, some
time before the troops arrived The unavoid-
able delay of the latter enabled most of the
gairison to escape to Fort Donelson, though
Tilghman and about 70 of his men surrendered
with the fort On the 12th Grant moved upon
Foit Donelson with a force that ultimately
numbered 27,000 The fort, having been con-
biderably reenforced, had a garrison of between
18,000 and 21,000, including the commands of
Generals Floyd, Pillow, and Buckner On the
13th Grant began a cannonade, and on the 14th
an attack was also made by the fleet, but within
t\\o hours every gunboat was disabled, 54 men
were killed, and Foote was compelled to with-
draw The Confederates, hoping to open up a
way for retreat towards Nashville, attempted a
surprise on the morning of the 15th They
were at first successful and actually secured a
line of retreat, but they failed to profit by it,
and at 3 p M Grant, who had been absent
during the early part of the engagement, for
the purpose of eonferrmg with Commodore
Foote, then wounded aboard his flagship, ordered
a genera,! advance, drove the Confederates within
their own lines, and gained a position within
then works About 2000 on each side were
killed or wounded in the course of the day
Grant prepared for a general assault early the
next morning, but the. Confederate leaders,
recognizing the futility of further resistance, de-
cided to surrender During the night Floyd
with about 1500 men, Forrest with 500 or 600,
and Pillow with his staff, escaped, leaving the
fort in command of Buckner This officer had
onginally been ranked by both Floyd and Pil-
low, the former of whom, having his unsavory
record as Secretary of War in mind, dreaded to
surrender for "personal reasons," while the latter
\iolently opposed the idea of sui rendering at all
On the morning of the 16th Buckner sent a
message to Grant proposing an armistice until
noon and the appointment of commissioners to
settle upon terms of capitulation Grant re-
turned on the instant the now famous reply
"No terms except an unconditional and imme-
diate surrender can be accepted I propose to
move immediately upon your works " Buekner
had no alternative and at once surrendered the
fort with between 12,000 and 18,000 men, at
least 40 guns, and a great quantity of ammuni-
tion. The terms of Grant's answer aroused the
enthusiasm of the North, where, by a play upon
the initial letters of his name, he soon came
to be known as "Unconditional Surrender
Grant " Consult Official Records, vol iv
(Washington, 1881), Grant, Personal Memoirs
(New York, 1895) , Johnson and Buel, Battles
and Leaders of the Civil War, vol i (ib , 1887) ,
Force, From Fort Henri/ to Corinth (ib , 1881) ,
Swinton, Decisive Battles of the War (ib^
1867) , Ropes, The Story of the Civil War, part
11 (ib, 1898), Steele, American Campaigns
(Washington, 1909)
FORT H. G WRIGHT. A United States
military post, situated on Fisher's Island, 8
mi]es from New London, and forming a part of
the defenses of Long Island Sound. It is the
headquarters of the coast defenses of Long Island
Sound and has a garrison of si& companies of
coast artillery,
FORT HOWARD. A United States mill-
tax y post, established in 100% and occupying a
reservation, of 149 acres. The post office and
FORTIES,
telegraph station is Baltimore It is situated
at North Point, Patapsco River, 17 miles from
Baltimore, and in 1914 had a gainson of four
companies of coast artilleiy
POKTIEB, for'tya', ALO&E (1856-1914) An
American scholar, born in St James Parish,
La , and educated at the University of Virginia
and in Paris In 1880 he became professor of
Romance languages at Tulane University
(Louisiana), he also taught in a number of
university summer schools From 1S88 to 1896
he %vas a member of the Louisiana State Board
of Education, and from 1897 to 1902 president
of the Catholic Winter School of America He
Ttas piesident of the American Folk-Lore So-
ciety (1894), the Modern Language Association
of America (1898), and the Federation Alliance
Fiangatse (1906-07) Besides editing various
Fiench texts, he is author of Le chateau de
Chambord (1884), Gabriel d'Ennench (1886),
Bits of Louisiana, Folk-Lore (1888) , Sept grands
autems du XlXme sieele (1889) , Histoire de la
literature franeaise (1893, new rev ed , 1913),
Louisiana Studies (1894) , Louisiana Foil Tales
(1895), Precis de 1 Histoire de France (1899,
new rev ed , 1913), Histoty of Louisiana
(1904) , History of Mexico (1907)
FOB'TIFICA'TXON (Sp. forttficactfn, It
fortificazione, Fr fortification, Lat fortificatio,
from fortificate, to fortify, from fortis, strong +
facere, to make) That branch of military en-
gineering which has to do with the design and
construction of tempoiary and permanent de-
fenses for the protection of military forces under
fire The subject may be divided into Field
Fortification, which is properly a blanch of
Military Field Engineering, and Permanent
Fortification, the latter being subdivided into
Permanent Land Fortification and Seacoast De-
fense This classification will be observed in
the present treatment
FIELD FORTIFICATION
The chief aim of a commander of a military
force operating in the field is to have his army
not only in the best possible condition, but
in the best position for conflict with the enemy
In spitd of precautions these conflicts may come
about through accident, and an army forced
to fight or in danger of attack must use every
means at its command to stiengthen or fortify
a position which may or may not be of its com-
mander's choosing Often an unexpected colli-
sion of some portion of the force with the enemy
may develop into a general battle The army may
be surprised in encampment More frequently
the commanders of the opposing forces will be
in a general way awaie of the position and
strength of the enemy Each will know whether
on the whole he prefers to give battle or to ob-
struct the pi ogress of his opponent as much as
possible without bringing on a general engage-
ment except in positions affording his army
natural advantages (See RECONNAISSANCE )
The latter course will, in general, be the lot of
the weaker The stionger may also strive to
occupy positions which the weaker must attack
to protect his own supplies The commander
expecting to be attacked will select the best
available position for his troops — one which
the natural advantages of the ground will make
it easier for him toehold and more difficult for
Ms opponent to attack A section of the line
will be assigned to each corps of division of his
46 FQBTIFICATION
aimy The length, of tho section thus assigned
will varv greatly under different circumstances.
Ordinarily not less than six men, including
those in the firing line, supports, and reseives,
should be allotted for each yard of the line
Each subdivision, on reaching the portion of the
line assigned to it, proceeds as rapidly as pos-
sible to fortify — i e , to make stronger its line.
If piacticable, the position of the line will be
indicated by the engineers, otherwise, it will
be inspected as soon as possible with a view
to sti engthenmg it, wherever opportunity offers
In the American Civil War, especially to-
wards the latter part, the troops, as soon as
they arrived on the line, began the construction
of light trenches with their bayonets and cups
In several modern foreign armies the troops
carry as a part of their equipment small in-
trenching spades or picks, with which a iifle pit
or lying-down trench (Fig 1) is- hastily con-
FlG 1 CROSS SECTION OF LYING-DOWN TBENCH
FlG 2 CEOSS SECTION OF KNEELING TRENCH
FlG 3 CBOSS SECTION OP STANDING TBENCH
structed If time allows, this is enlarged, first
into a kneeling trench (Fig 2) and then into
a standing trench (Fig 3) The protection fur-
nished by such a trench is ample against in-
fantry file, as 30 inches of earth will stop or
deflect a modern rifle bullet See TRENCH
The opposing commander, if determined on a
frontal attack, will probably make it at the
earliest possible moment, in order that the de-
fenders may have the minimum of advantage of
piotection from their defenses His command,
too, will probably proceed similarly to strengthen
certain portions of their own line, which must
be held If successful in capturing any portion
of the enemy's line, he may turn their m-
trenchments in order to prevent recapture To
fiustrate these efforts the defender, circum-
stances permitting, will so strengthen his
trenches that the parapets shall be able to resist
artillery fire. This requires a thickness in
ordinary soil of 10 feet or more
The nomenclatui e of the various portions of
the profile of such a work is indicated on the
accompanying cut (Fig. 4) The superior slope
will have an inclination forward of about 1 on
6 m order that the fire may sweep the ground
in front The horizontal projection of the in-
terior crest is called the trace and is generally
used as a ground or fundamental line in laying
off more deliberate fortifications If time allows,
the interior slope of the parapet will be revetted
with sod, fascines, hurdles, logs, sandbags, ga-
bions, or other available material, and provision
FORTIFICATION
will be made for drainage. Trenches will always
be made as inconspicuous as possible. The illus-
trations (Figs, 5 and 6) show a front and rear
view of a shelter trench where precautions have
been taken to hide it from view in front. In
the Cuban and Boer wars many trenches were
47 FORTIFICATION1
There are usually along the line points
naturally much stronger than others. Special
pains will be taken to secure and strongly fortify
these points by the construction of redoubts
( q.v. ) , which are inclosed works, usually polyg-
onal, square, or triangular in shape, provided
FlG. 4. PROFILE OF FORTIFICATION.
made entirely in excavation and were practically
invisible. The ground in front of. the trenches
within the most effective range of rifle fire
should be cleared of everything which would hide
an advancing enemy from view or afford him
cover. Obstacles designed to hold an advancing
with as many as possible of the structural ad-
vantages of regular fortification, and built on
a scale commensurate with the strength and
character of the force by which they are to be
held. These are laid out on the ground in such
a way as best to utilize the natural features in
securing the maximum effectiveness of the ^ re-
doubt at a minimum of labor of construction.
As guides in making these constructions, light
frameworks of wood, indicating the proper cross
section, are made and placed in position at the
angles of the work. In designing the cross
section for a redoubt or intrenchment, it should
be borne in mind that unless the excavation and
embankment are equal in amount, earth may
have to be carried some distance. In construct-
ing such work it is usual to assign tasks to
FRONT VIEW.
enemy as long as possible under sustained fire
will be placed in front of the intrenchments.
The principal modern obstacles are wire en-
tanglements (Fig. 7) and -abatis (q.v.). There
are also trous-de-loup, or shallow military pits,
chevaux-de-frise, crow's-feet, and other similar
FlQ. 6. SHEt/TER TRENCH REAR VIEW.
obstructions. If time allows, a portion of ^the
ground will 'be mined with charges of explosives
(see MINES AND MINING, MILITARY), arranged
to fire automatically upon the passage of troops
over them. In some cases the site for the de-
fensive line can be so chosen that the land in
front shall be marshy or can be flooded by dam-
ming a small stream.
FlG. 7. WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS.
each man or squad. About six feet or two
paces of crest should be apportioned to each
man. After slight experience a man can, tinder
stress, excavate about one cubic yard of ordi-
nary earth in the first hour, provided the lift
and throw are not excessive. The amount which
he can be counted upon to do per hour dimin-
ishes considerably after the first few hours.
Traverses (q.v.) should be built where necessary
on the works to protect portions of the line
which would otherwise be enfiladed fey Are from
a distance. As soon as possible Bombproof
shelters should be dug out or constructed, and
also, if the works are to be held lor many days,
magazines for the ammunition;. The weak
points of a defensive line arfe tlie flanks; The
opposing commander may therefore strive to
capture the line bv attacfei^ it in flank, where
FORTIFICATION
he can bring- a heavy file to boai, and will have
to meet only a small fire It is theiefore of
great importance that the flanks should, if possi-
ble, rest on 01 ncai some natuial obstacle, as a
niaish 01 uwi, which will retard the movements
of the enemy If this cannot be done, special
provision will ba%c to be made for stiongthemng
and holding them
Dm mg the Mexican War (1846-47) and m
more recent Euiopean wars, villages on the line
weie frequently placed in a state of defense
This was practicable because of the general use
of masonry buildings and walls
The artilleiy of the defense will be stationed
in the inteivals between redoubts behind epaule-
inents, constiucted by heaping earth in front
of the guns, or in gun pits formed partially by
embankments and partially by excavation
Provision must be made for a system of
roads in real of the line along which tioops can
be transferred from one portion of the line to
the other, or by which supplies or reserves may
be bi ought, or along which a defeated or de-
moralized portion of the army can retire to a
position in the rear, where it may be reformed
Bridges or other defiles in rear of the line
which may serve as a line of retreat or supply
should be well protected by blockhouses or
bridgeheads at their ends, which will enable a
small force to hold a large one in check while
the army is passing
The fortifications just described aie geneially
known as field fortifications, sometimes as hasty
intrenchments Where they aie more carefully
constructed or improved, they become known as
piovisional, dehbeiate, 01 semipeimanent fortifi-
cations The lattei term is more particularly
applied to the foitifieations constructed around
an important city 01 other aiea which it is
thought may become an object of attack on the
part of an enemy, and which it is desired to hold
at all hazards They correspond to the perma-
nent fortification applied in Europe to cities of
similar importance, the main difference lying in
the fact that the works are maintained in time
of peace in the permanent system, while semi-
permanent works are allowed to fall into disuse
upon the cessation of hostilities These foitifi-
cations will be found discussed later under Per-
manent Land Fortification
The main principle upon \\hich field fortifica-
tions are based is the fact that men protected
by them present hut a small target to the fire
of the enemy, whereas troops not so protected
aie exposed This becomes of great importance
at the ranges at which modern battles are
fought If held by a determined foice they
greatly increase the possibilities of the defense,
and should the attacking force be defeated or
become at all demoralized, would constitute a
base from which the defenders could make a
counterattack They were largely used in the
American Civil and Franco-Prussian and subse-
quent wars, many instances occurring where a
force with their assistance has held in check
one many times larger than itself The general
subject of field fortifications has been carefully
treated in Fiebeger, Text-Book on Field Fortifi-
cations (New York, 1901), and Engineer Field
Manual (Washington, 1907)
PERMANENT FOBTIFICATION
Permanent defense or fortification is the art
of strengthening in time of peace a position
4g FORTIFICATION
winch it is feared may become the objective
of an enemy in time of war Many of its
principles are the same as those upon which
field fortification is based Tne essential differ-
ences result from the fact that the latter depend
on the movements of an army and are con-
structed as their necessity becomes apparent,
whereas in the foiiner an attempt is made to
foresee and to fortify the objective in time of
peace Such fortifications are constructed in
advance because it is not believed that a defense
commensuiate with the impoitance of the inter-
ests at stake can be extemporized in time of
war The same caie is used in the design and
constiuction as in such permanent works of civil
engineering as bridges, raihoads, and tunnels
Especially must they be adapted to the probable
form of attack and to the probable garrison
available for serving them As the result of
improvements in material and in methods of
attack, peimanent fortifications eventually be-
come obsolete in ceitam respects unless amelio-
rated to keep pace with these improvements
The essential principle to be kept in view is that
the works should be ready to meet the attack
when it comes
A country having no coast line is, of course,
subject only to attacks by land One having a
large seacoast rival and no military powers on
its land frontieis is conceined primarily with
seacoast defense The two fundamentally diffei-
ent methods of attack give rise to two general
subdivisions of the subject, viz, Land Fortifica-
tion and Seacoast Defense Most countries
subject to both forms of attack require both
methods of defense
PERMANENT LAND FORTIFICATION
Historical Development The art of fortifi-
cation and the methods of attack which the for-
tifications have been constructed to resist or to
supplement have developed together Each im-
provement in one has found its counterpart in
the other. In different countries the develop-
ment has not always proceeded in exactly the
same way The constructions have been modi-
fied in accordance with the characteristics of
the people and with the topographic features of
the country Piobably the first attempt at de-
fense consisted in the erection of fences or pali-
sades of wood, intended to serve as physical ob-
stiuctions to the advance of the attacking force
These appear in various shapes, sometimes being
made of stakes driven into the ground and con-
nected by wattling, sometimes by weaving to-
gether the branches of the natural growth of the
woods, the entrance to the place being by tortu-
ous and concealed routes These wooden ob-
stiuctions, which were subject to attack by fire
and by battering and cutting tools, were some-
times further fortified by the addition of a
second, and even a third, row of stakes Later
the space between these two lines was filled with
earth (See STOCKADE ) The next general step
was the substitution of masonry for wood.
These improvements were met by the attack
with provisions for escalade The walls were
then increased in height, and escalade became
extremely difficult Battering implements were
developed for the purpose of making breaches in
the bottom of the wall These were met by
placing earth in rear of the wall, bringing it up
to within a few feet of the top, and furnishing
a space for the movements of men at the top
FORTIFICATION5
who could, by throwing missiles from above,
interfere with the ordinary operations of the be-
sieger at the bottom of the wall
As the besiegei became more pertinacious,
this fire from above became of more importance,
provision being made for extending platfoims
out, thus furnishing better positions from which
missiles could be thrown down the fare of the
wall Still further to facilitate the defense fiom
above, towers were constructed at intervals,
from which it was easy to hurl missiles along
the face of the wall These towers weie some-
times made so that they could be isolated from
the main portion of the wall and would not
necessarily succumb to an enemy who had suc-
ceeded in reaching the top of the wall The
besieger, to cope with these means of defense,
utilized covered timber passages to protect him-
self from the missiles from above In this way
he was enabled to reach and attack the wall
with battering and other implements As these
alone became insufficient to overcome the in-
creased resistance of the \\alls of defense, the
besieger constructed high wooden towers from
which he, in his turn, could hurl projectiles at
the defenders on the walls These towers were
attacked by the defender with fire To prevent
them from being burned, the besieger covered
them with rawhide He also made use, either
alone or in connection with these towers, of
high banks of earth, which were gradually
worked forward and higher To meet these
methods and render them more difficult of suc-
cess, the defense surrounded the walls with large
ditches, making provision where piacticable for
filling them with vvater at will
The development of the various foims of bows
and of catapults and other machines for throw-
ing stones, etc, rendeied the conflicts moie
severe and widened the area of contact between
the defender and besieger ( See ARTILLERY )
Many of the walls constructed were most foi-
midable in their proportions They included
sometimes entire cities In other cases they
were introduced as barriers to the approach of a
large section of country, the greatest in length
being the Great Wall of China In Germany
development occurred along somewhat different
lines More intricate protection was made in
many places Houses were developed into cas-
tles, which were placed in naturally inaccessi-
ble positions They were gradually strengthened
by many ingenious devices The house was sur-
rounded by a ditch, the only method of crossing
which was by a drawbridge raised and lowered
at pleasure from the castle Devices such as
machicoulis, loopholes, and embrasures were pro-
vided along the outer wall, from which the de-
fender could attack the assailant while being
himself fairly well covered The passage from
the drawbridge to the interior could be barred
by a portcullis, which was flanked by loop holed
rooms The interior of the castle was provided
with a high tower or keep, capable of defense
after the outer walls had fallen
The foregoing represents, in general terms,
the state of the art of fortification at the time
of the invention of gunpowder. The general
use of the latter caused many changes in the
system of fortification, which gave rise, during
the nineteenth century, to the development and
modification of what is known as the bastion
system of defense This system has exercised
such a powerful influence on the development
of fortification that a brief account of its his-
.9 FOE-TIFICATIOH
tory will be of mteie&t The undeiljmg princi-
ples of all foitincation are unchangeable, but
their application must, of necessity, be af-
fected by every new invention of warfare, me-
chanical or strategical Consequently while the
bastion system, as a system, is practically obso-
lete, its basic features still remain, although in
a modified form and on a correspondingly largei
scale
Much of the nomenclatui e of the art also had
its origin in this system, although many of the
terms are now applied to paits of forts which,
in their present form, do not indicate the
derivation of the word as ongmally applied
Reference has been made to the placing ot
towers at intervals along walls for the purpose
of flanking the latter These towers were either
cucular in plan 01 square, and were known as
roundels The portion of the wall connecting
them \\as called the curtain The mtioduction
of aitillery caused increased thickness and de-
creased height to be given to the walls, and the
roundels were enlarged to permit the introduc-
tion of the large guns With, artillery the be-
sieged possessed an advantage in that they could
leach the besieger at a gi eater distance and
could destroy the vanous material objects the
latter had heretofoie used in approaching the
Avails The besiegers were obliged to discon
tinue their wooden constructions and substitute
trenches of earth to protect them in their ad-
vances They also constructed breaching bat-
teries at a distance oft from the walls for the
purpose of playing on the latter, breaking them
down and making breaches through which an en-
trance could be made to the fort The approach
was generally made towards a tower by zigzag
trenches, but pointing, so far as possible, in
such a direction as not to be subject to enfilade
fiie from any other part of the fort Advantage
\\as also taken of the fact that in the use of
the roundels there ^erc small areas called angles
of dead space in front of the towers which
could not be well covered by the fire from the
to\\er itself This led to an alteration of the
plan to that of a pentagon, known as a bastion
One side of the pentagon was placed along the
line of the wall The angle farthest from the
wall is known as the salient, the two sides
adjacent to it as faces, the two sides connecting
the faces with the wall as flanks
This combination of a number of bastions con-
nected with each other by curtains, the whole
forming an enceinte, is the basis of the bastion
system The bastions were sometimes filled with
earth to the grade where the guns were placed
The top surface of this filling was known as the
terreplem The length and direction of the
faces, flanks, and curtain were such as to enable
the ground in front of each portion to be flanked
by the fire from some other part of the work
In front of the terreplem there was placed a
wall originally breast-high and designate^ as
the parapet Ramps were inclined planes lead-
ing from the terreplem to the main level or the
ground in lear, known as the parade The gen-
eral mass of the enceinte was sometimes called
the rampart, and was of such a height as to
afford the required protection to .the materials
and people in rear On the puter, side of the
enceinte was the ditch The front wall of the
enceinte was the scarp Tt was £ound that with
this exposed to view the ditch could be reduced
by the fire of artillery at a distance The outer
portion — Le, the counter warp— therefore, was
FORTIFICATION «
raised to such a relative height that the ma-
sonry of the scarp could not be breached except
by batteries coming to the crest of the counter-
scarp The ground in front of the counterscarp
is the glacis A depressed road, known as the
cohered way, running around the work on the
counterscarp, was added
As the weak points of the system were de-
veloped by attacks, efforts were made to
strengthen them A crescent-shaped work
known as the demilune was placed in front of
the curtain, and the ditch and covered way
were extended around in fiont of it To permit
its faces better to be flanked, it was given the
shape of a redan, and is now generally spoken
of as the ravelin The redan (qv ) in its
simplest' form is constructed of two paiapets of
earth, built so as to form a salient angle, hav-
ing the apex pointing in the direction of the
enemy It enabled the defense with its fire to
enfilade and sometimes to take in reverse bat-
teries which the besieger had succeeded in erect-
ing on the counterscarp for the purpose of
taking the adjacent bastions It left, however,
the curtain scarp exposed to distant fire As
a defense to this, a detached work, or tenaille,
was constructed in the ditch in front of the
curtain The gates of the work weie usually
placed in the middle of the curtain, openings
being made through the tenaille for the de-
fenders to reach and leturn fiom the ravelin
The passageway through the dztch in front of
the tenaille was sometimes protected with a
small earthwoik on eithei side As the height
of the parapet above the terreplem giadually
increased, becoming a breastheight wall in name
only, there was added immediately in rear a
small earthen platform known as a banqttette,
on which the infantry troops could stand in
delivering their fire As a result of the in-
creased power of guns, the length of each front
increased As the fire became more accurate,
greater attention was paid to bringing a cross
fire on every portion of the work outside of
the enceinte The bastions were enlarged at the
expense of the curtains Provision was made
for works inside the fort, which could be held
after the fall of the bastion itself Tliose
erected in the bastion proper were known as
cavaliers The function of the covered way was
enlarged The covered way itself was increased
in size both at its salient and reentrance, the
enlargements being known respectively as salient
and reentrant places of arms These served as
rallying points for large numbers of defenders,
who rushed out in sorties afc times when it was
thought a counterattack would most embarrass
the besieger
Palisades and other obstacles were introduced
on the glacis It was seen that as the fronts
were made smaller and increased in number,
the general outline of the work approached
moie nearly to a circle, the adjacent fronts
came nearer to being on the same straight line
and capable of supporting each other better in
resisting attacks More attention was given to
the use of the most effective angles in the
bastion and corresponding protection of the
faces and flanks Casemates were constructed
in the flanks of the bastions for the better flank-
ing of the ditches To render it more difficult
to enfilade the covered way, its crest was made
en cremaiUere Short traverses were m some
cases added Redoubts were added in the rave-
lin The accompanying illustration indicates
0 FORTIFICATION
a typical arrangement of the bastion system
towards the end of the eighteenth century
( See Plate of FORTIFICATION, Figs 1, 1 a, and
1 b ) The bastion system was used foi many
years, both for laige and small works In
some instances the wall around a whole city,
such as that of Paris, consisted of a gieat num-
ber of bastion fronts, while in other cases many
small forts, containing all the essentials for
their own defense, weie constructed An ex-
ample of the latter is sho^n m the illustration
of Fort Issy, one of the outer defenses of Paris
It is not practicable m an article of this
length to cite the names of the vanous engi-
neers who weie prominent in the development
of the featuies of the system It would, how-
ever, be incomplete without mentioning a few
of the more celebrated Albert Durer, the fa-
mous painter, is credited with great improve-
ment in the development of roundels It is not
known who fiist suggested the change to bas-
tions Daniel Speckles, an engineer in Strass-
burg in the sixteenth century, devoted much
thought to the development of the system and
enunciated many principles, the force of which
was not fully recognized until a centuiy or
more after his death The system first became
laigely developed practically in Italy, and then
throughout Europe, as a result of the fact that
many Italian engineers were employed to de-
velop the system of defenses in other countries
As the system was adopted elsewhere, eliaractei-
istic national changes were made in it In
Spain the covered way, which is very essential
wheie an active defense is desired, was little
used and sometimes omitted Provisions for de-
laying the besieger by more gradual retirement
were increased, while those for actively attack-
ing him were diminished
In. Holland the nature of the country led to
the use of wide wet ditches. The lack of earth
resulted in the use of lower parapets, the main
one being sometimes supplemented by a lower
one in front for the purpose of covering with its
fire the wet ditch The works were frequently
increased in number and made of more compli-
cated plan, rendering an attack more difficult
by an assailant unfamihai with the ground
One of Holland's most distinguished mihtaiy
engmeeis was Baron Coehoorn (qv) In
France the art of fortification by the bastion
system was reduced to precise rules The first
French author of prominence was Bar-le-Duc,
who lived m the latter part of the sixteenth
century Marshal Vauban (qv ), more gen-
erally known than any other engineer in any
country as an exponent of the system, was a
constructing engineer and a general rather than
a writer He is said to have actually besieged
over 50 forts, built 35 new ones, and improved
some 300 old ones He also developed the use
of ricochet fire and of parallels connecting at
intervals the approaches for the attack of forts
The approaches afforded additional opportuni-
ties for the establishment of breaching batteries
Later came General Carmontaigne? who brought
the bastion system to its most highly developed
state
Soon afterward ideas made their appearance
which have since resulted in the development
of simpler but stronger fortifications Monta-
lembert in France recognized the defects of the
bastion system and took the position that a
siege had become primarily an artillery contest
He proposed a large use of casemates, which
FOBTIFICATION
should protect the guns from covered fire In-
stead of relying upon bastions in the salients
for a flanking fire, he advocated the placing of
low caponieres extending from the middle of
each front into the ditch His ideas did not
meet with favor in his own country foi many
years, but were utilized and developed in Ger-
many into what became known as the polygonal
system of defense In Sweden the habits and
experience of the country led to the development
of land fortifications similar to those of ships
The Swedes placed their guns in casemated bat-
teries in two or more tieis for their land forti-
fications, as well as for coast defense In Ger-
many the bastion system had never met with
51 POBTIEICATION
vanced example of its use in the enceinte of a
large city is in the one constructed on the north,
east, and south sides of Antwerp, Belgium Af-
ter the bastion and polygonal systems, what
is known as the tenaille system was considered
as the next most important type of construction
It consisted of a succession of redans joined to
each other, giving an alternation of salient and
reentrant angles The main idea was that each
face should flank the giound in fiont of the
adjacent one While stoutly advocated on
theoretic grounds, the system was nevei largely
applied in practice
The many years of war at the beginning of
the nineteenth centuiy in Europe furnished a
FlQ 8 PORT IS8Y — A DETACHED BASTIONED FORT
great favor It is here that we find the first
extensive use of the polygonal system The
latter differs from the bastion system in the
omission of the bastions and the prolongation
of the main faces to the angles It has the
advantage of saving the labor and ingenuity
sometimes required to find suitable locations
for the various sides of the bastions The main
faces of the fort adapt themselves more readily
to the site A ditch is provided in front of
the enceinte, and a capomere — i e , a casemated
work — is pushed out from the middle of each
face into the ditch, having a, good flanking fire
on the latter It, m its turn, is protected from
a distant fire by its relative lowness as com-
pared with the covered way, or with a ravelin
or other outwork placed in front of it The
system was used both for the construction of
individual forts and of large enceintes sur-
rounding great cities Perhaps the most ad-
practical test of the foitification systems as they
were in existence and developed their defects
It was found that the inclosed enceintes were
not large enough to hold a sufficient number of
troops and supplies They were too close to the
cities to protect the latter from bombardment
as the range of the guns increased They ex-
ercised little influence outside of the reach of
their own guns, as they did not contain room
enough for a garrison larger than needed for
their own service Unless a number of them
surrounded the objective, the large armies sim-
ply ignored them by passing out of range of
their guns in advancing on the mam objective
The scope of the foitification was, therefore,
enlarged by building, in advance of the main
enceinte, small forts containing all the ele-
ments of defense A line of these forts located
on the more critical pomts mclosed the ground
necessary for the encampment of a large army
FORTIFICATION £
The new system was known as that of intrenched
camps As greater use was made of curved fire,
it became desirable to expose less and less ma-
sonry in the scarp walls of the individual foits
In the development of the system of intrenched
camps the different countries usod different
designs for the small forts As the lange of the
artillery guns increased, it became evident that
the fate of the siege depended less and less on
the small, carefully arranged niceties which had
been of such value in earlier days The outer
works became simpler and stronger As the
range of the aitillery was increased still further
by the introduction of longer and moie accurate
guns, and of shells containing explosives, addi-
tional bombproof cover in which the defending
troops could remain when off duty became moie
important It \\as becoming possible for the
defendei to compel the attacker to use his bat-
teries at a lange nearer to that of ordinary
vision It was found that the high forts and
traverses furnished him with an excellent taiget,
and this led to attempts to render the forts
more neaily invisible They were made lower
and their outer appearance harmonized moie
closely with the general surface of the ground
The fire of the guns was then found to attract
the artillery fire of the attackei The guns
were taken out of the forts or icdoubts and
placed in batteries in the mteivals between the
forts, every attempt being made to conceal then
actual position fiom the attackei
The defense of Sebastopol in 1854 and 1855,
the Civil War in the United States, and the
Russo-Tuikish War m 1877-78 showed the gieat
value of \\oiks adapted to the site, simply and
strongly built, ^ ith a view to meeting the latest
phases of the attack
The moie recent introduction of smokeless
powder still further emphasized the advantage
of invisibility in the works The redoubts have
now become essentially a place for the develop-
ment of infantry fire supplemented by machine
guns, and in some cases small rapid-ine guns
The use of the interior enceinte is becoming less
general as the outer line of batteries becomes
stronger
It is apparent that the art of fortification de-
veloped slowly but gradually and progressively
for many centuries, but it has been within the
last century and a half that radical changes
have taken place New conditions are con-
stantly arising, and it is impracticable to in-
dicate what the ait \\ill be in another century
Improvements have been made in recent years
in range finders and in the methods of indirect
fire control, enabling artillery to fire from hidden
positions Doubtless it will soon be necessary
to take into moie serious consideration the use
of air craft An interesting account of the de-
velopment of the old-type fortifications is given
in Viollet-le-Due, Histoire d'une forteresse
(Pans, 1873) A full account of the historical
development of the various systems of fortifica-
tion will be found m Waolicnoh Text-Book of
Fortification, part 11 (London, 1893)
Modern Permanent Land Fortification
The modern system of permanent land fortifica-
tion consists of the use of forts d'airet and of
intrenched camps The former are individual
forts, complete m themselves, for small or me-
dium-sized garrisons, and are placed for the pro-
tection of defiles, such as mountain passes, and
of the frontier (See FKONTIEE, MILITARY ) The
intrenched camp, which has taken the place of
2 FORTIFICATION
the old continuous enceinte as a fortification
for cities and positions which it is desired to
fortify m advance, consists primarily of an
outer line of foits and batteries The distance
of this line fiom the city to be defended varies
greatly in diffeient places Six thousand yards.
may be taken as a tvpical distance with modern
aitillon The main conditions to be fulfilled
in determining the distance are that the works
shall be so far to the fioiit that the city cannot
be bombarded trom any position outside of them
without coming undei their fire, and that they
shall be far enough out to provide sufficient
room m their mtenoi for the movements of the
army to occupy the place The accidents of the
ground geneiaily control their exact position A
woik will be \vithrlrawn or pushed out consider-
ably, as the case may be, for the sake of secur-
ing" a commanding pobition The forts or re-
doubts are now aiianged essentially for a de-
fense of mfantiy and machine-gun fire They
aie placed at such distance apart along the
cncle as to enable them to be mutually support-
ing Twenty-five huiidied yards may be taken
as a typical distance Batteries foi guns and
howitzers aie established m suitable positions
in the mteivals between them The guns used
laiely exceed 7 inches in calibre, howitzers of
the same or slightly larger calibre are used The
batteries must be so placed that the guns can
bear directly on assaulting troops
Theie aie difleiences in the practice and views
of engmeeis in the various Euiopean countries
as to the exact functions of the forts and "bat-
ten es Accoiding to the practice of some, no
guns larger than six-pounders are mounted in
the foits An example of a typical fort on these
lines is shown on the accompanying plate (Fig
3) Others provide for placing laiger guns
m the forts themselves The use of iron armor
is advocated by some as protection for such
guns Cupolas for 5 9-inch guns, 4 7-inch guns,
and for 8 2-inch lifted mortars were established
in the triangular forts built for the defenses
of Bucharest It seems to be acknowledged gen-
erally that it is no longer desirable to maintain
laige guns behind oidmary parapets in the
foits It has not yet been settled, by war ex-
perience, whether it is better to keep them in
the fort in cupolas or to take them out, plac-
ing them in detached batteiies, probably the
consensus of opinion is m favor of the latter
method The former certainly has the dis-
advantage that the besieger in attacking a
foit attacks both the infantry and artillery
of the defense In general, the individual
forts are designed for a ganison of about one
battalion of infantry, an example of a typical
battery being shown herewith.
It is intended to construct an infantry parapet
in time of wai across the intervals between the
forts and batteries, sometimes running in front
of them Openings must of course be provided
in tins line to permit the egress of the troops
making sorties Ariangements aie made for
dealing the giound for some distance in front
of the foits and batteries, and for the necessary
accessories of the defense, including sxich artifi-
cial means as towers or balloons, to assist in ob-
seiving the enemy's movements, searchlights
with which to illuminate his works at night;
and for the zunning of telegraph lines, roads,
and railroads In many cases it is the practice,
instead of doing all these things m advance, to
have projects propaied which include the most
FORTIFICATION
1 FORT SUMTER IN 1861. 2. CASTLE WILLIAM, GOVERNOR'S ISLAND. NEW YORK,
1. f-OKI bUMitK IODI. ^^ A MODERN UNITED STATES MORTAR BATTERY.
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O 3
CC O
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JFOBTIEICATIOE"
up-to-date plans for them France, Germany,
Russia, Austria, all have cities fortified on the
above general lines In many cases, however,
the cities were first fortified earlier, and the
present fortifications are modifications of the
old ones, conforming as near as may be to the
modern ideas Most of the cities, in addition,
to being defended on the lines indicated, are pro-
vided with an interior enceinte, which is an
additional security against surprise by any
operation of the enemy's troops which may suc-
FlG 9 MODERN BATTERY
1 and 3, ammunition and stores, 4 and 5, guns,
ceed m forcing the outer line Many engineers
are of opinion that an interior enceinte is no
longer ^necessary, that if anything be placed
inside it should be simply in the nature of a
palisade or similar work, to prevent surprise
Still, the fact remains that most of the cities
fortified as intrenched camps have also the
enceinte
PROVISIONAL FOBTIFICATION
Provisional fortification is the same m its
function as permanent fortification It is some-
times known as semipermanent fortification,
sometimes as deliberate fortification It is used
either to complete a system of permanent works
which are not complete when war breaks out,
or to defend a totally new position that might
have been provided with permanent works had
it been known definitely that an attack was to
be made. Probably the most notable and exten-
sive use of provisional fortification was m the
defenses of Washington during the Civil War
The interior cities of the United States are not
defended by permanent land works It is gen-
erally believed that they are not required for
coping with any foreign foe likely to attack the
United States During the Civil War, however,
when the country divided into two parts, the
two capitals being so close together as Wash-
ington and Richmond were, it became of the
utmost importance that Washington should be
provided with strong fortifications In general
the forts were placed at intervals of about
1000 yards, and every prominent point waa oc-
cupied by inclosed works, every important ap-
proach or depression of ground seen from the
forts swept by field guns, and the whole con-
nected by infantry trenches The works were
gradually constructed as the war went on, were
carefully executed, provided with timber maga-
zines for the ammunition, and with the neces-
sary traverses, bombproof shelters, and other
essential features 'The success 6f tlx6 semiper-
53 FOBTIEICATION
manent works of the Civil War, those used by
the Turks at Plevna, and of some other works
constructed only shortly befoie hostilities has
caused much attention to be paid to the value
of this class of woiks
Blockhouses. In some countries — as, e g.,
in the case of the Spanish in Cuba during the
latot insurrection — many towns \\ere surrounded
by blockhouses placed in commanding positions
and within short distances of each other im-
mediately outside the cities and towns They
were also used in
connection with the
construction of the
famous Trocha and
in the vicinity of
many sugar mills
and other valuable
properties Much
ingenuity was dis-
played in the con-
struction of these
houses, the system
being developed
probably more fully
than ever before
They were some-
times fiame struc-
tures, sometimes
masonry, sometimes
of boiler iron, and
, shelter casemate consisted of either
one or two stories
Blockhouses are well adapted for use where the
enemy from whom the attack is expected is not
provided with artillery of sufficient power to
demolish them They were largely used by the
British in South Africa
Bibliography. For fuller details on the sub-
lect of pei manent land foitifications, the reader
should consult Mahan, Pei manent For tifications,
revised by Mercur (New Yoik, 1887) , Wool-
wich, Text-Book of Fortification, and Military
Engineering, ]y&ii\\\ (London,, 1893) , Lewis, Per-
manent Fortification for English Engineers
(Chatham, 1890), Clarke, Fortification (Lon-
don, 1907)
COAST DEFENSE
Coast defense, in its broadest sense, implies
the defense of the coast against hostile attack
This may be made against fortified places by a
hostile naval fleet, alone or in conjunction with
a landing force j or a landing may be attempted
in an out-of-the-way place by a large army
brought in transports convoyed by naval vessels
The latter will probably not be attempted unless
the fleet protecting the tiansports is stronger
than any fleet by which it will probably be at-
tacked Such an attack must be resisted by a
stronger army on shore and becomes, therefore,
largely a problem in land warfare Coast de-
fense, which is discussed fully from the strate-
gic and tactical point of view in another arfecle
(see COAST DEFENSE), as it is generally under-
stood, has to do only with the resistance of at-
tacks made by fleets It generally resolves itself
into an attack upon a harbor This may be
made for the purpose of securing control of the
harbor as a base of opei atio# ana ^supply for the
hostile fleet, or for the purpose of forbidding its
use by the force of the f country *tt&cked, it may
be to secure possession of naval docks, yards,
and arsenals m the harbor, to prey upon com-
mercial vessels, or to attadfcc asa inferior naval
3FOBTIPICATIOW
54
fleet which has taken refuge therein The prob-
lem varies greatly, depending upon the popula-
tion of the country, the occupations of its
people, its resources, and the extent of its coast
line Fiance and Germany in the War of 1870-
71 closed their ports for their own traffic as well
as that of other countries and carried on their
war entirely on land, neither being in a position
to attack the other by sea England, being
largely dependent upon other countries for her
food supply, is therefore bound, for the preserva-
tion of her existence, to piotect her commerce
on the seas This policy imposes upon her the
maintenance of an enoimous navy, which was
held for many years to be a sufficient protection
against any attack that might be made on her
shores She has also, however, adopted the
policy of fortifying her principal harbors The
problem for the United States is at the other
extreme She has an enormous coast line and a
relatively small navy It has been her policy
to fortify her principal harbors, seacoast cities,
railroad terminals, and navy yards, and to
leave her navy as free as possible for offensive
operation Guns afloat have an offensive advan-
tage over guns ashore because of their mobility,
but for defensive purposes the guns on shore
have corresponding advantages over those afloat
They aie mounted much more economically,
gun for gun, can be fired farther and more ac-
curately, and cannot be tucked away from the
place they are intended to defend Under modern
methods of mounting they present an extremely
small exposure to the enemy, whereas the entire
ship of the enemy becomes their target
Historical Development At the outbreak
of the Revolutionaiy War few ports in the
United States had been provided with fortifica-
tions such as had been built were small and
weak earth forts Throughout the early years
of the war England's ships were comparatively
free to come and go as they pleased, a notable
exception being the instance of the repulse of
the British fleet by a small fort on Sullivan's
Island, Charleston harbor Between the Revolu-
tionary War and the War of 1812 some atten-
tion was given to the necessity for fortifying
the coast, and a few defensive works weie built
The best known of these to-day are Fort Jay
( q v ) and Castle William, on Governor's
Island, New York harbor, which have endured
to the present date, although now of little de-
fensive value During the War of 1812 the
English blockaded New York and Boston, but
were not able to- occupy them, but the damage
and demoralization caused by their depreda-
tions in Long Island Sound and Chesapeake
Bay, to which was added the damage wrought
on the city of Washington, produced a deep im-
pression on the public mind as to the necessity
for a regular system of fortification Shortly
after this war the general subject was care-
fully studied by the Board of Engineers of the
Army, and work continued to be earned on
under the comprehensive system which they in-
augurated until the time of the Civil War
Many of the principles which they formulated
are still applicable, the general piinciples under-
lying their plans, as stated, being as follows:
"The means of defense for the seaboard of the
United States, constituting a system, may be
classed as follows First, a navy, second, forti-
fications, third, interior communications by
land and water , and fourth, a regular army and
well-organized militia. Fortifications must ctee
all important haibois against an enemy and se-
cure them to our military and comnieicial
marine, second, must deprive an enemy of all
strong positions where, protected by naval su-
periority, he might fix permanent quaiteis in
our territory, maintain himself during the war,
and keep the whole frontier in perpetual alarm,
third, must cover the great cities fiom attack,
fourth, must prevent as far as practicable the
great avenues of interior navigation from being
blockaded at their entrances to the ocean, fifth,
must cover the coastwise and interior naviga-
tion by closing the harbors and the several inlets
fiom the sea which intersect the lines of commu-
nication, and thereby further aid the navy in pro-
tecting the navigation of the country, and sixth,
must protect the great naval establishments "
Reference has been made to Montalembert and
his influence upon the art of fortification in
Europe He had attracted particular attention
to the utility of casemates, which were from
that time forward fieely used for many years
m the flank defense of land fortifications They
were also deemed paiticularly applicable to
seacost works, and were used for this purpose
in France, England, and Sweden The first
prominent example of their use in the United
States was in old Castle William, which stands
as a type of the masonry scacoast fortress of the
early part of the nineteenth century Where
used for land fortification, the condition had
been imposed that the niasoniy should not be ex-
posed to the fiie of guns, as its destruction was
considered to be only a matter of time The con-
ditions covering the naval attacks of the period
in question were, in certain respects, different
The ships were of wood and carried a large
number of guns The general idea of fighting
consisted in bringing as many guns as were
needed on land into a comparatively small space
where the channels were narrow. The attack,
instead of being a matter of weeks, as in land
fortifications, was expected to be a matter of
hours The wooden sides of the ships were
paiticularly vulnerable, and by putting the shore
guns behind walls of stone they were in position
to fire much longer than those on ships The
casemate lent itself to this style of defense,
in that by using it the guns could be placed tier
on tier, and even at narrow and restricted sites
many guns could be emplaced
The guns were usually mounted one to each
casemate The scarp wall in front was given a
thickness designed to resist the projectiles then
in use on ships In the latter works this thick-
ness was about 8 feet The walls were
thoroughly braced by the sides and tops of the
casemates Much study and attention was given
to details, gradual improvements being made
permitting a reduction in the size of the em-
brasures through which the guns were fired and
an increase in their angle of fire The guns
were arranged in the more recent works for a
traverse of 30° each way, making a total of
60°, which led to the construction of works in
the shape of a hexagon Guns on adjacent
faces were enabled to fire parallel to each
other when traversed to their extreme position,
thus preventing the existence of a dead angle
along the capital of the salients Some of the
works were of brick, others of stone Most
of them were provided with a land defense
of some nature to assist the garrison in re-
sisting an attack by a landing party Many
of the works are well known, auch as Fort
FOBTIPICATtON
Warren in Boston haibor, Fort Wadswortli,
New York harbor, Fort Sumter, Charles-
ton, and Fort Monroe, Hampton Eoads
About the time of the Civil War, however,
there came ladical changes in naval ordnance and
attack Rifled guns were introduced and ships
were covered with iron (See Guws, NAVAL )
The wonderful effect of rifled-gun fiie on ma-
sonry was shown in the breaching of Fort Pulaski
during the Civil War by the breaching batteiies
established on land by the Federals under Gen-
eral G-ilmore As the war progressed, the Con-
federate engineers found it desirable to occupy
some positions on the seacoast not already f citi-
fied This was done with provisional works of
sand and timber The resistance made by a
work of this character, Fort Fisher, near the
mouth of the Cape Fear River, assisted in at-
tracting attention to the value of sand as a
defense Steam had by this time been generally
introduced into navies, affording ships more
latitude in taking up positions
These changes led to the introduction of
armor in many cases for the protection of forts
in Europe, it being argued that if good for the
protection of ships3 guns, it was good for the
protection of forts, and that the latter could use
as much of it as needed, whereas the ships were
limited by the weight they could carry In the
United States the value of sand as a protection
was appreciated Immediately after the Civil
War earthen batteries were built at important
positions for mounting some of the smooth-bore
guns then available About 1875, appropriations
ceased and little work except of repair nature
was done on the fortifications of the United
States until 1890 By this time the rapid
strides which had been made along the lines al-
ready indicated — i e , the introduction of steam
into navies, the addition of improved varieties
of armor, and the increase in accuracy and
power of rifled guns — rendered the system of
fortifications already built practically obsolete,
except for certain minor purposes
Modern Coast Defenses The War Depart-
ment having invited the attention of Congress
to the condition of the national defenses and to
the necessity for doing something to place them
in better condition, an Act was passed in 1885
providing for the appointment of a board to
examine and report at what ports fortifications
or other defenses were most urgently required,
the character and kind of defenses best adapted
for each, with reference to armament and the
utilization of torpedoes, mines, or other defen-
sive appliances The report of this board, since
known as the Endicott Board, which was sub-
mitted the following year, forms the basis of
the present system of fortifications in the United
States It recommended that defenses should be
provided for the principal ports, which were
arranged in the order of their relative urgency
The defenses as to character and kind, with
reference to armament, should be fixed and
floating, one or both, according to locality, and
armed with powerful cannon, needed to repel
attack from the most formidable ships The
shore batteries were to be armored turrets, re-
volving or fixed, armored casemates and emplace-
ments in barbette Earthen parapets and trav-
erses, sometimes arranged with core of con-
crete or rubble masonry to add resistance to
shock, were to be used for barbette batteries
The Civil War had developed the value of the
mw»e as an element of defense The
55
FOBTIPICATIOH
Endicott Boaid laid stress on this element as
follows "It is not geneially considered possible
to bar the piogiess of an armored fleet by the
mere fiie of the battery, some obstiuction suffi-
cient to arrest the ships within effective range
of the guns is necessary The kind of obstruc-
tion now relied upon is the torpedo in the form
of a submarine mine and, except in special cases,
exploded by electric currents, which are so man-
aged that the operator on shore can eithei ignite
the mine under the ship's bottom or allow the
ship to explode it by contact In deep channels
the submarine mines are buoyant, in compara-
tively shallow waters they are placed upon the
bottom, the object in boffe cases being to touch
01 nearly approach the hull of the vessel Subma-
rine mines are not accessories of the defense,
but are essential features whenever they can be
applied Bombproof operating rooms and tun-
nels for the conveyance into the water of the
electnc cables aie necessary parts of the system,
and must be constructed in advance of the occa-
sion for their use Heavy batteries and
submarine mines are correlative terms of a good
defense from the shore Without powerful guns
in the defense the armoied ships of the enemy
\\ould proceed deliberately to the removal of the
mines, either ignoring or silencing the fire of
the woiks, and without the aid of the mines
the enemy's vessels could not generally be pre-
vented from running past the batteries "
Special batteries of guns were to be installed
for the defense of the lines of mines against the
attempt of unarmored or light-armored boats to
counteimme or grapple for their attachments
When practicable, every mine field should be
commanded by electric searchlights, so that the
enemy's attempts at night to tamper with the
mines may be detected and rendered abortive
The necessities of each harbor were studied
in the light of the best information available,
and the board made definite recommendations
as to the number of guns and mortals, subma-
une mines, electric lights, and local floating de-
fenses necessary for each harbor
The first fortification appropriation act de-
signed to carry out the recommendations of the
board was approved Sept 22, 1888, since which
time appropriations of varying amounts have
been made regularly each year for carrying
forward the adopted scheme of coast defense —
for the manufacture of modern seacoast ord-
nance, the construction of gun and mortar bat-
teries, for torpedo defenses, and for the neces-
sary accessories
The defensive details for each locality have
since been elaborated in projects which have
received the formal approval of the Secretary
of War. These projects have from time to time
been revised to keep pace with the changes
in ordnance and ships' armament and construc-
tion At the time the scheme of coast defense
was formulated by the Endicott Board, the
rapid-fire gun was in its infancy and ships
were characterized by their extremely heavy ar-
mament 'and great thickness of armor With
the rapid development of this weapon and the
increase in the resisting powers of armor by
means of the Harvey and Krupp processes, there
has followed a material change in sM|) construc-
tion, necessitating corresponding changes in the
details of coast defenses In accordance with
the recommendations of the Endicott Board, the
earlier detailed projects contemplated Amounting
a considerable number of the heaviest guns at
FOBTIFICATION
the more impoitant harbois in armored works
The tendency towards a reduction in calibres
of heavy guns, coupled with the adoption of a
disappeaimg caniage (see illustration under
COAST ABTILLEEY) for the laige guns, has, up to
the present time, rendered armored defenses gen-
erally unnecessary in the United States, al-
though many European governments stand com-
mitted to the construction of armored casemates
and turrets for their land defenses Rapid-fire
guns were proposed in the earlier projects, but
definite numbers or calibres were not assigned
until 1896
While the inauguration of the modern system
of seacoast defenses for the United States dates
from 1888, it was not until 1896 that Congress
began making appropriations commensurate with
the magnitude of the undertaking Stimulated
by the larger appropriations and the war with
Spam the seacoast defenses of the United States
weie, in 1()06, about 67 pei cent completed.
Twenty-five of the principal harbors of the
United States possessed a sufficient number of
heavy guns and mortars mounted to permit of
an effective defense against naval attack A
considerable portion of the light iapid-fire em-
placements and guns were completed, while a
beginning had been made of inaugurating the
systematic installation of fire-control systems
and searchlight apparatus for night defenses
Torpedo material necessary to enable a quick
and effective defense to be made was in store
at each harbor for which torpedo defenses weie
projected
Extensive torpedo expeiiments, resulting in
the adoption of a new system, have been carried
on at the School of Submarine Defense and else-
where, and such experiments, as well as inven-
tions or ideas submitted by individuals, are con-
sidered by the Torpedo Board
The growth of the country, the improvements
in ordnance and in battleships, the development
of the system of submarine mines, and matters
of government policy led to the necessity for a
revision of the Endicott scheme A new board
known as the National Coast Defense Board
was appointed by the President in 1905, and its
report was made public in March, 1906 The
board revised the list of places to be defended,
reviewed the work already done, recommended
the armament and accessories necessary to
complete the defense, and furnished an estimate
of the cost. Permanent seacoast defenses
have been installed at the following locali-
ties in the United States Kennebec River, Me ,
Portland, Me , Portsmouth, N H , Boston,
Mass , New Bedford, Mass , Narragansett Bay,
R. I , eastern entrance to Long Island Sound,
New York, N Y , Philadelphia, Pa , Baltimore,
Kd ; Washington, D. C , Hampton Roads, Va ,
Wilmington, N C , Charleston, S C , Port
Royal, S C , Savannah, Ga , Key West, Fla ;
Tampa Bay, Fla , Pensacola, Fla , Mobile, Ala ,
New Orleans, La , Galveston, Tex , San Diego,
Cal , San Francisco, Cal , mouth of Columbia
River, Greg and Wash ; Puget Sound, Wash,
Fortifications have been and are being con-
structed at Guantanamo, Cuba, Honolulu and
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Manila and Subic bays,
Philippine Islands, and at Col6n and Panama
in the Canal Zone Additional defenses are to
be constructed at some of these points and also
at the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, Los Angeles,
Cal , Sin Juan, Porto Rico, and Guam if
funds are provided by Congress Some appro-
56 FOBTIPICATIOW
pnations have also been made for modernizing
the older emplacements in the United States
Features of Construction Large direct-
firing guns are no\\ Ubiially mounted singly, with
tra\eiseb between them to piotect them from
enfilade by distant hostile fiie and to limit &the
destructive effects of piojectiles landing in ad-
jacent emplacements The distances between the
guns vary with their size and with the nature
of the ground Where possible, in the case of
the larger guns, it is rarely less than 100 feet
Mortars for indirect firing are mounted in pits
The fast requirement for the mounting of a
modern gun is a pioper foundation from which
the gun may be fired and which will permit
it to traverse freely and accurately While
modem guns, as already indicated, have in-
creased remarkably in power in recent yeais,
the weight of the gun propei has not increased
in the same ratio The usual precautions gov-
erning the design of foundations for heavy stiuc-
tures of course hold in the case of guns and
mortars, in proportion to their weight The
great increase in powei of modern guns has,
in addition, rendered corresponding piecautions
necessary to prevent the gun and caniage fiom
being overturned by the recoil of the piece Pro-
vision is made for offsetting the strain trans-
mitted to the foundation by the weight and dis-
tribution of the matexial of the latter In the
case of some of the high-powei English guns this
has resulted in the construction of practically
solid concrete bases 25 feet in diametei and 10
feet deep The traverse circle of the carriage is
connected with this base by steel bolts two
inches in diameter and extending nearly to the
bottom of the base of concrete A loading plat-
form of suitable dimensions on which the men
can work while loading the gun is provided in
the rear of the gun As modern ordnance is
loaded at the Tbreech the service of the gun is
considerably expedited, and the cannoneers aie
enabled to work in more safety under the cover
of the parapet The latter is a matter of con-
siderable importance and is placed in front of
the gun, connecting with the traverses 011 the
side Where the gun is mounted on a disappeai-
ing- carriage its mu7zle projects over the paia-
pet only in the firing position and recoils to a
position in rear of the parapet for loading If
mounted on a barbette carnage, the gun stands
permanently with its muzzle projecting above
the parapet (See illustrations in articles ORD-
NANCE and COAST ARTILLERY ) The thickness
which should be given the parapet is ioi open
question among engineers The rule laid down
by some of the best authorities is that it should
be 50 per cent thicker than the greatest penetra-
tion of any projectile liable to strike it The
modern method of constructing parapets is to
make them of a mass of sand supported in rear
by thick retaining walls of concrete immediately
in front of the gun Projectiles striking in
the front slope of a thick mass of sand thus
backed will usually be deflected upward and pass
out through the superior slope of the parapet,
doing little damage to it, as the sand drops back
approximately into place Lewis gives the
thickness of the concrete retaining wall immedi-
ately in front of the gun for English emplace-
ments for high-power guns at from 10 to 15
feet The superior or upper slope, both of con-
crete and earth, have a slight slope to the front
The front slopes run off into the natural sur-
face of the ground and in this and other
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FORTIFICATION
1. SEACOAST BATTERY OF 15-POUNDER RAPID-FIRE GUNS AT A UNITED STATES COAST
DEFENSE FORT
2. SEACOAST BATTERY OF 12-INCH MORTARS. Mortars shown in firing position and range-finding
stations in the background
FORTIFICATION S
the concealment of the batteiy is secured in
order to make it a difficult target for the enemy
on the water
The main magazine for a foit should consist
of a, binlding or buildings at suitable places con-
^ment of access, m which powder m bulk,
blank cartudges, shell, etc , may be stored The
service magazine at the gun emplacement should
have a capacity for the ammunition immediately
needed At the time of the Civil War in the
United States piojectiles had not yet attained a
weight too great to "be handled by hand by two
men Now the largest of them ^veigh half a
ton, and special appliances in the way of trolleys
and wheeled trucks must be provided for han-
dling them expeditiously In view of the disas-
trous eftects that may result from the explo-
sion of a magazine, special precautions are
taken to exclude hostile projectiles from it
This is accomplished by placing it in a rela-
tively lower position than the gun and giving
its walls an ample thickness of masonry and
earth covering Moisture is injurious to powder,
and many precautions are taken to exclude
dampness from the magazines In view of the
fact that the service magazines are of necessity
near the coast, and that the air around them
fiequently contains much moisture, the problem
is a difficult one Careful attention is given to
drainage, so that the surface water may be
carried off as rapidly as possible Air spaces
and Fiench drains are provided to intercept
water penetrating the mass of the cover The
masonry walls are made as tight as possible
and waterproofed By these means the infiltra-
tion of water is prevented Condensation will,
however, occur \~\hen damp air is admitted to
the magazine and strikes the walls and mateual
at a temperature below its dew point The pre-
vention of condensation is a problem of relative
heat and cold, and as usually met by attempts
at careful regulation of the ventilation, ad-
mitting air so far as possible only at tunes
when it is the driest The walls are also some-
times lined with, brick, with a view to absorb-
ing water which may be deposited on them if the
magazines must be opened foi a short time at
unfavorable periods.
In a modern fortification there are many ele-
ments to be considered Living rooms for the
cannoneers are built in the emplacements
Provision must be made for lighting the em-
placements, magazines, etc, m case of action
at night This was formerly done by means of
lamps, but recently in the United States electric
light and power have been furnished m seacoast
battenes Lookouts for the observation of gun-
fire must be built and the latest appliances for
accurate fire control must be installed Stairs
and ramps are provided where necessary in the
emplacement for free and easy communication
between its various parts
In the United States the regulations concern-
ing the promulgation of information relative to
the permanent works of defense are quite ex-
plicit and forbid the publication of many inter-
esting and significant facts concerning the more
modern fortifications For descriptions of these
fortifications, the reports of the Chief of En-
gineers of the army, including the reports of the
district constructing ofiicers, and the Drill
Regulations for Coast Artillery siiould be con-
sulted. For works of reference, aside from these
official sources, consult ^ Abbot, Defense of the
of €he United States (New York,
f FORTIFICATIONS
1888), Claike, Fortification (London, 1907),
Schwartz, The Influence of the tiieye of Port
Arthur upon the Construction of Modem Foi
tresse? (Washington, 1908), Haivey, The
Castles and WctHerl Toirns of Hwjland (London,
1011), Thompbon, Military Aiclulcctuie in
England dwwg the Middle {ges (Ovfoid,
1912) , Chatham manuals and the various serv-
ice magazines The u&e and disposition of tioop&
is discussed under TACTICS, MILITARY, the
methods of coast defense aie tieated undei that
title, while the vaiious weapons used are de-
scribed in such articles as ARTILLERY, ORD-
NANCE, TORPEDOES, COAST ARTILLERY, FIELD
ARTILLERY, GUNS, NAVAL, HORSE ARTILLERY,
RAPID-FIRJS GUNS, ARMOR PLATE, PROJECTILES,
COAST DEFENSE
FORTIFICATIONS, ATTACK AND DEFENSE
OF The con&tiuction and nature of fortifica-
tions have been considered under FORTIFICA-
TION, the present article will mention the tac-
tics involved in their attack and defense Man}
details of the subject aie more appiopnately
treated under SIEGE AND SIEGE WORKS, but
in some respects the tactics of field artillery
(see TACTICS, MILITARY), uith certain modifica-
tions, find application The attack of a fortifi-
cation is a planned attack on a piepared posi-
tion, but the field material is supplemented
by siege artillery and engineer work The
attack and defense proceed in many respects as
m the attack of one army by another in the
field
The cavalry first incloses the fortification and
remains in observation, the infantry then occu-
pies its position deliberately, directing its forces
against at least two of the fronts of the fortifi-
cation, in order to deceive the enemy, preparing
again&t sui prise by means of very strong out-
posts, especially on the front, selected for actual
attack, and the latter must geneially intrench
themselves, the siege guns are placed in posi-
tion xindei its protection, the guns of the de-
fender are if possible silenced, and the nearer
means of defense are destroyed The infantry
can only advance under cover, consequently the
outposts are first advanced and then their pre-
vious position is improved during the night to
serve as an infantry po&ition by constructing"
groups of fortifications previously laid out by
the engineer officers Where the infantry can-
not be brought forward under natural covei,
zigzag approaches must be lun If the infantry
position is too far to the rear for the final
assault, another and often a third position must
be prepared farther to the front If the heavv
artillery fails to „ destroy the enemy's works
flanking the ditch* the attackei will be foiced
to begin the tedious engineer attack by the sap
Otherwise the assault is ordered, and is prefei-
ably begun in the early morning, and the attache
is directed on a broad front Several false
attacks are made at the same time, to
the enemy if possible Meanwhile the
try moves gradually forward, and if suc<
finally takes the position by storm The work
is carried on with energy, to prevent the enemy
from having any rest in his work,,
The same principles apply in the cf^we, ac-
tivity and the offensive being predpmipant In
the early stages the infantry mugft, go oilt in the
open and may so cripple the attaqtoa as to cause
them to abandon the assault, ft however, the
attack is successfully conducted w defense be-
comes purely pAHHive in thft Jidwp ' pfcages If the
3POB.T INDEPENDENCE
attack of a fortification advances to the siege
stage, it is evident, from the fact that they
were unable to maintain a sufficient army in the
field to drive hack the invaders, that the de-
fenders are usually at a disadvantage The
command of the fortified place under such cir-
cumstances usually involves many problems of
government, including the food supply of the
civilian inhabitants, as well as the proper com-
mand of troops It plainly requires a man of
ability and resourcefulness who must withal
be possessed of a stout heart and great wisdom
If he cannot hold the place until relieved or
until the close of the \var comes, as the result
of operations elsewhere, history shows that he
may be subjected to a most critical judgment
by his countrymen See SIEGE AND SIEGE
WORKS, MINES AND MINING
POET IN'DEPEN'DENCE A fortification
on Castle Island, Boston harbor, Mass., built on
the site of the former Castle William
FORTIS, f&r'tfis, ALESSANDHO (1841-1909).
An Italian statesman, born at Foilt He studied
law at Pisa and in 1867 fought under Garibaldi
at Mentana He became a radical leader, was
arrested with Sain and others during the elec-
tions of 1874, was elected to the Chamber of Dep-
uties from Bologna in 1880, acted at first with
the radical Republicans but in 1888 joined the
dynastic paity, and till 1890 was Undersecre-
tary in the Ministry of the Interior In 1898-
99 he held the portfolio of Agriculture and Com-
meice in the Pelloux cabinet He was Prime
Minister and Minister of Interior from March,
1905, to February, 1906, his cabinet carrying
through the purchase of railways
FORTIS, fdr't&s,, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, or
ALBERTO (1741-1803) An Italian traveler and
naturalist, born in Padua He became an Au-
gu&tmian monk, but spent his time in travel.
His publications include Saggio d'osservasnom
scpra I'isole di Cherso ed Osero (1771), Viag-
gio in Dalmazia (1774, Eng trans, 1778), his
best-known work, containing an interesting col-
lection of the folk songs of the Serbs and
Croats, Delia valle vulcamco-marma di Roma,
(1778), Versi d'amore e d'amicizia (1783),
Memoires pour servir a I'histoire naturelle et
prmcipalement a l} cry cto graphic de I'ltalie, etc.
(2 vols, 1802)
FORT JACK'SON. A fort on the right bank
of the Mississippi, 78 miles below New Orleans,
famous for its resistance to Farragut's fleet
and its final capture by the Federals in 1862.
It was built in 1824-32 and was enlarged and
repaired in 1841 After the passage of the
South Carolina ordinance of secession, on Dec.
20, 1860, the State authorities of Louisiana
seized these forts, strongly fortified them, and
stationed a fleet above In the spring of 1862
a Federal expedition was organized against New
Orleans, and the Confederates, soon hearing of
it, greatly strengthened the two forts The ex-
pedition, under the command of Captain Far-
ragut, arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi
in March, and on April 18 the powerful mortar
flotilla under Commander D. D Porter opened
fire with terrible effect upon the forts At 2
AM on the 24th Farragut's fleet started in
single line up the river, and in the face of a
tremendous fire from the two forts and from a
Confederate fleet succeeded in passing first Fort
Jackson and then Fort St Philip Soon after-
ward the city was occupied by Federal troops,
and on the 28th both Fort Jackson and Fort St
58 FORTLAGE
Philip capitulated to Commander Porter, who
had remained below The two forts were under
the command of Brig- Gen J K Duncan and
were garnsoned by about 700 men each Fort
Jackson was under the immediate command of
Lieut -Col Edwaid Higgms The loss of the
Federals was 37 killed and 147 wounded, while
that of the Confederates is not definitely known
Consult Johnson and Buel, Battles and Leader s
of the Civil War, vol 11 (New York, 1887),
Mahan, Admiral Fairagut (ib, 1892), Nicolay
and Hay, Abraham Lincoln A History, vol v
(ib, 1890)
FORT JAY. A United States military post,
established in 1806 on Governor's Island, New
York The island, -\\hose aiea recently has been
inci eased by refilling the shallow water near its
shores, contains the fort proper, gairisoned usu-
ally by a battalion of infantry, Castle William
(military prison), and the headquarters of the
Eastern Department of the First Division, and of
the Military Service Institution of the United
States Governor's Island was first occupied by
the Dutch, who called it Nutten Island, after-
ward, under the English rule, it was a perqui-
site of the royal governors, from which fact it
derived its name In 1710 it became a quaran-
tine station In 1775 the island was fii st fortified
and occupied successively by the Amencan and
the British troops From 1784 to 1794 it was used
as a summer resoit and raeecouise In 1800
the island was deeded to the United States by
the Legislature, and in 1806 a permanent forti-
fication was built upon the site of the original
Fort Jay, an early earthwork. In 1812 the
"South Battery" was added to the defenses
Extensive improvements were begun in 1901,
which have comprised increasing the area of the
island to about 103% acres, the erection of new
docks, numerous warehouses, additional bai-
racks, and officers' quarters for the accommoda-
tion of a regiment of infantry For illustration
of Castle William, see FORTIFICATION
FORT KENT, A village in Aroostook Co,
Me, 200 miles north of Bangor, on the Bangor
and Aroostook Railroad and on the Fish River
(Map Maine, D 1) It contains the St Louis
Convent, the Mada^aska Training School, and
several relics of the Aroostook War Lumber-
ing is the chief industry. Pop, 1900, 2528,
1910, 3710
POUT KEOGrH, ke'6 A former United
States military post in Montana, established in
1876 and comprising a reservation of 57,600
acres It was named for Capt. Myles Keogh,
Seventh United States Cavalry, one of the vic-
tims of the Custer massacre
FORT LAFAYETTE, la'fa-St' A fort on
the Long Island shore of the Narrows, New
York harbor, in front of Fort Hamilton
FORTLAGKE, fdrt'la'ge, KAEL (1806-81) A
German philosopher He was born at Osna-
bruck and was educated at Gottingen, Berlin,
and Munich He became a lecturer at Heidel-
berg in 1829 and later at Berlin, and in 1846
he accepted the professorship of philosophy at
Jena, In his later writings he made psychology
the basis of philosophy, thus following the
teachings of Beneke and Fichte His works in-
clude Darstellung und Kritih der Betoeise fur
Dasein Gottes (1840) , Genetische G-eschichte
der Philosophic seit Kant (1852) , System der
Psychologie als empirische Wissenschaft QMS der
Beolachtung des wnem Sinnes (2 vols, 1855) ,
Beitrage &ur Psychologic, als Wissensohaft au$
59
FOBT MEXGS
und Erfahruwg (1875) Consult
Brasclij in Unsere Zcit (Leipzig, 1883)
FOBT LAWTOiKr A United States military
post, located 6 miles from Seattle, Wash , and 2
miles from the railway station at Intel bay It
was established in 1899 and in 1914 was gar-
risoned by a battalion of infantiy besides being
the headquarters of a regiment
EOE,T LEAVEISTWOBTH A United States
military past in Kansas, established in 1827
by Colonel Leavenworth, U S A , as an outpost
to piotect the Santa Fe trail against Indians
The reservation is on the west side of the Mis-
souri Rivei and about 500 miles above the
junction of the Missouri with the Mississippi,
on the Kansas City, Wyandotte, and Northwest-
ern and Missouri Pacific railroads The station
of the aimy-serviee schools, the United States
Military Prison, and a large garrison usually
comprising all arms of the service, are located
at the post, which has both post office and tele-
graph station A battalion of engineers is usu-
ally stationed here and a part of the military
bridge equipage of the army
FOKT LEE A borough in Bergen Co , N J ,
15 miles north of Jersey City and opposite New
York City, with which it is connected by ferry
(Map New Jersey, E 2) It is situated on the
Palisades and contains the Institute of the Holy
Angels The chief industries are the manu-
facture of piano actions and motion-picture
films Pop , 1910, 4472 In Revolutionary
times it was one of the forts that defended
the Hudson On Nov 20, 1776, General Greene
with 2000 men narrowly escaped capture by a
foice of 5000 British under Cornwallis He re-
treated with Washington across New Jersey,
leaving many stoics behind
FORT LIS'CIDMC A garrisoned post of two
companies, situated on the northeast shoie of
Prince William Sound, 3 miles from Valdez,
Alaska (Map Alaska, K 5)
FORT LO'GKAN A United States military
post, established in 1889 and comprising a res-
ervation of 640 acres, 3 miles from Denver,
Colo In 1914 it was a recruit depot
PORT McAI/LISTER. A strong earth-
woik, erected by the Confederates during the
Civil War on Genesis Point, on the right bank
of the Great Ogeechee River, 6 miles from Os-
sabaw Sound and 12 miles south of Savannah,
Ga Early in 1863 Admiral Du. Pont, wishing
to give the recently constructed monitors a pre-
liminary trial before using them against Fort
Sumter ( q v ) , ordered the Montauk ( Com-
mander J L Worden), assisted by_ the gunboats
Seneca, Wissahnckon, Dau>n, and'WiZZmms, to
attack Foit McAllister Bombardments oc-
curred, without serious damage either to the
fleet or the fort, on January 27 and February
28, the Confederate privateer Nashville, which
had grounded near the fort, being destroyed on
the latter day On March 30 an eight hour at-
tack, with little effect, was made by the moni-
tors Passaic, Patapsco, and Nahant, under Com-
mander Drayton Finally, on Dec 13, 1864, the
fort was assaulted and captured by General
Hazen's division of General Sherman's army
The Union loss was 24 killed and 110 wounded,
the Confederates losing about 50 killed and
wounded This was the concluding operation of
Sherman's march to the sea and led to the sur-
render of Savannah several days later Consult
Ammen, The Atlantic- Coast (New York, 1883) ,
Johnson and Buel, Battles and Leaders of the
VAT TTT — 5
Civil War, vol iv (ib, 1887), Sherman, Me-
mows, vol 11 (ib , 1875)
FORT McDOW'ELL A United States mili-
tary post located on Angel Island in the harbor
of San Francisco, Cal In 1914 it was a reciuit
depot
FORT MeHEN'RY A former United States
military posi, established m 17<H It occupied
a reservation of 35 acies on Whetstone Point,
Patapsco River, Md , 3 miles distant from Balti-
more, Md Its site was fiist occupied for mili-
tary purposes in 1775 In 1791 it was estab-
lished as a permanent fortification and was
named after James McHenry, one of Washing-
ton's private secretaries during the Revolution,
and Secretary of War, 1798 In September,
1814, it successfully withstood a bombardment
by the British fleet under Admiral Cockburn
It \\as this attack which suggested to Francis S
Key his famous ode, "The Star Spangled Ban-
ner " During the Civil War the fort was used
as a i endezvous- and military puson In 1906
there was an artilleiy gamson of one company,
but, with the rodistubution of coast artillery, it
later was abandoned as a mihtaiy post
FORT McIBTOSH A United States mili-
tary post in Texas, on the Mexican frontier, 1
mile distant fiom the city of Laredo which is
the post office, telegiaph office, and lailway
station It was garrisoned by a squadron of
cavalry in 1914, while a regiment of infantry
was stationed at Laredo
PORT McKIOTLEY A United States mili-
tary post on Great Diamond Island, in the
harbor of Portland, Me, of which it is an im-
portant element of the defense, garrisoned in
1914 by seven companies of coast artillery
FORT MA'COR A fort commanding Beau-
foit haibor, N C , taken bv Federal land and
naval foices on April 26, 1862
FORT McPHER'SOltf A United States
mihtaiy post, located 4 miles south of Atlanta,
Ga , and gainsoaed by a regiment of infantry
FORT HAD'XSOJST A city and the county
seat of Lee Co, Iowa, 18 miles (direct) south-
west of Burlington, on the Mississippi River, and
on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe and
the Chicago, Burlington, and Qumcy railroads
(Map Iowa, F 4) It is the seat of the State
penitentiary and has the Cattermole Memorial
Library, the Santa Fe and Sacred Heart hos-
pitals, and several public parks A fine rail-
road and wagon bridge crosses the river at this
point There are a pork -packing house, shops
of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad,
grain elevators, brickworks, cement-block works,
foundries and machine shops, flour and saw
mills, farm-implement works, wrapping-paper
mills, heater woiks, and manufactures of over-
gaiters, buttons, boots, and shoes, furniture,
canned goods, fountain pens, boxes, tools, etc
Fort Madison was settled in 1832, on the site of
a fort dating from 1805, which was destroyed bj
fire in 1813, the town was incorporated in 183$
The government is administered by a mayor and
a uniqameral council Pop, 1900, 9278; t&lO,
8900, 1920, 12,066
FOK.T MEADE A United States military
post, on a reservation of 7842 acres, at Bturgis,
S D , on the Fremont, Elkhorn, and Missouri
Valley Railroad It was established m 1878 to
protect settlers against Indian ato$fes It was
improved and modernized m 100J2 and in 1914
was garrisoned by a regiment of cJaValry
FOTfcT MEIG-S, rnggz A former fort at the
FORT MERCER
Maumee Rapids, in northwestern Ohio, famous
foi its defense by the Americans against the
English and Indians during the War of 1812
It was built m Februaiy, 1813, by General
Harrison, who had established his advanced post
here after the aMassacie of the River Raisin
(see FRENCHTOWN ) 3 and about May 1, 1813, the
Biitish General Proctor, at the head of more
than 2200 men (including about 1500 Indians
under Tecumseh), began an attack, which lasted,
with little mtei mission, until the 5th On this
day an American lemforcement of about 1100
men, under Gen Green Clay, arrived, and a
battle, 01 series of battles, ensued without de-
cisive result Piocfcoi, however, seeing the hope-
lessness of further attack and being considerably
weakened by Indian defections, withdrew from
the vicinity of the fort on the 9th Being
ordered to take his supplies fiom the countiy, he
returned again on July 20, but the restlessness
of his Indians forced him to give up the attack
and maich on to the uppei Sandusky Consult
Dawson, Battles of the United States (New
York, 1858), Leasing, Pictorial Field Book of
llie Wat of 1812 (ib, 1869) , Slocum, The Olno
Country between the years 1183-1815 (ib,
1910)
FORT MER'CER An abandoned fort at
Red Bank, N J , on the Delaware Paver, which
during the Revolutionary War fonncd one of
the defenses of the city of Philadelphia Imme-
diately after occupying Philadelphia, in 1777,
Sn William Howe (qv) perceived the necessity
of securing Ports Meicer and Mifflm, in oidoi to
open communication by water with New York
and thus prevent the forcing of lus army into a
state of siege Late in October, accordingly, a
force of about 2500 picked men, mostly Hessians,
under Colonel Donop, was sent against Fort
Meicer, and a supporting fleet was ordered up
the river. On the 22d the Hessians attacked
with vigor, but were fiercely beaten back by the
small American garrison, numbering 300, unclei
Col Christopher Greene, and were finally forced
to withdraw After the capture of Poit Mifflin
(qv ) Fort Mercer was abandoned (November
20) by the Americans and soon afterward was
destroyed by the British Consult Dawson, Bat-
tles of the United States (New York, 1858), and
Lowell, The Hessians in the Revolution (ib ,
1884)
FORT KCTFF'LIW A fort on Mud Island,
in the Delaware River, near the mouth of the
Schuylkill River It is one of the defenses of
the city of Philadelphia and in American history
is well known for its siege and capture by the
British during the Revolutionary Wai To-
f ether with Fort Mercer ( q v ) , on the New
ersey shore, it controlled the approach by water
to Philadelphia, and when that city was cap-
tured by Sir William Howe, in 1777, shut the
British off from communication with their fleet
and obstructed the passage of supplies On Oc-
tober 23 it was bombarded for several hours5 but
with little effect, by a British fleet, assisted by
a land battery, an American fleet (called the
Pennsylvania Navy), under Col John Hazel-
wood, cooperating with the fort, which was then
garrisoned by only 300 men, under Col Samuel
Smith Finally, the British erected a strong
battery on Province Island and greatly reinforced
their fleet On the 10th of November they again
attacked and after an almost constant bombard-
ment for six days the Americans evacuated the
fort and crossed over to Fort Mercer The
60 FORT MOULTRIE
British loss was 13 killed and 24 wounded, the
Americans lost more than 10 times that number
An extended account of Fort Mifflin during the
Revolution is given in Wallace, An Old- Phila-
delphwn, Colonel William Bradford (Phila-
delphia, 1884) Consult also Dawson, Battles
of the United States (New York, 1858)
FOUT MIMS, mimz, MASSACRE or An In-
dian massacie on Aug 30, 1813, dmmg the Creek
War, at Fort Mims, a temporal y stockade 35
miles north of Mobile, Ala On the outbreak of
the war 553 men, women, and cluldien had as-
sembled here foi piotection, under the command
of Dixon Bailey, but, although Bailey had been
warned, they were surpiised by a greatlv su-
perior foice of Indians, under the half-breed
Weathersford, at noon on August 30, and, though
they offered biave lesistance, all of them were
killed, except 15, \\hr> escaped, and a few negioes
and half -bieeds, who were taken prisoners Con-
sult Pickett, Histoiy of Alabama, vol 11
(Charleston, 1851) , Lossing, Field Boob of the
liar of 18n (New York, 1860) , Dawson, Battles
of tJie United States (ib, 1858)
FORT MONROE'. A United States military
post, situated at Old Point Comfort, Elizabeth
City Co , Va , and commanding the entrance to
Hampton Roads It is the hcadquartei s of the
coast defenses of Chesapeake "Bay There aie a
post office and tclcgiaph station at the post,
•which includes a reservation of 282 acres The
station of the Artilleiy School (postgiaduate) ,
with quarteis for 100 ofneci s and 000 men, is
located heie, 10 companies being stationed here
in 1914 For two years aftei the close of the
Civil War Jefferson Davis (q v ) was imprisoned
here
FORT MONTaOM'ERY. A fort on the
Hudson, near West Point, intended to close the
liver against the Biitish fleet in 1777
FORT MOB/GAN. A United States mili-
tary post in Alabama, occupying a reservation of
322 acres on Mobile Point, the eastern ontiance
to Mobile Bay, 30 miles fiom Mobile The post
office is Mobile, and there is a telegraph station
at the post The gamson m 1914 consisted of
two companies of coast artillery See MOBILE
POINT
FORT MORG-AK A city and the county
beat of Moigan Co, Colo , 70 miles noithoast of
Denvei, 011 the Chicago, Builmgton, and Qumcy,
and the Union Pacific railroads, and on the
South Platte Paver (Map Colorado, F 1) It
contains a monument on the site of the old foit,
which at one time marked the Denver and Pike's
Peak cut-off from the Overland tiail The in-
dustrial establishments include a beet-sugai fae-
toiy, grain elevator, and flour mill Stock rais-
ing- is also carried on The electric-light plant
and water woiks are owned and operated by
the citv Pop, 1900, 634, 1910, 2800
FORT HOTJLTRIE, moo'tri or mool'- , often
mol'tri A fort on Sullivan's Island, at the en-
trance to Charleston haibor, notable for its de-
fense against the British in the Revolutionary
War In the summer of 1776 Sir Peter Parker,
with a fleet, and Sir Henry Clinton, with a force
of British regulars, proceeded to Charleston har-
bor for the purpose of taking Charleston and of
using that place as a base of operations against
the Southern Colonies A total American force
of about 6500 had assembled for the defense of
Charleston, of which 435, under Col William
Moultne, weie stationed in an unfinished fort,
then known as Fort Sullivan, at the eastern en4
FORT
of Sullivan's Island On June 28 Sir Henry
Clinton took up a position on the sand bank near
Sullivan's Island, with the intention of crossing
over and making a land attack Meanwhile Sir
Peter Parker, with his fleet, made a vigorous
attack on the fort, but, aftei an aitillery duel
lasting almost 10 hours, was forced to withdiaw
Owing to the depth of the shoals, through which
he had expected to reach Sullivan's Island, Clin-
ton was detained on the sand bank and virtually
took no part in the engagement The effect of
the victory was to insure the Southern States
from invasion for almost two years Subse-
quently the name of the foit was changed to Fort
Moultrie On May 7, 1780, a short time befoie
the capture of Charleston by the Butish, the
fort was forced to suirendei
Immediately before the outbreak of the Civil
War, Foit Moultrie was occupied by the United
States gairison assigned for the defense of
Charleston harbor, but on Dec 26, 1860, the fort
being virtually unprotected fiom land attack,
and hostilities appearing imminent between the
Federal and State forces, Major Anderson re-
moved the garrison to Fort Sumter ( q v ) A
detachment of South Carolina militia promptly
took possession, and subsequently during the
war Fort Moultrie foimed one of the important
defenses of Charleston against Federal attacks.
Consult Dawson, Battles of the United States
(New York, 1858) , Daubleday, Reminiscences
of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61 (ib,
1876) , McCrady, History of South Carolina, in
the Revolution, 1115-80 (ib, 1901)
FORT MY'ER A United States military
post in Virginia occupying a leservation of 186
acres on the west bank of the Potomac Kivei,
opposite Washington, D C , which is the tele-
giaph station .There are a post office and tele-
phone at the post, which was named after Gen
A J Myer, the founder of the Signal Service,
USA Here were quartered in 1914 a squad-
ron of cavalry and a battalion of field artillery.
PORT NIAG'ARA A fort at the mouth of
the Niagara Eiver, on the American side La
Salle seems to have built a house heie in 1669,
and a foitined trading post, called Fort Conti,
10 years later, but both were soon destroyed
In 1686 Denonville built here a fort, which was
named in his honor Soon afterward this place
was besieged by the Senecas In September,
1688, the fort was destroyed and abandoned,
but in 1725-26 Vaudreuil built here another
fort, called Fort Niagara, which was destined to
be more permanent, and which was soon recog-
nized, not only as the most important military
station on the Great Lakes, but also as perhaps
the greatest trading post in the country Dur-
ing the French and Indian War it was the ob-
jective point of a futile expedition under Gover-
noi Shirley of Massachusetts in 1755, and in
July, 1759, after a siege of about 16 days, was
captured by a British and Indian force under
Sir William Johnson In July 1764, important
treaties were made here by Sir William Johnson
with various Indian tribes who had participated
in Pontiac's War During the Revolutionary
Wai the fort was the starting point of many ex-
peditions sent to ravage the Western frontier,
was the headquarters for a time of John Butler
and Joseph Brant, and was the place where the
Wyoming and Cherry Valley expeditions were
organized Finally, in August, 1796, it was
evacuated by the British, in accordance with the
Treaty of 1783, and was immediately occupied
61 FORT PICKENS
by an American garrison It was bombarded from
Fort George (q v ), on Oct 13-14, 1812, wag cap-
tured by the British on Dec 19, 1813, and was
again surrendered to the United States on March
27, 1815 In May, 1826, various circumstances
having combined to make the foit relatively un-
important from a military point of view, the
United States gairison was wholly withdrawn
Consult Porter, A Brief History of Old Fort
!\iagaia, (Niagaia Falls, 1896), Mai shall, The
Niagara, Frontier (Buffalo, 1865), Severance,
Old Trails on the Niagara Frontier (2d ed , ^b ,
1003) , Emerson, TJie Niagara Campaign of 1159
(2d ed, ib, 1909)
FORT NINETY-SIX (S C ) See NINETY-
SIX
FORT O'GKLETHORPE A United States
military post at Dodge, Ga , near Chickamauga
Park and 11 miles from Chattanooga, Tenn ,
gamsoned in 1914 by a regiment of cavalry
PORT ONTARIO, on-ta'ri-5 A United
States military post at Oswego, N Y, which is
the nearest post office, telegraph, and railway
station It is usually garrisoned by a battalion
of infantry
FORTOTJL, fdr'tool', HIPPOLYTE NICHOLAS
HONOR& (1811-56) A French author and states-
man He was born at Digiie and became a pro-
fessor of the history of hteratuie at Toulouse in
1845 and at Aix m*1846 In 1849 he was elected
deputy from the Department of Basses Alpes
and joined the party of Louis Bonaparte After
a few weeks (October 28-December 2) in the
Ministry of Marine, he became, on the coup
d'etat, Minister of Public Instruction and did his
best to serve the new regime, especially in carry-
ing out the Law of 1850, in its narrow opposi-
tion to the university He stopped the courses
of Jules Simon at the Sorbonne and retired
Quinet and Miclielet from the College de France,
suppiessed the chair of philosophy and replaced
it by a chair in logic, and introduced the quasi-
elective system of bifurcation, 01 choice between
science and letters This plan, and the intro-
duction of practical features — farming in the
pi imary schools and drawing in the lycees, eg —
weie the only points in which Fortoul showed
himself an educator and not a mere politician
As an author, he opposed romanticism, notably
in his novel Grandeur de la vie prwee (1838)
He also wrote De l'art en Allemagne ( 1841 ) , and
Etudes d'urclieologie et d'histoire (1854)
FORT PAYNE A town and the county
seat of De Kalb Co , Ala , 92 miles northeast of
Birmingham, on the Alabama Great Southern
Railroad (Map Alabama, D 1) It lias coal
and iron mining interests, and among its in-
dustrial establishments are brick and cooperage
plants and a hosiery mill Pop, 1900, 1037,
1910, 1317
FORT PICK/ENS A fort on Santa Bosa
Island, Fla , commanding the entrance to P«naa-
cola harbor, and intended as a defense to the
harbor and the United States Navy Yard at
Warrington Early in 1861, at the outbreak of
the Civil War, it was under the command of
Lieut Adam J Slemraer ( q v ), who transferred
hither the small garrison of Fort Barrancas, di-
rectly opposite, and with a force numbering only
81 withstood for some time a siege by a large
force of Confederates under Gem Braxton Bragg
(qv ) Federal reenforcements, tinder Col Har-
vey Brown, arrived in the middle of April to
relieve Slemmer and his garrison, and the fort
was held by the Federals throughout the war
BILLOW
:FORT PILLOW A foit in Tennessee, on
the ea&t shore ot the Mississippi Rivei, about 40
miles 1101 th of Memphis, the scene ol tne so-called
"Massacre of Foit Pillow" dm ing the Civil War
It was consti ucied by the Confederates, under
the direction of Geneial Pillow, in the spiing of
1862, but was abandoned and dismantled by
them on May 25 of the same year and on June
5 was occupied by a small Fedeial force Sub-
sequently it was a starting point for a number of
Federal raids, but was regarded as of lelatrvely
little strategic importance and was never
strongly garrisoned On April 12, 1864, it was
attacked by a strong Confederate foice under
Gen Nathan B Forrest (qv ) After offering
a stubborn resistance, prolonged even, when cap-
ture had become inevitable, tlie garrison was
overpowered and almost annihilated The Con-
fedeiates were accused of having deliberately
massacred the Fedeials, fully half of whom were
negroes, after the latter had surrendered, and
color was given to the charge by Forrest's sum-
mons to surrender, which closed with the words
"Should my demand be refused, I cannot be
responsible for your command " The testimony,
moreover, of the survivors almost unanimously
confirmed the charge On the other hand, For-
rest and his officers always asserted that the
resistance of the ganison was insanely and
recklessly prolonged, that the garrison never
surrendered, that the Confederates ceased firing
as soon as one of their own ofliceis had cut down
the United States flag, and that no prisoneis,
white or colored, weie killed 01 maltieated
Piesident Lincoln, while believing that a nias-
sacie had been peipctiated, was convinced it had
neither been ordeied nor suggested by Foriest
The Confederate loss was 20 killed and GO
wounded Consult Johnson and Buel, Battles
and Leaders of the Civil Wai, vol iv (New
York, 1887) , Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lin-
coln A History, vol vi (ib, 1890), Wyeth,
Life of General Forrest (ib, 1899), Mathes,
0-eneral Forrest (ib, 1902), in the "Great Com-
mandeis Series"
FOBT PLAIN A village m Montgomery
Co , N Y , 38 miles southeast of Utica, on the
New York Central and Hudson River Railroad,
and on the Baige Canal (Map New York, F
5) There are knitting and silk mills, machine
&hops, furmtuie factories, cieamencs, wagon
woiks, and manufactories of pianos, metal
wheels, and condensed milk These aie gieatly
facilitated by abundant water power The vil-
lage owns its water works Pop, 1900, 2444,
1910, 2762
FOBT POBTEB. A United States military
post, established in 1867 Originally, m 1844,
there was a defensive work at Black Rock At
the fort a battalion of infantry was stationed in
1914
FOBT PBEBLE, preV'l A United States
military post, established in 1808 and occupying
a, reservation of 24 acres at Spring Point, on the
east side of Portland harbor, Me , 2 miles from
the city of Portland, whieh is the post-office and
telegraph station Its garrison in 1914 was a
detachment of coast artillery
FOBT PTOAS'KX. A fort erected on Cock-
spur Island, Ga , for the defense of the Savannah
River It was occupied by the Confederates at
the beginning of the Civil War, and on April 11,
1862, after a vigorous bombardment, was cap-
tured, by the Federals, its garrison then number-
ing 350 men, under Col Charles H Olmstead
62 ^OBT SCOTT
FOB'TBESS. Sometimes popularly, though
never in the United States officially, used lor
foit (qv ) In English textbooks the word
"fortress" is still employed to designate a large
permanent fortification, permanently garrisoned,
and usually including several forts See
FORTIFICATION
FQHTBESS ARTILIJEBY is artillery of
position, consisting of guns permanently
mounted in fortifications, either land or sea, and
is thus distinguished from mobile artillery,
consisting of guns designed to accompany or to
follow annies in the field In the United States
the Coast Aitillery Corps is charged with the
care and use of the fixed and movable elements
of land and coast fortifications See COAST AR-
TILLERY, CRDNANCE
FORTRESS MONKOE See FORT MONROE
FOBT BI'LEY An army post located on
the United States military reservation of Fort
Riley, consisting of 19,447 acres, situated on the
Kansas River, about 3y2 miles from Junction
City m Geary Co , Kans~ The post office, tele-
graph, and railroad station aie at the post of
Fort Riley The post was fiist known as Camp
Centre, being near the geographical centre of
the United States, but was subsequently named
after Gen B C Riley, USA The gairison
consisted in 1914 of a regiment of hoise artillery
and a regiment of cavahy The Mounted Seiv-
ice School is also located at Fort Rilev
FORT BOB'INSOJST A United States mili-
tary post, on White Rivei, 3 miles fiom Ciaw-
foid, Neb There are a post office and telegiaph
station at the post, which has quarteis foi 520
men and cavalry stables for 530 horses It was
established in 1874 and occupies a reservation of
20 squaie miles Its garrison in 1914 was two
troops of cavalry
FOBT BOY'AL See FOKT DE FBANCE
FOBT ST, MICHAEL. A garrisoned post
of two companies on St Michael Island, Alaska
(Map Alaska, F 4). It 19 the southern ter-
minus of the Nome wireless system of the Signal
Corps
FOBT ST PHII/IP See FORT JACKSON
POUT SAM HOUSTON, hu'ston A United
States military post, established in 1865, as the
po&t of San Antonio, Tex , and occupying a reser-
vation of 4C9 acres, near the city of San Antonio,
which is the telegraph station It is a valuable
stiategic point on the southern frontier There
is a post office at the post In 1914 it was
garrisoned by a regiment of cavalry and three
battenes of field artillery
FOBT SCHUYLER, sluler See FOBT STAN-
wix, ROME, N Y
FOBT SCHtTYLEB A United States mili-
tary post, which forms one of the defenses to the
northern entrance to the harbor of New York
The post was established in 1856, although the
fortification was begun m 1833 The reservation
comprises 52 acres, on Throgg's Neck, Long
Island Sound, 3ys miles from Westchcster Sta-
tion, New York City, which is the post office and
telegraph station The garrison in 1914 was a
detachment of coast artillery
FOBT SCOTT A city and the county seat
of Bourbon Co , Kans , 98 miles south of Kansas
City, on the St Louis and San Francisco, the
Missouri, Kansas, and Texas, and the Missouri
Pacific railroads, and on the Marmaton River
(Map Kansas, H 7). It has a Carnegie library
and Mercy Hospital The city is in a region of
great mineral wealth, deposits of coal, flagstone,
FOBT SHEHIDAET
63
FORT SUMTEB
cement rocks, clays, mineral paints, zinc, and
lead being found There are foundnes and ma-
chine shops, flouring mills and gram elevators,
railroad shops, overall factoiy, cement, pottery,
brick, and tile works, and manufactories of sirup,
hainess and saddleiy, medicines, etc Fort Scott
has adopted the commission form of government
The city owns its -water woiks Pop, 1900,
10,322, 1910, 10,463, 1014, 10,522, 1920, 10,693
FOBT SHERIDAN A United States mili-
tary post, established in 1887, in the State of
Illinois, on Lake Michigan, about 25 miles from
Chicago The reservation comprises 632 acres
There are a post office and telegraph station at
the post, which has quarters for infantry, cav-
alry in large numbers, and field artillery.
FORT SILL A United States military post
in Oklahoma, situated on the Chicago, Rock
Island, and Pacific Railroad, a railway station,
telegraph, and post office being located at the
fort Here in 1911 was established a school of
fire for field artillery which is attended by
officers of the regular army and militia A num-
ber of batteries (five in 1914) and the head-
quarters of a field artillery regiment usually
form the garrison
FOBT SLCKCTTM:. A United States military
post on Lang Island Sound off New Rochelle,
New York, from whose railway station it is 2
miles distant There are a post office and tele-
graph station at the post, which is occupied as a
recruit depot Its armament consists of mortars
and rapid-fire guns.
FOBT SMITH A city and one of the
county seats of Sebastian Co , Ark , at the junc-
tion of the Arkansas and Poteau rivers, and on
the St Louis and San Francisco, the Arkansas
Central, the Midland Valley, the Kansas City
Southern, the Fort Smith and Western, and the
St Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southern rail-
roads (Map Arkansas, A 2) Four steel bridges
span the rivers at this place, and among other
noteworthy features are the United States court-
house and post office, the Peabody public school,
St Anne's Academy, high-school building, Car-
negie library, city park, three hospitals, the old
fort, and a national cemetery Fort Smith has
important wholesale-jobbing interests in grocer-
ies, meats, dry goods, drugs, furniture, leather
goods, etc , a large trade in coal, corn, cotton,
lumber, live stock, and hides; and extensive
manufactures of furniture and wagons There
are also saw and planing mills, cottonseed-oil
mills, iron and steel rolling mill, and manufac-
tories of brooms, stoves, wheelbarrows and
drays, overalls, refrigerators, etc Settled in
1838, Fort Smith was first incorporated in 1842
and was chartered as a city of the first class in
1886. It adopted the commission form of govern-
ment in 1913 The city owns its water works,
which cost $1,000,000 Pop, 1900, 11,587; 1910,
23,975, 1914 (U S est), 27,136, 1920, 28,811
FOBT SNEL'LING A United States mili-
tary post in Minnesota, at the junction of the
Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, 7 miles from
St Paul and 8 miles from Minneapolis It was
established in 1820 as an outpost in the Indian
country, and embraces a reservation of 1531
acres There are a post office and telegraph sta-
tion at the post, which was named after Col.
Josiah Snelling, U S A, its first commander
Its garrison in 1914 was a battery of field
artillery, though there are quarters for a larger
body
FOBT STAETWTX. A fort built in 1758,
by Brigadier Stanwix, on the site of the present
Rome, N Y, and near the spot where another
fort, soon abandoned, had been built in 1756
From its location on the watershed between Lake
Ontario and the Hudson, it commanded the prin-
cipal line of communication between New York
and Upper Canada Here, in the fall of 1768,
a treaty was negotiated by Sir William Johnson
with the Six Nations, about 3200 Indians being
present. The latter agieed, for the sum of
$10,000 in money and goods, to surrender their
title to a vast tract of teiritorv which now
constitutes Kentucky, West Virginia, and the
western part of Pennsylvania Soon afterward
the fort was dismantled, but in 1776 it was re-
built and named Fort Scliuyler, in honor of Gen
Philip Schuyler In the following year Col
Peter Gansevoort, with a garrison of about 750,
held it from August 3 to August 22 against St
Leger, with a force of about 1700 British
regulars, Tories, and Indians The fort was de-
stroyed by flood and fire in 1781, but was subse-
quently rebuilt again as Fort Stanwix, and here,
on Oct 22, 1784, Oliver Wolcott, Richard Butler,
and Arthur Lee, acting on behalf of the Con-
tinental Congress, negotiated an important
treaty with the Six Nations Coneu.lt W M
Sloane, The French War and the Revolution
(New York, 1901)
FOBT STE'PHElffSOlsr. See FREMONT,
Ohio
POBT STE'VENS. A United States mili-
tary post, in Clatsop Co, Ore, 110 miles from
Poitland, on the Spokane, Portland, and Seattle
Railroad, and at the mouth of the Columbia
River (Map. Oregon, A 1) It was established
in 1864 and includes a reservation of 1250 acres
In 1914 the post had as a garrison three
companies of coast artillery The electric-light-
ing plant is owned bv the Federal government
Pop , 1914 (local est ), 500
FOBT STRONG- A United States military
post, on the east end of Long Island, Boston har-
bor, Mass The garrison consists of four com-
panies of coast artillery, and Fort Standish is
connected as a subpost
FOBT SITM7TEB. A fort on an island at
the entrance of Charle&ton haibor, about 3 miles
from Charleston, the firing upon which by the
Confederates, in April, 1861, precipitated the
Civil War Work was begun on the fortifica-
tions about 1830, but was subsequently discon-
tinued, and in 1860 the fort was still in an un-
finished condition For illustration, see Plate of
FOETIFICATIONS On November 21 Major Robert
Anderson replaced Col J L. Gardner as com-
mander of the forts in Charleston harbor and,
like his predecessor, occupied Fort Moultrie
(qv) Hostilities with the State forces ap-
pearing imminent, however, and Fort Moultrie
being almost wholly unprotected against land
attacks, he secretly removed his small garrison
to Fort Sumter, on the evening of December 26
— six days after South Carolina had passed her
ordinance of secession Anderson and big small
garrison applied themselves with energy to tlie
strengthening of the foitincations After much
vacillation on the part of the administration at
Washington, an attempt was made in January,
1861, to relieve the scantily provisioned fort, but
the Star of the West, a merchant vessel which
had l>een sent for this purpose, and which arrived
at the mouth of the harbor early on the 9th, was
fired upon by the authorities and forced to put
buck After the inauguration of President I/in-
FOBT StTMTEB
coin the policy to be pursued with regard to
Fort Sumter was the subject of many cabinet
discussions and, in large part, of the unofficial
negotiations between Seward and the Confedei-
ate commissioners in Washington (See CONFED-
ERATE STATES OF AMERICA ) On April 9 Presi-
dent Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that an
attempt would be made to send provisions to
the fort, and on the llth, acting under orders
from President Jefferson Davis, General Beaure-
gard, in command of the Confederate forces at
Charleston, demanded the evacuation of the fort
Anderson promptly refused to withdraw, though,
after a prolonged confeience \\ith his officers
early on the 12th, he wiote "1 will evacu-
ate Fort Sumter by noon on the 15th instant, and
I will not in the meantime open my fires upon
your forces, unless compelled to do so by some
hostile act against tins fort or the flag of my
goveinment, should I not receive piior to
that time controlling instructions from my gov-
ernment or additional supplies33 This answer
proved unsatisfactory, and the bombardment of
the fort began at 4 30 A M , though Anderson did
not leturn the fire until 7 o'clock Meanwhile,
on the same morning, the relieving fleet sent by
President Lincoln arrived at the mouth of the
harbor, but was able to accomplish nothing
The artillery duel continued throughout the
12th, and during the morning and part of the
afternoon of the 13th, when terms of evacuation
were agreed upon between Anderson and Beaure-
gard, the garrison, which consisted of only 128
men, leaving the fort on the following day with
the honors of war There was no one wounded
or killed on either side dm ing the bombardment
The contest was of immense impoitance, since it
marked the beginning of the Civil War and put
a stop to all peace plans and negotiations
After taking possession the Confederates
greatly strengthened the fort, both for offensive
and defensive operations On April 7, 1863, a
Federal fleet of nine ironclads — the Weehawken,
Passaic, Montauk, Patapsco, New Ironsides,
Catskill, Nan-tucket, Nahantt and Eeokuk — under
Admiral Dupont attacked the fort with great
energy and gallantry, but after an engagement
of about two hours and a half was repulsed, the
Keofcuk sinking on the following day, and several
vessels being considerably damaged General
Gillmore, the commander of the land forces en-
gaged against Charleston, established breaching
batteries on Morns Island, and after a seven
days' bombardment, Aug 17-23, 1863, virtually
reduced the fort to rums Thenceforth it was
garrisoned only by a small force of infantry,
which held it in spite of frequent bombard-
ments, a gallant boat attack made by a force of
400 men under T H Stevens, on the night of
Sept 8, 1863, and of a disastrous magazine ex-
plosion on Dec 11, 1863, until Feb 17, 1865,
when it was finally evacuated During 1863-65
Fort Sumter was commanded successively by
Colonel Rhett, Major Stephen Elliott, Capt J.
C Mitchell, and Capt T A Huguenm On
April 14, 1865, by order of Secretary Stanton,
General (formerly Major) Anderson raised over
the fort the same flag which he had been forced
to lower exactly four years before Consult
Official Records., Johnson and Buel, Battles and
Leaders of the Civil War, vols i and iv (New
York, 1887) , Anderson, Political Conspiracies
Preceding the Rebellion; or, The True Stories of
Sumter and Pickens (ib , 1882), Crawford,
Genesis of the Civil War The Story of Sumter,
64 FORTUNA
1860—61 (ib, 1887), Doubleday, Reminiscences
of Fotts Sumtei and Moultrie in 1860-61 (ib,
1876), Gillmore, Report on Engineer and
Artillery Operations Against Charleston ^n
1863 (Washington, 1865), Rhodes, Histoi y of
the United States from the Compi oinise of 1850,
vol m (Now Yoik, 1895)
POUT TEB/BY A United States military
reseivation of 150 acies, on Plum Island, between
Long Island Sound and Gardiner's Bay, N Y
The post office and telegiaph station are at New
London, Conn, 13 miles distant The works are
garrisoned by six companies of coast artilleiy
POUT THOMAS, tom'as A United States
military post, established in 1887, consisting of
a reservation of 280 acres (including a rifle
range of 169 acres) It is situated m Ken-
tucky, on a bluff overlooking the Ohio River, 3
miles from Newport, Ky , and 4 miles from
Cincinnati There are a post office and telegraph
station at the post The garrison in 1914 was
two battalions of infantry
FORT TOTTEN This United States mili-
tary post, for many years the headquarters of
the Battalion of Engineers, was established in
1862 and was originally called Willets Point
The reseivation comprises 136 acres on the East
River at the western end of Long Island Sound,
2y2 miles from Whitestone The post is the
station of the School of Submarine Defense and
is the torpedo depot It is one of the defenses
of the northern entrance to New York haiboi and
is the headquarteis for the coast defenses of
eastem New Yoik Seven companies of artillery
weic stationed here in 1914
FORT TRTTM'BTJLL A former United
States military post, established in 1839 and
occupying a reservation of 13 acres on the south
side of New London harbor, Conn In 1777 a
small redoubt by this name, and anothei in
1812, occupied this site
FORTU'NA (Lat, from fors, chance, prob-
ably connected with ferre, to carry In this view
Fortuna is the "brmgcr" of good or evil foi-
tune) In classical mythology, the goddess of
chance, called by the Greeks Tyche According
to Hesiod, she was a daughter of Oceamis, ac-
cording to Pmdar, a sister of the ParCtT She
differed from Destiny 01 Fate in so far that she
worked without law, giving or taking away at
her own good pleasure and dispensing joy or
soi row indifferently She had temples at
Smyina, Corinth, and "Elis In Italy she was
extensively worshiped from a veiy early period
and had many names, such as Patiicia, Plcbeia,
EquestriSj Vinhs, Pmwiigema, Publica, Pnvata,
MuUebris, Virginensis, etc , which indicate the
extent and also the minuteness of her superin-
tendence Particulai honois weie paid to her
at Antmm (Horace, Odes, i, 35) and at Prse-
neste, in the temple of the former city two
statues of her were even consulted as oiacles
The temple of Fortuna Primigema at Piseneste
was consulted especially by women, who sought
to learn the fate of their first-born children
(pnvwgeni) Her worship was said to have
been introduced in Rome by Servius Tullius
Greek poets and sculptors generally represented
her with a rudder, as a symbol of her guiding
power, and with a cornucopia, as a symbol of
prosperity, or with a ball, or wheel, or wings,
as a symbol of her mutability Consult Fowler,
Roman Festivals (London, 1899), and Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus der Corner (2d ed , Munich,
1912),
FOBTUNATJE INSULT 6
FOBTUNA'TJE IN'SULJE See CANARY
I SI ATTDS
FOBTUNATE ISLANDS See ISLANDS OF
THE BLESSED
FOBTUNATIA'NUS, ATII/IUS A Roman
grammarian, probably of African birth, who in
the fourth century A D wrote a treatise on the
metres of Horace (qv ) Prefixed to the dis-
cussion of the Horatian metres is an account of
the basic ideas of metre in general and of the
rules of prosody For the treatise, see Keil,
Orammatici Latini, vol vi Consult Teuffel,
Geschiehte der romischen Literatur, vol 111,
§4053 (6th ed, Leipzig, 1913)
FOB'TUNA'TUS The chief figure of a
popular tale, or rather collection of tales, cen-
tring about the fortunes and misadventures of
Fortunatus and his sons with a wishing cap and
an inexhaustible purse, which prove their pos-
sessor's ruin Many of the materials are ancient,
apparently Oriental, but the composition is Ger-
man of about 1450 Fortunatus was first printed
at Augsburg in 1509 (reprinted in Simrock's
Deutsche Volksbucher (1846), and often after-
ward in German, French, Italian, Dutch, Eng-
lish, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic It was drama-
tized by Hans Sachs (1553) and in English by
Thomas Dekker ( 1600 ) , whose play, The Pleasant
Comedie of Old Fortunatot was turned back into
German in 1620 and continued its influence in
Germany for two centuries. The best moderniza-
tion of the story is by Tieck ( q v ) in Phantasus
(1816) Uhland left an unfinished narrative
poem on Foitunatus, and the idea was used by
Chamisso in his Fortunati G-lucksackel und
Wunschhutlein Consult Die deutschen Foi tu-
natusdramen (1892)
FOBTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLE-
MENTIANUS (c 530-c 600) Bishop of Poitiers
and chief Latin poet of his time He was born
at Ceneda, near Treviso, and studied at Ravenna
After traveling through Germany and France he
took up his residence at the court of Sigbert,
King of Austrasia, where he wrote an epitha-
lamium to celebrate the King's marriage with
Brunhilda He again took up the wandering
life, but finally settled at Poitiers, wheie he
was brought into association with Radegunda,
wife of Clotaire II, who was living there in re-
tirement in a convent which she had founded,
and also met Gregory of Tours and other eminent
ecclesiastics He became a priest and in 599
was chosen Bishop of Poitiers. Fortunatus
wrote hymns, epitaphs, poetical epistles, verses
in honor of his patrons, and descriptions of
events in his life He also wrote a life of St
Martin of Tours and several other lives of
saints His hymn, Vexilla regis piodeunt (The
royal banners forward go), is well known in the
English translation by J M Neale His works
are in Migne, Patrol Lat , Ixxxvin (Paris, 1844-
80) , the best edition is by Leo and Krusch
(Berlin, 1881-85) For his life consult Leroux
(Pans, 1885), Nisard (ib, 1880), Meyer (Ber-
lin, 1901)
FOB'TUNE. A poem attributed by John
Shirley to Chaucer It first appeared in a set of
poems brought together by the latter, the
manuscripts of which are now in the Harleian
collection in the British Museum Its sources
were partly Boethms and partly the Roman de
la Rose
FOB'TUNE, ROBERT (1813-80). A Scottish
botanist and traveler, born at Kelloe, Berwick-
shire He was employed in the Edinburgh Bo-
5 FOBTUNIO
tanical Gardens and at the conclusion of the
Chinese War in 1842 was sent to collect plants
in northern China by the Royal Horticultural
Society A second journey to China in 1848
gave to Europe many of the beautiful flowers of
the Far East and also resulted in the introduc-
tion of the tea shrub into India, where formi-
dable competition with China in the production
of tea immediately began A third expedition
included Formosa and Japan, and in 1857 For-
tune again visited China to collect seeds of the
tea shrub for the United States Patent Office
His published works include Tin ee Years' Wan-
derings in the Northern Provinces of China
(1847) , Repot t upon the Tea Plantations in the
Northwest Provinces (1851) , A. Journey to the
Tea Gountnes of China (1852), Two Visits to
the Tea Counties of China (1853) , A Residence
among the Chinese (1857), Yeddo and Peking
A Narrative of a Joinney to the Capitals of
Japan and China (1863)
FOBTUNE, TEMPLE OF One of the most
ancient extant temples of Rome and one of the
best pieserved, in the Foium Boanuin, near the
oEniilian Bridge It was erected by Servius Tul-
lius and was rebuilt in the third century B c
In the ninth centurv AD the spaces between the
columns were walled up, and the edifice became
the church of Santa Maria Egisiaca The temple
is remarkable for its pure Ionic architecture
The exterior was covered with painted stucco
It contained a wooden statue, covered with two
togas, which Pliny the Elder says lasted until
the time of Tiberius, some thought this a statue
of Servius Tullius, others a statue of Fortuna
(qv). Consult Platner, The Topography and
Monuments of Ancient Rome (2d ed , Boston,
1911)
FOBTUNE, THE A playhouse which once
stood near Blackfriais Bridge, London, near the
site of the ancient monasteiy of the Black
Friais It was fust erected in 1599 by Philip
Henslowe and Edward Alleyne and occupied by
the Lord Admiral's Company. It was originally
of wood, was burned down in 1621, was rebuilt
in buck, and was torn down by the Puritans
in 1649 Consult H B Baker, History of the
London Stage, 1576-1903 (2d ed , London, 1904)
FOBTUNE BAT A bay on the south coast
of Newfoundland, in lat 47 ° 30' N , and extend-
ing inland in an easterly direction from long 56°
west about C5 miles (Map Newfoundland, E 5)
At its entrance is Brunet Island, and to the
southwest are the fishing islands of St Pierre
and Miquelon, the last vestiges of French power
on the North American continent.
FOBTUNES OF MOLL FLAN'DEBS,
THE A novel by Defoe (1722)
FOBTUNES OF NIGEL, m'jel, THE. An
historical novel by Walter Scott (1822)
FOBTUNE TELLING- The telling of for-
tunes, whether by the arts of astrology, palmis-
try, or other forms of divination, was not an
offense at the common law But by the English
Vagrancy Act of 1824 (5 Geo IV, c 83) aiiy
person who pretends to tell fortunes or practice
palmistry is liable to summary punishment by
imprisonment as a rogue and a vagabond
Modern statutes in this country generally class
those "pretending to tell foi tunes" as disorderly
persons and provide for their arrest and punish-
ment as misdemeanants
FOBTU'NIO. The daughter of an octogena-
rian lord, who in disguise goes as her father s
substitute when he is summoned for military
Y CARBO MABIA3STO 66
service With the aid of resources granted her
by a fairy, she accomplishes many wonderful
feats The character appears in many fairy
tales, ancient and modern
POBTUHY Y CABBO (fdr-too'ne e kar'bo)
MABIA^O, Jos£ MAEfA (1838-74) A Span-
ish painter and etcher He was born at Kens in
Catalonia, June 11, 1838, and grew up in pov-
erty An allowance of 42 francs a month from
his home town enabled him to study at the
academy at Barcelona under Claudio Lorenzalez,
and he also received inspiration from litho-
graphs of Gavarni, but afterward he turned for
his motives directly to nature In 1857 he won
a school prize which enabled him to study at
Rome During the Spanish war against Morocco
(] 859-60), he was on the staff of General Prim,
completely absorbed in sketching those Oriental
scenes which appealed most strongly to his
nature The glitter, opulent color, savage move-
ment, and dreary contemplation of the Orient
are truthfully depicted in the sketches and pic-
tures painted on his return to Borne With a
view of copying the Spanish masters he went,
in 1865, to Madrid, where he fell somewhat under
the influence of Goya There he made the ac-
quaintance of Madrazo, whose daughter he after-
ward married In 1866 he visited Paris, where
he frequented the studios of Ger6me and Meis-
somer, and received from the art dealer Goupil
commissions which placed him above want Soon
he settled in Rome and henceforth devoted him-
self to kaleidoscopic pictures of the Rococo
period, which became his special province His
studio in Rome was a salon in which men of
letters, aitists, and many brilliant members of
the social world weie wont to congregate After
another visit to Paris and a two years' stay in
Granada, he returned to Borne in 1874, where
he died of malarial fever His canvases are
usually small m dimensions and, though filled
with multitudinous details, are painted with,
great freedom, skill, and vivacity of color He
was very successful in dazzling sunlight effects
The city hall of Barcelona contains several of
his paintings, notably the "Battle of Tetuan," a
commission from the city of Barcelona, 32 metres
long, but unfortunately not finished The Museo
de Arte Moderno at Madrid contains * 'Queen-
Regent Maria Christina and her Daughter In-
spiring the Government Troops "
Fortuny's work was, until the advent of im-
pressionism, the dominating influence in Spanish
art, in so far as the latter was individual , and it
influenced the French and Italian schools as
well. Of his Oriental subjects, the best known
are the "Praying Arab," "Tribunal of a Cadi,"
and, especially, the "Snake Charmers" (1869),
in the Walters Gallery, Baltimore, the last of
which he duplicated His most celebrated Rococo
picture is the "Spanish Marriage/' known as
"La Vicaria" (1868, Marquise de Carnano,
Paris ) , containing portraits of the painter Reg-
nault (qv.)j Madame Fortuny, and other
friends Others are "The Butterfly" and "Trial
of the Model," owned by W Clark, New York,
the 'Poet," the "Rehearsal," the "China Vase"
(Walters Gallery, Baltimore). There is a large
number of his works in America, both in public
and private possession Besides those already
mentioned, there are five others in the Walters
Gallery, Baltimore, including "An Ecclesiastic,"
"Don Quixote," and the "Mendicant" The
Metropolitan Museum (including the Vanderbilt
collection) has "Arab Fantasia at Tangicrs,"
FOUT WASHINGTON
"A Court Fool," and a poi trait of a "Lady in
Black," besides water colors
Fortuny was also an aquarellist of note and
a brilliant etcher, his works resembling those of
Goya Like him, he uses as a backgiound the
aquatint, and the outlines of his figures are
drawn with light and spirited strokes Some of
his chief etchings are the "Dead Arab," the
"Shepherd," the "Reader," the "Pensioner," the
"Anchorite," the "Arab Mourning " Consult the
biographies of Fortuny by Davilher (Pans,
1875) and Yriarte, in I/es artistes celebres (ib,
1886) Consult also the Fortuny Album, pub-
lished by Goupil (ib, 1889), and Muther, His-
tory of Modern Patnt^ng} vol in (London,
1007)
FOUT VAI/LEY. A city in Houston Co ,
Ga , 29 miles south of Macon, on the Central of
Georgia and the Southern railroads (Map
Georgia, C 3) It has a cotton and yarn mill,
crate factory, and cotton-gin factory The water
works and electric-light plant are owned by the
city. Pop, 1900, 2022, 1910, 2697
FOUT WADS'WOHTH A United States
military post, established in 1827 and occupying
a reservation of 221 acres on Staten Island,
N Y, commanding "the Narrows" The post
office is Rosehank, N Y, and the telegraph
station is Quarantine, Clifton, S I It was
named for Gen J S Wadsworth, who was
killed in the battle of the Wilderness (1864)
Its gariison in 1914 was two companies of
coast artillery
FOBT WALLA WALLA, wol'la wolla A
former United States military post, established
in 1857 and occupying a reservation of 612
acres, 1 mile from Walla Walla, Wash
FOUT WAR/BEN. A United States mili-
tary post, established in 1837 and occupying a
reservation 28 acres in extent on Georges Island,
7% miles southeast of Boston, Mass The post
was first occupied in 1861 and during the Civil
War was used as a military prison The post
office and telegraph station is Boston, Mass It
is the headquarters for the coast artillery dis-
trict of Boston The gairison in 1914 com-
prised a company of coast artillery
FOBT WASH'IBrGTOK An important
military post during the American Eevolution,
occupying the highest part of Manhattan, Island
and covering the ground overlooking the Hud-
son between the present 181st and 186th Streets,
New York It was surrendered to the English
under Sir William Howe on Nov 16, 1776
After the battle of White Plains (qv) Wash-
ington crossed over to New Jersey, but, against
his better judgment, left a considerable force
under Colonel Magaw in Port Washington
Howe invested the fort on November 15 and
commanded the garrison to surrender on pain
of being put to the sword Magaw replied
that he would defend the place to the last
extremity The next day the British attacked
in four divisions, led respectively by General
Kynphausen and General Matthews (supported
by Lord Cornwallis), Lieutenant Colonel Ster-
ling and Lord Percy Soon after daybreak the
cannonading began, and it continued with great
fury on each side until noon Knyphausen's
Hessians then advanced in two columns, one of
which, under General Bahl, ascending circui-
tously to the summit of the hill, penetrated
Magaw's advanced works, while the other as-
cended the hill in a direct line, suffering much on
the way Irom the well-directed lire of Colonel
FOBT WA&HIHOTOK
Rawling s riiiemen The second division made
good then landing, forced the opposing Amen-
cans from their sheltering rocks and trees up a
steep and rugged hill, while the third, landing
under a heavy fire, succeeded, after a stubborn
nght, in carrying an advanced redoubt Percy's
division, with conspicuous gallantry, carried
other advanced works On a second summons
from Howe, Magaw, seeing the uselessness of
further resistance, surrendered the fort, his
troops (2700 in number) becoming prisoners ot
war The American loss in killed and wounded
was 130, the British, 454 The English had
been materially assisted by the treason of one of
Magaw's officeis, William Dernont, who on No-
vember 2 had deserted and furnished Howe with
detailed plans of the American works The loss
of the fort caused great consternation through-
out the United States and has been regarded as
m some respects one of the greatest military
misfortunes of the Americans during the war,
the garrison representing the flower of Wash-
ington's army. Consult De Lancey, The Cap-
ture of Fort Washington, the Result of Treason
(New York, 1877) , Dawson, Battles of the
United States (ib, 1858), Carrington, Battles
of the American Revolution (ib, 1876)
FORT WASHINGTON, A United States
military post, established in 1815 and comprising
a reservation of 334 acres on the left bank of
the Potomac River, 13 miles below Washington,
I) C , in Maryland The usual garrison consists
of three companies of coast artillery
PORT WAYNE. A United States military
post, established in 1842 and containing a reser-
vation of 63 acres on the Detroit Eiver, 4 miles
from the city of Detroit, which is the post office
and telegraph station There are quarters for
a battalion of infantry
FORT WAYNE. A city, railroad centre,
and the county seat of Allen Co , Ind , 150 miles
by rail east by south of Chicago, 111 , at the
junction of the St Joseph's and St Mary's
rivers, which here unite in the Maumee, and on
the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati, and Louisville, the
Pennsylvania Company, the Ohio Electric, the
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Grand
Rapids and Indiana, the New York, Chicago, and
St Louis, the Wabash and the Cincinnati, Ham-
ilton, and Dayton railroads (Map: Indiana, G-
2), It occupies an area of nearly 10 square
miles on a plateau at an elevation of 775 feet and
has a United States government building, a
courthouse that cost more than $1,000,000, St.
Joseph's, Hope, and Lutheran hospitals, Indiana
School for Feeble-Mmded Youth, a fine high-
school building, orphan asylums, a public-library
building, for the erection of which Andrew Car-
negie gave $90,000, several fine public parks and
boulevards, and monuments to Anthony Wayne
and Henry W Lawton It is also the seat of
Concordia College (Lutheran), opened in 1839
This city is in an agricultural district and is
important as the manufacturing and distributing
centre for a vast territory The industrial plants
include shops of the Pennsylvania and the Wa-
bash railroads, foundries and machine shops,
wheel works, flouring mills, electric-light works,
knitting mills, oil-tank works, breweries, packing
houses, and manufactories of chemicals, soap,
steel dredges, mming concentrators, cigars,
pianos, fertilizers, paper, dairy and food prod-
ucts, shirts and waists, etc
Fort Wayne is governed under a special char-
ter, conferred by the State Legislature, which
67
FORT WILLIAM HENRY
provides for a municipal legislative body of two
councilmen from each of the 10 wards, chosen
biennially, a mayor and city cleik, chosen
quadnennially, and a board of water-works
trustees, chosen biennially The board of public
works, board of public safety, health commis-
sioner, park and street superintendents, city
attorney, and city comptroller are appointed by
the mayor The council fixes all municipal tax
levies and appiopnations and has final approval
of all contracts and fianchises The annual
income, including revenues of water works,
amounted in 1912 to $2,051,000, expenditures to
$1,861,000, the principal items of expense being
$59,000 for the police department (including
amounts for police courts, jails, etc ), $92,000
for the fire department, and $272,000 for schools
The water works, costing $1,750,000, and the
lighting plant and system are owned and oper-
ated by the city Fort Wayne is built on the
site of the principal village of the Miami In-
dians and near the site of the old French Fort
Miami In October, 1790, General Harmer
burned the village In 1794 Gen Anthony Wayne
built a foit heie, which in September of 1812
was closely besieged by the Indians A village
gradually grew up and was chartcied as a city
in 1839, though growth of the place was very
slow until after the building of the Wabash and
Erie Canal, and of several railroads between
1850 and 1860 Pop, 1850, 4282, 1870, 17,718,
1900, 45,115, 1910, 63,933, 1914 (U S eat),
72,322, 1920, 86,549 Consult J B Dillon, His-
tory of Indiana (Indianapolis, 1859) , W A
Briee, History of Fort Wayne (Fort Wayne,
1868) ; W. H Smith, History of Indiana (2 vols ,
Indianapolis, 1903), J H Levering, Historic
Indiana (New York, 1909)
FOBT WILX/IAM A city in Thunder Bay
Distuct, Province of Ontario, Canada, on the
Kammistiquia Kiver, at its entrance into Lake
Superior (Map Ontdiio, H 8) It has a fine
harbor, is favored with good water power, and
carries on a laige lake and rail traffic, being
at the head of lake navigation on Lake Superior,
a gateway to the wheat fields of western Canada,
and bulk-breaking point for its incoming and
outgoing freight The terminal works of the
Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and
Canadian Northern railroads are situated here
The city is connected by electric railway with
Port Arthur, 3 miles distant It has a number
of fine public buildings, including the city hall,
courthouse, two hospitals, a public library, and
a collegiate institute The manufacturing in-
dustries include floui mills, stove, machine-shop,
and car-wheel foundries, shipbuilding, brick-
yards, aerated water works, broom, sash, and
door factories, breweries, cement-block making,
and electric-power works In 1914 there were
17 gram elevators, with a capacity of 27,401,000
bushels The city owns 26 miles of street rail-
way, besides its telephone, electric light, water
works, and sewerage systems It is of recent
and rapid growth, and the value of its manu-
factured products, ^shich in 1900 was $UX,507,
was in 1910 $534,097, an increase of 376 §8 per
cent The surrounding district is rich in^ agri-
cultural products and lumber. Fort William
was founded as a Hudson Bay post w 180L
There is a United States consular agent Pop.,
1901, 3633, 1911, 16,499.
FOBT WILLIAH. See CA&COTCA
POET WILLIAM HEHBT, A fort erected
m 1755 by Sir William Johnson (qv.) on the
:FOBT WILLIAM H SEWABD
sjte of the present Caldwell, N Y , at the head
of Lake George. During the eaily part of the
French and Indian War it was an important
strategic position and was the starting point
for many minor expeditions against the French
and Indians Rigaud, at the head of a consid-
erable Fiench force, made a half-hearted and
vnsuccessful attack upon it in the spring of
1757 (March 18-23), and later in the year
Montcalm marched against it at the head of a
force of about 8000, including 2000 Indians.
On August 2 he demanded the suriender of the
fort, then garrisoned bv about 2200 men, and
on the refusal of Colonel Mumo, the command-
ing officer., began a vigorous attack Although
Colonel Webb was stationed at Fort Edward,
onlv 15 miles away, with an English and colo-
nial foice of 1600/Colonel Munro \\as not reen-
forced, and on the 9th was compelled to sur-
render, Montcalm agreeing that the gariison
should march out with the honors of war and
should be escorted to Fort Edwaid by a de-
tachment of French regulars Eaily on the
10th the survivors began their maich, but were
soon set upon by the Indians, and a general
massacre ensued, an unknown number of the
troops being killed outright, and some 200 being
carried into captivity Though this attack was
not instigated by the French, contemporary evi-
dence seems to show that no earnest effort was
made by them to torce the Indians to observe
the tieaty stipulations Cooper used this inci-
dent in his Last of tliQ Mohicans Consult
W M Sloane, The Fiench War and the Revo-
lution (New Yoik, 1001), and Parkman, Mont-
calm and Wolfe (3 vols , Boston, 1906)
FORT WILLIAM H SEWAHD. A gar-
risoned post of regimental headquarters and a
battalion of infantry, being the largest post m
Alaska It is located on Lynn Canal, 15 miles
from Skagway Hames (Presbyterian.) Mission
adjoins the post
FOBT WILLIAMS A United States mili-
tary post, forming a portion of the defenses of
Portland harbor, Me, being 4 miles distant
from that city, which is the neaiest railway
and telegraph station There is a post office
at the post, which is usually gainsoned by five
companies of coast artilltry
POBT "WXNFIELI) SCOTT. A United
States military post, forming one of the defenses
of San Francisco harbor There aie a post office
and telegraph station at the post, which is 7
miles distant from the city of San Francisco
The garrison in 1914 was 10 companies of coast
artillery
POET WOBDEK. A United States mili-
tary post m Washington at Port Townsend,
forming one of the defenses of Puget Sound and
51 miles distant by boat from Seattle Its usual
garrison is six companies of coast artillery
POBT WOBTH. A city and the county
seat of Tarrant Co , Tex ,175 miles northeast of
Austin, capital of the State and 70 miles south
of Red River, on the Texas and Pacific, the .In-
ternational and Great Northern, the Chicago,
Rock Island, and Gulf, the Gulf, Colorado, and
Santa Fe, the Fort Worth and Denver City, the
St Louis Southwestern (Cotton Belt), the St
Louis and San Francisco, Missouri, Kansas, and
Texas, the Sunset-Central Lines, arid other i ail-
ways, and on Trinity River (Map Texas D 3)
It is the seat of Texas Women's College (suc-
cessor to the Polytechnic College, Southern
Methodist), chartered in 1891, Texas Christian
68 POBTY-NIHEBS
Univeisity, founded in 1880 and lemoved to
Fort Worth in 1910, which absorbed the Fort
Worth Medical College in 1913, Southwestern
Baptist Theological Seminary, Masonic Or-
phans' Home and School foi Texas, Southland
Univeisity (State School of the Disciples of
Christ) , Academy of Our Lady of Victoiy and
Mount Caimel Academy (Roman Catholic col-
leges) , a number of denominational schools and
others for tuition m technical subjects, ait,
diama, music, business, etc It contains a
Camegie hbiaiy, couit of Civil Appeals law h-
biaiv, and the Medical College medical library
Theie are also the Paddock Viaduct and a fine
system of hard-surfaced country roads, 31 pub-
lic parks or parked places, about 100 churches,
nine hospitals, and an electric-powei plant
The centre of a vast stock-raising and agri-
cultural country, Fort Worth has large jobbing
interests and carnes on an extensive trade in
hogs, sheep and cattle, cotton oil, grain, fruit,
and produce The industrial establishments in-
clude stockyards whose daily capacity is about
27,500 head, large packing houses, whose busi-
ness in 1913 exceeded $65,000,000, grain eleva-
tois, flour, coin-meal and stock-feed nulls, brew-
eries, rolling mills, railroad repair shops, found-
lies and machine shops, cotton and oil mills,
tin silo plants and manufactories of clothing,
lurmture, chemicals, candy, wagons and cai-
nages, etc
With an ample artesian watei supply, as a
provision against any possible failure of that
souice, the city of Foit Worth built at a cost
of $1,400,000 a lar^c storage dam on the West
Foik of the Tunity River, 7 miles fiom the
city, with a storage capacity of 30,000,000,000
gallons Founded as a military post by Maj
Ripley D Arnold m 1849, Fort Worth became
the county seat in 1860 and was fiiat incoi-
porated m 1873 The commission foim of gov-
ernment was adopted in 1907 Receipts of the
city for 1913 were $1,937,27129, expenditures,
§1,861,823 01, the chief items of expense be-
ing police department $100,010, fire depait-
inent $110,000, education, $359,62003, interest
charges, $242,53230 The citv o\vns and opei-
ates its water woiks Pop, 1880, 6663, 1890,
23,076, 1900, 26,688, 1910, 73,312, 1914 (U. S
Census Bureau est ) , 94,494, 1920, 106,482
FOKT YEI/LOWSTOUE A United States
raihtaiy post, established in 1886 and foirneily
Camp Sheridan (1874) The rcbcivation cam-
puses 28 acres on Beaver Cieek and is 5 miles
fiom Gardiner on the Northern Pacific Railroad,
within the limits of Yellowstone National Park
The post office is at the foit, and telegraph
station is Mammoth Hot Spiings, near the post
The garrison has charge of the Yellowstone Na-
tional Park, including the protection of the
•visitors, and in 1914 was a squadron of cavalry
FORTY-NINERS. A name popularly ap-
plied to the throng of foitune seekers who emi-
grated to California in the years immediately
following the discovery of gold there m 1848,
especially to those who went during the period
of greatest excitement in 1849 They weie also
called Argonauts They came, some by land and
some by sea, fiom all parts of the world and had
among them representatives of almost every na-
tionality, of every color, and of every social
stratum Those who came by sea embarked for
the most part from ports in the Eastern States,
some making the long and dangerous voyages
aiound Cape Horn, and others proceeding to
FOBTY THIEVES 6
Chagies, and thence across the Isthmus to
Panama, where they again embarked on any
vessel obtainable The chief carriers were the
three side- wheelers, the California-^ the Oiegon,
and the Panama, of the Pacific Mail Steamship
Company, which frequently transported more
than three or four times the number of passen-
gers for which they were designed Besides
these, nondescript vessels, of every size and
kind, were commissioned for the service and
were likewise greatly overcrowded, while many
reckless adventureis, tuuble to force their way
aboard, left for then destination in clumsy In-
dian dug-outs Much as passengers by the sea
suffered, however, overland travelers suffered
even more The majority of these gathered
from May to June of each year at Independence
or St Joseph, Mo , at that time on the frontiers
of civilization, and then, proceeded to Sacra-
mento in long caravans, continually harassed on
the way by the Indians, and forced to suffer
terribly from starvation, exposure, and fatigue.
The first emigrant train reached Sacramento in
August, 1849, and others followed in quick
succession By the end of 1849 it is estimated
that 42,000 emigrants had arrived by land and
30,000 by sea, of these, three-fourths were
probably Americans Consult Bancroft, His-
tory of the Pacific States, vol xvin (San Fran-
cisco, 1888), id, California, Inter Poculd (ib,
1888), Bayard Taylor, M Dorado (New York,
1862), Stillman, Seeking the Golden Fleece
(San Fiancisco, 1877), Bret Harte, Tales of
the Argonauts (Boston, 1875) , Audubon, West-
ern Journal, 1849-50 (Cleveland, 1906), Mcll-
hany, Recollections of a 49er (Kansas City,
1908)
FORTY THIEVES, THE A band of rob-
bers in the tale of "Ah Baba" in the Thousand
and One Nights They dwelt in a cave in the
forest, the doors of which opened only in re-
sponse to the words "Open, sesame " Noldeke
thinks that the power of these words may be
derived from the significance oil made from
sesame had in Babylonian magic (Herodotus,
i, 193; Jastrow, Religion B&lyloniens und As-
si/nens, 11, 759 ff ) and among the Mandseans.
The manuscript used by the Maronite Hanna,
•who told the story to Galland (see ARABIAN
NIGHTS), has not been found But Macdonald
has recently discovered in an Oxford manuscript
an Arabic text that substantially agrees with
that from which Galland's translation came,
Consult Macdonald, in Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, 332 ff (London, 1910), 53
(1913), Torrey, ib , 222 (1911); Noldeke, in
Zeitschnft fur Assynologie, 242 ff (Strassburg,
1914)
FORT YtFKON" An old and well-known
trading post, located on the great bend of the
Yukon River, Alaska, ]ust within the Arctic
circle (Map Alaska, K 2) It has a govern-
ment school for its natives, numbering about
200
FO'BTTM (Lat, market place; connected with
fons, door Forum was the "out-of-doors"
place) The term applied by the Romans to
the large, open, rectangular space in the central
part of any city, which was the common resort
of the people for worship, for business, and for
pleasure It was originally an open space, with-
out buildings, where the people met on market
days, for religious ceremonials, elections, etc
"Ultimately it was the political centre, where the
magistrates and the people met and where
9 FORUM
elections were held, heie weie the adunmstra-
tive and civic building? 01 intlosures, such as
the comitium, with its tiibunals and rostra
for the large assembly > the curia,, 01 senate
house, treasuries and basilicas, or law courts
Here, too, were the more important temples.
(See B VSILICA ) At each end of the road or
loads crossing the fora wtie often archways, 01
Jam, used as resorts for merchants and scubes
The other buildings bounded the foium on dif-
ferent sides and between them were shops, 01
talci nee., belonging to the different trades
Historic Evolution In the early days of
the lloyal and Republican ages theie appears to
have been but a single foium in each Roman or
Italian city, serving not only for political,
legal, and mercantile purposes, but also for
the popular games and amusements — the the-
atrical shows, wild-beast contests, gladiatorial
fights, and races (See AMPHITHEATRE ) The
old Foium at Rome (Forum Romanum} and
all those modeled upon it, like that of Sinuessa,
were of this type The next stage was the
distinction into two fora — one devoted to re-
ligion, law, administration, and politics, and
the other to the sale of commodities This
was due perhaps, to the influence of Greece,
where there were often two agoias of this
description — as at Athens The Greek term
"agora" meant originally a gathering of any
kind, then a gathering place for purposes
of every sort; later the agoras were preemi-
nently market places. Until recently the plan
and the buildings of such Greek squares were
haidly known, except from descriptions by
Pausanias of those at Athens, Megalopolis,
Corinth, Messene, Elatea, Sparta, and Ehs, but
lecently agoras have been excavated, especially
in Asia Minor, as at Priene, Miletus, Side, Ter-
niessus, Aphrodisias, Antiphellus, Pessinus, and
Cnidus See tlie articles on the places named,
and consult the well-illustrated article "Agora"
in Smith, A Dictionary of Q-ieeJc and Roman
Antiquities, vol i (3d ed, London, 1890). But
the differences between agora and forum are
considerable, notably in the great importance
given to law by the Romans, which finally made
of the basilicas the great factor in the admin-
istrative fora
Th,e Different Fora The third stage, how-
ever, in the differentiation of the fora had been
reached before the basilica (qv) had attained
this importance, this step came through the es-
tablishment of a separate forum for the sale
of each important commodity. There were one
or inoie animal or meat markets (forum loa-
rium, forum marium, forum pecuariMn), for
homed cattle, pigs, and sheep respectively, a
fish market (forum piscalomum) , a wine mar-
ket (forum* mnanum) , a vegetable market
(forum olitonum) , a grain market (forum
pistonum) The various industrial and mer-
cantile trades occupied shops around these
separate squares or on streets leading from
them. There were evidently sometimes covered
markets, such as cloth markets, like that built
by Eumachia- at Pompeii Out of this use of
forum as a terra virtually equivalent to "mar-
ket" comes the employment of forum as part of
the name of many towns, established largely as
market towns Of, eg, Forum Appi, Forum
Julu, Forum Livi The city theatre often ad-
joined the forum, as at Ostia and Tnngad, so
did the circus and the amphitheatre in many
cases The temples of the forum often served
more than a religions purpose, in Rome the
Temple of Concord served for meetings of the
Senate, and that of Saturn was at one time the
•State Treasury, and even the public archives
(the records of the censors and financial i co-
ords) were kept m it until the erection of the
Tabulanum (qv ) In many Imperial Roman
cities there was a capitohiim in connection with
the forum, a triple temple of Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva, as at Rome itself and at Suffetula
Of the fora outside of Italy, those found on
the sites of the cities of North Africa are the
most intei eating, and their ruins aie numerous
and especially valuable because they have been
untouched The most important is at Thamu-
gadr (Timgad), a military colony, as were so
H-iany other Roman cities in Afiica It had its
triumphal ardies «t each end of its main road,
its temples, curia, scholoe of the corporations,
tribunal and rostra, basilica and colonnades in-
closing the squaie.
The fora at Pompeii are also well preseived
The forum tnangulcwe lay near the southern
verge of the city, close to the two theatres, it
had a Doric Greek temple, a colonnade on two
sides, and an Ionic portico at the entiance The
pimcipal f 01 um was about 450 feet from noith
to south The Temple of Jupiter, flanked by a
memorial arch on each bide, formerly the main
entrance of this forum, was at its northern end ,
the Basilica and the Temple of Apollo were on
the west side On the east side weie the
maoellum, or market, the Temple of the Genius
of Augustus, the Schola, or corporation building,
and the building of Eumachia, or cloth market
The open spaces in all the fora, were so filled
with honorary statues, even as early as the Re-
publican period, as well as with altars, arches,
wells, memorial columns, etc , that it was neces-
sary a,t times to order a wholesale removal of
them (Consult Laneiani, Ancient Rome in the
Light of Recent Discoveries, chap iv, Boston,
1889 ) The fora of Rome were naturally in a
class by themselves, although in the fourth, cen-
tury AD. those of the new Imperial capital,
Constantinople, were made by the Emperors
from Constantine to Honorius almost to rival
them in number and wealth of artistic decor a-
tion
The Forum Bomanum The original Roman
Forum (Forum Romanum Magnum] occupied
the lowlands between, the Palatine, the Capito-
hne, and the Quirmal hills, and served as polit-
ical and commercial common ground foi the
separate tribes inhabiting these different hills,
as well as for those on the Coelian and the Es-
quiline hills, before the closer union under the
Tarquina when Rome became one city Then
the Forum took a more regular and monumental
shape and was drained and surrounded by shops
The original temples of Saturn (497 B c ), of the
Dioscuri (484 BC ), and of Concord (367 BC )
added substantially to its beauty, but it was not
until quite late (184 BO ) that the first court-
house, the Basilica Porcia, was built, to be fol-
lowed by the basilicas known as Fulvia
(^Emilia), the Sempronia, and the Opimia,
these structures gave to the Forum the char-
acteristic colonnaded effect that was imitated
in other cities This crowding of the open space
with "buildings and honorary monuments, and
the increasing importance of the political aspect
of the Forum (as the place of meeting of people
and Senate), as well as rts legal aspect, led to
the relegation to a separate market of the malo-
dorous fishmongers' stalls (forum pisc&lonum) ,
and this example was followed tor the other
venders, as explained above Even this failed
to give sufficient loom for the lapidlv expanding
political-judicial life of the city, and in 54 B o
a new era was commenced by the construction of
the Basilica JSinrlia in pursuance of a scheme
earned forward by Julius Caesar, who began
also the addition of the special imperial foia by
the construction of the Forum Julium
Imperial Fora The Forum Julium was fol-
lowed by Augustus with his Forum Augustura
or Foium Maitis, by Vespasian with his Forum
Pacis, by Domitran and Nerva with the Foium
Transitoi mm, and finally by Trajan with his
magnificent Forum Trarani, the most superb
ai chitectural group in Rome — all communicat-
ing with the Forum Bomanum in a continuous
Line to the north and east of it Of these, the
Julian Forum was in the form of a sacred in-
closuie, around a temple of Venus Genctiix,
Csesar's patroness, the Augustan Forum, dedi-
cated to Mars, who had aided Augustus, the
latter said, in punishing the murderers of Julius
Csesar, was an inclosure ending in the Temple
of Mars Ultor, flanked by two triumphal arches,
and was rntended to be an heroum filled with a
gallery of statues of great Romans who had ex-
tended the boundaries of Roman power , the
Foruin of Nerva was dedicated to Minerva,
and contained, besides her temple, the main
thoroughfare of this part of the city, which fact
gave ii/ the name Forum Transitonum Finally,
the Forum of Trajan had its own special ba-
silica (Basilica Ulpia) , it was entered through
a colossal trrumphal arch leadrng to the open
square of the forum surrounded by a double
colonnade, with the Emperor's equestrran statue
in the centre, and flanked by a large hemicycle
on each side Then came the Basilica Ulpia,
also with two end hermcyeles, and a double two-
storied colonnade, the double Library with the
Memorial Column in the intermediate area,
and finally, the Temple of Trajan, erected by
Hadrian. This forum established an adequate
connection between the two sections of the city
on either side of the Capitohne Hill As for
the Roman Foruin itself, its decoiatron was
continued to the latest days of the Einpue,
many honorary statues being set up and build-
ings repaired durrng the fourth century Its
appearance at that trine, when it had been much
enlarged over its original extent, was about as
follows Backing against the Tabulanum and
Capitol at the western, end of the Forum (whrch
ran approximately from west to east), were the
temples of Concord, of Vespasian, and the Col-
onnade of the Thr Consentes Farther east, to-
wards the south srde, the Temple of Saturn
occupied the space between the ascent to the
Capitol (Clivus Capitobnus) and the Vicus
Jugarius Near it tlie Arch of Tiberrus stood
Across the Forum to the north was the Arch
of Septrmrus Severus, with the Rostra Beyond
(east of) the Arch of Severus were the poht
real burldmgs, the Curra, or Senate House, and
its annexes, on the Conntruni The other burld-
rngs on the north srde were the Temple of Janus,
the Basrlrca ^Emilia, the Temple of Antoninus
and Faustrna, the round Temple of Romulus,
son of Maxentrus, and the enormous Basilica
of Constantine (See COKSTANTINE, BASILICA
OF.) On the opposite (south) side were the
great Basilica Julia, occupying the space be-
tween the Vicus Jugarius and the Vieus Tuscua,
POKTJM 9
and the Temple of Castor (Dioscuri) — one of
the most exquisite woiks of Roman architecture
Continuing eastwaid, we reach the primitive re-
ligious centre of this region, the Regia and the
Shrine of Vesta with its famous atrium, oppo-
site the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina and
the Templum Urbis (See ANTONINUS AND
FAUSTINA, TEMPLE OF, for the Atrium Vestse,
see VESTA ) Here anciently stood the Arch of
the Fabu, originally the entrance to the Via
Sacra (See SACRED WAY ) In the open space
between the Temple of Castor and the Basilica
Emilia stood the Temple of Julius Csesai,
flanked on the south by a triumphal arch of
Augustus
Later History. The topography and monu-
ments of the Forum appear to have suffered but
slight damage from the barbarian invasions of
the fifth century, and it was not until the ninth
century that its rum was noticeable, accom-
panied by a rise in its level It was the fire
of 1084, when Guiscaid captmed the city, winch
gave the old buildings their death blow, and
buried them partly out of sight, the more con-
spicuous being occupied as feudal fortresses,
and the level spaces turned into gardens. The
Renaissance combined with its antiquarian
curiosity a destructive vandalism which was
more fatal to the Forurn and the monuments-
sui rounding it than any previous disasters, es-
pecially under Paul III (1534-49). The area
became waste land, in which stood a few mel-
ancholy columns It was called the Campo Vac-
cino, or Cow Plain The destruction stopped
only at the beginning of the nineteenth century
under Pius VII and the antiquarian Fea, and
excavations have been carried on almost con-
tinuously ever since then Those conducted by
Lanciam and by Bom (since 1898) have been
especially fruitful Consult the books by Lan-
ciam and Hulsen-Carter, referred to below The
progress of researches fiom year to year in the
Forum is noticed in the article ARCHEOLOGY in
the NEW INTERNATIONAL YEAR BOOK of each year.
Bibliography. Jordan, Topography der
Stadt Rom im Alterthum (Berlin, 1871-1906) ,
Richter, Topogtaphie der Stadt Rom (2d ed,
Munich, 1901 ), Gilbert, G-eschichte und Topo-
graphic der Stadt Rom (3 vols, Leipzig, 1883-
90) , Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome
(2 vols, London, 1892), Nichols, The Roman
Forum (ib , 1877) , Lanciam, Ruins and Excava-
tions of Ancient Rome (Boston, 1897) , id, The
Destruction of Ancient Rome (New York,
1899) , handy guide of Marucchi, Le Forum Ro-
mam (Rome, 1901 et seq ) , Hulsen-Carter, The
Roman Forum (ib, 1906), an admirable book,
giving well the history of the Forum, with many
illustrations and good plans, Thedenat, Le
Forum Romam et les Forums Imp&riause (4th
ed, Paris, 1908) , Platner, The Topography and
Monuments of Ancient Rome (Boston, 1911,
page 170, note 1, gives bibliographical informa-
tion about the latest excavations) , Lanciam,
Forma Urbis Romas (Milan, 1901), gives the
ancient plan on a large scale. The inscriptions
of the Forum are given in the Corpus Inscrip-
tionum Latmarum, vol vi (Berlin, 1893) , the
best photographs are by Anderson and Almari.
An early detailed restoration, Canina, G-li edifizi
di Roma Antica (Rome, 1848-56), is spectacular
but unreliable, Dutert, Le Forum Romam
(Paris, 1876), is far preferable The official le-
ports of Bom are to be found in Notizie degh
scam (Rome, 1899 et seq).
JITLIUM
EOBITM In law, a court, or a place where
legal jurisdiction is exercised It ib used by
Blackstone in the nrst sense, when he speaks of
leaving a person to his "common remedy in foro
content lonis" — in a court of litigation, i e , in
an ordinary court of justice Judges sometimes
lefer to a domestic couit as fotuw, domesticum
The term is used in a similar sense when an ad-
vocate is described as eminent or successful in
the forum It is more fiequently employed in
the second sense, as a place ot jurisdiction It
bears this signification in Kent's commentaries
"In respect to remedies," writes the Chancellor,
"there are, propeily speaking, three places of
jurisdiction (1) the place of domicile of the
defendant, commonly called the forum donn-
ciliiy (2) the place where the thing in contro-
versy is situate, commonly called the forum rei
sites; (3) the place where the contract is made,
or the act done, commonly called the forum rei
gestce or the forum contractus " When it is said
that a question is to be determined by the leoc
fori, it is meant that the decision is to be in ac-
cordance with the law of the jurisdiction within
which the action is brought (See CONFLICT OF
LAWS ) The employment of the term in these
and similar significations is due to the fact
that Roman courts of justice were held in or
near the Forurn Consult Forsyth, Hortensius
the Advocate, chap 111 (Jersey City, 1881).
FORUM ALIE3STI. See FEEBARA
FCKBUM: AP'PII. A town on the famous
Appian Way (qv ) , the modern Foro Appio, 43
Roman miles from Rome Here a canal began
which ran southward parallel with tlie Appian
Way to within a short distance of Terracina.
Horace (Satires, i, 2 et seq ) has an amusing de-
scription of the place as "abounding in boat-
men and wi etched inns" Here travelers might,
if they preferred, change from the road to the
canal boat This was Hoi ace's choice, much to
his discomfort At this place Paul, on his jour-
ney to Rome, bein^ met by biethrcn of the Ro-
man church, "thanked God and took courage"
(Acts xxvni 15)
2TOBTJM AUGUSTUS See FQKUM, AU-
GUSTUS FQKUM OF
EOBTJM BOA'BIUM The ancient cattle
market of Rome, situated between the Velabium
and the Tiber, it was one of the busiest quar-
ters of ancient Rome In ifc, near the Tiber,
stands an elegant circular temple, popularly,
but erroneously, called the Temple of Vesta
See FORTUNE, TEMPLE OF, FORUM Consult
Platner, The Topography and Monuments of
Ancient Rome (2d ed , Boston, 1911)
POBUM HOL'XTO^ItTM; or OX/XTCXBXITM
(Lat, vegetable maiket) The vegetable mar-
ket of Rome, adjoining the Forum Boarium,
north of the piece of the Servian Wall whioh
ran from the Capitolme Hill to the Tiber TE&
space contained several temples, of which some
remains aie preserved Consult Platner, The
Topography and Monuments of Ancient Home
(2d ed, Boston, 1911).
FOBUM JUUI See FEI!IJUS, FBrurr
EOBTTM JTJ'LXTJM:, or EOBtJir OP
CJESAB The first of the five Imperial fora
at Rome It was built by Caesar from the spoils
of the Gallic war, on ground to -tfoe northeast ©f
the Forum Romanum, for which $4,000,000, it is
said, was paid It was surrounded by arcades
and a wall and contained the magnificent Tem-
ple of Venus Genetrix Nothing now remains of
FORUM LIVII *
its buildings but some half -buried arches and
a part of the mclosure wall Consult Platner,
The Topography and Monuments of Ancient
Rome (2d ed , Boston, 1911) See FORUM
FORUM UVII. See FoRLi, FORUM
FORUM MAGISTUM See FORUM
FORUM MARTIS See AUGUSTUS, FORUM
OF, FORUM
FORUM OF AUGUSTUS. See AUGUSTUS,
FORUM OF, FORUM
FORUM OF C-ffiSAR See FORUM JULIUM
FORUM OF NERVA See NERVA, FORUM
OP , FORUM
FORUM OF TRAJAN See TRAJAN, FORUM
OP, FORUM
FORUM OF VESPASIAK See FORUM
PACIS
FORUM PA'CIS (Lat, Forum of Peace),
or FORUM OF VESPA'SIAN The third ot
the Impeiial fora at Home, built in 71-75 AD
to inclose Vespasian's Temple of Peace, called
by Plmy the Elder one o± the three most mag-
nificent buildings in Rome In it weie dedicated
the spoils taken from Jerusalem. There aie no
remains of the temple. This forum was sep-
arated from the Forum of Augustus by a wide
street leading from the Subura to the Forum
Konianum This strip later became the Forum
Transitormm of Nerva Consult Platner, The
Topography and Monuments of Ancient Rome
(2d ed, Boston, 1911) See FORUM, NERVA,
FORUM OF
FORUM ROIEA'NUM See FORUM
FORUM SEMPROHII See FOSSOMCRONE
FORUM TRAJST'SITO'jRITJM See NEEVA,
FORUM OF
FOR'WARD, WALTER (1786-1852) An
American lawyer and cabinet officei, born in
Hartfoid Co, Conn In 1803 he removed to
Pittsburgh, Pa , where for some time lie edited
a Democratic newspaper, the Tree of L^bcrty
He studied law, and was admitted to the bar
in 1806 In 1822 he was elected to Congress
as a Democrat, to fill a vacancy, and in 1823
began a full term He supported John Quincy
Adams for the presidency, and became a Whig
He was a leading member of the Pi otectionist
Convention at Harrisburg in 1827, was active
in the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention
in 1837, and in 1841 was appointed by President
Harrison First Comptroller of the Treasury
After the death of Harrison and the subsequent
resignation of his cabinet, Forward was ap-
pointed Secretary of the Treasury by President
Tyler, in September, 1841, but as Tyler broke
away more and more from the Whigs, his posi-
tion became more difficult, and finally, in Maich,
1843, he resigned From 1843 to 1849 he prac-
ticed law in Pittsburgh, from 1849 to- 1851 was
charge d'affaires at Copenhagen, Denmark, and
fiom 1851 to his death was president judge of
the Allegheny County District Court
FORWARDING- The business of receiving
and transmitting goods for another Ihe for-
warding merchant assumes the expense of trans-
portation and receives compensation fiom the
owner Such a person is not deemed a common
carrier, but is merely a warehouseman or agent
and is required only to use ordinary diligence
in sending the property by responsible persons
and to obey the instructions of his principal
Forwarding merchants have in the United States
been superseded largely by express companies
Common carriers often act as forwarders of
goods from points on their own line to other
,2 FOSCOLO
places A person who holds himself out as a
public forwaidei is under a legal duty to re-
ceive and forward all goods tendeied to him
"by any peison for a leasonable compensation,
unless he can show a valid excuse foi his refusal
or failuie so to do See CARRIER, COMMON
FOSCARI, fos'ka-re, FRANCESCO (1373-
1457) Doge of Venice fiom 1423 to 1457
Previous to his election he had been a Chief of
the Forty, a Chief of the Ten, Inquisitor of the
Ten, and Avogedar of the Commune He was
always an advocate of an aggressive policy on
the Italian mainland, for the pui poses of terri-
torial aggrandizement, and he was elected to
the Dogate as an exponent of such a policy He
soon enteied upon a couise of conquest, which
continued, with intervals of peace, for neaily 30
yeais, and which m spite of many defeats re-
sulted in the reduction of a large part of north-
ern Italy under Venetian rule In 1426-27, in
league with Florence, Naples, Savoy, and many
minor principalities, he carried on a conflict
with the Visconti of Milan As a result, Venice
acquned the towns of Bergamo, Ciemona, and
Biescia, War broke out again in 1431, the
Venetian forces suffered defeat, but in the
treaty of peace the terntoiies of the Republic
weie ncveitheless extended to the Adda Two
years later hostilities weie recommenced, this
time Venice, Florence, Genoa, and the Pope wei e
anaved against Milan, Mantua, and Naples, and
by the Peace signed in 1441 Venice gained pos-
session of Pesclneia and other places Hostili-
ties were finally terminated by the Peace of
Lodi in 1454 In spite of his uniform' success
in Italy Foscari was forced to meet bitter op-
position at home This was based mainly on
the fact that, owing to the Italian wars, the
influence of Venice had suffered greatly at the
hands of the Turks in Gieece and in the Grecian
Archipelago His life was also embittered by
the misdeeds of his youngest son, Giacopo, who,
with the father, forms the subject of Byron's
tiagedy The Two Foscari In 1445 Giacopo
was denounced for having received bubes in
order to use his influence in the disposal of
state offices He was tried by the Council of
Ten and banished, but in 1447, on the DogeN
petition, he was allowed to retuin, and he lived
quietly at Venice for three years In 1450 one
of the Council of Ten was murdered, and sus-
picion fell upon Giacopo, who in the following
year was tried, tortured, and banished to Canclia,
the Doge taking no part in the trial There
was great doubt about Giacopo's guilt, but he
seems to have engaged in ti easonable correspond-
ence, for \dnch he was again tried in 1456 and
again banished There was still so much un-
certainty about his guilt that there was a move-
ment to recall him when his death was an-
nounced, in 1457 Foscari, worn out and broken-
hearted, was soon after deposed illegally by
the Council of Ten, through the machinations of
his enemy, the Admiral Giacopo Loredano, who
had been one of the chief instigators of the
action against the younger Foscari He resisted
at first, but yielded to force, and left the Doge's
palace or- Oc,t 24, 1457 He died on November 1
Consult "Romanin, Storia Document at a di Vene-
zia, vol iv (Venice, 1855) , Hazlitt, The Vene-
tian Republic (2 vols , London, 1900), Brown,
Vemce (New York, 1893)
FOSCOLO, fos'kd-lo, UGO (1778-1827) An
Italian writer, born at Zante, in the Ionian
Isles, the son of a Venetian family then settled
FOSCOLO 7
there Originally called Niccold, he early
changed his name to Ugo Part of his child-
hood was spent m Dalmatia with his father,
a physician, when he died, Ugo returned to
Zante, whence, probably in 1793, he went to
Venice He continued his education in this city,
feeding on the wntings of the Fiench philoso-
phers, inflaming his patriotism with Alfien's
tragedies, and making occasional visits to the
University of Padua, where he came under the
influence of M Cesarotti At this time began
the multitudinous love aliairs which marked the
couise of his life Among his verses of this
period is the poem La Guistissia e la pieta, in
imitation of Young's gloomy sentimentality
Soon after appeared the odes, A Luigia Palla-
vicini and All' arnica usanata, of remarkable
beauty of form and sincere classic feeling While
these show the influence of his friend Parini the
sonnets (1800-02), some of the most perfect in
the language, suggest Alfieri Taking an active
part in the political discussions which followed
the fall of the Venetian Republic, he addressed
an ode to Napoleon, expecting him to establish a
fiee government in its stead Embittered by Na-
poleon's transfer of Venice to Austria, he wrote
the Letters of Jacopo Ortis (1798), a sort of
political Werther who succumbs to the suffer-
ings of his disillusioned patriotism Relieved
by this expression of his feeling, with lenewed
hope in Napoleon he served with the Italian
division of the French army from 1804 to 1806
and spent some time at Boulogne-sur-Mer, which
was later useful to him when he translated
Sterne's Sentimental Journey In 1807 ap-
peared I Sepoleri, in many lespects his master-
piece, a magnificent attempt to find "refuge in.
the past from the misery of the present " In
splendid lyrical passages it extols burial monu-
ments as incentives to virtue and good deeds in.
then recall to the living of the mighty dead.
He was appointed to the chair of eloquence at
the University of Pavia in 1808 His inaugural
discourse, "DelP origine e dell' uffizio della
letteratura," in which he passionately appealed
to his young countrymen to study literature in
its relation to national life and growth, pro-
duced a sensation, resulting in Napoleon's sup-
pression of this chair in all Italian universities
His classical tragedy, the Ajace, performed at
Milan in 1811, contained allusions to Napoleon,
and the author was obliged to leave Milan He
went to Florence, where he wrote another tragedy,
Ricciarda, and began the Hymn to the Grave,
dedicated to Canova, in which he wished to em-
body all metaphysical conceptions of the beautiful
He never completed it In 1813, when Napo-
leon's power declined, he returned to Milan, only
to leave the city again when the Austrians re-
gained control of it and his patriotic sentiments
prevented him from taking the oath of allegiance
to the foreigner Self -exiled, he went to Switzer-
land and then to England, where he was enthusi-
astically received as a type of fearless patriot
He lived at Kensington, in London, burden-
ing himself to such an extent with debts by his
lavishness that he was for a while imprisoned
He was rescued from poverty and misery by
his friend, Hudson G-urney, and died at Turnham
Green His remains were interred at Chibwick
In 1871 the Italian government had them trans-
ferred to Florence, where with many honors they
were buried in the church of Santa Croce
Foseolo is also a conspicuous figure in criti-
cism He was the first among the Italians to
3 FOSS
consider a work of ait as a psychological phe
nomenon, with its causes in the mind of its
author and in the characten&tics of the century
in which it was produced For an edition of
Boccaccio's works (London, 1825) he wrote as
a pieface his Discorso stoiito sul testo del
Decamcrone, and for an edition of Dante's great
poem he prepaied an essay, Sul testo della Corn-
media di Dante (Brussels and London, 1842),
which is a treatise of impoitance in the history
of Dante studies He also contributed aiticles
to English magazines Many of his letteis are
punted in the Epistolana} in the edition of his
works published at Floience (1850-62), others
have been edited by Tobler (Leipzig, 1871)
He is leveled by his country as a great poet,
but he was, besides, in spite of many faults and
fluctuating fortunes, a true patriot
Bibliography. G-emelli Delia mta e delle
opere di Ugo Foseolo (2d ed , Bologna, 1881),
Wmckels, Vita di Ugo Foseolo (Verona, 1885-
98) , Carducci, "Adolescenza e gioventu poetica
del Foscolo/' in Comersavioni critiche (Kome,
1884) , Maitmctti, Vita mihtare di Ugo Foseolo
(Leghorn, 1883) , Pen, Foseolo e Pindemonte
(Milan, 1885), Zanella, "Giay e Foseolo," m
Paralleli letterarj (Venice, 1885) , Martmetti,
Dell' wigine delle iiltime Icttei e di Jacopo Ortis
(Naples, 1883) , the ciitical edition of the
Ultime letteie di J O , by Maitmetti and Tra-
vei&i (Saluazi, 1889), Chjarim, Oh Anson di
\Ugo FosGolo (Bologna, 1892) , Graf, in the
Nuova Antologia, vol Ivn (Florence, 1895),
Poesie, edited by Gori, with a Bibliografia Fos-
coliana (Florence, 1886)
FOSSICK, CHARLES AUSTIN (pen name,
"HARRY CASTLEMON") (1842-1915) An Ameri-
can writer of juveniles He was born at Ran-
dolph, N Y, was educated at the Central High
School of Buffalo, N Y , and served m the Civil
War He is author of moie than 50 books of
adventure for boys, including Fiank on the
Lower Mississippi (1869), The Buried Treas-
ure (1877), The Boy Trapper (1878), George
at the Fort (1882) , Don GOJ don's Shooting-Boa;
(1883), Oscar in Africa (1894), Elam Storm,
the Wolfet (1895), Carl the Trailer (1900),
Floating Treasure (1901) , Frank Nelson m the
Forecastle (1904), Snowed Up (1904)
FOSDICK, JAMES WILLIAM (1858- )
An American mural painter, ciaftsman, and
writer on art He was born at Charlestown,
Mass , and studied art first at the school of the
Boston Museum, later he was able to go to
Paris, where at the Academic Julian he had
as teachers Boulanger, Lefebvre, and Collm
Mural painting and pyrography ( q v ) came to
be his special interests After his return to
America the latter received much of his atten-
tion— he was among the first to give thorough
study to this still only partly developed art
He decorated important private residences
(Gould, Havemeyer, Lewisohn, etc ) in New
York (where he established himself), and else-
where Among his works one of the most im-
portant is "The Adoration of St Joan of Arc,"
in the National Gallery, Washington, others
are a "Decorative Portrait of Louis XIV" in the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and "Are-
thusa" (1912) In 1890 ho was made a mem-
ber of the New York Architectural league, and
later of the Society of Mural Painters (of which
he became secretary), and the Copley Society
FOSS, CYRUS DAVID (1834r4910). An Amer-
ican Methodist Episcopal bishop He was born
FOSS
74
FOSSIL
at Kingston, N Y , graduated at Wesleyan Uni-
versity in 1854, and entered the itinerant minis-
try of the Methodist Episcopal church, in the
New York Conference, m 1857 From 1857 to
1859 he was a pastor at Chester, Orange Co ,
N Y , from 1859 to 1865 in Brooklyn, and from
1865 to 1875 in New York City He was presi-
dent of Wesleyan University from 1875 to 1880,
when he was elected a bishop In 1878 he was
delegate to the General Confeience of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church South, in Atlanta, Ga ,
and in 1886 to the British Wesleyan Conference,
in London He made tours of the missions of
his chmch in Europe (1886), Mexico (1893),
and India and Malaysia (1897-98), and wrote
From the Himalayas to the Equator (1899),
Religious Certainties (1905), and Temperance
and the Pulpit (1910) Consult Cyrus Damd-
Poss A. Memorial (Philadelphia, 1910)
FOBS, EUGENE NOBLE (1858- ) An
American manufacturer and public official He
was born at West Berkshire, Vt , and was edu-
cated at the university of that State Engaging
in manufacturing in Boston in 1882, he became
treasurer and general manager of B F Sturte-
vant & Co , president of the Becker Milling
Machine Company, the Mead-Morrison Manu-
facturing Company, the Burgess Mills, and the
Maverick Mills, and a director in many other
corporations In 1902 he began the advocacy of
tariff reform and reciprocity in 1910 he was
elected to Congress on the Democratic ticket,
and from 1910 to 1913 he was Governor of
Massachusetts Duiing his last year of office he
aroused the hostility of the labor unions, and
this was instiumental in defeating his candidacy
foi a fourth term
POSS, SAM WALTEB (1858-1911) An Amer-
ican journalist and writer of humoious verse
He was born at Candia, N H, and graduated
from Brown University in 1882 He was editor
of the Saturday Union- in 1883-87 and the
Yankee Blade in 1887-95 at Lynn, Mass, and
from 1888 to 1895 he was also editorial writer
for the Boston Globe. In 1898 he became libra-
rian of the Somerville Public Library lie fre-
quently gave lectures and readings of his own
poems, the volumes of his verse including. Back
Country Poems (1894), Whiffs from Wild
Meadoias (1896) , Dreams in Hmnespun (1898) ,
Songs of War and Peace (1899),, Songs of tlie
Average Man (1907)
POS'SA, or FOUS'SA (Malagasy) The
largest cainivoious mammal of Madagascar, a
slender, lithe creature, connecting the cats and
civets and in structure partaking of both It is
about twice the size of a house cat and has a
\ery long, tapering tail, so that it measures
fully 5 feet from tip of nose to end of tail It
is nearly uniformly pale brown in color, with
the hair short and close and no spots Each
foot has five catlike toes, the claws of which
aie sharp, curved, and retractile, but the soles
of the hind feet are entirely naked and rest upon
the ground in walking. The dentition is a
mixture of forms characterizing both the cats
and the civets, the teeth numbering 36 in all
A separate family has been proposed for this
strange carnivore by several zoologists, but it
seems best to regard it as alone representing a
group Cryptoproctinae within the civet family
(Viverridse), under the name Cryptoprocta
fero®. It seems to be confined to Madagascar,
where it is not numerous,, and although much
dreaded by the natives, on account of its repu-
tation for ferocity and ability lo do harm, is
rarely seen, since it is wholly nocluinal Tt
feeds upon small animals and buds and occa-
sionally invades poultiy yards, but its geneial
habits are little known
FOSSA DBtTSIAJMA See DKUSUS, 3, GEE-
MANIA.
E OS'S A MA'RIA/NA (Lat, trench of Ma-
rius) The canal made 102 BC, by Marius,
from the Rhone to the Gulf of Stomalimne,
near the modern village of Foz (Possw Mannce]
It was constructed to avoid the difficult naviga-
tion at the mouths of the river, caused by the
accumulations of sand by the several streams
It was about 16 miles long and was later given
to the inhabitants of Massilia (Marseilles), who
derived large levenues from it
FOSSANO, fos-sa'no A city in the Prov-
ince of Cuneo, north Italy, 1235 feet above sea
le\el, on the left bank of the Stuia, 40 miles
south of Turin, 15 miles northeast of Cuneo
(Map- Italy, A 2) The name "Fossano" is de-
rived fiom the Latin Pons Sana (Healthful
Spring) The city has promenades on the site
of the old walls, a fourteenth -century castle, a
cathedral, a seminary, a gymnasium, a veteri-
nary school, two houses of correction, and an
academy of science It manufactures silk fab-
rics, gunpowder, leather, paper, and baskets
Fossano was purchased by the house of Savoy
in 1340, was the lesidence in the sixteenth cen-
tury of Philibert Emmanuel and seveial of his
successois, and in 1796 and 1799 was the scene
of battles between the Ficnch and the Austn<ms
Pop (commune), 1901, 18,133, 1911, 18,731
iFOSSAKO, AMBEOGIO See BOBGOGNONE
POSSE See FOSSWAY
FOSSE, CHAELES DE LA. See LA FOSSE,
CHARLES DE
ITQS'SIL (Fr -fossile, from Lat fossihs, dug
up, fossil, from fodere, to dig, connected with
Corn ledh, Welsh "bedd, grave, OChurch Slav
"bosti, Lith 'badyti) to pierce) Any remains or
trace of the form of animals or plants found
buried by natural causes in deposits or rocks
before the piesent era The term was foimerly
applied to anything dug up out of the giound
and included minerals, prehistoric implements,
etc At the piesent day the word is used as an
adjective in this latter sense, and also to desig-
nate anything pertaining to prehistoric times
Thus, we read of fossil salt, fossil xamdiops and
mud cracks, and fossil lakes, deserts, seabeaches,
and shores The word "petrifaction" is often in-
coriectly employed as a synonym for "fossil,"
although it properly designates only such or-
ganic remains as have been turned to stone, as
described below Fossils are the relics of the
animals and plants that have lived upon the
earth and in the waters of the earth during the
long periods of its geological history, and study
of their organization, occurrence, and relations
to each other and to modern organisms consti-
tutes the science of paleontology (qv ) Fossils
are naturally absent from all rocks of igneous
and volcanic origin and, on the other hand,
they are present originally in nearly all rocks
of sedimentary origin From large masses of
these latter they have been obliterated by chem-
ical and physical changes, , so that they are now
seldom or sparingly found in metamorphic
rocks The processes by which organic remains
have been, preserved are grouped under the term
"fossiliz&tion ?> This includes entombment and
the subsequent changes that have ensued. The
FOSSIL
75
FOSSIL FORESTS
place of entombment may be on land, in fresh
water, or m the salt water of bays, seas, or
oceans
The degree of preservation of fossils varies
greatly In some few cases the flesh of animals
has been preserved as if in an ice box Mam-
moth carcasses embedded in the frozen mud
cliffs of Siberia for thousands of years had meat
so fresh that it was eaten by the dogs of the
exploring party The most perfectly preserved
fossils are undoubtedly those insects found in
the Tertiary amber of the Baltic provinces, wliei e
the form, structure, and colors are retained in-
tact Then we find shells pieserved in the
rocks with their original organic matter ic-
placed by some mineral, usually silica, or per-
haps barite, pyrites, or even zinc blende Such
replacements rightly receive the name of "petri-
factions " In other cases we find cavities in
rocks, the sides of these retaining impiessioiis
of the outer and inner surfaces of shells which
have been dissolved and destroyed by percolating
waters These "molds" are sometimes filled
with calcite, or quartz, or other mineral matter,
and then we have "casts" of the original organic
forms The study of these molds is puzzling to
the beginner, because of the multiplication of
forms so caused A single shell like a limpet, if
preserved in the rocks, may present four differ-
ent aspects as a fossil — the outer and inner sur-
faces of the shell itself, and the molds of each
of these The mold of the outer surface may
pull away such delicate spines as may orna-
ment the shell, and for this reason molds should
always be carefully collected and treated with
acid, after which the impression of the original
shell surface is often shown with the utmost
fidelity to detail Another class of fossils con-
sists of the impressions or tiails made by ani-
mals crawling over the bottom of the water or
over the beach, and also of burrows or casts of
burrows that served as dwelling places or pas-
sageways for worms, crustaceans, etc The
study of the footprints of reptiles and supposed
birds, which are so abundant on the surfaces of
the Jurassic sandstones of Massachusetts and
Connecticut, was named "ichnology" by E
Hitchcock, who described and figured a host of
such impressions (See ICHNOLOGY ) Similar
footprints are found in rocks of shallow-water
origin of Mesozoic and Tertiary age all over the
world*
The parts of animals likely to be preserved
are always those that resist longest the destruc-
tive agencies that may attack them both before
and after their entombment The soft parts are
seldom preserved, and often also the hard parts
are destroyed Because of this certain groups
of animals are represented by insignificant parts
of their anatomy, which, though of great impor-
tance to the paleontologist, are usually laid
aside by the zoologist as of trivial interest
Thus, the presence of sponges in certain forma-
tions is demonstrated by their isolated spicules,
holotliunans are recognized by their minute cal-
careous plates and anchors , worms by their teeth
and dwelling tubes, dibranchiate cephalopods by
their internal shells , and many fish by their teeth,
ear bones (otoliths), spines, and dermal scales
The manner of entombment of fossils varies
greatly In many cases the shells of mollusks
have been dead a long tune and have become
incrusted with polyzoans and corals before they
were entombed In other cases they were
washed along the shore and broken and worn
VOL IX— 6
by the waves so that now in fragmentary condi-
tion they form "shell limestones Ajnong the
crustacean fossils we find those that were killed
suddenly, perhaps by some change in the tem-
perature of the water, in which case their le-
mains are usually well preserved In some
rocks of fresh-water or estuarine origin certain
layers are coveied with the remains of n&h
These evidently lived in shallow pools that were
either dried up suddenly or became ^o heated
by the sun that the fish were killed, soon
to be covered by sediment Such conditions are
frequent in the Catskill, Old Keel Sandstone, and
Juiassic formations Myiiads of insects of
Teitiary tune became entangled in the boft
gum of coniferous trees and are now pieserved
in the amber of the Baltic and the fossil resins
of Africa and New Zealand
The old ideas regarding fossils were curious
and often fantastic A few of the Greek and
Roman philosophers had well-denned ideas of
their true natuie as entombed, animals and
plants that had once lived in the sea and upon
the earth, but the ma]onty of early wiiters
attached to them some fanciful or bupernatural
origin Thus they were explained as due to the
vis plastica, or creative force that formed living
things out of inorganic materials, as spoits of
nature, as due to some peculiar feimentative
procebs in the earth, 01 as originating in some
unknown influence of the stars Another hy-
pothesis, maintained for centuries and even now
persisting in uneducated communities, explains
fossils as the remains of animals and plants
washed up on the land and there stranded by
the waters of the Noachian deluge These er-
roneous ideas persisted in the face of true ex-
planations by some observers until the begin-
ning of 1800, when slowly the true nature of
fossils and their relations to the rocks in which
they are entombed began to be more universally
understood, and at last during 1800 to 1840 there
were laid the foundations of the science of
For further information on the early ideas
regarding fossils, consult Lyell, Principles of
Geology, vol i (New York, 1872), and Von
Zittel, History of Geology and Paleontology,
translated by Ogilvie-Gordon (ib, 1901) For
modes of fossihzation and the relations between
fossils and the rocks containing them, consult
Geikie, Text-Book of Geology (London, 1903)
White, "The Relations of Biology to Geological
Investigation," in Smithsonian Institution Re-
port of the United States National Museum for
1892 (Washington, 1894) , Marr, Principles of
tftratigraphical Geology (Cambridge, 1898) ,
Schuchert, "Directions for Collecting and Pre-
paring Fossils '' in Smithsonian Institution
United States National Museum, Bulletin No
39 (Washington, 1895), Hartzell, "Conditions
of Fossilization," in Journal of Geology, vol
xiv (Chicago, 1906), Schuchert, "Fossils for
Strati graphic Purposes," in Economic Geology,
vol viu (Lancaster, Pa, 1913) See also PALE-
ONTOLOGY, PALEOBOTANY, GEOLOGY
FOSSIL BIRD See BIED, FOSSIL
FOSSIL BOTANY See PALBOBOEAffY.
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS See loHKOLOGY
FOSSIL FORESTS. The popular term ap-
plied to groups of petrified tree trunks Such
forests may be found at the locality and in the
position in which they grew, or, what is more
frequently the case, they may have been carried
some distance from their native soil before being
FOSSILIFEROTJS BOCKS
76
FOSTER
buried and silicified Fossil trees are not un-
common in the coal measures of the United
States, but the most celebiated examples, be-
longing to more recent geological periods, are
those of Arizona and the Yellowstone Park
Along the Little Colorado River, in Arizona,
there are great numbers of well-preserved trees,
scattered over the surface, some of which attain
a diameter of 5 feet and a length of more than
50 feet The wood cells have been replaced by
silica, which is either colorless, like quartz, or
shows the beautiful tints of agate, opal, and
lasper, the structure of the wood is pieserved
to a most lemarkable degree Heavy beds of
Triassic marls cover the surface, and it is in
this formation that the trees are found The
silication was probably accomplished by hot
alkaline waters, carrying dissolved silica, there
is evidence of volcanic activity in the region
which might well give rise to thermal springs
Many of the trees have been removed for cutting
and polishing into various artistic objects, rival-
ing onyx and the rarer marbles in delicacy of
color, and this wholesale destruction has given
much concern lest the forest be entirely de-
stroyed A similar fossil forest in the Yellow-
stone valley has many erect stumps of large
size Along the shore of Chesapeake Bay, south
of Baltimore, is a forest m which the giant
trunks of cypress rise from a bed of peat that
is covered by Pleistocene clays The Bad Lands
of the Little Missouri abound in petrified tiees
which have been cashed out fioni shales and
sandstones of the Laramie group Another for-
est, remarkable for the great size of its trees,
is found in ISTapa Co, Cal In England fossil
trees were laid bare at Parkfielcl Colliery, near
Wolverhampton, in 1844 Within the space of
one-fourth of an acre there were 73 stumps with
attached roots, the trunks lying prostrate in
every direction The wood was converted into
coal Silesia, Egypt, and the island of Antigua,
in the West Indies, also have fossil forests
Consult Marsh, American Journal of Science
(New Haven, 1871), Hague and others, "Geol-
ogy of the Yellowstone National Park/' United
States Geological Survey, Monograph 32 (Wash-
ington, 1899) , Merrill, Fossil Forests of Ari-
zona (Adamana, Ariz, 1911)
FOS'SILIF'EROTTS BOCKS (from Lat /os~
silis, dug up, f ossil + f ei re, to bear) Hocks
which contain organic remains If we except
the lowest metamorphic rocks of the Algonkian
system, in which, as yet, no undoubted fossils
have been found, the term is equivalent to
"stratified rocks" and "sedimentary rocks" when
used comprehensively, but it may also be ap-
plied to a particular bed, barren of organic
remains, as in case of an unfossiliferous sand-
stone compared with a neighboring fossihferous
shale or limestone
FOSSIL INVEB/TEBEATES. See PALE-
ONTOLOGY
FOSSIL MEAL. See DIATOMACEOTJS EABTH.
FOSSIL PLANTS See PALEOBOTANY
FOSSIL VEB'TEBBATES See PALEON-
TOLOGY
FOSSOMBBONE, fds'sdm-bro'ni A city in
the Province of Pesaro e Urbino, central Italy,
44 miles northwest of Ancona by way of Fano
(Map Italy, D 3) It is situated in the valley
of the Metauro, on the ancient \ria Flammia, and
11 miles southeast of Urbmo A noteworthy
feature is its cathedral containing a fifteenth-
century altar by Domenico Rosselli, the church
of San Francisco has a lunette by the same
artist The city has a gymnasium, technical
schools, and important silk and oil industnes
In the vicinity (2 miles to the northeast at
S Alartmo al Piano) aie imns oi the Roman
colony Foium Sempromi, which was destioyea
by the Goths and the Lombards the hill of
Piotralata, sometimes called Monte d'Asdiubale,
where, according to tradition, the battle of the
Metaurus took place in 207 BC (see HASDRU-
E\L, 3) , and the Furlo Pass, a tunnel, 120 feet
long, 17 feet wide, and 14 feet high, hewn
through the solid lock, as the inscuption at the
noithein entrance shows, by the Emperor Ves-
pasian m 77 AD Pop. (commune), 1901, 10,428,
1911, 9701
FOSSOIORQIO, fos'som-Wns, VITTOBIO,
COUNT (1754-1844) An Italian statesman and
scientist, born at Arezzo He studied at the
University of Pisa, and after holding other
offices in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, became
Mimstei of Foreign Affairs (1796) When
Tuscany was converted into the Kingdom of
Etruria (1801), he acted as Commissionei of
Finance and proposed a scheme of monetaiy
reform In 1805 he became lieutenant general
of the Tuscan troops He was a senator of the
Empiie and president of a commission on sani-
tation in Rome and on draining the Pontine
Mai sues When the grand duchy was reestab-
lished, m 1814, Fossombiom was made Piime
Minister and President of the Legislature His
main woik was putting the Tuscan finances on
a sound footing His published works are Sur
I' intensity de Id lumiere (1782) , the veiy im-
portant Memorie idrohco-stonche sopia, le vaL
di Ohiana (1789) , 8ur liquation conditionelle
(1794) , Sur le pnncipe d& Id velocite virtuelle
(1796) , Sur I'amehoration des marais Pontins
(1S05)
FOSS'WAY, or FOSSE, THE A road in
England, built by the Romans It ran probably
from the seacoast at Seaton in Devonshire to
Lincoln, with a continuation northward to the
Humber, known as "High Street" The eaihest
mention of the Foss is in some Anglo-Saxon
charters dating from the eighth century, and
tiavelers along it enjoyed from early times the
special protection known as the King's Peace
This sanctity it enjoyed together with the othci
three so-called Roman ways Watling Street,
Icknield Street, and Ermine Street The Foss
was constructed early during the Roman occu-
pation to facilitate the military control of the
island It was still in good condition in the
twelfth century, but has now almost disappeared
Consult Guest, "The Foui Roman Ways," in
Ongines Celticce (London, 1883), and Codring-
ton, Roman Roads in Britain (ib, 1903)
FOS'TER, ABBY KELLEY (1811-87) An
American reformer, born of Quaker parentage,
at Pelham, Mass After attending the Friends'
School at Providence, R I , she taught for sev-
eral years in Massachusetts In 1837 she de-
livered a series of lectures in favor of the aboli-
tion of slavery She was the first woman who
had ever appeared before mixed audiences as an
advocate of antislavery pimciples, and although
she was the object of harsh criticism and was
compelled to suffer indignities and rough treat-
ment, her attempt met with considerable suc-
cess In 1845 she married Stephen Symonds
Poster (qv ), the Abolitionist, with whom she
lectured Afterward she advocated prohibition
and woman's suffrage
FOSTEB
77
FOSTEB,, SIB AUGUSTUS JOHN (1780-1848)
An English diplomat Through his mother's
influence (she had married the Duke of Devon-
shire after the death of John Thomas Fostei )
he was made Secretary of the English Legation
at Naples, and in 1811 was sent to the United
States as Mmistei with definite instructions to
settle the affair of the Chesapeake At the out-
break of the war he returned to England and
was elected member of Parliament He was
made Minister at Copenhagen in 1814, passed 10
uneventful years there, and in 1824 went to
Turin, where he stayed until 1840 and then
retired He committed suicide on Aug 1, 1848
EOSTEB, BEN(JAMIN) (1852-1926). An
American landscape painter, born at North
Anson, Me "He was a pupil of Abbott Thayer
in New York City, and of Oliver Merson and
Aime* Morot in Paris His art is founded on.
French methods and he is particularly success-
ful with the misty effects of eaily morning and
evening, and moonlight nights His "Mists of
the Morning" (1901) obtained the Webb puze,
and he received other medals, including the
Inness gold medal of the National Academy of
Design in 1908 He was elected to the Na-
tional Academy in 1904 His "Lulled by the
Murmur of a Brook" is in the Luxembouig
Gallery Other important canvases are "Sunset
in the Litchfield Hills," Corcoran Art Gallery,
Washington, "Birch Clad Hills," National Gal-
lery, Washington, "Misty Moonlight Night,"
Bi ooklyn Institute Museum , ' In the Connecti-
cut Hills" (1914), Metropolitan Museum, New
Yoik He is also represented in the Pennsyl-
vania Academy, Philadelphia, and the Toledo
Museum
POSTEB, CHARLES (1828-1904) An Ameri-
can Republican politician and Secretary of the
Treasury He was born near Tiffin, Ohio He
was educated at Norwalk Academy and entered
his father's store (in Fostoria, a town named in
honor of his father), becoming a partner and
finally succeeding to the control of the business,
which under his efficient management became
one of the largest retail and wholesale mercan-
tile establishments in the State In connection
with this business he established a bank and
dealt largely in grain and produce During the
Civil War he actively aided in the recruiting
and equipment of the Ohio troops Elected to
Congress on the Republican ticket in 1870, he
was reelected in 1872, 1874, and 1876 In the
winter of 1874-75 he visited New Orleans as
chairman of the subcommittee of Congiess to
examine into frauds in Louisiana, In 1879 he
was elected Governor of Ohio by 17,000 ma]or-
ity, and two years later, in 1881, was reelected,
serving until Jan 1, 1884 His administration
was marked by reforms in the management of
State institutions and by an attempt to leform
the taxation of the liquor traffic In 1889 Fos-
ter was appointed by President Harrison chair-
man of a commission to draw up a treaty with
the Sioux Indians In February, 1891, he suc-
ceeded William Windom as Secretary of the
Treasury in Harrison's cabinet and this port-
folio he held until March, 1893
FOSTEU, SIB CLEMEISTT LE NEVE (1841-
1904) A British mineralogist, born at Camber-
well He studied at Boulogne and Amiens, at-
tended the Royal School of Mines, London, and
the mining academy at Freiberg, Saxony, and
graduated from the University of London in
1865 Appointed to the Geological Survey in
FOSTER
England in 1860, he spent five years m field
work After exploring Egypt and Venezuela,
and serving as a mining engineer in Italy, he
was inspector of mines for Coinwall from 1872
to 1880 and for noith Wales from then until
1901 In the Royal School of Mines he was
piofessor of mining from 1890 until his death
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in
1892 and was knighted in 1903 Besides
memoirs and papers, he is author of A Treatise
on Ore and Stone Mining (1894, 7th ed , 1910)
and The Elements of Mining and Quarrying
(1903, 2d ed, 1910)
FOSTER, FRANK HUGH (1851- ). An
American clergyman of the Congregational
church He was born in Springfield, Mass ,
graduated at Harvard in 1873, from 1873 to
1S74 was assistant professor of mathematics in
the United States Naval Academy, and in 1877
graduated at Andover Theological Seminary and
was ordained to the Congregational ministry
In 1877-79 he was pastoi at North Reading,
Mass , in 1879-82 studied at Gottmgen and
Leipzig, and from 1882 to 1884 was professor
of philosophy in Middlebury College In 1884
he was appointed professor of Church history
in the Oberhn Theological Seminary, and fiom
1892 to 1902 he was piofessor of systematic
theology in the Pacific Seminary, Berkeley, Cal
In 1904 he went to Olivet, Mich , as pastor of
the college and the village church He was an
editor of the Bibhotheca Sacra } translated
Grotms' Defense (1889), wiote Christian Life
and Theology (1900), A O-enetic History of the
New England Theology (1907), and the chapter
on Zwingli's theology in Jackson's biography of
Zwingh (1901)
FOSTEB, GEORGE BUKMAN (1858- )
An American Baptist theologian, born at Alder-
son, W Va He graduated in 1883 at West
Virginia University and at the Rochester (NY)
Theological Seminary in 1887, and was pastor
of the First Baptist Church of Saratoga Springs,
N" Y , from 1887 to 1891 In 1891-92 he studied
in Germany, from 1892 to 1895 he was professor
of philosophy in McMaster University, and in
1895 he became professor of systematic theology
in the University of Chicago and in 1905 pro-
fessor of the philosophy of religion He wrote
The Finality of the Christian Religion (1906)
and The Function of Religion in Man's Struggle
for Existence (1909)
FOSTEB, SIB GEOKGE EULAS (1847-1919 )
A Canadian statesman He was born in Caiie-
ton Co s New Brunswick, and graduated at the
University of New Brunswick in 1868, after-
ward studying in the universities of Edinburgh
and Heidelberg After several years of school-
teaching he was appointed professor of classics
and history in the University of New Bruns-
wick He resigned his professorship in 1879,
and after two years spent in lecturing on tem-
perance problems in Canada and the United
States, he entered politics and was returned in
1882 to the Dominion House of Commons as
a Liberal-Conservative fiom Kings Co, New
Brunswick His scholarship and his readiness
and resourcefulness as a speaker and debater
won him early recognition, and in December,
1885, he entered Sir John A Macdonald's cabi-
net as Minister of Marine and Fisheries In
this office he was called upon to prepare the case
for Canada to be presented to the joint com-
mission in Washington which had been appointed
to settle the long-standing dispute over the
POSTEB 7!
deep-sea fisheries His brief for Canada was an
able piesentation and ^eft its impress on the
Bayard-Chamberlain Treaty of 1888 In May,
1888, he became Minister of Finance and con-
tinued to hold this portfolio in the succeeding
cabinets of Sir J J C Abbott, Sir John Thomp-
son, Sir Mackenzie Bowell, and Sir Charles
Tupper, until the defeat of the last named in
1896 In 1896-1900 he represented York Co ,
New Biunswick, in the House of Commons, and
after 1904 tie sat for noith Toronto He was
a delegate to the first Intel colonial Conference
at Ottawa in 1892 and m 1895 supported a
resolution m the House of Commons for the
extension of the Dominion franchise to women.
In 1903 he dehveied a series of public speeches
in England in suppoit of Imperial trade prefer-
ence In 1911, after the defeat of the Laurier
administration and the accession to the premier-
ship of Robeit Land Borden, Foster was ap-
pointed Minister ot Trade and Commerce He
afterward ^ isited the West Indies in the interest
of improved tiade between Canada and those
islands In 1914 he was knighted.
FOSTEB, HENRY (1796-1831), An English
navigator He entered the navy m 1812, ac-
companied the commission on the northwest
boundaiy between the United States and British
North America, and made surveys of the mouth
of the Columbia In 1819-20 he sailed to South
America and began his important obseivations
with the pendulum tie was a menibei of the
expedition to Greenland and Norway in 1823
and in the following year and again in 1827
sailed with Pany on his northwestern and
polar voyages The results of his observations
on the vaiiation of the needle were printed in
the Philosophical Transactions (1826), and he
received the Copley medal and the grade of com-
mander for this work In 1828 he started for
the South Seas to make pendulum observations
and to study ocean currents and meteorology*
He rounded Cape Horn after observations near
Montevideo, touched on the South Shetland Is-
lands, where he made important gravity and
pendulum observations, and after much ciuismg
landed -at Panama, and measured by rockets the
mendian distance between Panama and Chagres.
He was di owned in the river Chagres a day or
so after His observations on the figure of the
eaitli, made at 16 stations, were completed in
London by Baily Foster's notebook was stolen,
but his other papers were published by Webster
m a Narrative of a Voyage to the Southern
Atlantic Ocean (1834)
roSTEK, ISAAC (1740-81). An American
physician and surgeon, born in Charlestown,
Mass He graduated at Harvard in 1758, stud-
ied medicine in Paris and London, and returned
to practice at Charlestown He was a delegate
to the first Provincial Congress of Massachu-
setts in October, 1774, and on the outbreak of
the devolution gave up his large practice and
joined the Continental Army as a volunteer
surgeon In the fall of 1775 he was appointed
by Washington acting director general of the
military hospital service of the American forces
He was personally attached to Washington's
headquarters and m 1777 was surgeon in chief
of the Eastern Department of the Continental
armies He resigned in 1780 on account of
failing health
FOSTEB, JOHN- (1770-1843). An English
essayist, son of a weaver, born in the parish of
Halifax, Yorkshire, and educated for the min-
| FOSTEB,
istry at the Baptist college in Bristol After
preaching for several years to small congre-
gations, he resolved to devote himself mainly to
literature In 1804 appeared his popular Essays,
in a Series of Letters, m 1820 his celebrated
Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance, in
which he urges the necessity of a national sys-
tem of education To the Eclectic Review he
contributed neaily 200 articles Consult Life
and Correspondence, edited by Byland (London,
1846, republished in Bonn's Library, 1852)
POSTER, JOHN GEAY (1823-74) An Amer-
ican soldier, born at Whitpfield, N H He
graduated at West Point in 1846 with McClellan
and "Stonewall" Jackson, and served m the
southern campaign of the Mexican War, being
severely Bounded at Molmo del Key From
1855 to 1857 he was assistant profes&or of en-
gineering at West Point and between 1857 and
1861 superintended the survey of the site ot the
foit at Willets Point, N Y, and the construc-
tion of Fort Sumter and the repairing of Fort
Moultrie in Chaileston harbor On Dec 26
1860, he was brevetted major for transferring
the Federal gainson from Fort Moultrie to
fort Sumter, and on April 12-13, 1861, he as-
sisted in the defense of Sumter He supei in-
tended the consti notion of the fort on Sandy
Hook, JST T , was raised to the rank of hngadier
general of volunteers in October, 1SG1, and com-
manded a brigade during General Bumside's
North Caiolma expedition of Januaiy to July,
1802, receiving the brevet of colonel He be-
came a major geneial of volunteers in July,
1862, and commanded the Department of Noith
Carolina until July, 1863, the Depaitment of
Virginia and North Carolina until November,
1863, and the Army and Department of the Ohio
until February, 1864, and was brevetted briga-
dier general and ma] or general in the regular
army. He commanded the Department of the
South and the Department of Florida in 1864-
66, was mustered out of the volunteer service
in September, 1866, and then as lieutenant
colonel of engineers was on vanous important
engineering works for the government, notably
the improvement of Boston harbor and the con-
struction of the defenses m Poitsmouth liaiboi
Consult the sketch of his life by Noyes in New
Hampshire Historical Society, Proceedings, vol
m (Concord, 1894-95)
FOSTEH, JOHN WATSON (1836-1917) An
American diplomat, born m Pike Co , Ind In
1855 he graduated at Indiana State University
and in 1857 was admitted to the bar At the
beginning of the Civil War he entered the Union
service as a major of volunteers, and after
attaining the rank of colonel headed a brigade
in General Burnside's expedition to Bast Ten-
nessee and was the fiist to occupy Knoxville
(1863) In Evansville, Ind, he edited the
Daily Journal in 1865-69 and was postmaster in
1869-73 In 1873-80 he was Minister to Mexico,
in 1880-81 Minister to Russia, and in 1883-85
Minister to Spain In 1891 he was engaged to
assist President Harrison and Secretary Blame
in the negotiation of reciprocity treaties Dur-
ing the Bering Sea controversy he acted as
agent of the United States before the arbitration
tribunal (1893) Upon the death of Mr Blame
General Fostei succeeded to the secretaryship
of state (1892-93) Later he was legal adviser
to the Chinese plenipotentiaries in their peace
negotiations with Japan (1895); again repre-
sented the United States in the Bering Sea ques-
FOSTER 5
tion (1897), in 1898 was a member of the
Anglo-American Joint High Commission to set-
tle the disputes between Canada and the United
States, in 1903 was agent for the United States
before the Alaska boundary commission, and
in 1907 was delegate from China to the Second
Hague Conference He published a biography of
his father, Judge Matthew Watson Foster
(1896), A Century of American Diplomacy
(1900) , American Diplomacy in the Orient
(1903) , Arbitration and The Hague Court
(1904), The Practice of Diplomacy (1900),
Diplomatic Memoirs (1909) He contributed
an introduction to Manmx's Memoirs of Li Hung
Chang (1913)
POSTER, JOHN WELLS (1815-73) An
American geologist and paleontologist, born at
Bumfield, Mass He graduated at Wesleyan
University (Conn ) in 1834, removed to Ohio,
studied law, and was admitted to the bar at
Zanesville, but having spent his leisuie in the
study of geology, he accepted a position as assist-
ant in the Geological Suivey of Ohio in 1837,
and was employed until 1844 m investigating
the coal beds of the State In 1847 he was
c\ssigned with Josiah Dwight Whitney to assist
Prof Charles T Jackson in a geological survey
of the Lake Superior region Foster and Whit-
ney completed the work alone, and the results
of their investigations, which were of far-reach-
ing importance both to science and to the com-
mercial development of the country, were pub-
lished by authority of Congress as A Synopsis
of the Explorations of the G-eological Corps in
the Lake Superior Land District in the Northern
Peninsula ( 1849 ) , and Report on the Geology
and Topography of a Portion of the Lake
Superior Land District in the State of Michi-
gan Part /, The Copper Lands (1850), Part
II, The Iron Region (1851) For the next few
years Foster remained in Massachusetts, where
he was active in the "Native American" move-
ment and was associated with Henry Wilson
in the organization of the Republican party in
the State In 1858 he removed to Chicago,
where he lived for the remainder of his life,
for some years holding the chair of natural
philosophy in the old University of Chicago
and devoting himself to scientific investigation,
in particular to the paleontology and ethnology
of the Mississippi valley He was president of
the American Association for the Advancement
of Science (1869) Among his later published
works are The Mississippi Valley (1869);
Mineral Wealth and Railroad Development
(1872) , Prehistoric Races of the United States
(1873)
FOSTER, JUDITH ELLEN (HOBTOJT) (1840-
1910) An American lecturer, born at Lowell,
Mass She removed to Iowa, studied law, and
was admitted to the State bar in 1872 She
also became supenntendent of the Legislative
Department of the Woman's Christian Temper-
ance Union, and when that organization was
affiliated with the Prohibition party, identified
herself with the Non-Partisan Woman's Chris-
tian Temperance Union, of which she became
president She was a popular lecturer on
various topics and published a Constitutional
Amendment Manual (1882) In 1907 she was
appointed a special agent of the Federal De-
partment of Justice
FOSTER, LE^FAYETTE SABINE (1806-80)
An American political leader, born m Franklin,
Conn He graduated at Brown University in
9 FOSTER
1828 He studied law, settled at Norwich,
where he became editor of the Republican, and
took an active part in politics as a Whig He
was elected to the Connecticut Legislature m
1839 and 1840 and was chosen to its sessions
of 1846, 1S47, 1848, and 1854 (in the latter
three sessions acting as Speakei of the Assem-
bly) and to that of 1870 In May, 1854, he
was elected to the United States Senate by the
combined votes of Whigs and Free-Soil Demo
crats In 1856 he joined in the movement for
the oiganization of the Republican party and
m 1860 was reelected to the Senate as a Ke-
pubhcan During the entire Civil War he was
chairman of the Committee on Foieign Affairs
In 1865 he was chosen President pro tempoie
of the Senate, and on the death, of Lincoln and
the succession of Johnson he became the acting
Vice President of the United States He de-
clined to be a candidate for leelection in 1S67,
became a Liberal Republican in 1872, and two
years later he -was an unsuccessful candidate
for Congiesa on the Democratic ticket He was
a judge of the Connecticut Superioi Court fiom
1870 to 1876, m 1878 was on a commission on
simpler court proceduie, and in 1878-79 was a
commissioner to settle the New York-Connecticut
boundary dispute Consult Campbells Memorial
Sketch of Lafayette & Foster (Boston, 1881)
POSTER, SIB MICHAEL (1836-1907) An
English physiologist, born at Huntingdon and
educated at London Umveisity In 1869 he
became professor of practical physiology there
A year afterward he accepted a similai position
at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1883 was
appointed professor of physiology at the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, holding this post till
1903 From 1881 to 1903 he was one of the
secretaries of the Royal Society In 1900 he
was elected to- Parliament as Liberal representa-
tive of London University, but was defeated in
1906 His publications include Primei of
Physiology (1874) ; Studies from the Physio-
logical Laboratory in- the University of Cam-
bridge (1876-77), A Text-Book on Physiology
(1877), The Elements of Embryology (1874),
with F M Balfour, Course of Elementary
Practical Physiology ( 1876), with J N" Langley
POSTER, MYLES BIBKET (1825-99). An
English water-color painter and engraver, born
at North Shields, Feb 4, 1825 Early appren-
ticed to E Landell, a wood engraver, he devoted
some years to illustrating, first as an engraver
and later making original designs on wood for
the Illustrated London News and Punch In
1846 he set up foi himself and illustrated Giay's
Elegy, The Ancient Mariner, Old English Bal-
lads, Longfellow's Hvangehw, and other works
in poetry and prose, including etchings on steel
for Milton's L} Allegro and II Penseroso and
Goldsmith's Traveler About 1859 he began
drawing in water colors and in 1862 was made
a member of the Society of Painters in Water
Colors, where he exhibited over 300 pictures,
painted largely in body color and retouched by
careful stippling until they acquired almost
excessive finish They are skillful m composi-
tion and show poetic feeling His choice of
subjects was drawn mostly from rural life, and
he especially emphasized the landscape element
He became very popular, and his works were
much reproduced in photographs amd chromos
Among those well known are "Kuttmg," "The
Bird's Nest," "Sailing the Boat/' "Cows in the
Pool," "Feeding the Ihicks/' "Castle of Ehein-
JFOSTEB
fels," "Birthplace of Burns," "In Full Cry," etc
At a later period he also painted in oils, but not
with equal success Consult Scherer, The BirLet
Foster Album (Munich, 1880), and biographies
by HuisJi (London, 1890) and Cundall (ib,
1906)
FOSTEB, RANDOLPH SINKS (1820-1903).
An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, born
at Wilhamsburg, Ohio He studied at Augusta
College ( Miller shurg, Ky ) and enteied the
itinerant ministry of the Methodist Episcopal
church in the Ohio conference in 1837 In
1850 he went to New York City as pastor of
the Mulberry Street Church From 1857 to
1860 he was piesident of Northwestern Uni-
versity, in 1868 he became professor of system-
atic theology in Drew Theological Seminary
(Madison, N. J ), and in 1870 its piesident He
was elected Bishop in 1872 and made visits to
the missions of his church in South America
(1874), Germany and Scandinavia (1874 and
1883), India (1882), Italy (1883), and Mexico
(1886) His publications include Objections to
Calvinism as it Is (1848) , Christian Purity
(1851), Beyond the Grave (1879), Centenary
Thoughts (1884) , Philosophy of Christian J3so-
peri&ice (1890) , Union of Episcopal M&tJio-
disms (1892), Studies in Theology (6 vols ,
1886-99), a remaikable series
FOSTEB, SIR EGBERT (1589-1663) An Eng-
lish jurist, the youngest son of Sir Thomas Fos-
ter, a judge under James I He was called to
the bar in 1610 and was knighted and made a
justice of Common Pleas in 1640 An eager
upholder of Charles, he condemned Captain Tur-
pin (1644), but was merely lemoved from office
by Pailiament, while Ins colleague \vas im-
peached for high treason During the Common-
wealth he practiced as a conveyancer, and on
the Restoration he was appointed Chief Justice
of the King's Bench (1660) and dealt sternly
with sectaries and political prisoners He per-
suaded the King to approve the execution of
Sir Harry Vane, and was justice at the trial
of Sir Chailes Sedley in 1663 Consult Foss,
Biographia Jundica (London, 1870), and Camp-
bell, Lives of the Chief Justices (ib, 1874)
3TOSTEK, ROBERT FREDERICK (1853- )
An American authority on card games, born at
Edinburgh, Scotland Until 1893 he worked
as an architect and civil engineer In 1895
he became card editor of the New York 8un
He originated the 11 rule at bridge and in-
vented whist markers and self-playing bridge
and whist cards His writings include Foster's
Whist Manual (1890, 3d ed , 1894) , Whvst Tac-
tics (1895), Foster's Complete Hoyle (1897,
1909), Foster's Bridge Manual (1900, 3d ed ,
1908), Foster's Bridge Tactics (1903), Bridge
Maxims (1905), Practical Poker (1905), Ca.ll-
Ace Euchre (1905) , Foster's Skat Manual
(1906), Auction Bridge (1908, 3d ed , 1910),
Cab No 44 (1910), a novel,, Royal Auction
Bridge (1912, 1914); Cooncan (1913)
FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-64) An
American song composer, born at Lawrence-
ville, near Pittsburgh, Pa Foster's musical
gifts seem to have been natural, as he taught
himself the flageolet when he was but seven
Many of his songs, the first of which, "Open
thy Lattice, Love," was published in 1842, have
become so popular that they may be regarded as
veritable folk songs, for which reason it is fortu-
nate that, although simple In technical treat-
ment, they are, as a rule, refined and graceful
go FOSTER
in their melody. ''Louisiana Belle," C01d Uncle
Ned," "My Old Kentucky Home,11 "Massa's in
the Cold, Cold Ground,15 "Ellen Boyne,'1 the fa-
mous "Old Folks at Home" ("Down on the
Suwanee River"), "Come Where my Love Lies
Dreaming," are some of the most popular of
Fostei's 175 published songs His last song
was 'Beautiful Dreamer " Foster was improvi-
dent, and notwithstanding the enormous sales of
his songs (eg, "Old Folks at Home/' 300,000
copies) was frequently harassed foi want of
money and obliged to sell his manuscripts out-
right" for pitiably small prices He died in
New York
FOSTEK, STEPHEN SYMONDS (1809-81) An
American Abolitionist, bom at Canterbury, K H
He was a caipenter for seveial years, then
entered Dartmouth College with the intention
of preparing for the ministry, and graduated
in 1S3S While studying at Union Theological
Seminal y, he became imbued with abolitionist
ideas and gave up the mimstiy to become an
antislavery advocate He soon became widely
known as an eainest and fearless oratoi The
lefusal of the churches to coopeiate in the aboli-
tion movement aroused his indignation, and he
bitteily denounced botli churches and clergy A*
hypoeiitical and non-Christian His ladicalisrn
caused him frequently to be attacked by mobs,
and his method of appealing to the people by
enteimef churches during seivice and addressing
the audiences unannounced gave use to nu
melons giave distuibances and precipitated sev-
eial iiots In 1845 he maiiiecl Abby Kelley
(&ee FOSTER, ABBY KELLEY) Besides aiticles
on the slavery question m magazines, he pub-
lished The Brotherhood of Thieves A True Pic-
ture of tlie American Church and Clergy (1843,
repunted, 1886)
EOSTEB, TIIEODOSIA TOLL (1838- ) An
American author, boin at Verona, N Y , and
educated at Oneida Seminary She znarzied
James H Foster in 1869 and for many years
was principal of the Home School at Verona
She wrote many stories under the pen name of
"Faye Huntmgton " Her work includes Mr
McKenzte's Answer (1876), Ripleij Parsonage
(1877) , Fiom Different Standpoints, with Mis
Alden (1878), Echoing and Re-Echoing (1879,
new ed, 1906), Mrs Deane's Way (1880),
Millet ton People (1884), What Fide Remem-
bers (1885), The Boynton Neighborhood
(1895), A Modern Eaoodue (1897), His First
Charge (1897) , Lewis filmore, Crusader (1898) ,
Opportunity Circle (1901), A Breafc in Sched-
ule Time (1901), Those Boys (1903)
FOSTEB, WILLIAM TKUFANT (1879- )
An American educator, born in Boston He
graduated fiom Harvard University in 1901 and
from Columbia University (PhD) in 1911,
taught English at Bates College (1901-03) and
at Bowdoin (1904-10), after 1905 as professor
of English and argumentation, and in 1910 be-
came president of Reed College, at Portland,
Oreg In addition, he lectured on the principles
of education at the Harvard summer session m
1909 and at Columbia in 1911 He was elected
vice president of the American Federation for
Sex Hygiene Besides contributions to reviews
and magazines, his publications comprise Argu-
mentation and Debatwg (1908) , Administra-
tion of the College Curriculum (1911), Essen-
tials of EJ (^position and Argument (1911) , So-
cial Hygiene and Morals (1913) / The Booial
Emergency (1914)
tfOSTORIA
Si
EQUCATJLT
POSTO'BIA A city m Seneca and Hancock
counties, Ohio, near the boundary line of Wood
County, 35 miles south by east of Toledo, on the
Baltimore and Ohio, the Lake Ene and Western,
the Hocking Valley, the Lake Shore Electiic,
the New York, Chicago, and St Louis, and the
Toledo and Ohio Central lailroads (Map Ohio,
D 3) It was settled by the father of Chailes
Foster, Governor of Ohio and Secietary of the
United States Treasury in 1891-93, and by him
was built up and made an impoitant manu-
facturing place It has several glass factoiies,
flour mills, lime kilns, automobile and incan-
descent-lamp factories, a cooperage, spoke and
bending works, planing mills, stave and barrel
factories, carbon works, etc In the vicinity are
oil fields and productive farming country The
goveinment, under a charter of 1889, is vested
m a mayor, biennially elected, boaids of public
service and public safety, and a city council
Fostoria contains a Carnegie library and a fine
Y. M C A building, and owns its water woiks
Pop, 1900, 7730, 1910, 9597, 1914 (U S est),
10,392
FOTCHA. See FOCA
EOTHEUGKLLL, foTH'er-gil, JESSIE (1851-
91) An English novelist, born in Manchester,
where her father was a wealthy cotton manu-
facturer Her first novel, Healey, was published
in 1875, and her great success, The First Violin,
in 1877 Her novels, most of which depict life
on the moorland and in the factory towns of the
north of England, are remaikable for their
powerfully dra\\n studies of character Her
published books, besides those mentioned, in-
clude Aldyth (1876), The Wellfields (1880),
Kith and Kin (1881) , Made or Marred (1881) ,
One of Three (1881) , Penl (1884) , Botdwland
(1887), The Lass of Levet house (1888), A
March in the Ranks (1890) , Oriole's Daughter
(1893) A dramatization of The First Violin
(1904) by Sidney Bowkett was a success
POTHEBGILLIA, forn'er-gilli-a A genus
of hardy, ornamental shrubs belonging to the
family Hamamehdacese, closely allied to the
witch hazel The spikes of white flowers ap-
pear with or before the leaves eaily in the
spring There are two species natives of south-
eastern United States The plants are propa-
gated by seeds, which germinate the second
year, or by cuttings, which require two years
to root
The name is also applied to the variety
f other gilli of Nerine curvifolia grown in con-
servatories to a slight extent for its numerous
brilliant red flowers, which are borne m umbels
on long scapes The flowers are especially at-
tractive on account of their glistening in the
light, as if sprinkled with hoarfrost Owing
to the habit of making growth during the win-
ter and blossoming during the autumn, this
plant, like others of its genus, has not become
popular as a florist's flower, but is grown only
in private greenhouses See Colored Plate of
AMARYLLIDACE^.
FOTHERGKTLL PROCESS. A process in
photography, devised in 1858 by Thomas Fother-
gill, which had for its object the preservation of
sensitive plates ready for exposure It consisted
in the partial removal of the free silver nitrate
which adheres to the collodion film when it is
withdrawn from the sensitizing bath, as in the
ordinary wet-plate process, by washing with
water, and the subsequent conversion of the re-
maining free silver nitrate into silver aluminate
and chloride by pouring over the plate dilute
albumen containing ammonium chloride, the
excess of the albumen being finally washed off
with water The plates were set aside to drain
on folds of blotting paper, and when dry were
leady for use, keeping for some time This proc-
ess was supplanted by the use of dry plates
coated with a gelatmo-biomide emulsion
POTHERINGAY, foTii'er-in-ga, THE The
stage name of Emily Cost ig an (qv), m Thack-
eray's Pendenn is
FOTHEBI3STG-AY CASTLE A famous
castle which once stood near Peterborough,
Northamptonshii e, England It was built m
1405 and was the birthplace of Richard III in
1452 and the place of execution of Mary, Queen
of Scots It was demolished by James I
FOTTIlsTGEB,, ftit'mg-er, HERMANN (1877-
) A German engineer and inventor He
was born at Nuiemberg, Germany, and was edu-
cated in the gymnasiums of Nuremberg and the
technical institute ot Munich In 1903 he re-
ceived the degree of Ph D from the University
of Munich foi his disseitation on Ejfektive Ma-
chinenleistung und effectives Drehmoment und
deren experiment ell e Bvstimmung (1904) Af-
ter 1899 he engaged in building ship machinery
and in 1906 received the silver medal of the
Shipbuilding Society for his turbine inventions
(See STEAM TURBINE ) In 1909 he became
professor at the Royal Technical Institute of
Danzig
POTTCADXT, foo'kd', JEAN BEBNABD LEON
(1819-68) A French physicist He was born
in Paris and was educated for the medical pro-
fession His early physical researches were car-
ried on in connection with Fizeau, and the first
direct measurements of the velocity of light were
due to independent icsearclies by these physi-
cists In 1850, in the course of his experi-
ments, Foucault proved that the velocity of
light in air was gi eater than in water His ap-
paratus consisted of a plane mirror capable of
rapidly revolving ?bout a vertical axis, and a
concave mirror to which the light was reflected
from the first mirror An achromatic lens, a
transparent mirror to reflect the light on to an
eyepiece, and a source of light comprise the
other essential features of the apparatus, which
differed from that of Fizeau's m that it could
be entirely contained m a laboratory and ^ did
not involve the reflection of the beam of light
from a mirror fai distant In 1851 he demon-
strated the rotation of the earth on its axis by
the diurnal rotation plane of oscillation of a
long pendulum with a heavy weight The fol-
lowing year he invented the gyroscope (qv )
In 1854 he was appointed physicist at the Paris
Observatory In 1857 he invented the polariz-
ing prism known by his name and in 1858 suc-
ceeded in giving to the mirrors of reflecting tele-
scopes the form of a spheioid or a paraboloid
of revolution He adjusted the gieat reflector in
the telescope of the Paris Observatory in 1859
In 1865 he published a series of papers on a
modification of Watt's governor, showing how
its period of revolution could be made constant,
and on an apparatus for regulating the electric
ho-ht He also showed how the sun can be ob-
served without injury to the eye from the ex-
cess of light He was scientific editor ot the
Journal des Delats from 1845. In conjunction
with Regnault he published an important paper
on binocular vision. He received the decoration
of the Legion of Honoi in 1&50 and was made
an officer in 1864. For his biography consult
Leon Foucault, sa vie et son 03uvre scientifique
(Biussels, 1879), and Lissajous, Notice Justo-
nque sur la vie et les travaux scientifiques de
Leon Foucault (Paris, 187 5)
rOtTCATJLT CUBRKKTTS, or EDDY CUR-
RENTS. Induced currents of electricity gener-
ated in a plate or other mass of metal by its mo-
tion with regard to a magnetic field or by varia-
tions of that field These currents cnculate
entirely within the metal, and their eneigy is
expended in generating heat. They are known as
Foucault currents, after this famous physicist,
who demonstrated that when a copper disk was
lotated between the poles of a strong electro-
magnet its temperature was greatly increased,
though the currents thus produced had been pre-
viously observed by othei investigators. They
play an important part m electucal work, and
their effect was first noticed in the construction
of compasses where it was found that the mag-
netic needle would come to rest much quicker
when it was placed above a plate of metal
That the currents were due to induction (q,v )
was shown by Faraday, and Foucault and others
constructed interesting apparatus to exhibit
their action In the galvanometer a useful ap-
plication is found when it is desired to damp
the vibrations of the magnetic needle, so that
it will return to a point of rest quickly through
the action of the magnetic field generated by
the induced cui rents in surrounding plates or
masses of metal The most inipoitant effects of
Foucault currents occur peihaps in dynamo-
electric machinery (qv ), and in the armatures
of dynamos and motors and the cores of trans-
formers a laminated form of constiuction is em-
ployed and the different parts separated from
each other, so that there will be no currents
circulating as the armature revolves or the al-
ternations of current occur The greatest care
in the design and construction is necessary in
such cases in order to prevent the generation of
a large amount of heat See DYNAMO-ELECTRIC
MACHINERY, ELECTRICITY, INDUCTION, MAG-
NETISM, TRANSFORMER
FOTJCATTX, foo'kd', CHARLOTTE MAEIE (Fr-
LON) (1842- ) A French author, the wife
of Philippe Edouard Foucaux. Under the
pseudonym of Mary Summer she wrote several
works on Sanskrit literature, including His-
toire du Bouddha Salcya-Moum (1874) , Oontes
et Ugendes de I'Inde ancienne (1878), a work
which was crowned by the Academy, and Les
heroines de K&hd&sa et les heroines de Shake-
speare (1879). She also wrote several studies
and romances of the Revolution and the Restora-
tion, among which are Le dermer amour de
Mwafteau (1877) , Les belles amies de M de
Talleyrand (1880) , Une intrigante de la Res-
tauration (1888) , Quelques Salons de Paris au
XVIIIeme siecle (1898)
FOUCATJX, PHILIPPE EDOUARD (1811-94).
A French Orientalist, born at Angers He was
a pupil m Sanskrit of Eugene Burnouf at Paris,
and from 1842 to 1852 directed a course in Thi-
betan at the Ecole des Langues Orientales In
1852 he was appointed to occupy temporarily the
cJmir o-f Sanskrit literature in the College de
France and m 1862 succeeded Burnouf as titular
professor His publications include Htstoire du
Bouddha Sa-kyamoum (2 vols , 1847-48), O-ram-
mavre de la langue tTiibetatne (1859) , Onze
episodes du Mahtithdrata (1862); Le rehgieux
ehasse de la communaute' (1873) , Lahta-Vistara
(2 vols, 1884-92), and translations o± several
works of Kahdasa
FOUCHE, foo'sha', JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO
(1759-1820) A French politician and Minis-
ter of Police He was born at Pelleim in the
Depaitment of Loire-Infeneure, May 21, J759,
His father was a merchant captain, and fche
son was educated with a view to following
the same calling, but early in life young Fouchtj
decided for the church and, aftei attending the
College of Oratonans at Paris, became a teachei
at Juilly, Arras, and Venddme successively In
1790 he had risen to be principal of the College
of Nantes As soon as the Revolution seemed
likely to succeed, Fouche* threw aside his ec-
clesiastical habit and was elected a deputy
to the National Convention (1792) from Loire-
Inferieure At first he was a Giiondm, but
soon afterward joined the Jacobin party No
one was more ardent in bringing about the
death of Louis XVI than Fouehe, who took a
leading part in the inauguration of the Woi-
ship of Reason, and in the spoliation of the
churches which took place in 1793-94 — a meas-
ure which leplenished the coffers of the Repub
he In October, 1793, he was sent with D'Hei-
bois and Villers as commissioner to Lyons and
showed himself a monster of cruelty, boasting
publicly of the number of victims he had caused
to be put to death Excluded from the Jacobin
Club by Robespierre, after he had held the pies-
idency," because he mocked the former's theistic1
levivdl, Fouehe was in danger of losing his life
and was even arrested, bub was released by the
amnesty of Oct 26, 1795 He was one of the
chief men who finally brought about Robes-
pierre's fall He ingratiated himself with Bai-
ras and was sent as Minister Plenipotentiaiy to
Milan There he plotted against the Cisalpine
Republic and was expelled, but immediately was
sent as Ambassador to Holland A few months
later he was recalled and made Minister of Po
lice, July, 1799 In this capacity he showed
great vigor, he suppressed the newly organised
Jacobin Club, under orders from Sieyes, and a
large number of newspapers and crated an ex-
tensive system of espionage He was "won over
to the Bonapartist cause, however, participated
in the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, and be-
came Minister of Police under the Consulate
In the new goveinment, strangely enough, he
became the champion of moderation, by his ad-
vice the list of emigre's was closed, a geneial
amnesty was proclaimed, and a policy of con-
ciliation steadily pursued He was forced to
resign his office m 1802, because Bonaparte
feared his power and cunning He was raised
to the Senate with a large pension, but he still
kept up a police system of his own, and in 1804
was reappointed to his former place on account
of the many plots against the life and power of
Napoleon It was at this time that he made his
famous remark on the execution of the Due
d'Enghien "It is worse than a crime, it is a
blunder "
Under the Empire Fouche" was Minister of
the Interior as well as head of the police and
controlled the internal government of France
during the frequent and prolonged absences of
the Emperor In 1808 he received the title of
Duke of Otranto In 1809, on the occasion of
the landing of English forces at Walcheren, he
issued a proclamation calling on France to show
that she could repel the invader without the
presence of the Emperor. The proclamation had
FOTTCHEB 83
the desired effect, but it so incensed Napoleon
that Fouche was deprived of the portfolio of the
Interior, and shortly afterward interference in
diplomacy cost him his office as Minister of Po-
lice (1810) He had to flee from France be-
cause he refused to give up secret papers in his
possession Later he was allowed to return and
reside on his estate at Pont Carre In 1813 he
was sent as Governor to the Illyrian Provinces,
but after the battle of Leipzig was recalled and
sent to Naples to watch Murat Fouche, how-
ever, had been in becret negotiations with the
Bourbons for some time and did little to pre-
vent Murat' s defection In 1814, on retaining
to Paris, he was welcomed by Louis XVIII and
offeied the police portfolio, but declined He
foresaw the return of Napoleon from Elba and
during the Hundred Days resumed his police
functions, though at heart a traitor to the
cause he espoused He always looked ahead and
made sure of his own future before committing
himself irretrievably to one master After
Waterloo he went over to the Bourbons and
aided in the pacification of the country as Min-
ister of Police, but the law against the regi-
cides in 1816 exiled him from France He re-
tired to Prague, became an. Austrian subject
in 1818, and spent his last years at Tnest
There is no good single work on Fouche His
Memoires (4 vols , Paris, 1822-24, Eng trans.
1904 et seq ) , while based on genuine documents,
have been declared a forgery by his family For
various aspects of his career consult Madelin,
Fouche, 1759-1820 (Paris, 1901), Forques, "Le
dossier secret de Fouche" in Revue Historique,
vol xc (Paris, 1006) , D'Hauterive, La police
du premier empire (Paris, 1908).
FOTTCHER, foo-sha', JEAN (1508-67) An
explorer and colonizer in South America He
was born at Cambrai, Flanders, became a sailor,
and accompanied Sebastian Cabot on the voyage
to South America which resulted in the dis-
covery of the Paraguay Biver He remained at
the mouth of the Plata until 1529 and joined
the Spanish expedition of Mendoza to Paraguay
in 1534, as pilot After the founding of Buenos
Aires he led an exploring party inland, made
an adventurous journey as far as the base of
the Cordilleras in Peru, and returned to the
eastern coast in 1539. He became one of the
advisers of Cabeza de Vaca, the Governor, whom
he induced to adopt a friendly policy towards
the natives, and with whom, in 1544, he was
imprisoned and sent back to Spain In the
following year he was pardoned and returned
to South America, where, as Governor of Entre
Rios, he continued his explorations and did
much to establish friendly relations between the
colonists and Indians
FOTTCHER BE CAREIL,foo'sha'deka'ra.y,
Louis ALEXANDRE, COUNT DE (1826-91) A
French diplomat and author, born in Paris In
1872 he became Prefect of the Department of
Seme-et-Marne and in 1876 a member of the
Senate, and in 1883-86 was Ambassador at the
court of Vienna. A recognized authority on
the philosophy of Leibnitz, he wrote a series of
expository volumes, including: Refutation in-
edite de Bpwoza par Leibnus (1854) , Leibm&, la
philosophic juwe et la Cabale (1861) , Leibniz,
Descartes et Spmoza (1863) , and worked on an
edition of the CEuvres de Leibniz (1859 et seq .
2d ed , 1867 et seq ) , to include 20 volumes, of
which only seven appeared, which, followed his
T,f>tWf*<i et ovuscules w&dits de Leibniz ( 1854-57 )
FOTTLD
FOTTCQUET See FOUQUET
FOTOERES, foo'zhar' The capital of an
arrondissement in the Depaitment of Die et-Vi-
laine, France, situated on a hill on the Nangon
River, 28 miles northeast of Rennes (Map
France, N" , D 4 ) It is a handsome, well-built
town and in the old quarter retains medieval
traces in the ancient houses with arcades which
overhang the sidewalks The castle of Fou-
g&res, a picturesque object, was at one time con-
sidered the key to Brittany The chuiches of
St Sulpice and of Sfc Leonard have many inter-
esting features, a college and three hospitals
are among the principal public buildings In
the neighborhood as a great forest containing
prehistoric megahthie and Celtic remains The
town has flourishing dye works tanneiies, and
glass works Pop, 1901, 20,952, 1911, 13,753
Fougdres is celebrated for the engagement which
took place in the vicinity between the Vendean
Royalists and the Republicans, Nov 15, 1793
FOIIILLEE, foo'ya', ALFRED JULES EMILU
(1838-1912) A French philosopher, born in
La Poueze, Maine-et-Loii e He began his ca-
reer as a teacher in tlie colleges of Louhans and
Auxerre and the Ivcee of Carcassonne and was
afterward professor of philosophy at Douai and
Montpelher For three yeais (1872-75) he held
an important position in the normal school at
Bordeaux, but, when forced by ill health and fail-
ing sight to retire in 1875, he devoted himself to
the production of treatises upon the philoso-
phies of Plato and Socrates, a Histoire de let
philosophie (1875, 7th ed, 1894), La science
sociale contemporaine (1880, 5th ed, 1911),
La propriete socwle et la d&mocratie (2d eqL,
1904) , Critique des systemes de morale cowtem-
poraine (4th ed , 1899), L'Evolutionisme des
idees-forces (1890, 5th ed , 1899), La psycholo-
gie des idees-forces (1893),, Descartes (1893),
Psychologie du peuple frangais (2d ed , 1898) ,
La France au point de vue moral (1900) ,
Nietzsche et I'immoralisme (1902), Esquisse
psychologique des peuples europeens (1903) , Le
moralisme de Kant et le moralisme con-tempo-
rain (1905) , La morale des idees-forces (1907) ,
Le sociahsme et la sociologie reformiste (1909) ,
Le pensee et les nouvelles anti-intellectuahstes
(1911) , Esquisse d'une interpretation du monde
(1913), ed by Boirac. He also contributed to
the Revue des Deuos Mondes and the R&vue Phi-
losophique Education from a National Stand-
point (1892) is a version in English by Green-
street of Fomllee's work on education He has
attempted a synthesis of Platonic idealism and
modern evolution in a theory of "motor ideas"
(idSes-forces) or "will to live" (vouloir mvre]
conditioning psychical and physical progress
His wife, formerly Madame Guyau, mother of
the philosopher Jean Marie Guyau (qv ), wrote
children's books (under the nom de plume of
"G Bruno"), notably Le tour de la France par
deux enfants. Consult Guyau, La philosophie
et la sociologie d' Alfred Fouillee (Paris, 1913)
FOUL BREATH See BREATH, OFFENSIVE
FOTJL BROOD See BEES, DISEASES OF
FOTTLD, foold, ACHILLE (1800-67) A French
financier and statesman He was bom in Paris,
Nov. 17, 1800, of Jewish parents* and was edu-
cated at the Lyc6e Charlemagne Fould came
naturally by his financial gifts, his father being
a wealthy banker of Pans In 1842 he began
his political career as a member of the Council
General of the Department 6f Hautes-Pyrene'egt,
FOUL Of THE FOOT
84
and was immediately after elected a deputy for
Tarbes, the chief town of that department In
the Chamber of Deputies he acquired a high
reputation for the ability with which he handled
questions of finance, and in 1844 was appointed
reporter to the commission on stamps on
newspapers. At that time he was a stanch sup-
porter of Guizot After the revolution of 1848,
however, he accepted the new regime and offered
his services to the provisional government In
July, 1848, he was elected to the Constituent As-
sembly for the Department of the Seine and
rendered valuable services to the government, in
particular by advising against the issue of aa-
signats In this year he wrote two papers on
this subject Pas d'Assignats and Observations
sur la question financiere During the presi-
dency of Louis Xapoleon he was four times
Minister of Finance, where he played an im-
portant part in the reforms undertaken and in
the opposition to free trade He once more re-
signed his position in January, 1852, in conse-
quence of the decree ordering the confiscation of
the property of the Orleans family The same
day, however, he was created a senator, and
shortly afterward returned to power as Minister
of State In this capacity he superintended the
Paris Exposition of 1855 and the completion of
the palace of the Louvre In 1857 he became a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts He re-
mained one of the confidential ministeis of Na-
poleon III till December, I860, when he was
succeeded as Minister of State by Count Wa~
lewski In November, 1861, he was reappointed
Minister of Finance and held office until Jan-
uary, 1867 He died October 5 of the same year
at Tarbes His three sons were all prominent
in French politics
FOUL UST THE FOOT. See FOOT ROT.
The name has been applied also to tubercular
foot rot, tubercular disease of the bones, and
canker (qv)
FOTJLIS, foVUs, ROBEBT (1707-76) and AN-
DREW (1712-75) Two eminent printers of Glas-
gow, brothers Robert, the elder, for some time
practiced as a barber — in those days a profit-
able and respectable profession His abilities
attracted the notice of the celebrated Dr Francis
Hutcheson, then professor of moral philosophy
in Glasgow University, who advised him to
establish a printing press Accordingly he
spent 1738-39 in England and France with his
brother Andrew, who apparently had been de-
signed for the church and so had enjoyed a
better education In 1741 he started in business
in Glasgow as a printer, his first publications
were chiefly of a religious nature In 1743 he
was appointed printer to the university In
this year he published an elegant edition in
octavo of Demetrius Phalereus on Elocution,
supposed to be the first Greek work printed in
Glasgow In 1744 he brought out his celebrated
immaculate edition of Horace (small 8vo)
Each printed sheet of this was hung up in the
college at Glasgow, and a reward was offeied
for the discovery of any inaccuracy But, in
spite of all efforts, six errors remained Soon
after he took his brother Andrew into partner-
ship, for 30 years they continued to bring out,
particularly in the Latin and Gieek classics,
some of the finest specimens of correct and
elegant printing which the eighteenth century
produced, either in Great Britain or on the
Continent. Among them were Cicero's Works
(20 vols,) , Caesar's Commentaries (folio) ,
FOULKE
Homer (4 vols ) , ^Eschylus, Herodotus (9
vols ) , an edition of the Greek Testament,
Vergil, Gray's Poems 3 Pope's Works, a folio
edition of Milton, and other publications in
English In all ovei 550 publications came from
their press To promote the cultivation of the
fine arts in Scotland, Robert Foulis, after a
two years' visit to the Continent in preparation,
commenced, in 1753, an academy at Glasgow for
the instruction of youth in painting and sculp-
ture The expense attending this institution
proved too great, and the punting business de-
clined, but continued to be carried on till the
death of Andrew In 1776 Robert exhibited and
sold at Christie's, Pall Mall, London, the re-
mainder of his paintings, in the hope of ic-
couping his broken fortunes, but after all
expenses were defrayed the balance in his favor
amounted to only 15 shillings He died the
same year at Edinburgh, on his return to Scot-
land For a catalogue of the publications of the
Foulis brothers, consult Duncan, Notices and
Documents Illustrative of the Literary History
of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1831), consult also Ted-
der in Dictionary of National Biography, vol
xx (London, 1889), and Murray, Robert and
Andrew Foulis and the Glasgow Press (Glas-
gow, 1913)
FOITLK, folk, GEOKGE C. ('-1894) An
Amencan naval officer and diplomat He was
boin in Pennsylvania in the early sixties and
entered the United States Naval Academy at
Annapolis at 14, graduated four years later at
the head of his class, and as ensign served in
the United States navy on the Asiatic Station
In addition to the ordinary routine of his
profession he mastered the Japanese language
and subsequently the Korean He was detached
in 1883 to serve as interpreter and secretary to
the Korean Embassy, the first ever sent to
Western countries Arriving in Seoul in June,
1884, he was made naval attach^ to the United
States Legation and at government instance
made a journey through the country, publishing
in the United States Foreign Relations his re-
port He enjoyed the confidence of the King
and the progiessive men and on their behalf
bi ought out military instructors and school-
teachei s from the United States and aided in the
formation of a stock farm and breeding station
Though foreseeing the political storm which
broke Dec 4, 1884, he made a journey in the
southern provinces, and after many dangers and
hairbreadth escapes he reached Seoul, acting as
charg£ d'affanes ad interim for 18 months, the
youngest man ever intrusted with the duties of
a minister from the United States to a foreign
country Reentermg the service of the navy, he
later resigned, married a Japanese lady, and
became professor of mathematics in the Dosh-
isha University in Kyoto, where he died in 1894.
FOULKE, WILLIAM DUDLEY (1848- )
An American civil-service reformer and author,
born in New York City He graduated at
Columbia College in 1869 and at Columbia law
school in 1871, was admitted to the bar in 1870,
and practiced in New York City until 1876 In
Richmond, Ind , he was for 15 years an attorney
of the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St Louis Rail-
way and for one year (1883) an editor of the
Palladium and afterward of the Evewng Item
About 1890 he retired from the bar He was a
member of the Indiana State Senate in 1883-85,
in 1885 introduced a bill to establish civil-service
reform in Indiana, and organized and became
FOULLON 8
president of the Indiana Civil-Scivice Reform
Association His investigations into the man-
agement of the State Hospital for the Insane
revealed grave maladministration, due princi-
pally to the spoils system In the inteiest of
the National Civil-Seivice Reform League, as
chairman of a special commission, he conducted
in 1889-90 investigations of the Federal civil
service He was United States Civil Service
Commissioner in 1901-03 and president of the
National Municipal League from 1910 to 1913
His publications include Slav or Saxon (1887,
3d ed, 1904), "Civil-Service Reform Its Later
Aspects1' (Economic Tracts, No 31, 1890) , "The
Present State of our Civil Service" (in Publica-
tions of American Social Science Association,
1891) , "The Theory and the Practice of Civil-
Service Reform" (in Proceedings of National
Civil-Service Reform League for 1894), "Pio-
portional Representation An Address before the
Municipal League of Boston" (Publications of
the League, No 4, 1896), a biography (1898)
of Oliver P Morton, war Governor of Indiana,
Maya, a Story of Yucatan (1900),, Protean
Papers (1903), a tianslation (1906) of Paulus
Diaconus' histoiy of the Langobards, Dorothy
Day, a novel (1911) , Maya A Dramatic Poem
(1911)
FOULLO!N"? foo'laN' (often wrongly spelled
FOTJLON), JOSEPH FEANgois (1717-89) A
French administrator, born at Saumur He was
Intendant General of the Army during the
Seven Years' War and became in 1771 Intendant
General of Finance Possessor of great wealth
through mairiage with the daughter of a rich
Dutch family, in the popular mind he became
the personification of all that was detestable,
avaricious, and hard-hearted, being nicknamed
"Familiar Demon (Ame Damnee) of the Parle-
ment," although actually he was geneious and
sympathetic and in 1788 gave 60,000 francs
to sufferers from cold and famine He was
active in furthering the measures for the de-
fense of the crown at the outbreak of the
Revolution, and on July 12, 1789, was ap-
pointed Minister of the King's Household, suc-
ceeding Saint-Priest, when Necker was dis-
missed He attempted to trick the Paris mob
by a story of his death and by an elaborate
funeral (really of one of his servants) The
ruse was unsuccessful He was caught at his
estate, Vitry, near Fontamebleau, and was
brought back to Paris He was dragged through
the streets with a bunch of hay stuffed in his
mouth — because it was believed that he had
said "Let the people eat grass" — and in spite
of the pleas of Lafayette was hung to a lamp-
post (July 22) Possibly his death, like Ber-
thier's, was not the result of popular fury alone,
for Mirabeau's correspondence proves that assas-
sins had been hired to murder both. Consult
Chassin, Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris en
1789 (Paris, 1889)
FOUL PLAY. A romance by Charles Reade
and Dion Boucicault, published in London, 1869
FOULQUES. See FULK
FOULQUES, foolk, or FUL'CO, OF NEUILLY
A famous pulpit orator of the twelfth century,
the preacher of the Fourth Crusade His early
life was careless, but he experienced a sudden
conversion and, ashamed of his ignorance, went
to Paris to study Here his earnestness at-
tracted attention, and he was encouraged to
preach He commenced a series of journeys, ex-
horting to repentance, and by the rigor of his
5 FOUNDATION
asceticism enforcing his sermons He began to
preach the Crusade in 1198 In 1201 he asserted
that he had induced 200,000 to accept the cross
He did not live to hear of the result, for he died
at Neuilly, March, 1202 Consult Villehardoum,
La conquete de Constantinople , ed by Wailly
(Pans, 1874)
FOUL "WEATHEB, CAPE See CAPE FOUL
WEATHER
FOUL-WEATHER JACK A nickname
given to the English Admiral John Byron (1723-
80), on account of his ill luck at sea, whether
sailing or fighting He was wrecked in the
Wager (1740) and afterxvard made a hazardous
voyage around the world
FOUND A'TIODST (from Fr fondation, Lat
fundatio, from fundare, to found, fiom fundus,
bottom) The word is used, both in the con-
crete and abstract, to denote the base on which
anything is supported In relation to a build-
ing the term is often used to denote either the
constiuction below grade (or ground surface) or
the natural mateiial on which the construction
rests. The modern tendency, and advisably so,
is to use the word in the formei sense and to
designate the supporting material as the founda-
tion bed, and the teims will be so used in this
article The footings are the lower couises of
the foundation, which are offset to give greater
bearing area The importance of coireetly de-
signing the foundation and proportioning the
area of the foundation bed is evident, for on
them, does the integrity of the structure depend
No branch of engineering requires greater prac-
tical experience, for in the superstructure the
materials are of uniform character, and their
physical properties and allowable stresses are
well known, while no such uniformity exists in
those which compose the foundation bed, and the
conditions under which they are found aie so
varied that no definite values can be given in
relation to them
Historical The buildings of ancient primi-
tive races were naturally of inferior chaiacter,
and we find no remains of such construction with
the exception of the pile foundations of the lake
dwellers These people constructed dwellings
over the shallow waters of lakes throughout
Euiope from the Stone age down to the time of
the Romans These foundations are interesting
as being the earliest use of piles, but it is to be
noted that they were employed more as a means
of providing the necessary constiuction below
water than in the modern use of increasing the
bearing value of the foundation bed In fact the
piles were often driven through holes in planks,
the planks acting as a spread footing in giving
additional bearing surface on the mud In maiiv
other cases, however, the piles were driven
through the mud to the underlying marl In
general, they are now in a poor state of preser-
vation, often being worn entirely away above
the mxid bottom of the lakes by the action of
waves and lake currents Some piles have been
found and pulled up, apparently of their original
size, though the wood had deteriorated into a
brittle condition The piles generally were
from 4 to 6 inches in diameter — though they have
been found up to 14 inches — and from 8 to 16
feet long They were pointed at the lower end
and were driven by large wooden clubs
The Egyptians, while of a much more advanced
civilization, in point of time antedated the lake
dwellers, and the pyramids and some of the
adjacent temples are the oldest work of man in a
FOUNDATION
fair state of preservation These great monu-
ments are founded on rock and bear the testi-
mony of centuries that good bedrock is unequaled
for a foundation The pyramid form in itself
tends to permanency, and for this reason even
greater demonstration of the value of a rock
foundation bed is given by the temples. The
granite one at Gizeh was in fair condition down
to historical times, and the temple of the pyra-
mid at Medum was discovered 25 years ago in a
perfect state of preservation The Egyptians'
finest construction was that of the fourth
dynasty, their work deteriorating after that
time 'in general, their foundations consisted of
a foundation of stone or of sun-dried bricks
started a few feet below the giound surface
This was also the usual constiuction of the
Assyrians and Babylonians, but both of these
nations used great quantities of baked bricks
laid in a mortar made from bitumen The bricks
of Nebuchadnezzar were 12 to 13 inches square
and 3y2 inches thick and of such good quality
that they are still largely used for buildings in
Hillah and Bagdad
The foundations of the Greeks seem to be but
a slight advance on their predecessors The Ko-
mans were the great engineers of their time, and
many methods now in use date from them They
were skillful in subaqueous construction and
used piles and cofferdams of single and double
walls — pumping out the latter before laying the
masonry — and other special methods of founda-
tion construction They used concrete exten-
sively and made hydraulic cement by mixing
pozzuolana and lime and invented pile drivers.
The foundations of buildings in the Forum are
probably the oldest example of those built on
poor soil They consisted, in general, of massive
footings of concrete or masonry, in some cases
the layer of concrete extended over the entire
area covered by the building and was many
feet in thickness The writings of Vitruvius are
the oldest existing books on engineering and give
us an accurate idea of Koman science of con-
struction. He gives many rules and methods to
be followed in the design and execution of struc-
tures Interesting features are his proportions
for retaining walls and his belief in the necessity
of charring piles before driving to prevent de-
terioration, this latter being at variance with
modem practice for piles below water
General Kequirements. The function of a
foundation is to support safely the loads brought
upon it by its own weight and those of the
superstructure. Safety does not require that no
settlement shall occur, but it does require that
it be uniform Unequal settlement causes exces-
sive strains throughout the structure, producing
cracks and other defects, and may result in the
collapse of the building. As it is difficult to
obtain uniform settling, it is better to make the
foundation as unyielding as practicable The
character of the subsoil having been determined,
the depth to which the foundation is to be carried
must be decided The footings may be sufficiently
spread to be safely supported on a stratum of
low bearing value, but it may be cheaper and
is generally safer to excavate down to a firmer
layer, where less area will be required In
general, the deeper foundation at the same cost
is to be preferred, and especially so in city work,
where there is danger of a disturbance to the
soil from adjoining building operations. The
loads of the walls, columns, piers, etc, must be
distributed over the required area> which is
86 FOTHTOATION
accomplished by means of the various types of
foundations, hereinafter described
Principles of Design. In the design and
construction the following principles should be
obseived 1 The action of frost and the per-
colation of water should be prevented by starting
the footings below frost line on a stratum free
from seepage, or, if the latter is not feasible, a,
system of drains may be used to divert the flow
of water 2 The materials of construction
should be pi oof against deteriorating influences
or made so by some protective covering Wood
continually wet, brick or masonry laid in cement
mortar, concrete, and steel protected from mois-
ture meet this condition 3 The foundation bed
should be at right angles, or nearly so, to the
line of pressure If the stratum to be built
on is inclined, it is not necessary to level off
the whole area, the same effect being produced
at less cost by cutting a series of rough steps
4 The unit load on the foundation bed must
not exceed the safe supporting, or "bearing,"
value of that material This is accomplished by
making the area of the footings of the proper
size When the allowed unit of bearing and
the weight of the superimposed load are known,
the required area is given by a simple process
of division The loads to be supported generally
can be calculated readily, but the determination
of the bearing capacity of the soil is a matter
requiring skill and much experience on the part
of the engineer and is one of the chief problems
m substructure woik
Allowable Loads on Various Materials.
Owing to the infinite number of variations in the
material encountered and the conditions affecting
it, no definite values can be given Even for the
same material under the same conditions, the
allowable unit will vary with the type of build-
ing to be erected — a much higher value may be
used for a comparatively broad low stiucture
than for a high narrow one, as a chimney, where
a slight settlement would be dangerous It is
obvious that for economy tlie greatest safe-
bearing value of the soil must be used, which
can only be determined by practical experience
supplemented by tests A knowledge of geology
is of material assistance in making a proper
estimate of the character of the foundation bed
However, a fair idea of the relative value of
safe loads per square foot on usual foundation
beds may bo obtained from the following figures
rock, 20 tons and upward, gravel, 6 to 8 tons,
clay, dry, 3 to 5 tons, sand, 2 to 4 tons Clay,
if wet, becomes soft and plastic and therefore
liable to settle under very small loads The
value of sands depends on the conditions restrain-
ing its tendency to flow under pressure If
perfectly confined, as in a surrounding cylinder,
it will sustain very large loads, if entirely un-
restrained and subjected to a flow of water, it
is almost as unstable as the water itself
Ordinary Footings The most pumitivc
form of foundation consists of a wooden timber
laid directly on the ground, with the studs and
floor beams resting on its top As the bearing
surface is small and as it rots after a few years,
this construction is obviously applicable only for
unimportant or temporary structures, such as
sheds An improvement is effected by blocking
up the timber on occasional stones, increasing
the life of the sill The bearing area may be
increased by using a continuous course of stones,
which is the usual construction for bains. The
typical foundation for dwelling houses IB a
87
development of the foregoing, the course of
stones being replaced by a masonry, brick, or
concrete wall extending below the cellar floor or
at least below the irost line The wall is often
started on a footing course to give greater beai-
mg area
Spread Footings For heavier structures a
wider footing is obtained by sloping the founda-
tion wall outward towards the bottom, or by
using a number of projecting courses, thus
making the wall a series of footings The same
result is often produced by special methods, as
a steel grillage or a reinforced concrete slab or
mat The allowable angle of slope or amount of
offset depends on the material used and the unit
load supported This value is sometimes given
by building codes of cities, but it is necessarily
unreliable for general application, and a calcula-
tion should be made for each case If owing to
adjoining buildings the projections may be made
only on one side, the effective limit of total
offset is reached when the footing course is
about one and one-half times the thickness of
the wall above the top offset, or beginning of the
batter If made more than this, there will be
little or no pressure under the toe, and that
under the heel will be correspondingly increased
This is a fact that has often been overlooked by
builders, and settlement from this cause is not
unusual If, however, the projections may be
made equally on both sides, any width of footing
may be obtained by going deep enough. The cost
of deep excavation and of the large amount of
masomy required economically limits this type
of footing when resting on ordinary ground to
buildings not exceeding five to seven stories
Steel Grillage. The application of steel to
building construction has developed a modifica-
tion of the spread footing by which one or more
layers of steel beams or girders are used to
obtain a shallow footing of the required area
and strength, the beams of each course being set
on and at right angles to those of the layer
below. The steel should be thoroughly protected
from moisture by being embedded m concrete
Steel rails and even wooden planks were formerly
used as an expedient, but the beams are stiffer
and better The large area which may be ob-
tained by this method makes it adaptable for
heavy loads, and it has been successfully used for
buildings of 20 stories, in which cases the gril-
lage may extend over the entire area covered by
the building. The objection to such a founda-
tion is that any disturbance of the adjoining
soil may cause a flow or yielding of the sup-
porting stratum and cause dangerous settling
If the grillage is used for a wall footing, there
is only one layer of beams, which are placed at
right angles to the line of the wall This method
has been largely used in Chicago, and a typical
foundation for a column is shown in Fig 1
Peep Foundations. When the material at
the level at which spread footings would ordi-
narily be constructed is not suitable, or in case
a greater depth is desirable for any reason, such
as protection from future adjoining excavations,
it is necessary to carry the foundations down to
an underlying stratum of greater supporting
power Kecourse must then be had to the use
of piles or to special methods of excavating and
construction
Pile Foundation. In its essentials a pile
foundation consists of a number of piles sunk
into the ground and carrying on their tops a
platform of timber or concrete Piles are of
timber, iron, or concrete Iron piles are usually
either screw piles or disk piles A screw pile
consists of a shaft, usually of iron, but some-
times of wood, having at its foot an iron casting
provided with one or two turns of a screw, the
blades of which vary from 1% feet to 5 feet in
diameter In disk piles the screw blades are
replaced by a circular iron disk Timber piles
are round tree trunks with the knots and lough-
ness dressed off The method of sinking piles
varies with their form Iron screw piles are
driven by screwing them into the foundation
soil, timber piles are driven by means of ham-
mers or the water jet, and disk piles are driven
by the water jet. (See PILE ) The supporting
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FlG 1 TYPICAL COLUMN FOUNDATION
power of piles is due either to their acting as a
column whose lower end rests upon a hard
stratum, or to the friction of the earth upon
the side of the pile, or to a combination of both
of these actions Various mathematical methods
are employed for calculating this supporting
power, which varies with the character of the
soil and the depth of the pile At best the
supporting power of piles can only be approxi-
mated, and it is customary to load them only to
a fraction of their supporting power in order to
avoid chances of failure The number of pile^
to be used in any particular foundation will
depend upon the weight to be supported and
other load conditions, but it is seldom practicable
to drive them closer together than £% feet
centre to centre
After being driven, the tops of the various
piles are cut off to a common level, and they are
ready for the construction of the platform or
capping If a timber platform is use4r it usually
consists of one or more courses of timber
FOUNDATION
fastened to the tops of the piles and planked
or -floored over If concrete is employed, the
earth is excavated between the piles to a level
slightly below their tops, and the resulting
spaces are filled with concrete On top of the
piles and the previously placed conciete a
layer of concrete is earned up, thick enough to
cover the tops of the piles and to form the
footing course, or platform on which the re-
mainder of the foundation stiucture is built
In order that wood may endure it must be per-
manently dry or continuously wet As the for-
mer is impracticable, the latter condition must
be maintained, and for this reason the tops of
wooden piles must be kept below water level
Their use is, therefore, limited to locations
where the water level is at no gieat distance
below the required depth of footings, as other-
wise there will be an excessive cost for excava-
tion In cities the ground water level is liable
to vary, due to pumping or artificial drainage
or other change of conditions, and in several
instances it has receded sufficiently to cause the
rotting of the tops of piles in the vicinity,
thereby causing the settling of buildings sup-
ported on piles
Concrete Piles Piles made of concrete are
now largely used, and are applicable to all
places where wooden ones can be driven and
also to those places where wood would deterio-
rate, such as above a peimanent water level or
where the teredo exists Due care, however,
should be taken to prevent the action of frost
on wet concrete The piles aie geneially leen-
forced with steel rods embedded in the concrete
forming the pile They are sometimes cast, or
"formed/' complete m removable wooden forms
and allowed to harden and attain strength above-
ground before driving, in which case they are
placed and driven like wooden piles They may
otherwise be constructed in place by driving a
hollow cylindrical steel shell to the required
depth, in which the reenforcing rods may then
be inserted and the concrete deposited In the
Raymond method a light steel shell reenforced
by a steel mandrel is used The mandrel, de-
signed to give the required strength during the
driving operation, is withdrawn before con-
creting, and the outer shell is left in place to
act as a form In the Simplex method a heavier
shell is used, which is gradually withdrawn as
the concrete is placed, so that on the completion
of the pile the shell has been entirely removed
and may be used over again
Methods of Excavation When foundation
piers or walls must be carried down to a con-
siderable depth, special methods of excavation
aie required to pievent the inflow of water or
surrounding material* The construction to pre-
vent this inflow varies with the great variety of
conditions encountered, and many different types
are in use, but the methods may be broadly
divided into three classes (A) cofferdams, (B)
caissons, (C) the freezing process Cofferdams
are temporary structures inclosing the space to
be occupied by the foundation and are often re-
moved on tlie completion of the work Caissons
are permanent structures forming an integral
part of the foundation and are used as a means
of placing the foundation in position , in general,
they are large water-tight boxes within which
excavation can be made below the water or
ground surface Caissons are often surmounted
with cofferdams, so that the surrounding tem-
porary construction above ground or water level
88 FOUNDATION"
may be readily removed, exposing the finished
surface of the pier. On this classification cof-
ferdams comprise (1) sheet piling, (2) the
poling board, (3) the Chicago method, and (4)
cofferdam for subaqueous work Caissons com-
prise (1) box caissons, (2) open caissons, (3)
pneumatic caissons
Sheet Piling. Ordinary wooden sheet pil-
ing, or sheeting, consists of a continuous line of
vertical planks held against the side of the
excavation by horizontal timbers known as wal-
ing, or breast timbers, these in tuin being sup-
ported either by cross braces extending across
the excavation to the opposite waling timber or
by inclined stiuts extending to the bottom of the
excavation, where a support is provided in the
undisturbed material The cheetmg planks may
be square-edged if the material has some co-
hesion, but where water or running sand is to be
excluded the planks should be tongued and
grooved or splined The sheeting was formeily
driven by using ringed wooden mauls, and this
is still usual for small work or for moderate
depths of drive , but where the amount of driving
is considerable, power hammers operated by
compressed air 01 steam are now used If the
required depth cannot be reached by the first
set of planks, or "drive," a second and some
times a third and fourth set are used In
practice, a shallow excavation is first made to
the proper line for the outside of the sheeting,
the top breast timber is temporarily secured in
place, and the planks are placed vertically be-
tween the timber and the bank As the excava-
tion progresses, the planks are successively
driven down a few inches in turn so as to
follow the excavation Additional waling or
horizontal timbers and braces are added as re-
quired Sheeting made of steel is now being
largely used in place of wood It has the ad-
vantage that it can be driven in advance of the
excavation, reducing the likelihood of any flow
of material under it It has greater stiength
and can be driven to greater depths and often
may be drawn and used over again As generally
manufactured, it is interlocking, so that there is
less danger of its getting out of line and having
open spaces causing leaks
Poling'-Board Method The polmg-board
method is largely used in mining operations and
has occasionally been used in deep pits for piers.
It differs from the sheet-piling method m that
the sheeting used is in relatively shorter lengths
and is not driven vertically but with a slight
outward flare The various supporting breast
timbers, or "sets," are placed vertically over
each other, at a distance apart slightly less than
the length of the planks, or poling boards The
bottom of each poling board is outside of the
breast timber, and the top is inside and nailed
to it, successive sets of polmg boards slightly
overlapping
Chicago Method. This method differs from
that of ordinary sheet piling, as the excavation
is first made, and afterward the sides of it are
supported It is best adapted to a circular
form, and consequently when it is used the piers
are made of that shape In its operation a
circular excavation, slightly in excess of the
size required for the pier, is carried down to a
depth of 5 feet, great care being taken to make
the sides vertical and true to the circle Ver-
tical planks, or lagging pieces, 5 feet long,
having their edges sligjitly beveled, are set and
held in place by two or more steel rings The
FOUNDATION 8
lagging pieces are wedged against the walls of
the excavation by driving wedges between the
rings and the plank The excavation is then
made for another section, the lagging being put
in and secured m the same manner, and the
FlG 2 PILE AND CRIB FOUNDATION FOR \ BRIDGE PIER
operation repeated until a suitable foundation
bed is reached Depths of 100 feet have fre-
quently been thus obtained This method is not
applicable to running sand or to clay that is not
solid enough to stand with vertical sides during
the interval between making the excavation and
placing the lagging In some cases the excava-
tion has been carried past a layer of quicksand
by using a cylindrical shell of steel forced by
jacks through this layer to an underlying one
of firm material But in general this method is
dependent upon a continuous body of impervious
material for its success.
Cofferdams lor Subaqueous Work. These
consist of substantially water-tight inclosures
> FOUNDATION
type consists of a double lino of sheet piling
with the space between filled with puddled clay,
but where the water is still and shallow a simple
bank of earth or of bags of clay is often used.
Such cofferdams may be used successfully only
where they are not subjected
to a high head of water
Bos Caissons, or Cribs,
are used where no excavation
is required after the sinking
of the box, and where the
surface on which it is to rest
may be prepared previously
by dredging This type con-
sists of a box open at the top
and closed at the bottom It
is generally built at some
convenient point and par-
tially filled with concrete or
masonry, after which it is
towed out and anchored m
the correct position Addi-
tional concrete is then added,
causing it to sink and to
come to a hearing on the
prepaied surface To in-
crease the bearing value of
the foundation bed, piles are
sometimes driven and the box
caisson sunk on top of them,
as illustrated by Fig 2 The
bottom of the box is framed
up of heavy timbers, forming
a sort of grillage and is often
called a crib.
Open Caissons, as the term suggests, are
open both top and bottom If a small amount
of water is encountered, the excavation is made
by men working inside the caisson, the water
being removed by pumping or bailing If water
enters freely, the material is removed by dredg-
ing through openings, or shafts, extending up
thiough the concrete or masonry with which the
caisson is filled The construction m either case
is similar The inclosing sides, or walls, are
built of wood, steel, concrete, or masonry, and
are generally started on a frame, which is pro-
tected by a steel member projecting below the
frame and forming a cutting edge to penetrate
the soil slightly in advance of the excavation
FlG 3 PNEUMATIC CAISSON FOB FOUNDATION OP A BBIDGB PIIEB
The air lock shown is of old style Note modern air lock in Fig 4
surrounding the required space to be occupied
by the foundation, Aftei pumping out the water
and excavating to the required depth the
masonry or concrete construction can be made in
the open air The construction of cofferdams
varies with the existing conditions The usual
A heavy platform, or roof, is built above the
cutting edge, the space below the roof "being
called the working chamber. On this roof the
concrete or masonry construction is started.
An opening, or "shaft," is provided for the
entrance and exit of the workmen and for the
passage of a hoisting bucket used for removing
the excavated material If dredging is used,
there are a number of large openings through
which the dredging is done, and the roof is often
omitted altogether, the concrete or masonry fill-
ing being placed in pockets, or compartments,
inside the caisson. In practice, the excavation
Is started before the concrete is carried up to its
final height, after which the excavation and the
building up of the pier progress simultaneously,
the constantly increasing weight of the struc-
Sand
FlG. 4 TYPICAL PNEUMATIC CAISSON OF KEJuNFOBCED CON-
CRETE FOB FOUNDATION OF A BUILDING
E, E, cutting edge, W, working, or air, chamber, R, R,
reenforcmg rods, Z?, excavation bucket, S, shaft, L, ladder
in shaft, P, P, air pipes, C, C, concrete, D, cofferdam, A,
air lock
ture aiding the sinking of the caisson When
the rock surface or other firm substratum is
reached, the working chamber and shaft or the
dredging wells are filled with concrete, making
a complete pier from the foundation bed up to
the required height When dredging is used,
the concrete filling of the dredging wells must
generally be placed under water, though it is
sometimes possible to pump out the caisson and
place the concrete without the interference of
the water
Pneumatic Caissons The construction is
similar to that of the open caisson, greater care,
however, being used to make the working cham-
ber, roof and shaft, or opening from the working
chamber to above the surface, air-tight On
top of the shaft is a device called an air lock,
which prevents the escapement of the oompiessed
air from the working chamber, but permits the
passage of men and materials It consists of an
air-tight shell with a bottom and a top door
When the bottom door is shut, the top one can
be opened, allowing passage between the lock
and the open air When the top door is shut,
the bottom door can be opened, pioviding com-
munication between the lock and the working
chamber by means of the connecting shaft In
principle it works the same as the water lock of
canals The object of the compressed air is to
prevent water entering the working chamber,
enabling men to woik in it as in a diving bell
(See DIVING ) The pressure of the air evi-
dently must vary with the depth of the cutting
edge below water level The men in the woi king
chamber excavate the earth, which is hoisted in
large buckets up through the shaft and through
the lock, the caisson sinking as the excavation
proceeds In river work the material is often
blown out through a discharge pipe by means of
the compressed air The caisson above the loof
is usually filled with concrete, which not only
makes the finished portion of the pier, but also
gives the necessaiy weight to make the caisson
sink, the concreting and excavating being cai i led
on at the same time Additional weight is some-
times required, in which case pig non or layeis
of lails are placed on top of the conciete When
rock 01 other suitable firm material is reached,
such mateiial is cleaned and prepared by leveling
or stepping its suiface, and finally conciete is
deposited and carried up so as to fill the air
chamber with concrete packed tight against the
roof, and then the shaft is also concreted The
maximum air pressure in which men can work
for short periods is about 48 pounds per square
inch above atmospheric pressure, corresponding
to a depth below water level of about 111 feet.
The physiological effects of compressed air are
often serious, pains in the joints, damage to
the ear drums, and the so-called caisson disease
render work at high pressure extremely haz-
ardous The pneumatic caisson, howevei, is the
only means (except the freezing process) of
sinking piers through a great depth of water-
bearing material in cities where the displace-
ment of the soil caused by other methods would
endanger the adjacent buildings
The Freezing Process has been used in the
United States only for one or two mining shafts,
but in Germany it has been resorted to in mak-
ing excavations for foundations of buildings
The method consists in driving steel pipes into
the ground, which are closed at the bottom and
are connected at the top by smaller pipes through
which brine at an extremely low temperature is
made to circulate The refrigerating effect re-
sults in freezing the water contained in the soil,
converting quicksand to a frozen mass resembling
soft sandstone The frozen ground acts as a
cofferdam around the required area, and the
material inside the frozen wall may then be
excavated This method has the advantage
theoretically of being applicable to excavations
of any depth, but many precautions are neces-
sary, and at the present {line it is only in the
experimental stage,
Special Construction. Many of the large
buildings in New York City have a number of
cellars, or substories, below the ground water
level, necessitating a water-tight structure
around them. In such ca&es a dam, or retaining
FOUNDATIONS
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EOU3KTDATIOM"
wall, has been made by sinking rectangular
pneumatic caissons to rock contiguously around
the lines of the building, the caissons serving the
double purpose of supporting the wall columns
and of keeping out the water Foundations for
the interior columns are made, on the comple-
tion of the dam and of the excavation to the
depth of the lowest floor, by excavating in sheet
pile boxes or pits down to rock or hardpan
Sometimes, however, pneumatic caissons are also
used for the interior column foundations, in
which case the interior and the exterior caissons
may be sunk at the same time It is necessary
to have some clearance between the ends of
adjoining caissons to allow for deviations in
sinking, the usual amount allowed being from 4
to 18 inches These joints are made water-tight
by filling them with clay or concrete
The following figures give the principal di-
mensions and other data of important pneu-
matic-caisson bridge foundations
NAME OF STBUCTUBE
Size,
feet
Depth
below
water,
feet
Material
Eads Bridge, St Louis,
Mo.
New York and Brooklyn
Bridge
Forth Bridge, Scotland
Havre de Grace, Md
Alexander III Bridge,
Pans
St Louis Municipal
Bridge
New Quebec Bridge
82X72^
172 X 102
70 diam
782X423
144X110
90X33
180 X 55
1097
78
96
76
27
112
100
Timber and
iron
Timber
Iron
Timber
Steel
Timber
Timber
Among other deep excavations made by the
pneumatic process may be mentioned the mine
shaft near Deerwood, Minn., which was sunk
to a depth of 123 feet below ground water level
and is the greatest depth ever attained by this
method One of the caissons of the Municipal
Building, New York, was sunk 112 feet below
water level and is the deepest foundation for a
building where compressed air was used
The following list gives a few examples of
foundations of high buildings in New York City :
NAME OF BUILDING
No of
stones
Type of
foundations
90 West Street
23
Wood piles
Park Row
26
Wood piles
Produce Exchange Bank
St Paul Building
Woolworth
12
25
55*
Concrete piles
Steel grillage
Pneumatic caissons
Singer
45*
Adams Express
32
« ti
Equitable
36
« 4t
Bankers Trust Company
29
* Including tower
NOTABLE EXAMPLES OF FOUNDATION WORK
In the preceding paragraphs the various
methods of constructing foundations have been
very briefly described To illustrate the ap-
plication of these methods in actual work, a
few notable examples of foundation construc-
tion will be described
Williamsburgh, Bridge. The four suspen-
sion cables for this structure are carried by
steel towers resting on masonry pedestals
founded on pneumatic caissons Each tower has
two groups of four legs each, and each group of
legs is carried by a separate pedestal and caisson
VOL. IX.— 7
foundation The caissons for the Brooklyn
tower were built of timber and were sunk 97%
feet apart, centre to centre, and with their
longer sides parallel Each structure consisted
of a pneumatic caisson and a cofferdam sur-
mounting it, the whole foiming a rectangular
box 63 X 79 feet The roof of the working
chamber was 7% feet above the cutting edge,
and the space above it to the top of the caisson
was filled with tunbei cribwork, with suitable
wells left for exit from and entrance to the
working chamber The caisson for the south
pier or pedestal was sunk to a depth of 107%
feet below water level After sinking, the entire
working chamber and all the open spaces in the
caisson proper were filled with concrete The
stone masonry of the pier began on top of the
caisson
Poughkeepsie Bridge The bridge across
the Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, N" Y., was
founded by first sinking open caissons, by dredg-
ing through interior wells, and then sinking box
caissons on top of the open ones The largest
caisson sunk was 100 feet long, 60 feet wide at
the bottom, 40 feet wide at the top, and 104 feet
high. It was divided by one longitudinal and
six transveise walls into 14 compartments The
outer walls and the longitudinal interior walls
were made wedge-shaped and solid for a height
of 20 feet, and above that they were hollow
The gravel used to sink the caisson was deposited
in these hollow walls The dredging was done
through the 14 interior compartments, and when
hard bottom was reached at a depth of 134 feet,
the wells were filled with concrete deposited
under water
Hawkesbury Bridge. The foundations for
this bridge, built over the Hawkesbury River,
near Sydney, Australia, also were made with
open caissons with dredging wells The cais-
sons were built of steel plates with longitudinal
and cross braces and were oblong in plan with
rounded ends, the length being 48 feet and the
width 20 feet. There were three dredging wells,
8 feet in diameter, terminating at the bottom in
bell-mouthed extensions, which met the cutting
edge The spaces, or pockets, between the wells
and sides of the caisson were filled with con-
ciete, and additional sections of steel aided to
the sides, as the caisson sank When firm
bottom was reached, the wells were also filled
with concrete, and the pier masonry started on
it at a depth slightly below water These
foundations are noted as being the deepest
which have ever been sunk, the maximum depth
attained being 162 feet below water It is pro-
posed, however, to sink the foundations of the
new Sydney Harbor bridge to the depth of 170
feet below water
Xmgsbridge Power House. In construct-
ing the power house for the Third Avenue Rail-
way in New York City a pile foundation with
a concrete platform was constructed, having
lateral dimensions of 256% X 319% feet At
the site of the foundation a bed of fine sand
overlaid solid rock at a depth of over 100 feet
A cofferdam of sheet piling was constructed en-
tirely around the foundation The bearing piles
were driven 2 feet, 4 inches apart under the
boiler house and 2 feet, 6 inches apart under the
engine house This spacing refers ,to the piles
inside the first row around the entire building.
The piles in this first row were driven close
together and with a slight slant outward and
downward This arrangement was adopted to
aid the sheet piling in confining the sand The
inner beaimg piles were all driven vertically by
the water ]et The tops of the piles weie cut
off at a unifoim level of 6 inches above the
bottom of the excavation and were capped with
a layei of conciete 7ys feet thick 01 7 feet thick
above the tops of the piles Tins concrete cap
was a solid monolithic structuic
Auditorium Hotel The Auditorium Hotel
in Chicago rests on a platform foundation of
timber 2 feet thick, coveied with a layer of
concrete 5 feet thick, in the concrete are em-
bedded layers of railway lails and of T beams
The area of the foundation is 60,000 square feet
The J P Morgan and Company Building
The foundations of this building, constructed in
1913, are a good illusti ation of modern methods
of pneumatic caisson work, The building is on
the southeast coiner of Wall and Broad streets,
New York City At this site bedrock is of
irregular formation,, from 53 to 72 feet below
the street, and ground water level is 15 feet
below the curb. On top of the rock theie is a
layer of hardpan from 4 to 23 feet thick and
above this quicksand extending to the surface
The plans provided foi thiee substones, the
lowest floor being 50% feet below the stieet,
necessitating the water-tight dam construction
The lot ib somewhat inegular in shape, with
main dimensions 156 X 113 feet It is adjoined
on the south and on the east by the Mills Build-
ing, the foundations of \Uiich aie spiead footings
resting on quicksand, and it was noccssaiy to
provide against then settling during the sinking
of the adjacent caissons, as even the pneumatic
method under such cu cumstances \\ ill cause some
movement of quicksand For this puipose 19
cast-iron cylinders, each made up of sections 4
feet long and 3 feet in diameter, were sunk to
roek tinder the walls of these buildings at in-
tervals of 10 to 15 feet Niches were cut through
the footings and up into the walls high enough
to allow placing the first section of a cylindei.
As the excavation inside the cylinder was made,
the section was forced down by means of jacks
Another section was then placed on top of the
first one and bolted to it, and the operation
repeated till lock was reached The cylinder
was then filled with concrete, and the wall loads
transferred to it hv means of steel wedges
Compressed air was used during the sinking
operation, each cylinder being in fact a small
pneumatic caisson. The caissons forming the
dam were 7 feet wide and from 16 to 20 feet
long They were made entirely of reenforced
concrete except the cutting edge, which was of
steel At each end a semihexagonal opening
was left in the concrete to subsequently form a
key with the adjoining caisson The caissons
were sunk entirely around the lot, with inter-
vening spaces of 18 inches between ends After
the caissons were sunk, these spaces were closed
off by driving wooden sheet piling on the inside
and on the outside line of the caissons, the sheet
piling lapping the ends of the caissons by a few
inches The tipper wooden forms of the caisson
ends were then removed, making a hexagonal
opening between caissons A section of shafting
was then concreted into this opening, and an air
lock bolted to the top of the shaft After ap-
plying air pressure the lower wooden forms of
the caisson ends were taken out, the quicksand
in the opening removed, and the opening entirely
filled with concrete On the completion of the
dam the inclosed space was excavated down to
2 POUNDER
hardpan, or slightly below the lowest atoiy floor
line, and the foundations toi tbe inteiior col-
umns \\erc made bv open pits through the
hardpan down to lock As the excavation pio-
grtsscd, fecries of hon/ontal timbei btiuLs v\eie
placed extending acio^s the lot in both duec-
tions, and wedged asjaiiibt the side's of the
eaisbons to nuintain the stability of the darn
till the permanent flooxs weie built A good
idea of the conduct of the work is shown in the
illu&tiation A tvpical section view, in outline,
of the caissons is given, and a picture of a
modem an lock is shown in the accompanying
plate
Bibliography The preceding paragraphs
give only a baie outline of foundation construc-
tion, the gieat variety of methods and condi-
tions of such work making a full treatment
possible only in special treatises Among the
best books on foundation construction consult
Patton, A Practical Treatise on Foundations
(New Yoik, 1893) , Baker, A Treatise on
Masonry Construction (2d ed , ib , 1906),
Fowler, Practical Ti catisc on Sub-Aqueous Foun-
dations (3d ed , ib , 1014), Jacoby and Davis,
Foundations of Budges and Buildings (ib ,
1914) , Kidder, Architects' and Builders' Poclet-
Bool (16th ed, ib , 1914)
FOtnSTD'ER (from ME found? en, to foundei,
fiom OF fondicr, to sink, from fond, Lat fun-
dus9 bottom), or LAMINIIIS Inflammation of
tlie vasculdi sensitive lamina? of thelioise's foot
It IR larelv met \\ith in cattle 01 sheep, owing to
the coiiosponding stiuctmes being in them much
lej=s developed Occasionally the laminae are
sti ained from seveie eveition, moie frequently
they suffer fiom the moibid effects of cold, whicli
is especially m]unous after the excitement and
exhaustion of labor Very commonly also they
become inflamed from their close sympathy with
diseases of the digestive oigans, often following
engorgement of the stomach, or inflammation of
the bowels All four feet are sometimes affected,
more usually the foie pair only The feet are
hot and tender, the animal stands as much as
possible upon the heels, trembles and groans
when moved, and is in a state of acute fever
and pain Except when following supeipuiga-
tion or internal disease, bleeding is useful The
shoes must at once be lemoved, and the toes,
if long, i educed, but no furthei rasping or cut-
ting i& permissible The affected feet should
be kept in a tub of water at a temperatuie of
45° F or wrapped in cloths wet with cold watei.
Soap -and- water clysters, lepeated if necessary
every hour, usually suffice to open the bowels,
which are very imtable Physic, if required,
must be used with extreme caution Two drams
of aloes is an ample dose in cases of founder
The strain should be taken off the inflamed
laminse by getting the animal, if possible, to lie
down, or, where this is impracticable, by sus-
pending or supporting him in slings When the
inflammation continues so long that serum and
lymph arc poured out between the sensitive and
liorny lamina, free exit for the same must be
provided by making an opening through the toe
with a small drawing knife This may prevent
the pumiced and disfigured feet that are apt to
follow severe and repeated attacks After the
acute symptoms pass, cold applications to the
feet and a mild blister round the coronet help
to restore the parts to their natural condition.
Consult V Shaw, Encyclopedia of the Stable
(New York, 1913)
FOUN'DEB OF PEACE
93
FOUNDER OF PEACE A title given to
St Benedict
FOUNDERS AHD PATRIOTS OF AMER-
ICA, ORDER OF An hereditaiy patriotic so-
ciety organized m New York City in 1896. The
objects of the order are the association of those
whose ancestors struggled together when the
United States was a new country, the teaching
of a reverent regard for the character of the
founders of the country , and the preservation of
records relating to the first colonists, their an-
cestors and descendants It admits lineal
descendants of an ancestor who settled in any
of the Colonies prior to May 13, 1657, and whose
subsequent ancestors were loyal to independ-
ence The National Society consists of rep-
resentatives of the State societies in New York,
Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New Jersey, and
Massachusetts, and holds annual meetings on the
anniversary of the settlement of Jamestown It
has published valuable monographs on early
Colonial history The membership (1914) is
about 500.
FOUlTO'rN'Gr, or METAL CASTING The ait
of forming m loam or sand a mold of any given
design which is subsequently filled with molten
metal and the latter allowed to solidify The re-
sultant casting is a copy in metal of the design
or model furnished The place in which these
operations aie performed is called a foundry.
Foundries are distinguished by either the metals
employed or the class of castings made, as iron,
malleable castings, steel, brass, statue, type, bell
foundries, etc. The variations of working in
founding are so numerous that it is possible
here to describe even briefly only the general
process of iron founding and a few more impor-
tant special processes for producing certain kinds
of castings
Iron Founding may be divided into three
operations (1) the making of the mold, (2) the
melting of the metal, and (3) the pouring of the
molten metal into the mold The making of the
design or model, which is usually called the pat-
tern, is not strictly a part of founding, although
in most instances foundries have pattern shops
working in conjunction with them as a part of
the same plant Wood patterns are by far the
most numerous, although the modern tendency
is entirely towards metal patterns, iron, alumin-
ium, or brass being preferred The molding is
usually done in sand or in loam, the great bulk
of commercial iron castings being produced m
sand molds Every mold must consist of at
least two parts in order that the pattern may be
FlG 1 SECTION OF FOUNDRY FLASK AND MOLD
removed When the desired casting is of com-
plicated form, the pattern is usually made in
several pieces sx> joined that they may be re-
moved one at a time The process of molding
in sand, using flasks, is, briefly stated, as fol-
lows ,The lower flask, called the drag, is rilled
FOUNDING
with sand, and the lowei half of the pattern
embedded in it The upper flask, called the
cope, is then placed in position on the lower, and
sand is rammed tightly aiound the upper half
of the pattern The pan of flasks is then turned
bottom up, and the band, first loosely placed in
FlG 2 SECTION OF MOLD ARRANGED 1OE CASTING A STEAM-
ENGINE CYLINDER
the drag, is removed and replaced by firmly
packed fresh sand The pair of flasks is then
reversed to their original position, and they are
parted along the, line of juncture, the pattern
remaining in the drag and the mold of its upper
part remaining in the upper flask or cope After
removing the patter^ from the drag and finishing
up the imperfections in the mold by hand, the
two flasks aie again placed in position, and the
metal is poured through suitably formed holes
or gates The mode of piocedure just described
is greatly varied in detail, but its essentials re-
main the same. Foi example, the bottom flask
is often dispensed with, the lower half of the
mold being formed or "bedded in'3 the sand floor
of the foundry, while the upper half of the mold
is formed m a flask, as when a pair of flasks are
employed. Usually the pattern is parted at the
middle, one part remaining in the drag and
one in the cope to be separately removed If the
casting is to be hollow, a core of the proper
form is suspended in the mold previous to restor-
ing the cope to its position on the drag These
cores are commonly made of sharp sand mixed
with linseed oil or flour and baked Two varie-
ties of sand molding are employed — gieen-sand
molding and dry-sand molding The essential
difference is that in dry-sand molding the flasks,
after the mold is finished, are placed in a drying
oven and thoroughly dried Molds in dry sand
admit of exceedingly large and intricate cast-
ings being made with much less nsk than in
green sand
Loam molding, which is gradually being re-
placed by dry-sand molding as our foundries are
being better arranged for drying molds on a
large scale, differs from sand molding iii that
the molds proper are not contained la flasks or
bedded in the floor, but are constructed in sec-
tions composed of rings, plates, and brickwork
To illustrate loam molding the comparatively
simple process of casting a cylinder will be de-
scribed, A hollow core of iron of brick is first
erected and plastered outside with a layer of
loam — mixed sand and clay— to the exact inside
dimensions of the cylinder, When the loaou
coating is dried, it is washed with a mixture of
charcoal and water A layer of loam is then
added which is laid on and finished off to the
exact thickness and exterior foim of the cylinder
to be cast This is then dried and washed, as
was the core Around this thicknessing, as it is
sometimes called, is built a shell of brickwork a
few inches larger than the thickened core, and
the annular space is rammed full of loam When
dried, this shell is lifted by a crane and the
thickening removed from the core The shell
or cope is then replaced, and there is an annular
space left between it and the coie, exactly the
dimensions and shape of the thickening This
space is the mold into which the molten metal
is poured This is almost exactly the process of
bell casting See BELL
The iron is melted in a cupola, or foundry
furnace, which consists essentially of a short iron
cylinder mounted on iron columns and lined with
fire brick, and of a belt 01 wind box suriound-
ing the cupola near the bottom, from which
several pipes or nozzles, called tuyeres, extend
into the cupola to give entrance to the air blast
Cupolas vary in diameter from 2 to 10 feet
They aie cylindrical for a portion of their
height, and then conical, to form a chimney At
the top of the cylindrical portion is placed the
charging hole, and at the bottom are one or two
breast holes for raking out the cinders, and a
tap hole through which the molten metal is
drawn The molten metal is run into ladles,
which are iron vessels lined with some refractory
substance, and piovided with a lip for dnecting
the metal into the mold in pouring
The piecedmg paragraphs describe very briefly
the geneial process of making iron castings, the
following are the special methods adopted in
making certain forms of castings which are
used in large quantities, such as car wheels,
cast-iron water pipe; kettles, ordnance, and
statuary The casting of car wheels varies from
the general piocess described only in having an
iron ring for that portion of the mold which
forms the thread This iron ring has the effect
of suddenly cooling the metal forming the thread
and thus rendering it more dense and hard
This hardening piocess is called chilling and is
employed in making rolls and other articles
which lequire a hard wearing surface Water
pipe is cast vertically in cast-iron casings hav-
ing the core on a barrel The pattern is inserted
in the casing, and the annular space between it
and the casing is rammed full of sand The
pattern is then removed and the core inserted
in its place In casting kettles the core cor-
responding to the inside of the kettle is molded
bottom up on a bare plate A thickening of
sand of the exact thickness and exterior form
of the kettle is then added to the core A cope
is then built around the thickened core and
when dry is removed to allow the thickening to
be broken away, after which it is replaced and
the metal poured All cast-iron hollow waie,
pots, pans, etc, are cast in substantially the
same manner
Statue founding is much similar, except that
the thicknessing of the pattern in bronze casting
is made of wax, which is melted out by heat
without lifting the cope Small statuary casts
of lead, tin, zinc, and their alloys are made by
pouring the metal into iron molds and, after due
time has been allowed for a skin to congeal on
the surface, inverting the mold and allowing
the molten inside metal to run out Iron statues
HOSPITAL
are founded like kettles or bells, with a core
thicknessing of sand or loam and with the cope
made in sections to permit removal Type is
cast m metal molds at the ends of which is the
matrix for forming the letter In modern type
foundries the process is a mechanical one, per-
formed automatically by type-casting machines.
Cast ordnance is now seldom made, but the
process of producing such castings calls for a
brief explanation Bronze and cast-iron cannon
are cast in loam molds The founding of a Rod-
man gun, which, while now long obsolete, was
the most recent form of cast gun, is as follows
The mold is of dry sand contained in circular
sectional casings The chief feature is the core
ban el, which consists of a water-tight cast pipe
01 bai i el with flutes on its exterior surface along
its whole length to permit the gas to escape
upward from behind the hemp and loam with
which the barrel is coated After the mold has
been closed together, the barrel is attached to
a spider or tnpod, the legs of which rest upon
the top flange of the casing, adjusting screws
at the end of each leg permit the accurate
centring of the core in the mold A pipe extends
down the centre of the core, through which watcx
is forced and escapes by rising through the an-
nular space between the pipe and the inside of
the core The purpose of this process is to cool
the gun casting from the inside outward In
casting a 15-inch gun the \\ater pipe and coie are
removed in about 24 hours, and afteiwaid a cm-
lent of cool air is forced into the bore of the
gun, which is cool enough to remove fiom the
mold in about 9 or 10 days The water-cooling
method desciibed here is very useful in making
complicated steam-engine frames and cyhndeis
as well as steam turbines
Molding machines are made in a great variety.
One of the most important classes comprises ma-
chines for molding cast gear wheels The latest
achievement is the development of the "jarring"
molding machine, in which flask, sand and pat-
tern are "bumped" on a solid anviL by compressed
air The result is that the sand is packed about
the pattern much faster and better than by
hand, and an enormous saving is effected in
labor and time Castings 8 to 12 tons in weight
are now made this way The molding machine
is gradually replacing manual laboi foi all repe-
tition work, as it is cheaper and bettei than hand
woik Even such intricate castings as automo-
bile cylinders are now made by specially designed
molding machines
Bibliography For a full description of
founding processes and tools, consult Bolland,
The Iron Founder (New York, 1892) , id, The
Iron Founder Supplement, and id , Encyclopedia
of Founding (ib, 1893), West, American
Foundry Practice (ib, 1882) , id, The Molders'
Text Book (ib, 1886), Dingey, Machinery
Pattern-Making (ib , 1892), Sharp, Modern
Foundry Practice (ib, 1900) , Tate and Stone,
Foundi y Practice (Minneapolis, 1904) , Hand,
Pattern- Making and Foundry Practice (Chicago,
1905) , Bale, Modern Iron Foundry Practice
(London, 1902) , Maldenke, Production of
Malleable Castings (Cleveland, 1911) , Hall, The
Steel Foundry (New York, 1914)
EOTJNDOLrKTG HOSPITAL, or ASYLUM An
institution for the care of children, particularly
infants that have been abandoned by their par-
ents or guardians In modern times the great
majority of children in foundling hospitals are
not foundlings, but are (1) illegitimate children
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL
brought to the institution by the mothers or
their friends, (2) legitimate children whose
mothers, because of desertion of husband,
poverty, or other causes, feel unable to care for
them, and (3) a few orphans
The first foundling hospitals were introduced
by the Chuich to prevent infanticide In the
sixth century the Bishop of Treves permitted
children to be placed in a marble basin before
the cathedral, with the understanding that mem-
beis of the Church would care for them The
capitularies of the Frankish kings mention
foundling hospitals The first well-authenti-
cated establishment was founded at Milan in 787
A D , the Council of Nicsea in that year having
ordered that each city should have an institution
for abandoned children A foundling hospital
was organized at Montpellier in 1070, Embeck,
1200, Rome, 1212, Florence, 1317, Nuremberg,
1331, Paris, 1362, Vienna, 1380 For the care
of children above the age of infancy, see DE-
PENDENT CHILDREN
The number of foundling hospitals in France
was greatly increased through the labors of St.
Vincent de Paul and of Colbert in the seven-
teenth century After 1789 the French Republic
assumed the charge of foundlings The chil-
dren were at first publicly received, but by a
decree of 1811 there was introduced into found-
ling hospitals throughout the Empire a revolving
cradle "tour," so arranged that the person who
deposited a child in the cradle could not be seen
from within The person was then able to turn
the cradle so that the child would be brought
within the institution This was introduced on
the ground that thereby child murder would be
lessened Whether infanticide was materially
decreased is not known, but the unexpected and
immediate effect was a great increase in the
number of children abandoned The number left
at foundling hospitals in 1784 is stated to have
been 40,000, in 1815, 68,000, and in 1834, 134,-
000 Other countries had similar experiences
In 1834 a parliamentary commission reported
that the influence of the tour was pernicious, and
it was gradually abolished With the abolition
of the tour a marked decline in the number of
foundlings took place
At present the public foundling hospital in
France serves merely for the temporary care of
the infants Every attempt is made to discover
the identity of the mother If found, persuasion
is employed to induce her to take back the
child, if she is in need of support, public aid is
promised her When the mother cannot be
found, or if she will not take the child back,
a- place is found for it in a private family, where
it is nursed and cared for during the period of
infancy A similar system is in vogue in some
of the German cities, notably Leipzig This
system has not only greatly diminished infant
mortality, but has very materially diminished
the number of children abandoned
In Vienna foundlings are cared for in a hos-
pital Mothers who wish to leave children in
the institution are required to serve in the hos-
pital as nurses for a period of three months
The system provides for the nursing of children
whose mothers are not found Moreover, after
caring for her child for so long a period of time,
the mother is less inclined to leave it if it is
possible for her to keep it The system has been
found to yield very satisfactory results
About 1741 the Foundling Hospital of London
began to receive children. It was established by
95
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL
Thomas Coram, a benevolent sailor, who do-
nated 56 acres of land, which now yield in an-
nual rents more than the original purchase price
of £5500 At first applications for admission
TV ere so numerous that the children admitted
had to be chosen by lot Fifteen years later
Paihament gave financial assistance, and all the
children deposited in a basket outside the gate
were caied for This system led to such serious
abuses that the authorities decided to take
chaige of only thobc children who were accom-
panied by the sum of £100 In 1801 the present
form of organization was adopted A child is
admitted only after a careful personal examina-
tion of the mother has shown that it is illegit-
imate and the first born, and that the mother
has never lived with the father Preference is
given in cases where the mothei has been de-
ceived by a promise of marriage The hospital
is rich and well managed and takes good care
of its foundlings.
In America the county poor farm was the only
place at first pio\ided for foundlings In some
places there is still no other public provision
Foundling hospitals, howevei, are now to be
found in all the larger cities Nearly, if not all,
the foundling hospitals are under private man-
agement, but many of Ihem leceive subsidies
from public funds "Baby farms" is the name
applied to those places where babies are boarded
for the sake of the gain In most cities there is
no inspection of such establishments, in spite of
the fact that the system is known to give rise to
frightful abuses
The death rate in foundling hospitals fre-
quently ranges from 90 per cent to 100 per
cent, and an average of 75 per cent is common.
The experience of European institutions is
identical The better institutions now recognize
this evil and seek to avoid it by having the
mother who wishes to leave a child in the insti-
tution stay and nuise it and another child also
if possible In the Chicago Foundlings3 Home,
where this rule is piactically enforced, the death
rate is very low Where this plan is impracti-
cable, the New York Foundling Asylum and
others have adopted the plan of placing the
infants at board in selected private families
Those receiving the children must comply with
the detailed rules of the institution Medical
care is furnished, and a careful system of visita-
tion is maintained The children are later re-
called to the institution and are finally placed
in homes
Another objection to the present system is
that the preliminary investigations are insuffi-
cient, so that many children are received who
are not properly subjects for charity Very
few foundling hospitals make any further inves-
tigation than to question the one bringing the
child
In Massachusetts foundling hospitals have
been abolished by law It is forbidden to board
more than two infants under two years of age
in any family unless that family has a license
given after thorough investigation, the license
stating the number of children allowed The
State Board of Charities has a department for
the children, who are boaided out in families
Bibliography. Folks, Care of "Neglected and
Dependent Children, (New York, 1901), Hender-
son, Dependents, Defectives, Delinquents (Bos-
ton, 1901) Warner, American Chanties (New
York, 1894) , Henderson, Modern Methods of
Charity (ib, 1904) , Epstein, Studien zur ffr&ge
FOU3STDBY 9
der Findelanstalten (Prague, 1882), Senmchon,
FRstowe des enfants abandonnes (Pans, 1880) ,
Benedict, Waifs of the Slums (2d ed , New
York, 1907) , Gorst, Children of the Nation (ib ,
1907), Bodme's Reference Book on Juvenile
W elf we (Chicago, 1913)
FOTJNDKY See FOUNDING
EOTJN'TAIN (OF funtaine, fontaine, Fr
fontavne, from ML fontana} from Lat fans,
spring, connected with Gk xe"S chcin, Skt hu,
to pour, AS geotan, Icel gjota, OHG gioz&n,
Gei giessen, to pour) A natural or artificial
spring or source from which water gushes,
spouts, or falls into a basin 01 seiies of basins
When -water is led from a reservoir through a
pipe to an orifice suitably placed at a lower
level, it will spout upwaid to a height a little
less than that of the level in the reservoir.
This is the principle applied m most jet foun-
tains, as in the famous "Grandes Eaux" at Ver-
sailles, fed from reservoirs at Marly Where a
suitably elevated source is not available, the
necessary hydraulic pressure for producing jets
is obtained by means of foice pumps In south-
ern and eastern countries where water is not
abundant, both natural and artificial souices
of supply have in all ages been treated with
special care and often adorned with artistic ele-
gance In the ancient world religious devotion
to the deities of water, especially of curative
mineral springs, was an added incentive to such
tieatment The eailiest preseived examples aie
a large stone basin carved in lehef with figures,
found m the royal palace at Tello (3000 BO ),
and an Assyrian fountain at Vavian, sculptured
m the face of the rock itself, where two affronted
lions rest their forepaws on the mouth of a
vase from which the watei spouts into a series
of basins cut in the rock
The ancient Greeks made little display of
the flow of water, but gathered it into basins
over which were erected pavilions or colonnaded
porticoes The Greek vases also show a type of
small open fountains with water spouting from
the mouths of lions or boars set in the upper
part of a central column through which the
water supply was earned The city of Connth
was rich iri fountains That of Pirene, men-
tioned by Herodotus and excavated by the
American Classical School of Athens under
Richardson, contained a number of cells from
which the water flowed into an open basin In
another fountain the water flowed from the
hoofs of the horse Pegasus The Fountain of
Glauce, inclosed in the Odeum, was dedicated to
Glauce because she was said to have thrown
herself therein, believing that its waters would
counteract the poisons of Medea Another
Corinthian fountain had a bronze statue of
Neptune standing on a dolphin from which the
water flowed
Among fountains famous for their architec-
tural treatment were those of Megara and Lerna
Mystical qualities, as well as supernatural ori-
gins, were ascubed to fountains, and they
weie often connected with temples and shrines
Salt springs were sacred to Poseidon, many
curative springs to ^Eseulapius and Hygieia
The famous Enneacrunos Fountain at Athens
was called Callirrhoe before the time the water
was diawn from it by the nine spouts from
which it took its later name The fountain in
the Temple of Erechtheus at Athens was supplied
by a spring of salt water, and a similai spring
supplied that in the Temple of Poseidon Hippias
5 FOUNTAIN
at Mantinea Above the Herseum. of Argos, the
centre of Argive worship, was the famous Aste-
rion Fountain Often the Greeks made rock ex-
cavations to capture the water at its source
Among the most notable of these were that near
Syllmm in Pamphylia, which still remains, that
near Larnaca in Cyprus, and the Burinna
Fountain near Cos, covered with a dome
Among the famous fountains consecrated to
Apollo were the Castahan Fountain and the Cas-
sotis at Delphi, connected with the oracle,
vapor and gas in the water contributed to the
cult The importance attached by the Komans
to an abundant and hygienic water supply is
attested by the grand scale of their hydraulic
engineering and by the ruined aqueducts (qv )
-which cross the Campagna These supplied the
baths and the public fountains, which were of
large si7e and numerous When Agrippa re-
organized under Augustus the city's water sup-
ply, he made or restored 700 fountains, decorat-
ing 400 with marble columns and 300 with
statues of marble or bronze The two chief
types of Roman fountains were the niche foun-
tain, set m a wall, with spouts, often represent-
ing heads, shells, or dolphins, discharging into
a basin and the open fountains, set m open
spaces, with jets or spouts above one or moie
circular basins No Roman fountains exist to-
day even approximately intact, but fragments
of their sculptuied decorations have survived,
e g f a marble i hyton in the Palazzo dei Conser-
vatori at Rome, and figures of Tritons, river
gods, etc Pompeian wall pamtmgs have also
preserved for us pictures of various garden
fountains of the second type They were an im-
portant element in both the economy and deco-
ration of Roman villas and country houses Not
the least interesting of the Pompeian discoveries
are the public and private fountains of that
provincial town The public fountains were
comparatively simple, with little or no orna-
ment except a carved head serving as a spout,
but the private fountains display considerable
variety, both of form and decoration The most
beautiful are the niche fountains wholly in-
crusted with brilliant mosaic of colored glass
and shells Especially interesting aie those of
the Casa della giande fontana and the Casa
della piccola fontana a mosaico, and those of
the Casa del Centenario and of the Casa di
Luciezio In 1880-81 a paiticularly beautiful
one was found, decorated with a statuette of
Silenus and with mosaics of the Birth of Venus
and the Bath of Venus and the Loves Not only
did simple running fountains exist, but the re-
mains of jet fountains have been found, and a
drawing exists representing a vase with a double
jet of water, standing on a pedestal placed in
what is supposed to have been the unpluvium
of a house Public fountains were a feature of
every Eoman city, and interesting examples
have been found in Algiers, as at Thamugadi
(Timgad) and Cuiculi (Jauila) The Romans
were from the earliest times quite as devoted as
the Greeks to the cult of sacred springs and
to their deities, such as Juturna, Picus, and the
nymph Egena, whom legend made the mspirer
of King Numa The discoveries of votive of-
ferings at mineral and other springs show the
cults to have been continuous from the Royal
to the Imperial period
As among the Greeks and Romans, so with
the early Celts and other northern tribes, traces
of superstitious Beliefs and usages with relatioa
FOUNTAIN
to fountains can be traced in monumental and
legendaiy remains Miiaculous virtues are still
attiibuted to certain ancient fountains in Brit-
tany, to which the counniy people icpan with
offerings The Cln istian missionaries, finding
themselves unable to eiadicate the superstitions
which asciibed muaculoas po\vei to locks and
^oocls, sti earns and fountains, connected with
the divinities of the old religions, changed then
toim and dnection by dedicating these objects
to the Viigm and saints, so making the foice
of the old belief an instrument for its own
ovei throw Fountains weie attached to the
new icligion by the erection of statues of the
Vngm or of saints upon the po&bibly mde
stiuctures that collected fche water and pieseived
its puiitv Theie is some uniformity in the
architectuial chaiactenstics of these structures
during the Middle Ages A veiy common form
m imal districts was that in which a large
basin, reached by descending steps, received the
watei This basin was covcied by a vaulted
shelter, often adorned with molded arches and
sculptured figmes and escutcheons The four-
teenth-century Fontaine Joubert at Poitiers (re-
stoied 1597) "was such a fountain, with a niche,
bench, and sunken basin Many such fountains
are found in Brittany, and elsewhere through-
out France A form more common in populous
districts was that of a large open basin, round,
square, polygonal, or lobed in form, with a
columnar structure at the centre, from the
lower part of which it was arranged that spouts
should issue, playing into an open basin and
supplying vessels brought for the purpose in
the cleanest and quickest manner To this gen-
eral type belong the unnvaled group of mediaeval
fountains at Viterbo (Italy), in which the cen-
tral shaft, bearing lion's-head spouts, usually
rises fiom the lower basin and carries a second,
much smaller basin on its capital, with a smallei
and shorter central shaft supporting a thud
basin crowned by a pinnacle In the Gatteschi
Fountain the two uppei basins are quadrilobed,
and the lower one is cruciform They are al-
ways raised on a stepped platform and stand
in the centre of squaies
In some of the later Gothic fountains the
cential column is replaced by an elaborate
Gothic stiucture like a spue At Rouen the
Pucelle Fountain (fifteenth century) has an
elaborately sculptuied pinnacle The most ex-
quisite of all Gothic fountains is in Germany,
the Sehone Brunrien at Nuremberg, a high po-
lygonal structure like a cathedral tower, a mass
of tracery and sculp tuie (fouiteenth centuiy)
Cn the public market place at Biunswick is a
fountain of the fifteenth century, of which the
central stractuie is made of bronze Except in
Haly, few fountains are of earlier date than
.he fourteenth centuiy The Italian fountains
)f the Gothic period are, however, numerous
ind beautiful, some even belong to the late
Romanesque age The most monumental of
these are, perhaps, three situated at Siena the
tTonte Bran da, which has been celebrated by
Dante, built in the twelfth century, the Fonte
Nuova, built in 1259; and the Fonte Gaja, con-
structed in 1419 This Sienese type was a large
lectangular basin, with a solid wall on three
sides At the Fonte Branda the covering brick
structure is 30 feet high, with three groined
vaults, battlements, cOrbels, and blind arches
were its main decprations, but terra-cotta orna-
mentation is used already in the I"onte Nuova,
97
FOUNTAIN
while pilasters, with bas-reliefs and statues in
niches by Giacopo della Quercia and other fa-
mous sculp tor s, decorated the Fonte Gaja, one
of the most beautiful in Italy Of equal beauty
is the Fontana Maggiore at Perugia, one of the
finest works of Niccolo of Arezzo and Giovanni
Pisano (c 1300). It is a 24-sided polygon, four
concentric steps lead up to a lower basin, 30
feet in diameter, each face decorated with fine
lehefs, separated by grouped colonnettes, from
the water of this basin rise 24 columns support-
ing the upper polygonal basin, whose angles
aie marked by statuettes In the centre of this
basin is a heavy bronze column supporting a
bionze basin upon which a gioup of three water
nymphs now stands.
During the Renaissance the designing of foun-
tains became an important and almost a distinct
bianch of art, combining in one design the re-
sources of ai chitecture, sculpture, and landscape
decoration Fountains were no longer confined
to public squares and pui poses of utility, but
took their place also in the elaborate decorations
of the gardens and parks of the villas or palaces
of the great and wealthy This development be-
gan in the villas erected during the middle and
late Renaissance in Italy, was carried into
France, where in the seventeenth century it
culminated in the giandiose water effects of
Saint-Cloud and Versailles, and spread into Ger-
many and the rest of Europe England has in
general neglected, this branch of decorative art,
and its chief centres outside of Italy have been
in France and in the capitals of the various
states of Germany
In the Italian villas of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries water became an essential
element of the garden designs, always in con-
nection with a monumental treatment of ar-
chitectuial or sculptural accompaniments, to
which the leading artists of the time often de-
voted their talents. Two types chiefly prevailed
— the cascade, in which a moderate volume of
water was made to produce a maximum of ef-
fect by falling in thin but brilliant sheets over
multiplied obstructions — steps, basins, rocks,
etc — always in a framework of architecture
with abundance of sculptured accessories, and
the isolated or central fountain, in which one
or many jets spouting upward fell into the high-
est of a series of superposed vasques, or bowls
of inaible or bronze, and thence into a larger
one below, and so on into a broad basin on the
ground level Of the former type, the most
extensive example is the series of cataracts in
the Caserta Palace gardens near Naples, by
Vanvitelli (1753), but notable examples of
equal or higher artistic merit are those of the
Villa Lante, near Viterbo (Vignola, 1540-50), of
the Villa d'Este at Tivoli (Fontana, 1580-?),
and of the villas Torlonia-Conti, Aldobrandini,
and Mondragone at Frascati
The superposed-basin type is seen in numer-
ous admirable examples, not only in the villas .
but in the public squares of many towns
Among them may be mentioned the beautiful
Farnese fountain in the Lante Villa, near
Viterbo, the elaboiate fountain in the Piazza
Pretoria at Palermo (1550), by Florentine ar-
tists, the late and highly rococo Fontana
Medina at Naples the Neptune Fountain, by
Gian Bologna, at Bologna; the Neptune Foun-
tain, by Ammanati, at Florence, |foe fountain in
the Piazza Madonna at Loreto, others at Fano,
Viterbo (Piazza della RoQca)^ the; Boboh Gar-
dens at Florence, etc At Kome most of the
fountains of this type are of late date — e g , that
about the obelisk of the Quinnal, the great basm
fountain of the Villa Albam, the Tortoise
Fountain in the Piazza, Mattel, that in the
Piazza Navona, etc At Rome also are thiee ex-
amples of another type, in which a structure
like a triumphal aich pours forth one or more
cataracts into a laige basin, with or without
sculpture, the Acqua Felice in the Piazza del
Termini (sixteenth centuiy) , the Montana Pao-
hna (1612), and the Fontana Trevi, the most
spectacular of its type and giandly composed,
even if in doubtful taste (N Sahri, 1762) This
type, treated as a ^all fountain, is the proto-
type of several fine fountains in Paris, of which
the modern Fontaine Saint Michel, by Davioud,
is the most oinate
Among the earliest Benaissance fountains in
France is that of Clermont-Ferrand, an elaborate
and beautiful architectural design forming a
species of lofty canopy in the centre of a large
basin (early sixteenth century) Jean Goujon
carved the sculptures for the Fontaine des In-
nocents, designed by Lescot, in Paris (1550, xe-
erected in recent times on. an altered plan),
whose nymphs are famous He also made the
Diana for the fountain at the Chateau d'Anet
The magnificent basins, jets, and other watei
works at Versailles belong to a later date The
French have developed the cascade type into a,
greater variety of forms than is found in Italy
and have handled these with great taste, not
only in such ^ehateaux-d'eau'3 as that of Saint-
Cloud, but in many recent examples in which
sculpture plays an important part (Fontaine
Samfce-Mane, at Rouen, Fontaine Longchamps,
at Marseilles) The central shafted type has
also been developed by modern French artists
in a number of beautiful examples, such as the
twin fountains by Hitorff in the Place de la
Concorde, at Paris, the Louvois Fountain, by
Visconti (1835) , and the Fontaine des Saisons,
by Carpeaux, in the Observatory Gardens, m the
same city. The Fontaine Saint-Sulpice, by Vis-
ccmti, is a cold but effective design The Bi-
rague, Grenelle (by Bouchaidon), Mohere, and
Cuvier fountains, m Paris, should also be men-
tioned The fountains at Bern, Switzerland,
and the Alameda Fountain at Malaga, Spain,
are good examples of the simpler type, with
statues on central shafts There are a number
of interesting fountains in Belgium, while at
Vienna, the Neuer Marktbrunnen (1739), the
Hochstrahlbrunnen in the Schwarzenberg Pal-
ace gardens, and the Albert Fountain, deserve
at least passing mention The highest artificial
jet fountain is that of the palace of Herrenhau-
sen, Hanover, which is over 200 feet high But
no other European country can compare with
France and Italy in the number and beauty of
ita fountains, considered as works of art
In the Orient the Greek tradition of covered
fountains was continued by the Mohammedan
artists, though the Moors in Spain often adopted
open basins, as in the Fountain of the Lions in the
Alhambra Each city in the East was provided
with many fountains, inclosed and usually cov-
ered m like the tomba, with one or more domes,
and a fountain for ablutions has always been an
essential requirement in every masque court
The Koran extols the erection of a, public drink-
ing fountain as a specially meritorious form of
charity Cairo, Constantinople, Adrianople, and
Damascus are especially rich in. them, there
3 FOUQUE
being 300 in Cairo alone They are ciicular,
polygonal, or rectangular, and ornamented with
brilliant tiles, niches, columns, carving, inlay,
and gilding, but have no display of water even
-within, for it falls into very small basins from
a concealed central supply. The finest of the
Turkish fountains is the laige and highly ornate
Fountain of Achmet III, near the Mosque of
St Sophia, anothei almost equally important
is in Scutari, a suburb of Constantinople
Aitificial fountains j,re not abundant in
American cities, yet there aie some in the
paiks and squaies of Cincinnati (the Probasco
Fountain), New York (Central Park, City Hall
Park, Bronx Park, etc ) , and other places that
are occasionally in action The earliest deco-
rative fountain in the United States appears
to have been set up in Philadelphia about
1829, with a wooden figure carved by a ship
caiver, but of real aitistic merit Decorative
fountains have played an important part in
the de&ign of lecent exhibitions in the United
States, notably the Fountain of the Republic, by
Macmonmes, at Chicago in 1893, and the foun-
tains of Man, Nature, Progress, etc , in the Pan-
American Exposition giounds at Buffalo in
1901, the fine cascade fountain of the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition (St Louis, 1904), etc
Following Italian precedents, American land-
scape artists and owners of fine estates are to
an increasing degree using fountains as garden
decoiations, and women sculptors have been
especially successful in this branch of art
Within recent years both memorial fountains
and drinking fountains have been put up more
liberally m the United States, especially by
private individuals, and are often artistically
designed and decorated.
Consult Boussard, Choice de fontaines decora,-
twes (Paris, 1883) , Duval-Moisy, Lev fontaines
de Paris, anciennes et nouvelles (ib, 1828),
Falda, Le Fontane d^ Roma e luoghi pubbhci
della citta, (Rome, 1691), "Minor Fountains/3
in American Architect (Boston, 1898 9)
FOUNTAIN 03? AB/ETHU'SA See AL-
PIIETJS
POUNTAXTT OF CASTALIA See CASTALIA
FOUWTAUST OF VAUCLUSE, vd'kluz'
See VATJCLUSE
FOUUTAUsT OP YOUTH A miraculous
fountain having the propeity of restoring youth
and healing sickness Such fountains are a part
of the mythology of many lands In the Middle
Ages a fountain of youth was supposed to exist
m an island or region called Bimini and was
sought by Ponce de Ledh, De Soto, and other
Spanish explorers
FOUNTAIN PEN See PEN
FOUNTAIN'S ABBEY An extensive Cis-
tercian monastery, 3 miles from Eipon, England,
dating from the thirteenth century and stand-
mg on the demesne of Studley Eoyal, the prop-
erty of the Marquis of Ripon The picturesque
rums represent only a portion of the abbey
The Norman-English church is m good preser-
vation, and the remains of the refectory, chapter
house, and great cloister are still extant
Consult Hodges, Fountains Abbey (New York,
1904), and Oxford, The RUWIS of Fountawis
Abbey (London, 1910)
FOUQUE, foo'ka', FERDINAND ANDBE (1828-
1904) A French geologist, born at Mortam
and educated at the Normal School at Paris,
where from 1853 to 1858 he was curator of the
scientific museum. After holding positions in
FOTTQUfi
Several educational institutions and taking part
in a large number of scientific expeditions, he
became known particularly for his investiga-
tions of volcanoes, and in 1877 was made pio-
fessor of geology in the College de France His
researches into the constitution and origin of the
igneous rocks and into the optical properties of
minerals helped to establish the modern science
of petrology upon a firm basis In these in-
vestigations he frequently cooperated with
Michel Le>y He was elected to the Academy
of Sciences in 1881 He published a large num-
ber of scientific works, among the most im-
portant of which are Introduction d V etude
des roches eiuptives frangaises (1879) , Santortn
et ses eruptions (1879) , Synthese des minerauw
et des roches (1882)
FOtTQITE, FRIEDRICH HEINKICH KAKL, BARON
DE LA MOTTE See LA MOTTE FOUQUE
FOTJQUET, foo'ka', or FOUCQUET, JEHAN
(c 1420-c 80) A French portrait and miniature
painter and illuminator, the most representative
of the fifteenth century He was bom in Tours,
and studied there and probably in, Paris and Italy
His art, while thoroughly individual and na-
tional, was undoubtedly formed under the in-
fluence of the Flemish school of the Van Eycks
and under that of the early Florentine masters,
especially Fra Angehco, assimilating the finest
qualities of both In his miniatures he prob-
ably followed Pol de Limbourg He was In
Italy about 1443-47 and painted the portrait
of Pope Eugenius IV, long preserved in
Santa Maria Sopra Minerva, Rome, but now
lost On his return to France he was appointed
court painter to Charles VII and later to Louis
XI and became the head of a flourishing school
Fouquet was appreciated only as a miniature
painter until recent historians recognized his
value, artistically and historically, as the
founder of the French school, and the exhibition
of the French Primitives at Paris in 1904 re-
vealed his excellence as a painter His only
authentic paintings are the portraits of Charles
VII and Juvenal des Ursins in the Louvre, to
which the latest critics are inclined to add the
portrait oi a uMan with a Glass of Wine," also
in the Louvre, a portrait of a man, in the
Liechtenstein Gallery, and one in the collection
of Count Wilczck in Vienna, two wings of a
diptych — one representing Agnes Sorrel as the
Virgin, in the Antwerp Museum, and the other
a kneeling figure of Etienne Chevalier, in the
Berlin Museum His most celebrated illumina-
tions are a series of miniatures for a French
paraphrase of Boccaccio (1458), 111 the Munich
Library, the Book of Hours of Etienne Cheva-
lier, 40 pages of which were bought by the Due
d'Aumale for the Chantilly collection, for 300,-
000 francs, two volumes of illustrations for
Josephus' History of the Jews (National Li-
brary, Paris), perhaps his best work, and Les
grandes chromques de France, also in the Bibho-
theque Rationale His drawing is vigorous, the
expression of his faces lively, and his color clear
and glowing, his realism restrained, and his
observation keen, with a fine sense of humor
Consult (Euvres de Jehan Fouoquet (Paris,
1866-67 ) , "Facsimiles of two Histories by Jean
Foucquet,37 from vols i and 11 of Anciennetgs
des Juifs (London, 1902) , Lafenestre, Jehan
Fouquet (Paris, 1905) , Richter, Ohantilly ^n
History and Art (London, 1913).
rOUQTTET, NICOLAS, VICOMTE DE MELUN
and DE VAUX, MAEQUIS DE BELLE-!LE (1615-80)
gg
FOUQTTET
Superintendent of Finance under Louis XIV
He was born in Paris, Jan 27, 1615, the son of
a French nobleman high in the confidence of
Richelieu Young Fouquet was educated for the
civil service and from 1642 to 1647 was attached
as intendant to the Army of the North He was
then made Commissioner of Police, Justice, and
Finance in Dauphme and held other important
offices until, in 1648, he was called to Paris as
intendant for the municipality and became in-
vohed in the political intrigues of the day In
1650, th lough the influence of Mazarin, Fouquet
was given the important post of Procureur-
Generai to the Parloment of Paris His atti-
tude during the Fronde (qv ) had won him the
regard of ttie court, and of Anne of Austria in
particular, and in 1653 he was made Super-
intendent of Finance with a colleague, Servien,
for his faithfulness to Mazarin His colleague
died in 1659, leaving Fouquet alone in office
As chief Financial Minister, Fouquet set him-
self to work to reorganize the finances of France
Corruption and maladministration, together
with heavy war expenses, had drained the
treasury, and it is stated that the new Min-
ister had at fiist to meet expenses by nego-
tiating loans on. his own credit Mazarin soon
became jealous of his protege's influence, and
after the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659) and the
marriage of the King, an open breach took place
in their relations, and henceforth each sought to
overthrow the other In his anxiety to be su-
preme, Fouquet overdid his part, and on the
death of Mazarin, Colbert ( q v ) was consulted
regarding the state of the finances and secretly
influenced the King against Fouquet by putting
the financial situation in the worst possible
light Meanwhile Fouquet had secured posses-
sion of the port of Belle-He and had fortified
it as a place of refuge He also erected a niag-
nifieont chriteau on his estate at Vaux, and there,
in A v gust, 1661, he entertained the King with
a magnificence and splendor hardly surpassed
later at Versailles Louis XIV would not be
conciliated, however, and Fouquet would have
been ariested in the midst of the festivities,
but for the prayers and intercession of the
Queen -mother, Anne of Austria, who was still
his friend There can be little doubt that the
charges of maladministration and dishonesty
brought by Colbert against Fouquet were sub-
stantially true, for the latter was forced to
resort to peculation in order to keep up the al-
most royal state in which he lived In an age,
however, when every one connected with the
royal treasury stole, it was Fouquet' s only mis-
fortune to be caught He had been craftily per-
suaded to sell his office of Procureur-General
and so deprive himself of the privileges that
went with the office He was arrested at Nantes,
in September, 1661, charged with malfeasance in
office and with planning rebellion His papers
were seized and examined After being moved
from prison to prison, he was consigned to the
Bastille, and in 1664 was adjudged guilty, after a
very unfair trial lasting ovei three years, and
was condemned to perpetual banishment, with
confiscation of goods and property This sentence
the King changed to imprisonment for life, and
Fouquet was sent to the fortress pi Pignerol
at the beginning of 1665 During Ms 15 years'
captivity he composed several works of a devo-
tional nature He died at Pignerol, March 23,
1680 During the height of his power Bouquet
was a generous patron of art and literature
FOUQtTIEB. x«
and was intimate \vitli all the literal y men of
the day He piesented to the Bibliotheque
Rovale (now Rationale) 13,000 laze volumes
which he had collected He had however
neither the bicadth nor the statesmanship ot
hib contempoiaiv, Colbert Consult Holland,
(Eumes de M Fouquet (Paris, 1690) ; Cheruol,
Uemones <m; la vie pubhqur ct pnuee de l<ou-
^uct (il>, 1862), Lair, Nicolas Fouquet (ib,
1890) , Hassall, Louis X/T7 and the Zenith of
the French Uonaichy, in the "Jleioes of the
Nations Seiies" (London, 1885 ) . , Chatelam , Le
bitnntendant \ico1as Foucquct (Paris, 1905)
FOUQUTER, foo'kya', JACQUES FRANgois
HENRY (1SJS-1901) A Fiench publicist, born
in Maiseilles Pie studied law and medicine,
puisued a course in ait at the Institute in
Geneva in 1861 ontoied ]ouinahsm in Paris,
and in 1SG7 vias a war eoi respondent with Gau-
haldi in Italy He held various adraimstiative
positions in the Department of the Interior and
aftei being defeated in 1885 and 1888 was
elected, in "l 889, a member of the National As-
sembly He was connected editorially with La
Irate Repubhque, Le Petit Pansicnf and Gil
Bias, and in 1891 became the dramatic ciitic of
Le Figaio His publications include Etudes ar-
tistiques (1850), L'Att officiel et la libcrte
(1861), Au siecle dernier (1884), La sagesse
patisiennc (1885), and a play (1890) with
Fabrice Cane, adapted fiom Kane's Le toman
d3une conspiifitwn
FOUQTTIEBES, foo'kvar', (LotJis) BECQ DE
( 1831-1887 ) A Frenchman of letteis who began
life as a soldier and became an offieei, but re-
signed fi om the army in 1858 to devote himself to
literature He is beat known as the incompar-
able editor of Andre Chemer's works, and is re-
membered also for his editions of the selected
poems of Baif and of the. works of Frangois de
Pange. From him came also . Drames et Po&sies
(1860) , Jeu& des anciens, leur description, leur
ongvne, leurs rapports avec la religionf I'his-
toire? et les aits et les mcewrs (1869) , Aspasie
de Milet (1872) , Documents nouveause sur Andre
Chenier ct examen u itique de la nouveRe edition
de scs cQuvi es, accompagnes ^appendices (1875) ,
(Euires choisis des poetes du XYIe siecle (1870) ,
Tiaite general de bersification frangaise (1879) ,
Letttes cutiques sin la vie, les oeuvres, et les
manuscrits d3 Andre Ghemer (1881), Traite de
diction et de lectme a haute ioios (1881),
Trait$ Clemen taue de la prosodie frangaise
(1881) ; L'Art de la mise en scene (1884)
FOUQUIER-TINVIliLE, taN'v^F, ANTOINE
QUENTIN (1746-95) The public accuser of the
Revolutionary Tribunal during the Reign of Ter-
ror. He was born at Herouel, in the Depart-
ment of Aisne, practiced law there for some
time, then came to Paris and turned police spy
On the outbreak of the Revolution he figured as
one of the fiercest of democrats By Robespierre
he was appointed, first a member, then director
and public accuser, of the Revolutionary Tribu-
nal (March 10, 1793) He performed the duties
of his office with a bloodthirsty relentlessness
that came partly from lack of feeling, partly
from a brutalized conception of duty Regard-
ing himself as the servant of the Revolution —
though he was in reality only the tool of the
Committee of Public Safety — he denounced im-
partially men of all parties and brought to the
guillotine with equal fervor Bailly and Ver-
gmaud, Danton and Hebert, Robespierre and
Saint-Just After the pacing of the Reign of
Tenor he was ai rested and in May, 1795, guillo-
tined, after a trial lasting 41 days Consult
Lenotre, "Madame Fouquier-Tinvxlle" in his
Pans levolutiOHnitnc (Pans, 1904), and Du-
noyei, rouquia-Tinwlle, accuwtcur public du
Trilnn^al 1 ctolntionnairf (ib, 1913)
FOtFBBERIES DE SCAPIN", foor'btf-re' de
&ka/pri:sT/, LES A comedy by Moheie (1671),
is an1 English translation by Otway (1677),
undei the title The Cheats of Scapin
FOTTB, CARTON'S, LAKE OF THE See Lu-
CEIIJSTP, LAKE 01
FOUKGHAMBAULT, fUor'sliaN'bo/ A man-
ufacturing town m the Department of IsTievre,
France, 5 miles by rail from Neveis, near the
light bank of the Loire It contains one of the
most impoitant iron foundries in France, which
pioduces railroad supplies and art metal work
in gicat quantities Pop, 1901, 6152, 1911,
4SS2
FOimCRO ST, fs&Vkrwa7, ANTOINE FRANQOIS,
COUNT DS (1755-1809) A French chemist He
was bom in Paris, the son of a druggist He
became a student of medicine, and in 1780 le-
ceived the degiee of doctor of medicine About
this time he delivered a com fee of populai lec-
tuies on chemistiy and natuial histoiy \\hich
gained foi him a "high icputation Buffon, in
1784, secuied hi-i appointment as professor of
chermstiy at the Jardm du Roi, now Jardin des
Plantcs, which position he held for 25 yeais
Fouicroy \\as one of the early converts to the
theories of Lavoisier, Logethei with whom
and with Beithollet and Guyton de Moivcau he
prepared the Methode de nomenclature chimique
(Pans, 1787) In 1792 he was appointed a
deputy to the National Convention, in 1794
he was made a member of the Committee of
Public Safety, and in 1795 of the Council of
Ancients During the time of his service he en-
deavored to impiove the system of public educa-
tion and was especially active in measures for
the reform of the national system of weights
and measures which led to the metric system
He oiganized the Ecole Polytechnique and in-
stituted schools of medicine Under Napoleon
he became Director Geneial of Public Instruc-
tion in 1801 He was the author of La philoso-
phie chirnique (1792) and Systeme des connais-
sances chimiqites (11 vols , 1801)
FQimEAU, fWro', FERN AND (1850-1914)
A French African explorer, born at Samt-Bai-
bant ( Haute- Vienne) In 1876 he began the
exploration of southern Algeiia and in 1883
first went into the Sahara In 1898-1900 with
Lamy he went from Biskra in Algeria to Lake
Chad by way of Wargla, Agades, and Smder,
thence by the Shan River to the Congo, where
two French forces joined In 1906 he became
Governor of the Comoro Islands He published
a map of the noithern Sahaia (1888), Mission
chev les Touareg, 1894-96 (1895), Au Sahara
(1897), Mission sahanenne Foureau-Lamy
d'Alger au Congo par le Tchad (1902) , Docu-
ments scientifiques de la mission sahanenne
(1903-05)
POUR-EYED EISH See ANABLEPS
POtTBIEIt, fWrya, FEANQOIS CHAELES
MAKIE (1772-1837) A French Socialist He
was born at Besancon, April 7, 1772, the son of
a merchant, and educated in the college there
At the age of 18 he entered a cloth business,
although from hip childhood lie had shown an
FOURIER
202
TOtTOIEBISM
antipathy towards commerce on account of the
deception and injustice he saw in it He visited
all the large cities, not only in France, hut in
Holland and Germany, as a meicantile agent,
thus gaining an opportunity for caieful ob-
servation of social conditions At his father s
death he inherited 80,000 fiancs and invested
it at Ljons in colonial products During the
siege of Lyons, in 1793? all his propeity was de-
stroyed, his bales of cotton were used as bi east-
works, his provisions were taken to feed the
soldiers, and lie was himself thrown into prison
In 1794 he was drafted into the army and
served for two years 111 a cavaliy leginient,
from which he was discharged on account of
ill health In 1799, as agent for a great piovi-
sion merchant, he had to destroy a large quan-
tity of rice which had been held for higher pi ices
so long that it had become unfit for consump-
tion The destruction of food needed by the
poor made a lasting impression on his mind
His business enterprises did not prospei, and
for the greater part of his life he was in stiait-
ened circumstances His chief works weie the
Theone des quatre mouvements et des destinees
generates, published in 1808, the Traite d' asso-
ciation domestique agricole (1822), which con-
tains his whole system and was later republished
under the title Theone de I'unite umverselle ,
and Le nouveau- monde vndustnel on, indention
du procede d\ndustrie attrayante et naturelle,
distribute en series passionees (1829). Before
his death he had a few followers, the most im~
poitant one of whom was M Just Muiron, who
was converted to Founerism in 1814, but follow-
ing his death his party gained many adherents
Consult his (Euvtes choisies (1890), which con-
tains a biographical sketch by Charles Gide
See FOURIERISM and the references given there
FOUK-IEB, JEAN B.APTISTE JOSEPH, BARON
(1768-1830) A French geometer and physicist,
born at Auxerre He was the son of a poor
tailor and was left an orphan at the age of
eight The Bishop of Auxerre, recognizing his
ability, placed him in a Church military school,
where he soon showed a decided aptitude for
mathematics At the age of 19 he wrote his
memoir, Sur la resolution des equations nu-
menques de degre queloonque, which was pre-
sented to the Academy in 1789 He took part
in the Revolution, but in 1795 was sent as a
student to the newly founded Ecole Normale,
and soon after obtained the chair of analysis in
the Ecole Polytechmque (1795-98) He went
to Egypt m 1798 and was made perpetual secre-
tary of the Institute of Cairo, and in the follow-
ing'year was placed at the head of one of the
two scientific expeditions to the upper Nile
He returned to France in 1801 and was made
(1802) Prefect of Isere, a position which he
filled with his usual tact and energy Napoleon
created him a baron in 1808, but as, in 1814,
he gave brief allegiance to the Bourbons, his
political career was wrecked by the return of
the Emperor from Elba He was, after much
difficulty, made a member of the Academy of
Sciences in 1815 and succeeded Delambre (1822)
as perpetual secretary for the mathematical sci-
ences He later became a member of the French
Academy (1826) and succeeded Laplace (1827)
as president of the council of the Ecole Poly-
technique Fourier was one of the leading
mathematical physicists of his time His labors
were divided between the study of the theory of
beat and of numerical equations Among h^
leading works are the following Theone analy-
tique de la chaleur (1822), Analyse des equa-
tions determmees (posthumous, 1831) , a me-
moir on statics (Joinnal de VEooLe Poltj technique,
1797-98) , and numerous memoiis on equations
H.IS \vorks, including references to numerous bio-
giaphical sketches, were published by Darboux
ander the title (Euvres de Fourier (Paris, 1889-
90)
Fourier's series, communicated by Fourier to
the Academy towards the end of 1807, plays an
important part in mathematical physics Con-
sult Du Bois-Reymond, Zur G-eschichte der triao-
nometnschen Reihen (Tubingen, 1880)
FO CrRJEBISJft, foo'ri-er-iz'm This term is
applied to the doctrines of Charles Fourier and
to the communistic movement inspired by Fou-
rier's teaching Fourier claimed to have discov-
ered a mathematical basis for social organiza-
tion The chief difference between the social
system which he advocated and those of his
contempoi aries, Saint-Simon and Owen, is found
in the retention, for a time at least, of private
pioperty and inheiitance in Fourier's scheme
Fourier believed that man is capable of becom-
ing perfect His fundamental propositions were
that the univeise is goveined by laws and that
man, by means of reason, can discover these laws
and can apply them to the organization of so-
ciety When this shall be done, social harmony
will reign and unhappiness will be unknown
As yet, society is in its infancy The different
systems winch the human race have established
in the past have been only experiments, but
each one has been superior to the one which
it replaced. This development will continue
until perfection is reached The ideal,, accord-
ing to Fourier, has not been realized because
our civilization is false — because the false sci-
ences of ethics, economics, philosophy, and poli-
tics are followed instead of the true sciences
— chemistry, physics, mathematics The social
organization outlined "by Fourier is based on the
passions or desires of man There are 12 pas-
sions five sensitive — seeing, hearing, smelling,
feeling, and tasting; four affective — amity, love,
paternity, and ambition, and three distributive
— cabalistic, alternating, and composite If all
these passions are given free play, passional
attraction causes the spontaneous formation of
groups in society The unit of society must
be large enough to allow all the passions to
operate freely in all possible combinations, and
should therefore consist of about 2000 persons
Each group, or phalanx, should occupy a single
building and provide itself with all the com-
modities and amusements desired The chief
occupations are agriculture, manufactures, com-
merce, domestic economy, art, science, education,
and government Within the phalanx the mem-
bers are arranged in series and groups accord-
ing to the law of passional attraction Special
groups are organized for each branch of indus-
try Individuals enroll themselves for those oc-
cupations for which they have natural apti-
tudes, and are allowed to change from on& to
another as often as they please Thus work
yields only pleasure Fourier believed tfrat as-
sociation would economize expenditure and ef-
fort to such an extent that a man would need
to work only 10 years of his life Under his sys-
tem salaries are abolished; each person receives
an ample minimum, and the isurplus is dis-
tributed according to the amownt of labor, capi-
tal, and skill contributed — five parts to labor,
FOURIER SEBIES
1 02
four to capital, and three to talent Theie aie
no drones, since all the people are eager to
confer benefits upon society Surplus pioducts
are exchanged between phalanxes Industrial
armies aie sent out to prepare new lands for
occupation Government, so far as there is any,
is republican, with annual election of offtceis
Since there is no discord, there are no soldiers,
policemen, 01 cnminals At first Fouiier ex-
pected society to become practically anai chistic,
but later he found it necessaiy to map out a
definite hierarchical scheme of government The
unit, of couise, is the phalanx, which is ruled by
a unwell Three or four phalanxes foini a
union, thiee or four unions a district, a number
of distnets a province Nations, empires, cali-
phates, regions, continents, and finally a world
unity are formed by similai combinations The
zulers, in hierarchical succession above the
unarcli, are called duarehs, triarchs, and so on,
up to the omniarch, who rules the v\hole woild
In addition to unity of government, there is
unity of language, of weights and measures, of
surveying* In fact, unity is one of Fourier's
fundamental concepts He maintained that the
law of gravitation goveins not only matter, but
the other three movements — social, animal, and
organic — as well He found three indestructi-
ble principles — God, or spirit, the active and
moving principle, matter, the passive pimciple,
and justice or mathematics, the legulating pnn-
ciple to T\hich reason coi responds Fouiiei
"laimed that the human lace \\ill lemain on
this eaith until a c^cle of 80,000 yeais has been
completed The period of manhood is at hand
The race will continue to develop for 35,000
years and then decline for 40,000 years
After the death of Fouiier his party made a
large number of converts in France and many
communities were formed to test his system In
every case where Courier's suggestions were fol-
lowed m detail the attempt failed M Jean
Godin (qv.) founded at Guise a community
where labor and capital are associated much
after the plan of Fourier, but with many objec-
tionable features left out. The establishment
consists of iron, copper, sugar, and chicory fac-
tories and has been very prosperous* In the
United States Founerism was introduced in
1842 by Albert Brisbane and spread like an epi-
demic JSTo less than 34 associations were formed
in all parts of the North and West, but few held
out for more than four or five years. The mobt
notable of all was Brook Farm ( q.v ) . See
COMMUNISM, SOCIALISM
Consult Charles Pallarm, Charles Fourier, sa
we et sa theone (Paris, 1843) ; E Sambuc, Le
sociahsme de Fourier (ib, 1899), Richard T
Ely, French and German Socialism (New York,
1883 ) , E Fourmere, Les theories sooialistes au
XI Xe siecle (Paris, 1904) , Bourgum, Fourier
contribution a I'etude du socialism frangais (ib ,
1905), d'Isambert, Les idees socialistes en
France (ib., 1905) , Gide and Rist, Eistoi) e des
doctrines economiques (ib., 1909). For a lit-
erary exposition of the ideals and plans of mod-
ern Fourierists, see Emile Zola's novel Travail
FOURIER SERIES In mathematics and
mathematical physics, a series whose terms are
made up of sines and cosines of multiples of a
variable angle, the general form being a0 — a^
sin a; -j- &! cos os + a2 sin 2# + Z>2 cos 2# + aa
sin 3a? X &3 cos 3# , where tie a's and fc's
are constants. These series have the great ad-
vantage foi purposes of physics that they can
FOURNEI>
lepresent not only continuous functions with a
continuous derivative, but also functions pre-
senting a considerable range of discontinuities,
eg, a bi oken line or a curve made up of pieces
of different analytic curves even with sudden
breaks in the value of the corresponding func-
tion Thus the series sin # + sin 3# X sin 5a?
+ has the sum 7r/4 if a? lies between 0
and TT, but the sum is — 7r/4 if x is between
— TT and 0 For a? = 0 the sum is 0 By
methods of the integral calculcus the coefficients
a, and & can be so determined that the series
shall lepresent any given function provided the
latter has only a finite number of singularities
in the region considered The series may be
employed to express the ordinate of a point on
a vibiatmg string, the temperature in a body
exposed to heat, the altitude of the tides, the
vaiying pressure of the atmosphere, etc Espe-
cially where the phenomena are periodic, the
Fourier series is of great use, since it resolves
them into their component periods Thus, if
the coefficients a and & are found to diminish
rapidly after the first few, the early teims of
the series represent the phenomenon broken up
into components of periods TT, y2 TT, % ?r, , .,
and by writing kso for x the periods can be
made to take any values ir/k, % ir/k,
The Fourier series were employed by Daniel
Bernoulli, Euler, Lagrange, and other older
mathematicians They receive their name from
J B Fouiiei (qv), who gave the first elabo-
late account of them in his celebiated work,
Theone analytique de la chaleur (1835) The
difficult mathematical questions as to the con-
vergence of the series, etc , were investigated
by Dirichlet, Riemann, and others Consult
Weber-Riemann, Die partiellen Differential-
Qleichunffen der mathematischen Physik (4th
ed, Leipzig, 1900) , BOcher, "Introduction to the
Theory of Fourier's Series," in Annals of Mathe-
matics, Ser 2, vol vn (Princeton, N J, 1906) ,
Hobson, On the Theory of Functions of a Real
Variable and on the Theory of Foun&i's Series
(New York, 1907) , Van VLeck, "The influence of
Founer's Senes upon the Development of Mathe-
matics," in Science j vol xxix, No 995 (New
York, Jan 23, 1914).
FOUR-IN-HAND DRIVING See COACH-
ING, DKIVING
FOUR LAKES. The term used to designate
four closely connected Wisconsin lakes, called
respectively Mendota, Monona, Waubesa, and
Kegonsa, whose outlet, the Yahara River, flows
into Rock River, one of the upper affluents of
the Mississippi They are navigable for steam-
boats and drain a beautiful country The waters
are clear and cold Madi&on, the capital of the
State, lies between Mendota and Monona, the
two largest lakes The combined area of th>>
four lakes is about 28 square miles
FOUR-LINED SNAKE See CHICKEN
SNAKE
FOURMIES, foor'me' A manufacturing
town and railway junction, in the Department of
Nord, France, 36 miles southeast of Valen-
ciennes (Map France, N, K 2) It contains
numerous cotton and woolen mills and other in-
dustrial establishments, and m the vicinity are
large iron mines Pop, 1901, 14,083, 1911,
14,143
FOURNEL, foor'nel', FRANgois VICTOR ( 1829-
94) A French author, born at Cheppy, near
Varennes, and educated at Verdun and Paris
He went into journalism in Paris (1854) and
FOUKKTET
103
FOTTBNIER L'HERITIEB,
was attached to the editorial staffs of Le
Francais, Moniteur Unwersel, and OauLois His
publications include Les Contemporains de
Moliere (3 vols , 1863-76) , Ounosites thedtrales
(1859); Esquisses et croquis pansiens (1876),
Vacances d'un journaliste (1876) ; Voyages hois
de ma chambre (1878), Auco pays du soleil
(1883), L'ancetre (1881), Figures d'hier et
d'auyourd'hui (1883), De Malher'be a Bossuet
(1884), Petites comedies rares et cuneuses du
XVHeme siecle (1884), Les artistes fiangais
contemporains (1885) , La confession d'un pere
(1886), which was crowned by the Academy,
Maman capitaine (1889) , Les liommes du 14
juillet (1890)
FOTJKKTET, foor'na', JOSEPH JEAN BAPTISTE
XAVIEK (1801-69) A French geologist and
meteorologist, born at Strassburg and educated
at the School of Mines m Pans He took pait
in several geological exploration expeditions, and
in 1834 became professor of geology in the
faculty at Lyons, which position he letained
until his death He was an authority upon the
geology of the Alps and of southeastern France,
and his original investigations were of con-
sideiable note, especially his discovery in connec-
tion with the sulphurization of metals, which
was named, in his honor, "Fournet's law " He
was a prolific contributor to various scientific
publications and annals Among his other pub-
lications were Geologie lyonnaise (1862) and
Du mmeur, son role et son influence sur les
pi ogres de la civilisation (1862)
FO USSIER, foor'nya', (JEAN) ALFRED
(1832-1914). A French physician, specialist in
skin diseases He was born in Paris and was a
pupil of Ricord He was interne in 1854, and in
1863 became physician at the Lourcine Hospital,
where he began his studies and lectures on
syphilis, on which he wrote extensively. He
was clinical professor in this branch at the
University of Paris from 1880 to 1905, and from
1884 to 1905 at the Hospital St Louis He
became Commander of the Legion of Honor His
publications include Recherches sur la contagion
du chancie (1857) , Recherches sur V incubation
de la syphilis (1865) , Syphilis et manage
(1880), Prophylaane publique de la syphilis
(1887) , Traitement de la syphilis (1893, Eng
trans , 1906)
FOUBlsriEU, AUGUST (1850- ) An
Austrian historian, born and educated in Vienna,
where he served in the Ministry of the In-
terior and in 1875 was instructor in history
at the university Appointed assistant pro-
fessor in 1880, he was called to the Univer-
sity of Prague in 1883 and returned as full
professor to Vienna in 1903 As a member of
the Reichsrat (1891-1900) and of the Bohemian
Diet (1892-1901), he belonged to the German
Liberal party Of his writings, Napoleon 7,
Erne Biographie (1886-89), which was im-
mediately translated into French (Eng trans
by Corwm and Bissell, 1903, and a later trans
by Adams, 1912), is the most noteworthy His
other works include Gentz und Cobenzl G-e-
schichte der oesterreichischen Diplomatic, 1801-
05 (1880) , Handel und Verkehr in Ungarn und
Polen urn die Hitte des 18. Jahrhunderts
(1887), Der Kongress von Chdtillon (1900),
Historische Studien und Ski&zen III (1912) ,
Die G-eheimpolisiei an dem Wiener Kongress
(1913)
FOTJRNIER, PAUL [EUGENE Lomsl (1853-
) A French jurist, born at Calais He
was educated at the Ecole des Chartes and be-
came professor of Roman law at Grenoble He
wag an authority on canonical law He wrote
La question agraire en Irlande (1882), several
important articles on the "False Decretals",
Le Liber Tarraconensis , "Etudes sur une collec-
tion canomque du Xlme si£cle," in Melanges
Julien, Havet ( 1895 ) , "Les collections cano-
niques attribuees a Yves de Chartres," m Biblio-
theque de l!Ecole des Chartes (1896); "Joachim
de Flore Ses doctrines, son influence,^ in Revue
des questions historiques (1900)
POTTRNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-68) A
French tvpe founder and author He was born in
Paris and probably received his first instruction
from his father, who was director of the foundry
of Guillaume Le Be, atad from the painter
Colson In 1736 he established his own foundry,
the entire material for which he manufactured
himself Especially celebrated were his orna-
mented letters He also contributed greatly to
the impiovement of musical type, which subject
he discussed m a special woik He further
had the distinction of publishing the first
Manuel typographique (1764-66), a work which
became exceedingly popular, and remained so
long after the death of its author Among his
puncipal publications may be mentioned De
I'origme et des productions de I'imprimerie
primitive en taille de bois (1759) and Traite
histonque et critique sur I'origine et les progres
des oaracteies de fonte pour 1'impression de la
musique (1765)
FOTTRNTER, TEXESPHQBE (1824-96) A
Canadian jurist, born in Saint-Frangois, Quebec
He was educated at Nieolet College and was
called to the bar of Lower Canada in 1846 He
was elected a Liberal member of the Dominion
Parliament m 1870, and in 1873 took his seat
as Minister of Internal Revenue m the Macken-
zie cabinet He was transferred to the portfolio
of Justice in the summer of 1874, and from May
to October, 1875, was Postmaster- General
While Minister of Justice he introduced and
was largely instrumental in passing the Supreme
Court Act, although the constitution of that
court was planned chiefly by Edward Blake
(qv ). In 1875 Fourmer piocured the passage
of an important insolvency act Appointed
(1875) a puisne judge of the Supreme Court of
Canada, he retained that position until his
death.
FOTTRNXER L'HERITXER, la're-tya',
CLAUDE (1745-1825). A French Revolutionist,
born at Auzon He went to Haiti and engaged
in the manufacture of rum, but his factory was
burnt Upon returning to France, he was called,
for his stay m the New World, L' America in
He was active in all the great revolutionary days
of 1789-92, especially the risings of Oct 5-6,
1789, July 17, 1791, and June 20 and Aug 10,
1792, was accused of plotting the murder of the
Orleans prisoners who were killed while under
his charge (1792), but was not found guilty,
and, in spite of Marat's joining his accusers,
was equally fortunate when accused of inciting
insurrection He was in the infernal-machine
plot of the Hue Samt-Nicaise, was found guilty
and deported, and did not return until 1809
In 1811 he was again a conspirator and was
sent to the Chateau d'lf, was set free by the
First Restoration, and was accused of a plot
against the Bourbons after their second return,
but set free again m 1816 In his last years he
FOUR PBEiraCES OF LONDON" 104
FOWL
paiadcd his royalist sentiments in hopes of a
pension, but died a poor man Consult Aulard s
edition of his Mcmoires secrets (Pans, 1S90)
POUR PRENTICES OF LONDON, THE.
A chronicle play by Thomas Heywood, written
dbout 1600 and" printed in 1615 and 1632 It
was attacked by Beaumont and Fletcher in 2/ie
Knight of the" Burning Pestle
FOUR P'S, THE The best known of the In-
terludes by John Heywood (c!543) The Four
P's aro a Palmer, a Pardoner, a Potecary, and
a Pedla*
FOUR SONS OE AYMON, THE See
AYMOX
FOUBTH DI1EENSION See GEOMETRY
FOURTH DISEASE DUKES' DISEASE A
mild eruptue fe^ei resembling measles, scarlet
level, and Geiman measles It was first de-
sciibcd by Dr Clement Dukes in 1900 Many
obseners doubt its existence as a separate en-
tity and consider it either a double infection of
scai let fevci and German measles or an atypical
form of one of these diseases The incubation
period is about the same as that of G-erman
measles (9 to 20 days), and the disease is
ushered in by malaise, mild sore throat, and the
appeal ance of the rash, which coveis the body
in a few houis
FOURTH PABTY, THE A name applied,
about 1880, to an opposition group \vithin the
English Consei^atne paity, under the leadership
or Loid Randolph Chin chill (qv \
FOUBTH STATE OF MATTER See MAT-
TER, Thtonc? of Matte)
FOT7RTOU, fooi 'too', (MABiE FBANQOIS)
O&CAB BALD? DE (1836-97). A French politi-
cian He was bom at Kiberac (Dordogne) and
v\ as educated at Poitiers After acting as mayor
of his native town, he was elected a member of
the National Assembly in 1871 He was a
defender of Thiers and became Minister of Public
\\oiks (1872), Minister of Public Instruction
(1873-74), and Minister of the Interior (1874
and 1877) He was identified with the Clerical
Bonaparhst party, and as Minister of the In-
tenor conducted a vigorous and aggressive cam-
paign against the Republicans, dismissing from
office all prominent representatives of that
party and peisecuting the Republican press He
supported MacMahon in his electoral campaign
in 1877 and lost his seat in the Chambei of
Deputies in that year He was reelected to the
Lower House in 1879 and, after serving (1880-
85) in the Senate, again in 1889 He wrote
Histoire de Louis XVI (1840) , Mme Swetchme
(1859), MSmoires d'un royaliste (1888)
FOUSSA See FOSSA
FOVTLLE, fd'vel', ALFRED DE (1842-1913).
A French political economist and statistician,
son of a distinguished alienist, born in Paris
and educated at the Polytechmque He served
successively as auditor of the Council of State,
chief of the Bureau of Statistics, and professor
at the School of Political Science In 1877 he
became editor of the official Bulletin de statis-
tique et de legislation compar&e His publica-
tions include Memoire sur les variations des
pri® au JTIJTeme st&cle (1872) , La transforma-
fwn, des wot/ens de transport et ses consequences
Gconamiqucs et sowales (1880 )3 Atlas de statis-
ttque financiere (1881, 1889), La nchesse en
France et & V Stranger (1803); L'industwe des
transports dans le passe et dans le present
(1893) ; Les conditions de ^habitation en France
(1894-99); La monnate (1907); and hundreds
of articles in the Economise ftanQdis Consult
the sketch by Fame in Revue politique et parle-
mentatre, vol Ixxvm (Paris, 1913), pp 381-430
FOWEY, foi A seaport town of Cornwall,
England, at the mouth of the Fowey, on the
south coast, 22 miles west of Plymouth (Map
England, B 6) It is noted for its situation
amid hill and cliff scenery, and is a favorite
resort for artists It has a deep harbor, with
a narrow entrance guarded by three forts In
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it was
one of the chief seaports of England and its
"Gallants of Fo\v?y" aided greatly in founding-
England's na\al power Its principal industry
is the pilchard fisheiy, and it has a considerable
export trade in the chinastone and iron ore of
neighboring quariies and mines Pop (parish),
1901, 2258, 1911, 2276
FOWKE, fouk, GEBAKD (born SMITH) (1855-
) An American archaeologist and ethnolo-
gist, born in Mavsville, Ky For many years he
\vas connected with the United States Bureau
of Ethnology in investigations in the eastern
United States and in the Ohio valley The
results of his discoveries were published in the
Annual Reports of the bureau In 1894 and
1S96 he investigated the supposed Noise lemains
near Boston Afterwaid he was engaged in ex-
plorations on Vancouver Island and in 1898
cxploied the lo^er Amur River, Siberia After
thiee yeais of investigation of glacial deposits
and channels of the Ohio valley he took up
work foi the Missouri Historical Society at
St Louis in 1911 He wrote Archeological His-
tot i] of Ohio ( 1902 ) and Monte&uma Mounds
(1905)
FOWL (AS fugol, OHG. fogal, Ger. Vogel,
Goth fugls, bird, fowl). A word commonly used
now in a restricted application to useful buds,
chiefly of the gallinaceous older Thus, "wild
fowl'* and ''waterfowl" mean those birds of
land and water respectively in which sportsmen
are interested, and "barnyard fowl" are the do-
mesticated kinds — poultry When used in the
singular, however, the word almost invariably
signifies a. full-grown domestic chicken
Domestic Chickens Chickens are raised in
the United States for their flesh, for the produc-
tion of eggs, and as fancy stock for exhibition
pui poses According to Howard there are 87
standard and a, large number of promiscuous
varieties of chickens raised in the United States,
which have been divided into 10 classes For
piactical purposes the 10 classes may be grouped
into four general classes as follows (1) gen-
eral-purpbse breeds, the American class, (2)
meat or table breeds, the Asiatic class , ( 3 ) egg-
making breeds, the Mediterranean class, (4)
ornamental breeds, the Polish, exhibition games,
miscellaneous, and bantam classes
The Plymouth Rock is the most popular of all
breeds of chickens for general purposes It is of
medium size, hardy growth, and good egg-laying
qualities The barred variety is the most gen-
erally known It is of a grayish-white color,
regularly crossed with parallel bars of blue-black
running in, straight distinct lines throughout
the entire length of the feathers The standard
weight of the cocks is nine and one-half pounds ,
and of hens, seven and one-half pounds Other
varieties of Plymouth Bock aie very like the
barred except in color The Wytmdottes (qv )
are rated next to the Plymouth Rocks as gen-
eral-purpose fowls The Light Brahma, which
became popular between 1850 and 1860, is the
FOWL
105
POWI*
leading variety of the Asiatic class The male
is pure white in color excepting the hackle, tail,
and flights, which are black, and white striped
with black The shanks aie well feathered, with
the feathenng extending down to the middle toe
The Brahma female has a ^Inte head, hackle
white, striped with black, cape white and
black, completely coveied by the hackle when the
bird stands erect The a^Viage Light Brahma
male is 26 inches m height The standaid
weight of the cock is 12 pounds, of the hen,
nine and one-half pounds The Cochins are
second only to the Biahmas for edible purposes,
weighing somewhat less than the Light Brah-
mas Theie aie several varieties of Cochins —
buff, partridge, black, and white All have
hea-vy leg and foot feathers The Leghorns are
the best known of the egg-producing varieties
of the Mediteiianean class They matin e early
and feather quickly The pullets often begin
laying when four months old There are a
number of varieties of Leghorns which differ in
coloi and in the form of comb, which in all cases
is large and a distinguishing mark of the breed
The Leghoin cock has a giaceful, round, and
plump body, broad at the shoulders and taper-
ing towards the tail The Leghorn hen In many
i expects resembles the cock in shape and cai-
riage, and is even more giaceful The Ornamen-
tal" Bieeds vaiy greatly Bantams are charac-
terized by their small size, the silky fowls by
their soft webless feather s, which when in prime
condition are less fluffy and stand out from the
body in all directions, and the Yokohama fowls
by the gieat length of the tail and hackle
feathers, the tail feathers of the cock sometimes
attaining a length of 6 feet 01 moie The O-ames
are commonly divided into t\\o distinct varieties
— exhibition and pit The exhibition game is
long, lanky, close-feathered throughout and
spare in tail featheung The pit is shoit, stout,
and stocky, with abundant tail feathering, and
for the farm and general pui poses has always
been considered a practical and profitable fowl
It is hardy, matuies early, is a good layer, and
its flesh i*s consideied of exceptional value for
the table, being fine-grained, tender, and sweet
The hens are splendid sitteis and caieful
mothers See Plate accompanying POULTRY
Industrial Considerations Chicken laising,
an important industry whether conducted as a
special business or as a part of general farm-
ing, depends upon suitable houses and proper
care and feeding It is very desirable that
chickens be provided with a house somewhat
separated from the other farm buildings, but
near enough to the barnyard so that they can
spend a part of their time in scratching for and
gatheimg up the many seeds and grains that
would otherwise not be utilized Poultry houses
need not be elaborate in their fittings or ex-
pensive in their construction Material and con-
struction will vary in different regions, but the
houses should always be planned with regard
to cleanliness and convenience They should be
cool in summer and waim in winter, and, when
it is not desirable to allow poultry free range,
the houses should be provided with yards 01
runs, because chickens need exercise Coops for
young chickens arc of various styles, some being
very simple and others provided with yards
covered with netting to exclude hawks and cats
The poultry house should be located upon soil
which is well drained and dry A gravelly
knoll is best, but, failing this, the site should be
raised by the use of the plow or scraper until
there is a gentle slope in all directions, suffi-
cient to prevent any standing water even at
the wettest times A few inches of sand or
gravel on the surface will be very useful in
pi eventing the formation of mud A group of
evergreens or other windbreak will be a decided
advantage in sheltering the house fiom the
north and northwest winds in the colder parts
of the country.
The amount of space to be allowed per chicken
depends upon the size of the fowls, whethei a
shed is attached to the house, and whether the
fowls have free run of the open fields For
chickens in confinement there should be from
6 to 15 squaie feet for each adult bird in case
there is no shed attached to the house, with a
shed this space may be reduced about one-half
The yaids should be large enough to allow exer-
cise in the open air and to furnish more grass
than the buds will eat This will vary from
60 to 150 square feet per adult bud An open
shed facing the south is of great assistance in
maintaining the health and productiveness of
the flock In it the bnds can be induced to
hunt for their food and take exeicise in all
seasons of the yeai , and they can enjoy
scratching and dusting themselves in the sun-
shine, even duung the winter months Chicken
houses piovided with earth floors are frequently
damp and unsatisfactory and the cause of vari-
ous poultry diseases Cement floors are cold
and also more or less damp Accoidmg to D A
Salmon, who is authority for many of the state-
ments given here, a good cement floor laid on
broken stone and covered with a few inches
of eaith would probably be satisfactory, if not
too expensive A board floor, 6 or 8 inches
above the eaith, with good ventilation under it,
is dry but too cold, except in the South A
double flooring, laid tightly with building paper
between, or a good single flooimg covered with
a few inches of dry earth, is probably the best.
In all cases of board floois there should be
suflicient space beneath for ventilation and to
guard against lodgment of rats Convenient
roosts should be provided They should be
nearly flat or rounded slightly on the upper
surfaces Crevices in which vermin may hide
should be avoided Such precautions suffice in
most cases to keep the poultry free from chicken
lice, the characteristics of which are given under
LOUSE The roostmg space allowed should be
6 to 8 inches for the small breeds, 8 to 10 inches
for the medium, and 10 to 12 inches for the
large breeds of chickens
Nests and Eggs. Suitable nests are an es-
sential requirement for egg-laying stock The
simplest form of nest is a box placed upon the
floor of the poultry house With heavy fowls,
which are apt to break their eggs m fighting
away other hens that try to enter their nests
when they are laying, and thus acquire a habit
of egg eating, a more concealed or dark Best
may be necessary Although on small farms, in
towns, and in villages it is generally necessary
to confine poultry in houses and yards, there are
many large farms where poultry may l»e raised
with the greatest economy by allowing thena to
range The large area at their diaj>osal fur-
nishes an exhanstless supply of insects and
worms &nd an abundance of water, seeds, and
grains which chickens alone can utilize Under
sttch circumstances fowls take mre of themselves
so well and are so energetic in seeking their
106
FOWL CHOLERA
food that they are either forgotten, and allowed
to shift for themselves when they really need
attention and assistance, or they aie legarded
as a nuisance because they sometimes do a little
damage When fenced a^ay from the garden
and flower beds, fowls do little damage and cause
scarcely any annoyance on a farm On the
other hand, they do an immense amount of good
in the protection of crops hy the destruction of
injurious insects, larvse, and worms and are
especially useful on fruit farms Eggs aie
hatched under the hens or in incubators In-
cubator chicks may be conveniently cared for in
brooders or "artificial motheis" Many incuba-
tors and brooders ha%e been devised which have
been shown by experience to be satisfactory
Feeding1 Chickens require a mixed diet of
grain, animal food, and green or succulent ma-
terials The food must also supply the lime and
other mineral matters needed for eggshells, and
an abundance of gi it, required for digesting food,
is also essential Pure water should at all times
be provided A number of forms of drinking
fountains have been provided to meet the latter
requirements When only a, small flock of hens
is kept, chiefly to provide eggs for family use,
a mistake is frequently made in feeding too
much corn. It has been shown by experiments
that corn should not form a very large portion
of the grain ration of laying hens, as it is too
fattening, especially for hens kept in close con-
finement Corn, no doubt because of its cheap-
ness and abundance, has geneially been consid-
ered in the United States to be the most valu-
able poultry food In recent years, more than
formerly, wheat has been fed and the poultry
ration thereby improved Wheat is preferable
to corn, and oats are an excellent food, better,
perhaps, than any other single grain, particu-
larly if the hull has been removed. When com-
fortable quarters are provided, fowls kept for
egg production should have a ration with a
nutritive ratio of about 1 4 When poultry is
fed for the production of flesh, the ration should
contain more fat and carbohydrates in propor-
tion to the protein , i e , it should have a wider
nutritive ratio than the ration cited for egg
production For forcing fowls for egg produc-
tion, as in forcing animals for a large yield of
milk, the ration should be made up of a number
of kinds of grain Expeiiments have shown
that fowls not only eat their food with better
relish if it is composed of many kinds of grain,
"but that the proportion digested is larger than
when made up of fewer constituents The food
consumed has an effect upon the flavor of eggs,
and in extreme cases upon the odor also Thus,
onions when fed for a considerable time produce
a noticeable flavor in eggs The majority of
poultry raisers believe that ground food or soft
food should form a part of the daily ration and
that it is desirable to feed soft food in the
morning, as it will be digested and assimilated
quicker than will whole grain A mixture of
equal parts by weight of corn meal and ground
oats added to an equal quantity of wheat, bran,
and fine middlings is recommended as a satis-
factory food if mixed with milk or water It
should be thoroughly wet without being sloppy
The dry-grain ration should consist largely of
whole wheat with some oats and perhaps a little
cracked corn This should be scattered in the
litter, which should always cover the floor of
poultry houses, in order that the fowls be com-
pelled to seek the corn, and thus obtain a con-
siderable amount of exercise The litter also
insures cleanliness Straw, chaff, buckwheat
hulls, and cut cornstalks all make excellent
litter At night, just before the fowls go to
their perches, they should have all the corn they
will eat up clean Some green food should be
given to poultry, although perhaps it is not
absolutely necessary Clover, rape, cabbage, etc ,
are recommended for the purpose Green food
is especially desirable when chickens are kept in
yards throughout the entire year
Fowls as Food The flesh of chickens is es-
teemed for its delicate flavor The young
chickens are often spoken of as broilers For
composition and food values of broileis and
fowls, see tables under POOD
Chickens are ordinarily broiled or fned>
roasted or baked, boiled or stewed, and aie
seasoned and garnished in many different ways
While delicate flavor and appetizing appearance
contribute to the popular esteem in which poul-
try are held in all regions, there is an additional
reason for their extended use in warm climates
This is the fact that poultry may be kept alive
and killed as theyare needed for the table, thus
when means of cold storage are absent, the loss
from spoiling may be much rnoie readily avoided
than is the case with larger animals used for
food It is commonly believed that the flesh of
poultry is quite thoroughly and easily digested,
and thus especially suited for the diet of in-
valids The value of eggs as food and their
place in the diet are discussed under the title
EGGS
The census of 1900 gave the number of chickens
in the United States as 233,598,055 and the
eggs produced as 1,591,311,171 dozens
Bibliography. A very large number of books
have been published on the general subject of
poultry, among which are the following How-
ard, "Standard Varieties of Chickens/' in United
States Department of Agriculture) Farmers' Bul-
letin 51, illustrated (Washington, 1900), Mc-
Graw, "The Plymouth Rock" and "The Wyan-
dotte," in United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletins 29
and 31 respectively (ib, 1901), Collmgwood,
The Business Hen (New York, 1904) , Robinson,
Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture (ib,
1912) , Valentine, The Beginner in Poultry (ib ,
1912), Weir, The Poultry Book (ib , 1912),
Watson, Farm Poultry (ib, 1912), Lewis, Pro-
ductive Poultry Industry (Philadelphia, 1913) ,
Shaw, Encyclopedia of the Poultry Yard (New
York, 1913)
FOWL CHOLERA. A virulent infectious
disease of poultry common in Europe and
America, which takes the form of a septicaemia
and is due to a specific microorganism It vras
first studied in 1782 and was referred to an-
thrax Chickens are especially susceptible, but
it occurs also in geese, ducks, pigeons, and even
rabbits Three forms of the disease are recog-
nized— the apoplectic, the acute, and the chronic
In the first form the bird becomes suddenly
dull, the wings droop, the eyelids fall and the
feathers are elevated, the comb soon turns pur-
ple, the temperature rises to about 43° C, and
death occurs within from two to five hours In
the second form the same symptoms appear with
the addition of acute diarrhoea, but the bird
afflicted may suffer from 12 to 60 hours or per-
haps recover after the diarrhoea has persisted
for about two weeks In the chronic form a
permanent or an intermittent diarrhoea is the
EOWLEU
107
FOWLEE.
most marked symptom, and death from extreme
emaciation and exhaustion is postponed for some
weeks
The microoiganism may gain entrance to
healthy birds through the mucous membranes
of the eye, respiratory and alimentary tracts
The blood, all mucous and serous secretions, and
exci ementitious matter from affected birds are
virulent, but when exposed to heat, fiesh air,
or direct sunhght, they become innocuous The
vnus may be destroyed by a one per cent solu-
tion of "salicylic, benzoic, or caibolic acid
Healthy birds may be immunized by inoculation
with attenuated vnus or with serum from im-
munized birds No medicinal treatment is of
any avail m the apoplectic and acute foims In
chronic cases dilute acids sometimes assist the
birds to lecover After an outbreak of this
disease the poultry quarters should be cleaned
and disinfected Healthy birds should not be
allowed to run on the ground where diseased
buds have been Consult Salmon, Poultry
Diseases (Washington, 1902), Theobald, Para-
sitic Diseases of Poultry (London, 1896) , Hu-
tyra and Marek, Special Pathology and Thera-
peutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals,
vol i (New York, 1913) , E W Hoare, A Sys-
tem of Veterinary Medicine} vol i (ib, 1913),
J Law, Text-Book of Veterinary Medicine, vol
iv (Ithaca, 1905-11)
EOW'LER, CHABLES HENRY (1837-1908)
An American Methodist Episcopal bishop, iTorn
in Burford (Ontario), Canada He graduated
at Syiacuse University in 1859 and at Garrett
Biblical Institute in 1861, entered the ministry
in 1861 and held various pastorates in Chicago,
111 From 1872 to 1876 he was president of
Northwestern University, in 1876 he became
editor of the Christian Advocate, of New Yoik,
and in 1880 missionary secretaiy In 1884 he
was elected Bishop He visited South America
in 1885 and oigamzed there a very efficient
missionary work Three years later (1888), on
a tour aiound the world, he founded Peking Uni-
versity and Nanking University in central China
and organized the first Methodist Episcopal
church in St Petersburg, Russia He assisted
in establishing Nebraska Wesleyan University
(University Place, Neb ) At the English Wes-
leyan General Conference of 1898 he proposed
the Twentieth Century Thank Offering of
$20,000,000, which was completed in 1902 He
was the author of Colenso's Fallacies (1864) ,
Missions and World Movements (1903), Mis-
sionary Addresses (1906) , Addresses on Nota-
ble Occasions (1908) , Patriotic Orations (1910)
FOWLER, ELLEN THOENEYCKOFT (cl873-
) An English novelist, eldest daughter of
Lord Wolveihampton (Sir Henry Fowler), Sec-
retary of State for India in 1894-95 Miss
Fowler took as her residence Woodthorne, Wol-
verhampton, Staffordshire After publishing
several volumes of mediocre verse and a volume
of short stories (Cupid's 0-arden, 1897), she at
once gained popularity by a clever society novel
entitled Concerning Isabel Garna~by (1898)
Many other books followed, among them A
Double Thread (1899) , The Farnngdons (1900) ;
Fuel of Fire (1902), The Wisdom of Folly
(1910), Her Ladyship's Conscience (1913),
Place and Power (1914)
FOWLER, FKANK (1852-1910) An Ameri-
can figure and portrait painter He was born in
Brooklyn, N Y, and studied painting for two
years in Florence, Italy, under Edwin White
VOL. IX — 8
and seven years in Paris under Carolus Duian
and at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts He rendered
valuable assistance to Duran on the fresco of
Marie de Me*dicis in the Luxembourg On his
return to New York, m 1879, he devoted him-
self for a time to mural painting, his most im-
portant work being the decoration of the ball-
room of the Waldorf Hotel (1892) Later he
painted chiefly portiaits, including a number of
public men, notably Governors Tilden and
Flower, now in the State Capitol, Albany, Arch-
bishop Corrigan, Charles A Dana, and others
He wrote upon art topics for the magazines and
several textbooks, including Oil Painting (1S85)
and Portrait and Figure Painting (1901) His
technique is broad, with a fiesh and delicate
treatment, and he gives a faithful rendering of
his subjects, with a poetic and imaginative con-
ception At the St Louis Exposition (1904)
he exhibited portraits of John Reid, W D
Howells, and Allen P Fowlei , in 1905, that of
C W Larned, in 1907, "Isabel", in 1908, "The
Yellow Scarf", and m 1910, the "Portrait of a
Child " There was a memorial exhibition of his
works at the Lotos Club, New York, in 1911,
and an exhibition of the paintings and pastels
left in his studio at the Anderson Galleries,
New York, in 1912, including many landscape
studies He was elected to the National Acad-
emy in 1899
POWDER, HAKOLD NOBTH (1859- ) An
American classical scholar, born at Westfield,
Mass He graduated from Harvard University
in 1880 and m 1883-85 studied at Berlin and
at Bonn, where he gained his Ph D He was
professor of Greek in the University of Texas
(1892-93) and in the College for Women,
Western Reserve University, after 1893, and
was associate editor, and after 1906 editor in
chief, of the American Journal of Archaeology
In 1912 he was elected president of the Ameri-
can Philological Association He edited Thu-
cydides, book v (Boston, 1888), and Plautus's
Mencechmi (ib, 1899), etc ; wrote a History of
Ancient Greek Literature (1902), History of
Roman Literature (1903), A Handbook of Greek
Archaeology (with J R Wheeler, New York,
1909) , and published (New York, 1914) the
first two volumes of a translation of Plato3 in
the Loeb Classical Library
FOWLER, HENBY HARTLEY, VISCOUNT WOL-
VEBHAMPTON (1830-1911) An English states-
man, born at Durham He was a Liberal mem-
ber of Parliament for the undivided Borough of
Wolverhampton from 1880 to 1885 and there-
after represented the East Division At the
close of the Gladstone administration of 1880
he was Undersecretary of State at the Home
Office (1884-85) He became Financial Secre-
tary to the Treasury and Privy Councilor in
1886, from 1892 to 1894 was President of the
Local Government Board, and in 1894-95 was
Secretary of State for India He was Chancellor
of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1905-08 and was
made Viscount in 1908 He retired from the
cabinet in 1910 The son of a Wesleyan Metho-
dist minister, he was prominent in that denomi-
nation and as a representative of nonconformists
in politics
FOWLER, SIB JOHN (1817-98) A British
hydraulic and railway engineer He was born
in Sheffield, England, and after engaging in
various important works, in 1839 he became
acting engineer in the construction of the Stock-
ton and Hartlepool railways At the age of 2T
POWLEB
108
FOX
he \\a&, selected as engineer for the construction
of the large group of railways known as tne
Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Hamig
settled in London, ho was continuously employed
in the laying out and construction oi railways
and docks and in the improvement of iiveis and
icclamation of lands from the sea He designed
and constructed the Metropolitan Undeigiound
Railway of London, with Sir B en -jamm Baker
designed and constructed the great Forth Bridge
( 1890) , was for many years consulting engineer
to the Egyptian government, and was made
Baionet in 1890
FOWLEK,, THOMAS (1832-1904) An Eng-
lish educatoi and philosopher, president of Cor-
pus Chusti College, Oxford He was born at
Buiton-upon-Statiier, Lincolnshire, and was edu-
cated at Kin«r William's College, Isle of Man, and
at Meitnn College, Oxford, where lie giaduated in
1854 In 1853 "he became a. fellow and tutor of
Lincoln College, Oxford He won the Denyer
Theological Essay prize in 1858, was made se-
lect pieacher in 1872, and was elected professor
of logic in 1873 This chair he occupied until
1889, becoming meantime (1881) president of
Corpus Clmsti College From 1899 to 1901 he
was vice chancellor of the Univeisity of Oxfoid
His publications include The Elements of £e-
ductile Logic (1867, 10th ed, 1S92) , TJie Ele-
ments of Iwluctiie Logic (1870, 6th eel, 1892) ,
Locke, in "English Men of Letteis" (1880),
Bacorfs Xovum Otganum (1889), Locke's Con-
duct of the Understanding (3d ed , 1890),
Francis Bacon (1881) and Shaftesbui i/ and
Hutche&on (1882), m "English Philosophers
Series' , History of Cot pus Christi College
(1898), Progressive Morality An Essay in
Ethics (1895) , and, with J M Wilson, Princi-
ples of Morals (1885-87)
TOWIiEB., WILLIAM WAEDE (1847-1921).
An English classical scholar, born in Somerset.
He was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, of
which he was scholar (1866), fellow (1872),
and subrector (1881-1904) In 1909 he was
Gifford lecturer at Edinburgh He wrote seveial
books on birds A Year urfh the Birds (1886) ,
Tales of the Birds (1888), More Tales of the
Birds (1902) But his really important work
was in classical history, especially religious and
social, in such books as Julius Ccesar and the
Foundation of the Roman Imperial System
(1892), The City-State of the Greeks and Ro-
mans (1893) , Roman Festivals of the Republic
(1899), Social Life at Rome in the Age of
Cteetro (1908) , The Religious Experience of the
Roman People (1911) , a short sketch of Rome
(1912), Roman Ideas of Deity in the Last
Century before the Christian Era (1914)
FOWLER'S SOLUTION. See ABSENIC
HOWLING: See HUNTING
FOX (AS fosD> OKGL fuhs, Ger Fuchs, fox,
Goth fauhd, vixen, possibly connected ultimately
with Skt puocha, tail). A member of a group
or ' alopecoid series" of canine animals, more
easily distinguished from the wolves, dogs, or
jackals of the same family (Ganidse) by out-
ward appearance than by zoological differences
They are, in general, of smaller size and less
propoitionate height, have longer hair, usually
more reddish or yellowish than gray, larger,
more triangular and furry ears* a more slender
pointed muzzle, with straighter jaws, and a
longer and more bushy tail, than their allies.
Some zoologists refuse to separate them even as
a genus, but most students place them in the
genus Vulpes, and still further separate the
Ameiican gray fox as Uracyon, and the little
African long-eared foxes as Fennecus The ana-
tomical characters upon which Vulpes is dis-
tinctly based are principally found in the skull,
where "the bony projection forming the hindei
border of the socket of the eye is regularly
curved downward and has a convex upper sur-
face" m the wolves and jackals, "whereas in the
fox the same process is hollow above and has
a more or less maiked tendency to curve upward
behind", also, the air chambers in the frontal
bones of the wolves are absent m the foxes An-
other constant distinction is found in the pupil
of the eye, which, when contracted, is round in
the doglike canines and elliptical in the foxes
Ihe tiue foxes (apart from the African fennecs)
are scattered throughout all the northerly le-
o-ions of the \voild, from the edge of the tropical
?one to the highest Arctic lands, but none are
known m the Southern Hemisphere The num-
ber of species is indeterminate, conservative
natuialibts regarding as local varieties various
foinis to which others give specific names
All inhabit holes in the earth, usually of
their own digging, but do not hibernate, aie
noctuinal, and subsist mainly upon animal prey,
-which they cap t me by stealthy approach and a
quick rush, and all utter yelping cries, and
bieed annually They are believed not to have
contributed in any appieciable degree to the
ancestry of any race of domesticated dogs, and
although e\erywhere highly intelligent in their
field of thought, aie rarely tamed as pets or
ti amed to peifoim tricks well The typical and
best-known species is the European red fox
(Vulpes vulpes, or vulgaws) , the hero of Brit-
ish fox hunting (see Fox HUNTING), and the
renaid, or Reinccke Fuchs of European folk-
lore (See Colored Plate of Gorman ) It is
spread over the whole of Europe and Asia and
is also found m Asia Minor and along" the
south shore of the Mediterranean The ordinary
type, familiar in Great Britain and westein
Europe, is reddish blown above and white be-
low, with the outer portions of the ears and
feet black, and the tip of the "brush," or tail,
white Its length may vary from 27 to 46
inches, exclusive of the tail, which is itself from
12 to 15 inches long Colors and markings vary
gieatly, however, as well as size and propoi-
tions The habits of the common fox in Eng-
land are thus sketched by Lydekker and Bell,
and the essential facts apply to the animal in
all paits of its range
"Although the fox is by no means averse to
taking possession of the deserted burrow of a
rabbit or a badger, it generally excavates its
own 'earth/ in which it spends a considerable
portion of its time As all hunters know, foxes
frequently prefer to live out in the woods, those
with a northern aspect being, it is said, generally
avoided Sometimes these animals will prefer a
thick hedgerow or a dry ditch, while we have
kno\\n them to select the tall tussocks of coarse
grass in swampy meadows as a resting place ,
and they have also been found in straw ricks,
where it is on record that in one instance cubs
have been born. The breeding tune is in April,
and the usual number of young in a litter is
from four to six The prey of '.he fox consists,
writes Bell, 'of hares, rabbits, various kinds of
ground birds, particularly partridges, of which
it destroys great numbers, and It often mak^fi
its way into the farmyard, committing sad havoc
FOXES AND JACKALS
1. KIT FOX (V^ifpes velox).
2. LALANDE'S FOX-DOG (Otocyon Jalandii)-
3. FEN NEC (Canis zerda).
4. CORSAC CCanis corsac).
5. GRAY FOX (Urocyon argenteus).
6. JACKAL (Cams aureus).
FOX
109
EOX
among the poultry. It has been known not in-
frequently to carry off a young lamb When
other food fails, the fox will, however, have re-
course to rats and mice and even to fiogs and
worms, while on occasion "beetles are largely
consumed, and on the seashore fish, crabs, and
mollusks form a part of its diet Carrion seems
never to come amiss, while the old story of the
fox. and the grapes alludes to the fruit-eating
propensities of these animals ' The usual cry of
the fox is a yelping bark The well-known scent
of the fox is secreted by a gland situated be-
neath the tail The cunning exhibited by Eng-
h&h foxes in escaping from hounds has been so
often described that we shall make no further
allusion to it here, beyond saying that it has
probably attained its present development as the
result of the inherited experience of many gener-
ations The life of the fox is a precarious one,
the huntsman is his friend and the gamekeeper
ins foe, and were he not specially protected for
the sport he gives to hounds and men, he would,
like the wolf, have long since been extinct in
England That the fox is an ancient inhabitant
of the British Islands is proved by the occur-
rence of its fossilized remains in caverns in com-
pany with those of the mammoth and other ex-
tmct animals This, however, is not all, for a
skull . has been dug up from the sands
lying at the top of the Red Crag of Suffolk,
which are vastly older than the mammoth
pciiod "
As the Old World fox is traced eastward, dis-
tinct local varieties aie encountered, which, how-
ever, intergrade Thus, a black-bellied fox is
chaiacteristic of southern Europe and is de-
cidedly different from the ordinary colors of the
north African variety The dry plains of west-
ern Asia support a paler foim, and this is suc-
ceeded eastward by two much laiger types of
the eastern and western Himalayas, which m
winter, when the coat is long and the colors are
heightened, are extremely handsome, a charac-
teristic marking among "these is a dark stripe
athwait the shoulders Siberia, China, and
Japan likewise have varieties of this same
species, which, if the American red fox be also
included, ranges throughout almost the entire
Northern Hemisphere and has the most exten-
sive distribution of all the Canidse. Asia
possesses some other very distinct species of
foxes, nevertheless, of which the most familiar
is the small, alert, and pretty India fox (Vulpes
bengalensts) , to be met with all ovei Hindustan,
except in thickly forested regions It is rarely
hunted by scent, with foxhounds, but frequently
affords good sport by coursing with greyhounds
Three other species of "desert" foxes, all pale
and yellowish in hue, belong to the open sandy
plains and tablelands between Arabia and Af-
ghanistan One of these is the widely spread
desert fox (Vulpes leucopus] , another, the
better-known corsac (qv ), and the other varie-
ties inhabit Tibet and Afghanistan The earli-
est fossil remains of distinctly canine beasts are
foxhke animals of the Middle Tertiary period
American Foxes Several species of fox are
characteristic of North America The most wide-
spread and conspicuous is the Eastern red lox,
called by American zoologists a distinct species
(Vulpes fulvus) It differs constantly from the
European fox, the colors being, on the average,
rather brighter, and it varies on our continent
quite as diversely as does the fox of the Old
World The normal red fox remains common m
&pite of the civilization of the country through-
out the eastern United States and Canada, west-
ward to the Plains, as far south as northern
Georgia, and reappears west of the Rocky Moun-
tains and thence to the Pacific coast in a paler
large-tailed form In the far north occur more
rarely two other varieties — the cross fox and
the silver fox The former is simply a moie or
less normal red fox, marked sometimes strongly,
sometimes indefinitely, with a dark cross on the
back and shoulders, fine specimens of which are
given a superior value by traders in peltries
The latter, or silver fox (var argentata), is
much rarer, and is black, with a silvered or
hoaiy appearance due to many of the hairs being
tipped with white, the tail is black with a,
white tip, and the soles of the feet are hairy,
fitting it for life amid ice and snow Good pelts
of the siher fox aie extremely valuable That
both these are merely phases of the red fox is
plain from the fact that they may be born in
the same litter \\ith normally red cubs Foxes
totally black also occur frequently in the Hud-
son Bay legion The American led fox had
oiigmally much the same habits as those of the
European animal, seems to be deserving of
quite as much cied.it for sagacity and acuteness,
and has learned to accommodate itself as well to
the exigencies brought by civilization and the
chase The writings of American naturalists
and sportsmen abound in interesting stories of
its alertness, ingenuity, and adaptiveness, and
show that it has spread and survived in the
United States, where the gray fox has diminished
A small grayei species of the southern Cali-
fornia coast (Vulpes macrotis) is conspicuously
distinguished by its great ears
The kit, swift, or burrowing fox (Vulpes
velosc) is a well-marked species of the dry
plains of the United States, whose range ex-
tends from Colorado and Nebraska north to the
Saskatchewan valley. It ib small, only about 20
inches long, slender and compact in form Its
color is yellowish gray on the upper surfaces,
fading through reddish to white on the belly and
legs, and there is a black patch on each side
of the niuz^le The ears are short and densely
furred, and the soles of the feet are overgrown
with long woolly hair, like those of the Arctic
fox It digs burrows with skill and speed,
feeds upon small rodents, insects, small birds
and their eggs, etc , and is remarkably swift
of foot and dexterous in hiding Its fur becomes
thick in winter and pale gray in color, rendering
it nearly invisible See Plate of FOXES AND
JACKALS
The blue or Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus] is
one of the most interesting of all the species
It is known all around the Arctic shores, and
in summer is a variable brown (even sooty in
some cases) on the upper parts, and yellowish
white on the ventral surfaces, throat, etc , the
under fur, however, is everywhere dull blue.
This bluish tint frequently appears in the sum-
mer dress in patches in the foxes of all regions,
but in those of the Aleutian Islands and south-
eastern Alaska it characterizes the whole pelage
and gives the name "blue31 fox to the animal m
that region E W Nelson, who describes it at
length m his 'Natural History of Ato&n (Wash-
in^on, 1887), concludes that this IB the typical,
original form, from which the brownish and
blackish foxes elsewhere are variants The
blue foxes remain of that color all wmter,
putting on a longer, thicker coat as cold weather
FOX
no
FOX
approaches, but elsewhere all the Arctic foxes
became puiely white about October and remain so
until spring They are animals of the open coun-
try and seacoast, and in winter they often visit
the Eskimo villages or come close to their camps
and are easily trapped "Parts of the countiy,
says Nelson, speaking of Alaska, "where rocky
ledges occur, are especially frequented by them,
as the devices among the rocks give them wel-
come shelter During summer they fare sump-
tuously upon the breeding waterfowl, eggs, and
young birds, which are found everywhere, but
in winter comes harder work, and the giound
is carefullv searched for stray mice, lemmings,
or an. occasional ptarmigan In early spung,
towards the end of March, when the seals begin
to haul up on the ice and the first young are
bom, thousands of these foxes go out seaward
and hve upon the ice the rest of the season
The young seal's offal, left by hunters and from
other sources, gives them more food there than
the shore affords at this time" It may be
added to this that Feilden, who was with the
Polar expedition of Nares (A. Voyage to the
Polar Sea, London, 1878), found that in Grin-
nell Land these foxes subsisted in winter largely
upon stores of frozen lemmings, etc , which they
had hidden in crevices of rocks or had buried
in the ground The fur of this fox is \eiy valu-
able, and most of all that of blue foxes of the
Aleutians, where they aie now to a ceitam
extent protected, especially where they have
been colonized upon ceitam islands and are
being bied and provided with food See ALASKA,
PUB FAIUIIXG, and Colored Plate of CANHLE
The gray fox is a, species ( Urocyon at gen-
tens] of the United States which is generally
separated from other foxes by cranial pecu-
liarities and by the fact that the tail has a
concealed mane of stiff hairs The general coat
is silver gray above and whitish on the under -
parts, but the chin and a patch on the nose are
black, and the base of ears, patch at side of
neck, collar on throat, interior surface of foie-
legs, and a broad band along the belly aie cinna-
mon rufous The size is about the same as that
of the red fox, but the hair is stiffer -and less ad-
mirable as a pelt This species is generally dis-
tributed o^er the United States, but in the
West differs locally so much from the Eastern
type that five or more subspecies have been
named It is accustomed to life m the forests
rathei than in open country and has unusual
ability in tree climbing but it seems to be less
adaptive than the red fox and has almost dis-
appeared from the thickly settled and much-
cleared Northern and Eastern States See
Plate of FOXES AND JACKALS
Consult: far Old World foxes, Bell, British
Quadrupeds (2d ed , London, 1874), Mmut,
Monograph of the Canidce (ib, 1890), Brehm,
Thierleben (Leipzig, 1876; Eng trans by
Pechnel-Loesche and Haacke, Chicago, 1894-96) ,
Blanford, Fauna of British India MammaUa
(London, 1889-91), Johnston, British Mam-
mals (ib, 1903); Millais, Mammals of Great
Britain and Ireland (ib», 1904r-06) , and general
works For American foxes, Richardson, Fauna
Boreah Americana, (ib., 1829) , Audubon and
Bachman, Quadrupeds of North America (New
York, 1851) , Merriam, Transactions of the
LwncBan Society of New Yorfc, vol i (ib,
1882) , Burroughs, Winter Sunshine (ib., 1876) ,
Cram, Little Beasts of Field and Wood (Boa-
ton, 1889) ; Seton, Life Histories of Northern
Animals (New York, 1909) , and general works
upon Alaska and the Arctic coast
FOX, or MTJSKWAKI, mus-kwa'ki An Al-
gonqman people, best known as confederates of
the Sank (qv) They were called foxes
(Renards) by the French, possibly because of
having a Fox clan, but call themselves Mus-
kwakiuk, 'red-earth people ' When first known,
they lived in central Wisconsin, having been
driven from Lake Superior by the Ojibwa, whose
continued inroads, together with a disastious
war with the Fiench, finally compelled them to
incorpoiate about 1760 with the Sank, with
whom they have ever since been so intimately
connected that the two tribes are now practi-
cally one They constitute one of the central
Algonquian tribes and belong to the woodland
type of culture They lived in bark houses,
laised some coin and vegetables, had a rather
complex social organization, and are now ex-
tremelv conservative in the adoption of civilized
customs The Saukad Fox now number 724
Consult M A Owen, Folk-lot e of the Musquakio
Indians of 'Noith America (London, 1904), and
Handbook of American Indians (Washington,
1907)
POX, CAROLINE (1819-71) An English dia-
rist, born at Falmouth, of a Quaker family that
for two centimes had been pi eminently identi-
fied with Cornwall Her father, Robert Were
Fox, the im entoi of the deflector dipping needle,
by his genial qualities drew around him many
famous pei sons of his day, among them John
Stuait Mill, John Sterling, and Thomas Carlyle
Miss Fox has graphically sketched their char-
acters and conversations in her posthumously
published Memories of Old Friends, Being Ex-
tracts from the Journals and Letters of Caroline
Fox, ed by H N Pym (London, 1882) Es-
pecially interesting are the accounts of the
conversations between Mill and her brother,
Barclay Fox
EOX, SIB CHARLES (1810-74) An English
engineer He was born at Derby and, aftei
serving as apprentice to- Captain Ericsson, en-
tered the service of Robert Stephenson He was
subsequently a member of the firm of Fox, Hen-
derson & Co , and after 1857 confined himself
to piivate practice as consulting engineer Be-
sides his extensive railway and bridge work in
Great Britain, he built a bridge over the Sadne
at Lyons and constiucted railroads in Den-
mark, Fiance, Switzerland, Canada, South Af-
rica, and India, where lie introduced the narrow
gauge The mtioduction of the switch in place
of the sliding rail previously in use is also
credited to him
POX, CHAELES JAMES (1749-1806) A cele-
brated English statesman and orator He was
the son of Henry Fox, first Lord Holland, and
Lady * Caroline Lennox, who was the eldest
daughter of the Duke of Richmond and the
great-granddaughter of Charles II He was born
m Westminster, on Jan 24, 1749, was educated
at Eton and at Hertford College, Oxford, and
afterward traveled for two years on the
Continent
On his return to England in 1768, although
he was not yet of age, his father procured him
a seat in Parliament by a purchase of the
pocket boiough of Midhurst His talent as a
debater won him a place in Lord North's minis-
try, which he entered in 1770 as Junior Lord
of the Admiralty In December, 1772, he was
made Lord of the Treasury, but was dismissed
FOX i;
in February, 1774, because of his opposition to
the King's favorite marriage bill and a useless
humiliation inflicted upon Lord North The
years that followed may be described as a con-
flict between the King, through his Minister,
Lord North, and the brilliant Fox He was the
most formidable opponent of the war with
America, even foreseeing the necessity and ad-
vantages of a complete separation On the
downfall of Lord North in 1782, notwithstand-
ing the King's opposition, he was made Foieign
Secretary in the Whig ministry of Rockinghara
He supported Pitt's motion for parhamentaiy
reform and granted to Ireland complete legisla-
tive independence His masterful plan for the
sepaiation of French and American interests in
the peace negotiations of Paris was circum-
vented by Shelburne, the Home Secietary As
a consequence he resigned his office when Shel-
burne became Premier on the death of Rocking-
ham Forming a coalition with Lord North and
the Tories, he defeated Shelburne and lesumed
his old position as Foreign Secretary, but the
personal influence of the King secured the re-
jection by the Lords of his India bill, which
vested the government of India in a commission
appointed by Parliament
What may be called the second period of the
parliamentary career of Fox was occupied by
his long struggle with Pitt He alone, of all
the famous English statesmen of his day, fa-
vored the French Revolution and was opposed
to the ruinous wars with France The total
abolition of the slave trade, the removal of the
political disabilities of both the Dissenters and
the Catholics, were repeatedly urged by him
He gave powerful aid in the impeachment of
Warren Hastings, and in 1792 he secured the
passage of his Libel Act, which as a measure
for personal liberty is second only to the Habeas
Corpus Act in importance When Pitt died
(1806), Fox became Foreign Secretary in the
Ministry of All the Talents, but he did not live
to see either the slave trade abolished or his
peace negotiations with France carried out He
died m his fifty-eighth year, on Sept 13, 1806.
Fox was better qualified to lead an opposition
than to govern an empire, for he lacked the tact
and self-restraint necessary for managing parlia-
mentary majorities and conciliating a headstrong
King He was one of the most brilliant and
interesting figures of the eighteenth century He
had the vices of his day, but these were coun-
tei balanced by his unfailing honesty and genial
and kindly disposition His vices he owed in a
large measure to his father, a notoriously cor-
rupt politician who deliberately made of him a
gamester He did not allow the faults of his
private life to interfere with the strict per-
formance of his parliamentary duties, and when-
ever he was in office he relinquished them
altogether He was a man of fine literary taste,
and among his friends were the poet Rogers,
Gibbon the historian, and Dr Johnson Of his
own literary efforts, the most important was a
History of the Reign of James II (1808), left
incomplete at the time of his death The work
is of little value from either a scientific or a
literary standpoint
Consult- Wright, Speeches of the Rt Eon
Charles J Fox in the House of Commons (Lon-
don, 1815) , Memorials and Correspondence of
Charles James Fox, ed by Lord John Russell
(ib, 1853), be-ing materials collected by Lord
Holland, his favorite nephew , Lord John Russell,
I FOX
The Life of C J Foso (ib , 1859-66), Walpole,
Recollections of the Life of Foot (ib, 1806),
Trevelyan, Early History of Charles James Fox
(New York, 1881), Wakeman, Life of Charles
James Foso (London, 1890), m the "Statesman
Seiies", Lecky, History of England in the
Eighteenth Century, vols in-vi (ib, 1882-
87) , Hammond, Charles James Fox* A Political
Study (ib , 1903) , Landor, Charles James Foot
A Commentary on his Life and Character (New
Yoik, 1907) , and George III and Charles Fox
(ib, 1912)
FOX, KDWAKD, BISHOP OF HEREFOBD (c 1496-
1538) An English ecclesiastic, born at Dursley,
Gloucester shue, and educated at Eton and at
King's College, Cambridge He became secretary
to Wolscy, who sent him as an envoy to Rome
(1528) for papal sanction to Henry VIlI's first
marriage Brought thus into royal notice, Fox
was sent upon numerous diplomatic errands to
France and elsewhere and rose rapidly till he
became Bishop of Hereford (1535) He was
the mam mover in Hemy's divorce of Catharine
and marriage with Anne Boleyn and was active
in seeming the favorable opinion of the univer-
sities on this point He was a pillar of the
Lutheran faith In 1535-36 he was in Germany
on a political and theological mission The Ten
Articles of 1536 were largely his work He is
credited with the epigiam, "The surest way to
peace is a constant preparedness for war" His
most important work is De Vera Differentia
Regies Potestatis et Ecclesice (1534), of which
an English translation was made in 1548 Con-
sult Lloyd, State Worthies (London, 1679), and
Brewer and Gandner, The Reign of Renry VIII
(2 vols, ib, 1884)
FOX, GEORGE (1624-91) The founder of the
Society of Friends, or Quakers He was bora
at Fenny-Drayton, Leicestershire, July, 1624,
His parents were in good circumstances, but it
is doubtful if he had any schooling He was ap-
prenticed to a shoemaker, but when about 19
came to believe himself the subject of a special
divine call and took to wandering in solitude
through the country, absorbed in religious
reveries His friends induced him to return
home; but he stayed only a short time, and
finally adopted the career of an itinerant leli-
gious reformer About 1646 he left off attend-
ing church for worship In the same year he
began preaching in Mansfield, Leicester, and
other places, always under the feeling of a direct
command of God He first attracted general
attention in 1649, by rising in the principal
church at Nottingham during the sermon and
rebuking the preacher for declaring the author-
ity of the Scriptures to be the source of divine
truth "No," cried Fox, "it is not the Scrip-
tures , it is the Spirit of God " This audacious
act led to his immediate imprisonment On his
release he repeated his protests elsewhere The
excitement caused was very great, and Fox was
frequently imprisoned as a disturber of the
peace He gained followers, who first received
the name "Quakers" in 1650 According to
Fox's Journal, it was given by Justice Bennet,
of Derby, because Fox had bidden the magis-
trates to "tremble at the word of the Lord"
In 1655 he was examined in Londoii before
Cromwell, who pronounced his doctrines and
character irreproachable Nevertheless he had
a hard struggle, was constantly vilified, and
frequently imprisoned by country magistrates.
His followers increased in large numbers They
FOX
112
POX
were naturally visional les, mystics, and fanatics
and their extravagances did^much to bring Mie
body and its founder into discredit It is no
small item in Fox s favor that he, though him-
self subject to \isions, succeeded in model atmg
tlieir excesses and introducing discipline and
organization among them He had much help
from Maigaret, "widow of Judge Fell, of Swarth-
moor Hall, Lancashire, whose house became the
headquarters of the Quaker movement Al-
though she was 10 yeais older than Fox, they
were mained in 1669 Fox traveled um emit-
ting ly, preaching his doctunes In 1671-72 he
i isited the \\ est Indies and the continent of
North America, and friuce he went to Holland
Of his many imprisonments the longest was at
Lancaster and Scaiboiough, in 1663-66, and the
List in Worcester jail, for neaily 14 months, in
1673-74 He died in London, Jan 13, 1691 Fox
\\as not a man of bioad and philosophic genius,
and his wntings are maiked by a direct simplic-
ity, void of the graces of style He \von his suc-
cess by earnestness and pei si&tenee, and the sim-
plicity of his teachings, continually insisting
upon a few leading doctunes, such as the fu-
tility of learning for the work of the mmistiy,
the presence of Christ in the heart as the
"inner light," the necessity of trying opinions
and religions by the Holy Spirit, and not by the
Scriptures, and the doctrine of anonresisianee "
He was a man of winning personal manners and
stiong and sound moial nature He often
showed gieat shievvdness in 1m dealings ^ith
magistrate* His pecuhaiities of diess have
been exaggerated and \\eie adopted fiom a desire
for simplicity rather than eccentricity The
fullest collection of his writings is the Phila-
delphia edition (S vols , 1831) The best known
is his Journal (1634, new ed , 1902, abridged,
London, 1903) Consult Tallack, George Fox,
the Friends, and the Early Baptists (London,
1868) , Bickley, George FOSG and the Early
Quakers (ib, 1884), Smith, Descriptive Cata-
logue of Friends' Books (ib» 1867), Beck,
Wells, and Chalkley, Biographical Catalogue
(ib, 1888) There are many biographies, among
which those of Jenney (Philadelphia, 1853),
Hodgkin (London, 1897), and Wood (ib, 1912)
may be mentioned See FRIENDS
FOX, GEORGE L (1825-77) An American
comedian, born in Boston He made his first
appearance at the Tremont Street Theatre in
that city at the age of five In New York,
•\\here he played for some time (after 1850) at
the National Theatre in Chatham Street, he be-
came popular as a low comedian. In the Civil
War he was a lieutenant in the Eighth New
York Infantry Inspired by the famous Ravel
Brothers to undertake pantomime, he created a
distinct place for that kind of entertainment in
New York City, first at the National Theatre
and later at the New Bowery, of which he was
for a time lessee and manager His principal
role was the clown in Eumpty Dumpty, and
no one has ever equaled him in this chaiacter
He was scarcely less distinguished in his bur-
lesques on famous tragedians of the day, es-
pecially Booth in the character of Hamlet Con-
sult George Foes- An Autobiography (2 vols,
Philadelphia, 1904)
FOX, GUSTAVO VASJL (1821-83) An Amer-
ican naval officer He was born in, Saugus, Mass ,
entered the United States navy as a midship-
man in 1838, participated in the war with
Mexico, and retired with the rank of a lieuten-
ant in 185G He was in the wool-manufacturing
business at Lawrence, Mass , from 1856 to 1861
Eaily in 1801 he was consulted by General
Scott in regaid to a relief expedition to Fort
Sutnter, but President Buchanan retused to al-
low the plan to be carried out Aftei the in-
auguration of Lincoln, Fox was first sent to
confei ^ith Majoi Anderson and upon his re-
tuin was commissioned to fit out a relief ex-
pedition at New York Pox, with part of his
ships, ar lived off Chaileston harbor on the morn-
ing of the bombardment, but through an order
which had detached the principal vessel of his
fleet and sent it to Port Pickens, he was unable
to render aid After his return North, Pox
served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy
throughout the war He planned the opening
of the Mississippi, the captuie of New Orleans,
and the selection of Farragut for high command
In 1866 he was sent to Russia on a special
congratulatory mission to the Czai, Alexander
II, who had just e&caped assassination, and he
took part in the negotiations for the purchase of
Alaska Llpon his "return to America he again
entered the wool -manufactm ing business at
Lowell Consult Loubat, Narrative of FOOD'S
Mission to Russia in 1866 (New York, 1873)
FOX, HEXBY, BAJRON HOLLAND (1705-74).
See HOLLAND, HENRY Fox
FOX, HENRY EDWARD (1755-1811). An Eng-
lish soldier, the younger brothei of Charles
James Fox He studied at Westminster School
end entered the King's Diagoons m 1770 Three
>ears latei he was made lieutenant of the
Thirty-eighth, quartered in Boston He served
at Concord, Bunker Hill, Long Island, White
Plains, Brandywine, and Philadelphia, and in
1777 was made major and a year later lieutenant
colonel of the Forty-ninth Regiment, and saw
service in the West Indies In 1783 he returned
to England and was made aid-de-camp by the
King, who took a great fancy to him. Major
general in 1793, he commanded a brigade at
Roubaix and Mouveaux and at Pont-a-Chm
(1794) beat back a French army In 1801 he
was sent to Minorca and stayed there until 1803,
when he went to Ireland as commander in chief
and was badly f lightened by the feeble rebellion
under Emmet In the next year he was made
Lieutenant Governor and actual commander of
Gibraltar, and in 1806, on the accession of the
Ministry of All the Talents, was appointed Am-
bassador to Naples and commander of the forces
in Sicily, but he accomplished little there,
quaireling with the Neapolitan court and being
unwilling to risk all in an attempt to drive the
French out immediately In 1807 he was re-
called by the new ministry, after his brother's
aeath, and subsequently was made general
(1808) and Governor of Portsmouth (1811)
He man led Marianne Clayton (1786) and had
two daughters and one son, Henry Stephen
(1791-1846), who was Minister to the United
States (1835) and did much to promote the
success of the Ashburton Treaty
POX, JOHN See FOXE, JOHN
FOX, JOHN (WILLIAM), JB (1863-1919).
An American novelist He was born in Bourbon
Co , ICy , in 1863, and graduated from Harvard
in 1883 After some experience in journalism
he traveled in Southern States and California
and afterward engaged in business at Cumber-
land Gap, where he had ample opportunity for
the study of mountain life He wrote A Moun-
tain Sfuropa, (1894), A Cumberland
FOX
The Kentuclians (1897), Ctittenden
(1000), a novel of the Cuban War, The Little
Shepherd of Kingdom Come (1903), Christmas
Eve on Lonesome, and Other Stones (1904) ,
Hell fer Sartain, and Other Stones (1897),
Blue Grass and the Rhododendron (1901) , Fol-
lowing the Sun Flag (1905) , The Knight of the
Cumberland (1906, 1913), The Ttail of the
Lonesome Pine (1908) , The Heart of the Bills
(1913)
FOX, LUKE (1586-1635) An English navi-
gator He was born at Hull and ^ ent to sea at
an early age On April 30, 1031 he sailed from
London to seaich for a northwest passage The
results of his explorations were subsequently
embodied in the work entitled Northwest Foot;
or, FOOD from the Noithwest Passage (1635, m
Halduyt Society Publications, with notes by
Christy, 1894), which contained a most interest-
ing map of the Arctic regions He made an
extensive exploration of the western shore of
what is now called Baffin Land, and discovered
Cumberland Island and other points along Hud-
son Stiait The far northern channel through
which he passed was named after him
FOX, MAKGAKET (1836-93) An American
spiritualist, born at Bath, Canada At Hyde-
ville, Wayne Co , N Y, about 1848 (and after-
ward at Rochester), there were heard in the
Fox residence rapping noises which appeared to
proceed from the walls and furniture Margaret
and her two sisters, Catharine and Leah, dis-
covered that by means of a given code communi-
cation could be established with the presumably
supernatuial agency by which the raps were
produced The sisters gave public seances in
America and Europe, the chief featuies of
which were the spirit rappings and the moving
of large bodies by invisible means So-called
"mediums" became numerous, and the investiga-
tion of spiritualistic phenomena inteiested
many From the nist, however, scientific minds
discredited the claims of the sisters In 1888
Margaret made a confession of imposture, later
retracted She claimed that she was the wife
of Dr Ehsha Kent Kane, who tried to persuade
her to give up her seances, and whose cor-
respondence with her she published in The Love-
Life of Dr Kane (1866) See SPIRITUALISM
FOX, RICHARD See FOXE
FOX, THE See VOLPONE
FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-93) A New Zea-
land statesman He was born at Westoe, Dur-
ham, England, and graduated from Wadham
College, Oxford, in 1832 In 1842 he went to
New Zealand as agent of the New Zealand Com-
pany for the South Island, in 1850 he returned
to London to present the claims of the colonists
for self-government, but was unsuccessful at
this time The purpose was ultimately accom-
plished, however, and Fox was a number of
times Premier — for periods varying from 13
days to three years— in 1856, 1861, 1863, 1869-
72, and 1873, in 1879 he had a seat in the New
Zealand Parliament He brought about a last-
ing peace with the native tribes, the Maoris,
and was active on behalf of temperance. His
writings include The Sice Colonies of New Zea-
land (1851) , The War m New Zealand (1860) ,
How New Zealand Got its Constitution (1890)
FOX, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1786-1864) An
English Unitarian preacher, orator, and political
writer The son of a peasant farmer, he was
born at Uggeshall Farm, Wrentham, Suffolk,
March 1, 1786. His father removed to Norwich,
113
where he pursued \aiious callings, and Fosc,
after primary education at a chapel school and
working as an errand boy and weaver's help, be-
came a banker's clerk He devoted his leiauie
to self-improvement in arts and languages and
in 1SO(> was sent to Homeiton Independent Col-
lege for ministeiial training Subsequently, m
1812, he seceded to Unitariamsm, and in a Lon-
don charge became celebrated as a rhetorician
and the most eloquent exponent of English ra-
tionalism An unfoitunate marriage and separa-
tion led to his resignation from the rmmstiy,
and he devoted himself to hteratuie and public
speaking In the interests of free trade and the
Anti-Corn Law League he thrilled enthusiastic
popular audiences with his oratory Fiom 1847
to 1863 he lepresented Oldham in Parliament as
an advanced Liberal His speeches in that crit-
ical assembly did not equal the success of his
platfoim orations, but he soon acquned general
respect by his tact and discretion His best
parliamentary addresses \\ere m favor of public
education and the extension of the franchise,
and he was the fust to introduce into the House
of Commons a bill for national secular educa-
tion He was the fust contributor to the West-
minster Revieiu, he was editor and proprietor of
the Monthly Repository for many yeais, and he
contributed copiously to other organs of public
opinion His Lectures of a Norwich Weaver
Boy and Lectures to the Wot king Classes had
an extensive and popular cuculation and did
much to effect the leforms they advocated Re-
hgious Ideas is Jus most important theological
work His voluminous writings, sermons, and
orations are collected in the memorial edition
of his works (London, 1865-68) He died June
3, 1864 Consult Garnett, The Life of W J.
Pox (London, 1910)
FOX BAT Any laige fruit-eating bat, or
"flying fox/* of the family Pteropodidse, esteemed
the lowest in rank of the Chiroptera There
are some 70 species, inhabiting Africa, India,
China, Japan, and the Malay Archipelago, where
they especially abound Most are of large size,
are tailless, have small, pointed ears, large eyes,
noses free of lobes, and those of the type genus
much resemble in physiognomy, size, and color
the foxes after which "they are named A Javan
species spreads its wings 5 feet It is eaten
by the natives These bats are wholly frugiv-
orous, nocturnal, gregarious, and do great dam-
age where numerous, especially to coconut and
mango plantations A strong musky odor per-
vades, at night, the vicinity of their assemblies,
and one credible writer asserts that the flying
foxes are fond of drinking palm toddy from the
chatties left out overnight An African genus
of this family supplies the common Egyptian
bat, which flocks in the chambers of the pyra-
mids and other tombs and is figured on the
monuments, it is Xantharpia azgyptiaca An
Austi o-Malavan genus is termed Harpia, in ref-
erence to the supposition that a bat of this sort
is the basis for the haipies of classic mythology
Consult Wallace, Malay Acfapelago (New York,
1898) See FBUIT BAT
FOX'BOHOtTGH A town m Norfolk Co ,
Mass , 24 miles southwest of Boston, on the New
York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad and
on the Neponset River (Map. Massachusetts,
B 4) It contains the Boyden Public Libiary
The chief industry is the manufacture of straw
hats, and there are also automobile-tire works
and steam-gauge and spaik-plug factories. Tlie
FOX CHANNEL
214
FOXE
water works are owned by the town. Pop >
1900, 3266, 1910, 3363
FOX CHANNEL, A northern reach of Hud-
son Bay, Canada, inclosed on the west by South-
ampton Island and Melville Peninsula, and on
the east by Fox Land and Baffin Land (Map
Canada, P*3) It has a southeast outlet through
Hudson Strait and a, northwest outlet through
Fury and Hecla Strait It Vvas named after
Luke Fox, \\ho explored Hudson Bay in 1631
FOX DEITY AISTD FOX POSSESSIONS
In Chinese Asia populai belief ascribes to the
fox extraoi dinary po\\ers and the ability to as-
sume human or any shape, but generally that
of beautiful v\omen, and to \\oik all kinds of
mischief, especially in love affairs Possession
by the spirit of a fox is so thoroughly believed
in that a standard source of revenue for Bud-
dhist priests of certain sects is in practicing
exorcism fiom their suffering patients, usually
women The foxes in their various transforma-
tions appear to the good or evil with rewards or
punishments m quite the orthodox story-book
style In Japan the fox is the attendant on
the food god, Inari (Rice bearer, or Rice man),
and myriads of effigies of the creature in white
or colored material, usually stone, may be seen
near the Inari shrines Giles tells us that "in
some parts of China it is customary for man-
darins to keep their seals of office in \vhat is
called a fox chamber', but the charactei for fox
is never written, the sight of it being supposed
to be veiy imtating to the live animal A char-
acter -winch has the same sound is substituted,
and even that is divided into its component
parts, so as to avoid the slightest risk of offense
This device is often adopted for the inscriptions
on shrines elected in honor of the fox" Con-
sult- Pfoundes, Pu-So Mimi Bukoro (Yoko-
hama, 1875) , Mitford, Tales of Old Japan (Lon-
don, 1876) , Chamberlain, Things Japanese (ib.,
1892) , Gnffis, The Mikado's Empire (llth ed,
2 vols, New York, 1906) , Smith, Ancient Tales
and Folklore of Japan (London, 1908) , Griffis,
China's Story in Myth, Legend, Art, and Ani-
mals (ib, 1911) , Davis, Myths and Legends of
Japan (New York, 1912)
FOX DOCK A book name for a group of
small South American canine animals on ac-
count of their somewhat foxhke aspect The
group was denned by Mivart, Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London (London, 1890),
as including five species, as follows
Crab-eating fox dog (Ganis cancrworus) ,
Brazil
Short-eared fox dog (Cams microtis) , Brazil
Azara's fox dog (Cams azarce), Brazil to
Tierra del Fuego
Small-toothed fox dog (Cams parvidens)
Black-tailed fox dog (Cams urostictus),
Brazil
These animals are much alike in their foxy
appearance, though rather larger in size, and
having a more variegated and highly variable
coat, often handsomely marked with black and
dark led, than any true fox The crab-eating
fox dog is common throughout the forested parts
of the whole Amazon basin and gets its name
from its fondness for crayfish, though these crus-
taceans form only a part of its fare They
often collect in packs and run down deer.
Azara's dog (see Plate of WOLVES AND WILD
DOGS) is known throughout the whole continent
east of the Andes, on the pampas and bleak
shores of Patagonia (where it is called colpeo).
as well as in the forests of Biazil and Guiana
It has much the habits of the North Amencan
coyote, but resorts to jungles and forests much
more readily Everywhere it is foxhke in its
fondness for poultry, and in Paiaguay it is
said to destroy a great amount of sugar cane
while eating only a little The small-toothed
species takes its name irom the diminutive size
of the fourth premolar, and of the short-eaied
dog almost nothing is known Consult Hudson,
The Natiuahst on the La Plata (London, 1903)
FOXE, JOHN (1516-87) The English
martyrologist He was born in 1516 at Boston,
Lincolnshire In 1523 he entered as a student
at Oxfoid, in 1537 he took his bachelor's and
in 1543 his master's degree, and was elected a
full fellow of Magdalen College (1539) He
displayed at an early period an inclination foi
Latin poetry and wrote several plays in that
language upon scriptuial subjects Of these,
the only one that remains, entitled De Christo
Tiiumphante, was first printed at Basel in 1556
The religious movements of the times led him to
study the great controversy between the Old
Church and Protestantism, and, becoming a con-
vert to the principles of the Reformation, on
July 22, 1545, he resigned his fellowship In
1546 he married, and, coming to London for em-
ployment, he attracted the notice of the Duchess
of Richmond, and through her influence became
tutor (1548) to the children of her bi other, the
Earl of Surrey, who had been executed in 1547
On June 23, 1550, he was ordained deacon by
Ridley, Bishop of London, and preached the
doctrines of the Reformation at Reigate In
1553, when Mary came to the throne, he was dis-
missed by the Catholic giandfather of his pu-
pils, and, fearing persecution for his religious
opinions, he fled to the Continent On the ac-
cession of Elizabeth he returned to England in
October, 1559, was ordained priest, 1560, and
in May, 1563, was made a prebendary in Salis-
bury Cathedral and vicar of Shipton He also
held the living of Cripplegate, which he soon
resigned, and for a year (1572-73) he held a
stall at Durham In 1575, when some Dutch
Anabaptists weie condemned to the names
in London, Foxe interceded for them with Eliza-
beth and other persons in authority, but with-
out effect He wrote numerous controversial
and other works, but the one that has im-
moitalized his name is his History of the Acts
and Monuments of the Church, popularly known
as Fore's Boolt of Martyrs, the first draft of
which was published at Strassburg in 1554 The
first English edition appeared in 1563 A later
edition, with certain errors corrected, was or-
dered, by a canon of the Anglican convocation, to
be placed in every cathedral church in England
It is not a critical work, as might be supposed,
and Roman Catholics deny its trustworthiness,
but it was very popular and has been often re-
printed The best editions are by Cattley, with
introduction by Townsend (London, 1843-49),
Mendham and Pratt (8 vols, ib , 1853), by
Stoughton (ib, 1877), and by Berry (New York,
1907) JFoxe died in London, April, 1587, and
was buried in the chancel of St Giles's, Cripple-
fstte, Ix^ndon There is no satisfactory life of
oxe, the first issued (1641) was very unre-
liable , the nearest approach to correctness is that
revised by Pratt (London, 1870) Consult Dic-
tionary of National Biography, vol xx (ib , 1889)
FOXE, or FOX, RICHARD (c 1448-1528). An
English prelate and statesman3 born at Ropesley,
POXGLOVE I
Lincolnshire, and educated at Oxfoid (probably
Magdalen College), and possibly at Cambridge,
In Paris he made the acquaintance of Henry
of Richmond, and helped him get money and
men from the French King for his invasion of
England. After the accession of Henry VII
Poxe was one of the King's most trusted ad-
visers and became Secretaiy of State, Pi ivy
Seal, and Bishop of Exeter (1487), of Durham
(1494), and of Winchester (1501) He was
sent to Scotland as Ambassador several times,
negotiated a treaty between England and Scot-
land in 1487, and again in 1497, after a stout
defense of his castle in Durham In the interval
he had been a signer of the Treaty of Staples
(1492) and commissioner on the Intercursus
Magnus, a treaty with Philip of Austria ( 1496 )
In 1498 and 1499 he treated with the Scottish
King and made arrangements for his marriage
with the Princess Margaret In the following
year he was chosen chaneelloi of Cambridge
and was master of Pembroke (1507-19) Under
Henry VIII his influence gradually diminished
He retired from the court in 1516 and became
blind a few years after But his last years
were spent well, he founded free schools at
Taunton and Grantham, and at Oxford, Corpus
Christi College (1516) , which became a home for
the new learning Foxe may have had a share
in the writing of Oontemplacyon of Synners
(1499) He edited a Processional (1508) and
translated the Rule of Saint Benedict (1517).
Consult Cassan, Lives of the Bishops of Win-
chester (2 vols London, 1827), and Ward, The
Life of Bishop Fox (Oxford, 1843)
:$ POX HUNTING
of the family Scrophulanaceae The erect stems,
which bear numerous large leaves at their
bases, terminate in long racemes of inflated
campanulate flowers, of various colors and mark-
ings Individually foxgloves are attractive, and
in masses they give character to the flower bor-
der. They succeed well in light, rich soil, not
too dry, in either exposed light or in partial
shade When once established, they will repro-
duce sufficient plants from seed to keep the bor-
der stocked One species, credited with diuretic,
sedative, and narcotic properties, is officially
listed in dispensatories under the name Digitalis
(qv
F
FOXGLOVE
(D%gitah$ Purpurea)
FOX'GLOVE The very inappropriate name
of a genus (Digitalis] of about 18 species of
beautiful half-hardy herbaceous biennial plants
OX'HOTJINT)'. A small hound, trained to
pursuit of the fox See HOUND, Fox HUNTING
FOX HtTN'TIN'G. There are various fashions
of hunting the fox: In England, the home of
fox hunting, and where it was practiced with
specially tiained dogs as early as 1750, the
animal is puisued by carefully bred packs of
hounds ranging in number from 25 to 40 couples,
which are put by the huntsmen into a covert or
wood where it is known, or thought the fox has
his earth. He would elude the hounds almost
invariably were it not for the scent left in the
air along his track One or another hound is
sure to come across the scent and give tongue,
so that the remainder of the pack quickly fol-
low They break cover and are joined outside
by the horsemen who follow the chase The fox
will, as a rule, go down wind and make straight
for some spot where he can baffle the hounds by
getting under covei or into an earth where
they cannot follow him Some hunters believe
that a fox will deliberately employ ruses of
various kinds to throw the hounds off the scent
Sometimes, in England, he arrives at his earth
only to find that it has been filled up by the
"stopper," and he has to make off on another
ventuie Sometimes he is killed in the open
The kenneling and maintenance of hounds
and huntsmen and the establishments kept up
in the most favored neighborhoods necessitate
an immense expenditure annually. The most
important hunts in England are the Belvoir
Castle, the Quorn, the Pytchley, and the Cot-
tesmores Leicestershire also is a favorite hunt-
ing county, but the spoit is practically general
throughout England and in a lesser degree in
Ireland In America the Virginian colonists
early followed the English method of fox hunt-
ing, with the difference only that the pack was
made up by each gentleman bringing his own
hounds with him The sport was common in
the Southern States up to the time of the Civil
War, and there are still sections where it is
conducted much as in the old days In Mary-
land the English foxhound was crossed with the
lush staghound to give him the necessary en-
durance for more difficult conditions, and the
records of fox hunting in Queen Anne County
go back to 1650 Dissatisfied with the gray
native fox, the colonists in 1738 imported red
foxes and let them loose along the shores of the
Chesapeake They multiplied rapidly, and the
Baltimore Hounds, established in 1818, have al-
ways been among the most famous in tlie South
The English pack has been discarded, and the
Magnes strain, a distinctly Maryland dog,
adopted by the Elkridge Club, the most promi-
nent in Maryland Pennsylvania bad the first
organization, the Gloucester Pox-Hunting Club,
established in 1766 The American hound is
faster and better than the English dog- and pecul-
FOX ISLANDS
116
FOXTAIL GRASS
mrly well adapted for his work In America
a 'kill" is an exception xutli the average hunt
"Eaiths," as the holes in the ground aie called,
are never '"stopped" or closed, as m an English
fox-hunting countiy, and it is veiy rarely that
an attempt is made to dig out a fox who has
taken refuge m one Particularly is this tine
where the fox has made a straight, tiue race
Occasionally it happens that a fox becomes
known and" is given a name, owing to the fie-
quent sport he has afforded the hunt and his
exceptional skill in making his escape
Where foxes are not found, or it is desirable
to spare the cubs, drag hunting is a favorite
sport as well as an excellent training foi young
hoi sea, dogs, or nders A course from point
to point is mapped out, and a good rider, well
mounted, is sent over it dragging on the ground
as ho q-oe& a bag of amseseed or a red herring
The hounds are cast off and pick up the scent
with as much avidity and certainty as if it
were that of a fox The riders follow the
hounds on horseback, and if the pace of the
hounds is good, and the course suitable, a very
effective and exhilarating ride is the result
The chronicles of drag hunting go back to the
reign of Charles II, farther back in fact than
the existence of any of the great foxhound packs
to-dav, and its practice has continued ever since
See HORSE, HORSEMANSHIP, HUXTIXG Con-
sult Paget, Hunting (London, 1900) , Kom<T-
ville, Rhppet's ABC of FOE Hunting (ib,
1003) , IJiogmson and Chamberlain, Hunts of
the United^ States and Canada (Boston, 1908) ,
Vvner, yotitia Tenatica, rev ed by Blew and
Bradley (2 vols, London, 1910)", Radcliffe
and Blew, Noble Science (2 vols, New Y) \
1912), and the elaborate article under "Hui
ing," in The Encyclopaedia of Sports ana if-ames,
ed by the Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire (juni-
don, 1911).
Fox Hunting, in law As one of the aa-
tional sports of Great Britain, fox hunting is
the subject not only of social usages, but of
legal rules Persons who kill foxes by traps
or guns are visited with social ostracism, whuc
those who hunt them with horses and hounds
are exempted by statute from penalties for
trespass within lands of others in certain eases
A master of hounds, as well as one who fol-
lows hounds in fox: hunting, is generally an-
swerable civilly, however, for damage done to
the property of others A fox is not the subject
of absolute ownership until killed or reduced
into possession, and therefore not the subject
of larceny A person may acquit e a qualified
property, however, in tame foxes, and for in-
juries done by such animals he should be held
liable, as far those inflicted by othei ferce
natitrce ( q v )
Until recently the legal status of the fox in
the United States has been that of a noxious wild
animal, liable to killing at sight by trap, gun,
or dog With the introduction of fox breeding
and fox hunting upon large private estates has
come a change in legal policy, and statutes have
been enacted prohibiting the killing of foxes dur-
ing certain months. Laws against cruelty to
animals have been invoked to prevent the hunt-
ing of captive foxes by dogs Consult Com-
momvealth v. Turner (145 Mass 296, 1887) j
New York Session Laws (1901, chap 559) ,
Oke, Handy Book of the Game Laws (London,
1897)
POX ISLANDS, Another name for ths
Aleutian Islands ( q v ) in general and specifi-
cally for the easternmost group
FOX RIVER A river of Wisconsin, rising
in the southern pait of the State, m Gieen Lake
County (Map Wisconsin, E 4) It flows first
in a south webteily direction to within a few
miles of the town of Portage, on the Wisconsin
River, \\ith which it is connected by a ship
canal JTiom this point the Fox flows nearly
due north to Lake Buffalo in Marquette County,
whence its couise is generally noitheast to its
confluence with the Wolf River, whose south-
easterly diiection it follows for about 8 miles
to Oshkosh, where it empties into Lake Winne-
bago As the outlet of that lake it Hows north-
ward and empties into Green Bay, an arm of
Lake Michigan It is navigable for a consid-
erable pait of its couise and, through the
medium ot the canal connecting it with the
Wisconsin, foims a link between the navigation
systems of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes
Ihe lower pait of the Fox is maiked by numer-
ous rapzds, furnishing gieat water power Its
total length is over 250 miles
FOX SHARK See THKESHER SHARK
FOX S3STAKE (so called from its color) An
Ametican haimless snake (Coluber vulpinus)
inhabiting only the northem part of the Mis-
sissippi valley It reaches 6 feet in length, is
robust, and, although Harmless, is easily irri-
tated, and then shows more pugnacity and
courage than almost any other of its tribe It
feeds altogether upon small mammals, up to the
size of a half-grown rabbit, and does farmers
much service by killing great numbers of mice
Its color above is light brown, blotched on the
back with chocolate, each blotch covering a space
three or four scales long and bordered with
Mack Smaller and rounder blotches mark the
,ides and yellowish, abdomen It is locally
known also, as the pilot snake, very likely by
vague confusion with the copperhead Consult
Hay, Seventeenth Annual Report, State Geolo-
gist of Indiana (Indianapolis, 1892), and Dit-
mars, The Reptile Book (New York, 1907)
POX SPARROW (so called on account of
its color) One of the largest and handsomest
of North American sparrows (Passer ella iliaca) ,
distinguished by the rust red of its plumage,
purest and bnghtest on the rump, tail, and
wings, and elsewhere on the upper parts appear-
ing as streaks on an ashy ground, below it is
white thickly marked with rust red It is a
migrant, passing to northern Canada to breed,
and uttering on its passage in early spring
a loud and sprightly song, more like that of
a thrush than a sparrow It makes its nest
on the ground, m the protection of thickets, and
lays thickly spotted eggs In the Eastern
United States and Canada only one form of
fox sparrow (Passerella iliaca] is found, but in
the mountainous regions of California and other
parts of the Pacific coast seven additional sub-
species have been differentiated
FOX SQUIRREL (so called on account of
its color). The large mfous squirrel of the
Mississippi valley See SQUIRREL
FOXTAIL' GKRASS. A name applied to
two very dissimilar grasses of the genera Alope-
curus and Setana They bear a general resem-
blance to timothy, with which they are closely
related The species of Alopeourus, which num-
ber about 20, ar& natives of temperate countries
of both the Northern and Southern hemispheres,
and seyeial aie American. Meadow foxtail
FOX TEBBIEU
117
FOYEB
grass (Alopecurus pratensis) , which has an
erect smooth culm about 1% to 2% feet high,
and a cylindrical, obtuse, spikehke panicle
abundantly covered with silvery hairs, is one of
the best meadow and pasture grasses in Europe
and introduced into Ameiica It does not airive
at full perfection till the third year after it
is sown It beais mowing well and upon good
soils yields a large crop and is reckoned a good
frass for lawns It is very haidy and bears
rought well The jointed foxtail, or water
foxtail (Alopecurws gemculatus) , with an as-
cending culm bent at the joints, is very common
in moist places, and cattle are fond of it, but
it is a small grass, growing but a foot or two
high The slender foxtail grass (Alopecurus
agtestis} is a short-lived perennial of little
value except for light sandy soils, on which it
is sometimes sown Alopecurus occidentahs is
a native of the United States and would doubt-
less prove valuable under cultivation in the
Rocky Mountain region and elsewhere These
grasses are all valuable, but should be sown in
mixtures
The other class of foxtail grass belongs to the
genus Setana Other generic names have been
given them, but this name is given the prefer-
ence under international botanical rules They
are mostly considered as weeds and are more
or less troublesome, although when young they
aie eaten by stock, and the seeds of some are
gathered There are about 35 species, some of
them exceedingly valuable They are distributed
thioughout all warmer and temperate regions
The Hungarian grass or millet (Setana ital-
ica } , with its varieties, some of which ai e the
German millet, golden millet, etc , is extensively
cultivated for its forage and seed The latter
is employed as human food in some countries,
as in India, Russia, etc The giant millet
(fletama magna) grows in wet places from
Delaware to Florida The common species, yel-
low foxtail (Setawa glauca) , green foxtail
wndis), and bristly foxtail (8eta,ma,
ta) ) are weeds that are more or less
abundant in fields and gardens of nearly all
temperate countries Hordeum murmum is
called foxtail grass in California and else-
where
FOX TERRIER A terrier, usually white
with black or tan markings, originally used for
unearthing foxes, but now principally as a pet
See TEEEIER
FOY, JAMES JOSEPH (1847-1916). A Cana-
dian lawyer and statesman He was born in
Toronto and was educated at St Michael's Col-
lege in that city and at Ushaw College, Durham,
England After returning to Canada he studied
law and was called to the bar in 1871 He
practiced his profession in Toionto and became
one of the leaders of the Ontario bar Actively
interested in politics, his sympathy with Irish
Home Rule led to his appointment m 1896 as a
delegate to the Irish Nationalist Convention,
Dublin In 1898 he was elected a Conservative
member of the Ontario Legislature In 1905
he was appointed Commissioner of Crown lands
in the administration of Sir James P Whitney
(qv), but within a year resigned that office
to become Attorney-General of Ontario He
was a delegate to Interprovincial Conferences at
Quebec (1906) and Ottawa (1910) and to the
Federal Conference on Education, London, Eng-
land (1907) In 1911 he was for a short time
acting Premier of Ontario.
FOY, fwa, MAXIMILIEN S^BASTIEZT (1775-
1825) A distinguished Fiench general and
statesman. He was born at Ham, in Picardy,
Feb. 3, 1775 He studied at the artillery school
of La Fere and was one of the volunteers of
1791, and duung the next nine years served
with distinction under Dumounez, Moreau,
Schoenbourg, and Massena In 1800 he was
made adjutant general in the Army of the
Rhine, which marched through Switzeiland into
Italy, where he commanded the vanguard of the
army in 1801 In 1805 he served under Mar-
mont in the Austrian campaign Two years
latei Napoleon sent him to Turkey at the head
of 1200 artillerymen to assist Sultan Selim
against the Russians and British Undei the
dnection of the French Ambassador, General
Sebastiani, Foy defended Constantinople and the
Strait of the Daidanelles, forcing Duckworth,
the daring British admiral, to retire with loss.
After 1808 he fought throughout the Peninsular
War, at first under Junot and then as general
of division under Soult and Massena He dis-
tinguished himself in the retreat into France
and was severely wounded at Oitliez In 1810
Napoleon made him geneial of a division In
the campaign of 1815 he commanded a division
on the field of Waterloo, where he was wounded
for the fifteenth time In 1819 he was elected
deputy by the Depaitment of Aisne In the
Chamber he was the constant advocate of con-
stitutional liberty and showed great rhetorical
talent and knowledge of political economy He
distinguished himself particularly by his elo-
quence in opposing the invasion of Spain in
1823 In 1824 he was returned to the Chamber
by three constituencies Madame Foy published
in 1827, from her husband's papers, Histoire de
la guerre de la peninsule In the previous year
appeared his Discovrs with a biography Con-
sult Vidal, ~V^e mihlawe et pohtique du general
Foy (Pans, 1836), and Girod de 1 Am, La vie
m^l^ta^')e du general toy (ib , 1900)
EOYATIEU, fwa'ya'tya', DENIS (1793-1863).
A French sculp bor, born at Bussiere (La
Grande), Loire First in&tiucted by Harm at
Lyons, he studied afterward under Lemot, and
from 1817 at the Ecole df>s Beaux- Arts in Pa, is
For the statue of a "Faun" he was awarded
the gold medal in 1819, and thenceforward exe-
cuted numerous commissions for public build-
ings and clmrches in Paris and other cities
His more noteworthy works include a statue of
"Spartacus" (1827, Tuileries Gardens), which
established his reputation, the monument of
Colonel Combes at Feurs (Loire) , a statue of
"St Mark/' in the cathedral at Arras, "Wis-
dom" (1831), in the Chamber of Deputies,
Paris, "Faith," in Notre Dame de Lorette,
Paris, "Figures of Apostles," in the Madeleine,
Paris, the great frieze in relief, on the Arc de
1'Etoile, Paris, and the "Equestrian Statue of
Jeanne d'Arc" (1855), at Orleans Foyatier
possessed elegance and facility, but never eman-
cipated himself fiom classical traditions
FOYER, fwa'ya' (Fr , hearth). In the oiiigi-
nal French sense of the word as applied to
houses of amusement, a room or hall fdr the
informal social gathering or promenading of
the spectators during intermissions , usually a
long, handsome hall over the entrance vestibule
In some theatres there are sepa^te foyers for
the occupants of the more e&pdnslve seats and
boxes, and of the galleries, la some there is
also a foyer for the artists T^e most splendid
FOYLE
118
FRACTION
of all foyers is that of the Paris Opera House,
by Gamier In the United States the term
signifies generally a spacious lobby at the head
of the mam stairs lather than a sepaiately in-
closed loom
FOYLE, foil, LOUGH. An inlet of the At-
lantic on the noith coast of Ii eland, between
the counties of Londonderry and Donegal It
is 16 miles long, 1 mile wide at its entrance,
and 9 miles wide along its south side (Map.
Ireland, D 1 ) A great part of it is dry at low
water The west side alone is navigable for ves-
sels of 600 tons, which ascend its chief tributary,
the Foyle, to Londondeiry The river Foyle,
formed by the confluence of the Mourne and
Finn at Lifford, flows 14 miles northeast to the
lough It has salmon fisheries
FRA ANGEIICO. See ANGELICO, FBA
FRAAS, fias, KAEL NIKOLAS (1810-75) A
German agncultunst and botanist, boin at Rat-
telsdoif, Upper Franconia, and educated at
Munich In 1835 he became inspector of the
court garden at Athens, Gieece, and from 1836
to 1842 was professor of botany in the Univer-
sity of Athens. He was professor of agriculture
at the University of Munich from 1847 to 1853,
when he became director of the Institute of Vet-
erinary Surgery in that city He was chief
secretary of the Bavarian Agricultural Society,
and in association with Liebig conducted the ag-
ricultural experiment station organi7ed by that
society Piobably no other man of his time did
so much to modernize agricultural methods in
Bavana, and Ms efforts in behalf of fish hatch-
eries were seaicely less noteworthy His works
include Die Schule des Landbaues (5th ed ,
1871), Die kunstliche Fischerzeugung (2d ed ,
1854) , Gesohichte der Landbau- und Foistwis-
senschaft seit dem IGten JaJirTiundert (1866)3
Das Wurzelleben der Naturpflanzen (2d ed,
1872).
FRAAS, OSKAB (1824-97) A German geolo-
gist, born at Lorch He studied theology at the
University of Tubingen and held pastorates m
various parts of Germany But turning- his
attention to geology, he was successively ap-
pointed custodian ot the Boyal Cabinet of Nat-
ural History at Stuttgart (1854) and professor
of geology (1856). Already as a student he had
received a prize for a geognostic chart of Tubin-
gen, and in 1859 he was engaged with Deffner
in preparing a similar chart of Wurttembeig.
In 1866 he made important archaeological dis-
coveries at Schussenned, Wurttemberg, and in
1875, on behalf of Kustem Pasha, he made the
first geological survey of the Lebanon, described
by him in the publications entitled Drei Monate
ain Lebanon (2d ed , 1876) and Geologische
JSeobachtungen am Lebanon (1878). Among his
other works are Vor der Sundflut Erne popu-
lare Geschichte der Uruelt (2d ed , 1870) , Geo-
gnostische Beschreibung i^on Wurttemberg^ Ba-
den und JHohen&oUern (1882) , Geognostisches
Profil vom Nil zum Rot en Meer
3TRA BARTOLOMMEO See BARTOLOMMEO
FRACASTORO, fra'kas-to'ro, GIBOLAMO
(1483-1553) An Italian poet and physician,
born of an ancient family at Verona. At the
age of 19 he was appointed professor of logic
in the University of Padua On account of his
eminence in the practice of medicine, he was
elected physician of the Council of Trent. His
Latin verse also exhibits remarkable elegance.
A bronze statue was erected in his honor by the
citizens of Padua, while his native city com-
memorated their great compatriot by a marble
statue His writings in prose and verse are
numerous The chief among them are Syphirlt-
dis, sive Morbi Qalkw (1530), De V^n^ Tem-
pevatuta (1534) , Homocentmcorum sive de Stel-
lis, de Causis Gnticorum Dierum Libellus
(1535), De SyrnpatTwa et Antipathia, Rerum,
De Oontagionibus et Oontagtosis Morbis, et
eorum Curatione (1546) The collected works of
Fracastoro appeared for the first time in 1555
FRACK'VILLE. A borough in Schuylkill
Co, Pa, 50 miles noitheast of Harrisburg, on
the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia and
Heading railroads (Map Pennsylvania, J 5).
Coal mining is the chief industry, the Mahoney
Plane, over which is hoisted some 50,000 tons
of coal daily, being situated here Pop , 1900,
2594, 1910, 3118
FRAC'TIOU (Fr, OF fraction, Lat fractio,
from frang&ie, to break, connected with Goth
Z^frarc, OHG Irehhan, Ger brechen, AS brecan,
Eng tweak, and possibly with Gk pyyvtivai, rhe-
qnynw, to bieak, Olr coribomg, breaks) A frac-
tion is commonly defined in arithmetic as one
or more of the equal parts of a unit or quantity
This definition, however, is not sufficient for ex-
o
pressions like -~, A/2 since "2 of the —3 equal
— 'O
parts of unity," or "one A/2th of 3," is meaning-
less Hence, in general, the symbol v, m
which "b is not zero, is regarded as denoting the
division of a by &
A fi action is said to be irreducible, or to be
in its lowest terms, when the greatest common di-
Msor of its terms lias been suppressed In arith-
metic a fraction whose numerator is less than
its denominator is called a proper fraction In
algebra a proper fraction is one whose numerator
is of less degree than its denominator In the
contrary cases the fractions are called improper
Numerical fractions of the older form, as %,
are called common or vulgar fractions as op-
posed to the more recent form of 0 75, called
decimal fractions (See DECIHAL SYSTEM )
The term was originally applied to this form
as opposed to the "astronomical" or ^physical"
fi actions, le, those on the sexagesimal system
The operations with algebraic fractions are sub-
}ectod to the associative, commutative, and dis-
tributive laws (qv ) , eg,
a _i_ (c e\ - (^ _L £\ e
b + \d " f) ~ \b + d) f
a £ „ £ a
b ' d ~ d ' b'
a
etc Fractions of the form - are called com-
£
d
plex fractions, and obey the same laws as simple
fractions, eg, the complex fraction just men-
tioned equals
« ^ c ^ a d=?d
b " d be be
Complex fractions of the form
/-r-
PHACT10N
Are called continued fractions Such fractions
are usually simplified to the best advantage by
first multiplying the terms of the last fraction
of the form
ng
PBACTtTBE
/
by the last denominator, and so working up
The theory of continued fractions, however, is
extensive, and the properties of such fractions
are numerous In the above fi action,
a ad __a(fd + e)
6' bd + c' b(fd~i-e)-\-fc'' '
are the simplified forms of the fi action inclusive
of the first, second, and third denominator suc-
cessively, and so on These aie fi actions evi-
dently conveiging towards the true value of the
given fraction It is proved in algebra that the
difference between any two consecutive conver-
gents is equal to 1 divided by the product of
their denominators, that the value of the frac-
tion lies between each successive pair of conver-
gents and hence differs from either by less than
their difference, eg,
482
6935
2151
2 + 1
6 + 1
5 + 1
7
or, as it may be written,
311111
1+4+2 + 6+5 + 7*
Here the con ver gents are
o 13 29 187 964 6935
7 4' 9' 58' 299' 2151*
The difference between the last two convergents is
- - = - =0.0000016, hence the next to the
299 2151
last convergent, expressed decimally, gives the
value of the original fraction correct to 5 deci-
mal places
A fraction whose numerator is an integer and
whose denominator is an integral power of 10 is
called a decimal fraction, eg,
J_ J_ 35Q5
10' 100' 10000'
are decimal fractions, although given in the
form of common fractions Such fractions ad-
mit of an abbreviated notation, eg, 01, 001,
0 3505, which notation possesses great advan-
tages in calculation See also CIBCULATING
DECIMALS
In some algebraic fractions the substitution
of a particular value of the letters will make
both numerator and denominator vanish Such
fractions are called vanishing fractions, eg,
the fraction ^^ becomes - when #= 1 The
x-l 0
value of a fraction which assumes the form -
for particular values of the letters involved is,
in general, found by means of the differential
calculus But frequently that value may be
found by simpler means, as in the above example
- 1 x -
x-l x-l
(z + 1) = z + 1,
the limit of which, for co — 1, is 1+1 = 2.
See LIMITS
Doubtless the notion of a fraction is nearly
as old as the notion of number Among the old-
eat treatises on fractions is the arithmetic of
Ahmes ( q v ) , showing how the Egyptians dealt
with fi actions before the year 2000 BC They
made extensive use of unit fi actions, ie, frac-
tions with the numerator 1. In the hieratic writ-
ing the denominator with a point above it was
the symbol for such a fraction The first prob-
lem Ahmes solves is that of separating a frac-
tion into unit fractions, eg, he finds
?«!.!.! 2111
9 ~~ 6 ~*~ 18' 95 ~ 60 + 380 + 570
The early fractions of the Babylonians were ap-
paiently also unit fractions, but they later de-
veloped a system winch the Greek astronomers
worked into the sexagesimal fractions used even
yet in angle measuie. In the written form only
the numeiator of a sexagesimal fraction was
given, with, a special fiactional sign attached.
The Greeks wrote the numerator of a common
fraction below or else before the denominator
thus.
„ „ 17
,or
— -
The Romans made much use of the duodecimal
system, and gave special names to their fractions
which corresponded to
1 2
12' 12' ' *
n
12
To the Hindus is clue the present form of the
common fraction, although they generally
omitted the bar between numerator and denomi-
nator. Although the sexagesimal and duodeci-
mal fractions prepared the way for decimal
fractions, the latter did not appear in their
piesent form until early in the seventeenth cen-
tury Among the first to use such fractions
were Rudolf, Burgi, and Stevm. The first gen-
eral use of the decimal point is found in the
trigonometric tables of Pitiscus (1612), although
it had been used by Pellos (1492) in a special
case. In the sixteenth century various forms
were used, but after about 1600 the period or
comma became quite universal
FBAC'TTTHE (Lat. fractura, a break, from
frangere, to break) In surgery the term is
used of the break of a bone or of partially ossi-
fied cartilage A fractuie is said to be simple
when the break is not open to the air, com-
pound when it is so open, single when there is
but one break, multiple when more than one
break exists, comminuted when the bone is
broken into many little pieces, impacted when
one fragment of the bone is driven into the
other, complicated when a neighboring joint or
large blood vessel is involved in the traumatism;
complete when the whole thickness of the bone
is ruptured, incomplete (or green stick) when
the bone is partly broken, partly bent, intra-
capsular when the break occurs within the cap-
sule of a joint, and transverse, oblique? longi-
tudinal, or spiral, according to the direction and
FBADEHBTTBO-H *
position of the bieak as regards the shaft of the
bone
Among the cxteinal causes of fractuie aro
accident or violence and excessive muscular ac-
tion The condition known as fiagihta-s ossmm
occuis late in life or in eaily life, as a soften-
ing of the bone fiom disease Cancer, syphilis,
scurvy, and nckets often result in altered bone
structure Muscular action causes rupture of
patella or os calc-is (heel bone) during the en-
deavor to pi event falling after tripping or in
running 01 jumping The symptoms are pain
o\ei the region, swelling and great local ten-
derness, change in position 01 shape of the part,
false point of motion, crepitation (crackling,
as the broken endb of the bone are rubbed to-
gethei ) , and immobility on the part of the
patient, together with increased motion secured
by the examining suigeon In impacted frac-
tures there is necessarily no ciepitation, false
point of motion, or mobility elicited by the sur-
geon Fractures must be i educed, i.e , the fiag-
ments must be put into their proper position,
and they must be letamed by some appaia-
tus The splints used for retention are made
of wood, tin, iron, felt, spongiopilme, gutta-
percha, leather, or of bandages saturated with
plaster of Paris, with starch, or Tuth soluble
glass ("water glass,35 silicate of soda solution)
The limb is padded with cotton and the splint
applied closely and rendeied immovable In the
case of fractuied ribs a strip of adhesive plastei
or a corset is applied Rest must be seemed,
othemise (or, in seme cases, in spite of good
attention] the fracture remains ununited, when
rubbing the ends together, giving mercury in-
ternally to salivation, electricity or drilling
holes in the ends, or wiring the ends together
must be tried, to secure union. Of late years
Lane's bone plates have been much in favor
among surgeons These are flat metal plates
drilled with holes for screws or pegs, and are
fastened directly to the injured bones, holding
them immovably in place Compound fractures
must be treated as described, and also as open
wounds, under all antiseptic precautions
Drainage of pus and discharge must be secured,
as well as protection against bacterial infection.
See CALLUS
The X-rays play an important part in the
modern diagnosis and treatment of fracture
Not only is it possible by then means to ascer-
tain the precise position of the bones involved,
but the surgeon can assure himself of their cor-
rect replacement and scrutinize the progress of
healing
FBADEHBTTRGH, f ra'den-bft *g? JASON NEL-
SON (1843- ) An Amei lean Methodist Epis-
copal clergyman, born at Gouverneur, N Y He
graduated from G-enesee Wesleyan Seminary and
from Genesee College (later Syracuse Uni-
versity). At the seminary he was professor of
mathematics in 1868-69, and at the Fredonia
(N Y ) State Normal School professor of an-
cient languages in 1 869-73 j and he was princi-
pal of the State Normal School at Mansfield,
Pa, in 1873-75. He held pastorates at Cleve-
land, Ohio, and at Clarion, Pa , after 1896
He is author of Witnesses from the Dust
(1885), Beauty Crowned (1887); Lwing Re-
Ugwns (1888), Old Heroes (1889), Departed
&ods (1891) , Fvre from Str<mge Altars (1891) ;
Light from Egypt (1897); Ltfe's Spnngtwie
(1900); History of Ene Conference (1907),
In Memoriam* Henry Harrison Comings (1913).
PBAGIACOMO
**.***. DIAVOLO, fra do-a'vo-lo (It, Brother
Devil) ( n770~1806) A celebrated Italian brig-
and, bom in Calabiia, whose real name was
Mich el e Pezza He gatheied a band of outlaws
in the mountains of Calabiia, in the country
around Itri in Terra di Lavoro, and attacked
alike strangers and villagers of the neighbor-
hood His atrocious cruelty and the fact that
name of Fra Diavolo Ferdinand of Naples
summoned him to his aid against the French
and made him colonel In 1799, together with
Caidinal Ruffo, he tried to stir up an insurrec-
tion m Calabria In 1806 he repeated his
attempt He was seized by Massena at San
Seveimo and was hanged at Naples as a bandit
in spite of his regular colonel's commission
Auher's famous opera Fia Diavolo, libretto by
Scribe, does not pretend to the least historical
tmth Consult Amante, Fra Diavolo e il suo
tempo 1196-180 J/. (Florence, 1904)
PKA DIAVOLO An opera by Auber (qv ),
first produced in Pans, Jan 28, 1830, in the
United States, April, 1832 (New York)
PBAE1STKEL, freVkel, KABL (1861- )
A German bacteriologist, born in Charlotten-
burg and educated at Berlin, Heidelberg, Leip-
zig, and Freiburg At Berlin he became assist-
ant in the Institute of Hygiene in 1S85 and
piivatdocent in 1888 He became professor at
Kunigsberg in 1890, at Marburg in 1891, and at
Halle in 1895 With Brieger, about 1890, he
pioved the proteid character of extracellulai
toxins, and he isolated the Pneumo coccus and,
in meningitis, the D^plococcus lanceolatus, some-
times called by his name Among FraenkeFs
published works are G-rundriss der Bahterien-
kunde (1886, 3d ed, 1890, atlas, 1889, revised
1S95), Diphthene'baiMllen (1893), Memngokok-
1ms duf der Conjunctwa (1899), Spmllen des
Zeckenfielers (1907)
PBAGrA, fra'ga A town m the Province of
Huesca, Spain, about 15 miles southwest of
Lenda, on the river Cmca (Map Spam, F 2)
It is built on a slope and has ruined walls,
among its buildings of note are the town hall
and the old parish church of San Pedro, once a
mosque The town is in a fertile agricultuial
section, celebrated for its figs and pomegranates,
which constitute the chief exports Stock raising
and some manufacturing also are carried on
Pop, 1900, 6934, 1910, 7418 Fraga, according
to some authorities, is the Galhca Flavia of the
Roman. Empire Of considerable importance
under the Moors and for a time a separate
emirate, it was captured by the Christians in
1149, after having been previously taken, but
retaken Fiaga was specially honored in 1709
by Philip V for its loyalty in the War of the
Spanish Succession
FRAGIACOMO, fra'ja-ko'mo, PIETEO (1856-
) An Italian marine and landscape
painter. He was born at Tuest, came to Venice
in his early youth, and studied there at the
Academy and under Favretto Fragiacomo is
one of the leading contemporary Italian land-
scape painters His subjects are always Vene-
tian and his paintings have a fine lyrical quality
and an element of originality A keen observer
of nature and a fine color ist, he depicts with
equal mastery the sea and lagoons in many of
their various aspects — barks and fishermen, the
distant horizon, and the sky with its ever-vary-
ing light effects Especially noteworthy among
his paintings are "Peace" (1891), in the Boyal
FBAGMEWTAL BOCKS
221
Villa, Monza, "Moumfulness" (1892), in the
National Gallery, Berlin, "San Marco" (1899),
in the Vienna Museum , ktOn the Seashore" and
End oi a Summer's Dav," exhibited at the
Pans Exposition in 1()00, "Harmony of Silence"
(1910)
PBAG-ME3STTAL BOCKS See SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
FBAaMEN'TA VAT'ICA'NA (Lat, Vati-
can Fragments) A body of law documents m
part preseived in a palimpsest, now in the Vati-
can libiary They are thought to date from the
time ot Constantine
, fra'ga'nar', JEAN
(1732-1806) One of the most distinguished
painters of the rococo period in Usance He was
born April 5, 1732, at Grasse, it) J?ro"Ciice the
son of a glovemaker The famly relieved to
Paris, wheie the lad was apprenticed tsaiiu^ary
At 18 he began the study of painting with Cha"-
din, from whom he learned the rudiments of art,
after winch he was a pupil of Boucher, his true
master He won the Prix de Home in 1752, and
after three years' prescribed preliminary study
under Carl van Loo he spent four years m Italv
At Rome he worked under the guidance of Na-
toire, but was not influenced by the Italian
masters whom he copied He traveled with the
Abbe de Saint .N"on in .Naples and Sicily, making
drawings for this distinguished amateui's books
On their return journey to Paris (1761) they
stopped at Venice, where Fragonard was in-
fluenced by Tiepolo In 1765 his ' Coresus and
Calhrhoe" piocured his admission to the
Academy, and was bought by the King for
reproduction m the Gobelins. Disgusted with
his difficulty in obtaining payment from the
King, he turned from historical to the gallant
subjects popular with the aristocracy and at the
theatre. His attractive personality made him
a welcome guest and <ie lived the joyous life he
depicted The celebivted "Swing," now in the
Wallace collection, London, established his repu-
tation in this genre and brought him many
similar commissions In 1771 he was com-
missioned to decoiate a pavilion for Madame du
Barry at Louveciennes, the subjects depicting
the "Romance of Love and Youth," in idealized
representations of Louis XV and his favorite
Taken in its entirety, this series is perhaps his
most remarkable achievement The chief sub-
jects represented are "The Pursuit," 'The Meet-
ing," "Memories," "The I/over Crowned/' and
"The Abandonment" Besides these there are
five minor designs of cupids and four purely
decorative designs The work was refused by
du Barry, who, however, gave the artist 18,000
hvres The decorations passed from the artist's
possession to his friend M Maubert at Grasse,
whose descendants sold them in 1898 for 1,250,-
000 francs They were purchased by the late
J P Morgan, in 1914 were exhibited in the
Metropolitan. Museum, New York, and in 1915
weie bought by Henry Clay Frick Fragonard
undertook a similar work for the dancer Marie
Guimard, but he refused to finish it Among
other ambitious works of this period are "The
/@te of Saint-Cloud," also called "The Marion-
ettes," a large canvas for the Banque de France,
"Blind Man's Buff" and "The Swing" (both in
the Groult collection, Paris ) , in which the land-
scapes are particularly charming His happy
marriage in 1769 with Marie Anne Gerard, a
miniature painter of his native town and his
pupil, gave rise to subjects of a domestic char-
actei such as "The Happy Mother" and "The
Cradle" Admuable sepia studies of his wife
and little daughter are in the Besan^on library
The Revolution ruined Fragonard'b fortunes, and
though befriended by Louis David, ho preferred
dining the Terroi to retne to Giassc On his
retuin to Paris he \vas unable to adopt the cold,
classic manner of the painting then in vogue
and died, poor and forgotten, Aug 2, 1SOG
Fiagonard's art is the culmination of lococo
painting in France Never has the gayety,
fnvolity, and chaim of the ancien legime been
bo delightfully represented His paintings are
exquisite in color, free and graceful in line, and
especially characterized by the jaunty pose and
dainty movement of the figures The Louvie
possesses 15 of his paintings, including '"The
Bathers," "The Sleeping Bacchante," "The Shift
Withdrawn," "The Shepherd's Hour," 'The
Music Lesson," and "Inspiiation " He is richly
represented in the Wallace collection, London,
bv the "Fountain of Love," "The Love Inscrip-
tion" (Le Chiffre ds Amour), "The Fair-Haned
Child," and "The Schoolmistress" , at St Peters-
burg are "The Stolen Kiss" and "The Farmer's
Childien" He is lepiesented in many .French
provincial collections and thei e are numerous fine
examples in private collections, such as "Le Billet
Doux," "Mile Colombe" (Rothschild collection
London), "The Pasha," two fine poi traits of tlu>
dancer Guimard, and two of Fragonard himself
His drawings, especially those in sepia, of which
a large number survive, are very fine He de
signed a delightful set of illustrations for La
Fontaine's Fables and was also an etcher of
ability, the best-known plate being "L'Armoire."
— His son and pupil, .AXEXANDRE BVARISTE
(1780-1850), born at Grasse, studied also under
David, whose style he imitated He painted his-
torical pictures, such as "Entry of Joan of Arc
into Orleans" (Orleans Museum), and several
decorative paintings, in the Louvre His il-
lustrations and designs for prints were popular
during the Revolution, and he was also known
as a lithographer and as a sculptor, in which
lattei capacity he modeled a bas-relief for the
Palais Bourdon, Pans
Bibliography. The most complete biography
of Fragonard is by Portahs (Paris, 1883) , the
latest, with admirable illustrations, is by De
Nolhac (ib,1906) Consult also De Goncourt,
L'Art dM XVIIIeme siecle (ib, 1874) ; Nacquet,
Fragonard (ib , 1890) , Josz, Fragonard — maeurs
du XVIIIe siecle (ib, 1901) , Mauclair, m Les
grands artistes series (n d ).
TBAHIT, fran, CHRISTIAN MARTIN JOACHIM
(1782-1851) A German-Russian ethnologist,
born at Rostock and educated in that city and
at Gottingen and Heidelberg He was appointed
professor of Oriental languages at the University
of Kazan in 1807, and chief librarian at the
Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg, in 1815
His principal works treat chiefly of the ethnology
of the various races of Russia They are baaed
upon considerable research and include. Of ova
Supplements (1855-77) , TJeler die Russen und
Chazaren (1819) ; Iln Foszlans und anderev
Araber Benchte uber die Russen alterer Zeit
(1823) Die altesten aralischen Naohrichten
uber die Wolga-Bulgaren (1832); Mm neuer
Beleg dass die G-runder des russwchen Staats
Nordmannen waren (1838), Rapports concern-
ant des collections orientates de I'A-cademie
Imperiale (1838).
FRAEKIN, fra'kaN'. CHARWKS AUGUSTE (1819-
EKAKMTOI
122
FBA3STC
93) A Belgian sculptor, born at Herenthals,
Province of Antwerp He studied at the Acad-
emy of Brussels and under Puyenbroeck He mod-
eled a large number of monuments for squares,
public buildings, and chinches, among the best of
winch are 11 statues for the Hotel de Ville,
Brussels , the statues of the counts Egmont and
Hoorn for the great square of that city (now
in the Place du Petit Sablon) , the allegorical
statues of the "City of Biussels," in the Place
Rouppe, the fine tomb of Queen Mane Louise
of Bel°ium at Ostend His ideal works include
-Venus with the Dove", 'Captive Love," in the
Brussels Museum, "Venus Anadyomene," in the
Royal Palace, Brussels Good examples of his
\iork as a portraitist are a bust of King Leo-
pold in the Chateau of Laeken, and of Queen
Marie Henriette, in the Royal Palace, Brussels
Plaster casts of all Ins works are in the Musee
Fraikin at Herenthals They are spirited in
conception and show variety of style and facility
of execution, his ideal statues have much giace
and voluptuous charm.
PRAKETOI, fro'kno-I, VILMOS (1843- )
An Hungarian historian, bom at Urmeny He
was educated at the University of Pest, entered
the priesthood and was appointed professor at
Gran in 1865, and was made libraimn of the
National Museum in 1875, titulai Bishop of
Arbe m 1892, and chief mspectoi of Hungarian
museums and libraries in 1897 In 1900 he be-
came inspector of the Hungarian Histoiical In-
stitute at Rome, \\hieh he had founded His
works, based upon exhaustive reseaiches and
mostly written in the Hunganan. language, but
also appealing in German veisions, deal with
Hungarian history, especially in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries Peter Passman and Ms Time
(1867-72), A Popular Histoty of Hungary
(1873), Matthias Hunyady (1890), The Rela-
ttons of Hungary ta the Holy See (1901-03).
ntAMBOBSIA See YAWS
FRAME (AS fremwian, frevnan, Icel. framja,
frama,, OHO fremman, freman, to advance, fur-
ther, from AS /raw, from, Icel framr, Ger.
fro mm, earnest, pious, connected with AS from,
fram, Goth, Icel., OHG ft am, from Gk Trepan,
peran, Skt para, beyond ) . The boxlike covering
of any kind of hotbed, ilued pit, or cold pit, to
protect or forward plants at seasons of inclem-
ent weather Frames are usually made of
wood and covered with glass or cloth The
popular form is 6 X 12 feet and several inches
higher at the rear than in front The word
"cold" used to qualify kfframe" or "pit" implies
the absence of other heat than that from the
sun. See HOTBED
FBAUXDre The jointing, putting together,
or building up of the skeleton or frame of any
structure, used particularly in speaking of steel
or wooden buildings and ships (qqv )
PK.AMI1T&HAM, framing-ham A town in
Middlesex Co., Mass , including the villages of
Frammgham Centre, South Frammgham, Sax-
onville, and Jtfobscot, 21 miles west of Boston,
on the Boston and Albany and the New York,
New Haven, and Hartford railroads (Map Mas-
sachusetts, E 3) It is the seat of a State
normal school and has a public library, an his-
torical and natural history society with a valu-
able collection, an almshouse, a public and two
private hospitals, and a Home for the Aged
South Frammgham is the principal business
centre and has manufactures of tags, crgpe
paper, gummed labels, paper boxes, boots and
shoes, rubber and straw goods, Saxonville
manufactures worsted and woolen yarns, wool
blankets, and worsted cloth Othei manufac-
tures of the town include steam boilers, sugar
and coffee machinery, heaters, agricultural im-
plements, etc The government is administered
by town meetings The ^ater works are owned
by the municipality Framing}) am was settled
about 1647, was known as Danfoith's Plantation
until 1700, when it was incorporated under its
present name (from Framlmgharn, England)
Pop, 1900, 11,302, 1910, 12,948, 1914 (TJ S eat),
13,648, 1920, 17,033 Consult Barry, History of
Framingh&m (Boston, 1847), and Temple, His-
tory of Frammgham (Frammgham, 1887)
FBA MORE ALE, mo'ia-a'la See MONTREAL
D'ALEANO
FHAMP'TON, SIR GEORGE JAMES (1860-
) One of the foremost English sculptors
of the early twentieth century He studied at
the Lambeth Schools under W S Frith, at the
Royal Academy, and in Paris under Mercie and
the painter Dagnan-Bouvcret There was noth-
ing unusual about his early work m marble and
bronze, except its sound technical ability It
treated ideal subjects, beginning with "Socrates
Teaching35 (1884) and ending with the striking
"Children of the Wolf" (1892) He then de-
clared himself against all "white sculpture" and
devoted himself to color effects in all manner of
material, such as the female bust, "Mysteri-
arch/' and the stately statue, "Dame Alice
Owen," in bronze and marble, the "Lamia," in
bejeweled bronze and marble, and the youthful
"St George," mounted on an agate globe with
mother-of-pearl background He excels espe-
cially in purely decorative work e g , the terra-
cotta fagade of the Junior Constitutional Club,
London, the sculptures of the Glasgow Art Gal-
lery; and the remarkable bronze memorial to
Charles Mitchel, shipbuilder, at Newcastle Al-
though primarily devoted to ideal and decorative
sculpture, he modeled a number of portrait
statues of great originality, the best known of
which is the colossal bronze Queen Victoria at
Calcutta Frampton is one of the most gifted
and original sculptors that Great Britain has
ever produced Besides being the greatest deco-
rative genius of the school, he excels also in
modeling His figures are highly suggestive of
intellect and imagination, and show pathetic
gravity of expression, but the designs often lack
unity He became a member of the Royal
Academy in 1902, was president of the Society
of British Sculptors in 1911-12, and was
knighted in 1908 He was chosen honorary
member of the Milan and other academies, and
among his many awards was the grand medal of
honor at the Paris Exposition of 1900 Con-
sult Spielmann, British Sculpture and Sculptors
of Today (London, 1901)
PKANC, fraNk (Fr, derived from the de-
vice, Francorum Rev, King of the Franks, struck
by King John II on the com in 1360). The unit
of the monetary system of France and of the
States of the Latin Monetary Union — Belgium,
Switzerland, Italy, and Greece At the present
time the franc is in fact the twentieth part of
the 20-franc gold piece, or 2902 grams of pure
gold, equivalent in United States money to 19 3
cents When the present monetary notation
was adopted in France, in 1795, supplanting the
former livre tournois, the franc was a silver
com, nine-tenths fine, weighing five grams Such
coins were discontinued in 1865, when the franc
123
• oin was made a token, 835 fine, without change
of weight As a silver unit it still remained in
its multiple the five-fiaiic piece, nine-tenths line,
weighing 25 giams In 1876 the coinage of the
h\e-franc piece was discontinued Silver coins
of 5, 2, and 1 fianc, and % franc, are still in
general use, but they are all, strictly speaking,
tokens, gold having become the standard and
being repi esented in the coinage by pieces of 10
francs and 20 francs The franc is theoieticallv
divided into 100 centimes, but the smallest coin
circulated in France is the five-centime piece,
often called by the old term sou In Italy the
equivalent coin is called the lira, and in Greece
the drachma In other countries not in treaty
relations with France, the same unit prevails;
in Finland, the marc, in Spam, the peseta, in
Rumania, the lei, in Venezuela, the bolivar
See LATIN UNION
FRANC, frawk, MARTIN us (1410-61) A
French poet, born in Normandy He became
secretary to the Duke of Savoy, afterward Pope
Felix V, and through him obtained various
luciative appointments, such as secretary to
Nicholas V Despite its tedious detail, his long
poem, Le champion des dames (1530), is valu-
able for its contemporary references and its
vivid local color, and the same may be said of
his prose work, L'estnf de fortune et de vcrtw
(1519).
EBA3ST5AIS, fraw'si', FEANgois Louis (1814-
07) A French landscape painter, lithographer,
and engraver. He was born at Plombieres,
Vosges, and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts
and under Corot and Jean Gigoux, and exhibited
first in the Salon of 1837. Many of his litho-
graphs, such as "The Bark of Don Juan," after
Delacroix, are remaikable, and he was also an
excellent engraver on wood, but it is as a land-
scape painter that he is best known Although
many of his subjects are Italian, he is particu-
larly the painter of the banks of the Seme and
the country about Paris Frangais belongs to
no school, he is an idealist, from the poetical
quality of his brush, and a realist because of the
restraint and decision of his work His pic-
tures include i'The End of Winter" (1853,
Louvre), "Orpheus" (1863), "Daphnis and
Chloe" (1872), his masterpiece, "Evening"
(Montpellier), He received first-class medals in
1848 and at the Paris expositions of 1855 and
1867, and medals of honor at the Paris Exposi-
tion of 1878 and the Salon of 1890 He was
elected to the Institute in 1867
FRANCA VILLA (frarc'ka-vel'la) F03ST-
TANA. A city of south Italy, in the Prov-
ince of Lecce, midway between Tar ant o and
Brmdisi (Map Italy, F 4) It has a large
castle, manufactures cloth, leather, and leather
goods, and markets oil and wine Pop. (com-
mune), 1901, 20,422, 1911, 21,527
FRANCE. A republic of western Europe,
lying between lat 42° 2(X and 51° 5' N and
long 4° 48' W and 7° 31' E from Greenwich
It is bounded on the north by the English Chan-
nel, Strait of Dover, and North Sea, on the
northeast by Belgium and Luxemburg, on the
east by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, on the
south by the Mediterranean and Spain, and on
the west by the Bay of Biscay, Atlantic Ocean,
and the English Channel In outline the country
is roughly hexagonal, and its perimeter is about
equally distributed between seacoast and frontier
The extreme length from the North Sea to the
Pyrenees is a,bout 600 miles, the greatest
VOL. IX. — 9
breadth from the extremity of Buttany to the
Vosges is about 550 miles, and diagonally, to
Mentone on the Mediterianean, about 675 miles
France lanks fourth in size among European
countries, its area, usually stated at 207,054
square miles, is according to the determina-
tions of the War Department, 536,463 7 square
kilometers, or 207,128 6 square miles For na-
tional colors, see Plate of FJLAGS, and for na-
tional coat of arms, see Colored Plate accom-
panying HERALDRY
Topography Fi ance possesses natural bound-
anes throughout and is to a high degree an
independent physical unit The eastern border
is girdled by the langes of the Alps, the Jura,
the Vosges, the Bhenish Highlands, and the Ar-
dennes, winch sepaidte France from the coun-
tries of cential liuiope, the Spanish frontier is
defined thioughout its extent by the Pyrenees
The ranges on the east are broken in places by
gaps and passes, thiough which commercial com-
munication is maintained with the bordering
states The Pyrenees, howowi, present a great
unbioken wall, communication with Spam being
had around their extremities On the northwest,
west, and southeast the boundaries are formed by
open seas, the total coast line measuring about
1950 miles Much of the coast line is unbroken
by important inlets, with the result that good
harbors are comparatively few Most of the
harbors are river ports or are piotected by
breakwaters, as at Cherbourg The northwest
coast, which confronts the southern shores of
England, is intersected by the deep inlets of the
Somme and the Seine and has an irregular
course, owing to the prominent peninsula of Nor-
mandy (called Cotentin), to the many capes,
and to minor indentations It varies in char-
acter from low, sandy stretches, as on the
North Sea, to bold, rocky cliffs, such as are ex-
posed in the Pays-de-Caux, between Dieppe and
Ha\re, and on 'the north coast of Brittany
Between the latter peninsula and Normandy is
the bioad indentation occupied by the Gulf of
S<nnt-Malo, with the Channel Islands (qv),
which are held by Great Britain, although
physically belonging to the mainland. The west
coast, from Pomte Saint-Mathieu, the extremity
of Brittany, to the Gironde, maintains an ir-
regular outline and is intersected by the bays
of Douarnenez, Qmberon, Bourgneuf, by the Per-
tuis Breton, and the Pertuis d'Antioche, and
by the estuarme mouths of the Loire and the
Gironde The low and generally sandy shore
is fringed by islands, of which the largest are
Ouessant (Ushant), Belle He, lie de Noirmou-
tier, Saint-Martin de Ke, and He d Oleron
Southward of the Gironde the coast, formed by
a straight, monotonous stretch of dunes, is
bordered by the arid moors of the "Landes," the
Bassin d'Arcachon being the only important in-
dentation in this section The Mediterranean
coast, by which France enjoys easy access to
Africa and the east, stretches in a broad double
curve from the Pyrenees to the Maritime Alps.
Bold and rocky on the extreme west, it soon
becomes low and sandy, inclosing numerous
lagoons, but without good harbors Near the
middle the Rhone has built its delta^ seaward
and incloses between its mouths the island of
Camargue East of the Bh6ne the shore con-
forms to the projecting spurs of the 3?rovenc.al
Highlands and of the Maritime Alps, which
shelter the harbors of Marseilles, Toulon,
Cannes, and Kiee.
CHANGE
124
FRANCE
The physiography of Fiance, broadly consid-
ered, falls naturally into regions that are deter-
mined, in their position and surface features,
by the events of geological history There aie,
thus, the regions of highlands on the eastern
and southern holders,, the gieat central plateau
in the south-central pait west of the Rhone
valley, the lower plateau of Normandy and
Buttany, and the extensive plains in the north
and west, occupied by the basins of the Seme,
the Loire, and the Garonne A line drawn,
diagonally across the country from Bayonne m
the southwest to the Ardennes of south Belgium
in the noitheast roughly divides the rolling
low plains to the west of it from the cential
plateau and highlands to the east of it The
mean altitude of the country is about 1000 feet,
but the western section averages less than 650
feet As the chief relief is concentrated in the
south and east, the land slope is towaids the
Atlantic, the Rhone alone, of the laige rivers,
takes a southeily course into the Mediteiianean
The Alps on the southeast border are the most
important highlands in the country They ex-
tend from the Mediterranean north to Lake
Geneva, a distance of 150 miles, and with the
flanking chains and foothills thev occupy the en-
tue aiea between Italy and the Rhone valley
The principal groups aie the Mautime, the Cot-
tian, the Graian, and the Pennine Alps, or, ac-
cording to their situation in former provinces,
thev ma\ be druded into the Alps of Piovenee,
Dauphine, and Savoy The Maritime Range on
the extieme south enteis Fiance fiom Italv,
\diere it has its culminating point, the highest
peak acioss the border, French temtoiy, being
the Cime du Diable, 8816 feet To the north
the ranges mciease in elevation, and the Cottian
Alps are crowned by the Aiguille de Scolette,
11,500 feet above the sea Across Mont Genevre
a pass leads from the valley of the Durance, m
Prance, to that of the Dora Kip aria, in Italy*
which has been used as a highway since ancient
times West of the Cottian Range is the small
group of the Oisans} culminating in Les Ecrins,
13,462 feet, and north of it are the lofty Graian
Alps, snow-capped and carrying glaciers on then
rugged slopes, with a crest averaging nearly
10,000 feet in altitude Near their southern end
are the Pass of Mont Gems (6850 feet) and the
railwav tunnel of the same name, now the prin-
cipal line of commumcal ion with Italy The
Alps culminate in Mont Blanc (15,781 feet) of
the Pennine Range , and thence northward to the
shores of Lake Geneva there is a gradual de-
crease in altitude Interrupted by the valley
of the RhOne, the line of highlands is continued
on the north by the Jura Mountains, which are
formed by several parallel groups resting upon
a plateau tilted towards the west, and thus
falling to the valleys of the Saone and the
Doubs The Jura Mountains follow a nearly
north direction at first, but gradually bend to
the east and enter Swiss terntorv, where, or on
the frontier of France, thev attain their maxi-
mum elevation of over 5600 feet (OrSt-de-la-
Neige) The Vosges, separated from the Jura
by the gap at Belfort, now form a part of the
French frontier, their eastern slopes fronting
upon Alsace, which since 1871 has been incor-
porated into the German Empire Their crest
is a, flat-topped mountain ridge, broken by peaks
of 4000 to 4700 feet elevation, connecting in the
southern part with the Monts Faucilles, a low
range that extends westward in the form of an
arc between the sources of the SaOne and the
Meuse and Moselle A northern offshoot ot the
latter highlands stretches along the left bank
of the Meuse and is continued by the Forest of
Argonne to the low plateau of the Aidennes, of
\^hieh only a small portion lies in France The
Pvrenees, " rising with great abruptness on the
soath bolder, extend from the Mediterranean to
the Bay of Biscay A height of 9100 feet is
attained in Mont Canigou, near the Mediter-
ranean, and farthci west this altitude is ex-
ceeded bv MontcaLn (10,000 feet), Pic Long
(10,475 feet), Pic du Midi (9400 feet), and by
others on the French side, and by still loftier
elevations south of the bolder In its confor-
mation the chain is a true sierra, having a
uniform ciest line that is notched by slight gaps,
usually but little below the level of the neigh-
boi ing" peaks Passes, piacticable for railways,
aie found along the low coast strips at the
extieme ends, but between these points there
are but few highways leading fiom France to
Spain that can be traversed without great
difficulty
The central plateau, south of the Loire and
west of the Rhone, is the chief physiogi aphic
featme of central Fiance The plateau uses
shaiplv fiom the Mediteiranean and Rhodanian
depicssions in several groups of highlands that
aie collectively known as the Cevennes Begin-
ning on the southwest \vitli the Montagne None,
at the passage of Naurouse, between the Aude
and the Garonne., which lies at the base of the
Pyienees, the elevations include in their genei-
ally northeasterly course Monts de PEspmousse,
Monts Gamgues, and the Cevennes m the lesser
sense, terminating with Mont Lozere (558-4
feet) Northward the range is continued by
the Monts du Vivaiais, with the volcanic Mont
Mezenc (5755 feet), by the mountains of Lyon-
nais and Beaujolais, and by a succession of high-
lands to the elevated region of C6te d'Or, and
the plateau of Langres, between the Saone and
the sources of the Seine The central plateau
gicidually falls off in elevation to the northwest,
but in Auveigne it has been broken by volcanic
eiuptions The denuded cones3 of the extinct
volcanoes are still conspicuous in numerous
minor elevations near Clermont-Ferrand, and
m the more massive mountains — Puy-de-Dome
(4806 feet), Mont Dore (6187 feet), and Plomb
du Cantal (6096 feet) South of the volcanic
region the plateau receives a special character
by the Gausses, stenle limestone table-lands
whose surface has been dissected by erosion
into deep gorges and ravines North of this
region the low mountains of the Morvan Range
divide the waters of the Loire and the Satoie
Bordering the central plateau are the fertile
plains of central France on the north, the plains
of Pengoid and Poitou on the west, and the
plains of Gascony across the Garonne on the
southwest
Normandy and Brittany (ancient Armorica)
are to be considered as an isolated plateau whose
surface, worn down by long-continued erosion,
has a general altitude of less than 1000 feet In
Brittany the plateau, much less dissected than,
in Normandy, is broken by two lines of monad-
nocks — the Monts d'Ar£e and the Montagne
None — which run out to the two promontories
that inclose the Bay of Douarnenez The Monts
d'Are*e on the north culminate in Saint-Michel
(1285 feet), the highest peak in Brittany, and
the Montagne Noire in Menez Horn (1080 feet).
FRAKCE
NORTHERN PART,
0 10 20" "" 30 40 DO 00 70 80 90 100
SCALE OF KILOMETERS
0 20 40 GO 80 100 120 HO 160
Important towns are shown In heavy face type
Railways shown thus •«u,J1,B3a Canals
iA^Ufcft^
J, r^s.&~y*~t
FEA3STCE
125
FBAISTCE
In Normandy the elevations are grouped along
no geneial lines but the surface shows an altei-
nation of low hills and open valleys The wood-
land region of the Norman Bocage, in the
Depaitment of Calvados, attains an elevation of
1000 feet m a few places, and in the Forest of
Eco\es, near Alencon, Mont des Avaloirs rises
to a height of 1370 feet
Corsica, a pait of France since 1768, belongs
pliybicallv to Italy, with which it is united by
a submarine plateau It is traveised from north
to south by a mountain range, which descends
on the east to a nariow coastal plain, while
westward it sends out spurs that project into
the sea as promontories inclosing many good
luubors The interior of the island is wild and
lugged and is dominated by peaks of consider-
able altitude, the highest being Monte Cmto,
8900 feet above the sea
Hydrography The large diainage systems
of Fiance aie those of the RhDne, the Garonne,
the Loire, and the Seme the northeastern part
of the country is included in the basins of the
Moselle and the Meuse, which flow northward
into Belgium The Rhone, which in point of
discharge is the largest of the rivers, rises in
Switzerland and enters France at the gap be-
tween the Alps and the Jura, flowing first south-
•westerly into the Khodanian depression, where
it is joined by its largest tributary, the SaOne,
fiom the noith, and then sweeping to the south
towards the Mediterranean Through the Isere
and Durance it diams most of the Alpine re-
gion of Fiance, but has no important branches
from the west The basin of the RhOne covers
an area of about 38,000 square miles The Ga-
ronne, the Loire, and the Seine follow the gen-
eial land slope and diain into the Atlantic The
Gaionne, with a basin of 33,000 square miles,
rises on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees and
flows in its middle couise along the southwestern
edge of the central plateau, from which it re-
coives the Tarn-Aveyron, the Lot, and the
Dordogne At its mouth it widens to form the
estuary of the Gironde The Loire, the longest
of the rivers, drains the great basin of west-
central France, with an area of about 46,000
square miles It rises on the slopes of Mont
Mezenc, in the Cevennes, about 30 miles from
tlie Rhone, and thus crosses the whole breadth
of the central plateau The chief branches of
the Loire are on the north, the Mayenne,
Sarthe, and Lou, which unite to form the
Maine, and on the south, the Allier, Cher,
Indre, and the Vienne-Creuse The Seine col-
lects the waters fiorn. the northern part of the
central plateau, over an area of about 30,000
squaie miles From the north it is joined by
the Oise, Marne, and Aube, and from the south
by the Yonne and Eure Besides the four great
river systems, there are several minor streams
of importance, such as the Somme, Orne,
Vilaine, Charente, Adour, Aude, and Herault,
the last two flowing into the Mediterranean
More than 200 rivers are officially reported aa
navigable, for an aggregate distance of about
6000 miles Even the largest, however, show
such fluctuations in volume between periods of
floods and low water that they are not con-
tinuously navigable except by light-draft boats
The Seine is most important for commerce, being
navigable for river boats beyond Paris The
utility of the natural waterways is much aug-
mented by the extensive systems of canals that
connect them, the Seme is connected with the
Meuse and Moselle pioviding waterways across
France to Belgium and Germany, the Seme is
also connected with the Loire and SaOne, the
northwestern seaports of Brest and Saint-Malo
are joined by river and canal with the Loire,
and the Gironde is extended by canal to the
Mediterranean About one-fourth of France's
internal trade is carried on the waterways
There are but few lakes m France Aside from
the biackish or fresh- water lagoons along the
coast, the largest are in the Alps within the
Rhone Basin The largest of these, Lake Geneva,
belongs only in part to France, the north shore
lying m Switzerland Other well-known lakes
of this region are Annecy and Bourget
Climate The climate varies considerably be-
tween the coastal and the elevated interior re-
gions, but it is characteristically temperate
On the Atlantic seaboard the temperatures are
equalized by the southwesterly winds from the
ocean, towards the interior the extremes of
winter and summer aie more marked, and the
isotherms tiend steadily southward The tem-
peratures at Brest aveiage for the year about
52° F , for January 43° F , and for July 63° F ,
while at Paris the yearly mean is 50° F , the
January average 36° F, and the July average
65° F On the eastern frontier the climate has
a continental character, the winters being long
and severe and the summers hot Thus, at
Nancy, which is nearly m the same latitude as
Paris', the annual mean is 48° F, the January
mean 32° F., and the July mean 65° F The
greatest contrast is exhibited between the bleak
climate of the central plateau and the eastern
highlands, and the warm, almost subtropical,
climate of the Mediterranean coast The pre-
vailing winds for the most of France are from
the south and west, and, as the mountains are
on the eastern border, the moist winds are not
stopped by any obstacle before they reach the
highest summit The southerly and westerly
winds, being •warm and moisture-laden, are
responsible for the most of the rainfall A local
wind, the "mistral," which descends from the
central plateau upon the Mediterranean coast,
is remarkable for its constancy and force At
Marseilles it blows on an average 175 days in
the year, sometimes with such violence as to
overturn railway trains and to denude trees of
their foliage It has a chilling effect, but by
clearing the atmosphere it brings sunshine and
healthfulness to the region The rainfall, which
averages about 30 inches for the whole country,
is greatest along the seacoast, and in the elevated
regions of the Cevennes, the Pyrenees, and the
Alps, where the annual precipitation usually
exceeds 40 inches The smallest average (10
inches) is found in certain interior districts of
the northern plains
Flora. The flora of France is typical of that
of continental Europe, since plants indigenous
to each region may be found in some part of the
country Except on the summits of Mounts
Cantal and Dore, which were more recently
formed than their neighbors, the mountain crests
are tipped with species of lichens and mosses
peculiar to the Arctic-Alpine regions With
lessened altitude appear species in a succession
similar to their sequence in decreasing latitude
— mustards, crowfoots, dwarf willows^ and
birches With continued descent the trees,
shrubs, and herbs characteristic of northern
European forests are met with — pine, spruce,
ash, beech, and oak As the level of the sea in
FBAHCE
126
the soutli of France is approached, species in-
digenous to that latitude aie encounteied —
chestnut, poplai, mulbeny The pioducts of
the noithein districts and of the higher eleva-
tions aie wheat, rye, oats, giapes, apples, and
pears, of the middle, corn, potatoes, peaches,
apricots, cherries, and strawbei i les , of the
southwestern, giapes, prunes, figs, and various
nuts, and of the Mediterranean coast, oianges,
lemons, olives, and pomegranates See DISTRI-
BUTION" OF PLANTS, ECOLOGY, and the para-
graph on Flora in EUROPE
Tauna The fauna of France is representa-
tive of western Europe The wide vauety of
climate and physical featuies its extensive sur-
face affords gives room and conditions for a
gieat diversity of animal life A sixth or more
of its surface is covered with forests, and lofty-
mountains, broad sandy plains, and a great
length of coast offer suitable homes foi repre-
sentatives of the whole fauna of temperate Eu-
rope Many large quadrupeds have become ex-
tinct or have been reduced to a, semi domestic
condition during the centuries of human occu-
pation An account of the aboriginal fauna and
its partial disappearance is given under EX-
TINCT ANIMALS Bears still survive in the
Pyrenees, and wolves lurk in the forested foot-
hills of the mountains along the S'vnss and
Italian borders Wildcats are very rare, but a
civet (the genet) and foxes are not uncommon,
while several weasel-like carnivores occui widely.
The higher mountains contain a few chamois,
the moufflon remains in Corsica, and the native
\\ild boar and fallow deer are pieseived on
many private estates The poicupme is the
most interesting of the many rodents as a sur-
vival near the Mediterranean of ancient forms.
Ihe birds embrace a very large list, most of
which are common to all Europe Regular routes
of migration between northern latitudes and
Africa traverse France — one by way of Spam
and the Atlantic coast, another across the
Mediterranean by way of Sardinia and Corsica,
and thence into and beyond France along the
valleys of the RhOne, Loire, Safaie, and Mouse.
Some peculiar southern birds occasionally ap-
pear, as the sand grouse, and otheis aie
habitually present in the south of Fiance, as
the bee eater and hoopoe The great coast line
brings all of the wandering sea animals of the
north Atlantic to French shores, which are rich
in fisheries, oyster banks, and plantations, and
littoral life generally The Mediterranean gives
a separate sea fauna Among reptiles only the
adder, more or less observable everywhere, need
be mentioned. Cypnnoids are the most char-
acteristic inland fishes. See EUROPE, DISTRI-
BUTION" OF ANIMALS, and articles upon neigh-
boring countries
Geology. The central plateau is the geolog-
ical nucleus of France, around which sedimen-
tary strata liave been deposited during the
Paleozoic and succeeding periods In this region
the rocks comprise granites, gneisses, and schists
of Archaean character, overlaid in places by
later volcanic flows of basalt and trachyte The
northern and western plains "were built up dur-
ing Mesozoie and Tertiary times by sedimentary
accumulations along certain lines that corre-
spond generally with the present basina of the
Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne Normandy
and Brittany, however, are of more ancient
(Paleozoic) formation and resemble in geological
structure the southwestern part of England, with
which this portion of Fiance was once united.
The bordering highlands were uplifted at dif-
ferent times The Ardennes and the Vosges con-
sist of early Paleozoic stiata, with small areas
floored by Devonian and Caiboniferous, the
latter containing the most important coal de-
posits of the country The Jura Range has lent
its name to the Jurassic system, which here
includes thick beds of limestones and sandstones
that are continued eastward into Germany In
the Alps the cential granite axis is flanked by
Mesozoie strata, upturned and sharply folded
The Pyrenees did not assume their present form
until late Tertiary times, when there was an
extensive upheaval which parted the waters of
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Between
the central plateau and the eastern, highlands an
arm of the sea once extended as far north as the
Paris basin, its bed was elevated at the close of
the Pliocene and has since been occupied by the
basin of the RhSne
Mineral Besources The coal fields of France,
while they aie limited to the comparatively
small area of about 2100 square miles, are the
most valuable of the nation's mineral resources.
The deposits aie distributed over a number of
small areas, including those of Pas-de-Calais
(which yielded in 1911 about 51 per cent of the
total production), Nord (17 per cent), Loire
(12 per cent), and Nivernais (Le Creusot),
Gard (Alais), Bourbonnais (Commentry), Tarn,
and Aveyron They furnish a good quality of
bituminous coal, suitable for fuel purposes and
to a less extent for iron making Small amounts
of anthiacite are mined in Isere, and about
700,000 tons of lignite are produced annually,
most of it in Bouches-du-Rh6ne The annual
output of coal in France, including the small
lignite production, has gradually increased from
4,481,000 metric tons in 1851 to 13,259,000 tons
in 1871, 26,025,000 tons m 1891, 32,325,000 tons
in 1901, 39,230,000 tons in 1911, and 41,308,000
tons in 1912 The supply is insufficient for
domestic consumption, and about 20,000,000 tons
are imported annually (about 16,500,000 tons
in 1911 and about 23,400,000 tons in 1912) The
1911 output of coal was valued at the mine at
589,219,000 francs, and of lignite at 7,230,000
francs The number of woikers was 200,212,
whose wages amounted to 292,496,000 francs
The development of manufacturing industries
is retarded by lack of fuel and by the high rates
of fuel tiansportation These conditions have ne-
cessitated the extended use of water power, with
which the country iortunately is well supplied
Iron is next to coal in importance The out-
put of iron ore increased from 1,238,000 metric
tons in 1851 to 1,852,000 tons in 1871, 3,589,000
tons in 1891, 4,791,000 in 1901, 8,481,000 tons
in 1906, 16,639,000 tons in 1911 (valued at
77,500,000 francs), and 19,160,000 tons in 1912
(92,900,000 francs) Employees numbered 22,-
674, wages amounted to 36,122,000 francs Of
the total output, 15,054,000 tons, or about 90
per cent, were produced in Meurthe-et-Moselle,
which is one of the principal iron-producing
regions of the world The most important de-
partments producing the remaining 10 per cent
are Orne, Calvados, and Pyre"n4es-0rientales
The total output of 16,639,000 metric tons of
iron ore in 1911 may be compared with 6,060,000
tons in Luxemburg, 6,154,000 m Sweden, 8,774,-
000 in Spain, 15,768,000 in the United Kingdom,
23,829,000 in Geimany, and 44,600,000 m the
United States
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FEANCE
127
FKATffCE
The production of other minerals is compara-
tively unimportant The total salt output in-
creased flora 811,000 metric tons in 1891 to 910,-
000 tons in 1901, 1,339,000 tons (valued at
18,800,000 francs) in 1911, and 1,099,000 tons
(15,900,000 francs) in 1912 Rock and brine
salt amounted to 835,000 tons, and sea salt to
504,000 tons, in 1911, of the total, 742,000 tons,
or more than half, were produced in Meurthe-
et-Moselle, and 210,000 tons in Bouches-du-
Rhone In 1911 the output of gold ore was
144,000 tons, valued at 7,583,000 francs, zmc
ore, 43,761 tons, 5,159,000 francs, lion pyntes,
278,000 tons, 4,697,000 francs, lead and silver
ore, 14,098 tons, 2,013,000 fiancs, antimony oie,
29,267 tons, 1,597,000 francs Other minerals
were of smaller values The total mineral out-
put in 1011 ^\as valued at 717,593,000 francs, ex-
clusive of the output of the quarries
In building materials and quarry products
generally Fiance is well endowed In 1911 the
value of the product of the quarries, including
slate, building stone, cement, etc , amounted to
278,564,000 francs Marble is quarried m the
Alps and Pyrenees, granite, sandstones, and
limestone, in numerous localities The French
millstones, celebrated for their good quality,
come from Ardeche, The value of the roofing
slates, mostly from the Ardennes, is second only
to that of the output of Great Britain Phos-
phate rock, used in the manufacture of ferti-
lizers, is quarried in the departments of Meuse
and Pas-de-Calais Large quantities of this
material are mined by French companies m
Algeria and shipped to France for manufacture
The mineral springs of France are numerous
and of varied character They are situated mostly
in the mountain district of Auvergne and in the
regions bordering the Alps, Vosges, and Pyrenees
Places well known for their baths and medicinal
waters are Aix, Aix-les-Bams, Enghien, Bagneres-
de-Bigorre, Bagneies-de-Luchon, Bareges, Vichy,
Dax, Plombieres-les-Bams, Bourbonne-les-Bains,
Bourboule, Forges-les-Eaux, and Samt-Sauveur
In the manufacture of iron and steel France is
surpassed only by the United States, Germany,
and the United Kingdom The output in France
has increased notably since about the beginning
of the present century In 1880 pig iron was
produced to the amount of 1,725,000 metric tons,
and worked iron and steel, 1,354,000 metric
tons, in 1890, 1,962,000 and 1,407,000, in 1895,
2,004,000 and 1,472,000, in 1900, 2,714,000 and
1,035,000, m 1905, 3,077,000 and 2,112,000; in
1910, 4,038,000 and 2,850,000, in 1911, 4,470,000
and 3,220,000 Not included in these figures is
the production of steel ingots, etc , which in 1910
amounted to 3,839,000 and in 1911 to 4,032,000
metric tons Of the pig iron, 3,012,000 tons were
produced in Memthe-et-Moselle, of the worked
iron and steel, 973,000 tons in Meurthe-et-Moselle
and 861,000 in Nord The value of the pig iron
produced in 1911 was 339,136,000 francs, of the
worked iron and steel, 556,689,000 francs, of
other metals, 99,759,000 francs It is evident
that in the production of metals other than iron
and steel France is not prominent In 1911 the
output included 2726 kilograms of gold (valued
at 9,389,000 francs) , 47,277 kilograms of silver
(5,295,000 francs), lead, 23,635 metric tons
(8,925,000 francs) ; zmc, 57,110 tons (35,192,000
francs), copper, 13,237 tons (19,765,000
francs); nickel, 1880 tons (6,580,000 francs),
aluminium, 7400 tons (11,596,000 francs) ; anti-
mony (regulus and oxide), 4775 tons (2y496,-
000 francs) Employees in the manufacture of
pig iron in 1911 numbered 101,538, worked iroa
and steel, 82,866, othei metals, 5868
Fisheries The fishing industry is on a large
scale The following figures are for 1909 and
1910 respectively fisheimen, 159,899 and 128,-
869, sailboats, 29,598, of 196,707 tons, and 28,-
288, of 206,129 tons, steamers, 269, of 35,807
tons, and 454, of 38,000 tons, value of sail-
boats, 56,843,000 and 51,933,000 francs, value
of steamers, 27,716,000 and 23,945,000 francs,
value of the catch, 134,866,000 and 140,-
288,000 francs In 1910 the catch of cod
amounted to 75,542 metnc tons, valued at 31,-
915,000 francs (of which 63,890 tons, 25,222,000
francs, on the Newfoundland Banks) , sardines,
26,390 tons, 13,397,000 francs, herrings, 45,949
tons, 11,269,000 francs, mackerel, 14,046 tons,
7,018,000 francs, tunny and dolphin, 8201 tons,
5,518,000 francs, lobster and sea crayfish, 1408
tons, 3,435,000 francs, ovsters, 779,000 francs
Agriculture Its geographical position, fer-
tile soil, and mild climate combine to make
France an agricultural countiy Agriculture has
been the chiei occupation of its inhabitants for
centuries, and the French peasant and landlord
have been distinguished for their quickness in
adopting improved methods of cultivation fol-
lowing the discoveries of science The total
active population in 1906 was returned at 20,-
720,879, of whom 8,777,053 were engaged m
agriculture The most fertile sections of the
country are in the noith and northeast and
along the valleys of the Garonne and KhCne
The least productive are the marshy landes of
the southwest and the mountain regions of the
Pyienees and Alps The cultivation of cereals,
wine production, and cattle raising are the prin-
cipal branches of agriculture In 1911, out of
a total of 52,920,208 hectares, as reported, 23,-
752,240 hectares were under the so-called great
crops and in sown meadow and fallow, 4,905,670
in natural meadow, 1,526,560 under forage
grasses, 3,664,380 in pasture, 1,664,880 under
vines, 1,083,990 in market gardens, shrubberies,
etc, 9,339,319 in forest, 3,885,220 uncultivated,
and 2,861,069 m various uses not included in the
foregoing
Cereals — In 1912, upward of 13,600,000 hec-
tares, or more than one-fourth of the total area
of the country, were under cereals, in the pro-
duction of which France stands, among European
countries, second only to Russia Nearly one-
half of the cereal area is devoted annually to
the production of wheat In some European
countries the trend of the population cityward,
American and Canadian competition, and other
causes have combined to curtail wheat cultiva-
tion; but this condition is barely noticeable in
France In 1871, 6,423,000 hectares were under
wheat, in 1901, 6,794,000, in 1913, 6,543,550
Under oats in 1871 were 3,397,000 hectaies, in
1901, 3,856,000, m 1913, 3,998,820 Wheat is
largely raised in the north, in the west, in the
central parts, and in the basin of the Garonne
Previous to 1860 rye bread was the staple food
of the peasantry, but after that time they began
to discard rye for wheat, so that the people
now, though consuming much rye, are pre-
eminently a nation of wheat eaters
Nestt to wheat in importance is oats, to which
3,397,000 hectares were planted in 1871, 3,856,-
000 m 1001, and 3,982,000 in 1^12, more than
one-fourth of the cereal area, tofrg d/^rotfij/w
tltla crop. In the- area under 6&te fteaw&fc 'Jt»pbs
128
FRANCE
third m Europe, being exceeded by Bussia and
slightly by Geimany
The table below bhows area and production of
cereal crops m 1011 and 1912, with metric
quintals pioduced per hectaie in 1912
Hectares
Quintals
Q-*
C
1911
1912
1911
1912
Wheat
Meslin
Tlye
Barley
Buckw't
Oats
Corn
Millet
6,443,360
127,270
1,174,420
771,935
460,940
3,991,490
404,550
21,435
6,571,580
128,750
l,201,biO
7^9,tKJO
461,230
3,981,9SO
476,480
21,370
87,727,100
1,541,220
11,875 000
10,856,570
2,150,190
50,693,500
4,282,700
125,010
90,991 500
1,554 620
12,382,200
11,014,200
5,006,940
51,541,600
5,028,680
154,555
1384
1207
11 05
1449
1085
1294
1265
730
Fruit and Vine Growing — France is famous
for her fruit and especially for the product of
her vineyards Apples, plums, pears, peaches,
and cherries abound in the north and central
parts of the country, while the orange, lemon,
and olive thrive in the south Nuts also grow
in great abundance The most important of the
nuts is the chestnut, the annual value of which
is the largest single item in the revenue of the
French nut growers It grows on the poorei
lands of the country and in the mountainous
regions of Auvergne and Corsica and constitutes
a staple food of the inhabitants The vine has
fiom a veiy early period constituted one of the
puncipal sources of the agncultuial wealth of
Fiance The mild climate and the soil of the
country are especially adapted to its cultivation
The choicest grapes are grown m Champagne,
Burgundy, and the region of Bordeaux, but some
excellent'kmds are produced on the banks of the
Loire and in some of the southern departments
The area devoted to this culture increased from
2,003,000 hectares m 1830 to 2,429,000 in 1872
and 1873, and then decreased to 1,609,000 hec-
tares in 1900, 1,618,000 m 1910, and 1,551,000 in
1912 The vine culture has from time to time
received serious checks through attacks by the
fungus known as the wdmm, which inflicted such
serious damage that in 1854, the worst year, the
hectare yielded only 497 hectoliters Another
destiuctive disease is caused by the ravages of
an insect known as Phylloxe? a vastatma:
The damage wi ought by these diseases is
shown by the fact that the average yield per
hectare, which rose to 20 75 hectoliters in
1850, began to decline after that year It ad-
vanced to 2469 hectoliters m 1858, 35 m 1875,
37.11 in 1001, 40 m 1907, and 37 m 1908, but
these were exceptionally good years. In 1878
the French government took the first step to
combat the evil By a series of legislative en-
actments calculated to encourage a war of ex-
termination against the insect, the government
finally succeeded to a great extent in overcoming
the pest The most effective means of over-
coming the ravages of phylloxera was the im-
portation of American vine stock upon which
the French vines were grafted. The following
figures illustrate the progress of the wme in-
dustry in the nineteenth century and during the
opening years of the twentieth century In 1829
there were produced 31,000,000 hectoliters, in
1849, 35,600,000, in 1880, 29,700,000, m 1890,
27,400,000, in 1900, 67,400,000, m 1905, 56,700,-
000, m 1910, 28,500,000; in 1912, 59,400,000
The production of cider in 1904 was 41,000,000
hectoliters, and in 1905 only 4,800,000, m 1910,
12,300,000, and in 1912, 17,700,000
Live Stock —Stock raising is of secondary im-
portance in France, domestic stock being far
from sufficient to meet the home demand There
were 14,706,000 cattle in 1912, as compared
with 14521,000 in 1900 and 13,633,000 in 1890
The cattle m 1912 included 7,745,750 cows,
2842,710 young stock, 1,844,790 steers, 283,670
bulls, and 1,988,980 calves The dairy industry
flourishes, especially in the north, where the
products are exported to England Horses are
raised piineipally m the north and west The
laismg of fine breeds is an object of special care
on the pait of the government in the interest of
the army The number of horses has been nearly
stationaiy since 1862 , m that year theie were on
farms 2,914,000, m 1880, 2,849,000, in 1900,
2,903,000, in 1912, 3,222,000 Sheep breeding is
important However, in spite of the efforts of
the wool growers, the numbei of sheep declined
from over 32,000,000 in 1842 to 29,500,000 m
1862, 23,800,000 m 1882, 20,200,000 in 1900,
17,954,230 in 1903, and 16,467,700 in 1912, a
decline which had to be covered by importations
The number of hogs, which increased to 7,421,-
000 in 1892, declined to 6,740,000 in 1900 and
6,903,750 m 1912 The best bieeds are laised
in Champagne and the Pyrenees Importation
is necessaiy to meet the home demand Goats,
mules, and asses are among the animals of the
French peasant In 1912 theie were 1,408,520
goats, 358,660 asses, and 196,410 mules Api-
cultuie is well developed
Industrial Plants — Beets owe their impor-
tance to the manufacture of beet sugar, which
originated duimg the early part of the nine-
teenth century During the prevalence of the
vine disease, beets weie employed in the manu-
facture of alcohol The cultivation is carried on
chiefly in the north and east, the area was
255,170 hectares m 1912, and the production
72,221,045 metric quintals Hemp and flax are
grown chiefly in the north The cultivation of
the mulberry tree toi silk pioduction was intro-
duced in the reign of Henry IV (1589-1610).
This industiy receives assistance from the gov-
einment and is Darned on chiefly m Drome,
Gard, Aid&che, Heiault, and Vaucluse Not-
withstanding the large premiums, however, the
number of sericultunsts is deci easing In 1903,
120,266 persons were engaged in silk culture,
and, m 1912, 99,360 For years after 1860 the
production increased, though it has always fallen
far short of 1850, when 25,000,000 kilograms
of cocoons were produced The average of the
last decade of the nineteenth century was 8,000,-
000 kilograms of cocoons, or 2,000,000 kilograms
of raw silk In 1903 the production of cocoons
had declined to 5,985,481 kilograms and m 1910
to 4,269,790, in 1912 it rose to 6,233,942, but m
1913 dropped again to 4,417,426 Of the other
industrial plants, tobacco and colza are the most
important Potatoes and mangold are impor-
tant crops, as also aie beets (other than sugar
beets) Tobacco production, manufacture, and
sale are a government monopoly and a source of
large revenue Production restricted to 25 de-
partments is controlled by the state In 1912
there were 1,563,530 hectares planted to pota-
toes, yielding 150,251,530 metric quintals
Land Tenure — France is a country of small
farms, the inheritance laws having contributed
to the extreme parcellation of the agricultural
land. According to the latest available estx^
FHAHCE
129
FBAJSTCE
mates there ate about 3,000,000 holders of
farms below 25 acres, while those whose farms
are not larger than 2y2 acres exceed 1,000,000
in numbei About 20 per cent of the cultivated
area is in faims under 25 acres, and nearly one-
half the cultivated 01 pastured area is in farms
of less than 100 acres There aie, however,
many laige estates, recent estimates indicating
that" f aims or estates of over 400 acres occupy
more than one-fouith of the area About SO
per cent of the holdings are occupied or culti-
vated by the owners Of the 53,000,000 hectares
of land in France about 25,000,000 were, in 1910,
undei gieat crops and so\^n meadows, 5,000,000
natural meadows, 5,000,000 pasture and forage
glasses, 1,500,000 in vmeyaids, and nearly
10,000,000 in foiests Maiket gardening is an
impoitant agncultural industiy m the vicinity
of Paris, and the market gardeners have a high
reputation for their skill in this line
Beet Sugw — About 6,000,000 acres of land
in Fiance are devoted to the pi eduction of sugar
beets, and the quantity of sugar pioduced is
about 600,000 metric tons annually. France
holds fouith rank among the countnes of the
woild in the production of beet sugar, being ex-
ceeded by Geimany, Russia, and Austria-Hun-
gary The chief pioduction is in the northern
part of the country The number of men en-
gaged in the sugar industry is about 35,000
Forests — The principal forest trees are the
chestnut and beech in central France, the oak
and cork tree in the Pyrenees, and the fir in
the Landes The pinaster is extensively culti-
vated along the southwestern coast on account
of its usefulness in reclaiming the low seacoast
and because of its rich yield of turpentine The
destruction of the national forests has been
enoimous within the last two centimes, but
measmes were taken as eaily as 1827, and
especially in recent yeais, to plant new woods
in order to protect those mountain slopes which
are exposed to inundations from Alpine torrents
The forests of France embraced, in 1911, 9,339,-
319 hectares, slightly moie than one-sixth of the
total area of the country. Nearly two-thirds
of the area under forests is in private hands,
while one-third is in the hands of the national,
departmental, and communal governments
Agricultural Education — The betterment of
agiicultural conditions in France is elaborately
provided for by the National Department of
Agriculture This department has established
under one central authority a much more com-
prehensive and closely coordinated system of
agricultural education than is known in Amer-
ica The schools are adapted to local needs
Not only is instruction in agriculture a branch
of the general course in the public schools, but
there aie practical schools of apprenticeship
especially for the training of the peasant labor-
ing class A professor of agriculture is as-
signed to each department, and conferences
are given in the important agricultural com-
munities
Manufactures For centuries France held a
preeminent position as a manufacturing coun-
tiy The fame of French industry was due to
the skill of her craftsmen, which was developed
through generations But with the advent of
modem industrial appliances, the conditions
for the success of which are not so much techni-
cal skill as an abundant supply of raw material,
especially coal and iron, France was at a disad-
vantage Not possessing the natural resources
which insure cheap power and industrial opera-
tions on a large scale, the country has been
handicapped in the international contest for
the world's markets, though in recent years
the use of electricity geneiated from water
power has pi oven of matenal assistance to her
industries The manufactures which are most
successfully produced are largely confined to
those industries or branches of industnes whose
pioducts are noted for then superior aitistic
finish,, and they do not directly compete with
British, Amencan, or German manufactures in
the world's trade The more important indus-
tries aie the textile, metal, paper, chemical,
glass and pottery industries Seveia-1 other
branches of Fiench manufacture are famous for
the elegance and beauty of their pioducts, but
they aie of minor importance from the point
of view of net financial returns Such arc the
glove mdustiy of Grenoble and Paris, the Gobe-
lin tapestry, costly shawls, watches, clocks, ar-
ticles of \iitu, cairiages, scientific instruments
(manufactuied mostly in Paris), the matchless
china and glass of Sevies, the fine furniture
of Pans and Bordeaux, and many othei articles
of comfoit and luxury The textile industry is
by far the most important, the annual output
being valued at about $750,000,000 This in-
cludes woolen, cotton, silk, and linen manufac-
tures, enumerated in the order of the value of
their products The woolen industry employed
in 1906 171,000 people in more than 2000 mills,
turning out about $260,000,000 worth of goods
per annum It is carried on chiefly in the de-
partments of Nord, ArdSche, Marne, Somme,
Aisne, and Tarn The more costly of the prod-
ucts of the industry, such as the Paris and
Lyons sha\\ls, the Rouen, Roubaix, and Sedan
cloths, are in demand all over the world While
expoiting enormous quantities of woolen goods,
Fiance has to import a good deal of raw wool,
owing to the decline of the domestic output
The cotton industry, centring chiefly in the de-
partments of Noid, Vosges, Euie, Aube, and
Seme-Infeiieiue, employed about 150,000 per-
sons at 5,200,000 spindles and 95,000 looms
in 1000, as compared with about 100,000 peisons
and 4,376,000 spindles in 1890, in 1906, 167,000
persons were employed, and the number of
spindles rose to 7,400,000 in 1912 The industry
dates in France from 1773 Its annual output
is valued at over $320,000,000 The silk mdus-
tiy, while ranking third in the value of its out-
put, excels in the aitistic finish of its products
The annual value of these is estimated at about
$110,000,000 for Lyons and Saint-Etienne alone
This industry employed about 124,000 persons
in 1906 Hand-loom weaving is rapidly de-
clming, the chief seat of this house industry is
in the Department of Rhone In the pro-
duction of linen goods France leads in the mat-
ter of style, quality, and design The linen in-
dustry flourishes chiefly in the north, the names
of Lille, Cambrai, and Valenciennes having be-
come identified e\erywhere with the finest
qualities of linen No less famous are the lace
manufactures of Paris, Saint-Etienne, Lyons,
and Nantes
The metal industry is next in importance
While there are laige iron and steel mills in
the mining region, the departments of Nord,
MeurthB-et-Moselle, Loire, and Pas-de-Calais,
France is far behind such countries as the
United States, Gieat Britain, and Germany in
that field and has to resort largely to imports.
PBAHCE
130
FRANCE
of machinery It is known, however, for the
line qualities of its smaller metal ware, such as
safes, hardwaie, steel pens, locks, files, needles,
etc Ihe excellence of Fiencli gold and silver
ware is a matter of common knowledge The
manufacture of jewehy, watches, and optical
instruments deserves mention At the opening
of the twentieth centuiy the paper industry
engaged about 40,000 people in 600 paper mills,
producing some $60,000000 worth of goods an-
nually In 1885 the number of mills barely ex-
ceeded 500 employing about 30,000 workmen and
tu] mn£$ out pioducts valued at but $23,000,000
The manufacture of pottery furnished employ-
ment to some 166,831 people in 1906 In addi-
tion to the superb china and porcelain ware of
Sevres there should be mentioned the famous
mirror works of Samt-Gobain and Montluc,on,
and the imitation jewels and glass pusnis The
chemical industry ranks probably next to that
of Germany, the more important branches from
a commercial point of view being the manu-
facture of perfumes, soap, and candles Beer
biewing is increasing in importance, the con-
sumption of beer growing at the expense of wine,
especially by the poorer classes From about
8,227,000 hectoliters in 1880, the production of
beer rose to over 10,712,000 hectoliteis in 1000,
12,239,000 in 1910, and 14,650,000 in 1911 The
production of wine has kept pace with vine
growing, and French cognac still leads the world
In 1899-1900 there were produced 869,201 metric
tons of refined sugar, this increased to 1,051,931
tons in 1901-02, but declined to 562,736 tons
in 1904-05, the production in 1005-06 was
984,672 tons, in 1910-11, 650,488, in 1911-
12, 465,378, and in 1912-13, 877,656. In
1905, 2,608,626 hectoliters of alcohol were pro-
duced, and, in 1912, 3,309,609 hectoliters The
growth of large modern industries may be best
seen from the increased use of steam power , e g ,
in 1840 the engines and motors employed in the
industrial establishments of France, not count-
ing the railways, numbered 2591, with 33,000
horse power, in 1890 the horse power exceeded
863,000, in 1900, 1,791,000, in 1910, 2,913,000,
and, m 1912, 3,225,000, the total number of en-
gines in the latter year being 81,675
Transportation. In length of railway, France
is fifth among the countries of the world The
table below compares the length of the French
railways, in kilometers, with that of other lead-
ing countries at the end of 1890 and at the end
of 1911, the table shows also the number of
kilometers for each 100 square kilometers of
territory and for each 10,000 inhabitants (the
kilometer equals 062137 mile)
Kilometers
Km per 100
sq km
Km per
10,000 pop
COTJNTBY
1890
1911
1890
1911
1890
1911
United States
268,409
396,860
30
43
427
431
Germany
42,869
61,936
79
114
87
95
Russia*
30,957
61,078
06
1 1
32
4ft
British India
27,000
52,838
06
10
09
28
France
36,895
50,232
70
9*?
96
128
4.ustna-Hungary
27,113
44,820
40
66
62
88
Danadaf
United Kingdom
22,533
32,297
40,869
37,649
03
103
05
120
467
S 5
629
83
^r^eritmA
9,800
31,575
04
1 1
241
645
* European Russia, including Frolajxd, t At end of
Sscal year
The average length of railway in exploitation
in France during 1911 was 49,080 kilometers
(31,056 miles), of which 40,635 kilometers were
comprised in the lines of general interest and
9345 kilometeis m the lines of local interest
The average length of railway of general inter-
eat in operation m 1841 was 499 kilometers, m
1850, 2915, in 1860, 9167, m 1870, 15,544, m
1880, 23,089, m 1890, 33,280, m 1900, 38,109,
in 1905, 39,607, in 1910, 40,484, m 1911, 40,-
635, in 1912, 40,854 (provisional) The aver-
age length of railway lines of local interest m
operation in 1880 was 2105 kilometers, m J890,
3015, m 1900, 4575, m 1905, 6868, in 1910,
8714, in 1911, 9385 (provisional), in 1912,
9925 From the foiegomg figures it may be
seen that the combined average length of rail-
way in, opciation increased from 25,194 kilo-
meteis (15,655 miles) m 1880 to 36,295 m
1800, 42,684 in 1900, 49,198 in 1910, and 50,-
779 (31,553 miles) in 1912
The average length of railway in operation
m 1910 was comprised as follows' I The great
systems State Imes, 8925 kilometers (includ-
ing 2967 m the old system and 5958 in the
Western Railway system, which was transferred
to the state Jan 1, 1909) , the lines of the great
companies, comprising the Northern Railway
system, 3803 kilometers, Eastern Railway sys-
tem, 4939, Pans-Orleans system, 7744, Pans-
Lyons-Mediterranean Railway system, 9562,
Southern Railway system (Midi), 3892, other,
158, total, 30,098 kilometers II Secondary
systems, 1461 kilometers Total railwav of
general interest, 40,484 kilometers III Rail-
way of local interest, 8714 kilometers Grand
total, 49,198 kilometers In addition there were
tramways aggregating 5895 kilometers and the
Paris-Metropolitan of 59 kilometers.
The great railway systems, with one exception,
converge upon Paris, these systems are six in
number, excluding the old state lines and in-
cluding the Western system, now taken over by
the state A thorough grasp of these is essen-
tial to a clear understanding of the principal
economic divisions of the country and their
elYect upon its industrial and commercial devel-
opment These lines, as mentioned ahove, are
the Northern, the Eastern, the Paris-Lyons-
Mediterranean, the Southern, the Paris-Orleans,
and the Western
The most important is the Pans-Lyons-Medi-
terranean Railway, running, with its numer-
ous "branches, through the richest section of
France and connecting the two largest cities of
the country, Paris and Marseilles It commands
the traffic of the Rh6ne valley as well as that
going to and from Switzerland, Italy, and south-
ern Germany Its paid-up capital at the end of
1910 was 4,831,273,328 francs
The Pans-Orleans Railway extends beyond Or-
leans to the west and south through Tours to
the ports of Nantes and Bordeaux and has its
southern terminal at Toulouse, where it joins
the Southern Railway. It passes through a rich
agricultural country, serving as an outlet for
its products, which it takes to the Atlantic ports
just mentioned, to the Mediterranean through
the Southern Railway, and to Pans and the
northern region of France. Its paid-up capital
at the end of 1910 was 2,549,191,025 francs
The Southern Railway is the only trunk road
that does not terminate in Pans. It traverses
the south of France from east to west, joining
the two roads just described The principal
terminals of the hue are Boideaux, on the At-
lantic, and Cette on the Mediteiranean At the
latter point it joins the Pans-Lyons-Meditena-
nean line and connects at Perpignan and Ba-
yonne with the lailways ot Spain Its ptiid-up
capital at the end of 1910 was 1,392,517,683
francs The Northern Railway, extending fiom
Paris northeast to the Belgian frontier and
northwest to the ports situated on the English
Channel, passes through the riche&t mining re-
gion of France It handles the traffic with Eng-
land and northern Euiope and has teiminals in
the ports of Dunkiik, Calais, and Boulogne, be-
sides passing through the important textile cen-
tres of Lille, Cambiai, Valenciennes, Airas, etc
Its paid-up capital at the end of 1910 was
1,762,069,513 francs
The Eastern Railway covers the territory lying
between the Northern and the Paris-Lyons-
Mediterranean systems It is of great stiategic
value, since it extends directly east of Pans
towards the German frontier Though not con-
necting the same terminals, it competes with the
two systems mentioned above, since it cairies
traffic to Belgium and northern Germany over
Mezieres, to Switzerland over Belfort, and to
southern Germany over Nancy Its paid-up
capital at the end of 1910 was 2,153,885,723
francs Finally, the Western Railway (taken
over by the state in 1909), extending from Paris
over the northwestern and western parts of
France, terminates in a number of ports on the
English Channel and the Atlantic, notably
Dieppe, Havre, Cherbomg, Saint-Malo, and
Brest It is in a position to compete with the
two ad]0ining roads — the Northern on the
northeast and the Paris-Oileans on the south-
west Its paid-up capital at the end of 1910
was 2,088,113,534 fiancs The state railways,
exclusive of the Western, cannot be said to form
a system, since they aie not all contiguous, hut
foim an megular, broken net, intersecting at
many points the other roads. The great rail-
ways of France will thus be seen to cover each
a distinct tcrntory, distinct both in the sense
that each territory is tiaversed by one system
only and that each forms a distinct economic
entity The Northern Railway may be called a
coal-carrying line, the Paris-Lyons-Mediterra-
nean a carrier of finished products, and the
Paris-Orleans a gram carrier
The operation of government and private rail-
ways side by side is the result of a long series
of experiments Since 1842, when the first law
regulating the construction and operation of
railways went into effect, the country has
passed through a number of stages, each having
its effect on the railways The present status is
the result of the Law of 1883, which left the
principal lines m private hands, but under
strict government control, and of the laws of
1%S whereby the Western was taken over by
the state According to the charters of the rail-
ways, their franchises expire between 1950 and
1960, when the entire railway property will pass
to the state without any compensation The
goveinment, in 1833, turned over nearly all the
lines to private companies without any com-
pensation. New construction is done by the
government, the companies being assessed for
the purpose 25?000 francs per kilometer, a little
over $8000 per mile, about one-tenth of the
actual cost For the remainder the companies
advance the money to the government, which
the latter pays out in annuities at a certain
jl FRANCE
rate of interest, after deducting the amounts
duo to it for sums advanced to the railways
for the payment of dividends The state guar-
antees a minimum dividend to the stockholders
In the event of inability of a load to declare
the minimum dividend on the capital stock, the
state advances the requned sum, which, with,
the accrued mteiest, goes to make up the debt of
the road to the state, payable from the profits
of succeeding years When the profits exceed
a eeitam late, the government leceives two-
thirds of the surplus In 1911 the total re-
ceipts of the roads of general interest was
1,901,088,000 francs, expenses, 1,188,404,000,
net receipts, 712,684,000
Boads The French highroads have world-
wide fame The laying of the first is attnbuted
to Philip Augustus, and their moie perfect or-
ganization during tlie sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries was due to Heniy IV and Louis XIV
These roads are drvided into three kinds — na-
tional, departmental, and communal The na-
tional roads in 1911 had a length of 38,239 kilo-
meters
Commerce The general commeicial policy of
the French goveinment was that of protection
during the entire nineteenth, and has continued
to be protective in the twentieth century The
unfortunate condition in which France found
herself after the War of 1870-71 demanded
higher tariff duties for fiscal purposes, but
owing to existing tieaties with other countries,
they could not be introduced before 1882, when
a new general tariff was adopted, raising the
duties about 25 per cent Treaties for a term
of 10 years terminating in 1892 were entered
into with most of the European countries, of
which Germany, Russia, Turkey, and Eumania
enjoyed the privilege of the "most favored na-
tion" clause Subsequent changes in the tariff
have been designed to make it more prohibitive
The development of the French foreign trade is
shown in the table below, in millions of francs,
the table shows the general commerce and
the special commeice, and the special commerce
is discriminated into the three great classes of
food products, raw materials, and manufac-
tured goods , bullion and specie are not included ,
postal packets are included with manufactured
goods
Both imports and exports have shown a sub-
stantial increase, although the tariff crippled the
import trade for many years subsequent to
1880 The exports during these years would
have increased more rapidly had it not been for
the retaliatory commercial restrictions imposed
by other countries The dependence of France
upon foreign countries for her supply of raw
material (including coal) is shown by the fact
that in 1912 this constituted about 58 5 per
cent of the total imports, while manufactured
products amounted to only 19 6 per cent As
explained above under Manufactures, because of
the different nature of the products, France does
not compete with Great Britain, the United
States, and Germany m the world's trade, where
the demand is largely for cheap machine-made
goods As France sells a large proportion of
expensive goods, and buys great quantities of
cheap, bulky raw materials, vessels in the French,
trade often find it difficult to get full return
cargoes from French ports.
The chief articles of import in the special
trade in order of their importance in 1911 were
as follows (values in millions of francs} *
FRANCE
132
FRANCE
cereals, 7151, \\ool, 6282, cotton, 5587, coal,
4535, oil seeds, 3717, hides and skins, 3550,
silk, 3174, wine, 3015, machmeiy, 2867, rub-
ber, 2378, timber, etc, 1933, coilee, 1444, cop-
per, 1433, ores, 1134 flax, 859, jewelry, 824,
petroleum, 814, butter and clieese, 81 1, metal
wares, 774, pottery and glass, 767, nitiate of
soda, 763, papei, 748 The leading articles of
export in the special trade in 1911 hides and
skins, 349 3 , cotton tissues, 334 2 , wool, 323 G ,
silk tissues, 2920, lingerie, 1977, woolen tis-
5426 and 10242, Russia, 4431 and 539, Al-
geria, 425 6 and 489 9 , British India, 360 2 and
427, Argentina, 3538 and 1704, Spam, 2305
and 1356, China, 2298 and 137, Italy, 1903
and 2778, Rumania, 1751 and 107, Brazil,
1460 and 785, Switzerland, 1402 and 3940
Shipping and Navigation The French
mei chant marine increased from 15,585 vessels,
of 1,037,726 tons net, with 91,506 men, at the
end of 1900, to 17,729 vessels, of 1,462,639 tons
net, with 98,226 men, at the end of 1911 At
General commerce
Special commerce
YEARS
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Food
Raw
Mfd
Total
Food Raw
Mfd
Total
1830
6380
5730
1535
3034
323
4892
1195
3334
4529
1840
1,052 0
1,011 0
190 6
5069
49 9
7474
1844
5106
6950
]S50
1,120 0
1,435 0
1314
618 5
40 S
7907
3219
7462
1,068 1
1860
1S7Q
2,657 0
3,498 0
3,148 0
3,456 0
3953
802 2
1,443 1
1,766 6
589
2886
1,897 3
2,867 4
8485
1,3769
1,428 5
1,4252
2,277 1
2,802 1
1871 -
3,953 0
3,278 0
1,1570
2,035 1
3747
3,366 7
1,328 0
1,544 5
2,872 5
1880
1890
1895
1900
6,1130
5,452 4
4,9196
5,988 6
4,612 3
4,840 2
4,589 3
5,521 6
1,9616
1,445 1
1,035 5
8192
2,472 4
2,372 9
2,1009
3,035 3
5992
6189
583 5
8433
5,033 2
4,436 9
3,719 9
4,697 8
8112 9168
855 4 897 4
591 0 873 6
769 2 1,084 8
1,839 9
2,000 6
1,909 2
2,254 7
3,467 9
3,753 3
3,373 3
4,108 7
1905
1909
1910
1911
1912
6,061 5
7,856 5
9,102 6
9,809 9
10,293 6
6,302 3
7,482 3
8,104 9
8,012 2
S.S23 9
8229
9523
1,4130
2,020 0
1,803 4
3,087 3
4,113 1
4,345 7
4,525 3
4,381 2
8687
1,180 7
1,414 6
1,520 5
1,614 2
4,778 9
6,246 1
7,173 3
8,065 S
8,230 S
780 5 1,338 0
823 6 1,693 8
858 2 1,930 8
736 9 1,830 1
S49 8 1,944 9
2,748 4
3,200 7
3,444 8
3,509 9
3,917 9
4,866 9
5,718 1
6,233 8
6,076 9
6,712 6
sues, 1906, wine, 1877, atttclcs de Paiis, 1834,
chemical pioducts, 109 6, automobiles, 1624,
silk, 1624, mbbei, 1569, cotton, 1203, paper,
1198, machmeiy, 1106, metal wares, 1067,
novelties, 87 2 , pottery and glass, 83 3 , woolen
yam, 752, leathei goods, 750, oils, 739, jew-
elry, 726, rubber goods, 710, table fruits,
69 2 , butter and cheese, 66 2 , sugai ,644, tim-
ber, etc, 625, plumes, 596, uon and steel,
59 4 Import and export of coin and bullion
in 1909, 5400 and 3610, in 1910, 4060 and
3900 in 1911, 4620 and 2850
The course of trade between the United States
and France in the last <30 yeais may be tiaeed
in the following table
Imports into
Exports from
YEAR
theU S from
the U S to
France
France
1875
$36,708,600
$51,029,200
1891
76,688,995
60,693,190
1895
61,580,509
45,149,137
1899
62,146,056
60,596,899
1900
73,012,085
83,335,097
1903
90,050,172
77,285,239
1905
89,830,445
76,337,471
1907
127,803,407
113,604,692
1909
108,387,337
108,764,262
1911
115,414,784
135,271,648
1913
136,877,990
146,100,201
1914
141,44b,252
159,818,924
In 1911 imports of merchandise from, and
exports of merchandise to, foreign countries
were valued at 7,136,774,000 and 5,201,071,000
francs respectively, free zones, etc, 29,152,000
and 77,971,000, French colonies and protectorates
(including Algeria), 899,902,000 and 797,817,-
000, totals, 8,065,828,000 and 6,076,859,000 In
1911 imports of merchandise from, and exports
of merchandise to, the United Kingdom were
valued at 994 2 and 1219 9 million francs re-
spectively (special trade), Germany, 9797 and
7946, United States, 826.8 and 3797 Belgium,
the lattei date there were 15,949 sailing vessels,
of 624,521 tons, and 1780 steamers, of 838,118
tons, of the total, 15,064 vessels, of 107,188
tons, were under 30 tons each In 1911 there
entered at French ports, in the foreign trade
and the deep-sea iishmg, 30,615 vessels, of 30,-
483,408 tons (of which, 8046 vessels, of 7,266,-
870 tons, French), and cleared 31,013 vessels,
of 30,882,743 tons (8244, of 7,478,433 tons,
French) In combined tonnage, entered and
cleared, the principal ports ranked as follows
in 1911 Marseilles, Havre, Cheibourg, Bor-
deaux, Boulogne, Dunkirk, Rouen, Cette, La
Rochelle, Samt-Nazane, Nantes, Calais The
merchant marine receives an annual govern-
ment subsidy of about $5,000,000 An impor-
tant means of inland transportation is afforded
by river and canal Principal water lines in
1911 totaled 6036 kilometers, and secondary
lines 5318 kilometers, there was steam navi-
gation on 2563 kilometeis of canal and 2542
kilometers of river
Weights, Measures, and IConey The met-
nc system is the only one used throughout
the country and its dependencies There is
theoretically a double monetary standard, silver
being given an arbitrary value in proportion
of 15% to 1 of gold But practically the stand-
aid of value is gold, theie is no free and un-
limited coinage of silver By the agreement of
the Latin Monetary Union, which embraces be-
sides France the countries of Belgium, Italy,
Switzerland, and Greece, the coinage of silver
in each of these countries is limited For
France the Convention of 1897 authorized an is-
sue of 394,000,000 francs The monetary unit
is the franc, usually regarded as equal to 19 3
cents in United States money, the par value is
19 295 cents The franc has 100 centimes The
coins in use are the 10 and 20 franc gold coins,
the silver coins of 1, 2, and 5 francs and of 20
and 50 centimes; and the bronze 5 and 10 cen-
time coins
FBA3STCE
133
FBAHCE
Banking The French banking system has m
many respects served as a model for other na-
tions Of late years banking and financing
operations generally have acquned a greater
relative importance in the economic activity of
the country than before, since through that
channel the surplus capital of French citizens
is dnected into productive fields in foreign
countries With the exception perhaps of Eng-
land, France holds the leading position in the
world for the amount of foreign investments
There are two distinct clas&es of financial in-
stitutions to be considered here ( 1 ) the Bank
of France, which stands by itself and (2)
other banking institutions The Banque de
France is a private institution, managed under
stiict government control, owing to the impoi-
tant government functions mtiusted to it This
contiol is exeicised not only by general legis-
lative provisions, such as govern all other banks,
but also directly through the governor and
undergovernors of the bank, who are appointed
by the government The governor can exert a
veto power over the actions of the bank by re-
fusing to sign the decisions of the Geneial Coun-
cil, which represents the stockholders In ad-
dition to its geneial banking function, such as
receiving and lending money and keeping ac-
counts with private individuals, the bank con-
ducts all the money operations of the public
Treasury and has the sole power of issuing
paper money It was founded in 1800 and was
reoigani^ed upon a firmer basis in 1806, It
passed through many changes, following the
stormy events of the nineteenth, centuiy Its
present form of organization and basis of opera-
tion date from the chaiter of 1857, renewed in
1897 and expiring m 1920 The maximum issue
of paper money is limited to 5,000,000,000
francs The state regulates, through the veto
power of the governor, the ratio of metallic re-
serve to the notes in circulation In return for
the privilege of the exclusive power of note
issue and of being the depository of all the pub-
lic funds, the bank performs gratis all the fiscal
services in connection with the keeping, trans-
ferring, and disbursing moneys on behalf of the
Treasury In addition to that it keeps open to
the state at all times a credit of 180,000,000
francs, free of interest or any other charges In
addition to all taxes to which other banks are
subject, it pays a stamp tax on the note circu-
lation On Jan. 2, 1914, the principal resources
and liabilities of the bank were as follows
Cash, 4,146,261,059 francs of which 3,507,000000
were gold, and 640,000,000 silver, port-
folio, 1,980,667,000 francs, advances, 1,001,-
829,000 francs, capital and reserves, 256,000,-
000 francs, notes in circulation, 6,034,624,735
francs, accounts current (deposits), 692,612,354
francs
The other principal banking institutions are
the Credit Foncier, capital stock, on Jan. 1,
1908, of 200,000,000 francs, Credit Lyonnais,
250,000,000 francs, Banque de Paris et de
Pays-Bas, 75,000,000 francs, and a number of
banks with a capital of less than 75,000,000
francs The Paris Clearing House (La Chambre
de Compensation des Banquiers), unlike the
New York or London houses, plays an insignifi-
cant rdle It was founded in 1872 after the
London model and, although much had been ex-
pected of it, has not proved a success, owing to
the reluctance of the French people to use
cheeks The use of checks is limited to very
large transactions and even in those cases is not
always the rule Savings banks thrive and
flourish in France in great numbers The first
savings bank was established m Paris in 1818,
m 1840 there were 430 such institutions, with
deposits exceeding $38,000,000, and on Jan 1,
1913, the private savings banks held deposits
exceeding the sum of $754,000,000, ei edited to
8,391,000 depositors In addition to that
5,971,000 depositors had $329,000,000 m the
goveinment po&tal savings banks The latter
were founded m 1881.
Finance The characteristic features of
French finance are the largest public debt of
any nation in the world, great and rapidly
growing expenditures, and heavy taxation, which
nevertheless frequently leaves a large deficit,
leading to fiesh borrowings
Revenue — The revenues of the Republic are
derived fro-m two sources, taxation and state
pioperties and monopolies The financial sys-
tem resembles moie that of the United States,
differing greatly from those of the United King-
dom and Germanv in the great pieponderan.ee
of indirect over dnect taxes Onlv about one-
fifth of the revenue derived from taxation comes
from direct taxes, and four-fifths from indirect
The revenue derived in France from all kinds of
taxes constitutes nearly 70 per cent of the total,
the remainder being the income fiom govern-
ment properties, monopolies, etc The more
important of the direct taxes are those on real
estate, peisonalty, doors and windows, property
in mortmain, and the royalties from mines,
trade licenses, and such objects of personal use
as carriages, horses, bicycles, etc. Among the
indirect taxes the most important are the regis-
tration tax, contributing nearly one-thud of the
total revenue from indnect taxes, customs du-
ties, yielding nearly one-fourth , the tax on sugar,
nearly one-f ourtee'nth , stamps, with over one-
tenth of the total indirect revenue, and a large
number of excise duties on various articles of
consumption, such as liquors and wines, salt,
candles, vinegar, the tax on railway tickets, etc
When we bear in mind that the incomes from a
number of the state monopolies are practically
indirect taxes, as, eg, in the case of tobacco
and matches, it becomes apparent that the
French consumer is heavily taxed on nearly
everything he eats, drinks, wears, and enjoys,
the department and common taxes cover nearly
everything that the national government omits
The most important revenues from government
monopolies, in addition to those mentioned, are
those derived from state railways, the operation
of the mint, public domain and forests The
1913 budget showed estimated receipts as fol-
lows direct taxes, 622,334,030 francs, indirect
taxes, 2,548,755,235, state domains and forests,
67,971,480, state monopolies and industrial en-
terprises, 968,655,373; various, 428,585,780,
total, 4,736,882,438
Expenditure — The chief item of expenditure
is the seivice of the public debt, which absorbs
more than one-fourth of the total revenue of the
government The next largest item is for the
Ministry of War, over one-fifth of the total,
the Marine follows next, with an expenditure
nearly one-half as large, after which come the
Ministry of Public Works and the Ministry of
Public Instruction, and Fine Arts The 1913
budget showed estimated expenditure of 4,738,-
603,534 francs, of which the larger items were
as follows, service of the public debt, 1,286,-
FBAISTCE
134
423,922 fiancs, Mmistiy of Wai, 983,224,3/6
francs, Marine, 448,941,002, Public \Yoiks,
340,905,255, Public In&tiuction and Fine Arts,
330,918,486, Interior, 141,961,939, Laboi, 100,-
669,353, Colonies, 105,535,363 The estimated
levenues foi 1914 weie 5,373,517,984 fiancs,
expenditures, 5,373,449,229 The ordinal y, ex-
traoidmary, and total levcnue and expenditure
have been as follows, m millions of francs
REVENUE
EXPENDITURES
Year
Ord
Extrao
Total
Ord
Sxtrao
Total
1815
7292
1472
S763
9314
1520
9334
58
9392
906 7
1&30
971 0
400
1,020 1
1,095 1
1840
1850
I860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1905
l,lbO 5
1,296 5
1,722 3
1,661 G
2,936 9
3,229 4
3,814 9
3,766 3
740
135 1
2399
1,462 9
5739
1464
1,234 5
1,431 C>
1,962 2
3,1244
3,530 8
3,375 8
3,814 9
3,766 3
1,3803
2,021 8
1,759 5
2,826 6
3,141 5
3,747 0
3,706 8
923
62 3
1,4136
5380
1464
1,363 7
1,472 6
2,084 1
3,1732
3,364 6
3,827 9
3,747 0
3,706 8
1910
1911
1912
4,273 9
4,689 9
4,857 5
4,273 9
4,689 9
4,857 5
4,321 9
4,5479
4,742 8
4,321 9
4,547 9
4,742 8
Public Debt — The public debt is the natmal
result of continued deficits m the national
budget and dates from the fifteenth centuiy
In 1913 it was $6,349,120,000, as compared
with $3,485,818,000 foi the United Kingdom,
$4,537,861,000 for Russia, $2,852,418,000 for
Italy, $1,028,564,000 for the United States, and
about $1,177,418,000 for the German Empire.
In 1906 it was $5,655,134,000 The indebted-
ness per capita is far beyond that of the pim-
eipal countries of the world, but is less than
that of Portugal, Honduras, and New Zealand
The following table shows at various dates the
capital of the public debt (distinguishing the
3 per cent consolidated debt, the railway debt,
other debts, and the floating debt) , it also
shows the annual interest charge on the con-
solidated debt (all figures represent millions of
francs)
YEAB
Consol
Ry
Other
Float
Int
1800
7140
360
1815
1,272 0
640
1830
4,426 3
^
2625
1994
1848.
5,953 9
.
6308
2443
1S52
5,5162
2393
1871
12,454 3
,
3862
1876
19,909 2
1,3593
7483
1883.
21,4930
2,336 3
741 8
1887
24,661 9
1,825 4
1,3252
1,0098
7351
1S94
26,902 0
1,938 9
1,243 1
1,146 9
7620
1900
25,838 7
2,044 1
1,171 7
1,0547
6940
1905 .. „
25,934 0
2,243 1
1,1700
1,262 7
6667
1910 , .
25,461 2*
4821 1
1,1678
1,299 8
6577
1911
25,410 2
4,812 7
1,084 8
1,386 0
6577
1912
25,360 4
4,789 6
1,046 5
1,5422
6577
1913
25,310 6f
5,1693
970 If
1,523 7
6577
* Of which, 2,726 3 for the Western Railway (Law of Dec
21, 1909)
t There was a transfer of certain items from "other
debts" to the railway debt in 1913
Colonies The area and population (mostly
for 1911) of the Fiench possessions are shown
in the table below, for some of the dependen-
cies, as French West Africa, French Equatorial
Africa, and Fiench Guiana, the figures are only
approximations
Area
COLONIES AND
Popu-
PROTECTORATES
lation
Sq kin
Sq m
Algeria
Tunis
French Morocco
French West Africa
575,289
125,130
416,800
3,922,900
222,119
48,313
160,926
1,514,632
5,563,828
1,929,003
3,000,000
11,626,000
Spheie of influence in
the Sahara
Fr Equatorial Africa
French Somah Coa,st
Madagascar
2,394,200
1,439,000
120,000
585,300
924,400
555,598
46,332
225,984
467,000
8,940,000
208,100
3,198,889
MayottJ. <ind the Com-
oro Islands
Reunion
2,168
1,980
837
764
94,663
173,822
French India
French ludo-Chma
509
803,050
197
310,058
282,379
16,990,220
Saint-Pierre and Mique-
lon
241
93
4,652
Guadeloupe
Martinique
1,780
987
687
381
212,430
184,084
French Guiana
78,900
30,463
49,009
In the Pacific
24,220
9,351
88,157
Total*
10,496,330
4,052,633
52,912,000
* Including a few other, small dependencies, as Kergueleu,
etc, with 3740 sq km (1425 sq m) and no population
reported
Considered from an economic point of view,
the French colonial system has gone through
four stages since its inception in the sixteenth
century Previous to the Revolution the colonies
weie administered with a view to the greatest
possible profit to the ruling countiy In 1825
a change of policy was inaugurated, tending to
secure to the colonists a large measure of self-
government This condition lasted until 1841,
when many of the liberties previously granted
\vere revoked, and a stricter financial control
by the government was introduced In 1854,,
however, the colonists acquired considerable in-
dependence m fiscal matters While the home
government leserves control in some matters, it
makes itself responsible for the expenses in-
volved, the most important of which are the sup-
port of the army and navy, the salaries of the
vanous government officials, and the main-
tenance of prisons The right of the colonists to
impose their own tariffs was withdrawn in
1892 The colonial governments, as a whole,
are not self-supporting The dependencies (ex-
cepting Algeria and Tunis) in 1911 had an
estimated revenue of about 264,000,000 francs,
to which a contribution of 103,500,000 francs
by the home government was required to cover
expendituie The capital of the colonial debts
aggregated 554,372,529 francs on Jan 1, 1912
As far as the budgets of the colonies them-
selves are concerned, the colonies are allowed
free play in the method of raising their revenue,
except the right of fixing the tarift duties, but
in the matter of expenses there are certain
items, called obligatory expenses, for which each
colony must make provision in its budget The
obligatory expenses include, among others, the
payment of interest on the debt, the maintenance
of the government buildings, a part of the main-
tenance and salaries for public instruction,
police, insane, and poor children In a work on
the French colonial system Professor ERA
Sehgman of Columbia University, thus sums up
the fiscal policy of France towards her colonies.
''The French government wavers between two
lines of policy. On the one hand, the movement
towards local autonomy has granted the colonies
substantial rights of fixing their own sources of
FRANCE
I3S
FRANCE
revenue and expenditure m accordance with the
dictates of local expediency On the other hand,
the movement towards centralization or so-called
assimilation has taken a\iay from the colonies
the pnvilege of levying their own tariffs and
has imposed upon many of the dependencies a
system of taxation more suitable to the in-
toiests of the mother country than of those of the
colonies themselves, has declared certain of the
colonial expenditures obligatoiy, and finally has
complicated the relations between the colonies
and the home government by a series of sub-
ventions on the one hand and of contingents and
contributions on the other The most recent
and enlightened colonial administrators them-
selves plead, not only for a simplification of the
relations between the colonies and the home
government, but also for a larger share of in-
dependence and initiative on the part of the
colonies themselves "
Imports from and exports to the colonies
(special trade, excluding bullion and specie)
were as follows in 1910 and 1911, in thousands
of francs
IMPOSTS
EXPORTS
1910
1911
1910
1911
Algeria
446,643
425,581
438,930
4S9,Q03
Tunis
72,733
79,302
87,247
90,160
Senegal
71,465
45,095
38,967
35,706
Other West Africa
43,021
37,530
23,565
18,604
Madagascar
17,006
25,676
29,897
36,344
Reunion
24,470
27,119
7,514
8,498
India
20,213
24,265
9S7
1,298
Indo-Chma
96,001
109,042
64,143
65,791
Martinique
25,096
25,254
12,392
11,942
Gu ideloupe
23,841
22,516
11,725
12,427
Others
81,760
58,513
26,132
27,144
Total
922,249
899,902
741,499
797,817
Fiance controls a somewhat larger poition of
the commerce of its colonies than the United
Kingdom does of the trade of the British col-
onies In general, the trade of the more re-
cently acquired possessions is cariied on to a
smaller extent with France than is that of the
older colonies A large pait of the French im-
ports into the colonies is at the expense of the
mother country and consists of supplies for the
troops and equipment material for various gov-
ernment institutions and undertakings
Population The table on page 136 shows by
departments the area of France in square kilo-
meters and square miles, the legal population
according to the censuses of 1872, 1891, 1901,
and 1911 (March 5), the density per square
kilometer in 1911, and the living births and the
deaths (excluding stillbirths) in 1912
The density of population in France, 73 82
per square kilometer (19119 per square mile),
compares with that of other countries as fol-
lows- England, 25830 per square kilometer,
Belgium, 25204, Java and Madura, 22887;
Netherlands, 171.36, Italy, 12094, Germany,
12004, Austria, 9524, Switzerland, 91 11, Rus-
sian Poland, 743 (in 1897), Denmark, 7075,
British India and native states, 68 61, Portugal,
6480; Hungary, 6419, Servia, 6028, Rumania,
5518 Spain, 3866, European Russia (without
Poland), 194 (in 1897); United States, 1196
At the beginning of the nineteenth century
Russia was the only European country that
exceeded France in population. The Russian
dominions are supposed to have had about 45,-
000,000 inhabitants in 1815 The population of
France m 1816 has been calculated at 30,024,-
000, Geimany had in that year 24,833,000, and
Italy 18,383,000 At piesent, among European
countries, Fiance ranks fifth in population, be-
ing exceeded not only by Russia, but by Ger-
many, Austria-Hungary, and the United King-
dom An approximate idea of the increase of
French population as compared with that of
other countues is shown in the following table.
(1821)
France 30,461,875
(1320)
Germany 26,294,000
England and (1821)
Wales 12,000,236
United (1821)
Kingdom 20,893,584
(1821)
Italy 19,727,000
Spain
(1815)
Russia 45,000,000
* (1820)
United States 9,638,453
(1861)
37,386,313
(1860)
37,747,000
(1861)
20,066,224
(1861)
28,927,485
(1862)
25,000,000
(I860)
15,073,481
(1S59)
74,000,000
(1860)
31,443,321
(1891)
38,343,192
(1890)
49,428,000
(1891)
29,002,525
(1891)
37,732,922
(1887)
17,565,632
(1897)
129,209,297
(1890)
62,947,714
(1911)
39,601,509
(1910)
64,925,993
(1911)
36,070,492
(1911)
45,221,615
(1911)
34,671,377
(1Q10)
19.&&3.146
(1911)
167,003,400
(1910)
91,972,266
Among the leading nations France has foi
many years had the smallest proportionate an-
nual increase In this connection, however,
should he noted the case of Ireland, where the
number of inhabitants increased from 6,801,827
in 1821 to 8,175,124 in 1841 and then steadily
declined to 4,390,219 m 1911 The calculated
population of France m 1700 was 19,669,320,
in 1762, 21,769,163, in 1784, 24,800,000. The
population for Jan I, 1801, was returned at
27,349,003 (or 26,930,756 on the present terri-
tory of France), but this figure has been cor-
rected to 27,845,297, in 1821, 30,461,875 (29,-
871,170 011 the present temtoiv) , 1811, 34 230 -
178 (33,400,864), m 1861, 37,386,313 (P.S/Ul -
902) in 1866, 38,067,064 (36,495,489), in 1872
(after the loss of Alsace-Lorraine), 36,102,921
m 1876 36905,788, m 1881, 37,672,048, in
1886, 38 218 903, in 1891, 38,343,102 m 1PO(>
38,51707*! in 1001 IS 001,045, m 1906, 10
252,245; in 1911, 39,601,509, in 1921 (including
Alsace-Lorraine), 39,209,766 The decline in
population between the census of 1866 and that
of 1872 was 1,964,143, of which 1,597,228 was
due to the loss of the territory ceded to Germany
The remainder was due to losses m the war and
to an absolute decrease of population in 73
departments Between 1881 and 1886 there
was a loss of population in over one-third of the
departments; from 1886 to 1891, 55 departments
declined in population, 02 departments decreased
between 1891 and 1901, 55 between 1901 and
1906, and 64 between 1906 and 1911 The de-
partments showing an increase in 1911 over
1906 were Alpes-Mantimes, Ardennes, Territory
of Belfort, Bouches-du-Rh6ne, Fimstere, Gri-
ronde, Indre-et-Loire, Loire-InfeYieure, Marne,
Meurthe-et-Moselle, Morbihan, Nord, Oise, Pas-
de-Calais, Rhone, Seine, Seme-Inf6neure, Seme-
et-Marne, Seme-et-Oise, Vosges (all of which
had shown an increase in 1906 over 1901), and
Doubs, Basses-Pyre"n£es, and Var The principal
cause of the decrease m the 64 departments is
stated to be the attraction of the cities. In
1911, communes having upward of 30,000 in-
habitants numbered 79, with an aggregate popu-
lation of 9,053,475, the increase over 1906 being1
475,442, while the increase for France as a
whole was only 349,242 The 1901 census snowed
FBAISTCE
136
PRANCE
ABBA
CENSUS POPULATION
1912
Dens
DEPARTMENTS
sq km
Sq km
Sq m
1872
1891
1901
1911
Births
Deaths
Am
5,825 6
2,249 3
363,290
356,907
350,416
342,482
588
6,191
6,031
Aisne
Alher
Alpes, Basses-
Alpes, Hautes-
Alpes-Mantimes
7,428 4
7,381 S
69884
5,643 1
3,736 3
5,556 1
2,868 1
2,8481
2,698 2
2,178 8
1,442 6
2,1452
552 439
390 812
139 332
318,898
199,037
380,277
545,493
424,382
124,385
115,522
258,571
371 261
535,583
422,024
135,021
109,510
293213
353,564
530,226
406,291
307,231
105,083
356,338
331,801
714
550
153
186
954
597
10,600
6,038
1,848
2,166
7,222
6,436
9,777
6,024
1,995
1,914
6,050
5,890
Ardennes
5,252 6
4,903 3
2,028 0
1 893 1
320 217
246 298
324 923
227,491
315589
210,527
318,896
198725
607
40 5
6,356
3,079
5,650
3,322
Aube
6,026 3
2,326 7
255,687
255,548
246,163
240,755
39 9
4,018
4,688
Aude
6,342 3
2448S
285,927
317,372
313,531
300,537
474
4,803
4,910
8,771 1
3 3865
402,474
400,467
382,074
369,448
42 1
7,387
6,266
Belfort, Terntoire dp
Bouehes-du- Rhone
Cal\ ados
6085
5,248 0
56926
2349
2,026 3
2,197 9
56,781
554,911
454,032
83,670
630,622
428 945
92,304
734,347
410,178
301,386
805 532
396,318
166 6
1535
696
2,140
16,163
7,948
1,511
14,510
8,703
Cantal
5,779 3
2 231 4
231,867
239,601
230,511
223,361
386
4,045
3425
Chirente
59718
2,305 7
367 520
360,259
350,305
346 424
580
5,971
5,563
Charente-Inf insure
7,231 5
2,792 1
465 653
456 202
452,149
450,871
62 3
7,598
7,184
Cher
7,303 5
2,8199
335,392
359 276
345,543
337 810
463
5,339
5,018
Corrdze
5,887 7
2,273 2
302,74b
328,151
318,422
309,646
52 6
5,659
4,432
Corse (Corsica)
Cote-d'Or
8,721 8
8,786 8
3 367 5
3,392 6
258 507
374,510
288,596
376,866
295,589
361,626
288,820
350,044
33 1
398
5,963
5,379
4,259
6,157
C6tes-du~Nord
7,217 6
2,786 7
622,295
618652
609,349
605,523
83 9
14,611
12,320
Creuse
5,606 1
2,1 64 5
274, 66B
284 660
277 831
266,188
475
3,944
3,725
Dordogne
9,224 2
3561 5
480,141
478,471
452,951
437,432
474
7,931
6,844
Doubs
5,260 0
2,030 9
291 251
303 081
298 864
299,935
569
6,584
5,159
Drdme
6,561 4
2,533 4
320,417
306,419
297,321
290,894
44 3
4,704
5,009
Eure
6,037 5
2,331 1
377,874
349,471
334,781
323,651
53 6
6,139
6,799
Eure-et-Loir
5,939 S
2,293 4
282,622
284 683
275 433
272,255
458
5,245
5,105
FinisteTe
7,029 5
2,714 1
642,963
727,012
773 014
809,771
1152
21,943
13,461
Gard
5,880 7
2,270 5
420,131
419 38*
420 S3b
413,458
703
7,071
7,314
Garonne, Haute-
6,367 0
2,458 3
479,362
472 383
44S.481
432,120
679
6,359
8,167
Gers
6,290 6
2,428 8
284,717
261 OS4
238 448
221,994
35 3
2,887
4,119
Gironde
10,725 6
4,141 3
705,149
793,528
821,131
829 095
773
12,332
13,651
H6rault
6,224 3
2,403 2
429,378
461,012
489421
480 484
772
8,297
8,493
Ille-et-ViIaine
6,992 3
26P97
589,532
626,875
613,567
608,098
869
12,652
12,331
Indre
6,906 4
26666
277,693
292,868
288,788
287,673
41 1
4,906
4,183
Indre-et-Loire
6,158 5
2,377,8
317,027
337,298
335,541
341,205
554
5,967
5,614
IsSre
8,236 6
3,1802
575 784
572,145
568,693
555,911
675
9,038
9,750
Jura
5,055 3
1,951 9
287 634
273,028
261,288
252,713
500
4,759
4,666
Landes
9,3640
3,6154
300,528
297,842
291,586
288,902
308
5,132
4365
Loir-et-Cher
6,421 9
2,479 5
268,801
282,392
275 538
271,235
422
4,871
4,397
Loire
4,799 3
1,8530
550 611
616,227
b47 633
640,549
133 5
11,675
10,854
Loire, Haute-
5,001 4
1,931 0
308,732
316,735
314,058
303 838
607
5,870
4,985
Laire-Inf6rieure
6,980 0
2,695 0
602,206
645,263
664,Q71
669, 9?0
957
12,180
11,080
Loiret
6,811 9
2,699 9
353,021
377718
366,660
364,061
534
6,468
5,854
Lot
5,226 1
2,0178
281,404
253,939
226,720
205,769
394
3,081
4,023
Lot-et-Garonne
5,3848
2,079 1
319,289
295,360
278,740
268,083
498
3648
4,797
LozeTe
5,179 8
2,000 0
135,190
135,517
128,866
122738
237
2,724
2,050
Mame-et-Loire
7,218 0
2,786 9
518,471
518,589
514,658
508,149
704
8,717
8,848
Manche
6,411 7
2,475 6
544,776
513,815
491 372
476,119
743
9,873
10,210
Marne
8,205 3
3,168 1
386,157
434,734
432,882
436,310
532
8,479
7,800
Marne, Haute-
6,257 0
2,416 8
251,196
243,533
226,545
214,765
343
3,839
4,128
Mayenne
5,212 2
2,012 4
350,637
332,387
313,103
297,732
571
6299
5,878
Meurthe-et-Moselle
5,279 6
2,038 5
365,137
444,150
484,722
564,730
1070
13,461
30,579
Meuse
6,240 6
2,409 5
284,725
292,253
283 480
277,955
445
5,091
4,994
Morbihan
7,092 5
2,738 4
490,352
544,472
563,468
578,400
81 5
14,891
10,153
Nie-vre
6,888 1
2,659 5
339,917
343,576
323 783
299,312
434
4,315
4,932
Nord
5,773 7
2,229 2
1,447,764
1,736,341
1,860,994
l,9bl,782
3397
42,444
31,658
Oise
5,886 7
2,272 8
396,804
401,835
407,808
411,028
69 8
7,842
7,810
Orne
6,144 1
2,372 2
398,250
354,387
326,952
307 433
500
5,403
6,658
Pas-de-Calais
6,751 6
2,606 8
761,158
874,364
955,391
1 068,355
1582
28,418
17,781
Pu> -de-Dome
8,016 1
3,095 0
566,463
564,266
544,194
525,916
656
7,900
8,861
Pyre"n6es, Bassea-
7,712 4
2,977 8
426,700
425,033
420,347
433,318
562
9296
7,244
Pyre'ne'es, Hautes-
4,534 5
1,750 8
235,156
225,861
215,546
206,105
455
3,318
3833
Pyr£n6es, Orientales
4,143 5
1,599 8
191,856
210,325
212 121
212,986
514
4,265
3,461
Rh6ne
2,859 3
1,1040
670,247
806,737
843,179
915,581
3220
14,351
15,708
Sadne, Haute-
5,375 2
2,075 4
303,088
280,856
266 605
257,606
479
4,758
4,623
Sa6r» e-et-Loire
8,627 4
3,331 0
598,344
619,523
620,362
604,446
701
10,778
9,748
Sarthe
6,244 8
2,411 3
446,603
429,737
422,699
419,370
671
8,196
8,090
Savoie
6,187 9
2,389 I
267,958
263,297
254,781
247,890
400
4,798
4,558
Savoie, Haute-
4,598 0
1,775 3
273,027
268,471
263,803
255,137
555
5,193
4,517
Seme
4795
185 1
2,220,060
3,141,595
3,669,930
4,154,042
8,664 5
74,527
73,592
Seme-Infe'rieure
6,342 0
2,448 6
790,022
839,876
853,883
877,383
1384
20,785
18,038
Seme-et-Marne
5,931 1
2,290 0
341,490
356,747
358,325
363,561
61 3
6,120
6,559
Seine-et-Oise
5,658 9
2,1849
580,180
628,590
707,325
817,617
1445
14,301
16,086
Se~vres, Deux-
6,0543
2,337 6
331,243
354,282
342,474
337,627
558
6,415
5,040
Somme
6,277 1
2,423 6
557,015
546,495
537848
520,161
82 9
9,549
9,630
Tarn
5,780 4
2,231 8
352,718
346,739
332,093
324,090
56 1
5,337
5,245
Tarn-et-Garon ne
3,730 6
1,440 4
221,610
206,596
195,669
182,537
489
2,743
3,350
Var
6,023 4
2,325 6
293,757
288,366
326,384
330,755
549
5,491
5,875
Vaucluse
3,578 5
1,381 7
263,451
235,411
236,949
238,656
667
4,011
4,569
Vendee
7,015 5
2,708 7
401,446
442,355
441,311
438,520
625
9,185
6,658
Vienne
7,0441
2,719 7
320,598
344,355
336,343
332,276
472
5,915
4,868
Vienne, Haute-
5,555 2
2,144 8
322,447
372,878
383 ,753
384,736
692
7,351
5,394
Vosgea
5,903 0
2,279 1
392,988
410,196
421,104
4J3.914
73 5
9,360
7,574
Yonne
7,460 6
2,8805
363,608
344,688
321,062
303,889
407
4,289
5,466
France
536,463 7
207,128 6
36,102,921
38,343,192
38,961,945
39,601,509
738
750,651
692,740
137
FRANCE
an inciease of 458,376 m communes of over
30,000, and the 1906 census, 226 731 In 1911,
as also in 1906, there weie 15 cities of mure
than 100,000 inhabitants For 1906 the rural
population was leturned at 22,715,011, and the
urban at 16,537,234 As just stated, the uiban
population is inci easing at the expense of the
rural, though in general the discrepancy between
urban and rural changes in population is not so
marked as in Germany But it must be noted
that in certain Fiench departments where the
general population is declining the population
of their uiban centies is increasing Ruial
population is that which subsists in communes
having an agglomeiation of less than 2000 In
1846, 244 per cent of the population was urban,
and 75 6 pel cent rural, in 1851, 25 5 and 745,
in 1861, 289 and 71 1, in 1872, 31 1 and GS 9 ,
in 1881, 348 and 652, in 1891, 374 and 626,
in 1896, 391 and 609, in 1901, 409 and 594,
m 1906, 42 2 and 58 8
The following table, which, includes the com-
munes having a total resident population of
over 50,000 in 1911, shows the populations in
that year, as compared with 1851 and 1901
the marnagp rate, the rate of living births,
and the death rate (exclusive of stillbirths)
have varied as follows
COMMUNES
1851
1901
1911
Pans
1,053,262
2,714,068
2,888,110
Marseilles
195,257
491,161
550,619
Lyons
177,190
459,099
523,796
Bordeaux
130,927
256,638
261, fc>78
Lille
75,795
210,696
217,807
Nanteb
96,352
132,990
170,535
Toulouse
93,379
149,841
149,576
Samt-Etienne
56,003
149,559
148,656
Nice
105,109
142,940
Le Havre
28,954
130,196
136,159
Rouen
100,265
116,316
124,987
Rouba,ix
34,598
124,365
122,723
Nancy
45,129
102,559
119,949
Rhemis
45,754
10S.3S5
115,178
Toulon
69,474
101,b02
104,582
Amiens
52,149
90,758
93,207
Limoges
41,b30
84,121
92,181
Brest
61,160
84,284
90,540
Angers
46,599
82,398
83,786
Tourcomg
27,615
79,243
82,644
Nlmes
53,bl9
80,605
80,437
Montpellier
45,811
75,950
80,230
Rennes
39,505
74676
79,372
Greooble
31,340
68,615
77,438
Dijon
32,253
71,326
76,847
Tours
33,530
64,695
73,398
Calais
10,993
59,743
72,322
Orleans
47,393
67,311
72,096
Saint-Dems
15,792
60,808
71,759
Le Mans
27,059
63,272
69,361
Levallois-Perret
58,073
68,703
Clermont-Ferrand
33,516
52,933
65,386
Versailles
35,367
54,982
60,458
Besangon
41,295
55,362
57,978
Boulogne-sur-Seme
Saint-Quentin
7,602
24,953
44,416
50,278
57,027
55,571
Troyes
27,376
53,146
55,486
Boulogne-sur-Mer
B&ners
30,783
19,333
49,949
52,310
53,128
51,042
The French birth rate is the lowest reported
for any country Following are comparative
figures, relating to the year 1911, for marriages,
for living births, and for deaths (exclusive of
stillbirths) per thousand inhabitants France,
marriage rate 7 8, birth rate 187, death rate
196, Ireland, 54, 232, and 16.5, Sweden, 59,
23 8} and 138, Belgium, 7.9, 237, and 152,
England and Wales, 76, 244, and 146, Nether-
lands, 7 2, 27 8, and 14 5 ; Germany, 7 8, 28 6,
and 173, Austria, 76, 314, and 219, Italy,
75, 315, and 214, Spain, 72, 318, and 237,
Hungary, 9 2, 35 0, and 25 1 ; Bulgaria, 9 6,
406, and 218 Rumania, 105, 430, and 25.7;
Russia (in 1906), 9 6, 46 8, and 29.8 In France
Year
Mar
Birth
Death
Year
Mar
Birth
Death
1816
85
32 Q
245
1904
76
209
194
1831
76
303
246
1905
77
206
196
1S41
83
285
232
1906
78
205
199
1851
80
27 1
22 3
1907
SO
197
202
1861
82
26 9
232
1908
SO
20 1
IS 9
1S72
98
267
220
1909
78
195
]91
1881
75
249
220
1910
78
196
178
1891
75
226
229
1911
78
187
196
1901
78
220
201
1912
79
190
175
In 1911 and 1912 there were, respectively
Damages, 307,788 and 311,929, divorces, 13,-
058 and 14,579, living births, 742,114 and 750,-
651, stillbirths, 33,840 and 34,312, deaths of
infants under one vear of age, 116,659, total
deaths (excluding stillbirths), 743,143 and 692,-
740 The small annual increase of the French
population, as compared with the increase in
other countries, gives rise to senous apprehen-
sion on the part of many French statesmen and
fuimshes a constant topic of discussion to
economists and publicists among all nations
This appiehension appears to be unfounded In
most of the civilized world population is in-
creasing at a more rapia rate than the production
of commodities, pi ices are higher, the struggle
for subsistence is more severe, than at the begin-
ning of this century A decrease in the birth
rate, which has already begun, as shown by
statistics of many countries, is inevitable, and
it is not unlikely that such a decrease, being
compulsory, will foi a time, by reason of want
and keener competition, be attended by an in-
creased adult death rate The readjustment to
economic necessity will be most painful in
those countries ^hose total inhabitants are the
largest in propoition to the primary producers
If the trend to the city, which is far greater in
some other countries, does not become too ac-
centuated, there is little to fear for continued
economic prosperity and social well-being in "the
pleasant land of France )}
The population piesent, as distinguished from
the legal population, was 38,844,653 in 1906, of
whom 19,099,721 were male and 19,744,932 fe-
male Of the males, 9,945,031 were -unmarried,
and of the females, 9,119,222, nmmed, 8,151,990
and 8,188,834, widowed and divorced, 1,002,700
and 2,436,876 Of the total, 18,449,102 males
and 19,126,484 females were French, 96,555
males and 125,607 were naturalized, and 554,-
064 males and 492,841 females were foreign Of
the foreigners, 214,052 males and 163,586 fe-
males were Italian, 159,097 males and 151,336
females Belgian and Luxembourgeois , 45,281
and 35,633 Spanish, 35,836 and 52,000 German,
38,220 and 30,672 Swiss, 14,831 and 21,159
British, and 13,559 and 12,046 Russian The
annual immigration and emigration is small
By occupation the active population was dis-
tributed as follows accoiding to the census of
1906; agriculture and forestry, 8,777,053; manu-
facturing, 5,979,216 commerce, 2,002,681, do-
mestic service, etc, 1,012,232, public service (in-
cluding the army), 1,220,154, transport, etc,
887,337, mines and quarries, 281,027, fishery,
78,000, liberal professions, 483,179, total, 20,-
720,879, of whom 7,693,412 were female
Ethnology The perspective of history re-
138
FRANCE
constructed by ethnologists is more continuous
in France than in any other country In blood
the Fiench combine many races — prehistoric
Teutonic blond longheads, Alpine or Celtic
shortheads, and Mediterranean biunette long-
heads The stature of conscripts is given as
1 646 meters, and the general cranial index at
834, ranging from 75 to 88 But anthropo-
metric cnaiacteristics have to be studied with
caution, since the tall light-complexioned type,
with blue or gray eyes, predominates in the
north, the short-headed brunette type, marked
by dark eyes and low stature, prevails in the
middle and south, and the Mediterranean type,
brunette, daik-eyed and short, occurs in parts
adioming Italy and Spam The southern French
may be called Ulberio-Celtic" and the northern
riench "Teuto-Celtic," the language of both be-
ing Italic A retrospect of French ethnology
includes (1) the modern period of racial coa-
lescence since the Crusades, embracing also
nationality and speech, (2) incursions of
Saracens (arrested by Charles Mattel, 732 AD ),
Burgundians, Franks (who gave their name to
the country), and Visigoths, the last three being
Teutons, (3) the Roman conquest and all that
it means in racial mixtuies, no less than in sov-
ereignty and speech, (4) the earlier settlements
of Belgian longheads, Celts, or Gauls, and Aqui-
tanian and Ligunan brunettes, (3) Semitic
and Pelasgian settlements, made by Phoenician
and Greek colonists, of little account, however,
to the ethnologist, (6) the peoples of the eaih-
est Iron and the Bronze age, ^ith a vaiiety of
skull types, (7) the Neolithic authors of men-
hirs and dolmens, exhibiting mtei mixture of
brachycephals and dolichocephals , (8) the Cro-
Magnon and the Neanderthal or "Spy man,"
Paleolithic eontemporanes of the cave bear,
mammoth, and reindeer, and, back of that, the
rudest stone ages, when men are alleged to have
lived with the mastodon and Elephas antiques.
France has experienced in this long stretch of
time and evolution of culture the whole range
of climates in which man can exi&t, ranging
from arctic to tropical, together with their
fauna and flora
Education Since the Franco-German War
the subject of education has been one of intense
Interest to the French people In this respect
France has probably exhibited a greater zeal
than any other European country The Republic
has considered it of first importance that it
should fortify itself with an enlightened citizen-
ship. Accordingly every grade of education has
been subjected to a transformation that has been
almost revolutionary. In the years 1881-82
were passed compulsory-attendance laws and
laws abolishing tuition fees Prior to that time
the educational system had been more or less
dominated by clerical influence, the Roman
Catholic religion being taught, and a large num-
ber of the clergy having representation on the
teaching staff The influence of elericism was
detrimental to republican ideals and institu-
tions Consequently the educational reforms as-
sumed a religious phase and have been more
bitterly contested than in any other European
country In 1882 the teaching of religion in
the schools gave way to the teaching of morals,
and by a law of 1886 teaching in the public
schools was limited to lay teachers, and schools
in which religion was taught received no aid
from the government The dissatisfaction on
the part of some with this secularization of the
schools \\as sho\\n in the subsequent growth of
the clerical lycees at the expense of the state
schools of the same rank The matter became
of giave concern to the government In its
desire to lessen the attendance at the religious
schools and thereby forestall the hostile influ-
ence which was presumably fostered by them,
the government secured the adoption of the As-
sociations Bill, which went into effect in 1902
and brought about the dissolution of many re-
ligious schools By a second law which made
three years' pieliminary study in a state school
a prerequisite to securing an official state posi-
tion or to entering a special school, the govein-
ment practically excluded graduates of clerical
schools from admission to some of the leading
professions
The public system of education begins with
the kindergarten or ecoles matemelles, which
admit children from the ages of two to six
years In addition to giving kindergarten in-
struction they served the function of infant
schools where care may be given to childien of
the laboring classes. The establishment of these
schools is optional with the communes The
number of pupils in 1901-02 and in 1911-12
respectively ^as as follows at public lay
schools, 411,369 and 514,735, at private lay
schools, 7630 and 90,649, at clerical pub-
lic schools, 53,746 and 1664, at clerical private
schools, 281,003 and 13,513, total in lay schools,
418,999 and 605,384, total in clerical schools,
334,709 and 15,177, grand total, 753,708 (376,-
808 boys, 378,001 girls) and 620,561 (314,697
boys, 305,864 girls) Next after the ecoles
maternelles are the primary schools, attendance
at which is compulsory for children between the
ages of 6 and 13 (if not receiving instruction
elsewhere), or until they have passed the ex-
amination for the completion of the course,
which many of them do before the end of
the compulsory time requirement The instruc-
tion, as in the higher schools, is given to
the sexes separately The number of pupils at
the primary schools in 1901-02 and in 1911-12
respectively was as follows at public lay
schools, 3,922,001 and 4,615,063, at private lay
schools, 118,328 and 1,007,743, at clerical public
schools, 285,033 (of whom, 266,967 girls) and
9264, at clerical private schools, 1,256,461 (of
whom, 855,883 girls) and 50,282, total in lay
schools, 4,040,329 and 5,622,806 , total in clerical
schools, 1 509,955 and 59,546, grand total, 5,530,-
284 and 5,682,352 The figures given here for
both infant and primary schools include Algeria
The system has resulted in greatly reducing the
illiteracy of the country, as is shown fiom the
fact that, in 1880, 16 per cent of the newly
married males and 25 per cent of the newly
married females were illiterate, as compared with
2 1 and 3 2 per cent respectively m 1910
The secondary schools include state classical
colleges (lycees), supported by the state, and
communal colleges, supported by the communes,
though aided by the state, for boys, and schools
of similar rank for girls The following flgiues
relate to public secondary education in 1903
and 1913 respectively number of lycees and col-
leges for boys, 339 and 342, number of students,
94,205 and 100,203 , lycees and colleges for girls,
71 and 138, students, 17,543 and 33,282 Ln
private lay institutions for secondary educa-
tion there were 19,935 students in 1908, and
in private clerical institutions 44,623 students*
The course of public secondary instruction covers
FHANOE
139
FBAHCE
five years, the most u&ual age of students
being 13 to 18 The establishment of the com-
munal colleges is optional with the commune
The secondaiy schools award the bachelor's cle-
giee The boys' lycees were foimeily classical
institutions, Latin and G-ieek occupying the
principal place in the cuiriculum In 1902 an
elective system was introduced, making it pos-
sible to take either a modern language course
or a science course, intended to prepare for a
moie piactical career Also four distinct courses
are at the option of the student, but he cannot
change from one course to another, or exercise
any range of choice within the course selected
All courses lead to the same degree and confer
the same privileges, and a degree may now be
secured without the study of Greek and \vith
only a minimum of Latin History, civics, and
ethics leceive special emphasis, and the practi-
cal point of view is emphasized in the teaching
of all subjects The girls' lycees, however, from
their introduction about 1881 took little notice
of the ancient languages, but emphasized rather
the French language and literature The con-
vents still have the patronage of a majority
of those taking secondary courses, but the num-
ber who attend the newly established lycees is
rapidly increasing Many of the secondary
schools are attended by both boarding and day
students A large number of the more intelli-
gent students are assisted by a system of fellow-
ships Graduation from the secondary schools
— public or private — is a prerequisite to securing
the ordinary degree from the universities
The interests of higher education are sub-
served by the 15 state universities and by vari-
ous state faculties and schools and private spe-
cial schools From 180S to 1896 the universities
of France were deprived of their autonomy and
were little moie than degree-conferring groups
of faculties In 1896 their autonomy was re-
established The 15 universities are Paris,
Lyons, Toulouse, Poitiers, Hennes, Nancy, Mont-
pelher, Aix-Marseilles, Bordeaux, Dijon, Lille,
Grenoble, Besangon, Caen, Clermont In addi-
tion, there are state faculties or schools for
higher or professional education at Amiens,
Angers, Limoges, Nantes, Rouen, Tours, and
Algiers The faculties of the universities are
paid by the state, but the universities are other-
wise dependent upon the local community or
upon private munificence Numerous benefac-
tors, by their liberal gifts, have shown an interest
in the welfare of the universities The response
of local communities must naturally vary enor-
mously, and there is therefore a great inequality
in the size and prosperity of the different insti-
tutions Those located in large and wealthy
cities, like Pans or Lyons, have a great advan-
tage over those m smaller towns The emoll-
ment in the University of Paris in 1913 was
17,104, about 44 per cent of the total attendance
at the state universities. The French universi-
ties attract the most students of law, the num-
ber exceeding the total taking a corresponding
couise in German universities The conditions
upon which degrees were formerly conferred made
it difficxilt for a foreign student to secure them,
but with the new regulation introduced in 1897
degrees are more easily obtained, and there has
consequently been a very large increase in the
number of foreign students The following fig-
ures relate to public superior education in 1903
and 1913 respectively- students under the latv
faculties, 10,930 and 16,703; medicine, 6735 and
VOL IX.—10
3247, pharmacy, 2526 and 1312, medicine and
pharmacy, 2433 and 1750, Protestant theology,
110 — faculty suppressed pursuant to the Law of
1905, sciences, 4401 and 6639, letters, 4142
and 6398, total, 31,277 and 41,109, of the
totals theie were 2045 foreigners in 1903 and
5560 m 1913
Besides the universities there is a large num-
ber of special schools, both government and pn-
\ate, covering almost every phase of science and
ait The movement towards a more modern
technical course of instruction has permeated
the school system, having even entered the
classical lycees, and in no other country do the
provisions afforded for preparing for the practi-
cal affans of life equal those of France Spe-
cial emphasis is given to instruction in com-
merce, agriculture, etc Theological instruction
is amply provided in private schools established
foi that purpose Finally, the advancement of
knowledge is sought through the organization
known as the Institute of Fiance (qv ), whose
five academies embiace m their scope every
phase of learning
The administration of the educational system
in France is characterized by an unusual cen-
tralization and coordination The highest edu-
cational officer is the Minister of Education,
who holds a position in the cabinet He is
actively assisted by a superior council of 58
members, while a second council exercises ad-
visory powers only The whole state system is
divided into superior, secondary, and primary
departments, with a director responsible to the
Minister at the head of each For the adminis-
tration of education France is divided into 17
districts called academies, and the civil depart-
ments serve as subdivisions for each of these
At the head of each acad&mie is a rector, and at
the head of each department an academy in-
spector, the latter receiving his appointment
from the Minister Subordinate to the academy
inspectors are the primary inspectors — about
450 m number The prefect of the department,
assisted by a council, appoints teachers from
•an approved list submitted by the inspectors
The mayor and council of the communes aie re-
sponsible for school property The state pays
all expenses for teachers, administration, and
inspectors of the entire educational system,
the departments pay for the erection and fur-
nishing of normal schools, and the communes
pay for the erection and furnishing of the local
elementary schools. The total expenditure for
public primary schools increases annually In
1890 it was 177,142,000 francs (state 120,562,000,
and communes 56,580,000) ; m 1900, 217,878,000
(146,908,000 and 70,970,000), m 1905, 268,-
787,000 (182,268,000 and 86,519,000), the state
expenditure in 1910 was 216,974,000 francs, and,
in 1911, 222,260,000 francs
The educational system provides particularly
for the preparation of teachers Separate nor-
mal schools for the training of men and women
teachers for the elementary grades are pro-
vided in each civil department, at which tuition,
board, rooms, and books are free Teaching- is
now a profession in France Each normal stu-
dent is pledged to teach 10 years, -and all
candidates for schools must hold normal certifi-
cates Besides the elementary normal schools,
there are a higher normal school, intended to
qualify for inspectorships and otfeer positions of
high rank, and another normal school for kinder-
garten teachers The supervision of the scnool
PRA3STCE x
Is in charge of the primary inspector (serving
under the department inspector), who is judge
of the teacher's proficiency, and upon ^hose
recommendation depends the teachers advance-
ment or degiadation The schools ha\e no posi-
tion con espondmg to that of supei intendent or
principal m the American schools After serv-
ing the requisite time teachers aie allowed to
retire on a pension The system is notewoithy
in that it secures a high giade of teachers for
country distiiets, inasmuch as the salary de-
pends upon proficiency and is paid by the state,
although the commune may supplement this
fiom local funds, as is not infrequently done
The French educational system seems to have
failed to meet the educational needs of the coun-
try in one impoitant respect As compaied with
most of the Amencan States, the number of
pupils who continue their work into the second-
ary schools is small Inasmuch as the children
are young vihen they finish the primary course,
there is a period in their lives ^\hen they are
likely to be unoccupied and to lose benefits of
the education already acqmied France has be-
come aroused to the need of further educational
provision for adolescents and adults, and the
establishment of some form of night schools has
been undertaken -with, lemarkable success Yeiy
little, ho\^e\er, has been contubuted by the
goveinment for their support, then intioduction
and maintenance being laigely in the hands of
societies and oiganizations These schools aie
sometimes in the natuie of continuation schools,
but they sometimes follow the style of univer-
sity extension v.oik or of the illustiated lectuie.
Beligion Up to Dec 11, 1906, religion,
was subsidized by the state, the Roman Catho-
lic, Protestant, and Jewish confessions receiving
contributions fiom the budget m proportion to
their numerical strength The status of the
Roman Catholic church, which embraces a very
great ma]ority of the population, was naturally
an exceptional one Its relations to the state
were defined by the Concordat of 1801 as re-
enacted in the Organic Articles of the following
year By this agreement the church which had
been deprived of its pioperty in the Revolution
surrendered its claims in return for a guarantee
of state support The main provisions of this
celebrated instrument were as follows The
iree and public exercise of the Roman Catholic
Apostolic lehgion was guaranteed by the Re-
public A new division of the French dioceses
was to be made by the holy see in concert with
the French government Nominations to the
new archbishoprics and bishoprics emanated
from the government, while the Pope conferred
canonical institutions upon the nominees Be-
fore entering on their functions the bishops
were reqimed to take an oath of allegiance to
the constitution and to promise "to carry on no
correspondence, to be present at no conversation,
to form no connection whether within the terri-
tories of the republic or without, which may in
any degree disturb the public tranquillity 3 The
holy see declared against any attempt to regain
the alienated property of the church, but all
church buildings which had not been alienated
were placed at the disposal of the bishops The
government agreed to assign suitable stipends
to the bishops and parish priests, and to enact
legislation facilitating the bestowal of property
for the support of religion, by private persons
By the Law of Dec 9, 1905, the Concordat of
1801 and the Organic Articles of 1802 were
\o FRANCE
abolished, and state maintenance of Roman
Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish clergy came
to an end No religion is now recognized by
the state This result was the culmination of
the opposition of the great majoiity of French-
men to the political influence of the Roman
Catholic church, more especially its control over
education
No religious census of France has been taken
since 1872, and exact estimates of the numerical
stiength of the difieient religious faiths are mis-
leading It may be said, however, that about
three-fourths of the people aie, at least nomi-
nally, Roman Catholics The indifference to the
church manifested by a large number of members,
and the radical opposition to the chuich and to
all lehgions by nonmembers, and the resulting
policy m regard to the church, have bi ought
upon Fiance the charge of being an agnostic
nation The souice of the opposition is generally
considered to be of an historical and political
natuie The relation of the church with regard
to the despised social order prevailing in pre-
Revolution days is still charged against it It
is suspected of being out of harmony with le-
publican ideals and institutions and of being
intent upon grasping power to use against the
piesent form of government This charge is
diiected particulaily against the religious asso-
ciations The intimate relations of these or-
ganizations with the Vatican presumably make
their interests clash vA-ith those of the Republic
Duung the French Revolution religious orders
were disbanded, and the enormous wealth they
had accumulated was largely confiscated But
they afterward reestablished themselves and be-
came three times as numerous as before the
Revolution, there being, in 1901, 3216 establish-
ments for men that were recognized by the
government, comprising a membership of 30,136 ,
while there were 2870 recognized and 13,428
unrecognized establishments for women, with a
total membership of 129,492 A large part of
these were engaged in educational work, which
was naturally one of the most potent agencies
for the spread of their influence Their wealth
had likewise accumulated, and they enteied
extensively into various kinds of commercial
entei prise, which gave them another \antage
ground foi the exercise of their influence More-
over, by virtue of their standing at Rome they
were supposed to have practical contiol over the
regular clergy and the main body of the church,
whose sympathies and influence would otheiwise
presumably be more favorable to democracy
Opposition to the church and the fostering of
agnostic propaganda is generally supposed to
centre in the Freemason and the Socialistic
elements of the population, and these factions
on the one extreme and the ardent clericalists
on the other are pitted against each other In
1882 the opposition to clerical influence secuied
the abandonment of religious instruction in the
public schools, and in 1886 the prohibition of
clerical members fiom holding positions in them
These measures were followed in 1901 by very
radical laws, directed particularly against the
religious associations According to these, all
associations must be authorized by the govern-
ment, and those found to violate the law or to
be detrimental to the republican form of govern-
ment or to good morals and order were to be
dissolved Parliamentary consent was neces-
sary to the formation of associations which
have foreign directors or a foreign domicile.
141
FKAUCE
Tlie law was especially directed against the asso-
ciation schools, and it \\as furthei piovided that
members of dissolved oideis could not teach
until then membeiship v\rth the oidei was ter-
minated The law excited much opposition, and
attempts to enforce it, especially in 1903, \\eie
so violently resisted that the government de-
vised f mther measures, ha\mg in view the
separation of the churches and the state On
March 28, 1904, a bill was passed for suppi ess-
ing teaching by religious oideis in conventual
and monastic schools in France, except in insti-
tutions from which missionaries \teie recimted
for the colonies
The logical conclusion of these measures was
the Separation Law of Dec 9, 1905, which has
already been refened to Under its pio\i&ions
all leligions may form voluntary associations
for public \\oislup, and the state, the depart-
ments, and the communes aie leheved fiom
the payment of stipends To make the transi-
tion tolerable, a graded system of pensions was
established for ecclesiastics of all religious de-
nominations, accoiding to age and teim of
service and proportional to the official salaries
formerly received All buildings used for public
woiship, and all dwellings in connection theie-
with, were ordeied to be included in an mven-
toiy and made o\ei to the voluntary associations
for public woiship, the chuiches and other
places of worship in practical perpetuity — le,
as long as the associations exist, the dwellings
(prelates' lesidences presbyteries, seminaries,
etc ) , for specified times and rentals The posi-
tion of the associations was improved by an
amendment to the oiiginal bill in the Chamber
of Deputies, \\hicti was agieed to bv the Senate,
exempting from taxation (except the moitmain
tax) all buildings for public woiship and be-
longing to the state, the depaitments, and the
communes, and providing for their leasing at
a nominal rental of a franc a year for 99 years
Furthermore, processions outside churches were
authorized, although mayors of communes weie
allowed a discretion in foi bidding them
This law did not go into effect until Dec 11,
1906, but on December 8 of that year Pope
Pius X issued an encyclical in which the French
cleigy were forbidden to act under the provisions
of the Law of 1881 or of the Law of 1905.
The arrest on Dec 11, 1906, of Monseigneur
Montagnmi, secietary of Cardinal Merry del
Val, Papal Secretary of State, caused great
excitement He was stopped while entering
France from Italy, and tuined back from the
frontier, on the charge of inciting Fiench citi-
zens to disobedience at the behest of a foreign
power The archives in the Nunciature at Paris
were seized
In proof of a desire to be as conciliatory as
adherence to a firm policy would peimit, the
ministry of M Clemenceau, which had been in
power since Get 23, 1906, introduced a bill sup-
plementary to the Law of 1905 This measure,
which was enacted and was signed by President
Fallieres on Jan 2, 1907, was intended to be,
and is generally considered, a compromise in
some respects, but was declared unacceptable by
the Pope in an encyclical issued on Jan. 11,
1907 Subject to the provision that the Law of
1905 shall remain in full force in so far as it
is not contradicted by the Supplementary Act
of 1907, the latter declares that, independently
of the associations contemplated by the Law of
Dec 9, 1905, public worship can be held by
means of associations under the Law of July 1
1901, as well as in virtue of the Public Meetings
Law of June 30, 1881, under individual initia-
tive, that even in default of the cultural asso-
ciations provided for by the Law of Dec 9,
1905, the use of edifices intended for worship,
as well as the furniture contained therein, shall
lemain at the disposition of the faithful and
of the clergy for the practice of their religion,
and the free use of the churches may be accoided
either to associations formed under the Law of
1901, or to clergy designated under the declara-
tions pi escribed by the Law of 1905, but this
usage must be under the conditions of the Law
of 1905, and the above-mentioned regulations
apply to edifices intended for worship, which,
having belonged to ecclesiastical establishments,
have been assigned by decree to charitable insti-
tutions under the Law of 1905 The Supple-
mentary Act of 1907 also declares that, with its
promulgation, the state, the depaitments, and
the communes will recover the tree use of the
episcopal mansions, presbyteiies, semmanes,
etc, which aie then propeity, and the use of
which has not been claimed by an association
formed 'under the Law of 1905, and that lodging
indemnities, falling upon communes wheie there
is no presbyteiy, will cease, that the property
of ecclesiastical establishments not claimed by
associations constituted under the Law of 1905
will be assigned, upon the promulgation of this
act, to charitable institutions, as provided by
said law, without prejudice to assignments which
may be made concerning property not dedicated
to public worship, that, at the expiration of
one month after the enactment of the present
law, allowances made under the Law of 1905
to the clergy who have failed to carry out the
i equn ement-s of that law will be suppressed,
and that the failure of members of the clergy
to fulfill the requirements of the law will in
each ease be detei mined by a joint decision of
the Minister of Justice and the Mmistei of
Finance
The new law proved as unacceptable to the
church as the Law of December, 1905 The vital
objection was that neither law gave official rec-
ognition to the Roman Catholic hierarchy In
February the Roman Catholic bishops submitted
a model contract for the leasing of churches
between mayors of municipalities and parish
priests. It vested the possession of the church
for a period of 18 years in the parish priest,
whose subjection to the Bishop was expressly
recognized On this basis negotiations proceeded
The opposition to Roman Catholicism has not
resulted in a strengthening of Protestantism,
nor, though there are occasional defections on
the part of the clergy, is there any general
movement within the church to break with
Rome Protestantism is actually diminishing,
and is thought to have lost considerably over
one- third of its membership since 1835 (mak-
ing allowance for the cession to Germany of
Alsace-Lorraine), the number at present being
probably about 600,000 At the same time
the influence of Protestantism under the pres-
ent government is doubtless out of all pro-
portion to its numerical strength, as is evidenced
by the large number of its representatives who
are leading government officials The Protes-
tants are most numerovis in the south of France,
particularly in the Department of G-ard There
are two branches of the Protestant church, the
Calvmistie and the Lutheran, the former con-
FRANCE i,
taming the large majority of the Protestant
population The Jews are supposed to be de-
creasing and number less than 100,000, the large
cities, Paris, Lyons, and Bordeaux, being the
chief centres See HUGTJENOTS
Chanties. Thrift is a national characteiistic
of the French people, and pauperism has never
been prominent in France The policy adopted
in dealing with the needy has been character-
ized by the emphasis which has been placed
upon voluntary relief, and upon outdoor and
local, as against institutional, relief The state
does not recognize that the individual has a
legal right to demand alms and does not place
the local communities under compulsion to pro-
vide means of charity relief Direct parochial
taxes for charitable purposes have not been lev-
ied since the time of the French Revolution
The scheme for chanty administration as drawn
up under Napoleon I made possible the forma-
tion of a bureau de bienfaisance in each com-
mune, but it was not made compulsory and has
been impracticable in the smaller and poorer
communes There is therefoie no communal
machinery of relief for the poor in a large part
of rural France These bureaus (consisting of
the mayor of the commune and six commission-
eis) solicit and receive contributions from pri-
vate sources, and the bulk of their endowment
is secured in this way Special grants are
sometimes made by the communes, and a tax is
levied upon theatres, balls, etc The bureaus
give outdoor relief, the amount of which is likely
to be aibitranly adjusted to the funds at com-
mand rather than to the existing needs Many
of the communes aie provided with hospitals,
and sometimes a number of communes jointly
use the same hospital Cooperation between
the state systems of charity and private charity
is minimized, inasmuch as private charity is
mainly religious, while the attitude of the state
is essentially antireligious
There are, however, two classes of the needy
that have been very adequately provided for,
viz , the dangerously insane and children The
necessity for earing for the first of these is
evident Asylums for that class are established
in the different departments (although there
are also state asylums ) , and their support is
divided between the departments and the com-
munes The state places itself under special
obligation for providing for children by vntue
of its law which prevents the attempt to fix the
responsibility for fatherhood Three different
classes of children are distinguished in the sys-
tem of child relief The children of the first
class are under two years old — enfant 3 du pre-
mier age — and are placed in the care of a nurse
under surveillance of the government authon-
ties, the expenses incurred being divided equally
between the state and the department The
second group, or enfants assistes, includes
foundlings, abandoned children, destitute or-
phans, and enfants secouriis, not exceeding 12
years of age at the time when the government
assumes control over them, although remaining
under public control until they leach the age
of 21 These children are usually placed in
peasant homes until they are 13 or 14 years
old, when they are made apprentices — preferably
in the same family — under guardianship, the
guardians being subject in turn to the over-
sight of the state-paid department inspectors
The other expenses incuried in providing for
this group are shared between the state, the
2 FRANCE
department, and the commune A large number
of children requiring public attention but not
coming under either of the above classes fall in
a third group, enfants moralement abandonnes,
who are generally apprenticed or placed in an
industrial school
A departmental system of medical aid was
established in 1893, and, accoidmg to the statis-
tical returns, by the end of the century about
half of the population of France availed them-
selves of the medical aid thus supplied The
goveinment further aids the masses through the
establishment of savings banks, through the
state monopoly of pawnshops, and, since 1897,
by an annual contribution to old-age pensions
In 1905 an Act was passed for the relief of the
aged poor, the infiim, and the permanently in-
curable, the expense to be borne by the com-
munes, the departments, and the state The cost
to the state alone, as voted, in 1912 was
51,200,000 fiancs A Law of 1910, amended m
1912, provides for all wage earners old-age
pensions, towards which both employers and em-
ployees contribute, on Oct 1, 1912, 7,698,856
persons were registered The administration of
the charities system is in charge of a depart-
ment under the Minister of the Interior The
influence of the central depaitment operates
largely through the prefects, who are lesponsi-
Lle to the Minister, and T\ho have a voice in the
appointments of boards of managers of hospi-
tals, asylums, and bui caucc de kienfaisance
Government The present government of the
French Republic is based on a series of three
so-called 'constitutional" laws, adopted by the
National Assembly in 1875 and since that date
amended and supplemented at different times by
ordinary statutes, called "organic" laws The
French constitution, therefore, differs from most
written constitutions in not being comprised in
a single document Another peculiarity is its
brevity and conciseness Only the barest out-
lines of the government are piovided for in the
fundamental law, all the details of organization
being left to the determination of ordinary stat-
ute The numerous limitations upon the power
of the government in behalf of individual liberty,
which constitute so notable a feature of the
constitution of the United States, are wholly
lacking in the French constitution It is, in
short, a constitution of government and not of
liberty That part of the constitution which is
contained in the so-called organic laws is sub-
ject to amendment by the ordinary processes of
legislation, while the provisions of the consti-
tutional laws may be changed only by action of
the Chambers united in National Assembly and
by absolute majority of all the members
The form of government which has prevailed
in France since 1875 may be described briefly as
a centralized parliamentary republic The con-
stitution piovides for a bicameral Parliament,
consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a
Senate, with substantial equality of powers in
legislation, the only exception being the exclu-
sive power which belongs to the Chamber of
Deputies to originate revenue measures As to
the composition of the Chamber and the source
from which it proceeds, the constitutional laws
contain no provisions except the single one that
its members shall be chosen by universal suf-
frage It was provided by ordinary statute that
universal suffrage should be considered as the
suffrage of all male citizens at least 21 years
of age, who have resided for a period of six
FBAFCE
X43
months previous to tlie election in the commune
in which they offer to vote Certain classes who
have lost their civil and political rights, or who
are in active military or naval service,, or who
have heen judicially convicted of ceitain crimes,
as \vell as those who liaie been declaied bank-
rupt, aie disqualified It has also been deter-
mined by ordinary statute that the Chamber
consist of deputies apportioned according to
population, on the basis of one deputy to every
70,000 inhabitants In 1914 there were 597
deputies, elected from the 87 administrative de-
partments of France, as well as Algeua and
the colonies The departments aie subdivided
into at rondissementS) containing appi oximately
equal populations, and one deputy is elected
from each When an arrondissement contains a
population exceeding 100,000, it is divided into
two or more constituencies The deputies are
chosen, not according to general ticket (scrutw,
de hste), as presidential electois are chosen in
the United States, but by district (scrutin
d'arrondissement) , according to the American
method of choosing Representatives Both
methods have been tried, chiefly with a view
to obtaining party advantage, but since 18S9
the single-district method has been in use and
seems likely to continue as a permanent insti-
tution The constitutional laws make no pro-
vision concerning the qualifications of deputies
The completion of the twenty-fifth year, how-
ever, has been prescribed by statute as a neces-
sary qualification To this is added a number
of disqualifications, such as the holding of cer-
tain other incompatible offices at the same time
The term of service is fixed at four years, unless
the Chamber is dissolved earlier, and the mem-
bers are privileged from ariest duung the ses-
sion, unless taken in the act of committing a
crime They are, moreover, exempt from legal
responsibility for opinions expressed during the
discharge of their legislative duties
The constitutional laws now in force make no
provision concerning the composition and or-
ganization of the Senate, and but scant pro-
vision in reference to its powers A Statute of
1884, which superseded the constitutional law
on the subject, provides that it shall consist of
300 members, chosen by electoial colleges in the
various departments In each department this
body consists (1) of the deputies chosen m
the particular department, (2) the members of
the general council of the department, (3) the
members of the councils of the several arron-
dissements in the department, and (4) delegates
chosen by the municipal councils of all the com-
munes of the department The senators are
apportioned among the several departments ac-
cording to population, the number in. each
varying from 1 to 10 In contrast to the
method of choosing deputies, the senators from
a given department are selected on a general
ticket (scruttn de liste] , each ejector voting
for the whole list By statute tjie qualifications
of senators are fixed at citizenship and the
completion of the fortieth year There are also
certain disqualifications similar to those in the
case of deputies The tenure of senators is fixed
at nine years, and, to secure partial renewal, it
is provided that the terms of one-third of them
shall expire every three years. Originally there
were 75 life senators, chosen by the National
Assembly, their successors being selected by ^the
Senate By an amendment to the constitution,
adopted in 1884 however, tMs remnant of mon-
archy was abolished, and it was piovided that
thereafter vacancies occurring among life sena-
tors should be filled accoidmg to the manner
prescribed for the choice of nine-year senatois
Senators have the same rights and privileges
as deputies and receive the same salaiy, which
at piesent is 9000 fiancs a year In addition to
its legislative duties, the Senate has two pecu-
liar functions first, its consent is necessaiy for
a dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies — a
restraint upon the possible arbitrary conduct
of the President, and, second, it acts as a high
court for the trial of peisons accused of at-
tempts upon the safety of the state
The constitution requires the two chambers to
assemble annually in January and to remain in
session at least five months The President may
convoke them at an earliei date, and he is
bound to do so if the demand is made by a
majority of the members composing each cham-
ber They may also be ad]oxuned by the Presi-
dent, but the duration of the adjournment can-
not exceed one month and is not permitted to
occur more than twice in a session Bills may
be presented in either chamber by piivate mem-
bers or mimsteis, except that le^enue measures
must originate in the Chamber of Deputies
Whether the Senate has the right to amend bills
of this character is a disputed question The
Chamber of Deputies denies the right of the
Senate to increase its revenue proposals, but
the Senate has asserted its right successfully
on & number of occasions All bills must be
referred to a special committee for considera-
tion before being taken up in either house A
measure duly passed by both chambers is sent
to the President for his approval. He has
neither an absolute nor a qualified veto, al-
though he may demand reconsideiation of the
measure, and a constitutional obligation rests
upon the chambeis to consider his objections,
but if they repass the measure by the regular
majority it becomes law in spite of the Presi-
dent's objections
Although the parliamentary system of gov-
ernment prevails in France and monarchical tra-
ditions are strong, the chief executive is elected,
not, however, by popular vote, but by a body
composed of the members of the two chambers
of the Parliament They are required to meet
for this purpose at Versailles at least one month
before the legal expiration of the presidential
term, and in case of the death or resignation of
the President they are commanded to assemble
immediately and form themselves into an elec-
toral college. A majority of the whole number
of members is necessary to elect The only
qualification prescribed by the constitution is
that the President shall not be a member of
any family that has reigned in France His
term is fixed at seven years, and it is expressly
declared that he is reeligible The President's
position is one of irresponsibility except for the/
offense of high treason, and even then he i£
subject to arraignment by the Chamber of Dep-
uties only, and to trial by the Senate only
The powers and duties of the President are
manifold In the domain of foreign relations
his powers include the negotiation, of treaties,
with the limitation, however, that treaties of
peace and of commerce, treaties wlnca add to
the financial burdens of the state or which sub-
tract from its territory, or w^ich affect the
personal or property relations of Frenchmen in
foreign countries, must be approved by tiie
FBA3STCE
144
chambers, the appointment and reception of
ambassadors and ministers, and perhaps the
power to wage defensive war and, with the
assent of the chambers, to wage offensive war
Besides the poweis of the President in legisla-
tion, to which refeienee has aheady been made,
he may proiogue the Parliament, may initiate
legislative measures, and it is his duty to pro-
mulgate the laws In the field of admimstia-
tion he has a wide power of appointment and of
supervision and an extensive oidmance power
The constitution expressly confers upon him the
appointment of all officers and by implication
the dismissal of most of them He has the
power of issuing the necessary ordinances for
the execution of the laws where the Parliament
has not made piovision for the same He has
also- the powei in many cases to issue feupple-
mentaiy oidmances for the purpose of filling
out the details of legislative acts, for it must
be lemembered that it is the piactice in Fiance
to embody only the main facts in the statutes,
leaving minor details to be supplied by execu-
ti\e ordinance The military powers of the
President include the disposition of the army
and navy, while in the domain of judicial ad-
ministration ho is \ested with the power to
giant pardons, commute penalties, and issue
reprieves
In exercising the above-mentioned poweis the
Piesident acts thiough ministers, who aie col-
lectively lesponsible to the chambers foi the
geneial policy of the administration and indi-
vidually responsible for their own personal acts
The constitution evpiessly declaies that every
official act of the Piesident to be valid must be
countersigned by a minister, thus insuring the
responsibility of the President Theoretically,
at least, he is in the position of the British sov-
ereign and can do no wrong In theory the
ministers aie appointed by the President and
serve during his pleasure In practice they are
appointed by the leader of the majority in the
Chamber of Deputies, and they resign when de-
feated Legally their lesponsibility is to both
chambers, but, as a matter of fact, it is only to
the Chamber of Deputies, and an adverse vote in
the Senate no longer leads to the lesignation of
the ministry Usually the ministers aie selected
from the members of the Parliament, but
whether they are or not, they aie entitled to
seats in the chambers and must be heard when-
ever they wish to speak Their duties are of a
twofold character In the first place, they are
the heads of the several administrative depait-
ments of the government, and secondly they are
the leaders of the parliamentary mafontv in the
Parliament, and the representatives of the gov-
ernment whose measures they seek to have
adopted, and whose general policy they defend
against attack The number of ministries or
departments is fixed by decree of the President,
and varies from time to time In 1914 there
were 12 those of the Interioi , of Justice; of
Foreign Affairs, of War, of Marine, of Public
Instruction and Fine Arts, of Public Works,
of the Colonies, of Commerce, Industry, Ports,
and Telegraphs, of Agriculture, of Finance;
and of Labor Besides acting as heads of the
departments, they are also members of the
Council of State, the highest administrative
eourt in the Republic Their responsibility is
both political and criminal Their political re-
sponsibility is collective in matters of general
policy and single in cases of individual activity
and is secured by liability to dismissal froaii
office Their icsponsibihty foi dimes committed
in the exercise of their duties is to the Paiha-
ment, the Chamber of Deputies acting as the
accuser and the Senate as the tual couit For
crimes committed in then pirate capacity they
aie lesponsible to the ordinary judicial courts
The mmisteis aie held to their political lespon-
sibihty through several foims of interrogation
in the chambers These are the "direct ques^
turn," which any member may ask of a minister
aftei pieviously securing his consent, the pur-
pose being to gam infoimation concerning the
policy of the government, and the "interpella-
tion," which is a formal challenge of the govern-
ment s policy and is usually followed by a voio
of confidence or of disapproval Unlike the
direct question, the inteipellation is always m
older, and the consent of the minister questioned
or of the cabinet is not necessaiy
Finally, it should be said that French minis-
tries are short-lived, chiefly on account of the
numerous paity divisions and factional groups
in Fiance As yet no ministry of the Republic
has continued m power foi a period exceeding
three yeais
The* judicial system of France is a puiely
statutoiy ci cation, the only constitutional pro-
vision on (he subject being that which relates
to the constitution of the Senate as an extraordi-
nary court foi ceitain cases By statute a
hierarchical system of judicial and admimstia-
tive comts has been created Of the judicial
coiuts, the highest is the Court of Cassation
at Pans, which is composed of a first president,
ihiee presidents of sections, and f city-five judges
01 councilors Next below this tribunal are the
26 Courts of Appeal, each composed of a presi-
dent and four councilors and with territorial
jurisdiction o\ei several departments They
hear cases from the Couits of First Instance in
the arrondissements, while these in turn hear
appeals from decisions of the justices of the
peace in the cantons (subdivisions of the arron-
dissements) These latter try crvil casfs and
act as police judges for the disposal of petty
offenses For the trial of criminal cases involv-
ing penalties up to imprisonment for five years,
police correctional couits without juries are
piovided Moie serious dimes are tried by
courts of assizes, constituted periodically in
each department, and including a jury of 12
men who are the sole judges of the question of
guilt, and who fix the punishment The ordi-
nal y civil courts are without juries, the judges
alone deciding questions of fact as well as of
law The judges are appointed by the President
of the Republic, and their tenure, except in the
case of the justices of the peace, is duung good
behavior They can be removed only by the
Court of Cassation
The administrative courts are an outgrowth
of the Napoleonic legislation and are intended
to relieve the judicial courts from the decision
of administrative questions It is the French
theory that such questions should be determined
by men who have a practical knowledge of ad-
ministrative law rather than by judges who
have been trained only in the private law The
administrative courts are tribunals of enumer-
ated jurisdiction, but the general rule is that
they take cognizance of all administrative acts
The judges of the admmisti ati ve courts are all
appointed by the President, but, unlike the mem-
bers of the judicial courts, are removable at
PBANCE
145
his pleasure They are trained in the work of
administration and receive laige salaries^ The
most important administrative court in France,
as well as the highest, is the Council of State
It is composed of 116 member s (councilors,
commissioners, and audrtors), and is divided
into four administrative sections and one -ju-
dicial section It has both original and appel-
late jurisdiction in a vanety of administrative
matters Next to the Council of State in im-
portance are the prefectural councils of tlit de-
pal tments Theie is one in each department,
and it is composed of several councilors, to-
gether with the prefect It has a large con-
tentious jurisdiction in administrative matters,
and appeals from its decisions lie to the Council
of State Besides these courts, there aie a num-
ber of special admimstr ative tribunals of minor
importance To determine whether the adminis-
trative or the judicial courts shall have inris-
diction in a given case, where the question of
the forum is in dispute, a Tribunal of Conflicts
is provided It belongs to the prefect to raise
the question of competence, whereupon the
matter as sent to the Conflict Court for
determination
Local government in France differs from the
English and American systems in several im-
portant respects In the first place, the organs
of local government In France are not generally
authorities of enumerated powers, but are
vested with the management and control of all
local affairs without any attempt at specifica-
tion Secondly, to prevent the local organs from
misusing such wide powers, the method of cen-
tral administrative control has been introduced
This is the most important characteristic of
French local government and, like the system of
administrative courts, was inherited from the
Napoleonic era While it secures uniformitv
and symmetry, it destroys the element of local
self-government The activities of the local
organs are twofold In the first place, they aie
made use of by the central government for the
administration of matters of central concern
In the second place, they attend to matters of
purely local interest largely according to therr
own ideas and through, officers of their own
choosing For the purposes of administration
France is divided into 87 departments, in each
of which is a prefect, appointed and removed
at the pleasure of the President He is both a
central and a local officer As agent of the
central government, he supervises the execution
of the national laws, and decrees and instruc-
tions of the ministers, particularly those of the
Minister of the Interior, of whom he is a sub-
ordinate, issues police ordinances, appoints many
officials and directs them in therr duties, and
makes reports to the government on matters in
which it is concerned In this capacity he is
assisted by a prefectural council, appointed
and dismissed by the Presrdent — a body whose
advice he is often bound to ask, but never
obliged to follow As a local officer, he appoints
all the officials rn the servrce of the department,
has charge of departmental finances and publrc
improvements, and executes the resolutions of
the general council This latter body is the
legislative assembly of the department and is
chosen by universal suffrage for a term of six
years, one-half the members retiring every third
year. It holds regular sessions twice a year,
and the subjects to which its legislative power
extends rnclude departmental property, finances,
highways, public works, and poor relief Its
lesolutions in many cases may be annulled by
the central government, and in some eases they
must be appio\ed by the President of the Re-
public to be valid If, eg, in the prepara-
tion of the budget, the council should neglect
or refuse to make the necessary appropriations
01 levy the taxes required, the Piesrdent is em-
powered to order it done
The next local subdivision below the depart-
ment is the aiiondissement Tins is an admin-
istrative and election district rather than a
public corporation for purposes of local govern-
ment Below the arrondissement is the canton
• — an election and judicial district of little im-
portance The lowest adrnrnrstrative unit is the
commune — a local area of historical growth
rather than an artificial creation It may be
either urban or rural and varies rn size from a
few acres to several square miles The two
communal organs winch correspond to the pre-
fect and the general council of the department
are the mayor and the municipal council The
mayor, like the prefect, is both a central and
a local officer, and since 1834 has been elected
by the municipal council As a central officer,
he is subject to the control and direction of
the prefect He serves during the term of the
council by which he is elected, but may be sus-
pended temporarily by the prefect or Minister
of the Interior, and removed by the President
As central officer, he keeps a register of vrtal
statistics, solemnizes marriages, has charge of
the pohce, and issues ordinances affecting the
public health, order, and safety As local officer,
he appoints most of the communal officers, ad-
minrsters the local property, draws up the
budget, and supervises the execution of the reso-
lutions of the municipal council The munrcrpal
council is the deliberative organ of the com-
mune and is elected by universal suffrage for
a term of four years It holds four regular
sessions annually, may be suspended tempo-
rarrlv by the prefect, and drssolved by the
Presrdent of the Republic Its duties extend
chiefly to purely local affairs, but the approval
of the central "admrmstratron rs necessary for
the validity of rts resolutrons on many subjects,
such as those relatrng to the erectron of public
works, mcurrrng loans, levyrng taxes, and ap-
proprratrng money Any act deemed by the
central adminrstratron to be rn excess of rts
jurrsdrctron may be declared vord Excepted
from this general system of munrcrpal govern-
ment are the caprtal, Parrs, and the crty of
Lyons, for the government of which a specral
arrangement is provided
NATIONAL DEFENSE
Army. In order to avord erroneous conclu-
sions in making comparrsons and to compre-
hend the organization of the French army, it
is advisable to consider the basic units on which
that organization depends
Infantry — The real basis of the French in-
fantry organization is the battalron Usually a
battalron has 4 companies, sometimes 3, some-
times 5 or 6, or even more The number of
battalrons rn a regrment varies greatly The
maximum rs 4 battalions to the regiment As
a rule, the infantry company has 3 officers and
140 men rn peace, rn war, about 250 men
From these data rt wrll be noted that the unit
of organization, the battalion with a variable
raAHCE s:
number of companies, is quite different from the
basic unit of the United States army, which
is always the regiment of 3 battalions of 4
companies The French battalion at war
stiength has, on the average, 19 otficerb and
1009 men, the United States army battalion,
13 officers and 566 men
Cavalry— The basic unit is the squadron,
which is composed of 5 officers and 150 men
A squadron of French cavalry corresponds more
nearly to the United States army troop of 3
office! s and S6 men than to the United States
wai squadion ot 4 troops consisting of 14
olliceib and 363 enlisted men See CAVALRY
Field Aitillery—The unit usually taken is
the batteiy, \\Inch at peace stiength varies from
3 officers and 110 men to 3 officers and 175 men;
at war strength, 4 officeis, possibly 5 and 175
men, which is almost identical with the United
States war batteiy of 5 officers and 171 men
The French mountain battery has about 140
men Light batteries have 4 guns, mountain
batteries, 6
Foot Artillery — All officers of artillery in-
cluding field artillery, are on one list Foot
artillery is divided into two branches, r>oast
artillery and fortiess artilleiy The latter gar-
risons the land fortifications It is believed
that in certain cases a part of the fortress
artillery may be used with the mobile forces.
The total peace stiength of foot artilleiy, in-
cluding workmen, is about 468 officers and
16,162 men
Technical Troops — There is no division, as
in the United States, between signal troops and
engineers All technical troops are known as
engineers, including the Aeronautical Corps
They aggregate 585 officers and about 18,000
men The war strength of the major portion of
the engineer companies is 4 officers and 252
enlisted men each , See ENGINEER, CORPS OF
The Aeronautical Corps is organized in three
groups Each group has from 2 to 4 companies
Sections are detached with the mobile army
In the spring of 1914 there were 27 sections of 8
aeroplanes each, 10 cavalry sections of 3 aero-
planes each, and 11 fortress sections of 8 aero-
planes each, aggregating a total of 334 aero-
planes There were also 14 diugibles.
Train Troops are organized into "squadrons",
each squadron contains 3 companies Total
peace footing, 412 officers and about 10,500
men
Sanitary Troops — About 1500 officers and
6200 men
Veterinarians — About 475 officers
The French army proper is known as the
Metropolitan Army and is stationed m France,
Algiers, and Tunis The Colonial Army is sta-
tioned in France and the French colonies and
is distinct from the Metropolitan Army, though
both are administered by the War Minister
The Colonial Army is made up of both white
and native troops
Service in the Metropolitan Army is universal
and compulsory, there being no exemptions ex-
cept for physical disability The period of liabil-
ity is from the age of 20 to 48, as follows, under
the provisions of the Law of 1913 with the
colors, 3 years, joining at the age of 20; with
the reserve, 11 years, with the territorial army,
7 years, with the territorial reserve, 7 years.
This makes a total liability to service of 28
years, ending" at the age of 48 Service in the
Colonial Army is normally by voluntary enlist-
|6 ITBAHCE
ment for 3, 4, or 5 years or by voluntaiy trans-
fer from the Metropolitan Army for the same
periods For the West African native troops,
howevei, enlistment may be compulsory The
leserve for the active army is called out twice
for a peiiod of 4 weeks, the territorial army
once for 2 weeks, the territoual reseive lias
no regular training
Biffhe) Organization — The French Army
Corps is recruited fiom a definite territorial dis-
trict Theie are 20 aimy corps organized in
peace and 1 additional Colonial Army Corps in
Algeria, making 21 m all Army corps usually
ha\e 2 divisions, sometimes 3 There aie 2
brigades to a division, 2 infantry regiments to
a brigade, which contains from 6 to 8 battalions
To each infantiy division is attached 1 field ai-
tillery regiment of 9 batteries (36 guns) The
coips artilleiy consists of 9 field and 3 howitzer
batteries, plus 6 skeleton batteries, which in
war give a total of 144 guns per corps To the
corps aie also attached a cavalry brigade of 2
regiments and certain technical troops The
heavy batteiies of 2 guns each are distributed
as needed by army corps There are 10 cavalry
divisions, each made up of 3 brigades of 2 icgi-
ments each, to which 2 or 3 batteries of horse
artillery are attached Aggregate for a cavalry
division, 24 squadrons and 12 guns Based on
the above, the army coips presents a combatant
stiength of about 33,000, the cavalry division
about 4700
The ? e^et ve of the active army and that of the
territorial army are each organized into 36 divi-
sions and in addition furnish garrisons for the
home stations, the surplus men being called to the
regimental depots to supply the losses in battle
There would also be available for garrison duty
38 battalions of the Customs Corps and a large
number of chasseurs forestiers, both of which
classes aie recruited from the army The gen-
darmerie (military police), amounting to more
than 20,000 men, would be available for local
distribution The police force of Paris, called
Garde Repubhcaine, about 3000 strong, would be
used for similar duties
The Colonial Army, amounting to a total of
about 87,000 men (47,000 Europeans and 40,000
natives), should be distinguished from the Met-
ropolitan Army The service in the former is
normally voluntary, in the latter compulsory
and umveisal Of the Colonial Army 28,000
Europeans are peimanently stationed in France,
19,000 Europeans and 40,000 natives in the
French colonies, giving a total of 87,000 men in
tune of peace The officers and noncommissioned
officers of native regiments are French The
colonial troops stationed in the colonies include
the famous Foreign Legion (2 regiments, each
of 4 battalions, headquarters Algeria) in Indo-
China; 13 battalions and 4 companies of colonial
infantry, 32 batteries of artillery, a squadron
of native cavalry, several companies of native
sappers, and 49 battalions of native infantry
The Metropolitan Army (total peace strength.
639 battalions of infantry, 445 squadrons of
cavalry, 694 batteries of artillery) includes
30,000 natives stationed in Algeria and Tunis
These, with the 620,000 Europeans in France
and 53,000 Europeans in Algeria and Tunis,
give a total of 703,000 for the Metropolitan
Army The horses maintained for this army
number 150,634 Adding the total Colonial
Army of 87,000, we have an aggregate of 790,000
for the total peace strength These figures for
EBA3STCE
147
FBA3STCE
1914 do not include administrative corps, staffs
and sei vices, military schools, etc
Due to the Law of 19 13, increasing the length
of service with the colors to 3 years, and to the
increased reserve seivice, the field army of
Fiance may be roughly estimated at 800,000
combatants The 36 reserve divisions and re-
serve cavaliy add 500,000 more The Algerian
Corps and Colonials in Prance would add ahout
80,000 men, giving a grand total of 1,380,000
combatants, available for war.
Administration is by a general staff and
several departments under the War Minister,
assisted by the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre,
consisting of 12 general officers, among \\hom
are the "chief of the general staff, commander
in chief in case of war, and the chief of the
army staff
The Budget for 1914 provides for an expendi-
ture
For the Metropolitan Army $209,472,660
Colonial Troops in France 9,866,280
Troops in Morocco 46,779,360
Armament and supplies 21,180,000
Total * $287,298,300
* Expense of colonial troops abroad not included in this
total
The fighting strength of the French army on
the initial mobilization was estimated at 650,000
lilies, 60,000 sabres, and 3000 field guns, that
of Germany at 1,000,000 rifles, 80,000 sabres,
and 5500 field guns
Arms — The French infantry use the Lebel
magazine rifle, calibre, 0315 inch The cavalry
has the carbine The field gun is a rapid-fire
shielded gun, 2 95-inch calibre, and is considered
the best in Europe The howitzer batteries use
calibres of 4 inches and 6 2 inches
The fortifications of France may be divided
into two general classes — seacoast defenses and
land defenses, the former to protect a coast line
of 1760 miles, the latter a line of 1575 miles
The land defenses are usually giouped into three
classes, according to their relative strategic im-
portance and corresponding strength of garrison
In recent years the tendency has been to place
more reliance on the strategic and tactical opera-
tions of the mobile army, with the result that
many of the second and third class fortified
places have been put out of commission On the
principal land frontier of Germany the fortified
places are Verdun, Toul, Epmal, Belfort, be-
hind which is a second line as follows Mau-
beuge, La Fere, Rheims, Langres, Dijon, Besan-
con Along the Italian front are Bnancon,
Grenoble, and Lyon On the coast line the prin-
cipal naval stations, guarded by the forts, are
Toulon, Rochefort, Lorient, Brest, and Cher-
bourg
Total War Strength— The mobilization
strength of 1,380,000 combatants above esti-
mated could be increased, as war progressed, to
possibly 3,000,000, all trained men Upon the
complete realization of the intent of the pro-
visions of the Law of 1913, the number will
piobably reach 3,500,000*
* In estimating the total strength of armies from figures
furnished by different authorities, care should be taken to
note what organizations are included and what are omitted,
what are without staffs, and what staffs are wit ho at organ T-
zattons, the size of the basic units in war and in peace,
whether officers, official administrative services, colonials afcd
native troops are considered, the character and numbers of
the several reserve quotas, of trained and partially trained
men, and to what extent tfce latter are available for war
service.
3STavy The French navy, which in 1914 was
considered to rank fouith among the powers
of the world, is an important element in the
national defense and one that is being con-
stantly improved and strengthened It is under
the direction of the Minister of Marine, assisted
in regard to matters of administration by an
Undersecretary of State The Minister presides
over an admnalty council, with executive powers
similar to those of the British Board of Ad-
miralty. The naval members of this council,
\\hich \vas established in 1913, are the chief of
the general staff, the naval director of personnel,
the dnector of materiel, and the chief of the
naval cabinet By a Law passed Feb 13, 1912,
the establishment of the French navy was set
at 28 battleships, formed into 4 squadrons of
6 ships each, with the remaining 4 in reserve
To each squadron were to be attached 2 scout
cruisers and 12 destroyers, with 2 cruisers and
4 destroyers to be held in reserve The foreign-
service fleet was to consist of 10 ships addi-
tional, with such smaller vessels as might be
needed, and the submarine flotilla was to con-
sist of 94 vessels, with 4 mine laying ships and
such mine-raising vessels as might be required
This establishment was to be attained by 1919,
and accordingly it was necessary to build battle-
ships at the rate of 2 a year from 1910 to 1917
The extent to which this had been attained by
1914 may be seen from the following reVumS
of effective fighting ships built and building
at the beginning of that year- Of modern bat-
tleships, i e , dreadnoughts, there were 8 built,
10 building, making a total of 18, having 394,-
249 tons' displacement; of older battleships of
the p re-dreadnought type, there were 13 built,
with a displacement of 163,508 tons, of first-
class cruisers, there were 18, with a tonnage of
191,761, and light cruisers 12, with a tonnage ot
60,086, of destroyers, there were 83 built and 4
building, of torpedo boats less than 20 years
old, there were 153, and of submarines 70 built,
with 23 "building The French navy is manned
partly by voluntary enlistment and partly by con-
scription The "Inscription Maritime," on which
are enrolled the names of the male seafaring
population from 18 to 50 years of age, was in-
troduced by Colbert, the Minister of Marine
under Louis XIV This list, which contains the
names of about 114,000 men, supplies 25,600
conscripts, who ordinarily serve with the fleet,
and would supply 50,000 more needed in case of
mobilization. In 1913 the personnel amounted
to 63,859, distributed as follows 15 vice ad-
mirals, 30 rear admirals, 360 captains and com-
manders, 1457 other line officers, 60 midshipmen
at sea, 505 engineer officers, 394 medical officers
and pharmacists, 219 pay officers, 175 naval
constructors, 139 warrant officers and adjutants
prmcipuux, 60,505 enlisted men, making a total
of 63,859
The French coasts are divided into 5 marine
arrondissements, with headquarters at Cher-
bourg, Brest, Lorient, Rochefort, and Toulon, at
all of which stations shipbuilding establish-
ments are maintained Each arrondissement is
in charge of a vice admiral, who is responsible
not only for administration, but for the mobile
and fixed defense of the district In 1912 and
later considerable change was made in the or-
ganization and disposal of the French fleet The
French squadrons m the Far East and the Pacific
were suppressed, and the Atlantic division dis-
appeared, the plan being to concentrate th& fleet
FRANCE
148
and especially the more powerful battleships m
home waters At the conclusion of the entente
cordiafe and at the opening of the war in the
Balkan Peninsula, the battleships were with-
drawn to the Mediterranean, and, as a lesult,
the fleet in these waters at the beginning of
1914 was made up as follows fhst squadron
of battleships, Cow let, Jean Bart, Condorcet,
Danton, Diderot, Mnaleau, Verginaud, and Vol-
tairej second squadron, made up of older battle-
ships, Patne, Democratic, Justice, Repubhque,
and Terite., reserve ships, Bouvet, G-aulois, and
St Louis j and the arrnoied cruisers Waldeck
Rousseau, Edgar Quinct, finest Kenan, Jules
Ferry, Leon Gamletta, and Victor Hugo In
the Eastein \\ateis the aimoied cimseis Mont-
calm and Dupleix \\ere maintained, and the le-
mainmg naval semce was pel formed for the
most part by smaller ships
The chief "toipedo stations are Dunkiik, Cher-
bourg, Biest, Lorient, Rochefort, Toulon, Cor-
sica, Bizerta, Oran, Algiers, and Bona At these
points toipedo and submarine flotillas, dirigibles
and sea planes are maintained, and at Brest is
the principal naval school In 1912 a Fiencli
Navy Aviation Service was established \\ith
dirigibles, aeroplanes, hydioaeioplanes, and the
necessary hangais, aerodi omes, and station
ships foi their maintenance At Cheibouig,
Brest, Lorient, Rochefoit, and Toulon there aie
large government div* docks, and at St Kazan e
and Havre large pin ate docks, belonging to
steamship companies or shipbuilding establish-
ments The 1914 naval estimate as \oted v\as
£19,818,052, an mciease of £1,131,007 ovei 1913,
exclusive of extraordinary charges foi the naval
progiamnie In 1914 the" total amount spent on
new construction was £10,720,000, of which £4,-
600,000 was foi work in the government dock-
yards and £6,120,000 in private dockyards Both,
in private and government dockyards the rate
of construction of French battleships has been
materially improved.
In 1914 there were under construction m
France a number of dreadnoughts which had
been laid down in 1013 These were the
Planches, Gascogne, Lawqmdoc, Normandie, and
the Beam, the last named having been contracted
for in 1914. These battleships were to have a
length over all of 623 feet, or water-line length
of 574% feet, and a displacement of 24,800 tons,
mounting twelve 13 4-inch guns of 35 calibres,
in three quadiuple turrets on centie lines, be-
sides 24 guns of 5 5 inches of 50 calibres in a
secondary battery There were also under con-
struction three battleships, launched in 1913 — •
the Lortaine, Bietagne, and Provence — each with
a length of 546 feet on the water line and a dis-
placement of 23,177 tons, having an armament
of 10 134-inch guns of 45 calibres, mounted in
pairs on turrets",, with a secondary battery of
22 55-inch guns In 1914 there were pro-
lected, and provision was made even before the
war with Germany, for four additional dread-
noughts— the Buquesne> Tourmlle, Lyon, and
Lille, mounting 16 ] 35-inch guns These bat-
tleships were to have a length of 623 feet and
a displacement of 29,500 tons A secondary
battery was to comprise 28 5 5-inch guns
In 1914 France had under construction 6 de-
stroyers and 23 submarines Of the latter not
less than 6 were of 820 tons' displacement and
400 horse power each. During this year there
were completed the dreadnoughts Pans and
France, and in 1913 of the same type the Jean
Bart and the Courlet, having a water-line
length of 541 3 feet and a displacement of 23,096
tons, with an armament of 12 12-inch, 50-
calibre guns, ai ranged in pairs in turrets, with
a secondaiy batteiy of 22 55-inch, 50-calibre
guns See NAVIES
HISTOEY
GaJha, or Gaul, was the ancient name under
which Fiance was designated by the Romans.
They knew little of the countiy till the time of
Caesar, who, after a series of wars covering neaily
eight yeais, completed its conquest in 50 B c
At this time it was occupied by thiee branches
of the Celtic race— the Aquitam, the Celt®, and
the Belgse There weie also some Germanic in-
habitants and a few Ligunans and Greeks, but
the latter never penetrated far beyond the shoies
of the Mediteiianean, where they planted col-
onies,, the most important of which was Mas-
silia (Marseilles) Under the Roman rule Gaul
advanced rapidly in civilization and refinement
and was one of the most impoitant portions of
the Empire ( See GAUL ) With the decline of
the Roman power in the fifth century it fell
completely undei the power of tlie Visigoths,
Burgundians, and Fianks In 486 AD Clovis,
a chief of the Salian Franks, by his victoiy
over Syagmis near Soissons, put an end to the
Roman dominion Clovis embiaced Christianity
m 406 After his death in 511 his kingdom was
divided among his sons, Theodonc, Chlodomer,
Childebert, and Clothaire His dynasty, known
as the Mei ovingian, ended in the person of Clul-
deric III, who was deposed in 751, after the re-
ality of kingly power had already passed into the
hands of the Mayor of the Palace, Pepin, called
Pepin of Heristal, and after him into those of
Charles Martel and Pepin the Shoit, the latter
of whom ascended the throne as the fiist of the
Carolmgian rulers (See FKANKS, MEROVIN-
GIANS, CAKOLINGIANS ) The accession of Pepin
gave new vigor to the Frankish monarchy, which,
under his son and successor, Charles the Great,
crowned Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III
in 800, became a powerful empire Christianity,
civilization, and letters were piotected during the
of Charles the Great, and befoie his death
he Tiad extended the limits of his Empire almost
fioin the Baltic to the Mediteri anean, and from
the Bay of Biscay to the coast of Illyria After
his reign, however, this vast powei crumbled to
pieces By the Treaty of Verdun, in 843, three
years after the death of Louis the Pious, the
son of Charles the Great, the Frankish Empire
was divided among his sons The lands east
of the Rhine, whose inhabitants were predomi-
nantly Teutonic in race and language, were as-
signed to Louis the German, the part corre-
sponding closely to modern France and the
southern part of Belgium (the kingdom of the
western Franks ) fell to the possession of Charles
the Bald, between the two lay the territories
of Lothair, who, in addition, received Italy and
the Impei lal title The descendants of Charles
the Bald (died 877) possessed little or none
of the vigor of the early Carolmgians Louis
the Stammerer (877-879) was the helpless
creature of powerful nobles. Louis III and
Karlmann, sons of Louis the Stammerer, were
forced to witness the loss of the Rhdne valley
and the hostile incursions of the Northmen. In
$84 OKarles the Fat, King of Germany and of
Italy, was made King of the western Franks,
149
FRANCE
thus reuniting the realm of Charles the Great
Aftei a stoimv leign of three yea is-, in the
course of which Pans all but fell into the hands
of the Northmen, he was deposed, and Odo,
Count of Pans, was laised to the throne of
France Intestine \vais desolated the land, and
foreign assailants thieatened it on every side
Under Charles the Simple (893-929) the rav-
ages of the Northmen had assumed so peisistent
a character that the King was glad to purchase
immunity fiom their enci oaehinonts by the ces-
sion of the terntory subsequently known as
Noimandy (911) In the kingdom anarchy
ragncd pai amount, the \aiious governors es-
tabhbhed an heiechtaiv atithonty in their sev-
eial £fo\emments, and the ciown was by de-
fiecs deprived of the best pait of its possessions
he po\\ei of some of the vassals surpassed that
of the kings, and on the death of Louis V the
Caiohng*an dynasty was replaced by that of
Hugh, Count of Paris, whose son, Hugh Capet,
was elected King by the army and consecrated
at Rheinis in 987 See CAPETIAW DYNASTY
At this period the greater part of France was
held by almost independent lords, and the au-
thority of the Capetian kings for more than a
century extended little beyond Paris and Or-
leans Among the most important of the great
feudal vassals T\hose possessions made up the
lands of the French crown were the counts of
Flanders, Vennandois, and Champagne, the
dukes of Normandy, Bui gundy, and Aquitaine,
and the counts of Anjou, BIois, and Toulouse.
Louis the Fat (1108-37) was the first of the
Capetians who mled with a strong hand He
exalted the power of the ciown at the expense
of the feudal nobles and increased the royal
terntoiy Louis VII (1137-80), who took pait
in the Second Crusade, was fiequently engaged
in war with Henry II of England, whose mai-
riage with Eleanoi of Aquitaine made him mas-
ter of that legion and Poitou, in addition to his
hereditaiy possessions of Normandy and Anjou.
Louis's son and suecessoi, Philip Augustus
(1180-1223), wiestc-d Noimandy, Maine, Anjou,
Tourame, and Poitou from John of England and
increased the power of the crown in other paits
of France He took a personal share in the
Third Ciusade and permitted the Pope to or-
ganize crusades against the Albigenses in the
southern paits of the country The powei of
the baions in the south was greatly weakened,
and ultimately their territory was merged with,
the royal domains By improvements in the ad-
ministration of justice, the right of appeal to
the royal comts was established, and the arbi-
trary power of the great vassals crippled It
was the policy of Philip Augustus to make use
of the clergy and the juiists against the nobles,
and it was the jurists especially who aided in
the establishment of an absolute monarchy by
their introduction of the punciples of the old
Eoman law Under Philip Augustus, France at-
tained the leading place in Europe The Kmg
knew how to win the friendship of the Pope
without yielding to the papal pretensions He
was powerful enough to defeat Otho IV of Ger-
many and his allies at Bouvmes in 1214 — a vic-
tory which secured his hold on the territories
taken from King John Improvements in the
mode of administering the law were continued
under his son, Lotus VIII (1223-26), and his
grandson, Louis IX (1226-70), who is one of
the saints of the Catholic church Louis IX
engaged in the Qrusades and died in an expe-
dition against Tunis He effected many modi-
fications in the fiscal department and left the
kingdom stronger than ever before His son,
Philip the Bold (1270-85), annexed the County
of Toulouse to the royal domains Philip IV
(128i-1314), surnamed Le Bel, or the Fair, ae-
qiuied Navaire and Champagne by marriage
and other territory by money or diplomacy
With a view to securing support against the
secular and ecclesiastical nobility, with whom
he was constantly at wai, Philip gave promi-
nence to the burgher element in the nation, and
in 1302 he for the first time called together the
etats q^neiaua), or general estates, at which the
tiers etatj or burgher class, appeared, together
with the nobles and cleigy These changes were,
however, accompanied by innovations in the fis-
cal and other depaitments of the government,
which were effected with haste and violence
His tviannical persecution of the Templars
showed the extent to which the regal power
could be stretched At the same time the re-
moval of the seat of the papacy to Avignon in-
sured to France a pi edomuiant influence in
European affairs Undei his successors, Louis
X (1314-16), Philip V (1316-22), and Charles
IV (1322-28), the last direct descendant of the
Oapetian line, the rule of the kings of France
became even more unlimited Philip VI (1328-
50), the first of the house of Valois, a cousin
of Charles IV and the nephew of Philip IV, as-
cended the throne in accordance with the Salic
law (qv). His reign and those of his suc-
cessors, John the G-ood (1350-64) and Charles
V the Wise (1364-80), were disturbed by con-
stant wars with Edward III of England, who
laid claim to the throne in right of his mother,
a daughter of Philip the Fair The Hundred
Years' War (qv ) began in 1339 In 1346 the
English won a great victory at Crecy. In the
battle of Poitiers (1356) John was made cap-
tive, and, as the war dragged on, the state was
reduced to bankruptcy, the nobility excited to
icbellion, and the mass of the people greatly
impoverished. Debasement of the coinage, on-
erous taxation, and arbitiary conscriptions
brought the country to the verge of ruin, while
the victories of England humbled the sovereign,
decimated the French armies, and cut down the
flower of the nation The insurrection of the
peasantry, known as the Jacquerie, occurred in
1358 The long- and weak minority of Edward
Ill's grandson, Hiehard II, diverted the English
from the prosecution of their claims to the King-
dom of Fiance, which revived somewhat from
the effects of its long and disastrous warfare,
but during the minority of Charles VI (1380-
1422) the war was renewed with increased vigor
on the part of the English nation, who were
stimulated by the daring valor of Henry V
The signal victory won by the English at Agin-
court in 1415, the treason and rebellion of the
French princes of the blood who governed the
larger provinces, the ambition of the several
regents, the ultimate imbecility of the King, the
profligacy of his Queen, and the love of pleasure
early evinced by the Dauphin, all combined to
aid Henry in his attempts upon the throne But
the premature death of Henry, the persevering
spirit of the people, and the extraordinary in-
fluence exercised over her countrymen by the
Maid of Orleans (see JOAN or ABO), concurred
in bringing about a reaction, and after a period
of anarchy Charles VII the Victorious (1422-
61) Vas crowned at Bheims A fierce struggle,
FRANCE IJ
however, had still to be waged for the recovery
of tlie French provinces from the hands of the
English, who were not driven out from Nor-
mandy and Guienne until the middle of the
century, \\hen nothing but Calais remained in
their possession Charles obtained from the
States General a regular tax (taille) for the
maintenance of paid soldieis to keep in check
the mercenaries and marauders who pillaged the
country He laid the real foundation for the
absolute power of the King by obtaining the
support of the third estate
"It remained for his successor, however, com-
pletely to break the power of the great vassals
of the cro\\n and to lay upon the ruins of feudal
anarchy the secure foundations of absolutism
;0 PBANCE
countered a formidable rival, who bade fair to
erect between France and Germany a kingdom
more powerful than either, but Charles fell in
battle against the Swiss in 1477, and of his
possessions the Duchy of Burgundy passed to
France Louis XI did not live to consolidate
all of France under the crown, but before his
death the royal power had been extended over
Guienne, Bui gundy, Provence, Anjou, Maine,
and other regions
Charles VIII (1483-98), by his marriage with
Anne of Brittany, secured that powerful princi-
pality and consolidated the increasing power of
the crown His invasion of Italy in 1494 de-
cided for all the future the relations of France
to the other powers of Europe and may be re-
SWI T ZERLAND
Z> Qenerra,
Acquired from Italy I860
Ceded io Germany- 1871
MAP OP FRAJSrCE SHOWING FORMER PROVINCES
Louis XI (1461-83) brought to the task the
manifold resources of a wily, unscrupulous na-
ture, true to the moral type of the Renaissance
and to those ideals of statecraft which Machia-
velh was soon to formulate in his Principe The
essential meanness of his character and of his
entire career was atoned for only by the in-
estimable benefits which he conferred upon his
country Soon after his accession to the throne
the princes of the royal blood formed the League
of the Public Weal against Louis, ostensibly m
defense of the interests of the States General,
but in reality out of fear of the growing power
of the monarchy Forced to yield in the be-
ginning, the King goon turned their own weapon
against them The States General at Tours, in
1468, summoned to consider the question of re-
forms in the administration and the finances,
revoked some of the concessions which the
princes had succeeded in extorting from Louis
in the Treaty of Conflans, three years before
In Charles the Bold of Burgundy Louis en-
garded as marking the beginning of the modern
era of international policy With Charles VIII
ended the direct male succession of the house
of Valois ( See VALOIS, HOUSE OF ) Louis XII
(1498-1515), known as "Le p£re du peuple," was
the only ruler of the Valois-0rle"ans family. The
tendency of his reign was to consolidate the
royal power, while the general condition of the
people was ameliorated Louis XII engaged in
bloody wars in Italy for the possession of Lom-
bardy and the Kingdom of Naples, but failed to
achieve any permanent conquests His succes-
sor, Francis I (1515-47), of the Valois- Angou-
Igme branch, still intent upon establishing
French dominion in north Italy, waged endless
wars with the Hapsburgs, which wasted the re-
sources of his kingdom A concordat with the
Pope, signed m 1516, secured to the King the
right of nominating the Galhcan bishops In
the reign of Francis the Assembly of Notables
superseded the States General The arts and
literature were encouraged in this reign, as well
as in that of the succeeding monarch, Henry II
(1547-59), who continued the struggle with the
Hapsburgs The Emperor Charles V, who had
warred successfully against Fiancis I, being
crippled by the events which grew out of his
war with G-erman Protestants, Heniy seized the
opportunity to wrest the bishoprics of Toul,
Metz, and Verdun from the German Empire and
annex them to France In this reign began the
persecutions of the Huguenots ( q v )
With the death of Henry II began a period of
strife between factions which lasted for more
than 30 yeais and brought upon France the
full horrois of civil war The three sons of
Henry II— Francis II (1559-60), Charles IX
(1560-74), and Henry III (1574-89)-— were
weak-\\illed and incapable, and the history of
their reigns is the story of a ceaseless struggle
for mastery on the part of the powerful house of
Guise, carried on under the pretense of a war for
religion Opposed to them were the Huguenots,
led at first by the Prince of Conde and the great
Cohgny and later by Henry of Navarre Be-
tween the two, and playing off one against the
other, was the gifted and unscrupulous Queen
mother, Catharine de' Medici Eight civil wars
were fought in the space of a generation (begin-
ning with 1562), wars in which the Huguenots
did not hesitate to call m foreign aid against
their enemies, nor both parties to employ per-
jury and assassination The Massacre of St.
Bartholomew (see BABTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF
ST ) , perpetrated by Catharine de' Medici with
the aid of the Guises, failed to crush the Hugue-
nots and served only to increase the power of
the Guise family, who, as heads of the Catholic
League, sought to exclude Henry of Navarre, the
rightful heir to the throne, from the succession
Henry III, who thought his own life and crown
in danger, caused the Duke of Guise and his
bi other, the Cardinal of Lorraine, to be assas-
sinated (1588), but perished himself by the
assassin's knife in the following year, and the
crown passed from the house of Valois
The accession of Henry IV of Navarre ( 1589-
1610), a Bourbon prince, descended from a
younger son of St Louis, allayed the fury of
the religious wars, but his conversion to Ca-
tholicism estranged his own party, for whom,
however, religious toleration was secured by the
Edict of Nantes (1598) The early part of his
reign was disturbed by mutinies of the troops
and the rebellions of the nobles By degrees,
however, Henry, through the astute policy of
his Minister, Sully, and by his own personal
popularity, raised the power of the crown higher
than ever, while he began a system of thorough
administrative reform, which was arrested only
by his death at the hands of the fanatic Ra-
vaillac in 1610 The first permanent French
settlements in Canada were established under
Henry IV-
During the first years of the reign of Louis
XIII (1610-43), the government was in the
hands of the Queen mother, Marie de' Medici.
The year 1614 is noteworthy as the date of
the last meeting of the States-General before
1789 After 1624 the real ruler of France was
Cardinal Richelieu His accession to power
speedily put an end to the political intrigues
which had disturbed the country during the re-
gency of Mane dej Medici and the personal rule
of Louis, Richelieu relentlessly repressed the
risings of the Huguenots, who, under their am-
bitious leaders of the house of Conde* had
become a menace to the state La Roehelle, the
la&t of their places of refuge, was taken in 1628,
and Protestantism as a political force ceased to
exist in France The Huguenots, however, were
not molested m the free practice of their re-
ligion, as guaranteed by the Edict of Nantes
Abroad Richelieu carried on with marked suc-
cess the contest against the house of Austria,
which Henry IV was about to resume at the
time of his death The Thirty Years' War in
Germany afforded him the opportunity Gus-
tavus Adolphus was maintained largely hy
French subsidies, and after 1635 it was French
aid that made possible the victonous campaigns
of Beinhard of Weimar, Baner, and Torstenson
Alsace was practically won by 1639, and (though
Richelieu did not live to see this ) by the Peace
of Westphalia (1648) France was confirmed in
the possession of the bishoprics of Alsace, and
the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and
secured the right to intervene in the affairs of
Geimany as one of the guarantors of peace
During the minonty of Louis XIV (1643-
1715) Cardinal Mazarm exerted the chief au-
thority under the Regent, the Queen mother,
Anne of Austria The refractory attitude of the
Parlement of PAHS and the repiebsion of the
nobility gave rise to another civil war (see
FEONDE), but with the assumption of po\vei by
young Louis ( 1661 ) a new era commenced
Supported by the financial ability of Colbert,
who was a mercantilist, the military genius of
Turenne, the engineering skill of Vauban, and
the organizing talent of Louvois, Louis made
France the great power of Europe Franche-
Comte and a part of Flanders were added to
France by the Treaty of Nimfcguen (1678)
The ambitious schemes of Louis forced the
powers, of Europe in self-preservation to unite
against him Within, Louis reigned as absolute
monarch, concentrating all the power of govern-
ment in himself The progress of the people
in the arts of peace was accomplished with
rapid strides Under the inspiration of the
Grand Mowarque French society attained a de-
giee of culture and refinement that had not
been known even in the days of the Italian
Renaissance This, too, was the golden age
of French literature The French language and
customs exercised an immense influence on the
manners of the higher classes throughout Eu-
rope, being not the least potent in distant and
barbaric Russia The court of Louis XIV be-
came the model for European princes There
was, however, a dark side to the picture The
oppressive war taxes, the prodigality of the
court, the luxurious lives of the clergy, and
the absolutism and bigotry of the aged monarch
combined to undermine the foundations of na-
tional prosperity and freedom The latter part
of Louis XIV's life was marked by a long series
of misfortunes The French armies were repeat-
edly defeated, the prestige of France was de-
stroyed, and only the jealousy of its enemies
saved it from utter humiliation The War of
the League of Augsburg (1689-97) was marked
by the defeat of the French in the naval battle
of La Hogue (1692), which wrested from them
the mastery of the seas With the outbreak of
the War of the Spanish Succession (see SUC-
CESSION WARS) came the downfall I/ouis XV
(1715-74) succeeded to a heritage whose glory
was tarnished and to a throne j whose stability
was shaken to its very foundations The reign
of Louis XV presents nothing worthy of
FRANCE
152
FRANCE
except the acceleration in the process of dissolu-
tion of the monarchy and the development of
revolutionary influences The regency of the
profligate Duke of Orleans brought the nation to
the verge of bankiuptcy (See LAW, JOHN)
The struggle with England in the Seven Years
War (qv) stripped France of Canada and
Louisiana, while the capricious change of policy
which the King's mistresses, Madame de Pompa-
dour and Madame du Barry, forced upon the
governments bi ought contempt upon the country
During this reign the Order of the Jesuits, over
\\ Inch thei e was much controversy, was banished
from France (1764) In 1774 Louis XVI, a
well-meaning but weak prince, succeeded to the
throne and to the consequences, of all the eriors
of his predecessors His fiist ministers, Maure-
pas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, failed in their
attempts to jariy out the necessary reforms and
T\ere compelled to yield to the intrigues of the
nobility and higher clergy and resign their
places They were succeeded by the financier
Necker, who endeavored by economy and method
to arrest the impending bankruptcy of the state,
and succeeding ministers (Calonne, Lomenie de
Brienne) made futile attempts to diminish these
financial disorders by new forms of taxation,
which were generally opposed by the couit The
nobles, the clergy, and the third estate were
alike clamorous for a meeting of the States
General, the privileged estates wishing to impose
new taxes on the nation, and the thud estate
determined to inaugurate a thorough and syste-
matic reform, especially of the land system
After much opposition on the part of the King
and court, the States General, which had not
met since 1614, assembled at Veisailles on May
5, 1789
France was upe for revolution Thorough-
going reforms at the beginning of Louis XVFs
reign might have averted the catastrophe, but a
vacillating King, and ministers strong enough to
aspire after the good without the power to
achieve it, had served only to intensify the feel-
ing of universal discontent, and to bring out in
greater contrast than ever the irreconcilable
antagonism between the new spirit of the age
and the antiquated forms of government and
society in France In other countries of Europe
the condition of the lower classes was as un-
happv the incapacity of government as appar-
ent, the survival of feudal customs as oppres-
sive as in France, but in France alone had the
newer intellectual life developed such activity
as to render it incompatible with the continued
existence of ancient institutions Absolutism in
France had been developed at the expense of
feudal rights and popular liberties and had
drawn to itself almost all the functions of na-
tional life, but absolutism since the time of
Louis XIV had failed in its duty to the nation,
and appears in the ancien regime as a ponderous,
rusty machine, making itself felt chiefly by its
\\ eight
Under the old regime the internal administra-
tion of the country rested in the hands of the
King's Council and of the Comptroller General
Finance, justice, and legislation were all under
the control of this powerful Minister, who acted
in conjunction with various subsidiary councils
The country was divided into 32 provinces or
generalities, each under an intendant, who was
the agent of, and responsible to, the Comp-
troller General Except in the pays d'$M, where
the local magistrates retained some measure of
self-government, the intendant united m himself
the vaiious functions of administration police,
public woiks, the caie of the poor, and, chief of
all, taxation Thiough his subdelegates he col-
lected every j^ear the amount of the taille and
othei direct taxes assessed upon the province
bv the King's Council The process of adminis-
tration was cumbersome Minute matters of
local importance had to be passed upon by the
Comptroller General in Paris, and, as a result,
the provincial administration, though meaning
probably to be neither harsh no: unjust, sue
ceeded for the most part in being both
Socially the people of Fiance weie divided
into two gieat classes — those who paid the taille
and those who did not Among the latter were
the nobility, numbering some 140,000 souls and
owning about one-fifth of the soil They held
exclusive possession of the high offices at court
they were exempt from the eotvce, or forced
woik on the roads, and fiorn seivice in the
militia Originally exempted from payment of
the taille because it was regarded as a com-
mutation paid by the lower classes in lieu of
military seivice, the nobles ictained their ex-
emption long after they had ceased to render
nnhtary seivice In the payment of indirect
ta\os they also succeeded in evading a large
pait of then siiaie For the nobles theie were
the old privileges and immunities, the ancient
rights of fines and dues and tithes, of hunting
and fishing and wan en, of toll on mill and wine
pi ess, but the ancient service of protection and
of guidance to the vassal was gone A distinc-
tion, howevei, should be mado between the court
nobility, who lived in magnificence at Paris or
Versailles and aided in heaping up the enormous
deficit with which the extra\agance of the court
was weighing down the country, and the country
nobles, who constituted the great body of the
class and lived in retnement on their estates,
poor, inactive, since absolutism would make no
use of them as its agents, and a burden, though
very often an unwilling burden, to their tenants
The church compused some 60,000 monks and
nuns and 70,000 of the secular clergy out of a
total population of about 23,000,000 Between
the prelates of the church and the gieal body of
the pool priests was the same gulf that separated
the court nobility from the lesident nobles The
mass of the French priesthood was unselfish,
devoted, zealous in its duties, but among the
highei clergy, the archbishops and bishops, there
were many who were no less selfish and ambi-
tious than the nobility Like the nobility, they
weie eager to escape their fair share of taxation
and hungered after dues and tithes The church
owned about one-fifth of the land in France and,
with the nobility and the crown, shifted its
burdens upon the remaining two-fifths Privi-
lege ruled also in the middle classes In the
towns the line of cleavage between the bour-
geoisie and the artisan population was definite
Trade and industry were regulated by the guilds
after the selfish spirit of mediaeval times
Municipal offices were put up by the government
for sale and, as they generally carried with
them certain pnvileges and immunities, chief
among them relief from taxation, were greatly
sought after Powerful corporations were as
assiduous m swearing off taxes as their modern
successors The rich burgeoisie, in short, vied
with the nobility and the church in evading the
buidens of staste
It was upon the peasantry, then, that the full
FRANCE
153
EBA^TCE
brunt of taxation fell Serfdom was almost ex-
tinct in France, more than one-fifth of the land
was held by peasant proprietor, and, strangely
enough, throughout the eighteenth century more
and more land passed into the hands of the
peasants in spite of the almost intolerable ex-
actions imposed upon them Yet Tame has cal-
culated that foui -fifths of the fiuits of the
peasants' labois weie taken away by the govern-
ment in the form of taille, corvee, poll tax,
mngtiemes, the gdbelle, or salt tax, internal
revenue, and tariff duties The lands of the
church and of the nobles were cultivated by the
peasants undei the metayer system, where the
owner supplied the stock of implements, and
the peasant the labor, both sharing equally The
general state of agriculture was wretched The
methods pursued were those of the early Middle
Ages, want was the chronic condition of the
working population, famine a fiequent phenome-
non, and mendicancy increased to an enormous
extent In 1777 there were 1,250,000 beggars in
France Rioting was frequent, and the criminal
class drew recruits in plenty from among the
proletariat of town and country
Against the critical and utilitarian spirit of
the eighteenth century the irrational and anti-
quated in government and society could not hope
to maintain itself Absolutism was assailed by
Montesquieu in his UEsprit des lois, which held
up the ideal of constitutional liberty as realized
in Great Britain, Voltaire waged a ceaseless
\varfaie of keenest ridicule and biting wit
against the absurd and anomalous in church,
state, and society Rapidly the conviction grew
of the utter worthlessness of existing things and
of the necessity for immediate and radical
change The revolt against the actual attained
its climax in Rousseau In the face of privi-
lege, injustice, and oppression, he invoked the
law of nature to establish the equality of man
To the peasantry and the artisan class equality
meant the just redistribution of public burdens;
to the cultured, ambitious bourgeoisie, an equal
opportunity with the nobles for sharing in the
national life "Liberte, Egahte" et Fraternite"
became the watchword of the downtrodden
French peasants.
For an account of the period from 1789 to
1799, see FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE
Bonaparte showed consummate skill in reor-
ganizing and centralizing the government, which
had been too much localized under the Revolu-
tion. He then took the field m the spring of
1800, led an army over the Alps, and attacked
the Austrians in Italy, while Moreau was in-
trusted with the conduct of the campaign in
southein Germany The victones of Marengo
and Hohenlmden decided the fate of the war In
1801 the Peace of Luneville was concluded with
Austria and the German Empire, and the boun-
daries of France were extended to the Rhine In
t}ie Peace of Amiens in 1802, England recognized
the changes wrought by the Revolution and
Bonaparte in the map of Europe The period
of respite from war was employed by the
First Consul in revivifying trade and industry
and in obliterating, both in private and
public life, the devastations wrought by the
Reign of Terror. In 1804, after an appeal
through universal suffrage to the nation, Bona-
parte became Emperor, as Napoleon I The
Pope came to Paris to crown Napoleon and his
wife, Josephine, a new nobility was rapidly
created, and the relatives and favorites of the
Empeior received vanquished kingdoms and
principalities at his hands- In 1805 Napoleon
assumed the title of King of Italy Austria,
which ventured to n^e up against him, was over-
t hi own, together with hei ally, Russia, at Ulm
and Austerhtz (1805), and compelled to sign
the Peace of Pressbuig, bv which the existence
of the Holv Roman Empire was formally
bi ought to an end (1806) Prussia was hu-
miliated at Jena arid Auerstadt (1806) and
brought to the verge of destruction, the Rus
sian<s were overthrown at Friedland (1807), and
the Czar was forced to enter into an alliance
with the French Empeior (Tieaty of Tilsit,
1807), by which the arbitrament of affairs in
Europe was divided between the two In the
meanwhile, however, England, having renewed
the stiuggle against France, had gained the
complete masteiy of the seas by the victory of
Trafalgar (1805) Against this archenemy Na-
poleon brought to bear the united strength of
Europe in an effort to destioy her commercial
supremacy by a system of ruinous blockades
(See CONTINENTAL SYSTEM ) In 1807 the forces
of Napoleon invaded Poitugal and expelled the
reigning family In 1808 he took possession of
Spain, whose inhabitants rose against him, and
which became a great battlefield between the
English and French We see here for the first
time a national war in Spam as opposed to the
dynastic wars of the past Napoleon's inability
to gam contiol of the situation in Spain was
one of the most potent causes of his subsequent
downfall The height of Napoleon's power was
attained in 1809, when the Austrians in a third
war were overthrown at Wagram and in the
Treaty of Sclionbrunn suffered a further loss of
territory By his marriage with the Arch-
duchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor
of Austria, Napoleon attempted to give to his
throne the prestige of birth, which alone it
lacked. For some years, while his military
operations were confined to the Spanish penin-
sula, Napoleon could devote his energies towards
consolidating his government and organizing a
thoroughly centralized administration His im-
press on the character of Fiench institutions
has persisted to the present day the legal sys-
tem of France is based primarily on the Code
Napoleon (1804), and the relations between
church and state up to 1906 were largely deter-
mined by the Concordat which the Emperor con-
cluded with the Pope m 1801 The period was
one of noted intellectual progress Chateau-
briand and Madame de Stael gave the initial
impetus to the romantic movement in literature
and in the field of science stand out the names
of Bichat, Lamarck, and Laplace.
The disastrous Russian campaign of 1812 was
the beginning of Napoleon's downfall Of the
grand army of more than 500,000 men which he
led into Russia m June, only 100,000 recrossed
the Nieraen in December under the command of
Murat, the Emperor having hastened to France
to raise new levies Europe now rose against
the conqueror In February, 1813, Prussia en-
tered into an alliance with Russia, and these
powers were soon joined by Austria- and Sweden
Napoleon defeated the Russians and Prussians
at Lutzen and Bautzen in May and gained a
splendid victory over the Allies at Dresden in
August, but m October he was overwhelmed m
the great battle of Leipzig He was driven from
Germany, France was mvade<!? and on March
30 Paris surrendered to the Allies
134
FBAHCB
Napoleon was compelled to abdicate and re-
tired to the island of Elba, the sovereignty of
which had been granted to him His family
were declared to have forfeited the French
throne Of all her conquests Fiance was allowed
to retain only a few strips of territory on her
eastern border, together with Avignon and Ve-
naissin On May 3 Louis XVIII, the brother of
Louis XVI 8 made his entry into Paris, and the
period of the First Restoration began
The conduct of the restored Bourbons was not
such as to conciliate the nation, they returned
loaded with debts, and sui rounded by the old
nobility and clergy, who had not learned to re-
nounce their former privileges, and who looked
upon the generation of Frenchmen which had
arisen during their absence as their natural
enemies The hopes of a liberal government,
aroused by the granting of a constitution in the
Charte Constitutionelle (June 4, 1814), failed
of realization A narrow spirit influenced the
policy of the King, which led to the establish-
ment of a- strict censorship, the extension of the
powers of the police, and the persecution of all
the adherents of the Empire. The lower classes
and the army, who were alike sensible of the
humiliating reaction which had followed the
former excitement of war and conquest, were
treated by the returned emigres with indifference
and contempt The general discontent with the
monarchy afforded the exiled Emperor an oppor-
tunity of which he was not slow to avail himself
On Feb 26, 1815, Napoleon left Elba, and on
March 1 he landed in France Crowds followed
him, the soldieis of the Empue flocked around
his standaid, and the Bourbons fled before him
The news of his landing spread consternation
throughout Europe. The deliberations of the
Congress of Vienna (qv ) were suspended, and
on Maich 25 a treaty of alliance was signed
at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and
England, and preparations were at once made to
put down Napoleon and restore the Bourbon
dynasty At first the prestige of success seemed
to attend Napoleon, but on June 18 he met his
final defeat at Waterloo (qv ) On July 8
Louis XVIII reentcred Paris A week later
Napoleon gave himself up to the English and
was sent to the island of St Helena, where he
died m 1821
The Second Restoration gave occasion to many
pledges of a more liberal policy on the part of
Louis, but these wei e disregarded in the Royalist
reaction that now set in In spite of the King's
promises of amnesty, many of those who had
gone over to Napoleon during the Hundred Days
were brought to trial before tribunals expressly
instituted for that purpose The most prominent
of the victims was Ney, who was found guilty of
treason, and shot Dec. 7, 1815. A number of
peers, created by Napoleon, were expelled from
the Upper Chamber In some of the provinces
the adherents of the Bourbons entered upon a
course of violence and murder, the so-called
" White Terror " Long after physical violence
subsided, reactionary legislation went on The
suffrage law was repeatedly tampered with, until
the preponderance of power had been placed in
the hands of the great landowners In matters
of public education the King was completely
under the control of the clergy, who constituted
the extreme party among the reactionists In
1824 Louis XVIII was succeeded by his brother,
the Comte d'Artois, as Charles X Ministerial
incapacity, want of good faith, general discon-
tent, and tendencies to absolutism characterized
this reign, which was abruptly brought to a
close by the revolution of July, 1830 With
Charles X the direct line of the house of Bour-
bon came to an end Louis Philippe, Duke of
Orleans, was elevated to the throne by the will
of the people. He became King of the "French,"
not of "France" The first years of the reign
of this "Citizen King," who was the representa-
tive of the prosperous commercial and industrial
classes, were disturbed by insurrectionary riots
of the silk weaveis in Lyons and disturbances
in Paris Attempts on the King's life were
frequent, but the progress in material pros-
perity made the goveinment popular with the
bourgeoisie, and for a time it held its ground
The warlike propensities of the nation found an
outlet m the conquest of Algeria (1830-47)
But the determined resistance of the King to
the growing demand for electoral reform led at
last to open insurrection in Paris Louis
Philippe abdicated, Feb 24, 1848 A provisional
government was at once instituted, including
such men as Dupont de PEure, Lamartine,
Ledru-Rollin, Etienne Arago, Crermeux, and
Garnier-Pages On February 27 the Second Re-
public was formally proclaimed Under the
auspices of Louis Blanc the new goveinment
pioceeded at once to exert the activities of the
state in behalf of the working classes, for whom
it was proposed to establish national work-
shops On April 27 a decree was issued abolisn-
ing slavery in the French colonies In the mean
while elections were held for a Constituent
Assembly, which met on May 4, and which a few
days later elected an Executive Commission to
conduct the affairs of the Republic The radical
Republicans (the so-called Red Republicans)
and the disappointed Socialists soon manifested
their hostility to the new order by a resort to
arms There were Red Republican disturbances
in Paris on May 15, and a great Socialistic up-
rising in the capital, June 24-26, in which a
large mass of the Parisian populace was in-
volved, was suppressed by General Cavaignac
only after terrible bloodshed On November 4
the Constituent Assembly completed the framing
of a regular republican constitution for France,
and on Dec 10, 1848, Louis Napoleon, nephew
of Napoleon I, was elected President, entering
upon his office December 20 One of the first
acts of the administration of Louis Napoleon,
was the sending of a French expedition for the
restoration of the temporal power of Pope Pius
IX, which wag accomplished in July, 1849 In
May, 1849, the Constituent Assembly closed its
sessions and was succeeded by the Legislative
Assembly The President betrayed the true na-
ture of his policy by appointing, on Oct 31,
1849, a thoroughly Bonapartist ministry (See
NAPOLEON III ) By the famous coup d'<§tat of
Dec 2, 1851, he violently set aside the consti-
tution and assumed dictatorial powers He
adopted his uncle's methods in many ways, con-
cealed his seizure of the title by a sham plelbi;
scite, and became Emperor of the French, Dec. 2,
1852
Napoleon III established a government which
was virtually a perfected absolutism, veiled by
the forms of a parliamentary regime and a
system of universal suffrage controlled by the
agents of the Emperor There was a Senate,
which was the guardian of the constitution, and
a legislative body, but the Senate was almost
entirely appointed by the Emperor, and in. the
FRANCE
155
Lower House there was no freedom of debate
The freedom of the press was practically abol-
ished Force, however, could not he depended
upon as a permanent sanction of legitimacy,
and to secure the support of the people it was
necessary for Napoleon to enter upon a brilliant
foreign policy The alliance of England and
France against Russia 111 1854 and the outcome
of the Crimean War were personal triumphs for
the Emperor With the meeting of the Congress
of Paris in 1856 that city became the diplomatic
capital of Europe The Emperor aspired now to
play the lole of arbiter of Europe In 1859, as
the" champion of oppressed nationalities, he came
to the aid of Italy against Austria and as a
reward obtained possession of Savoy and Nice
He failed, however, in his attempt at interven-
tion in Poland in 1863 and in the affair of
Schleswig-Holstem m the following year Actu-
ated, pei haps, by the dieam of a French hegem-
ony in Latin America, he seized upon the dis-
turbed condition of Mexico as an opportunity
for invading that country and establishing a de-
pendent empue there under Maximilian of Aus-
tria. The fall of Maximilian's Empire in Mex-
ico was a fatal blow at his prestige The defeat
of Austria in 1866 and the consequent rise of
Prussia threatened to deprive France of the
leading position she occupied in European
affairs. At home, the period of the Second Em-
pire was marked by gieat industrial develop-
ment Schools, banks, and cooperative societies
sprang up all over France Trade with America
and other foreign countries was enlivened Stim-
ulated by the magnificence of the court, life took
on an aspect of almost reckless luxuriousness.
Vast fortunes were made in railroad building,
government contracts, and speculation A great
system of public works was carried out, includ-
ing the building up of a new and beautiful Paris.
(See HA.USSMANN ) The international exposi-
tions of 1855 and 1867 testified to the prosperity
of the country. Nevertheless, signs of dissatis-
faction were not wanting, and after 1863, in
proportion as Napoleon's foreign policy broke
down, discontent and criticism grew loud in
France. As early as 1862 the Emperor was
compelled to allow some measure of debate in
the legislative bodies, and m 1867 this was
largely increased Opposition to the Empire,
however, grew bolder and fiercer, until in 1869
the Emperor saw himself driven to grant a
responsible ministry It was soon found that
the responsibility of the ministry was fictitious,
and that the Emperor availed himself of its
protection to cloak his own acts of personal
government The result of the appeal made to
the nation in 1870, on the plea of securing its
sanction for his policy, was not what he had
anticipated, and the 50,000 dissentient votes
given by the troops in this plebiscite revealed
a hitherto unsuspected source of danger The
necessity, however, of regaining his lost prestige
by a brilliant foreign policy led him to enter
once more upon an aggressive course of action m
European affairs The question of the succes-
sion to the vacant Spanish throne precipitated a
crisis between France and the Prussian govern-
ment, whose foreign policy was guided by the
genius of Bismarck Deceived by the false rep-
resentations of his ministers with regard to the
efficiency and preparedness of the French army,
Napoleon allowed himself to be carried into war
with a power which but recently (see SEVEN
WEEKS' WAR) had revealed its surpassing mili-
tary strength and had been silently preparing
for' the decisive conflict with France Barely
has the bubble of power been so suddenlv pricked
as in the case of Impeiial France m 1870 (See
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870-71 ) After a
quick succession of utter defeats for the French,
Napoleon surrendered at Sedan, Sept 2, 1870
On September 4 the Corps Legislatif declaied the
Emperor and his descendants toiever excluded
from the throne and created a Government of
National Defense France \\as proclaimed a
lepublic A period of stress and disorder en-
sued An armistice in January, 1871, was fol-
lowed by the meeting of the first National As-
sembly of the Third Republic at Bordeaux in
February The preliminary treaty of peace with
Germany was signed at Versailles on February
26 and ratified by the National Assembly on
March 1 France agreed to cede Alsace, to-
gether with parts of Lorraine, including Metz,
and to pay an indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs
Not until the final payment of the enormous
war indemnity in September, 1873, was France
wholly freed from the humiliating occupation
by foreign troops (See PAEIS ) In the spring
of 1871 the violent outbreak of the Commune
(qv ), who feared the Assembly was hostile to
the Republic, convulsed France, but was sup-
pressed with rigorous severity On Aug 31,
1871, Thiers, who had been elected Chief of the
Executive by the National Assembly in Feb-
ruary, received from that body the title of
President of the Republic
There was not for years a true republican
majority in France, but the adherents of the
Republic were able to hold their own because
of the divisions in the ranks of the Monarchists
(See POLITICAL PARTIES, France) In 1873
Thiers resigned the presidency, and Marshal
MacMahon was elected by Monarchist votes and
confirmed in the presidency for a period of seven
years (the Septennate) Finally, in 1875 the
Assembly adopted laws providing for the con-
stitution of the National Legislature, the legis-
lative powei to be vested in a Senate and a
Chamber of Deputies. On account of the in-
crease of Republican strength in the Chamber
of Deputies, MacMahon resigned in 1879, and
Jules Grevy was elected to succeed him
After 1879, under various changes of ministry,
the policy of the government continued steadily
republican At the instance of Jules Ferry a
decree was issued in 1880 by which the Jesuit
schools were closed, and all religious orders that
would not submit to certain conditions necessary
to gam the state sanction were dissolved In
1884 the constitution and the senatorial elec-
toral system were revised and put upon their
present basis Labor unions were legalized
Members of the royal houses that had formerly
ruled France were declared ineligible for mili-
tary or civil office In 1881 France entered
upon an active colonial policy by undertaking
a military expedition to Tunis and establishing
a protectorate over the countiy. In 1883 France
enforced a claim of certain rights over the
northwestern part of Madagascar by taking pos-
session of several ports Rapidly extending its
influence in spite of considerable reverses, it
succeeded in establishing a protectorate over the
island m 1885, and in 1896 reduced Madagascar
to the rank of a French possession. The ad-
vance of France in Indo-China led to war with
China in 1884, which resulted in the establish-
ment of a French protectorate over, Annam and
OTLA.WCE
156
Tongkmg M Grevy was reelected in 1885, but
resigned m 1887 He was succeeded bv Sadi
Carnot, ui whose administration the Panama
Canal scandal occurred, involving many promi-
nent men and weakening the government
The Carnot administration, too, witnessed the
most formidable of all the attempts made to
overthrow the Third Republic This Vvas the
agitation fo&tered by the members of the Or-
leamst, Legitimist, and Bonapartist parties,
under the leadership of General Boulanger
(1888) For a time it seemed as if the He-
public was fated to fall before a coup d'etat
Boulanger, however, lacked the requisite decision
of character, lost his populanty, and ultimately
fled the country As a result, there was a very
strong reaction in favor of the government
This growth ot republican sentiment received an
additional impulse in 1893, when the Pope urged
the clergy to accept the Republic This was a
great blow to the Royalists, whose chief strength
has always lain in their connection with the
church In 1894 President Carnot was assas-
sinated at Lyons by an Italian anarchist and
was succeeded by Casimir-Perier, who resigned
in January, 1805, and was succeeded bv Felix
Faure In the administration of the latter and
that of Emile Loubet (qv), who was elected
President on the death of Fauie in 1S99, fell
the celebrated Dreyfus case, which divided the
nation into t\%o hostile camps and for a time
seemed to threaten the downfall of the Republic
(See DEEYIUS ) The crisis was <3,iiely weathered
under the able guidance of YA aldeck-Rousseau
(qv ), vvlio became Premier in 1890 He fonned
a cabinet containing representatives of all the
radical parties, the Republicans of the Left, the
Radicals, the Radicals-Socialists, and even the
Socialists themselves, whose spokesman waa
Millerand (qv ). His advent into the ministry
was a striking indication of the growing strength
of the Socialist party This cabinet of "re-
concentration" or of "national defense," lepre-
sentmg as it did greatly divergent political and
economic principles, was held together by the
sole necessity of defending republican institu-
tions against the machinations of royahsts and
reactionaries who were striving to turn the
iimy against the Republic The Dieyfus cusis
had demonstrated that in the cleiical influence
the existing regime had one of its most formi-
dable enemies, and the first year of the twentieth
century \\itnessed in consequence the inception
of a strong anticlerical government policy
The Associations Law of 1901 brought religious
congregations under government supervision,
and when Waldeck Rousseau retired in 1902
after the longest ministry since 1871 the anti-
clerical campaign was carried on with increased
vigor by his successor, Combes (qv ), who set
himself the task of wresting the control of
education from the religious congregations on
the ground that the clerical schools devoted
themselves to instilling into the minds of their
pupils sentiments hostile to the Republic In-
deed, with the accession of Cornbes the policy of
* national defense," initiated by Waldeck-Rous-
seau, came to take on aspects of repression
But though the Combes ministry fell in the
early part of January, 1905, the Rouvier min-
istry, which, succeeded, pledged itself to carry
out its religious programme, which possessed the
support of a majority of the nation The hos-
tile attitude of the new Pope Pius X towards
the policy of the Combes ministry had given
rise to a demand for the total separation of the
churches from the state and a bill to that effect
had been introduced b\ ComVs A somewhat
inoie model ate inea-nirf was passed by the
Chamber of Pepulio* on Julv 3, 190^ and by
the Senate on Decen'bei 6, and ^as promulgated
three days late-i It suppressed the budgets of
public worship and thus put an end to the Con-
cordat established by Napoleon I in 1801-02,
substituting instead a system of associations tor
lehgious woiship leceivmg no aid from the state
and subject to the geneial provisions of the law
dealing with corporations See paiagraph on
Religion above
In 18°! France broke the isolation that had
surrounded hei since the Franco-German War
by contracting an alliance with Russia, thus
offsetting the importance of the Triple Alliance,
and in 1897 it was foimally announced that a
tieaty had been signed From 1809 to 1906
foreign aiTairs were in the hands of the astute
diplomatist, Tlieophile Deleasse (qvj He
sti engthened the alliance with Russia, estab-
h&hed cordial relations with Italy, thereby
weakening the Tuple Alliance, and crowned his
labors with the Anglo-French Agreement of
April 8 1904, whereby the two poweis were
bi ought into a close rapprochement In tins
agi cement Fiance abandoned its Newfoundland
shore rights in return for a money compensation
and teiritonal concessions in West Africa, and
iccogmzed the piedominant position of Great
Britain in. Egypt m return for acknowledgment
by the latter of the right of France to maintain
order in Morocco and to assist the Moroccan
government in improving the administrative,
economic, financial, and military condition of
the country The downfall of Russia in the Far
East left France for a tune without an open
ally in Europe, and the opportunity was seized
by Germany m 1905 to force the dismissal of
Deleasse, whose policy of alliances the German
government regarded as aimed against itself
The Algeciras Conference, which met in 1906
to consider the situation in Morocco, decided
that France should be given certain customs
rights on the Algeiian frontier, and Spain simi-
lar privileges in the Riff country An inter-
national police force was also provided for, but
never organized Germany caused trouble, both
in 1908 and in 19-11, by protesting that the
French sphere of influence was too extensive
The situation in the latter year appeared de-
cidedly dangerous, as Emperor William had sent
a warship to Agadir to protect German interests ,
but through the firm policy of Raymond PomcarS,
who had succeeded Caillaux as Premier, coupled
with the strong support of England, France
emerged fiom the controversy witn her rights to
Morocco once more admitted by Germany In
return for this recognition France ceded to
Germany 112,000 square miles of the French
Congo By a treaty with the Sultan of Morocco
in 1912 France secured a practical protectorate
over that country, with the exception of the
northern fringe under the control of Spam
A feature of the French situation of the past
decade has been the growth of industrial union-
ism (See SYNDICALISM ) Many Socialists
wlio were not in accord with the opportunist
methods of Jaures, the Socialist leader, came
into the ranks of the direct actionists The re-
lation of the government to these unions has
been a prominent factor in government policies
and politics. The postal employees declared a
157
FRAlfCE
strike in 1909, but were induced to go back to
work A general lailway strike occurred during
the following year on government as well as on
private lines and disorganized the railway sys-
tem of France Premier Briand, himself a
Socialist, "summoned the strikers in their
capacity as military reserves, and compelled
them to man the roads under threat of military
punishment This bioke up the strike A pro-
found change in domestic legislation was begun
in 1910 by the passage of an Old Age Pensions
Act
Premier Pomcaie was elected President in
1913, and it was the general belief that the
choice of this strong man would mark an in-
ciease in the powers of the Piesident Pomcare*
was the leader of the paity that was in favor
of a firm foreign policy, accompanied by internal
development Aiming to do away with excessive
localism, the Moderates were strongly in favor
of electoral reform providing for the election of
deputies by the scrutin d? liste (which makes
the department and not the arrondissement the
district which elects, rendering the deputies more
widely i epresentative than now), with provision
for minority representation This proposal was
opposed by^the Radical Left, led by Clemenceau
and Caillaux, as they believed it would augment
the power of the clerical party
A plan to increase the size of the army was
passed by the Barthou ministry, in August, 1913,
providing for a return to the requirement of
three years3 military service with no exemp-
tions A conference of the Left at Pau in
October of that year attacked the militarist
policy of the government and declared for two
years' service, which had prevailed before the
passage of the three years' bill The fall of the
Barthou ministry, however, was not accompanied
by a repeal of the act Both the Doumeigue and
Viviani ministries were more anticlerical than
antimihtarist This was doubtless due to the
influence of Clemenceau, who, though a member
of the Left, was neveitheless an ardent sup-
porter of the throe years' clause Premier
Viviani indeed declared that change m the three
years* act was impossible until the proposed sub-
stitutes, such as military training among youths
and the utilization of reserves, proved their
efficiency
The disturbances, during the closing months of
1913, in Alsace-Lorraine, particularly at Zabern,
fanned again the hostility between France and
Germany The stationary condition of the popu-
lation of France is significant when compared
with Germany In 1911 the population was only
39,601,509, as compared with 27,349,003 in 1801
and 36,905,788 in 1876 The annual increase has
lately been less than 0 2 per cent, while Germany
had an average annual increase for the decade
1900-10 of 1 36 per cent This disparity was
indeed one of the chief causes for the passage
o± the three years' service act Foi an account
of events following the outbieak of the great
War of 1914, see WAE IN EUROPE
Bibliography Reclus, Nouvelle geographic
unwerselle, vol 11 (Paris, 1877); Eng trans,
Universal Geography, vol 11 (London, 1894) ,
Malte-Brun, La France dlustrfo (Paris, 1879-
84) , Fernandez, La France actuelle (ib, 1888) ;
Cortambert, GeograpJwe physique et politique de
la France (ib , 1891) , Levasseur, La France et
ses colonies (ib , 1890-93), Dubois, Geography
de la France et de ses colonies (ibv 1892) , Noix,
La France (ib., 189$), Eicken, La Prance, le
pays et son peuple (Berlin, 1897) , Bodley,
France (London, 1902), Onesime Reclus, Le
plus lean royaume sous le ciel, notre belle Ftance
(Paris, 1899), Hillebrand, Fianhreich und die
Franeosen ^n der zweiten Halftc des 19 Jahr-
hunderts (Berlin, 1886), Hassall, The French
People (London, 1902) , Acloque, Faune de France
(Paris, 1896 et seq ) , Coste, Flore descrip-
tive et illustree de la France (ib , 1901 et seq ) ,
Lacroix, Mineialogie de la Fiance et de ses
colomes (ib , 1893-94) , Meunier, Geologic regio
nale de la France (ib, 1889), Easier, Geologie
agncole (ib, 1884-97), Delebecque, Les lacs
fran^ais (ib, 1898), Leroux, Le massif central
(ib, 1898), Lallemend, Le nivellement genet al
de la France (ib, 1899), Loua, La France
sociale et economiqite (ib, 1888), Foville, La
France economique (ib, 1889); Dubois, Geo-
graphic economique de la France (3d ed , ib ,
1907) , Blondel, La Prance ct la marchg du
monde (ib , 1901), Aubert, A quoi tient I'm-
ferionte du commence francais® (ib , 1900),
which dwells on the commercial possibilities of
the French colonial possessions, Kaufmann, Die
EisenbaJinpohtik FranUeichs (Stuttgart, 1896),
of which the French translation, entitled La
pohtique frangaise en matiere de chetnins de fei
(Pans, 1900 ) , is supplemented by a study of the
question by Hamon of the French Ministry of
Finance, Sehgman, "The French Colonial Sys-
tem/' in Essays in Colonial Finance, publication
of the American Economic Association (New
York, 1900) , Des Essars, A, History of Banking
in All the Leading Nations, vol m (ib, 1896) ,
Boucard and J£ze, Elements de la science des
•finances et de la legislation flnanciere francaise
(2d ed, Paris, 1900) Lebon, Das Staatsrecht
det fsanzosischen Repullik (Freiburg, 1883 et
seq ) , Aueoc, Conferences sur l} administration et
le d<oit admimstratif (Paris, 1882-86), Bur-
gess, Political Science and Constitutional Law
(Boston, 1890) , Goodnow, Comparative Ad-
ministrative Law (New York, 1893) , Brie, Die
gegenwartige Verfassung Franlweichs (Bieslau,
1892) , Viollet, Histoire des institutions poh-
tiques et administratives de la France (Paris,
1898) , Block, Dictionnaire de V administration
frangaise (ib, 1898), with annual supplements,
the official Annuavre statistique (ib ) ; Lowell,
Government and Parties in Continental Europe
(2 vols, Boston, 1913) , Pomcare, How France
is Governed (London, 1913)
Of general historical works the best are
Duruy, Histoire de France, trans by Carey (New
York, 1889) , Martin, Histoire de France (Paris,
1855-60), Guizot, Histoire de France (ib,
1870) , Kitchin, History of France to 1703 (3d
ed, Oxford, 1894) , Adams, The Growth of the
French Nation (New York, 1896) , Lavisse,
Histoire de France (9 vols, Paris, 1901-11)
Bibliographies for special periods may be found
in Lavisse and. Rambaud, Histoire g&nerale (ib ,
1893-1900) , Monod, Bibliographic de I'histoire
de France (ib , 1888), Cambridge Modern His-
tory (12 vols , New York, 1903-12) ; and under
special titles relating to French history m this
ENCYCLOPAEDIA For the period of the Reforma-
tion, Baird's histories of the Huguenots are of
great value For the seventeenth, eighteenth,
and nineteenth centuries, consult Sore,!, Lectures
histonques (Paris, 1894), and fte Works by
James B Perkins, and Moise-StepBjenfi, Eistory of
the French Revolution (New York, 1886) Other
works are Adams, Democracy and Monarchy m
France (ib, 1884), and Von Hoist, The French
Jtcuoluhon> Tested ly Mwabeau's Career (Chi-
cago, 1894) Valuable especially for the i ela-
tion of the Revolution to European affairs are
Sorel, LEiuope et la revolution francaise
(Paris, 1892), and Sybel, Histonj of the French
Revolution, trans by Peiry (London, 1867-69)
The woiks of De Tocqueville, Louis Blanc, Tame,
Mignet, and Arthui Young aio also to be quoted
in this connection For woiks i elating espe-
cially to Napoleon, see NAPOLEON I On France
in the nineteenth centuiy the leading authoii-
ties aie for external affairs, Viel-Castel, Uis-
toire de la lestawatwn (20 vols , Paris, 1860-
78) , foi internal afTans, Hauianrie, Histoite du
gouvernement patlementaire en France, 18 J J-
1848 (ib , 1860-72), covering the period to 1830,
Hillebrand, Geschichte Frankreichs (Gotha,
1877-79), to 1830., monarchical in tone but scien-
tific 3 Delord, Eistoire du second empire (Paris,
1870) , Bulle, Geschichte des zueiten Kaiser-
reichs und des Komgreichs lialien (Berlin,
1 890 ) , Zevort, Histoire de la tt oisieme / epubhqtue
(Pans, 1898), a valuable scientific history,
Cuibeitm, The Evolution of Fta>ioe itpflei the
Thud Republic, trans by Hapgood (New York,
1897), id, France since 1814 (ib, 1900), An-
derson, Constitutions and Othei Select Docu-
ments Illustrative of the History of France,
1789-1907 (Minneapolis, 1908) Among the
later works are Alolinei, Les soutces de I'his-
toite de Fiance (Paris, 1901-06) , Levrault,
L'Hutow e de France (ib, 1903), Seignobos,
Gours d hist owe Cib, 1900), Ohviei, L'Empire
Illegal (11 vols, ib, 1897-1909) , Ha-notaux, Con-
teniporaiy France (4 vols, Ne\\ Yoik, 1909),
Bracq, Fiance undei the Republic (ib, 1910),
Vizetelly, Republican Fiance (Boston, 1913) ,
Sabatief, France To-Day (New Yoik, 1913),
G-ue"rard, French Civilisation •in the Nineteenth
Gentury (ib, 1914), Moreton Macdonald, His-
tory of France (ib, 1914) , A Hassall, France,
Medieval and Modem, (Oxfoid University Press,
1918) , Pomcaie, How France is Governed (New
York, 1919) , A B Dodd, Up the Seine to the
Battlefields (New York, 1920) , A L Gugrartf,
Fiench Civilization jtom its Origins to the Close
of the Middle Ages (New York, 1921) , S S V
Lausanne, Oteat Men and G1) eat Days (New
Yoik, 1921), E C Pi ice, Stories pom French
Historij (New Yoik, 1921), J Bridge, History
of Fiance pom the Death of Lows XI (Oxford
University Press, 1922) Consult also the names
of persons, paities, places, etc, as Louis XIV,
D ANTON, GIRONDISTS, BRTTMAIRE, NAPOLEON I,
AlTSTERLITZ, ALGERIA, COMMUNE , FTC See
also POIITIOAL PARHES R< •* SUPPLEMENT
FHAHCE, fraNs, ANATOLE (1844-1024)
Tlie assumed name of Jacques Anatole Thibault,
a noted French cutic, generalh recognized as
the most distinguished novelist, the most
graceful humorist, the most mordant non-
ist, and the purest stylist of eontemporaiy
Prance His early woik, Poemes dot 4s (1873),
the verse drama Les noces cormthiennes (1876,
produced in 1902), and the humorous story,
Jocaste et le chat maigre (1879), do not
rank high, but Le crime de Sylvestre Bonnard
(1881, often translated) is a charming idyl of
child and scholar's life, full of genial irony that
grows more caustic in Balthasar (1889), while
in La rotissene de la reme P$dauque (1893) and
Opinions de M I'Aboe' Jerdme Coignard (1893)
the story is little more than a veil for the ex-
pression of an epicurean skepticism A group
of fom stories, L'Orme du mail (1897), Le man-
;8 FBiAHCESCA
nequm d'osier (1898, dramatized in 1904),
L'Anneau d'amcthyste (1898), Monsieur Ser-
gei et a Patis (1000), frankly call themselves
Histoire con tempo') a me and beek to reflect the
thoughts of typical Fienchmen of culture All
these and Ins othoi novels as well* eg, Thais
(1890), Le lys rouge (1894), Histoire co-
mique (1903), and his social diama Grainquebille
(1903), aie the A\ork of an impiessionist critic
lather than of a creative talent, and his journal-
istic reviews, La vie htterawe (5 vols, 1888-93),
as well as his philosophic Le yardin d' Epicure
(1895), show more of the spirit of Renan than
that of any other His most delightful confes-
sion piobably best repeals the seciet of his chaim
for the piebent generation "To be frank, the
critic should say 'Gentlemen, I intend to speak
of myself apiopos of Shakespeaie, Racine, Pas-
cal, 01 Goethe ' " And yet this quiet bibliophile,
scholar, and virtuoso of French prose displayed
the greatest couiage when, braving the inflamed
preiudice of the multitude, he defended the op-
pressed Dreyfus (qv ) In other matters, also,
he had the courage of his convictions, witness
his championship of socialism in Opinions so-
ciahstes (1902), in Sur la piene blanches
(1905), and elsewheie In 1896 he was elected
to the Academy Other of his works aic1
Histoire de dona Maria d'Aialos et de don Fa-
oncio (1904) , L'Eghse et la RCpullique
(1905) , Le lure de won ami, le hwre de Piene
(1905), L'lle de? ptngoinns (1908), Vie de
Jeanne d'Ajo (1908) , Les dieuo) out soif (1912),
and La ievolte des anges (1914) Most of
his works have been tianslated into English
and Gei man Consult R Le Brun, A France
(Paris, 1904), George Bi ancles, Anatole Fiance
(New York, 1908) , P Stapfer, Humour et hu-
monstes (Paris, 1911), C H Conrad Wright,
A History of French Literature (New York,
1912)
FKASFCE, INSTITUTE OF See INSTITUTE OF
FRANCE
EBAISTCE, ISLE OF See MAUBITIUS
EBAJXTCE, JOSEPH (1787-1869). A French
reformer, bom in Loirame He enteied the
army in 1815, obtained a commission in the
West Indies, and in Maitmique rose to the
rank of colonel in 1834 From 1836 to 1846 he
had biipieme command of the- military police
in the island and endeared himself to the lower
elates of the population and to the slaves in
paiticulai In 1841 he published La veiite et
les faits, ou Pesclavac/e d nu, in which he set
foith the ciueltiGS of the colonists towards the
negioes DIG Goveinor, fearing the effects of
this woik, leinoved France from his command
and sent him a prisonei to Pans to stand trial
for publishing seditious wntings He lost his
comjiiSfcion, but after the revolution of 1848
and the abolition of slavery in the colonies lie
was chosen to repiesent Martinique in the Con-
stituent Assembly From 1852 until his death
he A\as a member of the colonial council of
Martinique Besides contributions to the Revue
Abolitioniste, he published Histoire de la Guade-
loupe (1885), Les corsaires frangais dans let*
Antilles (1857) , Histoire de la filibuste
(I860), Questions coloniales (I860), Statis-
tique physique et pohtique de la Martinique
(1861)
PB.ANCE, REFORMED CHUBCH OF See" Hu-
FBANCESCA, fran-ehes'ka, PIEEO BELLA
(c 1420-92) A central Italian painter of the
FKANCESCA DA BIHCINT
159
FRANCESCHIHI
Renaissance Tins foim of the name, the tradi-
tional one, is most usual in contemporary docu-
ments and is to be preferied to Pietro de'
Francesci, the form generally adopted by mod-
ern authorities (See Gionau, Reperiitonum fur
Kunsti&issenschaft, xxm, 392-394 ) He was
born at Borgo San Sepolcro, the son of a notary
of influential family His work shows the in-
fluence of Paolo Ucello (qv.), and he \\as an
assistant of Dommico Veneziano, piobably at
Perugia and certainly in 1439-40 in the frescoes
in the chapels of Sant3 Egidio and Santa Maria
Nuova, Florence In 1451 he painted a fresco
in the chuieh of San Francesco at Riimm repre-
senting his pation, Sigismondo Malatesta, Lord
of Rimini, kneeling befoie St Sigismond He
was active at Fenara and Bologna, and is said,
upon an invitation to Home by Nicholas V, to
have painted two frescoes which were destroyed
when Raphael painted the Stanze of the Vatican
By 1466 he had finished his gieatest work, the
"Story of the True Cioss'' — a series of frescoes
in the choir of San Francesco, Are/zo The
"Story" begins with Adam, deals with Solomon
and the Queen of Sheba, St Helena and Con-
stantme, whose "Vision ' is marvelously de-
picted, and Heraclius and Chosroes In 1469
Piero was at Urbino in the house of Giovanni
fianti (qv ) At this time he painted for Duke
Fedengo of Urbino the two remarkable por-
traits, now in the Uffizi, of the Duke and his
wife Battista Sforza, with allegories on the re-
verse sides, the "Madonna" m the Biera; and
the "Flagellation of Christ" in Uibmo Cathe-
dral Aceoidmg to a tradition preserved by
Vasari, Piero became blind in his later life,
which was probably devoted largely to his \\iit-
ings He was buned in the cathedial of San
Sepolcro in 1492 Other important fiescoes by
him are "St Louis of Toulouse" (1460) and the
"Resurrection," in the town hall of Boigo San
Sepol<?io? "Hercules/' in the Gardner collection,
Boston, and a "Magdalen" in the cathedral of
Aiezzo. His othei impoitant panel pieces in-
clude a "Baptism of Christ" and ' Nativity"
with remarkable light effects, in the National
Gallery, London, an 'Annunciation," in the
Gallery of Perugia," "St Thomas Aquinas," in
the Poldo Pezzoli collection, Milan, and an eaily
"Tnumph of Chivalry," in the Galleiy of the
New York Historical Society Pieio was the
greatest of the Realists of the fifteenth century,
whose achievements made possible the brilliant
later development His was especially the de-
terminative influence in central Italian painting
The equal of the best Florentines in drafts-
manship, he was their superior in color, and
he was the first Italian painter to master light
and atmosphere. His figures are well modeled —
solemn and impassive in expression, and ren-
dered with thorough objectivity He was also
a theorist and scientist of note His treatise
De quinque Corporibus shows him a learned
geometrician, and his Prospcttiva pingendi, a
manual on perspective, is the most remarkable
of its day His principal pupils were Melozzo
da Forl! and Luca Signorelh ( qq v ) . The most
scholarly biography of Piero della Francesca is
by Witting (Strassburg, 1898), others are by
Pici (Borgo San Sepolcro, 1893), Waters (Lon-
don, 1901), and Ricci (Rome, 1910)
FBANCESCA DA RIMINI, da- re'me-ne
( ?-c 1288 ) . The daughter of Guido da Polenta,
the Lord of Ravenna She was given by him in
ma-mage to Giovanni, sometimes called Gianci-
otto, or Sciancato (the Lame), the son of Mala-
testa, the podesta of Rimmi Malatesta was a
Guelph leader who had made himself the master
of all the region about Rimini He had, besides
Giovanni, a son, Paolo, called the Handsome,
tthom Giovanni sent to Ravenna to bring back
his bride Franceses and Paolo fell in love, and
Giovanni, finding them together, killed them
both iel288) "The tale has many modifica-
tions, but this is the simplest outline of the
stoiy Aside from Dante's famous lines in the
Infei no (v, 72-142) , it has been treated repeatedly
in literature and art The best known of the
pictures are Paolo and Fiancesca," bv Ingres
(1819), in the Chantilly Museum, Ary Scheffer
(1835), m tbc Wall ace* collection, O F Watts
(1879), and the "Death of Paolo and Fran-
cesca," by Cabanel (1870), in the Luxembourg
Leigh Hunt made thi* story the subject of a
poem (1816), Silvio Ptlhco wrote a tragedy on
it (1818), G H Bokei made an acting version
(1864), Paul Heyse tieated it dramatically
(1850), Stephen Phillip-^ produced a dramatic
poem (1899), the Italian poet D'Annunzio a
drama (1901), G Cesano, a tragedy (1006), and
the Bohemian Nerada, a tragedy (1009) There
is an opera of thib name by Heimann Gotz
(1877), which was completed by E Frank, a
symphonic poem for orchestia bv Tschaikowsky
(1877), and an opeia bv Ambroise Thomas,
Franqoise da Rmimi, (1882) Consult* Ynarte,
Frangoise da Rimim, dans la Uqende et dans
I'histoire (Pans, 1882) , Tornini, Memone
storiche intorno a Francesco da Rimini (Rimini,
(1870) , De Sanct^s in Nuova Antologia (Flor-
ence, 1869] , Rieci, UVltimo nfugw di Dante
(Lilian, 1891) For an exhaustive bibliography
on the subject, consult Mazzolun, Atte dell9
Atenco, vol x\i (Bergamo, 1901)
ERANOESCHINI, fran'ches-ke'ne:, BAIDAS-
SARE (1611-89). An Italian painter of the
Floientme school He ^as born at Volterra,
\\hence he is also called Volterrano Gmmore, to
distinguish him from Daniele da Volteira. He
uas a pupil of Matteo Rosselh and Giovanni
di San Giovanni in Flofence and afterward
studied the antique in Rome He was a very
facile painter and possessed exceptional knowl-
edge of foreshoitemng and perspective, but, like
the rest of the Mannerist group, was deficient
in technique and in sentiment His works are
principally m Florence, where he painted four
large paintings of the deeds of the Medici in the
Ducal Palace, and frescoes in several churches,
including Santa Maria Magglore and Santissima
Annunziata and at Volterra, especially in the
convent of Santa Badia di San Gmsto His
masterpiece is the "Coronation of the Virgin/1
in Santissima Annunziata, Florence He is rep-
resented m the Pitti and Uffizi, in the Metropoli-
tan Museum, New Yorfc, and in the Walters
Galleiy, Baltimore, by a "Madonna and Child"
ITRANCESCHINI, fran'ches-ke'ne, MABCAN-
TONIO (1648-1729) An Italian painter, born
at Bologna. He studied under Galh and was
the pupil and friend of Carlo Cignam and
worked with him at Bologna, Modena, Reggio,
and elsewhere One of his greatest paintings, a
fresco at the Council Palace m Genoa, represent-
ing scenes from the history of the Republic,
was destroyed Others of his large decorative
works are frescoes m the Pallavicmi and Du-
la/zo palaces in Genoa, a ceiling ux the Ranazzi
Palace m Bologna, and the "Death of St,
Joseph," and other paintings in the Corpus
FRANCESCI
160
FRANCHISE
Domini church, Bologna In 1711 he designed
for Pope Clement XI several cartoons for
mosaics in St Peter's, Rome, and he was also
invited to Vienna, where he painted frescoes
in the Lichtenstein Palace Franceschim was in
many ways a remarkable aitiat, he had a genius
for composition, and all that was manneied and
aitificial in his imitators was redeemed in him
by the fertility of his imagination and the
waimth of his color His easel pictures include
* The Annunciation," Bologna Gallery, "Birth of
Adonis1' and "The Magdalen," Dresden Gallery,
"San Cailo Borromeo Helping the Plague-
Stricken" and uthanty/" in the Vienna Gallery
FBA3STCESCI, PIEIKO DE See FKANCESCA,
PlEKO DELLA
FRANCESCO DI PAOLA, fran-eheVkd de
pj/o-la See FRANCIS OF PAOLA
FBAJSTCHE-COMTE, fraisrsli' kON'ta' (Fr ,
free county) An old province in the east of
France, in the basin of the Rhone, compiising
vi hat now forms practically the departments of
Doubs, Haute-Saone, and Jura, and pait of the
Department of Am It was inhabited in ancient
times by the Sequam and was the Maxima
Sequanorum of the Romans In the fifth cen-
tury it was conquered by the Burgundians and
later formed part of the Frankish monarchy
It passed afterward through various hands, until
in 1156 it came into the possession of the Em-
peror Fredenck Barbaiossa In 1384 it was
annexed by Philip the Bold of Bui gundy
Thiough the maiiiage of Maiy of Buigundy to
Maximilian, Franche~-Comte became a possession
of the Hapsburgs, and, together with the Neth-
erlands, it passed to the Spanish blanch of that
house and \\as confirmed by the Peace of West-
phalia (1648) The acquisition of the region
v\as one of the chief objects of Louis XIV's
external policy, his armies overran the province
in 1668 and 1674, and he was confirmed in his
conquest by the Treaty of Nimeguen (1678)
The name first appears in the twelfth century,
and indicates freedom from Imperial taxation,
except the annual gjft to the sovereign of a
stipulated sum Louis XIV did away with this
custom, however Among the famous sons of the
Franche-Comte are Cirviei, flouget de FIsle,
and Victor Hugo Its old capital was Besancon
Bibliography G Prepape, Histow e de la r&~
union de la, Franche Gomt& a lei France, Jf379-
.7675 (2 vols, Pans, 1881), P Marechal, La
Revolution en Franche Comte (ib, 1903)., L.
Lebvie, Philippe II et la, Franche Comte (ib,
1911), F Boirey, La Ftanche Comte en 1814
(ib, 1912)
FSAM"CHETTI, fran-ket'te, BARON ALBERTO
(1860- ) An Italian operatic composer,
born at Turin He \vas a pupil of N"icol5 Coccon
and Fortimato Magi Proceeding to Dresden, he
studied under Draeseke, after which he entered
the Munich Conservatory. He belongs to the
new school of Italian composers and is regarded
as one of its most successful exponents His
principal and most important opera was the
four-act drama legend Asraele, produced in 1888
Other and scarcely less successful operas are
Chrwtoforo Colombo (1892), Fwr d'Alpe
(1894) , II signor ck Pourceaugnao (1897) , G-er-
mama (1902), La figha di Jono (1906) He
also wrote many smaller works, the best of
which is a symphony in E minor
FRAltfCHEVILLE, frairsh'vSl', or
JFBAKQTTEVILLB, fraNk'vSK, PIERRE (1548-
e!618). A French, sculptor, born at Cambrai.
Against his parents1 \\ishes lie went to Pans in
1564 to study ait, and, "recalled home to follow a
literary caieer, left his country secretly, making
his way to Germany and Austria At Innsbruck,
\\here he was appi enticed to a wood carver for
five years, he found a patron in the Archduke
Ferdinand, -who enabled him to study under
Giovanni da Bologna at Floience He assisted
that famous master in many of his woiks In
1574 he modeled a number of statues for Villa
Iiovez/ano, near Floience, and in 1585 he went
to Genoa, where the colossal figures of Jupiter
and Janus in the Grimaldi Palace, and the
statues of St Ambrose, St Stephen, and "The
Foui Evangelists/1 in the cathedral, bear wit-
ness to his proficiency The rapidly increasing
reputation acquired by such works as the " Al-
legorical Figures of Humility, Chastity, and
Wisdom," in the Kicolini Chapel at Florence,
led to his being sent to Pisa to assist Giovanni
da Bologna in modeling the doors of the cathe-
dial, and afterward to his being summoned to
Pa] is by Henry IV who appointed him court
seulptoi In that capacity he executed numerous
statues, busts, and vases for the royal palaces
and gaidens Prominent among these are
"David with the Head of Goliath" (1612),
"The Conquered Nations' (1614), four figures,
formerly part of the equestrian monument of
Heniy IV, and "Orpheus" — all in the Louvre,
and the groups of "Time and Truth" and
"Saturn and Cybele," in the Tuileries Garden
His woik is somewhat cold and diy, but he was
a man of great versatility and also active as an
architect, painter, and writer
ERANCHI, fran'kS, Ausomo (1821-95).
The pseudonym ("free Italian") of Cristoforo
Bonavmo, an Italian philosopher, born at Pegli,
near Genoa He was ordained a pnest, but
abandoned this career and gave himself to the
study of philosophy, under the name of Franclu,
by which he was always known He became pro-
fessor at the University of Padua in 1860 and
at the Academy of Milan in 1863 Among his
woiks arc La filosofia delle scuole itahane
(1852), La rehgwne del secolo XIX (1853),
Del sentiment o ^1854) , II ramonahsmo del
popolo (1862), tfagg^ di critica e polemica
(1871), Lettere su la teonca del giudisuo
(1870), Ultima critica (1890-93)
PIRAISrCHI, FABIAN and Louis DEI In Bou-
cicault's drama The Cors^can Brothers, the twin
brothers -who^e mysterious sympathy is the basis
of the play
PBA3STCHISE, fran'chiz. In English law, as
defined by Blackstone, a royal privilege, or branch
of the crown's prerogative, subsisting in the
hands of a subject. Being derived from the
crown, franchises must arise fiom royal grant,
or in some cases may be held by prescription,
which piesupposes a grant The subjects of
franchise correspond with what in Scotland are
called regalia ( q v ) . The right to take waifs,
estrays, wrecks, treasure-trove, royal fish, and
forfeitures, all of \\hich are the prerogatives of
the crown, are franchises The rights of forest,
chase, park, warren, and fishery are also fran-
chises, no subject being entitled so to apply his
property for his own convenience A county
palatine (see PALATINATE) is the highest species
of franchise, as within it the earl, constable, or
other chief ofiicer may exercise without control
the highest functions of the sovereign And
as the crown may thus erect an entire county
into an independent jurisdiction, so it may
FBA3STCIA I.
cieate a libeitv of bailiwick independent of the
sheriff of the county, and bestow the pnvileg^
as a iianchise It is likewise a franchise for A
number of persons to be incorpoiated, and sub-
sist as a body politic, with <*, powei to maintain
perpetual succession and do other corporate acts,
and each individual membei of such coipoia-
tion is also said to have a franchise 01 fieedom
The right to hold a fan or market, 01 to estab-
lish a fpny and to levy tolls theiem, is also a
franchise Wheie the holder of a franchise is
disturbed in his light he may sue for damages
by an action on the case, or in the case of non-
payment of tolls he has the remedy of distrebs
(qv). Viewed as piopeity, a franchise is au
incorporeal hereditament (qv ) When a fran-
chise is granted on a valuable consi delation, as
in the case of a piivate corporation, it is in
the nature of a contract between the govein-
ment and the grantee and is protected fioni leg-
islative interference in this country bv consti-
tutional piovisions prohibiting the enactment of
laws which impair the obligation of contiacts
(See DARTMOUTH COLLEGE CASE ) On the
other hand, the franchise is affected Tuth a
jus piiblicus, which secuies to the state the
power of regulating the conduct of a corpoia-
tion and even of destroying it as punishment for
any grave abuse of its privileges Serious prob-
lems have arisen in connection with the tax-
ation of franchises, the question whether grants
in peipetuity should be made, the effect of
bribery in their procurement, and the extent to
which "there should be public ownership or contiol.
As a political teim, tranclme denotes the
light of suffrage In England the qualifications
of voters for membei s of Pailiament are quite
different fiom those of voters at municipal and
other local elections In the Unittd States the
conditions of elective franchise aie geneiallv,
though not always, the same for Fedeial, State,
and municipal pui poses See SUFFRAGE, and
consult Pollock and Maitland, History of Eng-
lish Laiv (Boston, 1899) , Kent, Commentaries
on American LOAD (ib, 1896) , Taylor, Tieatise
on the Law of Private Corporations (New Yoik,
1902) , Myers, History of Public Franchises in
New Yorfc City (ib, 1900) , Joyce, Treatise on
Franchises, especially those of Public Service
Corporations (ib, 1909), King, The Regulation
of Municipal Utilities (ib, 1912)
3TB.AHCIA, fran'cha (properly FRANCESCO
RAIBOLINI) (1450-1518) An Italian painter
and goldsmith of the early Renaissance, the
chief "master of the early Bolognese school of
painting ( q v ) He was born at Bologna, the
son of a carpenter, and until his foitieth yeai
practiced the goldsmith trade In this he
achieved high distinction, having been repeat-
edly steward of the goldsmiths' guild and in
1514 steward of the Four Arts He was fa-
mous as a medalist and as a worker in niello
Two charming niello plates at the Academy of
Bologna are ascribed to him, as is also a small
relief portrait of Giovanni II Bentivogho in
San Giacomo Maggiore. The ruling house of
Bentivoglio named him master of the mint, and
upon its expulsion Pope Julius II confirmed him
in this office
Francia's earliest dated paintings (1494)
show the influence of Lorenzo Costa, who was
then at Bologna, and who probably taught him
painting The metallic character of his first
pictures and their strong outlines point to his
former profession. But Francia aoon outgrew
>i FBAHCIA
his colleague, both in coloi and in drawing, al
though Costa was more imaginative and dia
matic Theie also appeals in his \vorks a seriti
ment reminiscent of the Umbiian masters
Among his earhei paintings arc a "Holy Fam
ily," in the Museum of Beilin, and a dead * St
Stephen," in the Boighese Palace, Rome The
Pmaeoteca of Bologna has a fine "Madonna En
throned," (1404), his eai best-dated woik, and a
"Dead CImst", the Brera (Milan), an "An-
nunciation" the Louvre, a "Crucifixion/3 oiift-
inally m San Giobbe, Bologna, Berlin, a "Ma
donna and Six Saints" (1502) The "Vngin in
a Rose Garden Adoring the Christ Child/1 in
the Munich Gallery, a picture of highest poetK
chairn, is, without any doubt, his mantelpiece
Anothei fine example of his work is the Benti-
vogho altarpiece in San Giacomo Maggiore,
Bologna
The chief claim of Fiancia*s paintings con-
sists in a peaceful, lyric sentiment and in the
dainty loveliness of the landscapes This i<-
especially true of his earliei woiks They in
deed lack composition — a defect lemedied in his
less atti active latei woiks, painted under the
influence of Raphael The reputed concspond-
once between Francia and Raphael and Francia's
sonnet to the master are foi genes of a later
elate, but Francia may well ha-\e seen works of
Raphael at Bologna Among the woiks shott-
ing the influence ot Raphael are the "Virgin
Enthroned," in the National Galleiy, London
the "Coronation of the Virgin," in the cathedral
of Ferrara, and the uAssumption of the Virgin,"
in San Fiediando, Lucca Other examples are
the "Deposition from the Cross/' m the Parma
Gallery the "Adoration of the Kings/' at Dres-
den , and a "Madonna" in the Gardner collection,
Boston, and a head of the "Virgin," m the
Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts His f res-
cues in the Oratorv of Santa Cecilia, Bologna
lepiesenting the "Marnage of the Saint with
St Valerian" and her "Burial," aie among the
finest of his works. He died at Bologna, Jan
5, 1538
Fiancia's sons, GIACOMO (died 1557) and
GIULIO (1487-1543), painted in their father's
manner, but were much inferior to him They
worked together, signing their works J. J.
Francia, and examples of their joint efforts
exist in the galleries of Bologna, Parma, and
Berlin Giacomo, who was the better painter,
subsequently came under the influence of Dosso
Dossl (q v.) Specimens of his independent ^\ork
are in the Museum of Berlin, the churches and
Gallery of Bologna, and in the Brera, Milan
Consult. Cartwiight, Mantegna and Francia
(London, 1881), Morelli, Italian Painters (ib,
1892-93) , and the monographs by Williamson
(ab, 1901) and Lipparim (Bergamo, 1913),
also Carmichael, Francia' s Masterpiece (Lon-
don, 1909)
PEANCIA, fran's£-a, Jos:6 GASPAB BoDUf-
GCJEZ (c 1757-1840) Dictator of Paraguay.
He was born at Asuncion and was the son of a
small landed piopnetor of Portuguese origin,
He studied theology at the University of C6r-
doba de Tuctiman, taking the degree of D D
Later he tinned to law and gained considerable
distinction as a jurist and public official, be-
coming popular because of his advocacy of the
rights of the lower classes. Refusing to join
Buenos Aires in the revolutionary movement, in
1S11 Paraguay joined the Liberal cause and
declared her own independency Francia took
FBAETCIABIGIO
162
FRANCIS II
a leading pait an the revolution and was made
secretary of the government Junta He was the
one man of ability among an ignorant popula-
tion and was so hanipeied by his colleagues that
he resigned his position, only to come forward
into still gieatei pi eminence when the inca-
pacity of the governing hody had piecipitated a
counterrevolution In 1813 Fiancia and Gen-
eral Fulgencio Yegios, a man of little intellect
<md energy, weie appointed consuls The next
rear they weie granted a temporary dictator-
ship of three years, hut soon after Yegros was
forced out by Francia In 1816 Francia was
made Dictator for life by Congress, which was
immediately dissolved For the next 25 years
he was the sole ruler of Paraguay Solitary
and mysterious, his motives are little known,
and he is usually considered as a bloody des-
potic tyiant, but his acts hardly indicate that
he was moved solely by selfish interests and
ambitions He was the government, ruling in
secret, yet under his sway the condition of
Paraguay rapidly improved The extraordinary
system of nonmtercourse with other nations
which he enforced benefited Paraguay in diver-
sifying her industries and foicing her farmers
to develop the resources of the soil to the utmost
in order to supply the home maiket Francia
introduced schools, repressed superstitious ob-
servances, and enfoiced stuct justice in the
courts, but he kept his subjects in a state of
cruel bondage, being known to them as "El
Supremo1' (the supreme one), and living in
perpetual fear of assassination Kengger and
Longchamp, tvio Swiss suigeons whom Francia
held as prisoners from 1819 to 1825, gave an
account of the Dictator in their Essai histo-
rique sur la resolution de Paraguay ei le gou-
vernement dictatorial du docteur Francia (Paris,
1827) Consult Robertson Letters on Paraguay
(London, 1838) , Francia's Reign of Tenor (ib,
1839) , Letters on South America (ib , 1843)
FBAUCIABIQ-IO, fran'cha-be'jo (an abbre-
viation of Francesco di Cristofano Bigi) (1482-
1525) A Florentine painter, of the high Ren-
aissance He was a pupil of Piero di Cosimo
and Albertinelh (qv ), hut was influenced to a
far greater extent by Andrea del Sarto, with
whom he lived and worked. Among the works
of his early period, showing the influence of
Albertmelli, are the "Annunciation," m the
Turin Gallery, the "Virgin with Job and St.
John" and u Calumny," after Lucian's descrip-
tion of a picture by Apelles, botli in the Ulfizi
( Florence ) , the "Madonna del Pozzo, * in the
same gallery, usually ascubed to Raphael, has
also been attributed to him He assisted An-
drea del Sarto in most of his frescoes Among
their joint works was a series representing the
"Life of the Virgin," in the cloistei of the con-
vent of the Servites (Santissima Annunziata),
Florence One of this series, the "Marriage of
the Virgin," is Franciabiglo's best work, al-
though mutilated by the artist himself, who was
enraged at its premature unveiling by the friars
Of the series of frescoes of the "Life of John
the Baptist," in the convent dello Scalzo, he
executed two 'Departure of John for the
Desert" and "Meeting of John and Jesus " He
also painted a fresco of the "Last Supper" at
La Calza, and the "Triumph of Cicero" at Pog-
glo a Calno, near Florence Among his other
canvases are the "Temple of Heicules," in the
Uffizi, and the "Story of Bathsheba" (1323), at
Dresden HJS paintings are fine in color ancj
excellently modeled, but he is at his beht in his
portiaits^of young men, which show maiked in-
dividuality Theie are fine specimens in the
Pitti Palace and the Louvre, besides others in the
Berlin Museum (1522) and the National Gal-
lery, London, and one at Windsor Castle, which
is usually ascribed to Andrea del Sarto
ERANCIIiIiOU', fraN'se'y6N' The title of a
play by the younger Dumas
FBAttCILLOIN", fran'si-lon, ROBERT EDWARD
(1841- ) An English journalist and novel-
ist He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge, and was admitted to the bar in 1S64
Fiom 1872 to 1894 he was on the stafi of the
London Globe His fir^t novel, Giace On en's
Engagement, appeared in Blachwood9* Maga-
zine in 1868 Among his muny other books are
Olympic* (1874), A Dog and his Shadow (1876),
and, between the last-named date and 1913,
Kind 01 Knave, Jack Doyle's Daughter, Ropes,
of Sand, Gods and Heroes, and Rose Maiden (a
cantata, music by F H Cowen, 1911)
FRANCIS I (1708-65) Holy Roman Em-
peror fiom 1745 to 1765 He was the son
of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and in 1729
succeeded his father m the duchy In 1735
he ceded Loname to Stanislaus Leszc/ynski,
f athei -in-law of Louis XV, to reveit after his
death to the crown of France, obtaining in xe-
tuin the succession to the Giand Duchy of Tus-
cany, whose native rulers, the Medicean family,
\\eie almost extinct In 1736 he married Mana
Theresa of Austria, the only daughter and
heiress of the Emperor Chailes VI, and in the
following year became G-rand Duke of Tuscany
In 1740 Charles VI died, and Maria Theicsa
succeeded him as ruler of the Austrian posses-
sions She made her husband coiegent with her-
self, but gave him little share in the adminis-
tration In the wars earned on against Fied-
erick the Great, Francis took little personal
share In 1745 he was elected Holy Roman Em-
peror and was crowned at Frankfort, October 4
The famous Seven Years' War (1756-63) now
broke out between Austria and Prussia, but the
cares which it imposed fell mainly upon the
gi eat-hearted Maria Theresa, while Francis
chiefly concerned himself with amassing a huge
private fortune He died Aug 18, 1765, at
Innsbruck His son Joseph succeeded him in
the Impei lal dignity, but Maria Theiesa re-
tained in her hands the sovereignty of the Aus-
trian dominions till her death (1780) Consult
Seyfart, Leben Franz' I (Nurembeig, 1766) ,
Aineth, G-escMchte Maria Theresias (Vienna,
1863-79), R Waddmgton, "La Guerre de Sept
Ans," in Eistoire diplomatique et militaire,
vols i-iv (Paris, 1899-1907)
FBAWCIS II (1768-1835) Holy Boman
Emperor from 1792 to 1806, and luler of the
Austrian dominions from 1792 to 1835 (with
the title of Emperor of Austria from 1804) He
was the eldest son of the Emperor Leopold II
and of Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles III,
King of Spam, and was born at Florence, Feb
12, 1768 In 1790 his father, previously Grand
Duke of Tuscany, became Empeior on the death
of his brother Joseph, and dying Maich 1, 1792,
was succeeded in the hereditary Austrian do-
minions by Francis, who m July was elected to
the Imperial throne of Germany. His reign be-
gan at a time when the progress of the French
Revolution was exciting the alarm of the Old
European dynasties. Austria was in alhanoe
with Prussia against the Republic, and the allied
163
armies invaded Fiance, but were diiven back
In 1794 the Eiencli aims carried all befoie them
xn Belgium In 1795-96 the war between France
and Austna lagcd fieicely on German soil In
1796 Bonapaite swept thiough noithcrn Italy,
and in 1797 Austria was invaded Fiancis was
forced to conclude the Treaty of Campo Foiinio
Oct 17, 1797, by which Austria surrendered
Belgium and Lombardy, receiving in return
most of the dominions of the extinguished Re-
public of Venice Two yeais afterward Francis,
m alliance with Russia and England, again took
up arms and was at first successful, but the re-
call of the Russian general, Suvaroff, and the
leturn of Bonaparte from the East turned the
tide The victories won by Bonaparte at Ma-
rengo and by Moreau at Hohenlmden broke the
power of Austria, and Francis was compelled to
sue for peace By the Treaty of Luneville in
1801 Fiance was confiimed in the possession of
the left bank of the Rhine In 1804 Francis
assumed the title of Emperor of Austria In
1805 he entered into a new alliance with Russia,
but the contest with France ended more dis-
astrously than ever for the Austrians The
French victory at Austeilitz completely humili-
ated Francis, who, at the Peace of Pressburg, m
December, 1805, was obliged to surrender the
Venetian territories and Tirol The Holy Ro-
man Empire was now dissolved, after lasting
for 1000 years, and Francis was henceforth
known as Emperor of Austria and King of Bo-
hemia and Hungary In 1809 he recommenced
the war with Napoleon The battle of Aspern or
Esslmg was an Austrian victory, though not a
decisive one, but Napoleon triumphed again
at Wagram, and dictated terms of peace from
the palace of Schonbrunn in October of the same
year, wresting fiom the Hapsbmgs a laige por-
tion of their ancient hereditary teriitories In
1810 the French Emperor married the daughter
of Francis, Maria Louisa, and gained a respite.
During this time he studied the situation of
Europe and under the guidance of Mettermch
(q v ) joined the Russians and Prussians against
France in 1814. Immediately after the first
abdication of Napoleon the Congress of Vienna
was assembled for the reconstruction of the
political system of Europe (See AUSTRIA-HUN-
GARY ) Francis joined Alexander I of Russia
and Frederick William III of Prussia in the
formation of the Holy Alliance (qv ), and the
reactionary and absolutistic ideas embodied in
that contract characterized the policy during
the remainder of his reign Francis died on
March 2, 1835 Consult Baron J A Helfert,
Kaiser Frane uncL die osterrwchischen Be-
freiungs-Knege (Vienna, 1867), and Meynert,
Franz I (ib, 1871-73)
FRANCIS I (1494-1547). King of France
(1515-47) He was the son of Charles, Count
of Angoule'me, and was born at Cognac, Sept
12, 1494 At the age of 20 he married Claude,
daughter of Louis XII, and succeeded his father-
in-law Jan 1, 1515 He immediately entered
upon the task of reconquering Milan, which had
been wrested from his predecessor two years
before At the head of 40,000 men Francis
crossed the Alps and attacked the Swiss allies
of the Milanese at Marignano, completely de-
feating them with a loss of 12,000 men, Sept 13
and 14, 1515 On the field of battle Francis ac-
cepted knighthood from the renowned Bayard
After some further successes he returned to
Paris in 1516, On the death of the German Em-
peior Maximilian in Januaiy, 1519, Francis I
and Charles of Spain became rival candidates
foi the Impei lal cioun The election of Chailes
excited the anger of the Fiench King, who im-
mediately piepared for wai and endeavoied to
secuie the alliance of Heniy VIII of England,
but with no success, Henry instead forming an
alliance with the Pope and the Empeior against
Francis The forces of Fiancis I weie driven
out of Italy, the Enghbh and Imperialists in-
vaded Fiance, the Constable de Bourbon, who
was discoveied to be conspiung against his
sovereign, fled to Chailes, who gladly accepted
his sei vices An attempted invasion of Italy
by the French failed, and the Imperialists ad-
vanced into Provence On the approach, of the
French King they ^ithdiew into Italy, where
they were followed by Francis, who overran
Lombaidy, but was totally defeated and taken
prisoner at the battle of Pavia, Feb 24, 1525
Chailes carried his captrve to Madrid and only
granted him his liberty on the hardest con-
ditions He was foiced to i enounce the sov-
ereignty of Flandeis and Aitois, the Duchy of
Buigundy, and all his Italian possessions, to
promise the restoration of the Constable de
Bourbon to his former dignities, and to sur-
render his two sons as hostages Francis ob-
tained his freedom March 17, 1526, but his
first act, on his return to his dominions, was a
refusal to fulfill the pledges he had given Pope
Clement VII absolved him from Ins oath, Eng-
land, Rome, Venice, Florence, and Genoa — all of
•whom were growing alarmed at the immense
power of Charles — withdrew from the Imperial
alliance and sided with his antagonist The
war in Italv now recommenced * On May 6, 1527,
the Impei lal forces of the Constable de Bourbon
stormed and sacked Rome and captured the
Pope, A Fiench a-rmy under Lautrec was sent
into Naples, but after a series of brilliant suc-
cesses was almost wholly cut off by disease
About the same time Francis sent a challenge to
Charles to decide their quarrel by single combat
The challenge was accepted, but the duel never
took place Peace was concluded at Cambrai
in August, 1529, to the great advantage of the
Spaniards In 1536, however, war broke out
again between the French and the Emperor, the
French having overrun Savoy, to which Francis
laid claim, and whose Duke was the ally of
Charles V Finally, by the efforts of Pope Paul
III, a truce was concluded for 10 years at Nice,
between Charles and Francis, June 18, 1538 In
point of fact, however, peace lasted only four
years, and in 1542 the French King put into the
field five different armies against the Emperor
The battle of Ceresole, April 14, 1544, in which
the French were completely victorious, partially
wiped out the dishonor of the defeat at Pavia,
Alliance with Turkey aroused the Christian
powers. Charles V and Henry VII of England
marched upon. Paris, and Francis was compelled
to make peace with the Emperor at Crespy,
Sept. 18, 1544 The war with England continued
till 1546 Francis died at Rambouillet, March
31, 1547. Gay and voluptuous, Francis was still
capable of heroic impulses and acts of splendid
generosity He was a generous patron of the
artists of the Renaissance, several of whom
were to be found at the French court Libraries,
schools, and colleges were founded and learn-
ing encouraged
Bibliography Consult the general histories
of Kiehelet, Martin, and Ranke. Consult also-
FRANCIS II
264
Paris, Etudes su't Ptanrois I (Paris 1885) ,
Mignet, Rivalite de Francois I ct Chwles V
(ib, 1876), Capcfigue, Piancois I et la ienait
sance (ib, 1844) , Pardoe, The Coiut and Reiqn
of Francis I (London, 1340, New iork, 1901)
Cochrane, Ftancis I and Othei II atone Studies
(London, 1870), Cong-net, Francis I and Jn<t
Times, trans by Tvvemlow (ib , 1889), Cata-
logue des actes de Francois I, published by the
Academic des Sciences Morales et Pohtiques
(Pans, 1887-1907), J Wisti, La polttique on-
entale de Fiancata ler (ib, 1908), A C P.
Haggaid, Two Qteat finals, Francois I and
Charles V (New York, 1'HO) , W Heubi, Ftan-
QOIS ler et le moutement intellect uel en France
(Lausanne, 1913), H Lemonnier, vol v (Pans,
1003-04) of E LaMsse'q Hittoire de France
gives a list of loading secondary authorities
FBA3STCIS II (1344-60) King of Fiance
from 1550 to 1560 He was the eldest son of
Femv TI and Catbanne de1 Medici and ascended
the thi one in Ins sixteenth voai \N eak in mind
and body, he was merely a tool m the hands of
the Duke of Guise and the Caidinal of Lorraine,
whose ambition brought on disastrous civil \vais.
He rnairieci (15>S) the famous Maiv Stuart.
Consult De la Baiie-Dupaieq, Hilton c de Fran-
tois II (Pans, 18b7), lunest Lanw, Histoire
de France, \ol M by J H Manejol (ib, lf)04)9
which contains a bibliography
FBA1STCIS IV, DUKE OF MODEX\ (1779-
1846) An Italian despot Altoi the fall of
Napoleon in 1814 ho leceived the Duchy of
Modena, which he goveined thereaftei in the
haishcst and most leactionary manner He
instituted proceedings against all those sus-
pected of the least taint of liberalism, filled
Modena with spies, hindered education, and
stifled all popular liberties Several of the
Modenese Liberals, including Giro Menotti
(1798-1831), he caused to be executed, while
hundreds of others were imprisoned 01 forced to
flee the country Revolts broke out in 1831,
but with the aid of Austrian troops he main-
tained his power and continued his persecutions
and oppressions until his death
EBANCIS V, DUKE or MODENA (1819-75).
An Italian despot lie continued the tyian-
nies of his father, Francis IV. His rule began
with uprisings in various quarters of Ins lealra,
especially at Massa and Carrara, where his
troops massacred some of the inhabitants
Forced to flee to Mantua during the revolution
of 1848, he returned after the defeat of the
Piedmontese, with Austrian assistance He
suppressed all disturbances most rigorously and
filled the prisons with political offenders Af-
ter the defeat of the Austrian s at Magenta he
led his army against the victorious Piedmontese,
but from I860 to the end of his life he spent
m retirement m Austria. Consult Bayard de
Volo, Vita di Francesco V (4. vols, Modena,
1878-85)
FHA3STCIS I (1777-1830). King ( f the Two
Sicilies from 1825 to 1830. He was the son of
Ferdinand I In 1812 he was appointed Regent
of Sicily by Ins father and proclaimed a con-
stitutional government, but in the following
year his father deposed him and dissolved the
Parliament In 1816 Francis became Governor
of Sicily and in 1820 Regent of Naples In 1825,
on the death of his father, he ascended the
throne He became at once a reactionary, and
his reign was marked by corruption, cruelty, and
subserviency to Austria Consult Nisco, II
Rcamc di Napoh sot to Francesco / (Naples,
1 893 )
FBA3STCXS II (1836-94) King of the Two
Sicilies fiom 1850 to 1861 He was the son of
Feidmand IT and followed his father's system
in luhng with an non hand He refused all
libeial concessions in spite of the uigeiit de-
mands of the Powers When Sicily, vvith the
exception of Messina, had submitted to Gari-
baldi in the summer of 1860, he sought to pacify
his people by the promise of mamiold refoiins
and, failing to secure their good will, made
strong but unsuccessful efforts to secuie foreign
inteivention in his behalf After Garibaldi's en-
tiance into Naples, Septembei, I860, the King
fled to Capua and tlience to the citadel at Gaeta
After a short siege Gaeta sunendered, and the
King took retuge on a Fiench frigate Feb 13,
1861 His dominions were incoiporated m the
Kingdom of Italy, and he selected Rome as his
place of lesidence Consult Niseo, Francesco //,
ie (Naples, 1891), and PI R Whitehouse, Col-
lapse of the Kingdom of Naples (New York,
1899} See GARIBALDI, ITALY
FRANCIS, COWVEKS (1795-1863) An Arner-
iran Unitaiian clergyman and writer He was
bran at West Cambridge, Mass, gi actuated at
Ilaivnid in 1815, and became a Unitarian mm
i-ter at Wateitown Lydia Maria Child, the
philanthropist, was his sister Dr Fiancis be-
came piofessoi of pulpit eloquence at Haivaid
m 1S42 He wrote a History of Watertoion
(1830), Life of Rev John EUot, the Apostle to
tlie Indians (183B), foi Sparks's "Libiary of
American Biography/' and a Life of Se'bast^an
Rale (1848), the Jesuit missionary Consult
Newell, "Memoir of Convers Francis," in Mas<$a>-
clwwtts Historical Society's Proceedings, 13b't~65
EBA3STCIS, DAVID ROWLAND (1850-1927)
An American mei chant and Democratic politi-
cian, born in Richmond, Ky He graduated at
Washington University, St Louis, in 1870, and
became a clerk in a commission house, rising
to a partnership In 1877 he founded the com-
mission and gram firm of which lie lemamed
the head He was Democratic mayor of St
Louis m 1885-89 and Governor of Missouri in
1889-9? In President Cleveland's second ad-
ministration he was Secretary of the Interior
(1896-97) He was president and special
foreign representative of the Louisiana Pur-
chase Exposition held at St Louis in 1904 In
1910 he was an unsuccessful candidate in the
primaries for United States Senator
FRANCIS, JAMES BIOHENO (1815-92) An
Amerian hydraulic engineer, who has been called
"the father of modern hydraulic engineering"
on account of his practical and experimental
work for over half a century on the water-power
developments which created the city of Lowell,
Mass He was born at Southleigh, England, and
began his engineering career at the age of 14
vears, on harbor vtork for a railway of which
his father was superintendent Two years later
he was employed on the Grand Western Canal
in England In 1833 he came to America and
soon began work on the Boston and Provi-
dence "Railroad, under an engineer named George
W Whistler The next year Mr Whistler be-
gan the water-power developments at Lowell,
with Fiancis as assistant On Mr Whistler's
resignation, in 1837, Francis, then only 22 years
old, became chief engineer for the proprietors of
locks and canals on the Mernmac River From
1845 to 1884 he was both agent and chief en-
FBAKCIS
165
£>meer, and fiom 1884 until his death he was
consulting engmeei to the company Besides,
building a great system of dams, canalfa, con-
duits, and water-power machineiy, Fiancis did
a vast amount of pioneer experimental hydiauhc
uork, known the ^orld over as the "'Lowell
hydiauhc experiments" The lesults of these
expenments were first published in 1855 They
\veie republished, with new data, ai 1S68 and
again in 1883 Of the vanous elements com-
posing the water-power works built at Lowell
under Francis, mention may be made of the
Noithern Canal, built in 1846-48 Besides hi&
one great life work, Fiancis had a consideiable
consulting practice in the constiuction of dams,
powei plants, mill buildings, and in the ap-
plication of power in mills He was elected a
member of the American Society of Civil En-
gineers on its organization in 1852, president in
1881, and an honorary member in 1SD2, a few
months before his death He contributed largely
to the Transactions of that Society and lo tech-
nical journals and wrote The Strength of Cast
If on Columns (1865), but his gieat work is
the Lowell Hydraulic Experiments (3d ed ,
1883)
EBAIsrCIS, JOHN WAKEFIELD (1789-1861)
An American physician of German and Swiss
descent, boin in New York He was giaduated
fiom Columbia College in 1809 and received the
degree of M D from the College of Physicians
and Surgeons, New York City, in 1811 He was
professor of materia medlca in the College of
Physicians and Suigeons from 1813 to 1816,
piofessor of the institutes of medicine from 1816
to 1820, professor of obstetrics fiom 1820 to
1826, and professor of obstetrics and of medical
juiisprudence in Rutgers Medical College, New
Yoik City, from 1S26 to 1830 He inteiested
himself greatly in the Woman's Hospital, the
State Inebriate Asylum, and kindred institu-
tions With Dr David Hosack he published the
American Medical and Philosophical Register
(1810-14) Among his many works weie Use
of Merciiyy (1811) , Cases of Morbid Anatomy
(1814), Febrile Contagion (1816), On Cholera
Asphyxia (1832), Anatomy of Drunkenness
(1857) , Memoir of Christopher Colles, Old
'New York, or Reminiscences of the Past Sixty
years, with a memoir of the author by H. T
Tuckerman (1865).
FHANCIS, SIR PHILIP (1740^-1818). An
English epistolaiy writer, the reputed author
of the Letters of Juwws The son of the Rev
Philip Francis, he was born in Dublin and was
educated at St Paul's School, London In 1756
he obtained a place m the office of Henry Fox,
then Secretary of State In 1758 he became
secretary to General Bhgh, whom he accom-
panied on the expedition against Cherbourg, in
1760 secretary to the Earl of Linnoul, Ambassa-
dor to Portugal, in 1761 amanuensis to Pitt,
and in 1762 first clerk m the War Office In
1773 he was appointed a member of the Council
of Bengal, with a salary of £10,000, and sailed
for India the next year. He quarreled with
Warren Hastings, by whom he was severely
wounded in a duel. Returning to England in
1781, he entered Parliament three years later
and took an active part in the impeachment of
Hastings In his political opinions lie was a
decided and consistent Whig. He withdrew from
Parliament in 1807. None of . his known writ-
ings are of value There is considerable evi-
dence indicating that he was the author of the
Letters of Junius (qv ) Consult Parkes and
Menvale, Memoes of Sir Pluhp Ftancis (Lon-
don, 1867), The Francis Letters (2 vols , ib ,
1<)01), ed by Beata Francis and Eli/a Keary
(I B Malleson Life of Wairen Hastings (ib ,
1804) , and Sir Le&lie Stephen's excellent aiticle
on Fiancis in the twentieth volume of the Dic-
tionary of National Biogtaphy (ib, 1889)
ERAnsrCIS'CANS, ORDER OF (also called
MINORITES, 01 LESSEE BRETHREN) A religious
older of the Catholic church, founded by St
Francis of Assisi m 1209 It comprises the com-
munities of men or women observing the rule
of St Francis in some of its various foims
They make up three divisions the first oidei,
the Friars Minor, includes the male members,
the second, those monasteries of cloistered nuns
professing the lule of St Clare, and called the
Poor Ladies, or Poor Clares, the third order,
the Brothei s and Si&teis of Penance, both lay
persons and ceitain religious congregations af-
filiated with the Franciscans (See TERTIARY )
The Friaia Minor, or first order, now has three
divisions the Fuars Minor, or paient bodv,
founded in 1209, the Fuars Mmoi Conven-
tuals, and the Friars Minor Capuchins, which
have grown out of it and weie established a&
independent oiders in 1517 and 152 S respec-
tively. (For an account of the establishment of
the order and its earliest years, see FRANCIS OF
ASSIST, SAINT ) The rule for the Fnars Minor,
drawn up by St Francis in 1209, was divided
into 23 chapters, containing 27 precepts, bind-
ing the members to "observe the holy Gospel of
our Lord Jesus Christ by living in obedience,
without propei ty and in chastity" The use of
money is absolutely forbidden, and the quantity,
quality, and value of clothing are prescribed
The habit -was to consist of a gray gown of
coarse cloth, with a pointed head, or capuche,
an undertumc and drawers, and a cord around
the waist This costume resembled the diess
of the shepherds of the day. The use of shoes
and nding on horseback were prohibited Un-
necessary conversations with women and the
visiting1 of female monasteries without special
dispensation were forbidden Fasts on all Fn-
days of the year were enjoined, as also during
the periods from All-Saints to Christmas and
from Epiphany to Easter The recitation of the
Divine Office was also rendered obligatory Ab-
solute obedience to superiors m all things not
contrary to the rule was prescribed The order
grew rapidly and spread throughout the various
countries of Europe, until at the second general
chapter, held at Assisi in 1219, within 10 years
of its birth, more than 5000 brethren were pres-
ent Tn less than half a century it reckoned
some 33 provinces, in which there were over 8000
consents, with a membership of 200,000 Some
idea of the extraordinary extension of this re-
markable institute may be formed from the
startling fact that, in the dreadful plague of the
black death in the following century, no fewer
than 124,000 Franciscans fell victims to their
zeal for the care of the sick and for the spiritual
ministration to the dving After tfae death
of St Francis a modification of the rule was
introduced by Brother Elias, his successor in
the office of general of the order This innova-
tion related to the interpretation of the nature
and extent of the vow of religious poverty,
whether the community could acquire the privi-
lege of the right of property even in things of
necessary use Those who adhered to the letter
166
of the rule denied the privilege of all light of
pioperty to the community, and contended that
it was unlawful for the ordei to acquire 01 ic-
tam a light, of piopeity in houses, convents, or
even churches restucting its right in every-
thing \\hich it possessed to the simple use
Out of this contioversy aiose drvisions and sub-
divisions in the ordei The first bioad distinc-
tion to which it gave rise was that between
the Conventuals and the Observantmes, the
foimer living accoiding to a mitigated inter-
pretation of the rule and holding to the com-
munity's light of propeity, while they stuctly
adheied to the vow of poveitv on the pait of
the individual, the Obseivantmes, following the
moie ngid mteipietation of the rule, deny the
right of propei tv in the order and h\e rnoie in
the mannei of heimits, in low, mean dwellings,
and accoiding to the original rigor of the in-
stitute The latter were called Friais Minor of
the Strict Observance In the course of time
there arose among the Observantines themselves
several reform movements, which ga\e rise to
three branches that of St Bernardino of Siena
in 1419, called the Reformed, then that of
Blessed John de la Puebla and Blessed John of
Guadalupe, under the name of Recollets in 1500,
and, finally, the reform of St Petei of Alcan-
tara in 1555, known under the name of
Alcantarines
By a bull of Leo XIII, Oct 4, 1897, all these,
hem ever, weie united under one head, a ministei
general, elected by the piovmcial mimsteis at
a general chapter held every 12 years Seveial
popes attempted to leconcile the differences
between the Conventuals and the Observantinea
without avail Finally, in 1517, Leo X officially
recognized the distinction between them, and in
a bull promulgated that year gave the name of
Conventuals to those who persisted in follow-
ing the mitigated rule and in holding to the
community's right of property Each body had
its own general, but the minister general of the
Observantines enjoyed preeminence and author-
ity over the general of the Conventuals, who
was obliged to obtain his confirmation from the
former During the pontificate of Sixtus V the
Conventuals sought in vain to free their head
fiom this subordination and renewed the at-
tempt in 1594 under Clement VIII with no
greater success When they renewed their claim
again under Urban VIII, the latter imposed
silence upon them by a brief of April 21, 1631
In 1525 the reform among the Observantines that
led to the establishment of the third branch, the
Capuchins, was begun by Matteo di Bassi An
immense number of persons desirous of practic-
ing in the world the virtues of the cloister
joined the third order, from the humblest to the
highest station in life, notably among the latter
in the thirteenth century were St Louis of
France and St Elizabeth of Hungary In the
course of time some tertianes desirous of liv-
ing in community, while conforming to the rules
of the third order, formed communities in many
parts of Europe which were affiliated with the
general body as a branch distinct from the first
and second orders
The head of the entire Franciscan body wae
to be chosen alternately (a regulation, however^
which has not been observed) from the Cismon-
tane and the Ultramontane families — a geograph-
ical division, the latter being those religious
whose convents are situated in France, Spain,
Lower Germany, Saxony, the islands of the Medi-
terianean, Afiica, Asia, and the Indies m gen-
eral, the foimer those in Italy, Upper Germany,
Hungaiv, Poland, Syria, and Palestine Each
famJy is again divided into provinces, by vican-
ates, 01 custodies Seveial custodies constitute
a piovmce undei a common supenoi appointed
by the geneial Some custodies are subject to a
provincial, while otheis depend immediately upon
the geneial The superior of the order has under
his junsdiction the Poor Clares and other Fran-
ciscan nuns The Poor Clares were founded
by St Claie, the disciple and counseloi of St
Francis in 1212 A division over the stuct
obseiva-nce of the rule of poverty established
the Urbaiiist branch, who follow the less strin-
gent inle allowed them by Pope Urban IV,
Oct IS, 1263
The ^hole Fianciscan Ordei (male) is divided
into 12 cucumscriptions, formed by 81 piov-
inces, made up of 1413 convents and 17,000
f nars The Poor Clares have 505 convents and
10,000 nuns The third order (seculai) is
spread all over the world and has a membership
of about 2,500,000 The sistcis (religious) pro-
fessing the rule of the thud oider number
about 50,000 The general of the Conventuals
is called Master General of the Friars Minor
Conventuals, the qeneial of the Capuchins,
Minister General of the Friars Minor Capuchins
The thud order has also a general of its own
The older has gi\en five popes to the church
Nicholas IV, Alexander V, Sixtus II, Sixtus V,
and Clement XIV, besides 54 cardinals, begin-
ning with. St Bonaventure It has given some
celebrated theologians and philosophers to the
ranks of the schoolmen St Bonaventme, Duns
Scotus, Alexander of Hales, William of Occam
Roger Bacon, famous as the expenniental phi-
losophei of the Middle Ages, was a Franciscan
Friar The great Spanish statesman Cardinal
Ximenes, two centuries latei, was also a fol-
lower of St Francis Its historian, Father
Luke Wadding, who published his elaboiate
Annals of the order in the seventeenth century,
bears a deservedly high reputation In lighter
hteiature, and especially poetry, St" Francis
himself is notable as a sacred poet Jacapone
da Todi, the author of the "Stabat Mater,"
is one of the most celebrated mediaeval hymn
writers, Lope de Vega, the Spanish dramatist,
closed his eventful caieer as a member of the
third order Dante, it is believed from a passage
in the Diwna Commed^a, was a Franciscan ter-
tiary In the revival of art the Franci&can
Order bore an active and enlightened part They
may be said to have been the inspiring influence
which gave rise in painting to the mystical
school of Umbria, which in Perugino and Raphael
attained the ultimate reach of Christian art
Giotto and his successors, especially in fiesco
painting, were profoundly influenced by the
Franciscan spirit In architecture the same
spirit was potent in creating new types of
churches in line with Cistercian models The
Franciscans may be said to have imported into
art a sentiment which before then had existed
only in a crude state — seraphic love Their
idealism and religious feivor did more perhaps
than any other factor to exalt and spiritualize
the art of the Middle Ages up to the time of the
Renaissance
Bibliography. Wadding, Annales Minorum
Fratrum (25 vols , Rome, 1*31-1887, going
down to 1622) , MacDonnell, Sons of Francis
(London, 1002) , the general histories, Kolde,
FRANCIS DE SALES
167
FKANCIS JOSEPH I
Die Lit chhchen Biudeischaften und da? neligiose
Leben im modeinen Katholicismus lEilangen,
1895), Heimbucher, Die Orden- und Kongi ega-
tionen der kathohschen Kirche (Paderboin,
1896-97), Felder, Geschichte der Wissenschaft-
lichen Studien im Fiansiskanerorden (Freiburg,
1904) , the special histones in England, "Biewei,
Monumcnta Ftanciscana (London, 1858-82),
Fathei Tliaddeus, Franciscans in England, IbbO-
ISoO (ib, 1898) , in Ireland, Meehan, Rise and
Fall of Irish Franciscan Monasteries and Me-
moirs of the Irish Hietaichy in the Seventeenth
Centuyy (6th ed , Dublin, 1891), Dubois, St
Francis of A.SSISI, Social Reformer (New York,
1907) , Cusack fif# Ftancis and the Francis-
cans (ib , 1887), Egan, Everybody's 8t Ftancis
(ib , 1900), James, The Old Franciscan Mis-
sions of California (Boston, 1913) On the
tertiaries, consult Leor, Le tiers 01 dt Q SGI a-
phique d'apves la constitution "Misencors Det
Films" de S M Leon XIII (Bordeaux, 1884), and
Gerard, Documents pour expliquet la regie du
tiets ot die de Saint Francois d'Assisi (3 vols ,
Paris, 1899)
FRANCIS BE SALES, Fr pron fraN'sis'
de sal, SAINT (1567-1622) A distinguished
saint and writei of the Catholic church He
was of noble descent and was born at the
Chateau de Sales, the seat of his family in
Savoy He was the eldest son, and his father
bestowed unufc.ua! care upon his education with
the idea of fitting him for a worldly career in
keeping -with his station in life After spend-
ing his earlier years at the College de la Roche
and the College d'Annecy, in the neighborhood
of his home, lie became a pupil, at 13 years of
age, of the College Clermont at Paris under
the direction of the Jesuit Fathers In 1584
he entered the University of Padua, where, at
24, he took his final degiee \\ith gieat distinc-
tion and became a Doctor of La\vs But his
inclination was for the church rather than for
law His father at first opposed his wish to
enter the priesthood, but in the end gave his
consent Upon his ordination he was appointed
provost of the diocesan chapter at the request
of Monseigneur de Granier, Bishop of Geneva
In 1594 the young priest was sent to the dif-
ficult mission of the Chablais, a province of
Sa\oy, which had become Calvinistic His ef-
forts for a long time proved fruitless, but in
time he saw his labors repaid with numerous
conversions, before his departure witnessing the
restitution of all churches and of all ecclesiasti-
cal property in the Chablais to the diocesan
cleigy The government buttressed his erToits
with law repressing Protestantism. Shoitly
after his return from the Chablais, at the solici-
tation of Monseigneur de Cramer, Francis was
made Coadjutor Bishop with the right of suc-
cession to the see of Geneva, and the succession
followed in 1602 In that year the interests of
the French division of the Geneva diocese took
Francis to Paris Here Henry IV conceived a
cordial liking for him As Bishop of Geneva,
Francis was as indefatigable in his apostolic
labors as when he was a simple priest His
preaching was simple, fervid, and direct He
carefully avoided the turgid ornament and rhe-
toiical affectations common to the sermons of his
century As a writer, St Francis de Sales has
attained a wide popularity. His Introduction to
the Devout, Life has "been translated into almost
every language of Europe a/nd lias been more
widely read than any other work on devotion.
with the exception of the Imitation of Christ
His Treatise on the Love of God is his chief
doctunal work and shows moie fully the com-
pieliensive character of Ins mind His style is
simple, lucid, and profusely illustrated It was
under the spiritual direction of St Francis de
Sales that Ste Jeanne de Chantal (see
CIIANTAL, JEANNE FKANCOI&E DE) founded the
Cong legation of the Visitation of the Virgin
Mary m 1610 St Francis died at Lyons, on
Sept 28, 1622 In 1605 he vi as solemnly canon-
i7ed bv Pope Alexander VII, and in 1877 he
was declared one of the doctors of the church
His \\orks weie published m Paris, 1861-02
and m more complete fonii,, edited by Mackov,
at Annecy, 1892 The Love of G-od has been
edited by Stiowsky (Paris, 1901, Eng trans,
London, 1902) , The Canticle of Canticles (New
York, 1912) , Introduction to the Devout Life
(ib, 1913) For his life, consult C A de
Sales (Chambery, 1860) , Camus, The Spirit of
8aint Fianas d6 Pales (Xe\r Yoik, 1910) , Lear,
Life (London, 1882) also Guillot, Francois de
Seles ct Jcs protest ants (Geneva, 1873) , Max-
well-Scott, Saint Francis do Sale's and 7us
Fnends (St Louis, 19U)
FBABTCIS FERDINAND (1863-1914)
Aichduke of Austria-Este, the son of Archduke
Charles Louis (1833-96), brother of the Em-
peior Fiancia Joseph He was boin at Graz
In 1875, on the extinction of the male line of
Modena, he succeeded to the wealth of the family
and to the title of Este The death of the
Crown Prince Kudolph (1889) and of his ov\n
father made him heir apparent to tlie crowns
of Austria and Hungary In 1900 he married
the Countess Chotek, created Princess Hohen-
berg, after renouncing for her children the right
of succession to the throne The Archduke wrote
(1893-96) a description of his tup around the
\vorld in 1892-93 On June 28, 1914, he was
assassinated with his wife at Serajcvo, Bosnia,
as the result of a political plot — tha culmina-
tion of discontent because of the absorption
of Bosnia into the Austro-Hunganan Ernpiie.
Riots followed the eiime, and the Impel lal
and geneial European status quo was seriou&ly
endangeiod See ^'AB IN EUROPE
P&ANCIS JOSEPH I (1830-1916) Em-
peror of Austria He was born Aug 18, 1830,
at Vienna, the eldest son of Archduke Francis
and a nephew of Ferdinand I Emperor fioni
1835 to 1848 Francis was taught the various
languciges of the heterogeneous Au&tnan mon-
archy In 1848 he served under Eadetzky in
Italy On Dee 2, 1848? amid the convulsions
which threatened the dissolution of the Em-
piie, the weak Emperor Ferdinand abdicated,
his brother, the Archduke Francis, gave up his
claims to the crown, and Francis Joseph, whose
youth and popularity it was believed would
make it easier to harmonize the conflicting in-
terests of the monarchy, mounted the Austrian
throne. Hungary was now in a state of open
revolt, and in April, 1849, declared itself a
republic with Kossuth as Governor IH Italy
Charles Albert of Sardinia again took up arms
against Austria. Both in Hungary and Italy
Austria triumphed, and the Emperor devoted
himself to the reestablishinent of his authority
(See AusTRiA-HuNGAKY ) In 1853 an attempt
on his life was made by an Hungarian, but the
Emperor escaped with a slight \vound In 1855
a concordat was conclude^ wjth Pras IX, which,
restored to the Koman Catholic church through-
FUANCIS JOSEPH I
168
FRANCIS OE ASSIST
out the Empire many of the liberties of \\lncli
it had been depmed since the hostile leign of
the Emperor Joseph II In 1859 Fiancis Joseph
was called to face a war \\ith France and
Sardinia, which ended with the loss of Lombard^
After this ^v\ar Fiancis Joseph abandoned his
conseivatne policy and began the necessary
work of reform, and after the disastrous Seven
Weeks* War (qv ) with Prussia, a reconstiuc-
tion of the monaichy on a dualistic basis ^as
effected by the Ausgleich of 1867 The abioga-
tion m 1870 of the Concordat of 1855 antago-
nized the Pope Francis Joseph always strove
to maintain, a constitutional and parhamentai y
regime in his dominions He won the respect
and affection of his subjects, and it was his per-
sonal influence that ieally held his dominions
together under the most discoui aging political
conditions Francis Joseph married, April 24,
1S54, Elizabeth., daughter of Duke Maximilian
of Bavaria, who was assassinated by an Italian
anarchist in Geneva, Sept 10, 1898 This mai-
riage, the culmination of a genuine romance,
ended in estrangement Elizabeth consented to
appear on great ceremonial occasions, but blip
found relief, when the functions were over, in
tra\el Her manner of life became that of a
woman fo. whom life had nothing- left except
what conveise with nature could affoid The
only son of Francis Joseph and Elizabeth, Ru-
dolph, died mysteriously by violence in his hunt-
ing box at Meyeihng The heir piesumptne,
Francis Ferdinand (qv), nephew of the Em-
peror, was assassinated with his -vufe June 28,
1914,, at Serajevo, Bosnia Ihis caused the lup-
tiire between Serua and Austi la-Hungai y which
precipitated the great European war of 1914.
( See WAR IN EUROPE ) The new heir, Charles
Francis Joseph, nephew of the slain Archduke and
son of the late Archduke Otto, was born in 1887.
When Francis Joseph came to the throne,
Austria was a Teuton power To-day it has
only a small Teuton nucleus associated with a
Magyar nucleus nearly as large, trying with it?
to assert predominant partnership m a large
community of Slavs, and cashing envious but
not hopeful eyes towards the Balkan States and
^Egean harbors Francis Joseph, the mainstay
of the Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Ger-
many, and Italy), came to be regarded as the
one indispensable man m the Empire, the one
whose life must be prolonged at all hazards, lest
his death cause the collapse of the structure
he reared This feeling was intensified by the
death of the Archduke Ferdinand
During the 60-year jubilee in 1908 an Imperial
rescript annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina was
issued, but even this act of aggrandizement did
not diminish the enthusiasm of the people for
Francis Joseph See AUSTRIA-HUNG ART
Consult J. Emmar, Kaiser Franz Joseph (2
vols , Vienna, 1898 ) j J. Schnitzer, Franz Jo-
seph I und seme Zeit (2 vols , ib , 1899) , Vnilis
Unitis, Das Such vom Kaiser, with introductions
by J A v. Halfeit, ed by M Herzig (ib , 1898) ,
R Rostok, Die Regierungsz&it des K u K
Franz Joseph I (3d ed, ib , 1903) , Die Thron*
reden Sr Majestat des Kaisers Franz Joseph I
(ib, 1908), H Brentano, Rawer Frme
Joseph I, 1848-1908 (ib, 1908); U P Ma-
hairy, Francis Joseph* Ris Life and his Times
(London, 1908), H de Weindel, Francois
Joseph intime (Pans, 1905) , id., The Heal Fian-
ce Joseph (New York, 1909) , Francis Gnbble,
Ltf<$ of the Emperor of A.ustrw (ib, 1913)
FRAN'CIS OF ASSIST, as-sc/ze, SAINT
(1181 or 1182-1226) The founder of the Older
of the Friars Minor, or Franciscans He was
born in the little town of Assisi, Italy His
father was a rich merchant, named Pietro
Bernaidone, his mother, Pica, of the noble
family of the Bourlemonts of Provence, a woman
of piety and chaiacter The child's baptismal
name was Giovanni (John) , but his father, out
of his predilection for France, with which he
carried on an extensive tiade, gave the boy the
surname of Francesco (the Frenchman) Fran-
cis was taken into business partnership at the
age of 14 by his father In his twenty-fourth
year, after much meditation on the course of
life he had been leading, he suddenly abandoned
his old friends and haunts and embraced a life
of ngid penance and uttei poverty His ob]ect
was to lead a life as neaily modeled upon that
of Christ as possible and by absolute renuncia-
tion of the world to attain peifection Retir-
ing to a grotto near Assisi, he gave himself up
to penance and piofound meditation on the suf-
fenngs of Christ In 1208, while hearing mass,
he felt himself to be personally called to a mis-
sion and to poverty and went out to preach
His austenties and his simple eloquence at-
tracted attention, and it was not long before
others, awakened by his ardent example, sought
to follow in his steps and iom themselves to
him in his austeie mode of life His fast com-
panions weie fellow townsmen — Bernard of
Quintavalle, a nch and noble layman, and Peter
of Catana, a canon of the cathedral Here was
the nucleus of the Franciscan Order It was
not the intention of St Fiancis in the beginning
to found a new order But others associating
themselves with the three companions, until
there were 12 all told in the band, St Fiancis
drew up a rule of life in 23 chapters, which, be-
sides the three ordinary vows, of poveity, obe-
dience, and chastity, prescubed the express and
absolute renunciation of every possession and
the engagement to live upon alms As soon as
the rule was drawn up (probably towards the
close of June, or early in July, 1209), all betook
themselves to Rome to seek the approval of the
Pope Innocent III, then Pope, after some hesita-
tion, approved the rule by woid of mouth, made
Francis superior-general of the Fnars Minor, and
conferred the diaconate on the founder, for Fran-
cis was as yet only a layman, and always, from
motives of humility, refused to become a priest
On their return to Assisi the Friars Minor estab-
lished themselves m a little house adjoining the
chapel of St Mary of the Angels, wheie he had
received the great message at mass During the
following two years the brethren occupied them-
selves with preaching and exhorting the people
throughout the rural district around Assisi
The order now grew rapidly, and in 1216 was
solemnly approved by Innocent III Francis
now sent missionary bands into the different
provinces of Italy, then into France, Spain, and
even Africa, to preach to the Moors He himself
set the example of the missionary work of the
order by going into the East Two years before
his death St Francis, while in an ecstasy of
prayer, is said to have received the marks ( stig-
mata) of the wounds of Jesus upon his own per-
son (See STIGMATIZATION ) The scene of this
event is laid on Monte Alverno, a lonely moun-
tain near Assisi, and the date Sept 14, 1224
St Francis died at Assisi, Oct 3, 1226 He
was canonized by Pope Gregory IX in 1228*
FBANCIS OF FAOLA
169
FBANCIS XAVXEU
The \\orks of St Francis have beun frequently
planted, by Horoy (Paris, 1880), in Latin,
bettei by B da Fivizzano (Floience, 1880),
Latin with Italian tianslation Consult the bio-
giaplnes written by Le Monniei (Pans, 1889,
Eng tians, 1894), Paul Sabatiei (ib, 1S<>43
Eng trans by Houghton, New Yoik, 1894),
Knox-Little ("London, 1897), Oesterly (ib,
1901), Adderley (ib, 1901), Stoddait (ib,
1003), Cuthbeit (New York, 1912), Egan (ib,
1912), Joisengen (ib, 1912) Consult also
Brother Leo of Assisi, Saint Fiancis of Assisi,
the Mirrot of Perfection, ed by Paul Sabatiei,
tiana by Sebastian Evans (London, 1809), Duff
Coidon, The Story of Assisi (ib, 1901) , Acta
Bcat^ Francisci et Sociot u in J3jus (St Lotus,
1002), ed by Sabatier, Baime, & Frangois
d'Assise et la legends de ses tiois compagnons
(Paris, 1901), Caimichael, The Lady of Pov-
ctty A Thirteenth Century Allegory (New
York, 1902) A bibliography is given in Robin-
son's A Short Introduction to Franciscan* Litera-
ture (ib, 1907)
PHANCIS OP PAOLA, pa'o-la, or PAULA,
SAINT (1416-1507) Founder of the Order of
Mmimrtes He was born at Paola in Calabria
At an early age lie gave himself to a hermit's
life, following the example of St Francis of
Assisi, having no bed but baie rocks, and no
other food than the herbs which he gathered in
the neighboring woods or winch were brought to
him by his fuends He was joined by some other
enthusiasts, and the building of a chapel in 143C
is generally consideied as maikmg the begin-
ning of the Mm mute Order (See MINIMITES )
In 1474 the order was definitely confirmed Tby
the Pope, and Francis appointed its first su-
perior During the following yeais se\eral
new convents were founded, in Calabna and
Sicily, and the fame of Fiancis foi sanctity
and miraculous poweia mci eased daily When
LOTUS XI of France was alarmed by the ap-
proach of death, he sent to beg the intercession
of Francis, who was unwilling to go to France
until he was commanded by Sixtus IV He
visited the King at Plessis-les-Toui s and pre-
paied him for death, holding him in his aims
when it came Louis's son, Chailes VIII, also
had a great respect for linn and built him a
cloister in the park of Plessis and another at
Ambroise He completed his rule in 1493, in
three parts, for the brothers, sisters, and tei-
tianes He died at the convent of Plessis in
1507 and was canonized by Leo X in 1519 Con-
sult his life by Rallancl (Paris, 1874), and
Ferraute (Monza, 1881).
FRANCIS XAVIEB, zav'i-er, SAINT (1506-
52) A celebrated Jesuit missionary, called,
from the scene of his mission labors, "the
Apostle of the Indies " He was the youngest
son of one of the most distinguished families of
Navarre and was bom near Pamplona in that
kingdom, April 7, 1506 His early education
was received at home, and in 1524 he was
sent to the College of Saint-Barbe, m Pans,
wheie he pursued studies In philosophy with
so much distinction that at the age of 24 he
became a lecturer in philosophy in the College
Beauvais, at that time one of the most impor-
tant in the university He attracted the atten-
tion of Ignatius Loyola, then an obscure student
at the university, but already taken with the
prospect of founding tlie Society of Jesus. Igna-
tius, on the lookout for suitable associates, be-
came a close friend of Xavier's. The young pro-
fessoi's mind was intent on university distinc-
tion, but, realizing the vanity of his ambi-
tions, he became one of the first members of the
older that his Spanish compatriot was about to
found (1534) He soon went to Rome in the in-
teiest of the new society Dunng Xavier's sta}
in Rome John III of Poiiugal, anxious to extend
the influence of Christianity to his immense
Indian possessions, made a formal demand of
the Pope for missionaries and asked especially
foi membeis of the new order Ignatius selected
Bobadilla, but illness prevented his setting out,
so Xavier was substituted for him, and after a
single day for preparation began his jouiney to
Lisbon At Lisbon, during the preparations for
the voyage, he accomplished so much good that
the King wanted to retain him at his capital
But Xavier's lieait \^as now bound up in the
mission to India, and he sailed from Lisbon,
April 7, 1541 He winteied at Mozambique and
did not aruve in Goa until May 6, 1542
Tie found the lives of the European Christians
in India so scandalous that it was useless to
preach to the natives with such a, pei verse ex-
ample under then eyes Accordingly he fiist
took up the i ef 01 matioii of the foieign towns-
people, and succeeded in awakening a spmt of
exemplaiy penance and icligious feivor Then
he began his labois among the natives "by pi each-
ing" among the pearl-fishing population of the
coast fiom Coinonn to the island of Manar and
on the coast of Ceylon After a little more than
a year he returned to Goa, whence, with a fresh
staff of assistants, lie visited the Kingdom of
Travancore. In the space of a single month
here he baptized 10,000 natives Thence he
passed to Malacca, where three other Jesxiit
missionaries, sent by Ignatius in compliance
with Xaviei's earnest solicitations, joined him
His success among the dwellers on the coast
region proved so encouraging that in 1546 he
pxoceeded to the Banda Islands, to Amboyna,
and the Moluccas Having effected an establish-
ment of the gospel in many places, he now re-
tiaced his steps and revisited the scenes of his
missionaiy labors At Malacca he met a Jap-
anese, from whom he obtained information which
filled him with desire for work in that country
After this he ciossed to the island of Gey-
Ion, where he converted the King of Kandy,
with many of his people In May, 1548, he re-
tuined to Goa, to prepare for the conversion of
the Japanese Empire A distinguished Japanese
convert became a valuable auxiliary, and by his
aid Xavier was enabled to acquire enough of the
Japanese language to translate and explain the
Apostles' Creed in it. His first success was in-
significant, but before long the usual blessing
attended his labors. The mission founded by
him at Miako continued to flourish for more
than 100 years, until the final expulsion of
Christianity from the Japanese Empire After
two years and a half in Japan he resolved to
organize a mission to China At Malacca he
tried to arrange with the Governor that an em-
hassy should be sent in the name of the King
of Portugal to China, by the help of which he
hoped to gain an entrance for his mi&sion He
was not a"ble to effect this, however Accord-
ingly he took passage in a merchant ship to the
island of Sancian, neai Macao, which was at
that time the trading port of the Chinese with
merchants from Portugal Here, having ob-
tained a Chinese interpreter, he hoped tq indue©
some native merchant to land bnn secretly on
EBANCK
170
FBANCKE
the coast His plan was baffled by the fears of
the Portuguese, who dreaded that the Chinese
authorities would punish this infraction of the
law
Xavier's disappointment was keen For years
his heroic zeal had tempted him to labois be-
yond his strength, and his sublime charity had
exposed him to privations which had undermined
his constitution He fell ill of fever, for which
his attendants could find no means of relief.
On the very threshold of what he looked for-
ward to as the greatest oppoitumty of his mis-
sionary life, the saint passed away, on the island
of Sancian, according to late biogiaphers, Nov
27, 1552, though the date December 2 has al-
ways been given hitheito Many miracles weie
ascribed to him He was beatified by Pope
Paul V in 1619 and canonized by Pope Gregory
XV m 1622 His feast day was fixed upon
December 3 His only literaiy remains aie a
catechism, some short ascetic treatises, and a
collection of letters Of the letters there aie
translations in most of the modern languages
Consult Coleridge, Life and Letters of Saint
Francis Xavier (London, 1872) , Cios, Saint
Francois de Xdvier, sa lie, son "pays, sa famille
(Toulouse, 1900-01) , Monumenta Xavenana
(Madrid, 1899-1900) For his work in Japan,
sec Carey, A Histoty of Christianity in Japan
(London, 1909) , for that in India, Richter,
Histoty of Missions in India (New York, 1908).
PBA3STCK, frdNk, ADOLPIIE (1809-93) A
French philosopher, bom at Liocourt, Meuithe,
of Jewish parents He \vas educated at Nancy
and Toulouse and became piofessor of philos-
ophy at the College Chaileinagne in Paris in
1840 In 1844 he v^as elected a member of the
Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. He
held the chair of Greek and Latin philosophy
at the College de France from 1849 to 1852
and from 1854 to 1881 lectured there on natural
law and the law of nations. He was one of
the editors of the Journal de& Debats and the
founder of La Paix Sociale, the organ of the
league against atheism Among his works are
De la certitude ( 1847 ) , Dtctionnaire des sciences
philosophiques (1843-52, new ed f 1875), of
which he edited the greater part, La kabbale
(1843, 9th ed, 1892, and in German version) ,
Le communisme iug& par I'histoire (1849) ,
Etudes onentales (1861), an attack on pan-
theism, Philosophie et religion (1867), La re-
ligion et la science dans le judaisme (1883) ,
Nouveaux essais (1890), and, ed by Manuel,
Nouvelles etudes onentales (1896)
FB.AKTCK, C^SAR AUGUSTE JEAN GIHUATIME
HUBERT (1822-90) A French composer, born at
Liege. After studying at the conservatory there
he went to Paris, where he attended the Con-
servatory, studying under the organist Benoist
and others He settled in Paris, and in 1872,
at the Conservatory, succeeded Benoist, who re-
tired after 50 years of service Meanwhile
Franck had composed much, but found little
recognition, though it is interesting, as indicat-
ing Liszt's breadth of judgment, that in the
fifties chamber music by Franck was played in
Liszt's private concerts at Weimar In 1846
Franck's oratorio RutK was brought out at
the Conservatory, but without success Yet 25
years later it was revived at the Cirque dMt&,
and the following year at the Conservatory, with
such brilliant results that a "Franck cult" was
instituted among the younger French musicians
However, throughout the master's life the circle
of his admirers was small, though select Only
since the beginning of the present century has
his real greatness been appreciated Franck
is the direct successor of Beilioz, but surpasses
him in fertility of invention and lesourcefulness,
except in the field of instrumentation As an
instrumental composer, Fianck cultnated both
the classical forms — though fiequently depait-
ing, especially in the development sections, fiom
strict tiadition — and the modern forms of Liszt
and Berlioz His principal works are the oia-
tonos Ruth (1846), The Redemption (1872),
Les Beatitudes ( 1880), Rebecca (1881), a sym-
phony in D (1889) , the symphonic poems Les
Bolides (1876), Le chasseur maudit (1884),
Les Djinns (1884), Psyche (1888), a mass,
two operas, Hulda (1885) and Ghisele (1889),
important works for organ, and excellent
chamber music Consult G Derepas, Cesar
Franck (Pans, 1897), E Etranges, L'CEuvre
lynqiie de Cesar Franck (ib, 1S97) , F Balden -
sperger, Cesar Franck (ib, 1901), V dlndy,
C6sar Franck {ib, 1906 ), trans by R New-
march (London, 1909), J RiviOre Etudes
(Pans, 1911)
ntANCK, frank, MELCHIOB (c 1580-1639)
A Geiman composer, born at Zittau He lived
in Augsburg, where his first woiks were pub-
lished m 1601 The following year he went to
Nuremberg and in 1603 became chapelmaster at
Coburg His best work is in sacred music, and
some of his chorals aie still sung He is one of
the most prolific and inteiesting of the old Ger-
man composers
FKAjSrCK, SEBASTIAN (1499-1542) A Ger-
man reformer and humorist, born at Donau-
woith Ordained to the Roman pnesthood m
1524, he joined the Reformation shortly after-
ward, married in 1528, and, after some minor
didactic works, published at Strassburg in 1531
his Chromka, one of the first German attempts
at universal history Driven from Strassburg
through the influence of Erasmus, he led a
wandering and precarious life as a soap boiler,
author, and printer, and in 1539 settled at
Basel, where he died He appears to have been a
pantheistic mystic, a forerunner of modern Ger-
man idealism, of wide social sympathies and
broad tolerance. His style is vigorous and clear
— far superior to that of his time His collection
of Sprichworter (1541) is edited by Guttenstem
(1831), his Weltbuch Spiegel und Rildms des
gansen Erdbodens (1534) is a geogiaplncal woik
of merit For hia life, consult Wemkauff, in
Birhnger's Alemannia (Bonn, 1877) , Haggen-
macher (Zurich, 1886) , Tausch, Sebastian
Franck von Donauworth und seine Lehren
(Halle, 1893).
FBANCKE, frank'e, AUGUST HEBMAMT
(1663-1727) A distinguished German educator
and philanthropist, founder of the Francke Insti-
tutes (Stiftungen] at Halle He was born at
Lubeck In the early years of his manhood his
interests were primarily theological His or-
thodoxy was called into question, however,
partly because of the envy caused by his extraor-
dinary popularity as a preacher, and he was
therefore unable to hold his position as lecturer
at Leipzig While still a young man, his atten-
tion had been drawn to the unsatisfactory state
of the German educational methods, and when,
in 1695, he was called to assume the duties of
pastor in a small town near Halle, he started a
pnvate school in his own house The school
grew rapidly, and Francke found it necessary to
FBAHCKE 3
rent a building to accommodate it In connec-
tion ^ith it he founded a school foi the children
of well-to-do parents, and in 1697 he added a
Latin school and a school for girls Arrange-
ments \\ere made to care for orphans, and poor
scholars received their meals free of charge A
corps of able teachers gathered around him,
new buildings were erected, a bookseller's shop
and other forms of business were undertaken
to help to defiay expenses Fiancke's theologi-
cal enemies sought to injure his thuving educa-
tional institute, but in 1713 the King of
Prussia, Frederick William I, visited it and
piomised Francke his support From that time
the institute grew unchecked, until at Francke's
death the Pedagogium, or school for the chil-
dren of the wealthy, had 40 students, the Latin
school 400, the common schools 1725 One hun-
dred and seventy-five teachers were employed, all
of whom were students at the University of
Halle. They received their board, and afteiward
their lodging, for their services A seminary
for teachers was established as eaily as 1707,
which aimed to train young men in the methods
of teaching Thus the institute became the fore-
most training school of the time for teachers
The extraordinary success of Francke's Institute
led to the establishment of similar institutions
in other Geiman cities, and the influence of
Francke and his disciples materially affected
the character of the Prussian system of public
education, which was established by Frederick
William I and remains unchanged in its essen-
tial features at the present day
Francke published a number of pamphlets on
religious and pedagogical subjects, but these
are of minor importance as compared with his
institutional work Consult Kramer, Ft ancles
padogogische Sohriften ( Langensalza, 1885) ,
id , August Hermann FrancLe, em Lobensbild
(Halle, 1880-82) , Stem, "August Hermann
Francke," in Deutschen Geschichts- und Lebens-
bildern (ib , 1894) , Fries, Die Franleschen
Stiftungen in ihrem zweiten Jahrhundert (ib ,
1898)
FBANCKE, KUNO (1855- ) A German-
American scholar and author, born at Kiel He
was educated at the University of Munich and
was appointed professor of German literature
and subsequently professor of the history of
Geiman culture at Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Mass He also became curator of the
Germanic Museum of Harvard University His
publications include Zur Gesohichte der Schul-
poesie des zwolften Jahrhunderts (1878), De
Hymno in Oererem Homerico (1880) , Libelh
de Lite Imperatorum et Pontifieum (1892)
Social Forces in German Literature (1896)
Glimpses of Modern German Culture (1898)
a History of O-erman Literature (8th ed., 1907)
a Handbook of the Germanic Museum (1908)
Die Kultunoerte der deutschen Literatur im
Mittelalter (1910)
EBAHCKEN", frank'en A family of painters
of Antwerp, 11 in number, living in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries A similarity
of Christian names leads to much confusion in
classifying their works When Frans the first
found a competitor in Frans the second, he took
the name of "the elder/3 the second being "the
younger" But when the third Frans became a
rival of the second, the latter took the name
of "the elder," and Frans the third became
"the younger" The eldest of the Franckens,
NICHOLAES OF HERENTHAXS, died in 1596. None
VOL. IX.— 12
WAH
B ~
of his work is known — HIERONYMUS (1540-
1610), his eldest son and pupil, studied under
Fianz Floris and was occupied chiefly in Paris,
and in decorating the Palace of Fontaine-
bleau He was court painter to Henry III, of
whom he painted a portrait, which, like most of
his works, has Deen lost Among his surviving
pictures is "The Beheading of John the Baptist,"
in Dresden He painted in the hard, gaudy
style of Floris — The second son of Nicholaes
was FRA^S FRANCKEN "the first" (1542-1616)
He studied under Floris and was dean of the
Guild of St Luke in 1588-89 He painted
many portraits, including that of William of
Orange, and religious sublets, the most iin
poitant of which was the altarpiece <l Christ
among the Doctors" (Antwerp Cathedral) He
is also repiesented in the museums of Antwerp,
Dresden, Vienna, and in the Louvre — AMBRO-
SIAS (1544-1618), third son of Nicholaes, and
also a pupil of Floris, left more works than both
Ms bi others Most of them are religious sub-
jects to be found at Antweip, in the church of
St. Jaques and the museum Among the best of
thorn are the "Mnacle of the Loaves and Fishes"
and the "Martyrdom of St Ciispm," in the
Antwerp Museum He was also employed at
Fontamebleau in 1570 His productions are in
the style of the Floris school, and exaggerated
in all respects, but he possesses greater inven-
tion than the rest Frans "the first" trained
his three sons to the profession — The third of
these sons was FRANS FRANCKEIST (1581-1642)
"the second," who also signed himself "the
younger" until his son Frans grew up, when he
signed himself "the elder " He studied in Italy
and painted in the manner of the Floris school,
but was later influenced by Rubens Among
his chief paintings are the "Works of Mercy"
in the Antwerp Gallery, "Solon and Croesus,33
in the Brussels Gallery, "Christ Washing the
Apostles' Feet," in the Berlin Museum, and the
"Abdication of Charles V," in the Amsterdam
Museum, foimerly attributed to Hieronymus
He was the most important member of the
family, and nearly all European galleries pos-
sess his pictures —FRANS FBANCKEN "the third"
(1007-67) imitated Rubens in his religious sub-
jects, of which there are good examples in Ant-
werp and Augsburg, and painted the figures in
pictures of other masters, in particular of Peter
Neefs the younger, as may be seen at Dresden
and The Hague.
FBA2TCKENSTEI3ST, frank'en-stln, GEOBG
ARBOGAST, BARON (1825-90) A German legis-
lator He was born at Wurzburg and \vas
educated at Munich An Ultramontane mem-
ber of the Bavarian Diet, he opposed the par-
ticipation of Bavaria m the Franco-German War
and voted against the entrance of the kingdom
into the German Empire In the Reichstag he
led the Centrist party He drafted the "Franck-
enstem Clause," later incorporated as paragraph
7 of the tariff laws (July 9, 1879). He was
First Vice President of the K-eiehstag from 1879
to 1887 Consult Fan's sketch (Freiburg, 1891)
PBANCO-GrEBlVEAN WAB OF 1870-71
The immediate cause of this struggle was
France's jealousy of the growing importance of
Prussia, which power Bismarck was determined
to place at the head of a united Germany, and
the desire of Napoleon III to strengthen his
tottering throne by a successful war against the
hereditary foe of the French nation The actual
occasion for the outbreak of hostilities was fur-
WAB
172
WAB
mshed by complications gi owing out of the polit-
ical situation in Spam On June 25, 1870, Isa-
bella II of Spam, who had been deposed in 1868,
formally abdicated the throne On July 5 the
foreign governments were notified of hei abdica-
tion, and on the same day the fact \^as made
public that Prince Leopold oi Hohenzollein had
consented to become a candidate for the vacant
throne of Spam This consent was said to have
the approval of the King of Prussia The news
caused intense excitement in Paris, and the
Foreign Minister, the Due de Gramont, caused
representations to be made to the Prussian gov-
ernment of the displeasure with which the
Fiench government legarded the candidacy of
Prince Leopold On July 12 the announcement
of the withdrawal of Punce Leopold's candida-
ture was made On the following day the Fi ench
Ambassador, Benedetti (qv), unceremoniously
addressing William I at Ems, insisted that the
King should make a declaration to the effect
that no Hohenzollern prince would ever be pei-
mitted to accept the Spanish crown The King-
declined to listen to this demand and broke off
the interview He sent Bismarck a copy of the
French, demand, with authority to make use of
it This Bismarck did, giving to the press such
parts of the communication as would tend to
arouse the German people It does not appear
that in so doing he misrepresented the attitude
of France Taking notice of this publication as
if it had been official, the Fiench government,
deeming itself called upon to take immediate
steps for the defense of the national honoi,
formally declared war against Prussia, July 19,
1870
While the popular enthusiasm in the two
countries in favor of war was about equal,
there proved to be a vast difference as to the
state of the military preparations The French
government supposed that from 450,000 to 500,-
000 men, were available for instant mobilization ,
but the army was ill organized, imperfectly
equipped, and not properly provided with depots.
But 250,000 men were ready for the first move-
ments m August, ISTOj and there was no reliable
reserve The French force was in one body,
practically, known as the Army of the Rhine
Against this the North German Confederation
was able to put into the field an army of about
450,000 men \\ith a reserve of nearly 400,000
The French hoped that the South German states,
out of jealousy of Prussia, would refuse to join
her, but these joined forces at once with their
countrymen, put their troops under Prussian
command, and thus added to the overwhelming
weight that was thrown upon France The
action of Prussia was promptness itself King
William arrived in Berlin July 15, meeting Bis-
marck, Moltke, and Eoon, and orders for mobi-
lization were at once given Three armies were
formed The first, under General von Stemmetz,
was placed near Treves, forming" the right wing ,
the second, under Prince Frederick Charles, was
sent to Rhenish Palatinate, the third, under the
Crown Prince of Prussia, took its position on
the frontier of Baden. The French forces were
scattered over a line of about 100 miles in
length The First Corps3 under Marshal Mac-
Mahon, was placed near Strassburg, the Fifth
Corps, under Failly, along the frontiei of the
Palatinate, the Third Corps, under Marshal Ba-
zaine, near Metz; the Second Corps, under
Frossard, not far from the Prussian frontier,
near Saint- Avoid ; the Fourth Corps, under Lad-
mnault, near Tnionwlle, the rcscr\e foiccs,
under Bourbaki and Marshal Canrobeit, \\eie
partly at Nancy and paitly at the camp of
Chalons, the Seventh Coips, under Gen Felix
Douay, held the fortress of Belfort These were
the positions of the two contending armies
towards the end of July, 1S70 On the 23d of
that month Napoleon appointed the Empress
JRegent of Fiance, and on the 28th left Pans
with the Prince Imperial to take command of
the army at Metz The King of Prussia left
Berlin to take his place in the field July 31,
accompanied by General von Moltke, as chief
of staff, and Count Bismarck, and on August
2 established his headquarters at Mam/ On
the same day a portion of Frossard's coips
made an attack on the Prussian position at
Saarbruek in the presence of the Emperor and
his son After protracted firing the Germans re-
tieated, and the French occupied Saaibruck The
results of this engagement were unimpoitant
The first serious conflict of the war took place,
August 4, at Weissenburg, where the German
advance guard was attacked by the French
under Gen Abel Douay, it ended, after a battle
of five hours, in the French troops retiring in
great disorder, with heaiy loss General Douay
was killed The Germans had now 520,000 men
and 1170 guns leadv for fighting ordeis, while
the en tn e foice of the French (with reserves)
amounted to only 350,000 men On August 6,
at Worth, the Ciown Prince attacked Mac-
Mahon, who had been strengthened by divisions
of the coips of Failly and Canrobert The
Fiench suffeicd a terrible defeat and lost 8000
m dead and wounded and 6000 prisoners The
German loss was over 10,000 officers and men
On the same day a bloody battle was fought at
Spichern, near Saarbruek, also known as the
battle of Forbach, between General Stemmetz
and General Frossard. The Germans stormed
the heights of Spichern, and the French force was
tin own back in disorder on Forbach and Metz
The Germans lost 4648 men in killed and
wounded, while the French loss amounted to
about 2000 men killed and 2000 prisoners Thus
both wings of the French army were completely
defeated, the original position could no longer
be held, and all the French corps gathered into
tvvo large masses to retreat along the line of
the Moselle Two separate armies were now
formed— the one known as the Army of Met/,
commanded by Marshal Bazaine, and the other
commanded by Marshal MacMahon By August
14 the first German army had advanced to the
immediate neighborhood of Metz and by a suc-
cessful attack upon the French Third Corps
under Bazame baffled the first attempt of that
commander to retreat to the line of the Marne
This developed into the sanguinary battle of
Colombey-Nouilly, or of Courcelles The Prus-
sians lost nearly 5000 men m lolled and
wounded, the French loss was about 3500 The
battle prevented the junction of Bazame's army
with that of MacMahon at Chalons In the bat-
tle of Mars-la-Tour, or Vionville, fought on Au-
gust 16, the army of Bazaine was repulsed by
Prince Frederick Chailes, and driven back on
Gravelotte with immense loss to both sides —
about 16,000. On the 18th occurred the great
battle of Gravelotte (q.v ), m which 200,000 Ger-
mans fought against 130,000 Frenchmen Ba-
zame's army, occupying a very strong position
to the west of Metz, was, after nine hours' fight-
ing, completely defeated, cut off from its com*
WAB
173
FRANCO-GERMAN WAB
mumcation \\ith Pans, and dn\en back towards
Metz The losses were veiy hea^y The French
lost about 600 officers and 13,00(fmen, the Ger-
mans, about 900 officeis and 20,000 men
Bazaine was now shut up in the f 01 tifications
of Metz, which was imested by Prince Fred-
erick Charles A fouith aimy was organized
and placed under command of the Crcwn
Prince of Saxony, to move rapidly upon Paris
MacMahon, marching to the lelief of Metz, was
cut off by the third and fourth German aimies,
which \vere converging on Paris, and on the 1st
of September was fought the battle of Sedan,
the Waterloo of the Second Empire The foices
of MacMahon were caught in an unfavorable
position, where they could be attacked from all
sides, and weie driven upon the fortress of
Sedan, where, surrounded and defeated, the en-
tire army suriendered (September 2), with the
Emperor, who was carried prisoner to Wilhelms-
hohe By this capitulation 83,000 men, includ-
ing 40 generals, 230 officers of the staff, and
2595 officers, became pnsoneis of war, in addi-
tion to 21,000 men who had been made prisoners
during the battle Meanwhile, on August 31,
Bazaine made a sortie from Metz, attempting,
during that day and the following, to break
through towards the north, but was driven back
into the fortress
When the news of the capitulation of Sedan
and of the capture of Napoleon reached Paris, it
caused an upheaval On September 4 the Third
Republic was proclaimed, and a Government of
National Defense was formed, of which the chief
members were Jules Favre, Cremieux, Ferry,
Jules Simon, and Gamhetta General Trochu,
the military Governor of Paris, was its head.
Gradually the Germans closed in on Pans, no
serious resistance in the field being attempted.
By September 19 the capital was regularly in-
vested The investing force was far inferior
to that of the besieged in numbers, but the
French forces in Paris were laigely a half-
trained provisional levy, brimming with disaf-
fection and the spirit of revolution, which after-
ward broke out in the Commune Strassburg
surrendered on September 28 A few da>s later
Gambetta escaped from Paris in a balloon and
issued a proclamation from Tours calling for
a levy en masse On October 11 General Von
der Tann, after defeating a French force, entered
Orleans On October 27 Bazaine surrendered at
Metz with his army of about 175,000 men to
Prince Frederick Charles A gleam of hope was
infused into the French by a momentary victoiy
of Gen Aurelle de Palladines, commander of
the Army of the Loire, who on November 9
beat back Von der Tann at Coulmiers, near
Orleans, the French reentering Orleans on the
following day. On November 28, however, Au-
relle de Palladmes was repulsed at Beaune-la-
Rolande, and was again defeated before Orleans
on December 2-4 Nor were the other armies
put into the field by the appeals of Gambetta
more successful in coming to the relief of Paris,
where General Ducrot made a desperate attempt
to break through the German lines at Bne and
Champigny, November 30-Decenaber 3 The
army of General Chanzy engaged that of the
Grand Duke of Mecklenburg on the Loire,
December 7-10, but was forced to retreat from
this scene of operations, and on Jan 10-12,
1871r he was completely overthrown by Prince
Frederick Charles at Le Mans, In the north,
where the Germans had reached and entered
Ron on as early as December G, the army oi
General Faidherbe suffered a defeat at Pont
Noyelles, December 23, and another at Bapaume,
Januaiy 3, and on January 19 it was over-
whelmed by Geneial Von G-oeben at Saint-
Quentin In the east Geneial Bouibaki made a
diveision at the close of December which was at
first successful, but he was lepulsed by General
Von Werder befoie Belfort on January 15-17
On December 27 the Germans opened a bom-
bardment on Mont Aveion, one of the foits of
Pans, and two days later they obtained posses-
sion of the fort After an unsuccessful sortie
fiom Mont Valenen, led by General Trochu,
January 19, Paris, which had leached the point
of staivation, capitulated Jan 28, 1871, a par-
tial armistice having been arranged between Bis-
marck and Jules Favre* Four days later the
remains of Bourbaki's army retired into Switzer-
land In the meanwhile, during the progress of
the siege of Pans, the woik of consolidating
Germany into an empire had been consummated
by tiie pioelamation at Versailles, on Januaiy
18, of William I as Geiman Empeior The
armistice ga^e Fiance an oppoitunity to form a
lesponsible government that could conduct peace
negotiations On Febiuaiy 8 elections were
held for a National Assembly, which met at Bor-
deaux, February 12, and which, on February
17, elected Thiers Chief of the Executive On
February 16 the capitulation of Belfort closed
the military operations The Germans occupied
all the forts around Paris France was helpless,
with nearly all her trained soldiers disarmed or
prisoners of war, while French territory was
occupied by a German army of more than, half
a million men. The new government of France
now undertook the task of securing peace
The indefatigable labois of Thiers resulted, on
February 26, in the arrangement of preliminary
terms of peace with Ocrmany, which were for-
mally accepted by the "Rational Assembly, March
1, by a vote of "54G uo 107 The teima of this
treaty were as follows (I) the cession by
France of the Gei man-speaking part of Lorraine,
including Myfcz and Thio3 TTiile, and of Alsace, ex-
cepting Belfort, (2) France to pay five imlliaids
of francs as war indemnity — one milliard in
1871, and the balance In installments extend-
ing over three years , ( 3 ) the evacuation ^ of
French territory to begin upon the ratification
of the treaty, Paris and some western depart-
ments to be evacuated at that time, the troops
in other departments to be withdrawn gradually
as the indemnity was paid, (4) the German
troops to be maintained at the cost of France,
and not to levy upon the departments occu-
pied by them, (5) inhabitants of the annexed
territories to be allowed to choose between the
two nationalities; (6) prisoners of war to be
Immediately set at liberty, (7) negotiations for
a definitive treaty of peace to be opened at Brus-
sels after the ratification of this treaty; (8) the
administration of the departments occupied by
the German troops to be intrusted to French
officials under the control of the chiefs of the
German coips of occupation The definitive
treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort, May
10, 1871. The two great results of the war
were the establishment of the Tlurd Republic
in France and the consolidation of Germany into
an empire
Bibliography. Hertslet, The Map of Europe
by Treaty, vol- iii (London, 18&1) , ^oltke, The
Franco- German War, XS70-7/, trans, by Forbes
174
FBANCONIA
(London, 1893) An official history is Der
deutsch-fran&osische Krieg, 1870-71, by the Ger-
man General Staff (Beilm, 1874-81), tians
into English (London, 1874-84) Chuquet, La
guerre de 1870-71 (Paris, 1895), is called by
Seignobos the "handiest and most reliable his-
tory of the whole war" The diplomatic histoiy
of the war is treated in Valfrey, Histoite du
traite de Francfort (Pans, 1874-75), and Sohel,
Histoire diplomatique de la guene ftanco-alle-
mande (ib, 1875) Washburne, Recollections of
a Minister to France (New York, 1887), aie
•valuable memoirs by the American Minister, who
filled a difficult post with tact and discretion
See articles on the various battles mentioned in
this text and consult also French Official His-
tory, La gueite de 1870-1871 (Paris, 1902) , L
Blumenthal, Journals for 1866, 1870, and 1871
(New York, 1902), E B Washburn, America's
Aid to Germany in 1870-1871 (St Louis, 1905) ,
G Lehmann, Die Mobilmachung ion 1870-1871
(Berlin, 1905), P Lehautcourt (General
Palat), Histoire de la gueire de 1870-1871
(Paris, 1901-07), G von Bismarck, Knegs-
Erlebnisse, 1866 und 1870 (Dessau, 1907), L.
van Neck, 1870-1871 illustie, Campagne franco-
allemande specialement au point de vue de la
Belgique (Bruxelles, 1907), B E Palat, La
strategic de Molfke en 1S70 (Paris, 1908) , F
B. Maurice, The Franco-German War, "Cam-
bridge Modern History" (London, 1909), O E
Ollmer, Philosophic d'une guerie (Pans, 1910) ,
H K B von Moltke, Ext) acts from MoltLc's
Correspondence Pet taming to the War 1870-
1871 (Army Service School Press, Fort Leaven-
\vorth, 1911)
PBANCOIS, fraN'swa/, JEAN CHARLES (1717-
69). A French engraver, born at Nancy lie
was the inventor of engraving in, imitation of
crayons, which obtained for him the position of
engraver to the King His most important
plates are a series of portraits for Saverm's His-
toire des philosophes modernes (1761-69),
"The Virgin," after Vien, "Erasmus,33 after
Holbein, "Thomas Hobbes," after Pierre, and
"The Dancer," after Boucher. From a technical
point of view his work is of mediocre quality.
FRAEJXJOIS, KUET VON (1852- ). A
German cartographer and explorer of Africa
He was bom at Luxemburg and served in the
German army duung the War of 1870-71, in
which his father, General Frangois, met his
death at the battle of Spichern He was a
member of Wissmann's African expedition in
1883 and in 1885 accompanied him and the
Baptist missionary Grenfell on the expedition
in which two tributaries of the Congo were
explored In 1887 he penetrated from the coast
at Togo northwestward to about the twelfth
parallel, north latitude, and in 1889 he was
appointed commander of the military contingent
in German Southwest Africa As acting Im-
perial Commissioner, to which position he was
appointed in 1891, he explored as far as Lake
Ngarm His vigorous warfare (1893-94)
against the native chieftain, Henrik Witboi, an
inveterate enemy of German domination, re-
sulted in the total rout of the Hottentots Be-
cause of disagreements among his officers and
the impossibility of a complete subjugation of
the enemy, he resigned his commission in 1895
In 1901 he settled in German Southwest Africa
He made valuable maps of southwest Africa,
the Okavango region, etc , and wrote * 1m In-
n&tn Af)ikas> Die Erforschung des Kassai, in
collaboiation with Wissmann (2d ed , 1891),
Die Erforschung des Tschuapa und Lulongo
(1888), Deutsch-Suduestafrika Geschichte der
Kolonisation bis &um Ausbruck des Krieges mit
Witboi (1899) , Kneg m Sudiuestafiika (1900) ,
Staat odei CreseUschaft in unset en Kolomen®
( 1901 ) , Kolonisation- system in unseren Kolonien
(1909)
FRAISTCOIS, LUISE VON (1817-93) A popu-
lai German novelist She \\as born at Herz-
beig, Province of Saxony, and after the death of
her fathei lived for several years at Weissen-
fels, Mmden, and Halberstadt, but chiefly with
her uncle, General Karl von Fianqois, at Pots-
dam Among hei novels may be mentioned
Die letzte RecJ eribw germ (7th ed , 1900),
Fiau Etdmuthens ZunUingssohne (2d ed , 1891) ,
fttufcnjahre ewes Gluchhchen (2d ed , 1S7S) ,
Dcr Ka1?enjunler (1879) She wrote also se^-
eial short stories and a play Consult Ebncr-
Eschenbach in VeUiagen und Klasmgs Monat-
shefte (Leipzig, 1894)
EHAHQOIS DE iSSTEUFCHATEAU, de ne'-
sha'to', NICOLAS Louis FKANCOIS, COUNT (1730-
1828) A Fiench statesman and poet He was
boin m Lorraine and was educated at the Jesuit
college of Neuf chateau, and this institution ga\e
him its name aftei the publication in 1765 of a
volume of poetry which was highly piaised
Encouiaged by Voltaire, he obtained the chair
of rlietone at Toul m 1770 In 1783-88 he was
ptocureur general in Santo Domingo He was
deputy to the National Assembly and to the
Legislative Assembly, of which he became secre-
tary and finally President In 1793 he was im-
prisoned for the publication of a comedy,
Pamela, ou la 'vertu recompensee In 1797 he
became Minister of the Intel lor under the Di-
rectory, and in that post did much for inland
navigation and for industrial exhibitions In
1804-06 he was President of the Senate After
the Restoration ne retired from politics His
works include Fables et contes en vets (1814),
Les trois nuits d'un goutteusc (1819), and many
miscellaneous articles (notably on agnculture)
and tianslations Consult the biographical
sketch by Lamoureu^: (Paris, 1843) and Simian,
Frangois de Ncuf chateau et les expositions (ib ,
1889)
PBA^COLUST (Fr, Sp francohn, Poring
ftancoUm, probably dim of Portug frango,
franguo, chicken) A bird of the genus Fran-
colinus, or related genera, of the family Phasi-
anidae, closely allied to partridges They aie
natives of Asia and Africa One species only
(Ftancolinus francohnus] was formeily found
in the most southern parts of Euiope, but is now
extinct there, though still common m various
parts of Asia and in Cyprus About 45 of the
50 species of francohn known are found m
Africa, and all are objects of sport and good
for food
PBANCO'NIA (ML, from OHG Franchun,
Franks) The name of a medieval duchy in
Germany, embracing the country on both sides
of the Mam, from the Rhine to the mountains
of Bohemia It also included some territory on
the west bank of the Rhine, around Mainz,
Speyerr and Worms The region was conquered
by Clovis and later was dependent upon Aus-
trasia (q v ) After the Treaty of Verdun (843)
it was part of the German kingdom In 911
Conrad of Francoma was raised to the royal
PRANCOWIA
I7S
throne, and a century later the choice of the
German pimces again fell upon the Francoman
house, which, by its direct and collateral
blanches, gave kings and emperors to Germany
from 1024, when Conrad II, the Salic, began
his reign, till 1125, when Heniy V died, and
again fiom 1138, when Conrad III ascended the
throne, till 1254, when Conrad IV, the last
Hohenstaufen Emperoi, died Francoma \\as
divided into Fiancoma Occidentals and Fran-
coma Orientahs (West and East Francoma)
The former, in 1155, passed to Conrad, son of
Fredeiick Barbarossa (qv ), who was given the
title of Count Palatine of the Rhine During
its connection with the crown, Francoma in-
creased m extent and importance, while its gieat
spiritual principalities of Mainz, Spever, Woims,
Bambeig, and Wurzburg acquired both wealth
and political influence After 1155 the name
Fiancoma was usually given only to the east-
ern portions of the ancient duchy In. 1512
Maximilian I established the circle of Francoma,
without, however., including in it the Palatinate.
With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
in 1806, the name of Francoma disappeared
from among the political divisions of Germany,
but since 1837 It has been revived in the King-
dom of Bavaria ( q v ) , where those portions of
the ancient Franeoman region which had been
known as the circles of the Upper Main, Rezat,
and Lower Mam are now designated Upper,
Middle, and Lower Francoma
Upper Eranconia includes the northeast por-
tion of Bavaria It is watered by the Mam,
Saale, and other streams Its surface rises in
the Fichtelgebirge to a height of 3500 feet
Farther west are the mountains of the Fran-
coman Foiest, which are consideiably lower
The valleys produce good crops and fruit, and
the district is rich in minerals Pop , 1900,
607,903, 1910, 661,126 The capital is Bayreutli
Middle Francoma, which borders on Wmt-
temberg, is intersected by branches of the Fran-
coman Jura, but has few rivers of importance
besides the Regmtz and Altmuhl, which are
connected by the great Ludwigskanal It pro-
duces good wine, but is principally celebrated
for its hop gardens Pop, 1905, 868,072; 1910,
929,985 The capital is Anspach Nuremberg
is the principal town.
Lower Franconia, which occupies the north-
west part of Bavaria, is the richest and best
cultivated of the Francoman districts, and is
celebrated for the excellence of its wines The
district is noted for its mineral springs at Kis-
smgen, Bruckenau, and Wipfeld Pop, 1900,
650,758 , 1910, 709,832 The capital is Wurzburg
Consult Stein, Geschichte FranJcens (2 vols,
Schwemfurt, 1883-86)
FBANCOJNTIA MOUNTAIN'S. See WHITE
MOUNTAINS
FBANCS-TrRETTBS, fraN't£-rer/ (Fr , free-
shooters) The name given to bands of French
soldiers that sprang into existence during the
Franco-German War of 1870-71 They had
their origin in the military societies formed in
northeastern France as early as 1867- They did
not form a part of the regular army until
November, 1870, and at first their military
organization was very imperfect They waged
irregular warfare by attacking small detach-
ments of the enemy and baggage tiams as well
as single travelers At first they were not recog-
nized by the Germans as having any military
standing at all, and when seized were shot or
hanged, but r-fter a time, when they received
a better organization, and coupeiated with the
regular French army, such recognition was
accorded them They cairied on an iriegular
waif are long after the main French anmes had
been \viped out Iheir most celebrated feat was
the blowing up of the Moselle Railway Bridge
at Fontenoy, Jan 22, 1871 Consult Le$ Chas-
seurs des Voscjes by Lieutenant Colonel Saint-
Etienne (Toul, 1906) See GUERKILLAS
FBANCUCCI, fran-koo'che, INNOCEWZO. See
I:\IOLA, INNOCENZA DA
PSANEKEB, fraii'e-ker A town of the
ISTethei lands, in the Province of Friesland, sit-
uated on the canal between Harhngen and Leeu-
waiden (Map Netherlands, D 1) It was for-
merly the beat of a university founded in 1585
by the Frisian states and abolished by Napoleon
in 1811 The church of St Martin dates from
the fifteenth century, a to^n hall (restored)
was built in 1591, and theie is also a curious
astronomical model, showing the motions of the
planets, built in 1774-81 by a citizen Other
institutions are an athenaeum and on obseiva-
toiy The town maniif actui es brickb and oil,
builds ships, and cairies on trade in gram and
flax. Pop, 1001, 7187, 1911, 7642
FBA3STG-IPA3STI, f i an'je-pa'ne (named after
the Marquis Frangipam, major general under
Louis XIV) A scent or perfume, either denved
from or manufactured in imitation of a flower
produced by a West Indian tree of the genus
Phwniera, called the red jasmine
FBANGIPAiNX An illustrious and power-
ful Roman house, which began with Leo Frangi-
pam in 1014 and attained the summit of ^its
power in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
The residences and strongholds of the Frangi-
pam were near the Arch o± Titus and the
Coliseum. The rivalry of the Frangipam with
the house of the Pierleoni not only occasioned
lepeated civil wars in the state, but likewise
troubles in the church In the early part of the
twelfth century the tno families controlled the
college of cardinals The Frangipam weie usu-
ally partisans of the Emperoi, the Pierleoni
usually opponents After the death of Frederick
II, howevei, the family interest was enlisted in
the papal cause Giovanni Frangipam captured
Conradin of Hohenstaufen and delivered him, in
1268, to Charles of Anjou The origin of the
name Frangipam is attributed to the family's
benevolent distribution of bread m time of
famine Consult G-regorovius, Rome ^n the
Middle Ages, vols iv-v (London, 1896-97)
FEANGIPANI was also the name of a noble
family of Croatia, whose membeis distinguished
themselves in the wars against the Turks- The
most celebrated of the line were John Frangi-
pani, who about 1390 was made Ban of Croatia,
Slavonia, and Dalmatia, and Christopher Frangi-
pani, who fought at Mohacs (1526). Francis
Christopher Frangipam about 1670 entered into
a conspiracy against the Emperor Leopold I,
having for *its ultimate object the restriction
of Germanic influences in Hungary and the le-
assertion of the Magyar power The conspiracy
was discovered and Frangipam was executed
in 1671
PIIANK, frank, ALBERT BEBNHARD (1839-
1900). A German botanist, born in Dresden and
educated at Leipzig From 1881 until his death
he was professor of plant physiology at the
Agricultural College at Berlin His works con-
sist chiefly of valuable textbooks and include:
176
Die Kratikheiten der Pflanzen, (1880) , Lehrluch
der Pflanzenphysiologw mit lesonderer Beruck-
swliUgung der Kulturpflanzen (1890), Pflan-
senbucli fw niedcre und mittle>c Landwirt-
svhaftsschulen (1894), Eampfbuch gcrjen die
Schadhnge unseier Feldfruchte (1897), with
Kruger, Schildlaiisluch (1900)
FRANK, FKA.NZ HERMANN REINIIOLD VO:N
(1827-94) A German Lutheran theologian,
born at Altenburg and educated at Leipzig He
was professor of theology at Eilangen from
1857 until his death, was cofounder of the
Neue Kirchhche Zeitschiift, and wiote a laige
number of \voiks, most of \^hich have been sev-
eral times republished These include System
der christlicken Geuissliett (2d ed , 1885-86,
Kng trans by Evans, 1S86), his most chaiactcr-
istie work, System der chnstlichcn Wahtheit
(2d ed, 1885-86) , System der chnsthchen Sitt-
hchkeit (1884-87), Zur Theologte A RitscWs
( 3d ed 3 1891 ) , G-es^chte und Kntik der neuei n
Theologie (1894, 3d ed, 1898) Consult See-
berg's memoir (Leipzig, 1894) and Weber,
Franks Gotteslehre (ib, 1901)
FRANK, GUSTAV WILHELII (1832-1904) A
German Protestant theologian, boin in Schleiz
He was educated at Jena and held a professor-
ship at that university from 18G4 to 1867, when
he was appointed professor of dogmatics and
ethics at the University of Vienna He letired
in 1902 He edited Apelt's Rehgionsplmlosoplue
(1860) and wiote Gesohictite dot protestanti-
schen Theologie (1862-75), Die eiangehsch-
theologische Fakultat in Wien von ihrei Gmn-
dung bis zur Gegenuait (1871), and Das Tole-
ranspatent des Kaisers Joseph II (1882).
FRANK, JACOB (1726-91) A pseudo-Mes-
siah of the Jews and founder of a sect called
Frankists after himself, or Zoharites after their
sacred book His real name was Jakob Lebo-
wicz, and he was the son of a rabbi of southern
Galicia When a young man, traveling in the
East, the Turks called Jakob a Frank, their
common appellation for a European, and this
surname he always retained He and his father
were members of a semi-Mohammedan sect, the
shabbathians. He returned to Poland in 1755
and became the centre of a secret society, against
which charges of immorality were made before
the rabbis. Later he claimed to have direct
revelations from heaven, calling for the conver-
sion of his followers to Christianity, as a transi-
tion stage to a future Messianic religion In
1859 the Frankists were baptized in Lemberg,
many of the Polish nobility acting as sponsors
Almost immediately Frank's sincerity was
doubted, and in 1760 he was imprisoned; but
this only made his followers more faithful.
After his release he spent the rest of his life
in Offenbach, a small German town, supported
in luxury by the gifts of his followers The
Frankists were gradually absorbed in the Chris-
tian community Consult Graetz, Frank und
die Frankisten (Breslau, 1868}
FRANK, JOHANN PETER (1745-1821). A
German physician He was born at Rothalben,
Bavaria, and studied medicine at Heidelberg1
and Strassburg. In 1785 he accepted a call to
Pavia, where he remained until his appointment
to the directorship of the General Hospital at
Vienna (1795) With this institution he was
associated until 1804, during which time he also
delivered lectures at the university After a
short term as professor of medicine at Vilna,
Russia, he was appointed physician in ordinary
to Czar Alexander I, letuimiu* to Vienna in
1808 His influence upon the development of
medical practice in Lombardy, Aubtna, and
Russia was evtiaordinaiy He devoted himself
chiefly to the improvement of public sanitation,
of which he has been called the foumlei, and sev-
eial of the v oiks wutten by him on this subject
lune served as a basis for the furthei develop-
ment of samtaiy legislation His pimcipal
works include System einer i;ons£ftnck#e™
mcdwimschen Polizei (6 \ols, 1779-1819, sup-
plement, 3 vols, 1812-27, trans into Italian,
1808-30), De Gurandis Hominum Hoi Us Epi-
towe (6 vols , 1792-1821, German tians , 3d ed ,
1840-41), System der landiw tschafthchen Po-
hsei (1789-91) Selbstbiographie (1802) Con-
sult Seder's Peter Frank (Dresden, 1895)
FSANKALMOIG-NE, f rank'al-mom' ( Lat
hbeta eleemosyna, fiee alms) A form of feudal
tenure, wheieby lands weie held by religious
houses or persons for chantable purposes By
the ancient common law of England, a man
could not alien lands which came to him by
descent without conbent of his heir, but he might
give a part to God in free alms It was an old
Saxon tenure and continued under the Norman
revolution, through the great respect that TV as
sho^n to religion and leligious men This is
the tenure by which almost all the ancient
monasteries and religious houses held then
lands, and by which the paiochial cleigy and
veiy many ecclesiastical foundations hold them
at this day The Statute of 12 Car II, c 24,
Tvhich abolished the old tenures, specially re-
seived tenure in frankalmoigne A tenant m
frankalmoigne did no fealty to his oveilord, and
in the event of failure to perform the seivice the
latter was not entitled to distrain, but might
complain to the ordinary or visitor In this
respect this tenure differed from tenure by
divine service , i e , where lands were given on
condition of performing a specified service, as
saying a mass on a particular day, or distribut-
ing certain alma In this case the tenant was
bound to render fealty and the lord was entitled
to distrain on failure to perform the seivice
By the Anglo-Saxon law, lands held in frankal-
moigne were subject to the tnnoda necessitous of
repairing highways, building bridges, and repel-
ling imasions In Scotland lands conveyed to
the Church in puram eleemosynam were said
to be mortified See FEE, FEUDALISM, TENURE
Cf MOETMAIN
FRANKA'UV MRS JULIA See DANBY, FRANK
FBAWKEL, frenl^el, BEKNHABD (1836-1911)
A German physician He was born at Elberfeld
and was educated at Wuxzburg and Berlin,
where m 1884 he was appointed professor In
recognition of his valuable investigations on
diseases of the throat and nose, he was, in 1887,
made diiector of the clinical institute of the
university especiallv devoted to the treatment
of those diseases He wrote on diseases of the
nose for Ziemssen's HandbucJi der speziellen
Fathologie und Therapte (1879), "Skrofulose
und Tuberkulose," in Gerhardt's Han&buch der
Ktndet krankheiten (1878), and Der Kehlkopf-
krels (1889) After 1900 he edited the Zevt-
sahnft fur Tuberkulose und Heilstattenwesen
FRAKKEL, WILHELM (1841-95) A German
engineer. He was born at Odessa, Russia, and
was educated at the Polytechnic Institute at
Dresden, where he was appointed professor in
1869. His articles on bridge and railioad con-
177
FRANITPOKS
struction include "Beweghche Biucken," in the
Hatidbuch det Ingenietvt-Wissenschaften (2ded,
1888)
FBANKEL, fiank'el, ZECHARTAS (1801-75)
A German Jewish theologian, bom 111 Fiague
He graduated from the Umveisity of Budapest in
1831, \\as rabbi at Leitmeritz, Bohemia (1832-
36), and at Dresden (1836-54) , and afterward,
as piesident of Breslau Seminary, he introduced
modern scientific and cutical studies as a part
of the rabbinical education Though approving
religious research, he remained an orthodox He-
brew He edited the Zeitschtift jut die re-
hgiosen Intctessen des Judentums in 1844—46,
and the Monatsschn-ft in 1851-68 His works
include Die Eidesleistung ~bei den Juden in
theologtsolier und h^stor^scher Besicliuny (1840,
2d ed , 1847), Histonsch-kritische 8tud^en &u
der Septuaginta nebst Beitragen, &n der Targu-
mim Vorstudien %u der Septuaginta, (1841) ,
Der gewchthche Beweis nach vnosaisch-tal'mudi-
schem Recht (1846) , Darke ha-Mishnah (1859)
3TE.ANKENBEB.Gr, f i aNk'en-berK. A flour-
ishing manufacturing and trading town of Sax-
ony, Germany, 32 miles southwest of Dresden
( Map Germany, E 3 ) . Its institutions include
a gymnasium, a trade school, a teachers' semi-
nary, and a textile school It has manufactures
of cottons, woolens, silk stuffs, carpets, draper-
ies, dyes, furniture, castings, machinery, cigars
and the largest calico-printing works in Saxony.
Near by are many ruined churches and castles, at
one of which is an iron cross, dedicated to the
poet Korner Pop, 1900, 12,726, 1910, 13,576
FBAHKENHATJSEN, frank'en-hou'zen A
town of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Ru-
dolstadt, Germany, on the Wipper, 27 miles
north-northwest of Weimar (Map Geimany,
D 3) It has a teachers' seminary, a gym-
nasium and a technical institute There are
pioductive salt springs here, and the manufac-
ture of cigars, sugar, and articles in mother-of-
pearl is carried on Its baths aie much fre-
quented for curing scrofula In the neighborhood
are mines of lignite, sandstone quarnes, and the
Barbarossa cavern, discovered in 1865 Pop ,
1900, 6383; 1910, 6600 Frankenhausen was the
scene of a battle between the rebellious peasants
under Thomas Munzer, May 15, 1525, and the
Saxon, Brunswick, and Hessian troops, in which
the former were defeated
FRANKENSTEIN, frank'en-stm, OB, THE
MODERN PROMETHEUS A novel by Mrs Shelley,
begun in 1816, and published anonymously at
London in 1818 An American edition appeared
at Philadelphia in the same year, and another
at Boston in 1869 The title character of the
tale is a student who finds the secret of creating
life artificially His first creation is a horrible
yet pathetic monster, who murders his friend
and pursues Frankenstein himself from one land
to another, complaining of his loneliness and
begging his unfortunate maker to create a mate
for him
FKANKENTHAL, frank'en-tal A flourish-
ing industrial town of Germanv, situated in the
northeastern part of the Bavarian Palatinate,
about 10 miles northwest of Mannheim and near
the Rhine, with which it is connected by a
canal The portal of the abbey church, founded
in 1119, is very interesting, also a monument to
veterans of the Napoleonic Wars The indus-
trial establishments of Frankenthal include
machine shops, iron foundries, and sugar refin-
eries, the manufacture of dynamos, machinery,
boilers, school furnituie, coopeiage, coiks, toys,
gymnastic appaiatus, soap, chinch bells, and
cement goods Frankenthal dates from the
eighth centuty Pop , 1900, 10,849, 1910, 18,779
FRANK'FORT, or FBANKFORT-ON-THE-
MAIN (Gcr. Frankfutt am Main, pion fiank'-
ioort am in in). A city of Prussia, in the Prov-
ince of Hesse-Nassau, Government District of
Wiesbaden, situated on the light bank of the
navigable Main, 24 miles above its confluence
-with the Rhine at Mainz (Map Geimany, C 3)
It lies m a fertile and pictuiesque plain sui-
rounded by mountains The city embraces the
important suburb of Sachsenhausen on the left
bank, with which it is connected by sevoial
stone 01 iron bridges Other towns formerly
separate hut now incorporated with Frankfoit
aie Boinheim, Bockenheim, Niedenad, Oberrad,
and Seckbach Fiankfort still has many old
and narrow streets \\ith high-gabled projecting
houses, but its ancient \\alls and ramparts have
been conveited into piomenades, and there are
now wide handsome streets and broad quays in
the modernized sections The gates of the fa-
mous Judengasse (Ghetto), which were closed
at night to pi event the egress of the Jewish
inhabitants, were i azed at the time of the French
occupation in 1806. Gradually all the inter-
esting old houses in this street, now called
Bornestrasse, have been torn down, except the
family house of the Rothschilds, one of the at-
tractions for sightseers. In the heart of the
ancient town is the Romerberg, or market place,
with the Justitia Fountain in its centre It
was the scene of popular rejoicings after the
election of a king Hebrews were formerly not
allowed to enter this square The mam artery
of the new town is the Zeil, continued by the
Kaiserstrasse The most prominent squares are
the Rossmarkt with the Gutenberg Monument,
the Goetheplatz with Schwanthaler's statue of
Goethe, the Schillerplatz with the statue of
Schiller, the Kaiserplatz with an attractrve
fountain, the Borsenplatz, and the Opernplatz
Among the spacious stieets leading to the outer
quarters of the city the Bockenheim er Land-
strasse is the most noteworthy
The ancient cathedral of St Bartholomew
ranks first among Frankfort's ecclesiastical
structures Founded about 870, it was built
after Gothic patterns at different periods be-
tween 1235 and 1415 The election of the Ger-
man kings, and from 1558 the coronation of
the Roman emperors, took place here The
Wahlkapelle (election chapel) dates from 1355
The cathedral was seriously damaged by fire in
1867, and its restoration was completed in 1881
Of the other Roman Catholic churches, there
mav be mentioned the church of St Leonhard,
elected in 1219-1507, and the church of Our
Lady (consecrated 1340) The leading Evan-
gelical churches are the Paulskirche, erected in
1787-1833 and memorable as having been the
seat of the National Parliament of 1848-49,
the Nikolaikirche, a graceful edifice of the thir-
teenth century; the Katharinenkirche, built in
1678-81, containing fine monuments and paint-
ings, and the new church of St Peter (1892-
95), with a towei 250 feet high The most
prominent among the ancient secular buildings
is the Romer, which is in reality a group of
12 separate medieval houses, reconsti ucted
and enlarged at various tim^s. Here in the
Kaisersaal, or Imperial Hall, the newly elected
King held his public banquet. The hall is em-
178
FRANKFOKT
bellished with good modern portraits of the
German kings and Roman emperors,, from
Chailemagne to Francis II, 52 in all Other
interesting old structures are the Lemwand-
haus, or Draper's Hall, a flfteenth-ceii tuiy build-
ing reeonstiucted in 1892 as the Municipal His-
torical Museum, which contains a valuable col-
lection of antiquities and some paintings, and
among whose documents the Golden Bull is
preserved (see Histoty, below) , the Gothic
Haus Fursteneck, the Stemerne Haus of 1464;
the Haus zum grossen Engel of 15G2, half Gothic
and half Renaissance, the Tuchgaden, wheie
the guild of butchers was wont to celebrate the
coronation of the emperois, the G-oldene Wage,
with an ornate facade, and the Haus zum Reb-
stock, with its picturesque court Moie famous
is the Goethe house, in which the poet was born
in 1749 and lived till 1775 The house is now to
bs seen as it was in Goethe's youth, the restora-
tions and refurnishmgs being due to the
Deutsche Hochstift The adjoining Goethe Mu-
seum contains portiaits, autographs, letters,
etc, and also the Goethe Library, which con-
tains some 25,000 volumes representative of or
dealing with the Goethe period of German
literature
Among the modern public buildings are the
City Library, having a fine Coimthian poi-
tieo, the Municipal Record Office, the new Ex-
change with a handsome hall and nch facade,
the beautiful opera house, accommodating 1900
spectatois, the law couits and the post office,
and the magnificent Central Railway station,
opened m 1887 In Sachsenliausen is situ-
ated the splendid Stadel Art Institute, in the
Italian Renaissance style, with a fine poital
and a dome Its notable picture galleiy is es-
pecially rich in specimens of the Dutch and the
early Flemish masters and of the older Dus-
seldorf school Hals, Brouwer, Teniers the
Younger, Van der Weyden, and Van der Velde
are well represented , and Van Eyck and Moretto
merit particular attention. Among the moderns,
Overbeck, Veit, Lessing, Roeklm, and Lenbach
are also to be seen to advantage The gallery
comprises, in addition, some interesting sculp-
tures, and one of the best collections of engrav-
ings in Germany (numbering 60,000 examples),
and a school of art for students of painting,
sculpture, and architecture The environs and
the public grounds which surround Frankfort,
on the site of the ancient fortifications, are
very attractive The Taunus promenade is es-
pecially noteworthy Among the statues and
monuments not already mentioned are those of
William I, Borne, and Charlemagne (on the
picturesque mediaeval Old Bridge across the
Main), and Schopenhauer, who lived in Frank-
fort from 1831 to 1860
The important commercial standing of Frank-
fort is due chiefly to its financial strength, al-
though its industries developed considerably
during the last quarter of the nineteenth cen-
tury The manufactures include chemicals
(principally printer's ink), gold and silver wire,
machinery, carpets, drugs, tobacco, and electric
supplies The city is the seat of many of the
most important industrial and mercantile asso-
ciations of southern Germany, as well as the
home of some of the strongest moneyed institu-
tions in the world the banks of Frankfort hav-
ing been famous since the days of the early
Rotlisehilds Commercially it was well known
as early as the sixteenth century, when its semi-
annual fairs attracted mei chants from every
direction With the establishment of the Ger-
man Customs Union and the development of
continental railway systems, its advantages
have considei ably diminished in impoitanee
The supiemacy m the book -publishing trade,
which Frankfort enjoyed foi manv gemmations,
^as long ago gained by Leipzig The city is one
of the most impoitant lailwaj eenties ot Euiope,
and its shipping, through the recent canaliza-
tion of the Main and impoitant improvements
of the iivei haiboi, has consideiably incieased
The goveinment is adnmnsteied by a chief
burgomaster, an assistant bmgomastei, 24 magis-
trates, 3 assessors, and a council of 64 members
The municipality operates its o\\n watei works
and gas plant, but has leased its stieet i ail ways
to a pin ate company Tne water s apply is ex-
cellent The supenor sanitary conditions have
reduced the death rate to a low figuie The
educational institutions include an Academy
of Social and Commercial Sciences, a free In-
stitute of Higher Education (Hochstift), three
gvmnasia, a number of lealschulen, an indus-
trial art school, several music schools, a teach-
ers' seminary, and several homes for imbecile
and physically defoimed childien The Museum
of Ait and Industry has an interesting collec-
tion of fumituie, china, bionzes, panelings, etc
The municipal hbiary contains about 350,000
volumes, a collection of coins, and Maichese's
maible statue of Goethe Thcie are also not a
few smallei public hbiaries, reading looms,
leained societies, ait leagues, and botanical and
zoological gardens The three important thea-
tres leceive subsidies from the city The hospi-
tals and other chaiitable institutions are nu-
meious and creditable examples of their kind
In 1817 Frankfort had 41,458 inhabitants, in
1840, 55,269, in 1871, 59,204 Since 1871 the
population has increased enormously, partly be-
cause of the annexation of suburban districts
In 1880 the population \\as 136,819, in 1890?
179,985, in 1900, 288,989, m 1905, 344,951, in
1910, 414,576, of whom 250,505 were returned as
Evangelical, 129,867 Roman Catholic, and 26,228
Jewish The area of the city at the 1910 census
was 135 square kilometeis (52 square miles)
History Although Fiankfort does not ap-
peai in history until 793, it is probable that at
a veiy eaily penod some settlement occupied
the present site of the city, which was then the
meeting place of a number of Koman military
roads running fiom Kainz east In 794 Charles
the Great held a church council at Franconovurd
(see FKANKFOKT, COUNCIL or), and mention is
made at the same time of a palace there, which
Charles's son, Louis the Pious, greatly enlarged
in 823 and made his residence After the par-
tition of Charles's empire, Frankfort became
the capital of the East Frankish Kingdom, and
as such it frequently appears in the documents
of the time in connection with many important
diets and ecclesiastical assemblies Its political
importance declined after the extinction of the
Carolmgian dynasty, but it still remained an
important centre of trade After 1152 the kings
of the Germans were choaen at Frankfort, and
this custom was formally sanctioned by the
Golden Bull of 1356, which made it the Wahl-
stadt, or Electoral City of Germany In 1245
Frankfort attained the rank of a free Imperial
city, and from that time until about the middle
of the fourteenth century it steadily acquired
greater powers of self-government, including an
FRANKFORT
independent mint Frankfort adopted Piotes-
tantism about 1530, and in 1536 it joined the
Schmalkaldic League (qv), for which it had
to pay a fine of 80,000 gulden After the middle
of the sixteenth century the German empeiois
were crowned heie The town suffered severely
from pestilence during the Thirty Years' War
Like many another city of Geimany, it was
ruled for hundreds of years by a merchant oli-
garchy, which bitterly resisted all attempts on
the part of the guilds to secuie a shaie in the
government In 1612 a popular insurrection
under the leadership of one Fettmilch broke out
against the misgoveinment of the patucian
families The lower classes improved the op-
portunity to vent their spite upon the Jews, who
fiom an eaily period constituted an important
element of the population The Jews were
foiced to flee from the city, and for four yeais
the popular leaders were in power Order, howr-
ever, was restored in 1616 by the intervention
of the Emperor The Jews were lestored, and
the only result of the insurrection was to
strengthen the ruling oligarchy The political
power of the trade guilds was completely swept
away and passed into the hands of the city
rulers In the revolutionary wars Frankfort was
occupied by the French in 1792, in 1796, and
again in 1806 Each time she had to pay an
extremely large tribute In 1806 it ceased to be
a free Imperial city and was given by Napoleon
to Dalberg, the Primate of the Confederation
of the Rhine In 1810 Napoleon created for
Dalberg the Grand Duchy of Frankfort, having
an area of about 3200 square miles This dis-
appeared with the downfall of Napoleon, and
Frankfort regained its rank (along with Ham-
burg, Biemen, and Lubeck) as a free city at the
Congress of Vienna, and in 1816 became the
capital of the German Confederation During
the revolutionary period of 1848 it was the very
centre of German nationality and the battle
ground of the opposing tendencies of the time
The Vorparlament (qv.) met there on March
31, 1848, and from May 18, 1848, to May 30,
1849, it was the seat of the National Assembly
convened to bring about the reconstitution of
Germany The period after 1850 was marked
by the abandonment of the old oligarchic consti-
tution and the enactment of liberal legislation
Freedom of labor was then completely estab-
lished for the first time, and the Jews were
emancipated In the War of 1866 Frankfort
embraced the cause of Austria The city was
occupied by the Prussians on July 16, and on
October 18 it was incorporated with Prussia
On May 10, 1871, the definite treaty of peace,
maiking the end of the Franco-German War,
was signed at Frankfort Consult Bleicher,
Statistische Beschreibung der Stadt Frankfurt
am Main und ihrer Bevolkerung (2 parts, Frank-
fort, 1892, 1895) , Wolff and Jung, Die Baudenk-
maler in Frankfurt (ib , 1895) , Strieker, Neuere
G-eschicnte von Frankfurt seit 1806 (ib, 1874-
81) , Mentzel, Frankfurt am Main, em St&dte-
lild (ib, 1898), Kanter, Die fintwicklung des
Handels %u Frankfurt a. M. (Heidelberg,
1902) , Home, Gescluchte von Frankfurt (4th
ed , 1902-03) , Whittingham, A. Brief Discourse
of the Troubles at FranJtfort, 1554-58 (London,
1907) ; May, Le traiU de Francfort (Paris,
1909), which contains a good "bibliography,
Veroffenthchungen d&r Jmtowsofaen Kommis&ion
der Stad$ Frankfurt am Mam (3 vols., Frank-
turt, 1909-*?
179
FRANKFORT
FRANK/PORT A city and the county seat
of Clinton Co , Ind , 48 n%iles northwest of In-
dianapolis, on the Chicago, Indianapolis, and
Louisville, the Lake Erie and Western, the Van-
dalia, and the Toledo, St Louis, and Western
raihoads (Map Indiana, D 4) It has a Car-
negie library and fine courthouse and high-school
buildings "The city is in a pioductive agncul-
tural district, has a kitchen-cabinet plant, and
manufactures buck and tile, lumber, butter,
flour, bnckmaking machinery, agncultuial im-
plements, crackers, etc There aie also railway
lepan shops and laige wholesale grocery es-
tablishments The electuc-light plant is owned
by the municipality Pop, 1900, 7100, 1910,
8634, 1914 (U S. est), 9286; 1920, 11,585
FRANKFORT. A city, the capital of Ken-
tucky and the county seat of Franklin County,
55 miles by rail east of Louisville, on both sides
of the Kentucky River, which is spanned by a
suspension budge 700 feet long, and on the
Chesapeake and Ohio, the Louisville and Nash-
ville, and the Frankfort and Cincinnati rail-
roads (Map Kentucky, F 3) The city is situ-
ated in the heait of the "Blue Grass13 region
of the State On one of the hills near by is the
Franklin Cemeteiy, which ranks with the most
beautiful in the South, and in which aie buned
Daniel Boone and other persons piomment in
the history of Kentucky There are monuments
to the soldiers who died in the wars of 1812 and
with Mexico Among the prominent buildings
are the State House, the Governor's Mansion,
the State Arsenal, the State Penitentiary, the
State Home for Feeble-Minded Children, the
State Library, and the State Colored Normal
School The river is navigable and, by means of
a lock and a dam, furnishes abundant water
po\\ei Frankfort carries on a considerable
trade and has extensive manufactures of lum-
ber, whisky, flour, chairs, shoes, twine, carriages,
tobacco, hemp, glass, etc The government, un-
der a chartei of 1893, is vested in a mavor,
elected eveiy four years, and a municipal coun-
cil, which elects most of the administrative offi-
cials not chosen by popular vote Pop , 1900,
9487, 1910, 10,465, 1914 (U S est), 10,882
Fiankfort was founded in 1786 by Gen James
Wilkinson, who made it the centre of his com-
mercial operations and, for a time, of his Span-
ish intrigues In 1792 it became the capital of
the State, though m 1797 its population was
only 441, of whom 112 were slaves In the fall
of 1862, during the Civil War, Frankfort was
occupied by the Confederate General Braxton
Bragg (qv.), and in the presence of the Con-
federate army and a crowd of citizens, Richard
Hawes, the chosen representative of the Con-
federate faction of the State, was, on October 4,
foimally inaugurated Governor The approach
of General Buell forced Bragg to evacuate on
the same day In 1900 William Goebel (qv),
Democratic Governor elect, was assassinated
here, and Frankfort was the centre of consider-
able excitement during the prolonged controversy
over the governorship
FRANKFORT A village in Herkumer Co.,
N" Y, 10 miles from Utica, on the West Shore
Railroad and on the Erie Canal It contains a
public library and the old Gates match factory,
one of the first in the United States, The
chief industries are the manufacture of road
machinery and agricultuial implements. The
water works and electric-light plant are owned
by the village. Pop,, 1900, 2664, 1910, 3303.
180
FRANKING- PRIVILEGE
, COUACTT, OT An assembly
c onvened at Frankfort-on-the-Main by Charles
the Great in 794 and attended by all the bishops
and many ecclesiastics of the Frankish Kingdom,
Italy, Aquitama, and even by some ecclesiastics
from England Its principal business related
to (1) the doctrine of Adoptiamsm (see ADOP-
TIAN CONTROVERSY), as recently levamped by
Elipandus and Felix; and (2) the question of
image worship Adoptiamsm was condemned,
and also the rendering of Latria (the worship
due to God alone) to images, undei the mis-
taken idea that the second Council of Nicdsa had
sanctioned it The canons of the Council have
the customaiy range and touch upon many mat-
ters Consult Mombert, Chailes the Grreat (New
York, 1888), and Hefele, Concihengeschichte
(Freiburg, 1874) The original canons aie in
Mignc, Patrol Lat , xcvn See CAROLINE BOOKS
FKAJSTK/FOBTEB, GEORGE BELL (1SGO-
) An American chemist He \\as boin
at Potter* Ohio, graduated in 1886 from the Uni-
veisity of Nebraska, where he was instiuctoi in
1885-87 and professor of chemistry in 1893-94,
and also studied at the University of Berlin.
(PhD, 1S93) He taught in the "high school
of Lincoln, Neb (1887-88), and after 1894 was
dean of the School of Chemistry and dnectoi
of the chemical laboratory of the University of
Minnesota He was United States Mint Com-
missioner in 1900 He served as vice pi evident
of the Ameiican Association for the Advance-
ment of Science in 1910 His investigations
deal with alkaloids, narcotin, naicem, veratnn,
isopyiom, vegetable oils, pitch, camphor, eugenol,
and resins
FRANKFOBT-ON-THE-ODEE., o'der (Gei
Frankfurt an der Oder, pron an der o'der) A
Prussian city, capital of Frankfurt Government
District in the Province of Brandenburg, situ-
ated on the left bank of the Oder, 50 miles by
rail east-southeast of Berlin (Map Germany,
P 2 ) . Included within the city limits are sev-
eral suburbs, the suburb of Damur being on the
right of the Oder Damur is connected with the
old town by a massive bridge about 850 feet
long. On the west of the old town are beautiful
promenades laid out on the site of the ancient
ramparts Frankfort has a number of fine
stieets and squares adorned with monuments.
Among the older churches are the Evangelical
Church of St Mary, a brick building of the
thirteenth century, with wood carvings, stained
glass, and a candelabrum 13 feet high, and the
Reformed Church, built in the transition style
at the beginning of the thirteenth century and
recently renovated The splendid Rathaus, dat-
ing 1607, and the municipal theatre, are among
the most noteworthy secular buildings Frank-
fort has a monument to the poet Ewald von
Kleist (qv), and an especially fine monument
by Unger to Prince Frederick Charles (died
1885) The university, established in 1506, wa3
transferred in 1811 to Breslau Frankfort has
a gymnasium, founded in 1694, a realgymna-
sium, and a number of other institutions for
secondary education The benevolent institu-
tions include one municipal and four private
hospitals and two orphan asylums
The manufactures of Frankfort include ma-
chinery, boilers, and other iron products, glass
articles, pottery, musical instruments, chemicals,
chocolate, sugar products, paper, leather, etc
There are extensive railway shops. Besides be-
ing situated on the navigable Oder, the town is
connected by canal with the Elbe and the Vis-
tula An electnc street railway accommodates
local tiaffic There are three annual fairs The
tovm has a laige gamson Pop, 1890, 55,738,
1900, 61,852, including 4134 Roman Catholics
and 747 Je^-a, 1()10, 68,230, the aiea of Frank-
foit is 60 square kilometers (23 squaie miles)
rjlic po&ition of Fiankfort early gave it great
eoinmeicial mipoitance m the tiade with Poland
Aftei recemng municipal rights in 1253 it soon
developed into a commercial centie of consider-
able magnitude The town suffered in the Thirty
Yt»ais' YTai and the Re\en Yeais3 Wai as well
as dm ing the Napoleonic wais
EBANKT&TCElSrSE (fiom OF franc encens
ML pancum mcpnsuin, pine incense, from
pancus, pine, piobably connected 'with OHG
FtanLo, Frank, Lat Fiano%, Franks, AS frwika,
Icel fiakki, bpeai + mcenwtm, incense, from
Lat incendete, to bum, fiom int m-{- candete,
to burn) A name employed to designate vari-
ous lesinous substances which diffuse a strong
fiagrance in burning, and -\\hich aie on that
account used in certain leligious services There
is good reason to believe that the fiankmcense
of the Je\\s, and alt,o of the ancient Gieeks and
Romans, was chiefly 01 entiiely the substance
now kno\\n as olibanum (qv), the product of
an Indian tiee, Bosuelha serrata and also Bos-
icelh(t cartcn It was formeily supposed to
Lave been obtained from some species of Junip-
eiu<t, -which aie geneially believed not to yield
such a pioduct, the prized fiankmcense of the
ancients was brought from the East Several
tieeS; such as certain species of Protium and of
Croton, yield substances used as frankincense in
place of olibanum The silver fir in Europe
furnishes a resinous product which is the com-
mon fiankmcense of the pharmacopoeias Amer-
ican turpentine is also often sold under this
name It is used in the composition of stimulat-
ing plasters, etc Burgundy pitch is made from
it It is a spontaneous exudation from the tree,
hardening by exposure to the air, and is geneially
of a whitish or pinkish color, with a rather agree-
able odor and a balsamic taste See BOSWELLIA,
FIE
FBANK'IlSrG PRIVILEGE The right of
sending mail matter free of charge In Eng-
land this privilege was secured to members of
Parliament at first by warrant of the Post-
master-General and later by statute It was
abolished in 1840 la the United States tho
privilege was accorded by statute to Revolu-
tionary soldiers in actual service, to various
executive officers of the government, as well as
to Senators and members of Congress It was
abolished in 1873, but formally restored a few
years later, and at present officers of the United
States government may send and receive through
the mails all public documents without payment
of postage, the name and office of the sender
being written thereon This privilege does not
extend, however, to those officers who are
authorized to make requisitions upon the Post-
master-General for official postage stamps
Seeds and agricultural reports may be mailed
free by the Commissioner of Agriculture and
by members of Congress The franking privilege
is frequently abused As no penalty is attached
to the improper use of the frank, it has been
recommended that a penalty be imposed by act
of Congress. Many public , officers are allowed
to send their official communications in un-
stamped envelopes raaiked "official business,"
FHAETKISH VEBSI03ST
181
An unlawful use of such an envelope by one not
entitled to the franking piivilege subjects the
offender to a statutory penalty of $300 See
POST OFFICE
PBAHKISH VERSION See BIBLE
FHAITKX, fran'k'l, LTJDWIG AUGUST, RITTER
VON HOCHWABT (1810-94). An Austrian poet
He ^ as bom m Bohemia, of Jewish parent-
age, and was educated in medicine m Vienna,
but preferred journalism and literatuie His
Habsburghed (1832), a series of ballads in
chionological order, placed him among the Ro-
manticists Among his best-known woiks are
Sagen aus dem Morgenlande (1834) and the epic
Chnstoforo Colombo (1830) In 1856 he estab-
lished a school in Jerusalem and descnbed the
condition of the Orient in Nach Jerusalem
(1858) and Aus Aegypten (1860) Jewish sub-
jects are treated by him in the two poems Rachel
(7th ed, 1880) and Der Pnmator (1864) and
in the historical work Zur Oeschichte der Juden
in Wien (1853) Frankl also took an active
interest in the philanthropic work of Vienna
and in public affairs, especially in 1848, when
the liberal spirit of his poetry made him widely
known His collected works, except his satires,
appeared in three volumes in 1880
FBAHK'IJLKrD, SIB EDWAKD (1825-99).
An English chemist, born at Churchtown, near
Lancaster He was a druggist's apprentice in
Lancaster in 1840-45 and then worked in Play-
fair's laboratory in London (with Kolbe), and,
after 1847, in Bunsen's laboratory, and in the
University of Marburg (with John Tyndall, who
had taught with him the year before at Queen-
wood College, Hampshire) He became professor
of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester
(1851), lecturer at St Bartholomew's, London
(1857), and professor at the Royal Institution
(1863), the Royal School of Mines (1865), and
the South Kensington School of Science (1881).
He was the first to state clearly and definitely
(in 1852) the theory of valency in chemistry.
In 1853 he described a regenerative gas burner,
of the type commonly called by Bowditch's
name With Lockyer, in 1868, he discovered
the new element, helium He was knighted in
1897 He wrote Water Analysis for Sanitary
Purposes (1880), and for many years after 1865
made monthly reports on the London water sup-
ply His Experimental Researches in Pure, Ap-
plied, and Physical Chemistry were published
in 1877 Consult the Autobiographical Sketches
(London, 1902)
FBANKLAND, PEKOY FABADAY (1858-
) An English chemist, son of Sir Edward
FrauHand He was born m London and was
educated at the University College School, the
Royal School of Mines (where he lectured in
1880-88), and the University of Wurzburg He
was professor of chemistry at University College,
Dundee (1888-94), at Mason College, Birming-
ham (1894-1900), and at Birmingham Univer-
sity Some of his published work is the joint
labor of his wife, Grace Coleridge Toynbee (born
1858), daughter of Joseph Toynbee — notably
Micro-Organisms w Water (1894) and The Life
of Pasteur (1897)
FBANKOCjIW. Formerly a district of Can-
ada, formed in 1895, and composed of numerous
islands north of the mainland, including Banks,
Prince Albert, King William, Baffin, Prince of
Wales, Melville, North Devon, Bathurst, and
others. The area is estimated at about 500,000
square miles. It is mostly within the Arctic
circle and nearly destitute of animal and vege-
table life The only inhabitants are some Es-
kimo on Baffin Land In 1905 it was merged
into the new Noitinvest Terntories
EBARTKI'IiN' A city and the county seat
of Johnson Co , Ind , 20* miles south by east of
Indianapolis, on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi-
cago, and St Loins and the Pittsburgh, Cincin-
nati, Chicago, and St Louis laihoads and the
Indianapolis, Columbus, and Southern Ti action
Go's electric line (Map Indiana, E 6) It is
the seat of Franklin College (Baptist), opened
in 1834, and has a masonic home foi widows and
oiplians, a public library, and fine county build-
ings The city is in an agucultural region, its
industrial establishments include a desk factoiy,
elevatois, flour, planing, and saw mills, and man-
ufactories of furnituie, automobiles, galvanized
\\aie, etc Pop, 1900, 4005, 1910, 4502
PRANKXm. A city and the county seat of
Simpson Co , Ky , 53 "miles north by east of
Nashville, Tenn , on the Louisville arid Nash-
ville Railroad. (Map Kentucky , D 6) It has
the Fiankhn Female College and the Southern
Kentucky Sanatorium The industrial estab-
lishments include flouring mills, a planing mill,
a woolen mill, and a tobacco warehouse, etc
The water woiks are owned by the city Pop ,
1900, 2166, 1910, 3063
mAlSTKLIlSr A town and the parish seat
of St. Mary Parish, La , 101 miles by rail west
by south of New Orleans, on Bayou Teche, and
on the Southern Pacific Itailroad (Map Louisi-
ana, D 4) The bayou is navigable for steamers,
and the town carries on a considerable trade in
cotton, sugar, fruits, etc There are several
sugar refineries and saw mills The water works
aie owned by the town Pop , 1<UO, 3857
2THAWXLIN. A town in Norfolk Co , Mass ,
Including the village of Unionville, 28 miles
southwest of Boston, on the New York, New
Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map Massachu-
setts, E 4). It has an almshou&e, a public
library costing $250,000, and Dean Academy, an
endowed school for both sexes Its manufactures
include pianos, printing presses, straw hats, and
cotton, woolen, and felt goods Franklin was
originally a part of Wrentharn and was mcor
porated as a sepaia-te township in 1778 The
government is administered by town meetings
The water works are owned by the town Pop ,
1900, 5017; 1910, 5641
FBANKLrN" A city in Merrimack Co ,
N EL, 19 miles north "by west of Concord, at
the confluence of the Pemigewasaet and Winni-
pesaukee rivers, which here unite in the Mem-
mack, and on the Boston and Maine Hailroad
(Map New Hampshire, F 6) Abundant water
power has contributed materially to the city^
industrial importance There are paper and pulp
mills, hosiery mills, foundries, and manufac-
tures of needles, knitting machines, woolen goods,
boxes, hack saws, lumber, house finish, etc
Franklin is famous aa the birthplace of Daniel
Webster and contains the New Hampshire Or-
phan's Home, a public library, and a city hos-
pital It was incorporated as a town in 1828
and in 1895 received a city charter, now in
operation, which provides for a mayor, elected
annually, and a council of nine members. The
city owns and, operates its water works. Pop ,
1890, 4085, 1900, 5846, 1910, 6132.
rHAKKLllT A village in Warren Co,
Ohio, 16 miles south of Dayton, on the Cincin-
nati Northern, the Cleveland^ Cincinnati, Qlu-
182
cago, and St Louis, and the Ohio Electric rail-
roads, and on the Big Miami Eiver (Map Ohio,
B 6) Paper mills comprise the leading indus-
tiy The water works are owned by the village
Pop, 1900, 2724, 1910, 2659
PBAISTKLIK". A city and the county seat of
Venango Co , Pa , 125 miles by rail north by
east of Pittsburgh, on the Allegheny River, and
on the Pennsylvania, the Ene, the Lake Ene,
Franklin, and Clarion, and the Lake Shore and
Michigan Southern railroads (Map Pennsyl-
vania, B 3) It has a public library, the Charles
Miller Night School, and two fine paiks, besides
several places of historic interest The centie
of the great oil region of the State, Franklin's
chief interest is m oil, though there are also
flouring mills, machine shops, brickworks, and
manufactures of steel castings, tools, manifold
papers, and oil-well supplies Franklin was
settled about 1753 and was mcoi porated in
1795 It adopted the commission foim of gov-
einmcnt in 1913 The water woiks are owned
by the city Pop, 1900, 7317, 1910, 9767, 1014
(U S eat), 10,811
FRANKLIN. A city and the county seat of
Williamson Co , Tenn , 20 miles south by west
of Nashville, on the Harpeth River, and 011 the
Middle Tennessee and Louisville and Nashville
railroads ( Map Tennessee, D 3 ) It is the seat
of the Tennessee Female College, opened in 1856,
and the Battle Ground Academy, opened in 1902
A Confederate cemeteiy and Fort Gi anger aie
situated heie The town is the centre of a fei-
tile agncultural region and has manufactures
of carnages, flour, lumber, mantels, etc Pop ,
1900, 2180, 1910, 2924 An engagement be-
tween the Federal General Granger and the Con-
federate General Van Dorn occuired here on
April 10, 1863, the latter making the attack and
being repulsed; and here, on Nov 30, 1864, was
fought the battle of Franklin See FRANKLIN,
BATTUS OF
3TRANKLIN (from ML franohilanus, from
franchus, free). An English freeholder of for-
mer times, who held his lands of the crown free
from any feudal servitude to a subject superior.
He is one of the characteis described by Chaucer
In the course of time he lost his dignity, becom-
ing a well-to-do yeoman Consult Chaucer,
Prologue to the Oantetbuty Tales , Shakespeare,
Henry IV, Part I (Act 11, Scene 1), and Win-
ter's Tale (Act v, Scene 2)
FRANKLIN, BATTLE OF A sanguinary
battle fought at Franklin, Tenn , on Nov 30,
1864, between a Federal army of about 25,000,
under General Sehofield, and a Confederate
army of about 40,000, under General Hood
Early in November, 1864, General Schofield, act-
ing under orders from Thomas, took command
at Pulaski, Tenn,, of a Federal force of about
25,000 On the 21st Hood advanced against this
position, and Sehofield gradually withdrew be-
fore him towards Nashville, under instructions
to impede the Confederates until Thomas should
have fully prepared himself for action Con-
federate movements by the rear and by the right
flank were balked by Sehofield at Columbia and
Spring Hill on the 24th and the 29th respectively
and by a rapid night's march, in which he passed
by the sleeping Confederate army Schoneld
reached Franklin at dawn of the 30th and, in
the absence of pontoon bridges, immediately set
about improvising bridges for transferring his
army and stores across the Harpeth River He
also threw up breastworks on the left bank to
meet a possible Confederate attack and stationed
General Wagner, with two brigades, somewhat
in advance, with instructions to withdiaw be-
hind the mtrenchment on the approach of the
Confedeiates, without awaiting a general attack
Meanwhile Hood, chagrined ovei the pievious
day's failure at Spring Hill, had come up and
at 4 PM oidered an attack Wagner, impm-
dently delaying, lost heavily, and his men,
enveloped by the Confederate advance, hastily
letreated thiough the Federal centre, which -was
soon thrown into gieat confusion Geneial Op-
dycke, without oideis, threw his brigade into the
resulting gap and thus, by enabling the Federals
to lefoim, saved the day Thereafter until al-
most midnight the fighting continued, the Con-
federates making repeated and desperate assaults
only to be beaten back each time with dispro-
portionate loss by the Federals, under the im-
mediate command of Gen J I) Cox, General
Sehofield being on the light bank of the river
Duimg the night Sehofield withdiew unmolested
to Nashville, where lie joined Thomas The bat-
tle is notable for the remaikable gallantry of
the Confedeiates and the stubborn braveiy of
the Fedeials The Federal loss in killed,
Bounded, and missing was 2326, that of the
Confedeiates, though not accurately known,
piohably exceeded 6000 Consult Cox, The
Battle of Ftanlhn (New York, 1897) , id, The
nicwcJi to the Sea, FtanUin and Nashville (ib,
1882) , Johnson and Buel, The Battles and Lead-
QIS of the Civil Wai, vol iv (ib , 1887) , Nicolay
and Hav, Abraham Lincoln A History, vol x
(ib, 1890) , Steele, American Campaigns (Wash-
ington, 1909)
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-90). An
American statesman, scientist, and author He
was bom in Boston, Mass, Jan 17, 1706 His
father, Josiah Franklin, emigrated to America
about 1685 and took up the business of tallow
chandler His mother, a second wife, was the
daughter of Peter Folger, a leading settler, noted
for his philanthropy and tolerance Benjamin,
the fifteenth of 17 children, was named after his
father's favorite brother and, as the tenth son,
was intended as the "tithe for the ministry "
Either on account of poverty or an early per-
ceived distaste on the boy's part, the theological
idea was given up After a year or more at
candle making in his father's shop, Benjamin
was apprenticed to his brother James, a printer,
and the founder in 1721 of the New England
Courant, one of the earliest papers in America,
While in this office Franklin learned the trade
well, read diligently, and found time to write
pieces in the style of the Spectator, and even
ballads, which he had published in the Courant,
at first anonymously In 1722, for some politi-
cal opinions, James Franklin was imprisoned a
month and forbidden to publish his paper For
a while it appeared winder Benjamin's name,
but there was continual quarreling between the
two brothers At last the apprentice broke his
indentures and slipped away by sea to New
York Finding no work there, he went on to
Philadelphia, where he arrived, October, 1723,
friendless and almost penniless Though only
17 years old, he was a good printer and of pleas-
ing address and quickly found friends, and be-
gan to work for Samuel Keimer, a printer re-
cently emigrated from London. In 1724 Sir
William Keith, the Governor, induced him to go
to England to buy type for a printing shop of
his own, promising him a letter which would
COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY MAX ROSENTHAL, PHILADELPHIA
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
FROM THE ENGRAVING BY MAX ROSENTHAL OF THE PORTRAIT BY C. W. PEALE
183
FEAHKLIMT
give him aid in the way of money Fianklm
reached England, found his pation's promises
worthless, and had to shift foi himself For a
year and a half he maintained himself as a
printer, gaining some notonety by a fiee-thmk-
ing pamphlet which he punted, but afterwaid
repudiated as immatuie He also got eonsidei-
able reputation in London for Ins prowess as a
swimmei Returning to Philadelphia m Octo-
ber, 1726, he was clerk for a while in a newly
staited dry-goods shop He soon got back to
printing, however, first with Ins old employer,
Kcinier, and then in an independent shop for
which he furnished skill and eneigy and his
partner, Hugh Meredith, the money In 1729
Franklin got control of the Pennsylvania Gazette,
which Kenner had started, and the excellence
of the printing and the spirit of the wilting
won him a competence and high consideration
throughout tho Colonies On the dissolution of
the paitnership in 1730 Franklin took over the
business In 1730 he married Miss Deborah
Read, the daughter of the man whom lie had
lodged with on his first coming to Philadelphia
From this time on he was engaged almost con-
stantly in some sort of public activity, and his
achievements were varied In 1731 he began the
Philadelphia Library, chartered in 1742, said to
be the first and the model of the American sys-
tem Poor Richard's Almanac he first published
in 1732, tinder the pseudonym of "Richai d Saun-
deis," and for 25 years his witty, worldly-wise
sayings in this publication were very influential
in molding the new American character. In
1736 he became clerk of the General Assembly,
and the next year was appointed postmaster for
Philadelphia About this time he also organ-
ized for the city a police foice and a fire com-
pany In 1743 he broached a plan for an acad-
emy, which was latei adopted and developed into
the University of Pennsylvania
Soon after his retuin from England he started
a debating society for the "Discussion of Morals,
Politics, and Natural Philosophy " This society
in 1743 developed into the American Philosophi-
cal Society Always interested in scientific stud-
ies, he invented an "open stove for better warm-
ing of rooms," a stove which is still in use both
in this country and in Europe While in Boston
in 1746 he met a Dr Spence, who had lately
ai rived from Scotland, and saw him perform a
few electrical experiments, which interested him
greatly The next year the Library Company of
Philadelphia received from Mr Peter Collmson
of London a glass tube with directions for per-
forming electrical experiments Franklin at
once began his scientific investigations, and prac-
tically all his work was done between this time
and his departure for England in 1757 His
important papers took the form of letters to
Mr Collmson and to a Mr Kinnersley, who had
been associated with him in his early experi-
ments, but later moved to Boston Franklin's
first original experiments were with the action
of fine points with reference to electrical charges,
a matter which he explained fully He next
discussed the theory of the Leyden jar and gave
his explanation in words which are practically
satisfactory to-day He became convinced, as
others had before, that lightning was an electri-
cal phenomenon and immediately proposed a
method for testing the matter His plan was
published itt London and was carried out in
France and in England before he himself per-
formed Ms famous kite experiment He pro-
po^od the construction of lightning rods having
shaip points for the protection o± houses He
was deeply inteiested in tho meaning of the
two kinds of electricity, positive and negative,
and ofieied as hib explanation what is called
the "one-fluid theoiy " It is intcicstmg to note
that tins theoiy comt'B neaiei to oui present
conceptions of electucity than any of the other
theoiies advanced in the past Tins theory in
bnef is as follows Eveiy unelecti ificd body is
supposed to contain its normal quantity of "elec-
trical fluid",, a body is positively electrified
when it contains an excess of this, and nega-
tively electufied when it lias lost a part of its
noimal quantity
The extraordinarily widespread interest in the
woik of Franklin was a natural consequence of
the? clearness of his wilting, for in this respect
he was in maiked contiast to most of his con-
temporaries Franklin's scientific views won
then way through sui prised incredulity into
acceptance both in Fiance and England Hon-
oiaiy degrees weie voted to him by St Andrews,
1750, and by (Moid, 1702, the fioedom of the
city of Edmbmgh was given him in 1759, and
he became FES and was awaided the Copley
gold medal in 1775
In 1753 Franklin was appointed Postmastci-
Ocncral for the Colonies In 1754 he was com-
missioner from Pennsylvania at the Intercolo-
nial Congress which met at Albany to take
measures in view of the threatened French and
Indian War, and he proposed a plan combining
local independence with union (See ALBANY
CONVENTION ) It seems piobable that if this
plan had been followed many of the causes which
led to the Revolution would have been avoided,
and perhaps the Revolution itself When the
Fiench and Indian War cam 3 on, Franklin as-
sisted Biaddock gicatly, giving his peisonal se-
em ity for supplier and transpoitation furnished
by the Pennsylvania fanners The descendants
of William Penn, the pioprietois of the Colony,
i of used to allow their private lands to be taxed
foi the support of the English troops, and in
1757 FranUin was sent to England to petition
the crown against tins Tins mission conducted
satisfactorily, he remained in England as the
leading representative for the Colonies In 1766
occuired his famous examination before the
House of Commons as to the effects of the Stamp
Act, and his influence helped to secure the repeal
of the act, but he did not fully appreciate the
depth of the feeling m America in regard to
taxation, and when he urged the colonists to
pay the later small tax on tea, he was roundly
charged with lack of patriotism In 1774 the
publication of the so-called Hutchinson letters,
which he had been intrusted with, and which
it was to the interest of the Tory party not to
have published, made him unpopular in Eng-
land In 1775, seeing war to be inevitable, he
returned and was immediately chosen a, delegate
to Congress. He was on the committee to draft
the Declaration of Independence and was one
of the signers
During the Revolutionary War Frankta tep*
resented American interests in Europe and par-
ticularly in France to which he was appointed
a commissioner in September, 1776 Bis scien-
tific reputation, his dignity of character, and his
charm of manner made him extremely popular
in French literary, social, and political circles,
and his wisdom and fertility of resource secured
for the government aid and concessions which no
other man could possibly liave obtained Jle
lent efficient aid to the operations of the Ameri-
can navy and especially of John Paul Jones
Against the vigorous opposition of Necker, his
matchless diplomacy got for a country that was
bankiupt and almost hopeless loans amounting
to many millions of francs After the defeat
of Burgoyne Franklin was received officially,
and on Feb 6, 1778, he concluded a treaty of
offensive and defensive alliance with Fiance
On Nov 30, 1782, he signed the piehmmary
aiticles of peace, and the next yeai (Sept 3,
1783) he was one of the signeis of the definitive
Treaty of Pans
In September, 1785, Ins request to be allowed
to retuin home was gianted by Congiess, but
he had scarcely leached Philadelphia before he
\\as chosen a membei of the Executive Council,
and soon aftei \\aid (October, 1755-October,
1788) he held the position which now corre-
sponds to the governorship In May, 1787, he
was a member of the convention to form a na-
tional constitution, and m spite of his advanced
age was vigorously active in the proceedings
He was deeply interested in all schemes of use-
fulness and philanthropy, and one of lus last
public acts was to sign a memorial to Congiess,
Feb 12, 1790, as president of the Pennsyhaiua
Society for the Abolition of SUvery The last
two years of his life weie spent in severe pain
of body, but in activity of mind He died Api il
17, 1790 His grave is in the churchyard at
Fifth and Arch sticcts, Philadelphia Upon his
death Congress passed lesolutions of mom mug,
and tlie National Assembly of France, on the mo-
tion of Mirdbeau, put on momnmg foi tlnee days.
Franklin's greatest service to America was
undoubtedly due to his skill in diplomacy His
public spirit and demotion were icenforced by
powers of mind and wisdom that made him prac-
tically unrivaled To his common sense, sa-
gacity, and industry he added great firmness of
purpose, a matchless tact, and a broad toleiance
In science, his electrical discoveries, with the
invention of the lightning rod, are verv impor-
tant, and, besides these, many other discovenes
and inventions are to be ci edited to him His
literary reputation rests chiefly on his unfin-
ished Autobiography, a book "which is an epit-
ome of his hie and character, expressed in
wonderfully clear and simple style This famous
book had a singular fortune Franklin's grand-
son tried to edit it to suit his own taste, which
was less frank than Benjamin's He published
what pretended to be a correct version in Lon-
don, 1817, but a French version, from another
manuscript, had appeared in 1791 In 1867
John Bigelow secured in France the original
manuscript, which Temple Franklin had dis-
posed of The correct version of the Autobiog-
raphy then appeared m 1868 Franklin's news-
paper and his almanac were the organs through
which he spread his practical morality and wis-
dom, and they and his letters reflect his distinc-
tively American humor He was never deliber-
ately an author, all his writing was done with
a practical aim and derives its value largely
from the accuracy with which it reflects his
character He was remarkably deficient in
poetic imagination and in ability to appreciate
the spiritual side of man's nature For a while
during his youth he was a skeptic, and he was
never an orthodox Christian, but his attitude
when he died was such that to-day he would be
classed with the "liberal Christians "
In person Franklin \\a& about 5 feet, 9 or 10
inches in height and well built His complexion
\vas fair, his e^es giay, and Ins manners ex-
tremely affable and winning None of lu&
descendants beai his name, though there are
many descendants of his daughter, Mis Bache
Bibliography The Autobiography of Benja-
min Franklin, fiom his manuscript, ed by Bige-
low (Philadelphia, 18G8), albo a laigei woik,
The Life of Benjamin FianUm, Written by
Himself, ed by Bigelow (rev ed , ib , 1888),
McMa&tei, Benjamin Franklin, "American Men
of Letters Seues" (Boston, 1887) , Hale, FtanA,-
hn m France (ib, 1887, 2d series, 1888) , Com-
plete WorLs, ed by Bigelow (10 vols , New
Yoik, 1887-88) , Fold, The Many-Hided Frank-
lin (Boston, 1899), The /Sayings of Pooi Rich-
ard, ed by Ford (New York, 1890) , id, L^t of
Benjamin Fvanlhn's Papers in the Library of
Congress (Washington, 1905), Smyth, Writings,
vols i-vii (New Yoik, 1905-06), MacDonald,
Some Account of Frank hn's Late? Life, Princi-
pally in Relation to the Ilistoty of his Time (ib
1905) For mbhogi aphy, see New York Public
Library Bulletin for January, 1900 Consult
also W A Wetzcl, Benjamin FianlJin as an
Economist (Baltimore, 1895) , J T Morse, Boi-
jannn FranlJin (Boston, 1SP9) , The Ficnikhn
Bicentennial Celebration (Philadelphia, 1900),
pi iiitccl for the American Philosophical Society,
I' E More, Shell m no Essays (4th series, New
York, 1907), William Pyffei, The Medical 8ide
of Fran/Jin (Philadelphia, 1911)
FRANKLIN, EDWARD CURTIS (1862- ).
An American chemist, bom at Geary City, Ivans
In 1888 he graduated at the University of
Kansas, where he served as an assistant in 1888-
93, associate professor xii 1893-99, and professor
of physical chemistry from 1899 to 1903, and he
also studred at the University of Berlin and at
Johns Hopkins (PhD, 1894) At Leland Stan-
ford Junior University he was associate pro-
fessor in 1903-06 and professor of oiganic chem-
istry after 1906 In 1911-13 he was professor
of chemistry and chief of the division of chem-
istry of the United States Public Health and
Marine Hospital Service, he served on the
United States Assay Commission in 1900, and
published papers on liquid ammonia as an elec-
trolytic solvent, on the ammonia system of acids,
bases, and salts, and on nonaqueous solvents
FRANKLIN, SIB JOHN (1786-1847) An
Arctrc explorer, born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire,
England His father had intended him for the
church, but, givrng way to the boy's strong de-
sire to follow the sea, secured for him a mid-
shipman's appointment in the navy in 1800 He
was first attached to the Polyphemus, with
which he seived in the Baltic, and took part m
the battle of Copenhagen, April 2, 1801 His
next service ^as with the Investigator, winch,
under command of Capt Matthew Flinders, was
sent to survey the Australian coast Returning
to England, he was assigned as signal officer to
the ship of the line Bell&rophon, m which, in
1805, he participated in the battle of Trafalgar
In 1808 he became a lieutenant arid in 1814
accompanied the British expedition against New
Orleans, in the attack upon which he was
wounded Franklin's career as an Arctic ex-
plorer began in 1818, with his appointment to
the command of the Trent, a brig that had been
fitted out to accompany Captain Buchan in the
Dorothea to sail to the north of Spitsbergen
and cross the Polar Sea by that route The at-
FRAtfEXIff
185
fcempt piovecl a failuie, but Fiankhn's scientific
knowledge and enthusiastic interest in Polai ex-
ploiations became known, dnd in the following
year he was placed in command of an expedition
which uas destined to explore the northern coast
of the continent eastwaid from the Coppermine
Ri\ei, acting in conjunction, if possible, with
Lieutenant Parry, who was dispatched with two
vessels to Lancaster Sound Wintering at Fort
Enteipiise, Fianklin in the summer of 1821, by
a journey of 900 miles, traced the continental
coast of North Amenca from the month of the
Coppeimine eastward to Point Turnagam (190°
15' W), from which place he tuined westwaid
the same day that Pairy, unsuccessful, sailed
from. Repulse Bay foi England Franklin was
forced to return across the Bad Lands under
such adverse conditions as fully tested his mas-
terful and resolute peisonality Of his paity
of 20, 10 perished — two by violence and eight
by cold, hunger, and exhaustion On his return
to England he was promoted to the rank of cap-
tain and was elected a fellow ot the Royal So-
ciety In 1825 Franklin led an expedition which
attempted, via the Mackenzie River, to reach
the noithwest extremity of the continent, and
by surveying the coast between the Mackenzie
and Coppermine nil in the unknown parts of
the continental coast Wintering at Fort Frank-
lin, the party reached the Mackenzie delta July
3, 1820 Dr Richardson successfully surveyed
the coasts to the east, discovering Wollaston
Land Franklin went to tlte west to connect his
survey with Beechey in Bering Strait, but bad
ice made success impossible Franklin turned
back, August 16, from Return Reef (148° 52'
W), 100 miles east of Point Barrow The
magnitude and extent of the discovcues of
Fiankhn's two expeditions are shown by the
statement that of the 72° of longitude of the
unknown coast lie had explored moie than 40°
He ictuinecl to England in Septembei, 1827 In
1829 he was knighted, and in lecogmtion of Ins
services to geographical science received the
honorary degree of D 0 L from Oxford and the
gold medal of the Geographical Society of Paris
From 1830 to 1833 Franklin commanded the
Rainbow frigate on the Mediterranean station
and won the appreciation of tlie Gieeks and a
decoration from King Otho for services rendered
them durmg their war of liberation From 1836
to 1843 Sir John was Lieutenant Governor of
Van Diemen's Land, now Tasmania, and the
period of his administration was one of the
greatest progress the colony had ever known
On his return to England he found that an ex-
pedition was being planned by the Admiralty
to make another attempt to discover the North-
west passage While Sir John would not solicit
the command, he promptly accepted it when
offered It consisted of the Erebus and Terror,
with 129 officers and men, and left England on
May 18, 1845, with the intention of sailing di-
rect to Oape Walker and thence southward and
westward in the direction of Bering Strait, as
far as the xce and land would permit The
ships were last seen on July 26, 1845, by a Scot-
tish whaler in Baffin Bay The winter of 1847-
48 passed without news from the expedition, and
in the spring of 1848 began a remarkable aeries
of relief and search expeditions from both Eng-
land and the United States, numbering 39 all
told up to 1857 and involnug an expenditure of
oter\a million pounds sterling On Aug 27,
1851, daptam Penny found on Beechey Island
the graves of thieo of Kianklms aailoia who
had died in 184C, this \\a$ the hi&t definite in-
foimation of the expedition In Apul, 1854,
while exploring Melville Peninsula for the Hud-
son'b Bay Company, J)r John Rae learned from
the Eskimos of Boothia Land that Franklin's
ships had been abandoned in 1830, the lepoit
being confirmed by numerous lobes (FianUnfs
silver) obtained from the natives It was not
until 1859 that the expedition sent out in 1S57
by Lady Jane Franklin (1792-1875), uridei
Captain" McClmtock, in the Fo&, decided the
fate of Sir John and his comrades and at the
same time established the fact that he had ac-
tually achieved what he had set out for, the
discovery of the long-sought Northwest passage
Fiom the biief record found by Hobson ot Mc-
Chntock's party it was learned that, after as-
cending Wellington Channel, which separates
North Devon and Cornwalhs Island to lat 77°
N, and letiuning by the west side of Cornwalhs
Island, the ships had wintered, in 1845-46, at
Beechey Island, on the southwest coast of Noith
Devon (m lat 74° 43' 28" N ) , that m the fall
of 1846 an attempt had been made to reach the
North Amencan coast by sailing thiough the
channel which sepaiate« Prince of Wales and
Noith Somerset Islands, but that pi ogress had
been ai rested by heavy ice when within T2
miles of the north end of King William's Land,
wheic the party remained all winter, and where
on June 11, 1847, Sir John Franklin had died,
and that the ships were abandoned there by
Captain Ciozier and the 105 survivors of the
paity, who on April 2C, 1848, started southward
over the ice for the Great Fish River, on the
continent There aie grounds for the belief that
79 polished on the journey, and that the le-
mainmg 29 died of starvation near Montreal
Island Franklin was promoted to be rear ad-
mnal in 1852, five years after his death Sir
John Fianklm published the results of his first
two Polar expeditions under the titles Narrative
of a Joutncy to the Shoics of the Polar Bea in
the Years 1819-22 (1823) and Narrative of a
Second HJxpeditioti to the Shota* of the Polar Sea
%n 1825-27 (with Di Richardson) (1828)
Consult also McClmtoek, Narrative of the Fate
of &V Jo fin FranUm (Boston, 1860) , Osborn,
The Career, Last Voyage and Fate of Bw John
franklin (London, 1860), Beesly, Sir John
Franlhn (ib , 1881) , Markham, The Life of Sir
John Frankhn, <md the Northwest Passage (ib ,
1891), Traill, Life of $ir John Franklin (ib ,
1890)
FBANKLIN, SAMUEL RHOADS (1825-1909)
An Amencan naval officer, brother of Gen W B
Franklin He was born in York, Pa , entered
the United States navy as an acting midship-
Mian in 1841, paiticipated in the captuie of
Monterey, Cal , during the Mexican War , was
assistant professor ot ethics and English at the
United States Naval Academy in 1854, and in
September, 1855, became a lieutenant He be-
came lieutenant commander in July, 1862,
served in the Western Gulf Blockading squadron
in 1863, and as assistant to Commodore Palmer
at New Orleans in 1863-04, and in the spring
of 1865 was on the staff of Acting Hear Admiral
Thatcher in Mobile Bay In 1873 he was pro-
moted to be captain He was chief of staff to
Admirals Case and Wordenj served for a time
in the European squadron, was president of the
board of examiners for the promotion of officers
in 1877, was hydrographer to the Bureau «of
FEA3STKLIN
186
FRANKLIN* COLLEGE
Navigation from 1877 to 1880; became a com-
modore in May, 1881, was superintendent of
the Naval Observatory in 1884-85, was pro-
moted to be lear admiral in January, 1885, and
commanded the European station faom 1885 to
1887, when he letired In 1889 he was piesident
of the International Marine Conference Pie
published Memories of a Rear-Admiral (New
York, 1898)
FBANKLIIT, STATE OF See TENNESSEE,
NOBTH CAROLINA
rRANKLIU, WILLIAM (1729-1813) A Colo-
nial governor of New Jersey He was born in
Philadelphia and was a natural son (probably
by Barbara, a domestic) of Ben]amin Frank-
lin, who acknowledged him and brought him up
in his household During King Geoige's War
William served in the Pennsylvania line on the
Canadian frontier and became a captain before
he was of age In 1754-56 he was comptroller
of the general post office and for a time was
clerk of the provincial assembly Going with
his father to England, he was there admitted
to the bar (1758) and in 1762 was appointed
Governor of New Jersey, where his time-seiving
character and his shift fioni the Whig to the
Toiy paity disgusted the colonists During the
Revolutionary War he remained loyal to Eng-
land and was kept under suiveillance by the
patriots He gave his word that he would not
leave the piovmce, but in consequence of sum-
moning a meeting of the old Colonial assembly,
he was ariested and sent to Connecticut and
kept a prisoner for two yeais In November,
1778, he was exchanged and took refuge in New
York In 1782 he went to England, wheie he
died. His political course caused an estrange-
ment between him and his father, though they
were partially reconciled in 1784 All his lands
in Nova Scotia Dr Franklin left to William
It was for William that his father began in 1771
his Autobiography His son lost the manuscupt
during the war, and it was found by a friend,
who urged the father to continue it William's
son, William Temple Franklin, edited Benjamin
Franklin's works Consult F B Lee, "New
Jersey as a Colony and as a State (4 vols , New
York, 1902) , E J Fisher, New Jersey as a
Royal Province, 1738-76 (ib, 1911), Letters
pom William Frankhn to William Strahan, ed
by Hart (Philadelphia, 1912)
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1903).
An American soldier He was born at York,
Pa, graduated at West Point in 1843 (first in
the class m which Grant's lank was twenty-
fiist), and for three yeais was engaged in topo-
graphical work In the Mexican War he accom-
panied Geneial Wood on his march through Coa-
huila He was assistant professor of natural
and experimental philosophy at West Point from
1848 to 1852, and thereafter was on various
engineering works, becoming chief of the Con-
struction Bureau of the Treasury Department
in March, 1861. On May 17, 1861, he was
promoted brigadier general of volunteers, in
which capacity he served in the first battle
of Bull Hun and commanded successively a
division and the Sixth Army Corps of the Army
of the Potomac in the Peninsular campaign un-
der General McClellan On June 30, 1862, he
was brevetted brigadier general in the regular
service and on July 4 was promoted major gen-
eral of volunteers He commanded the Sixth
Corps of the Army of the Potomac in the Mary-
land campaign, being in command in the battle
of Ciampton's Gap, and participating in the
battle of Antietam, and commanded the left
grand division of the Army of the Potomac in
the Rappahannock campaign, participating as
such in the battle of Fiedoncksbiug, \\hoie an
accusation (apparently ill founded) of disobey-
ing Buinside's oideis caused his temporary ie-
lief horn active seivice In 1804 he seived in
the Department of the Gulf, wheie for some
months he commanded the Nineteenth Aimy
Coips and the tioops in western Louisiana, and
on Apul 8 was wounded at Sabmo Cross Roads
In 1863 Go%ernor Cm tin of Peimsyhania, in
an effort to escape a renommation, attempted
unsuccessfully to secuie Geneial Fianklm'b nomi-
nation foi that office Fiom Dceemboi, 1864,
to November, 1865, he was president of the boaul
for retiring disabled officers, at Wilmington, Del
On March 13, 1865, he was bievetted major
geneial in the regular army He xesigned fiom
the volunteer service on Nov 10, 1865, and from
the legular army on Maich 15, 1866 He be-
came vice picbident of the Colt's Fneaims
Manufacturing Company at Hartford, Conn , in
November, 1865, was president of the boaul of
managers of the National Home for Disabled
Volunteei Soldiers fiom 1880 to 1899, and m
1889 was commissioner geneial of the United
States to the Pans Exposition Consult Gieene,
FranLhn and the Left Wing at Ftcdcncksbmg
(Hartfoid, 1900)
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM SUDDARDS (1863-
) An American physicist and electrical
engincei, bom at Geary City, Kans lie giadu-
ated at the University of Kansas in 1887 After
further studies in Germany and at Ilarvaid
University he was appointed assistant professor
of physics at the University of Kansas (1887)
Fiom 1892 to 1897 he was professor of physics
and electrical engineering at Iowa State College,
and in 1897 he was appointed to the conespoml-
ing chair at Lehigh University In 1903 he be-
came professor of physics IIo is joint author
of The Elements of Alternating Cut rente (1899,
2d ed , 1901), Elements of Electrical Engineer-
ing (2 vols, 1906) , Dynamo Laboi alory Manual
(1906), The Elements of Mechanics (1907),
Dynamos and Motors (1909) , and LS solo author
of Electric Lighting and Miscellaneous Applica-
tions of Electricity (1912), and a volume of
essays, Hill's School and Mine (3913),
FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COL-
LEG-E An educational institution under the
caie of the Reformed ehuich, established by the
union of Franklin College and Mai shall College
Fianklm College was oiganixed at Lancaster,
Pa , m 1787, and named in honor of Benjamin
Franklin, one of its benefactors, Marshall Col-
lege, named after John Marshall, was established
by the Reformed church at Mercer sburg, Pa , in
1836, in connection with its theological semi-
nary In 1852 the two institutions were con-
solidated at Lancaster under a new charter A
preparatory academy is affiliated with the col-
lege The value of the college buildings and
grounds is estimated at $476,375, the endow-
ment is $428,604, and the annual income $40,000.
Degrees are conferred m the arts In 1914 the
students numbered 568, of whom 250 were m
the preparatory department Consult Dubbs,
History of Franklm and Marshall College (Lan-
caster, Pa, 1903) The president m 1914 was
H H Apple, D.D , LL D
FRANKLIN COLLEGE. An educational
institution founded by the Baptists at Franklin,
EKAHBXIH INSTITUTE
187
Lad, in 1834 The college offers couises in
lettcis, science, and the humanities, leading to
appropriate degrees A pieparatoiy school for-
meily a part of the institution was discontin-
ued in 1907 The student enrollment in 1914
was 207, and the faculty numbered 10 The
total value of the college propel ty was in 1914
over $500,000, of which considerably more than
one-half represents pioductive funds The in-
stitution is on the Carnegie Foundation The
library contains about 20,000 volumes The
president in 1914 was Elijah D Haiiley, DD
FBANKLIK INSTITUTE, THE, OF THE
STVTE OF PENNSYLVANIA FOR THE PROMOTION
OF THE MECHANIC ARTS A learned institution
at Philadelphia, Pa , established in 1824 for the
puipose of disseminating knowledge of the arts
and sciences, and combining in one organization
features of the mechanics' institutes and of the
exclusive scientific societies The objects of the
institute are attained by means of lectures, re-
ports, a journal, libiaries, exhibitions, and
school instruction The lectures, originally giv-
ing systematic courses of instruction, now have
the object of presenting the latest advances in
art and sciences, in the form of popular Icc-
tuies and of strictly technical discussions be-
foie the sections into which the institute is
divided In 1834 a. volunteer committee was
formed to examine and report on new machines,
inventions, and discoveries, the committee con-
sists of 60 members, whose labors have given
a notable reputation to the institute The pub-
lication of a journal was begun in 1826 and has
continued uninterruptedly it is issued monthly
and contains the record of the institute's woxk
and conti ibutions i elating to the growth of sci-
ence and American industries The libiary, de-
voted exclusively to science and the useful aits,
contains (1914) about 64,169 volumes, 48,000
pamphlets, besides maps, charts, and photo-
glyphs, and has impoitant collections of Ameri-
can, British, French, German, Swiss, Russian,
and Austrian patent records, also complete series
of reports on public works. In 1824 the insti-
tute held the first exhibition of American raairu-
factuics and has since held 29 exhibitions, the
last in 1899 It grants medals, premiums, and
certificates for notable inventions A school of
mechanical and architectural drawing was estab-
lished in 1824 and is still maintained, there are
also night schools of machine design and naval
architecture A school for instruction in English
and ancient and modern languages was estab-
lished in 1826 and became the model on which
the Central High School of the City of Philadel-
phia was founded It was abandoned when the
public high schools were established Member-
ship in the institute is open to all persons of
legal age on. payment of yearly dues Its build-
ing is situated at 15 South Seventh Street Con-
sult W. H Wahl, Franklin Institute A. SJtetch
of its Organisation and History (Philadelphia,
1895)
FBAtfK'LINITE; An iron-black, slightly
magnetic mineral with a metallic lustre, con-
sisting of ferric and manganic oxides in combina-
tion with ferrous, manganous, and zinc oxides,
of rather complex composition and varying rela-
tive quantities. It crystallizes in the isometric
system, occurring chiefly in octahedral crystals
as well as in rounded grains and in compact
masses In Germany it is also found in the
form of cubic crystals. Its pnncapaj occurrence
in the United States is pi Sussex Co,, N*. J,, at
VOL. IX.— 13
Franklin Furnace, Mine Hill, and at Sterling
Hill, being found in veins of limestone in zinc
mines Owing to the manganese that it contains,
it is used as an ore for making Bessemer steel
FRANKIflN'S TALE, THE One of Chau-
cei's Canterbury Tales It narrates the adven-
tmos of the faithful Dong on, as they aio le-
counted in Boccaccio's Decameron, in the fifth
story of the tenth day? although the fiankhn
claims his stoiy is taken from a Breton lay
rJhe narracor himself is a jolly open-handed ex-
sheiilt and knight of the snne
FRAiNK'MAIl'BIAGKE (hberum marita-
gium] A species of estate tail existing by the
common law of England It arose where a man,
on the mariidge of his daughter or other female
i dative, gave lands to the bridegroom, with a
provision limiting the inheritance to the issue
of the nuniage It was, therefore, a form of
fee tail special Thib tenure was called Uleium
matitagiwn, to distinguish it from other species
of estate tail Foui things were nece&saiy to a
gift ni fiankmainage (1) that it be in eon-
sideiatxon of a mamage, (2) that the woman
with whom it is given be ot the blood of the
donor, (3) that th£ donees should hold of the
donor (hence a gift in frankmaniage by a sub-
ject became impossible after the Statute qiua
(mptorcs) , (4) that the donees should hold foi
four generations Theiefoie a reservation of a
lemamder to a stranger to take effect within
four generations was a void limitation upon a
gift in f rankmai riage The estate has long
been obsolete
FBAHK'PXiEDGE. An ancient principle of
English law, prevailing before the Norman Con-
quest, whereby the members of every tithing or
community of freemen were responsible for LUC
good conduct of each other This responsibility
consisted in every 10 men in a village being
answerable each for the others, so that, if one
commibted an offense, the other nine were liable
for his appeal ance to make reparation Should
the offender abscond, the tithing, if unable to
clear themselves fiom participation in the crime,
were compelled to make good the penalty This
law has been ascribed to Alfred the Great, but
it would appear to have been m existence at a
much earlier period Mr Hallara observes
"The peculiar system of frankpledges seems to
have passed through the following very gradual
stages At first an accused person was bound to
find bail for standing his trial At a subse-
quent period his relations were called upon to
become securities for payment of the compensa-
tion and other fines to which he was liable , they
were even subject to be imprisoned until pay-
ment was made, and this imprisonment was com-
mutable for a certain sum in money The next
usage was to make people already convicted, or
of suspicious repute, give securities foi their
good behavior It is not till the reign of Edgar
that we find the first general law, which places
every man in the condition of the guilty or sus-
pected, and compels him to find a surety who
shall be responsible for his appearance when
judicially summoned. This is perpetually re-
peated and enforced in later statutes during' his
reign and that of Ethelred Finally, the laws
of Canute declare the necessity of belonging to
some hundred and tithing, as well as, of pro-
viding sureties" (Middle Age$f nf 80.)
The court of frankpledgv, or court leet, was a
court of record held once m the year, within a
particular hundred, lordship, or manor, before
FRANKS
188
FRANKS
the steward of the leet The business of this
court was to present by jury all crimes com-
mitted within their jurisdiction and to punish
all trivial misdemeanors This court has prac-
tically fallen into desuetude, and the business
is discharged by the justices of the peace at
geneial and petty sessions Originally the busi-
ness of the court of frankpledge was confined to
taking securities or free pledges for every per-
son within the jurisdiction, but this practice
having fallen into disuse, the court gradually
acquired a criminal jurisdiction concurrent with
that of the sheriff's tourn See COURT BARON,
COURT LEET, MANOR
FRANKS, THE The name borne by a con-
federation of Germanic tribes which appeared
on the lower and middle Rhine in the third
century after Christ and subsequently overthrew
the Roman power in Gaul The name is first
encountered about the year 240 Many attempts
have been made to identify them, with earlier
tribes, but there is no foundation for the sur-
mises which have been accepted as facts As
early as the beginning of the fourth century they
had established themselves in what is now Bra-
bant Quite early they became separated into
two distinct groups — the Salian Franks, who
dwelt on the lower stretches of the .Rhine and
its affluents, and whose name was formeily sup-
posed to have been derived from the river Yssel
or Saal, but is now connected by some with
their home on the seashore, and the Ripuarian
Franks or Riparn, whose temtories lay on both
banks of the Rhine along its middle course
The Salian Fianks were defeated by Julian in
358 and became allies of the Romans, who in-
trusted to them the defense of the border Dur-
ing the first decade of the fifth century the
Salian Franks, carried away by the onrush of
the other Germanic nations into Gaul, turned
upon the Roman provinces, captured Treves, and
soon became the masters of a large extent of
territory on the Meuse and the Scheldt, ac-
knowledging, however, the suzerainty of the Ro-
mans They fought under Aetius against Attila
on the Catalaunian Fields, in 451, and remained
on friendly terms with the Romans till after the
fall of the Western Empire
The real greatness of the Franks dates from
the Salian Clovis or Chlodwig (481-511), a
descendant of the fabled Mcroveus, who in 486
overthrew the Roman patrician Syagrms at
Nbgent, near Soissons, and 10 years later van-
quished the powerful confederacy of the Ale-
manni The Burgundians, the Visigoths of
Aquitame, and the Ripuarian Franks were like-
wise subjugated, and the limits of the Frankish
kingdom were extended from the Pyrenees to
Friesland and from the Atlantic to the Mam
Under the influence of his wife, Clotilda, Clovis
had accepted Athanasian Christianity in 496,
and in Ins campaigns against the Arian Goths
and Burgundians he acted in part as the cham-
pion of orthodoxy, thus marking the beginning
of the close connection between the Frankish
monarchy and the Roman Catholic church
After the death of Clovis the kingdom was di-
vided among his four sons Theodoric ruled
at Metz, Chlodomer at Orleans, Childebert at
Paris, and Clotalr at Soissons Thurmgia,
Burgundy, and Provence were acquired before
558, in which year Clotair became sole ruler of
all the Frankish lands After Clotair's death,
in 561, the kingdom was again divided among
his four sons Austrasia,, with a population
predominantly Germanic, fell to Sigebert, who
made his capital at Metz, Neustna, comprising
part of the Gallo-Roman provinces, v as assigned
to CMperic, with his capital at Soissons, Aqui-
taine fell to Charibert, Bui gundy, with its
capital at Orleans, was ruled by Guntrani In
567 Charibert died, and his dominions were
divided among his brothers The period that
follows is one of mteinecme stufe among the
descendants of Meroveus, marked by the foulest
crimes and excesses and resulting in the decay
of the Merovingian power In the prevailing
anarchy the great nobles who had been intrusted
with the government of the provinces seized the
opportunity to make themselves viitually in-
dependent and their offices hereditary (See
BRUNIIILDA, FREDEGTJNDA, MEROVINGIANS ) Clo-
tair II in 613 once more reunited the lands of
the Frankish crown, but the kings from this
time ceased to exercise any influence, and the
real power passed into the hands of the great
officeis of state — the chamberlain, the keeper of
the seal, and chief of all the mayor of the palace
(major domus) This office existed in all three
of the Frankish kingdoms, but it was in Aus-
trasia that a powerful family arose which held
exclusive possession of the mayoralty for moie
than 100 years, ruling as monarch's in fact, if
not in appearance This was the race of the
Carolmgians (qv) Pepm of Landen was
majordomus of Austrasia under Dagobert I
(628-638) and was succeeded by his son Gri-
inoald, who died in 656 Thirty years of con-
fusion followed, during which the Frankish lands
were repeatedly portioned out and reunited,
until, in 687, Pepm, frequently called Pepm of
Heristal, the Austrasian mayor of the palace,
overthrew the forces of Neuatria and Burgundy
in the battle of Testry, and thenceforth inlecl
as the majordomus of a united Frankish king-
dom His son, Charles Martel (714-741), ex-
tended the frontiers of the kingdom in the east
and in 732 repelled the tide of Saracen invasion
in the battle of Tours or Poitiers Charles's
son, Pepm the Short, ruled in conjunction with
his brother Karlmann till 747, and after that,
alone In 751 Childeric III, the last of the
Merovingians, was deposed, and Pepm ascended
the throne with the consent of the Pope Under
Charles the Great (qv ), the son of Pepm, the
Frankish power attained its greatest develop-
ment Germans and Latins were united under
Charles's sway, which extended from the Ebro
to the Eider and from the North Sea to Croatia
and Slavonia The most powerful monarch in
Europe, he became also the secular head of the
church, continuing in this manner the tradition
of the old Roman Empire His coronation as
Roman Emperor took place in 800 Charles's
successor, Louis the Pious, showed himself un-
equal to the task of holding together the huge
empire which his father had created Civil
strife disturbed the last years of his iQJgn In
841, the year after his death, his sons, Lothair,
Louis the German, and Charles the Bald, fought
the decisive battle of Fontenay, and two years
later, at Verdun, the Frankish Empire was par-
titioned among them (See VERDUN, TREATY
OF ) This marks the virtual dissolution of the
Frankish monarchy, though Charles the Fat suc-
ceeded for a moment (884-887) m reestablishing
the Empire Its place is henceforth taken by
the nations of France, Germany, and Italy
The r61e played by the Franks in the history
of Europe was one of capital importance Of
FRANKS
189
all the barbarian peoples they showed them-
selves the most capable of assimilating the Ro-
man culture of the countnes which they con-
quered Civilized, they became in tuin the
civilizeis of the German stocks which had re-
mained in their homes beyond the Rhine
Chailcs's campaigns against the Saxons carried
Chiistiamty into noithem Germany The elab-
orate machinery of government which he set up
within the Empire established order and respect
for the law in Europe, after such a manner as
had not been known since the best days of the
Roman Empire Unlike the absolutism of Rome,
however, the Prankish monarchy knew how to
reconcile Imperial power with the rights of the
subjects, as was shown in the retention of the
national and local assemblages of freemen or icp-
resentatives of freemen Fiankisli law influ-
enced profoundly the legal systems of all the
nations of western and central Europe (See
SALIC LAW ) Most important of all, however,
was the close connection between the Frankish
monarchy and the Catholic church The
donations of Pep in and Charlemagne and
the establishment of a new Roman empire
may be said to have determined the general
features of the political history of Europe
during the Middle Ages Consult Emcrton,
Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages
(Boston, 1895) , Thierry, Recits des temps
ineromnqiens (Paris, 1882) , Favre, L9 Empire
des Francs (ib , 1888) , Fustel de Coulanges,
Htstowe des institutions politiques de Vancienne
France-l'invasion germanique (ib , 1891), Ar-
nold, Frankische Zeit (Gotha, 1883), Waitz,
Deutsche Vcrfassungsgeschichte (Kiel, 1882) ,
Sergeant, The Franks (New York, 1898) , Mul-
lenhof, Deutsche Altertumskunde (5 vols , Ber-
lin, 1891-1906) 3 Lamprecht, Frankisohe Wan-
derungcn und Ansiedelungen (Aix-la-Chapelle,
1882 )5 Wietersheim, Oeschichte der VolLer-
wanderuny (2d ed , 2 vols, Leipzig, 1880-81),
Hodgkin, ^Italy and her Invaders, vols vn, vni
(Oxford, 1809) , Sclmltzc, Deutsche Oeschichte
von der Ur&eit bis #u den Karolingern, vol 11
(Stuttgart, 1896) , The Cambridge Mediceval
History, vols i, n (New York, 1911-13)
FRANKS, Sm AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-
97) An English archaeologist He was born
in Geneva, Switzerland, and was educated at
Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge He
was long associated with the British Museum
as custodian of the department of British and
medieval antiquities and ethnography During
the last five yeais of his life he was president
of the Society of Antiquaries, with which he had
been closely identified for many years His
knowledge of Oriental and mediaeval ceramics,
jewelry, and objects of art was most extensive,
and valuable collections which he made in all
these branches carnc into the possession of the
British Museum In the department of Ren-
aissance art he was also an acknowledged
authority His publications include Book of
Ornamental Glaring Quarries (1849) , JSaoamples
of Ornamental Art in Olass and Enamel (1858) ,
Himyantic Inscriptions -from Southern Arabia
(1863), Catalogue of Oriental Porcelain and
Pottery (1876-78), Japanese Pottery (1880),
Catalogue of a Collection of Continental Porce-
lain (1896)
FRAWQTTEVILLE, PIERRE See FBANCHE-
VILLE
FRANSCIiNT, fran-she'n&, STEFANO (1796-
1857) A Swiss political economist and statis-
tician, boin at Bodio in the Canton of Ticino In
1829heworked for constitutional reform in Ticmo
In 1830 he was elected chancellor of the canton,
and he was reelected in 1844 In 1848 he was
elected member of the Federal Council He did
much for Swiss education, notably in HIP Zuiich
Polytechnic In his Statistica della Sviazcra
(1827), Statistica della Svvsvera itahana (1837-
39), and Ueoersichten der Bevolkerung dei
Schweiv (1851), he may be said to have laid
the foundation of statistical science m Switzor-
Icxnd He also wiote Der Kanton Tcssin (1835)
Consult the sketch by Gfeller (Bern, 1898)
FRAHSECKY, frans'ki, EDUARD FRIEDRIOII
VON (1807-90) A German general, bom at Ge-
dern, Hesse He entered the Prussian army in
1825 and m 1843 was called to the general staff
Ho fought with distinction in the Danish War
of 1848 and in the Austro-Prussian War of
1866, wheie by his obstinate resistance against
powerful odds he helped to decide the engage-
ment at Munchengratz, and also took a promi-
nent pail in the battle of Sadowa As com-
mandei of the Second Army Corps dining the
War of 1870-71, he succeeded, after a forced
march, in reaching the battlefield of Gravelottc
in time to attack the heights of Pomt-du-Jour
with the First Army On December 1 he le-
ceived command of the Gciman foices between
the Seine and Marne rivers and on the following
day repelled General Duciot's attempt to bieak
through the lines at Champigny and Bue He
was the chief adviser of ManteufM in his opera-
tions against the Army of the East under
Bourbaki and compelled the French to retreat
into Switzerland In recognition of his services
he received 450,000 marks from the government,
the order of the Black Eagle, etc , and was ap-
pointed Governor of Berlin in 1879 He re-
signed in 1882 His memoirs were edited by
Von Bremen (Bielefeld, 1901)
FRANTZ, fraiits, KONSTANTIN (1817-91) A
German publicist He was born near Halber-
stadt, was educated at Halle and Beilm, for a
time studied and wrote on mathematics and
philosophy, and after acting a^i private secretary
in the Berlin Foreign Office was attached to the
consular service in Spam for three years (1853-
56) The central idea expressed in his works is
the ultimate and inevitable confederation of
central Europe against the United States and
Russia, with the Teutonic peoples as a nucleus
His principal works are Der Foderalismus als
das leitende Princip fur die soziale, staatlicJie
und Internationale Organisation (1879), Die
Weltpohtik (1882-83), and a pait of Schu-
chardt's Die deutsohe Politik der Zukunft
(1899) Consult Schuchardt, Fran-tut, Deutsch-
lands wahrer Realpohtiker ( Melsungen, 1896)
FRANTZIUS, fran'tsi-us, ALEXANDEB VON
(1821-77) A German explorer, born at Dan-
zig He was educated at Heidelberg and Berlin
and became established as a physician at Ala-
luela and in 1853 at San Jose", Costa Rica, where
he made extensive exploiations, the results of
which he published upon his return to Germany.
His works include Beitrage sur Jienntnis der
Vulkane Costa- Rica <$ (1861), Das rechte Ufer
des San Juanfiusses (1862) , Der sudosthche
Teil von Costa- ftioa (1869) , flan Salvador und
Honduras im Jahre 1516 (1873) Several of his
works have been translated into Spanish by
Cortes, Carazo, and Twight He translated into
German (1853) Aristotle's Parts of Animals
FRANZ, f rants, JULIUS (1824-87) A G«r-
3BAKZ
igo
10SEF LAND
man sculptoi He was born in Berlin and was
taught by Wiclimann and Fischer at the Acad-
emy of Ait in that city Aftei gaming valu-
able experience in the studios of Wiedow and
Ranch, he produced his first important work,
"Shepherd and his Dog in Conflict with a Tiger"
(1851, in the Sans-souci Gaiden ncai Potsdam)
Many woiks aie decorative lather than artistic
in character and are distributed about the royal
castles at Potsdam Among the colossal groups
executed by him in sandstone may be men-
tioned "America and England" (Berlin Borse) ,
'Prussia and Hanover," after a design by F A
Fi&cner ( Belle- Allianceplatz, Berlin) He le-
ceived a gold medal at the Berlin Exposition of
1858
EBJUre, ROBERT (1815-92) A celebrated
Gciman composer, bom at Halle The family
name was originally Knauth, but in 1847 it was
officially changed In spite of the opposition of
liib paients, Robert early began to study music,
and when 20 years of age went to Dessau, where
he was for two years a pupil of Friedrich
Schneider Upon his leturn to Halle he devoted
himself to the study of the great masteis of
music, especially Bach, Handel, and Schubert,
but it was not until 1843 that his first collection
of songs was published Schumann, Liszt, and
Mendelssohn praised them highly, and this suc-
cess gained for him a position as organist at
the Ulrichsknche He later became conductor
of the Singakadeniie and director of music at
the univeisity In 1868 Franz was compelled to
resign his positions on account of deafness and
ill health, and he was only kept from poveity
by a series of benefits given by his friends in
Geimany and America His arrangements of
some of HandeFs and Bach's works are standard,
but it is as a song composer that his fame is
assured His 257 songs, which are written for
solo voice and piano accompaniment, are similar
in style to those of Schumann and of Schubert,
and aie scarcely excelled by theirs In addition
to his songs he composed a number of sacred
works, the best of which are his six chorals.
He died in Halle His collected writings on the
interpretation of woiks of Bach and Handel
were published by R Bethge (Leipzig, 1910)
There are a number of biographical sketches of
Franz by Ambros, Saran, Schaffer, Schuster, etc ,
of special note being that by R v Prochaska,
Robert Franz (Leipzig, 1894)
FRAETZ, SHEPHERD IVORY (1874- ) An
American psychologist He was born m Jeisey
City, N J , giaduated in 1894 fiom Columbia
University (where he was an assistant in psy-
chology m 1897-99) , and also studied at the
University of Leipzig He taught physiology
at Harvard (1899-1901) and at the Dartmouth
Medical School (1901-04), and was pathological
psychologist at the McLean Hospital, Waverley,
Mass (1904-06), and after 1906 professor of
physiology and experimental psychology at
George Washington University In 1907 he be-
came psychologist and in 1910 scientific director
of the Government Hospital for Insane at Wash-
ington, DC In 1911 he was president of the
Southern Society of Philosophy and Psychology.
He contiibuted largely to scientific journals and
published a Handbook of Mental Examination
MetJiods (1912).
FRANZ-DHEBEB, fronts' draper. See DEE-
BER, HEINRICH FRANZ.
FBAJSTZEN, AUGUST (1863- ). An
American portrait and genre painter He was
bom at Norrkoping, Sweden, And came to the
United States in early >outh He studied in
Pans under Dagnan-Bouverot, and there laid
the foundation for the conscientious woik as a
poitraitist which mainly occupied his profes-
sional caieei He established himself in New
York, becoming a member of the Society of
American Artists m 1894 and associate of the
National Academy in 1906 Many distinguished
men sat to him and his exhibitions weie laigelv
attended A careful regard for the likeness and
peisonality of each sitter charactei izes his
poi traits, which are geneially giay in tone and
inclining towards the impressionistic tieatment
He is represented in the Biooklyn Institute
Museum by "Yellow Jessamine "
FRANZEN, fran-tsan', FRANS MICHAEL
( 1772-1847 ) A Swedish author and poet, born
at Uleaboig (Finland) While professor at the
Univeisity of Abo, he published his first volume
of poems (1794) Aftei the annexation of Fin-
land to Russia (1809), he lived in Sweden and
became successively pastor at Oiebio and Bishop
of Hernosand (1831) He excelled in lyric
poetry, particularly religious songs, some of
which are accounted among the best in the
Swedish language His works include Bkalde-
stycken (5 vols , 1824-36), Samladi Dikter
(1867-69), and Valda Dikter (1871), lyiic
poems, Oustav Adolf i TydsLland (1817-18),
an mcompleted national epic, CJiristopher Ou-
lutnlus (1831) , Eimli ellct en afton t Lappland,
ftbante nature, arid LappflicLan i Kungstrad-
yarden His MinnestecLmngar (1848-60), a col-
lection of biographies of prominent Swedes, are
models of their kind.
FRANZENSBAD, frants'ens-bat A fashion-
able watering place in Bohemia, Austria, situ-
ated about 1450 feet above sea level, in a some-
what barren, rolling country, 4 miles northwest
of Eger (Map Austria-Hungary, C 1) The town
is pleasantly laid out with shady streets and
charming parks, and is fully equipped as a
health resort It is chiefly famous for its cha-
lybeate and saline springs, impregnated with car-
bonic-acid gas They aie 12 in number, and aie
considered especially efficacious for anaemia and
diseases of women. The mud baths (Moor-
lader), formed by mixing warm mineral water
with pulverized mineral earth, aie employed in
cases of rheumatism and skin diseases .Pop ,
1900, 2330 The chief industries are bottling
water and extracting salts from the water The
waters of Franzensbad were mentioned as early
as the sixteenth century, and the town was
founded by Francis I in 1793
FRANZENSKANAL, frants' ens-ka-nal, or
BACSER CANAL A canal of Hungary, since 1801
connecting the Danube and the Theiss. It is 67
miles long, 65 feet wide, and 6% feet deep
FRANZ JOSEF LAND, frants yo'zei. An
Arctic aichipelago, north of Nova Zembla and
east of Spitzbergen, lying north of Asia, mainly
between Lit 80° and 82° N and long 42° and
65° E (Map Arctic Kegions, J 3) It was dis-
covered in 1873 by the Austro-Hungarian ex-
pedition under Weyprecht and Payer, and named
in honor of their emperor It is a group of
about 100 small islands separated by fiords,
channels, and sounds The principal islands are
Alexander, the most westerly point m long 42°
30' E , Graham Bell, the most easterly point in
64° 40' E , Wilczek; Prince George, Prince
Rudolph, the most northerly point, Cape Fligely,
in 81° 51' N , and Northbrook, the
FRANZOS it
southeily point in 79° 50' N" Tn general the
land is low, though Wullerstoff peak reaches a
height of 2408 feet The archipelago is still in
the Glacial period, less than one-tenth of the
land being ice-free Spitzbergen and the Franz
Josef archipelagoes, about 170 miles apait, are
doubtless connected by a chain of islands along
the eightieth parallel, as Victoria Island is onlv
50 miles west of Alexander Land and Gilhs
Land 30 miles east of North East Land, thus
leaving an unknown mteival of less than 100
miles The islands are volcanic and the geo-
logical formation is largely of Jurassic 01 Ter-
tiary basalt, and in the lower strata fossils of
plants and animals have been found As the
winter sun is absent more than four months, the
climate is distinctly polar The avciage tem-
perature in the coldest month is about — 19° F ,
and of the warmest month 35° F The cloudi-
ness vaues from about 50 per cent in wintei to
85 per cent in summer Dense fogs often pre-
vail Violent gales continue for days at a time
There are magnificent auroral displays The
chief plants of Franz Josef Land aie lichens,
mosses, and grass The willows, heaths, and
sedges usually found at even this high altitude
m other countries are heie lacking Of flower-
ing plants, the chief are the yellow and white
poppy, cresses, Drala alpma, scurvy grass,
Ccrastium alpinum, Sasoifraga, alpine foxtail
grass, and Poa cenesia The vascular ciypto-
gams are lacking Few species of hepaticae are
present, Marchantia polymorpha (the common
liverwort of Europe and America) being the
most prominent The mosses in numerous places
form thick carpets, with a brilliant coloring of
green and yellow and bright crimson Sea algse
are rare, but fresh-water algae are numerous
The lichens grow in profusion up to 600 feet
above the sea The variety of mammalian
fauna is very limited Polar bears are i elatively
plentiful, a few blue foxes are to be seen
walruses are fairly abundant The saddleback
and ground seals are scarce, but the ringed seals,
or "floe rats," are quite common The avian
fauna includes the snow bunting, eider duck,
purple sandpiper, vanous gulls (the glaucus,
kittiwake, and ivory), Richardson's skua, Brun-
mch's and black guillemots, and the little auk,
brant goose, snowy owl, and Arctic tein
Only half a dozen species of insects have been
found
The exploration of the Franz Josef archipelago
has been accomplished by the following expedi-
tions Leigh Smith, 1881-82, Jackson-Harms-
worth, 1894-97, ISTansen in his retreat, 1896,
Wellman, 1898 and 1900, the Duke of the
Abruzzi, 1899-1900, m which Cagni made the
world's record of 86° 33', Baldwin-Ziegler, 1901-
02, and Fiala-Ziegler, 1903-05
Consult Weyprecht, Sulla spedizione polate
austro-unganca (Triest, 1875) , Payer, New
Lands Within the Arctic Circle ( TCng trans ,
London, 1876) , Greely, Handbook of Polar Dis-
coveries (Boston, 1911) , Jackson, A Thousand
Days in the Arctic (New York, 1899) , Duke of
the Abruzzi, On the Polar Star in the Arctic
Sea (2 vols, ib., 1903); Peters, Ziegler Polar
Expedition, Scientific Results (Washington,
1907) See ARCTIC REGION, POLAR RESEARCH
FBANZOS, fr&n-tsds', KAKL EMIL (1848-
1904) A German journalist and novelist of
Jewish descent, noted for his pen pictures of
Eastern European life H& was born in Podoha,
Oct 25, 1848 His first volume, Aus ffall-Asien
»x FRASCATI
(1876), won Emopcan success for its brilliant
descriptions of life in Galicia, Rumania, and
southern Russia It was translated into several
languages This was followed by Vom Don zur
Donau (1878) and many novels, usually of the
same scenes that maintained his reputation Of
these the more noteworthy are Die Judcn von
Barnow (1879), Em Kampf urns Rocht (1882),
the Michael Kohlhaas of Galicia, Tragische No-
vellcn (1886), Judith Trachtenberg (1890),
Der Wahrheitsucher (1894) , Mann und Weil
(1897)
PH APA1T7 fra'paN', ILSE The pseudonym of
the German novelist and poet Use Levien (qv )
JFHAPOLLI, fra-p61'l§, LODOVICO (1815-78)
An Italian patriot and diplomat, born at Milan
He was forced to enter the Austrian army in
1831, but left it as soon as he came of age
In 1840 he went to France and studied at the
School of Mines He wiote on the origin and
formation of the earth, and on the geology of
Fim&terre and of the Scandinavian countries and
Cermany (where he tiaveled in 1843-47), and
was made secretaiy of the French Geological
Society lie took part in the fighting at Paris
in February, 1848, and latei in the year wont
to Milan, and held office in the Wai Ministry of
the Provisional Government in Lombardy Then
he was Ambassador in Paris of Lombardy,
Tuscany, and the Roman Republic an quick suc-
cession, but left the French capital after the
capture of Rome, and lived in Switzerland and
then in Saidima, and again m France He was
Minister of War under Farmi in Modena, but
retired, and in 1860 joined Garibaldi's expedi-
tion to Sicily and entered Naples with him He
wab an Italian deputy from 1860 to 1874, an
extreme member of the Republican party He
was a leader of the Italian Freemasons and be-
came Grand Master in 1869 In 1870 he again
fought under Garibaldi in France He died,
aftei a long illness, in a sanitarium
PEAS, or 3TRAZ, JACOB See VRAZ, STANKO
3?BASCATX, fras-ka'te" A beautiful summer
lesort in the Province of Rome, central Italy,
on the north slope of the Alban Mountains
(qv ), 15 miles southeast of Rome (Map Italy,
I) 4) It is the residence of a cardinal bishop,
and has two churches that were mentioned in
monastic records as early as the ninth century
In the cathedral of San. Pietro, dating from 1700,
is a memorial tablet to Charles Edward Stuart,
the Young Pretender of England, whose body,
buried here in 1788, now lies in St Peter's
Famous estates at Frascati are the Villa Tor-
lonia (formerly Villa Conti) 3 the Villa Lance-
lotti (formerly Villa Piccolomini ) , where in the
sixteenth century Cardinal Baronius wrote his
Annales> or Church history, the Villa Aldobran-
dim, built by Giaeomo della Porta for Cardinal
Pietro Aldobrandini, Clement VTIPs nephew,
winch contains paintings by the Cavahere
d'Arpmo, and the sixteenth-century Villa
Tusculana or Ruffinella, the property once of
Lucien Bonaparte and afterward of Victor Em-
manuel II This villa was the scene of the
robbery of Lucaen Bonaparte, which Washm^feon
Irving describes m his "Adventure of an Artist."
Near by are the ruins of an amphitheatre, the
so-calle'd Villa of Cicero, a Roman theatre and
reservoir, belonging to the ancient town of
Tusculum (qv) Frascati first became impor-
tant after the destruction of Tusculum in 1191
The city is noted for its wine Pop (Gommune),
1901, 9915, 1911, 10,577. Consult T Ashby,
FBASCH
192
FKASER
Papers of the British School at Rome, vol iv
(London, 1907)
FRASCH, frash, HEKMAN (1852-1914) An
American chemist and inventor, born in Gail-
dorf, Wurttemberg, Germany He took up the
practice of phaimacy in 1868 and, coming- to
America, entered the laboratory of Professor
Maisch at the Philadelphia College of Phar-
macy, there he became so interested in indus-
trial chemistry that in 1874 he established a
laboratory of his own His eailier inventions
facilitated the production of wax, oil, white
lead, and salt In 1885, when he went into the
peti oleum businpss for himself in London, On-
tario, he devoted himself so successfully to the
refining and purification of Canadian oils that
his product, the highest grade of pure oil, was
able to compete with the Pennsylvania oil The
patents so successfully developed, as well as the
woiks themselves, weie purchased by the Stand-
ard Oil Company in 1888 and the processes weie
put into practice immediately at their various
plants in the United States From this time on
a further series of patents for the treatment of
petroleum and peti oleum products were issued
to Mr Frasch, but it was in 1890 that he re-
ceived the patent for what must be consideied
an epoch-making improvement in the sulphui
industry Erecting a plant at the deposits of
native sulphur in Louisiana, by the use of super-
heated water sent down thiough a boring (at
a depth of 1000 feet), he melted the sulphur,
which was forced to the suiface through an inner
tube The melted sulphur, pumped into bins
about 50 feet high, would congeal, and the huge
blocks later would be broken up by blasting and
loaded directly into cars by a derrick of two tons'
capacity Prom these cars the sulphur would be
loaded immediately into vessels for shipment to
various coast and foreign ports. The result of
this invention was that from 1903 the imports
of sulphur into the United States diminished
from 181,130 tons, valued at $3,549,370, to 19,389
tons in 1914, in which year also there were
exported 110,022 tons, valued at $2,018,724
For the economic effect of this invention
in the United States and Europe, see SUL-
PHUR In 1912 Frasch was awarded the Perkin
medal
ERA/SEE/, ALEXANDER (1860- ) A
Canadian author and Gaelic scholar He was
Doin in Inverness-shire, Scotland, and was edu-
cated at a classical academy, Perth, and at
Glasgow University Coming to Canada in 1886,
he engaged in journalism, becoming city editor
of the Toronto Mail and later of the Toronto
Mail and Empire He also edited successively
the Scottish- Canadian, the Presbyterian Review,
and Eraser's Scottish Annual He took a prom-
inent part in founding the regiment of the
Forty-eighth Highlander, Toronto. For some
years he was lecturer in Gaelic at Knox Col-
lege in that city, and in 1895 he delivered the
annual Gaelic address before the Gaelic Society
at Inverness, Scotland He was elected presi-
dent of the Gaelic Society of Canada and of the
Canadian Folklore Society In 1903 he was ap-
pointed archivist of Ontario. He published
Short Scottish-Canadian Biographies, Essays on
Celtic Literature, Practical Lessons in Gaelic
(grammar; The Mission of the Scot in Canada,
The Last Laird of MacNab (1899), The 48th
Highlanders of Toronto (1900) , The History of
Ontario (1907), The Brock Centenary,
(1913).
ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819—
1914) A Scottish philosopher He was born
m Argyllshire, was educated in Edinburgh Uni-
versity, and from 1846 to 1856 was piofessor
of logic m New College, Edinburgh After con-
tributing extensively to the North Btitish Re-
view, he became editor in 1850 and held this po-
sition until 1857 In 1856 he succeeded Sir
William Hamilton as piofessor of logic and
metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh, re-
tiring in 1891 His work treats the three great
problems — the material world, man, and God —
in their mutual relations The first is discussed
in his Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop
Berkeley, with Annotations and Disset tations
(4 vols , 1871, enlarged ed , 1901) and m a
Biography of Betkeley (1881), the second in
his Annotated Edition of LocJce's Essay on the
Human Understanding, with Prolegomena Criti-
cal and Historical (1894) , and the three in his
collected lectures on the Philosophy of Theism
(2 vols, 1896, 2d ed , 1899) and his Biography
of Thomas Reid (1898) He advocates a practi-
cal faith in the divine order of a universe in-
completely inteipretable. He also published
Biographia Philosophica A personal RePiospeot
(1904), Our Final Venture (1907), Berkeley
and Spiritual Realism (1908)
FRASEU, ALEXANDER MACKENZIE (1756-
1S09) A British geneial He was educated
at Aberdeen and after a few years in the bank-
ing house of Forbes and Company, in Edinburgh,
accepted (1778) a commission in the Seventy-
thud Highlanders. He served in the defense of
Gibraltar and as reciuiting officer and retired
from the aimy in 1784, when he married Helen
Mackenzie In 1793 he was commis&ioned major
in the Seventy-eighth Highlanders He was sent
to Guernsey and in the following year to Flan-
ders , covered Abercrombie's reti eat before Piche-
gru and distinguished himself in the sortie
from Nimeguen and at Geldermalsen (1795).
In 1796 he served at the Cape of Good Hope
and a year later went to India, where he cam-
paigned against the Mahrattas When he re-
turned to England, he was elected to Parlia-
ment and received the grade of major general
(1802) In the next year he inherited piopeity
fiom his aunt and mother and took their family
name (Fraser) in addition to Mackenzie Af-
ter service in England, Hanover, and with Henry
Edward Fox (qv.) in Sicily, he was chosen by
Fox to command an expedition to get control
of Egypt, but fared very badly at Rosetta, after
capturing Alexandria, and had to retuin to
Sicily Sent to Portugal (1808), he advanced
with Moore into Spain, showed great military
ability in the retreat through Gahcia and at
Coiunna, and was made lieutenant general In
the following year he sickened while on the
Walcheren expedition and died soon after his
return to England
FRASEB, CHARLES (1782-1860) An Ameri-
can miniature and landscape painter He was
born in Charleston, S C , practiced law for 10
years to acquire the means of continuing his
art, and eventually was veiy successful as a
miniature painter He painted Lafayette's por-
trait in 1825 and the miniatures of many promi-
nent citizens of the South and also produced
many landscape and genre pictures In 1857
he exhibited in Charleston 313 miniatures and
139 oil paintings He wrote Reminiscences of
Charleston (1854) and, contributed to
periodicals.
PHASER
193
ERASER
ERASER, CHBISTOPHBB FINLAY (1839-91)
A Canadian statesman He was bom in Brock-
vine, Ontario, and was largely self-educated
After being employed as a pi inter in the office
of the Brockville Recorder, lie studied law and
was called to the bar of Upper Canada in 1865
He successfully practiced in Brockville, but soon
began to take an active interest in politics and
after confederation in 1867 was an unsuccessful
Liberal candidate for the House of Commons
In 1872 he was elected to the Ontario Legisla-
ture and, although unseated on petition, was re-
elected in the same year and remained a mem-
ber of that body until the close of his public
life In 1873-74 he was Provincial Secretary
and Eegistiar in the cabinet of Sir Oliver
Mowat (qv ) and in 1874 became Commissioner
of Public Works, an office which he letained
during the rest of his parliamentary career
Fiaser was a man o± sympathetic and attractive
personality and an eloquent speaker and strong
debater His chief claim to political recognition
was his successful leadership of the United Eo-
man Catholic League, an association formed to
give the Catholics of the province moie effi-
ciency in asserting their rights and in molding
legislation
ERASER, DONALD (1826-92). A Scottish
Presbyterian minister, born at Inverness He
graduated at the University of Edinburgh in
1842 and, after studying theology at Knox Col-
lege, Toionto, and at New College, Edinburgh,
held pastorates in Montreal, Inverness, and at
the Maiylebone Presbyterian Church, London
(1870-92). His works include Synoptical
Lectures on the Books of the Holy Scriptures
(3 vols , 1871-76) , The Church of God and the
Apostasy (1881), Thomas Chalmers (1881),
The Speeches of the Holy Apostles (1882),
Metaphors in the Gospels (1885) , Seven Prom-
ises Expounded (1885) , Sound Doctrine (1892)
Consult his Autobiography (London, 1892),
edited with select sermons by Dykes
ERASER, JAMES (1818-85) An English
prelate, born at Prestbury, Gloucestershire He
was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford, from
1840 to 1860 was fellow of Oriel, where he was
tutor in 1842-47 and * subdeari and librarian in
1844-47, and fiom 1847 to 1860 was lector of
Choldcrton, Wiltshire, and m 1860-70 of Upton
Kervet, Berkshire In 1858 he received the ap-
pointment of assistant commissioner to the
Boyal Commission on Education and made in
1859 a valuable report on the district assigned
to him. In 1865 he visited the United States
and Canada as a commissioner on education and
in 1866 rendered a second noteworthy report (Re-
port on the Common School Systems of the United
States and of the Provinces of Upper and Lower
Canada). In 1870, having refused the bishopric
of Calcutta, he was consecrated Bishop of Man-
chester. His administration of this diocese, un-
dertaken amid very grave difficulties and carried
on with remarkable activity, resulted m the es-
tablishment of 109 new district parishes, the
consecration of 99 new churches, and the intro-
duction of an admirable system of machinery for
diocesan work lie won the esteem of all Non-
conformists, including the Greek and Jewish
congregations at Manchester, and was called
"bishop of all denominations" Theologically he
was of the old High Church school and opposed
to the Traeta.nan movement In his chanties
he was liberal He published nothing beyond his
repoits as parliamentary commissioner and a
few addresses and sermons Two volumes of his
sermons, edited by J W Diggle, appeared in
1887-88 Consult Hughes, The Second Bishop
of Manchester (London, 1887), Diggle, The
Lancashire Life of Bishop Fraser (3d ed , ib ,
1889) , Bryce, Studies in Contemporary Biog-
iaphy (New York, 1903)
FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856) A
British traveler and author, boin at Rcelick,
Inverness, Scotland He went to the West In-
dies early in life and later to India, where in
1815 he explored the Himalayas with his
bi other William In 1821-22 he traveled in
Persia, wluther he returned in 1834-35 on a
diplomatic mission, and m 1835 he entertained
on behalf of the British government the two
exiled Persian princes His travels and adven-
tures furnished material foi romances Pie
wrote Journal of a Tour through Part of the
HimGila Mountains and to the Sources of the
Jumna and the Ganges (1820) , The Kuzsilbash,
a Tale of Khorasan (1828), The Persian Ad-
venturer (1800) , An Historical and Descriptive
Account of Persia (1834), The Daik Falcon
(1844), Military Memoirs of Col James Skin-
ner (1851).
ERASER, MAKY CRAWFOBD (MES HUGH)
An English author, the daughter of Thomas
Ci aw ford the sculptor, and sister of Marion
Crawford the novelist. She was born m Home,
was educated in England and in Home, married
Hugh Fraser, afterward Minister to Japan,
tiaveled with her husband in the two Americas
and in the East, and was received into the Ro-
man Catholic church in 1884 Mrs Eraser's
finest literary work is found m her interpreta-
tions of the new Japan, the land and its people
In 1899 she published A Diplomat's Wife in
Japan (new ed , 1911) and five stories, called
The Customs of the Country, or Tales of New
Japan. She has depicted Devonshire life in A
Chapter of Accidents (1897) and modern Roman
society in The Splendid Porsenna, (1899) Her
work also includes Letters from Japan (1904) ;
A Diplomat's Wife in Many Lands (1910) , Fur-
ther Reminiscences of "a Diplomat's Wife
(1912); The Honor of the House, with J I
Stahlman (1913), Italian Yesterdays (1913);
The Bale Fire, with her husband (1914).
ERASER, SIMON See LOVAT, twelfth Lord
ERASER, SIMON (c 1729-77) A British
soldier, born m Balnam, Inverness-shire He
was a subaltern m a battalion of the Earl of
Drumlanrig's regiment in the Dutch service, was
wounded at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1748, and in
1749 was pensioned upon tlie reduction of the
two battalions to one In 1757 he was appointed
a captain lieutenant in the Second Highland
Battalion (later the Seventy-eighth Highland-
ers) and was promoted to the rank of captain
in 1759 He was at the siege of Louisburg and
in the action at Quebec. He afterward served
in Germany, at Gibraltar, and in Ireland, and
in 1768 became lieutenant colonel of the Twenty-
fourth Foot With the rank of brigadier for
America, he accompanied Burgoyne in the pur-
suit of the American forces retreating from
Fort Ticonderoga under the command of St
Clair, and at Hubbaidton (July 7, 1777) he won
a complete victory over them He fought in
the first battle of Saratoga (September 19),
and was mortally wounded in the second (Oc-
tober 7)
ERASER, SIR THOMAS RICHARD (1841-
1920), An English physician, born at Calcutta
I-BASBB
194
FBASEB RIVEK
and educated at the University of Edinburgh,
where he graduated in medicine in 1862 Ho
was assistant physician in the Royal Infirmary,
Edinburgh (1869-74), a member of the Admi-
ralty committee on Sir Geoige Nares's Arctic
expedition in 1876-77, and in 1877 became pro-
fessor of matena medica at Edinburgh and of
clinical medicine in the year following He was
dean of the faculty of medicine from 1880 to
1900, president of the Indian Plague Commis-
sion (1898-1901), president of the Royal Col-
lege of Physicians of Edinburgh (1900-02), of
the Medicochirurgical Society (1901-03), and of
the Association of Physicians of Great Bi it-
am and Ii eland (1908-09). In 1902 he was
knighted Known as an authority on poisons, he
published An Investigation into Some Pre-
viously Undeserved Tetanic Symptoms Produced
in Cold-blooded inimals (1867-68), An Ex-
perimental Research on the Antagonism between
the Action of Physostigma and Attopia (1870) ,
The Character, Action, and Therapeutic Uses of
Physostigma (1883), which won the Barbier
prize from the Academy of Sciences, Paris,
and the Dyspnoea of Bronchitis and Asthma
(1887)
PHASER, SIR WILLIAM (1816-98) A Scot-
tish genealogist, born in Kmcardmeshire He
became deputy keeper of the records at Edin-
burgh m 1880 The valuable material theie
enabled him to prepare his numerous genealogi-
cal works, which though diy in style aie of
great mipoitance to the student of Scottish his-
tory From 1869 to 1898 he diew up icports
on Scottish historical manuscripts for the Royal
Commission on Historical Manuscripts He gave
£25,000 to found a professorship of paleography
and ancient history at Edinburgh and an equal
sum for homes for the poor of the city. Among
his works are History of the Carnegies, Eat Is
of tfouthesk (2 vols , 1867) , The Chiefs of Colgu-
houn and their Country (2 vols, 1869), The
Lennox (2 vols, 1874) , The Douglass Book (4
vols, 1885) , The Mlphmstone Family Book (2
vols, 1897)
KRASER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1859- ) .
A Canadian poet and novelist Born and edu-
cated in Pictou Co , Nova Scotia, he early went
to New York, then to Boston, and afterward
to India (where he lived seven years at one
time and a year and a half at another). Five
yeai s he spent in the Canadian Northwest. The
life of these regions is vividly described in his
writings, which include, besides a large number
of short stories which appeared in the best
American and British periodicals The Eye
of a G-od, and Qthet Tales of East and West
(1899) ; Mooswa and Others of the Boundaries
(1900); The Outcasts (1901), Sorrow and Old
Friends (1901), Thoroughbreds (1902), The
Blood Lilies (1903), Bicwe Hearts (1904),
The Sa'-sada Tales (1905), Thirteen Hen
(1906), The Lone Furrow (1907). Among hm
poems are the words of a national song entitled
"Canada, God, and our Land5'
FBASIER, Sm WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1826-
98) An English politician and author, edu-
cated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford.
Entering the army, he rose to a captaincy in
1852, but resigned his commission and entered
Parliament in the Conservative interest He
represented Barnstable (18-52 and 1857), Lud-
low (1863), and Kidderminster (1874-80) Fra-
ser became famous in London society for his
stories and anecdotes concerning Wellington
and Disraeli He published Woids on Welling-
ton (1889), The Waterloo Ball (1897), Dis-
raeli and his Day (1891), Hie et Ubique
(1893), Napoleon III (1896) His. library was
sold at auction for over i20,000
FRA'SERA A genus of Noith Ameuoan
plants of the family Gentianaeeae, comprising
about 10 species, and named after John Fraser,
an English botanist The species are strong-
gi owing, single-stemmed, usually biennial heibs
with thick bitter roots, opposite or whoiled
leaver, and bluish, white, or yellowish, generally
spotted flowers m cymose clusters They aic
rarely seen in cultivation
FRA'SEBBTTBG-H A seaport in Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland, 42 miles north of Aberdeen
(Map Scotland, G 2) It is the chief seat of
the Scottish herring fishery and, besides cured
herrings and cod, exports oats, barley, meal,
and potatoes It has three tidal harbors, and
its shipping includes 14 sailing vessels, 8 steam
vessels, and a fleet of 700 fishing boats The
hemng trade is valued at $1,000,000 yearly
The town possesses a handsome cioss, town hall,
and spacious customhouse, the streets are wide
and clean, with substantial dwellings Its site
is immediately south of Ptolemy's Piomontonum
Tcexahum, now Kinnaird Head, on which stands
Fiaser's ancient castle, utilized as a lighthouse,
•with its mystciious wine tower and a cave be-
neath Pop, 1901, 9000, 1911, 11,151, with a
laige inciease during the fishing season in July
and August
FRASEB BIVEB The principal stream of
British Columbia, comprising in its basm of
138,000 square miles the greater part of the
province (Map Butish Columbia, D 3, 4). The
Fraser River proper has its origin in the union
of two branches, the more important of which
receives its waters from a series of lakes that
lie in lat 54° to 55° N , long about 124° 50'
W, and flows in a general southeast direction
for 160 miles, where it unites with the other
branch, 200 miles long, which has its source
near Mount Brown in the Rocky Mountains
The point of confluence is near Fort Geoi<Te,
and thence the Fraser River flows in a gxmci ally
southerly direction through nearly the whole
length of the province and, after a total com so
of about 750 miles, empties into the Gulf of
Georgia between Vancouver Island and the
mainland, -just north of the mtei national bound-
ary of 40° N, latitude Its chief affluents are
the Stuart, the Blackwater, the Nechaco, the
Budge, and the Chilcotin on the right, and
the Thompson and Quesnel on the left. Between
the Stuart and the Chilcotm, and on the same
side, the Fraser River is joined by a small
affluent of historical interest — the West Road
River — \vhich took its name from its having
been ascended by Sir Alexander Mackenzie on
his adventurous journey of 1793 from the Hud-
son Bay territories to the Pacific Ocean The
Fraser River is navigable for small and power-
ful steamboats as far as Fort Hope, and at high
water to Yale, about 100 miles from its mouth,
while as far as New Westminster, about 15
miles from its mouth, it is navigable for ships
drawing 20 feet of water. Another stretch of
100 miles in the interior is also navigable for
small craft, from Soda Creek to Fort George
Cafion Above Fort Hope the river sweeps
through Big CaSon, which is traversed from
Lytton downward by the Canadian Pacific Rail-
Way From April to August the river is sub*
FRASER RIVER SALMON r
]ect to floods, caubed by the melting snow on the
mountain ranges In the narrow mountain val-
leys the rivei uses as much as 60 feet abo\e its
normal height and m the lower valleys coveis
150,000 to 200,000 acres of rich land
In 1857 the Fraser Ilivei, m its auriferous
diggings and was lungs, began to stand forth as
the rival of California and Australia The dis-
coveries, originally confined to the lower basins,
have become moie extensive and moie produc-
tive, and eastward on the Thompson and north-
waid among the upper waters of the great arteiy
of the countiy, especially in the Cariboo dis-
trict south of Fort Geoige, the precious deposit
has sometimes given almost fabulous retuins
After 1862 washings and surface diggings were
succeeded by systematic mining and steady labor.
The river, its tributanes, and the numerous
lakes communicating with them., furnish great
facilities foi the transport of timber The lower
Ihascr country especially is densely wooded.
The salmon of the liver, of which there are five
species, are justly famous, and the fishing and
canning industries are of considerable impor-
tance. The river takes its name from. Simon
Fraser, who, m spite of the hostility of Indians
and the natural difficulties to be overcome, ex-
ploied it to its mouth in J808
ERASER RIVER SALMON. A species of
salmon (Oncorhynohus nerka), called blueback,
i edfish, etc , which is the most common and
valuable one in and near the Fraser River,
British Columbia See SALMON, REDFISH, Plate
of SALMON
PRA'SERVILLE, or RIVIERE DTT LOUP,
re'vyai' du loo (EN BAS) A town, summer le-
foort, and important railway centre of Temis-
couata Co , Quebec, Canada, picturesquely sit-
uated on elevated ground at the confluence of
the Hiviere du Loup with the St. Lawrence, 118
miles by rail northeast of Quebec (Map Quebec,
J 3) It is on the Intercolonial Railway and
is the terminus of the Temiscouata Railway It
has the Fiaser Institute and other educational
establishments ana carries on a consideiable
general trade. The manufacturing industries
include flour, shingle, and pulp mills, chair,
sash and door, furniture, and buttei factones,
a foundry, machine shops, and a brick plant.
The repair shops of the Temiscouata Railway
and railway shops of the Intercolonial Railway
are located here. The town owns its lighting,
water-works, and sewerage plants It Is much
frequented for its shooting, angling, boating,
bathing, and its scenery Pop , principally
French-Canadian, 1901, 4569, 1911, 6774
ERASIER, fra'zhgr (OF, Fr , strawberry
plants, from f raise, strawberry, from Lat
fragum, strawberry plant; In heraldry, a
strawberry flower appearing in the arms of the
Scottish family of Fraser, called by English
heralds a cmquefoil and known also as a prim-
rose See HERALDRY
FRATERNAL INSURANCE The char-
acteristics which distinguish fraternal insurance
from other forms are not to be sought in any pe-
culiarity of the insurance itself, but rather m
the nature of the body which grants it There
is no single feature of fraternal insurance
which is not to be found m other systems of life
insurance Fraternal insurance is insurance
granted by 'a "fraternal beneficiary" society or
order to its members The essentials of such a
society, as laid down by the National Fraternal
Congiess, are, that it should be organized in a
)5 FRATERNAL INSURANCE
system of lodges, that it should have a ritual
and a lepiescntative foim of government, that
it should pay benefits, and should not conduct its
business toi proiit Such societies have almost
invariably collected then piemmms by means of
assesbments , but the assessment principle is not
essential to their business, and on the other hand
its use is by no means confined to such oigan-
i/ations A great deal of undeseived odium has
attached to fraternal insurance societies owing
to the failure to discriminate between them and
commercial assessment companies The history
of the latter is for the most part a record of
inefficiency or dishonesty on the part of the
iwinageis and credulity on the part of the mem-
bers, ending in a laige proportion of cases in
financial disa&ter
History The early Amencan fraternal so-
cieties were established somewhat on the lines
of the English friendly societies, seveial of
which founded blanches in the United States
duimg the fiiat half of the nineteenth century
Both the English and the caily American so-
cieties paid benefits of various kmcb, often in-
cluding funeral benefits and payments to the
survivors of the deceased members, but none of
them established a system of payments deserv-
ing the name of life insurance The first person
in the United States to recognize the possibili-
ties of developing on a largo scale coopcia-tive
relief in the form of death benefits or life in-
surance through a system of affiliated lodges
was John Gordon Up church, who founded in
1868 the Ancient Order of United Workmen
Several other benefit societies, organized on the
lodge system, were established during the next
decade Some of these introduced the insurance
feature at once, led to it by the high lates
charged by the old-line companies and the harsh
provisions of their policies A more powerful
impetus towards the introduction of insurance
into such societies came in the seventies, when
more than 60 legal-reseive old-line companies
failed, ci eating a feelmg of distrust and hostil-
ity towaids them Under the influence of this
feeling fraternal societies already established
intiodueed the insurance feature, new societies
providing for it were formed, and nonfraternal
assessment insurance companies appeared in
large numbers In the decade 1881-90 many
additional fraternal insurance companies were
organized The eleventh census reported that
on Dec 31, 1889, there were in the United
States 298 such orders, with 40,342 subordinate
lodges Owing to unsound financial method,
many of these were short-lived, so that, in spite
of the founding of many new orders, since 1890
there has probably been no increase
It is impossible to compile a complete list of
fraternal insurance societies, since in many
States they are exempted from the duty of mak-
ing reports to the Insurance Department The
reports for the year ending Dec 31, 1913, of
75 fraternal insurance societies doing business
in the State of New York show a total of in-
surance certificates of 5,032,284, with protection
in force at the end of the year aggregating* $#,163,-
020,552 Of the societies reporting, the one hav-
ing the largest membership was tfre Modern
Woodmen of America, which had 962,966 certifi-
cates, representing $1,545,759,000 protection, in
force The aggregate sum paid by inembers was
$80,461,386, and the total disbursements for
losses were $64,091,344 The expenses were $10,-
386,102 The 34 joint-stock and mutual life-
FRATERNAL
196
INSURANCE
insurance companies m tlie State reported to
the same department Dec 31, 1913, an aggre-
gate of 7,001,913 policies, with $13,527,321,222
protection in force Losses and claims were
$246,4=59,831, while premium leceipts aggregated
$597,202,210
Organization and Activities The forms of
organization of the fraternal orders are vari-
ous Their government is representative and is
vested in a supreme body consisting of an exec-
utive head and certain official associates In
some orders State lines are observed and State
officers exercise immediate jurisdiction in many
matters over the local lodges in the State
While nominally subordinate to the general
body, they are more or less masters of the order
in their own territory Some orders have no
intermediate State organization, the local asso-
ciations are directly affiliated with the supreme
body. The Ancient Order of United Workmen
may be cited as an illustration of the former
class, the Independent Order Sons of Benja-
min of the lattei The activities of the differ-
ent orders are also very various It is unneces-
sary to speak of the social features which con-
stitute so important a part of their life These
are entirely under the control of the local bodies
and manifest little approach to uniformity In
the matter of benefits also there is very great
diversity Some of the societies give only death
benefits, others give benefits of many other
kinds, such as disability, accident, sickness,
burial, and monument benefits These miscel-
laneous benefits are usually supported and man-
aged by the local lodges The death benefits, on
the other hand, are usually under the control of
the supreme national body, in a few orders they
are maintained by the general State organiza-
tion Three federations of fraternal beneficiary
associations have been formed — the National
Fraternal Congress, the American Fraternal
Congress, and the Associated Fraternities of
America The National Fraternal Congress
was formed at a meeting held in Washington in
1886, at which delegates from 17 orders were
present In the constitution the objects of the
congress are "declared to be the uniting perma-
nently of all legitimate fraternal benefit socie-
ties for the purposes of mutual information,
benefit, and protection " In recent years it has
devoted a large part of its time and energy to
the attempt to accomplish two objects The
first is the voluntary increase of assessment
rates by the affiliated orders for the purpose
of accumulating reserves, or, as they prefer to
call them, emergency funds, the second is the
securing of uniform legislation by the various
States on matters affecting fraternal insurance
Some of the specific measures advocated by
them will be referred to later on
The American Fraternal Congress was organ-
ized at Omaha, Neb , in 1898, by representatives
of 18 fraternal orders The purpose of this or-
ganization was to work for the establishment of
reserve funds by the fraternal societies No
society without a reserve fund was eligible to
membership The National Fraternal Congress
lias done so much work along the same line
that the more recent federation had little occa-
sion to act and has not become very prominent
The Associated Fraternities of America was or-
ganized at Chicago in 1901 by representatives
of the younger fraternal orders Forty-two so-
cieties were represented at the meeting The
first annual meeting was held in July, 1901, 24
associations being repiesented In its early
years the Associated Fraternities of America
was vigorously opposed to the policy of the Na-
tional Fraternal Congress of seeking legislation
filing a minimum assessment late The two or-
ganizations soon sank their differences, however,
and cooperated in many cases in legislative pro-
grammes In 1913 they formed an amalgama-
tion under the name of the National Fratemal
Congress of America.
Technique Assessment insurance was organ-
ized largely in protest against the methods of
the old-line life-insurance companies It was
generally believed that the cost of insurance in
those companies was unnecessarily high A le-
duction in cost was anticipated from two
sources In the first place it was proposed to
reduce the expense of management to a mini-
mum and in this way to cut down the "loading"
\vhich thp old-line companies added to the nat-
ural premium In the second place it was pio-
posed to do away with the enoimous surpluses
\vhich the old-line companies were popularly
supposed to be continually accumulating and
never paying out. "Pay your losses as they oc-
cur and keep your reserve in your own pockets,"
was the maxim of the advocates of the assess-
ment principle No financial craze recoided in
history lias affected more people, or people with
sounder judgment in oidinary business matteis,
than did the assessment craze Its culmination
was reached in the establishment of a large
number of assessment endowment societies,
which guaranteed to every member a certain
stipulated sum at the end of a fixed period of
time in return for a number of periodical pay-
ments to the company The Iron Hall was the
first and most notorious of these associations
This organization virtually promised its mem-
bers that in consideration of the annual pay-
ment to the society for seven years of 18 assess-
ments of $2 50 each, making a total contribution
of $315, each member should receive from the
society $1000 at the end of the seven years.
For a few years such payments were actually
made, the endowments of the early memb^is
coming out of the contributions of the new
members Only by a steady increase of mem-
bership at a continually increasing geometucal
ratio could such a system be maintained The
Iron Hall and all its imitators came to grief
within a few years, bringing loss upon millions
of people in the United States
The assessment life-insurance companies weie
managed on no sounder principles than the as-
sessment endowment societies At the begin-
ning all of them, whether fraternal or non-
fraternal, raised their funds by assessments af-
ter the death for which indemnity was to be paid
In the early days of an assessment company,
while the aveiage age of the members was low
and the benefit of medical selection was still
felt, these assessments were very small Knowl-
edge of the scientific principles of life insur-
ance was not to be found among the promoters
of these companies The need of mortality
tables and the desirability of accumulating a
surplus during the earlier years to prepare for
increasing mortality were both denied, It was
the geneial claim that the continual accession
of new members would prevent any advance in
the average age of the members or in the death
rate This might have been the case if a com-
pany had been started with a membership whose
age distribution was properly related to a sound
FKATEBNAL INSURANCE
197
INSURANCE
mortality table It could not possibly be the
case in a company which staited, as all these
companies did start, with a great preponder-
ance of young members In such a company it
is clear on a priori grounds that the average
age of members must inciease Kxpenence soon
demonstrated the same fact The average age
of members and the death late increased, and
the inevitable increase in the late of assess-
ment kept new members out of the society,
and, on the other hand, the lapse rate contin-
ually advanced, through the withdiawal of
members who were unwilling to pay the in-
creased assessments, or desired to join new
societies in which the average age, death rate,
and assessments were still low The vast ma-
jority of nonfraternal assessment societies and
a large number of fraternal associations were in
this way forced out of business
The greatest enemies of an old-established
fraternal insurance society aie unreasonable ex-
pectation created by unjustifiably low rates
at the beginning, and new companies with low
moitahty and small assessments Realizing this
fact, the old societies adopted two lines of ac-
tion to protect themselves In the first place
they un dei took a campaign of education among
their own members Year aftei year they ana-
lyzed the returns of the constituent orders and
pointed out the inevitable advance from year
to year in average age, in death rate, and in
cost of insurance, as well as the tendency of the
members to desert the old companies and flock
to the new. A comparison of the average an-
nual death rate in different years for the entire
congress has no significance, since old companies
with a high death rate are continually passing
away and new companies with low death rates
coming in At the meeting of the congress in
1899 the report of the committee on statistics
pointed out that while the average death rate
for the whole body was 8 65 per 1000 in 1808,
as compared with 9 32 in 1897, if allowance was
made for the influence of the new orders in
lowering the rate (it was impossible to make
allowance for the similar effect of the with-
drawal of the older orders ) , the figures would
be 887 in 1897 and 889 in 1898 The com-
mittee also compiled the death rates for 21 com-
panies for each of 10 years In 1888 the aver-
age had been 722, in 1893, 934, and in 1898,
10 84 As to the effect of these changes upon
membership it was shown that of the 46 orders
reporting that year 19 had a death rate above
the average for the group, and 27 a rate below
the average, that the 19, with a membership
at the beginning of the year of 869,862, had
made a net gam during the year of only 2415,
and that the 27, with a membership at the be-
ginning of the year of 1,192,811, showed a net
gain of 217,282 The rate of gain in the former
group was 0 28 per cent and in the latter 18 26
per cent
In a similar way the committee demonstrated
that average age and cost of insurance both in-
crease as the society grows older Thoroughly
aroused by such revelations, the congiess au-
thorized the appointment of a committee to pi e-
pare tables of rates by applying to a proper ex-
tent the principles of a reserve or an emergency
fund This committee first prepared a new mor-
tality table, after investigation which convinced
it that the tables of mortality in use by the old-
line companies were higher than experience jus-
tified The divergence between the old tables
and the new ones is brought out by the follow-
ing compaiison of the death rate per 1000 living
at different ages
American
Frater-
American
Fratei-
AGE
experience
table
nal
table
*.&T!
experience
table
nil
table
20
781
500
60
26 GO
2275
25
807
520
65
40 13
34 40
30
843
555
70
61 99
53 65
35
895
615
75
9437
8548
40
979
717
80
14447
13810
45
11 16
888
85
235 55
225 10
50
1378
11 45
90
454 55
368 95
55
1857
1571
95
1000 00
60678
While the mortality experience of every old-
line life-msuiance company winch exercises due
caie in the selection of its risks shows a rate of
loss below that indicated by the American ex-
peiience table, the degree of difference between
the two tables here outlined gives reason to think
that the frateiruty table is very close to the
margin of safety According to* the report of
the National Fiaternal Congress for 1913, the
number of deaths during the year was 96 27 per
cent of the expected deaths Dividing risks into
two classes, those under 50 and those ovei, it
appears that the ratio of actual deaths ex-
pected was 83 35 per cent for the former and
11274 for the latter. These figures are sub-
stantially repeated year after year
On the basis of the new mortality table, and
on the assumption that the reserve will earn 4
per cent interest, the committee prepared sev-
eral tables of minimum rates. Besides the level
annual rate, such as is commonly used by old-
line companies for whole-life policies, the com-
mittee prepared a table of rates peculiar to the
fraternal and assessment societies, the so-called
step rate. The step rate advances with advanc-
ing age, but not from year to year as the nat-
ural premium rate does, but at stated intervals,
usually every five years By a modification of
the step-rate plan a slight addition is made to
the premium rate during the earlier years, in
older to make possible a reduction of the rate
in old age All the rates prepared by the com-
mittee presupposed the abandonment of the
system of assessing after the occurrence of the
loss and the accumulation of a surplus at least
for one year The congress urged Its members
to adopt as minimum rates those prepared by
the committee, with such loading for expenses
as each association found necessary Some or-
ganizations did this, but the extent to which
changes were introduced was very unequal. The
result was a high degree of diversity of rates
At the National Congress for 1899 there was ex-
hibited a table of rates actually charged for
the same kind of insurance at the same age in
different fraternal societies At age 50, eg, no
less than 41 rates for the same protection were
in force in different companies, varying by mod-
erate differences from a minimum of 65 cents to
a maximum of $3 80
Despairing of its ability to secure the adop-
tion of the new rates through the voluntary ac-
tion of the orders, and dreading the effect of the
competition of new orders with low rates, the
congress undertook to secure the adoption of
these rates through legislation In the session
held in 1901 the president reported that legisla-
tion requiring the establishment of these mini-
mum rates as conditions of doing business in
IFBATBBOTTXES
198
FBATEBHITIES
the State had been secured in five States, viz ,
North Dakota, Tennessee, Washington, Vermont,
and Indiana At the Congress of Insurance
Commissioneis at Coloiado Springs in 1909, at
the instance of the president of the National
Fraternal Congress, a bill was prepared the pro-
visions of which were calculated to insure the
solvency of the orders This bill was indorsed,
in modified form, at the Mobile Congress m
1910, and hence is known as the Mobile Bill
The bill requires the oiders to make leports of
condition, in which reports certificates shall be
\alued on the basis of the National Fraternal
Congress table, as minimum, and returns from
investments shall be calculated at not above 4
per cent The Mobile Bill had been enacted in
1913 in 11 States and had been put into opera-
tion by insurance-depaitment lulmg m two
States An amended form of this bill, known as
the New York Conference Bill, had been adopted
in 14 States Six other States have enacted
laws having substantially similar provisions
In the 33 States covered by such laws no so-
ciety can be organized except on the basis of
fairly adequate rates
Rates in the frateinal companies can be legit-
imately kept below rates in the regulai com-
panies in only two ways — either by making such
a selection of lives that the late of moitahty
is lower in the former than in the lattei, or by
keeping expenses of management below those of
the old-line companies To a greater or less ex-
tent both these aims are accomplished There
can be no doubt that the clo&e personal scrutiny
which every individual undeigoes before being
admitted to a lodge is a valuable supplement to
the medical examination If it is found that
the mortality schedule adopted is sufficiently
high, rates may legitimately be put below the
old-line level Moreover, the expense of manage-
ment in the fiaternals is reduced to a minimum
It is clear, therefore, that there are great op-
portunities for economy by the fraternal com-
panies, and it may fairly be expected that those
among them which take to heart the lessons of
experience and put their business on a sound
basis, so far as the matter of surplus is con-
cerned, will continue their usefulness indefi-
nitely, furnishing insurance in comparatively
small amounts at low rates to those most in
need of it and least able to pay for it at high
rates Consult F H Bacon, Treatise on the
Law of Benefit Societies and Ltfe Insurance (3d
ed, 2 vols, St Louis, 1904). See FBIENDLY SO-
CIETY.
EBATEB/HITIES (Lat. fraterwitas, brother-
hood, from fraternus, brotherly, from frater,
brother, connected with Gk (frp&ryp, phrater,
clansman, OChureh Slav bratru, OPruss bratis,
Lith. brohs, Ir, Gael brathair, Corn. bredar}
Skt bhtatar, Goth brolpar, OHG* bruodar, Ger
JBruder, AS. bropor, Eng brother), AMERICAN
COLLEGE Societies of students found m nearly
all the colleges and universities of the United
States In general they are secret in character ,
but this secrecy is largely nominal, consisting
chiefly of extreme care in protecting their con-
stitutions, mottoes, and grips from outside
knowledge and in holding secret meetings.
Aside from this they do not cultivate mystery
in their methods of work The fraternities are
composed of branches called "chapters," situated
in the various colleges. But no fraternity has
more than one chapter in any one college
Usually the students of all collegiate depart-
ments aie eligible to inembeiship, though the
academic department has unifoimlv tuinished
the largest pait ot fraternit} m<>mberbhip
Fiaternities are vanously termed by outsiders
"Gieek-Letter Fraternities" and "College Seciet
Societies," but among themselves the term
''Fraternities" is umvei&dlly used
nomenclature The Gieek alphabet is gen-
erally employed to name both the fraternity and
the chapter Usually a Greek letter is assigned
to a chapter according to the order of its estab-
lishment, but in some fraternities the name of
the State may be added, and less frequently
the chapter takes its name from the college 01
town in which it is placed In one professional
fraternity the chapters are named aftei some
pi eminent individual When chapters ha^e used
all the letters of the alphabet, it is eustom-
aiy to start anew, and add the word etdeuteron"
to the letter, thus signifying second The
badges of the fraternities aie of three types
One is a plate of gold, which displays the fra-
ternity name and one or more symbols of special
significance A second form is a monogram of
the letteis of the fraternity, while the third is a
symbol, as a key, a skull, or a scroll
Origin, etc The first Greek-letter society,
Phi Beta Kappa, was organized at the College
of William and Mary in 1776 "The promotion
of hteiatuie and of fuendly intei course among
scholars" was its given object In Deeembei,
1779, blanches were authorized at Yale and
Haivard, and m 1780 the meetings of the parent
chapter ended amid the vicissitudes of the Revo-
lution The Yale chapter was established in
1780 and that at Haivard in 1781 In 1787 these
two chapters united to found a chapter at Dait-
mouth College It continued as a secret frater-
nity until 1831, since when it has become an
honorary organization, and membership is
gained only by high scholarship and given only
to honor men, usually of graduating classes
(See PHI BETA KAPPA ) Similar in chaiacter
to the foregoing but selecting its members from
among those who have achieved distinction in
scientific studies is Sigma Xi, founded at Cor-
nell in 1886 and Tau Beta Pi, organized in Le-
high in June, 1885, which exists in technical
and scientific departments only and elects to
membership students of high standing in ap-
plied science There are many local honorary
frateimties, such as Pi Beta Nu at Minnesota,
Lambda Sigma Eta at Maine, and Alpha Theta
Phi at Noith Carolina In 1821 a literary so-
ciety was founded in Yale, called Chi Delta
Theta. Other literary societies were oiganisced,
in which might be mastered the art of debate,
and in which oratory might be indulged in be-
fore an audience of college mates These liter-
ary societies have served no mean part in col-
lege life, and they have had faculty appiobation
and encouragement, but their literal y contests
and election rivalries prevented any deep fiater-
nal interest in them The fraternity system, as
it now exists, originated at Union in 1825, when
Kappa Alpha, the first of men's general frater-
nities, was established. It imitated Phi Beta
Kappa m its secrecy, in its Greek title, and in
its limitation of membership to upper-class
men The start of the fraternity system was
very simple But its novelty was so marked
that it at once aroused opposition on the part
of the faculty That attitude has now, however,
almost entirely changed In 1827 Sigma Phi
and Delta Phi xvere established at Union. In
FRATERNITIES
IQ9
FRATERNITIES
1831 Sigma Phi placed the fiist secret hateimty
chapter a.t Hamilton College, and thib move
probably led to the foundation in 1832 of
Alpha Delta Phi at Hamilton, which frater-
nity then founded its second chaptei at Miami
University in 1835 Meanwhile, m 1803, Psi
Upsilon was established at Union and Delta Up-
silon (oiigmally nonsecret) at Williams in 1834
Prior to this expansion the fiaternity system was
confined to two Slates, New York and Massachu-
setts, and to the three colleges, Union, Hamilton,
and Williams At Miami in 1839 Beta Theta
Pi, the first Western fraternity, was founded
Delta Kappa Epsilon was founded at Yale in
1844, Zeta Psi at New York University in 1846,
and Delta Psi at Columbia and New York Uni-
versity a year later In 1848 Phi Gamma Delta
was founded at Washington and Jefferson, Phi
Delta Theta at Miami, and Theta Delta Chi at
Union In 1852 Phi Kappa Psi, one of the
laiger fraternities, was founded at Washington
and Jefferson, and in the West Sigma Chi came
into existence at Miami in 1855 The oldest of
the suiviving southern fraternities is Sigma
Alpha Epsilon, which was founded at tho TJni-
veisity of Alabama in 1856, and in 1859 Delta
Tau Delta was organized at Bethany Duimg
the Civil War there was diminished activity
in college life, but with the close of hostilities
came renewed interest, especially in the South,
where in 1865 Alpha Tau Omega was founded at
Viigima Military Institute, and Kappa Alpha
(South) at Washington and Lee In 1869
Kappa Sigma was oiganized at the University
of Vngima and Sigma Nu at Virginia Mihtaiy
Institute Among the smaller fraternities are
the following Chi Phi, originally organized at
Princeton in 1824, Cln Psi, founded at Union in
1841, Phi Kappa Sigma, founded at the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania in 1850, Theta » Chi,
organized at Norwich University in 1856, Theta
Xi (scientific), founded at Rensselaer Poly-
technic Institute in 1864, Pi Kappa Alpha,
organized at the University of Virginia in 1868,
Phi Sigma Kappa, organized at Massachusetts
Agricultural College in 1873, Alpha Clu Rho,
founded at Trinity in 1895, Delta Sigma Pin,
founded at College of the City of New York,
and Sigma Phi Epsilon, organized in Richmond
College m 1901 Since that time the system has
spread, both by the establishment of chapters
m various colleges and by the organization of
new fraternities, until in 1914 there were 38
leading fraternities, with a total membership of
2,656,817 distributed among 1228 active chapters,
possessing 979 fraternity houses The advent
of the fraternity system hurt the prestige of the
literary societies through competition for mem-
bership and in other ways, and on that account
four literary societies met in convention in 1847
and formed the "Anti-Secret Confederation "
In 1858 a fraternity was effected out of this
confederation, changing its status and adopting
the monogram badge of Delta Upsilon In time
Delta Upsilon became only nominally nonsecret
and now lanks with other secret fraternities
Women's fraternities The women's fratei-
nities followed naturally upon the opening of
colleges to coeducation, and as young women
came to participate more and more in college
life, to live in dormitories, and take up college
residence The first of these sororities was the
Kappa Alpha Theta, founded at De Pauw in
1870 The second, Kappa Kappa Gamma, was
founded at Monmouth. in tne same year The
Delta Gamma started at the University of Mis-
sissippi, and the Alpha Phi was also installed
m 1872 at Syracuse 1 he Gamma Phi Beta
was launched at Syiacuse in 1874 The Delta
Delta Delta was oiganized at Boston University
m 1888, and the Pi Beta Phi (oiigmalJy I C
Soiosis) was founded at Monmouth m 1867
Besides the foregoing there are the smaller so-
rorities of Sigma Kappa, founded at Colby in
1874, Alpha Chi Omega, founded at De Pauw
in 1885, Beta Sigma Omicron, founded at Mis-
souri State in 1888, Alpha Xi Delta, founded at
Lombaid m 1893, the Omega, founded at Arkan-
sas in 1895, Alpha Omicron Pi, founded at Bai
narcl, and Kappa Delta at Virginia Noimal in
1807, Sigma Sigma Sigma and Zeta Tau Alpha
at Virginia Normal in 1898, and Delta Sigma
at Brown in 1901 These sororities have- a total
mcmbeiship of 48,176 distributed among 395
chapters They are practically identical m aims
and Din poses with the men's fraternities, and in
colleges where houses are owned by sororities
thejr general similarity as part of the college
oigamzation is marked
Professional Fraternities There aie now
fraternities m which membership is restucted
to those who are connected with some special
profession These include 16 medical fraterni-
ties, one of which is honorary, i e , requn es
high scholarship for admission, 4 legal, also den-
tal, engineering, and pharmaceutical fraterni-
ties In all there are about 50 professional
fraternities with a membership exceeding 40,000
persons There are also certain undergraduate
fraternities in which membership is extended
only to those who are following some special
subject, as, eg, Phi Lambda Upsilon, which
admits only students of chemistry Members
of piofesbional fratcimties may also belong
to the geneial college fraternities
Local Fraternities Local fraternities are
many and important They now number about
75, with a membership of about 10,000 Those
at Yale University are the most widely known
They are senior societies and are three in num-
ber. Skull and Bones (1832), Scroll and Key
(1841), Wolfs Head (1884) They always
elect 15 men in each year, have no electioneering
or pledging, but until recently offered their elec-
tions on the campus on a certain date of each
year (called "tap day") in an impiessive man-
ner in the presence of the student body
Organization, etc Prior to 1861 the gov-
ernment of a fraternity was usually retained as
a heritage by one chapter, but was modified at
times by the several chapters assembled in con-
vention The year 1870 is generally accepted as
the date of a solidified system In general, the
legislative power of fraternities has been vested
in an annual convention of delegates, while the
administration has been placed upon a few offi-
cers there elected
Social life forms the basic raison d'etre of
all fraternities They seek as members those
who promise to contribute most to a fellowship
where social equality, good scholarship, athletic
abilities, and mutual helpfulness are assured
Naturally the contest for members is intense
In general this campaign is the great student
feature of the beginning of each college year
The chapter house is the most notable part of
fiaternity life Statistics show taat there were
in 1883 but 33 houses owned and occupied by
the general fraternities. In J.9U, 1128 houses
were owned or occupied by the national, local,
FRATICELUANS
200
FRAUD
and women's fraternities of the United States
Of these 979 weie owned by the men's fraterni-
ties, and 149 owned by the sororities This
great increase is instructive, illustrating the
growth of fraternities in recent years
Fraternity members are styled "active" when
in actual college attendance, "alumni" after-
ward Should they be elected while not under-
graduates, they aie termed honorary members
To bestow honorary membership is, however, at
the present time generally discountenanced
Most fraternities publish catalogues, song books,
and magazines The catalogues generally con-
tain addresses of members, the rolls of chapters,
and tables of varied statistics, including a table
showing the geogiaphical distribution of chap-
ters and membeis Histories have been issued
by some of the fraternities The song books
have special music in addition to usual college
songs, -with words written by members The
periodicals are an important factor in the fra-
ternity life and are published by many of the
fraternities, including sororities
The legal status of fraternities has in several
cases been in litigation In one case, hinging
upon the right of a college faculty to debar a
student because of his fraternity membership,
the Supreme Court of Indiana (1881) decided
"There is no doubt whatever that if an appli-
cant for admission into a public college is othei-
wise qualified, and there is room to receive him,
he cannot be denied admission bv reason of
membership in a college fratemity" And the
couit held further that the requiring by the
faculty of a written pledge fiom the student
that he would not join a fiatermty, as a con-
dition precedent to his matriculation, implied
discrimination against a class of inhabitants of
the State On the other hand, it appeals to be
established that a privately endowed and man-
aged college may exact and enforce such a
pledge One of the most important cases that
has been recently decided, at least from a theo-
retical point of view, and involving the internal
organization and powers of a fraternity, was
that of the Kappa Kappa Gamma Society versus
certain members of its Grand Council The
Grand Council had endeavored to withdraw,
without its consent, its Beta Beta chapter, and
suits to restrain the Council, through the indi-
vidual members thereof, were instituted in New
York and Massachusetts The Massachusetts
court dismissed the suit on the ground that no
property right was involved, but the New York
courts held, on appeal, among other things,
that the publication of fraternity suits by the
Beta Beta chapter had been proper, inasmuch
as the fraternity had virtually compelled it,
that lights were affected for which a court of
equity could give remedy, and that the frater-
nity should, on the facts presented, be restrained
from withdrawing its chapter Consult Baird,
American College Fraternities (New York,
1912), Kellogg, College Secret Societies (Chi-
cago, 1874) , Aiken, The Secret Society System
(New Haven, 1882), Heekethorn, Secret So-
cieties of all Ages and Countries (new ed, Lon-
don, 1897 ) , Maxwell, Greek Letter Men of New
York (New York, 1899) , Stevens, Cyclopcedia
of Fraternities (2d ed , ib , 1907) For Plate
of fraternity badge, see SOCIETIES, see also
COLLEGES, AMERICAN
FRATICELLIANS, frat'i-sel'i-anz or fra'te-
chel1e--anz, or FRATICELLI, -sel'i or -chelle
(It., ML fraticelli, little brethren, dim of Lat
f rater, brother) A name applied to various
more 01 less strictly denned heietical sects of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, mostly
in Italy, not closely connected either by their be-
liefs and tendencies or by their time Their
general tendency was one of protest against the
existing ecclesiastical and social order, and
there is little to distinguish them, to the mod-
ern mind, from the Albigenses, Waldenses,
Catharmi, Beghards, and Brethren of the Free
Spirit The name is found as early as the
beginning of the fourteenth century, eg, in
the chronicle of Giovanni Villani The origin
of the Fraticelli proper has often been connected
with a particularly strict and rigonst party
within the Franciscan Order This theory is
supported by the fact that this name was com-
mon m Italy to designate the Friars Minor, but
it seems much more likely that, as the immense
popularity of the Franciscan Order produced a
multitude of unauthorized imitations of it,
these innovations in doctrine found ready ac-
ceptance in such groups, unresti dined as they
were by any close oversight of ecclesiastical au-
thority One group which bore this name may
be traced to Gherardo Segarelli, a laboring man
of Parma, and his disciple, Dolcino of Novara,
who organized their followers as an "apostolic
order," and made considerable noise in Upper
Italy from 1260 to 1307 They declaied poveity
an absolutely essential condition of belonging
to the true Church, and regarded the existing
Church as in a state of apostasy They had no
fixed domiciles, but wandered fiom place to
place They were not bound by any definite
rule, and were charged with "free-love" ex-
cesses The adherents of Segarelli and Dolcino
held that all authority was forfeited by sin and
pioceeded to fill all the offices which, on their
hypothesis, were vacant, electing a certain Ma-
jor etti Emperor, a secular priest named Rai-
naldo Pope, and choosing archbishops of Flor-
ence and Venice and a general of the Fran-
ciscans who did not even belong to the order
They were gradually suppressed in the course
of the first half of the fifteenth eentuiy, John
Capistrano was commissioned as inquisitor gen-
eral in their regard by Martin V, JEugemus IV,
and Nicholas V, and succeeded in completing
their eradication Their last pseudo-pope was
burned at Fabnano in 1449, and the sect disap-
pears from history with him For the sake of
clearness, it would be well to restrict the name
' Fraticelli" to the sect above described , but it
is sometimes given to the rigonst Fianciscans,
who tried to keep the order strictly to the orig-
inal rule of poverty, and to the followers of
Michael of Cesena, who taught that Christ and
His disciples possessed no property* Consult
Dolling er, Beitrage &ur Sektengeschichte des
Mittelalters (Munich, 1890), and Lea, History
of the Inquisition (New York, 1907) , and see
FEANCISCANS
FRATRES ARVALES. See AKVAL
BROTHERS
FRATRES CALENDARII. See CALAND
FRATTAMAGCHORE, frat'ta-ma-jo'rl A
city in the Province of Naples, south Italy, 8
miles noith of Naples, with a fine parish church,
silk and rope factories, and numerous country
houses of rich Neapolitans Pop (commune).
1901, 13,170, 1911, 13,720
FRAUD In its broadest sense, any variety
of falsehood or artifice by which one deceives
another to his legal injury Courts have been
FRATTEISTLOB
203
FRAZER
of the Canton of Thurgau, Switzerland, situated
in a beautiful and fertile district on the Murg,
25 miles northeast of Zurich (Map Switzei-
land, C 1 ) It is regularly built and has among
its buildings a Catholic church dating from
12S6 and an old castle, the government build-
ing, containing the cantonal archives and li-
brary, the town hall, and the military barracks
There is a technical school with scientific and
historical collections The town manufactures
gloves, cotton and iron goods, guns, machmeiv
and leather, and is also a centie of trade for
wine, fruit, and agricultural products From
1712 to 1708 the town was the capital of the
Swiss Confederation Pop (commune), 1900,
7861, 1010, 8105, mainly Protestants
ERATJENXOB, frozen -lop (Ger, ladies'
piaise) (c 1250-1318) The assumed name of
lieinrich von Meissen, one of the German min-
nesingers (qv) After years of wandering as
a minstrel, he is said to have established the
first school of early mastersmgers (see METSTER-
SINGER) m Mainz In token of appreciation
for his chivalrous devotion to "ladyhood," ladies
of Mainz are said to have borne his body to the
grave in the cathedral During the Werther
period of German literature ladies restored his
tombstone in 1783, and near it other ladies, in
1842, erected a beautiful monument Fraucn-
lob's bombastic and artificial poems, striving
to appear erudite, have been edited by Ettmuller
(1843), and his Cantica Canticorum has been
translated into English
FRATTENSTADT, frou'en-stSt, CHRISTIAN-
MARTIN JULIUS (1813-79). A German philoso-
pher, born at Bojanowo, Province of Posen,
Prussia Pie studied theology and philosophy at
Berlin, and became one of the most ardent
disciples of Arthur Schopenhauer Many of his
works reflect the influence of that thinker, whose
ideas Frauenstadt extends, but frequently also
modifies Some of his more important works
are Die Naturwissenschaft in ihrem HJinfluss
a,uf Pocfne, Religion, Moral und Philosophic
(1855) , Neue Brief e ufter die schopenhauersche
Philosophic (1876), A. Schopenhauer Licht-
strahlen aus semen WerJcen (7th ed, 1891)
He also edited the first complete edition of
Schopenhauer's collected works (1873-74)
FRAUlSrCES'S (fran'sSz) TAVERN. One
of the oldest buildings of New York City, at the
southeast corner of Broad and Pearl streets,
originally a mansion of the Delanceys and sub-
sequently transformed into a tavern, Washing-
ton made it his headquarters after the British
evacuation of New York and in it took farewell
of his officeis on Dec 4, 1783 The New York
Chamber of Commerce was organized in it in
1768 In 1902 it was purchased and restored
by the Sons of the devolution
FRATTNUOFER, frounlio'-fe'r, JOSEPH VON
(1787-1826), A distinguished Bavarian opti-
cian and physicist, born at Straubing In 1799
he was apprenticed to a glass cutter m Munich,
and in 1806 was received, as a working optician,
into the establishment of Reichenbach & Utz-
schneider at Benedictbeuern, of which he later
became the head, and which afterward, in 1819,
was removed to Munich While there he ac-
quired considerable wealth and reputation
through his inventions, and soon afterward be-
came proprietor of the establishment He was
especially successful in producing large pieces
of optical glass free from imperfections, which
could be used for prisms and lenses, and as he
VOL. IX.— 14
combined the mechanical skill and technique of
the optician with the theoretical knowledge and
mathematical training of the physicist, his in-
struments were always in demand He invented
a machine for polishing parabolic surfaces, and
was the first one who succeeded in polishing
lenses and mirrors without altering their curva-
tuie Pi isms made under his direction were
celebrated for being free from inequalities and
stria? His inventions are numcious and include
a heliometer, a micrometer, an achromatic
microscope, besides the great refi acting tele-
scope at Dorpat But that which has rendered
Fraunhofer's name celebiated throughout the
scientific world is his discovery of the dark lines
in the spectrum, which are now known by his
name (See SPECTBOSCOPY ) He was the first
to obtain a spectrum from a grating (see DIF-
FRACTION ^ISTD DIFFRACTION GRATINGS), and with
tins apparatus \\as able to measure the wave
length of sodium light Fraunhofer was a dili-
gent student and investigator as well as a suc-
cessful matiument makei, and was elected a
member of the Munich Academy of Sciences
(1817), and five vears latei became conservator
of its physical cabinet
FRATJNHOEER LINES See SPECTKOS-
COPY
FRAX'XNEL'LA See DITTANY.
FRAX'IltftrS See Asir
FRAY BE3STTOS See INDEPENDENCE
FRAY GERTJNDIO, fra'a Ha-roon'r^-S See
LAFCJENTE, MODESTO
FRAY GERTTISTDIO DE CAMPAZAS, d&
kam-pa'thas. A romance hy Isla (1758), satiriz-
ing the degraded type of pulpit oratory of the
period in Spain
FRAYSSrKTOTTS, fra's£-nooV, DENIS AN-
TOINE Luc, COUNT I>E (1765-1841) A French
prelate, born at CuriGres, Aveyron He became
known at Pans for his conferences at the church
of St Sulpice (in 1803-09, thereafter prohibited
by Napoleon) , and in 181C he was appointed
court preacher and first almoner to Louis XVIII.
In 1824-28 he was Minister of Public Worship,
and during these years the Jesuits were recalled
and Frayssmous became a peer of France He
was elected to the Academy in 1822 He was
compelled to leave France by the July revolution,
and lived in Rome and then at Prague, where
he was tutor to the Comte de Chambord In his
own day his Defense du chmstianisme ( 3 vols ,
1825) attracted great attention, passing through
many editions and versions Consult the biog-
raphy by Henri on (2 vols, Pans, 1844;
FRAZER, SIB JAMES GEORGE (1854- )
A British anthropologist, born in Glasgow He
became a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and in 1907 professor of social anthropology
at the University of Liverpool His published
works are of the utmost importance for the
study of anthropology and (particularly) of
religion and myth, which he i elates rather
closely to magic In his earlier works he fol-
lowed Mannhardt in tracing to agricultural rites
many religious practices and myths, and he held
that many gods developed from spirits of vege-
tation lie was knighted in 1914 His books
include Totemism (1887, supplemented by his
article on the same subject m 9th ed of En-
cyclopaedia, Britanmca) , The (golden Bough
(1890, 3d ed, 1913); PauswwO'S's Description
of Greece (1898, 2d ed , 1913), JPausamas and
Other Greek Sketches (1900) j Marty History of
the Kmgship (1905) , Adorns, Attis, Osiris
FRAZEK
204
FBECKLES
(1906, 2d ed, 1907), Psyche's Task (1909, 2d
ed, 1913), Totemism and Exogamy (1910),
The Magic Art and the Evolutwn of Kings
(1911), Taboo and the Perils of the Soul
(1911), The Dying God (1911), Spirits of the
Corn and of the Wild (1912) , The Scapegoat
(1913), The Belief in Immortality (TO! i,
1913) , Balder the Beautiful (1913)
ERA'ZEH, JOHN FEIES (1812-72) An
American, scientist., born in Philadelphia, Pa
He graduated in 1830 at the University of Penn-
sylvania, in 1836 was appointed fiist assistant
geologist in the first geological suivey of Penn-
sylvania, and from 1837 to 1844 was instructor
in chemistry and natural philosophy at the
Philadelphia high school From 1844 until his
death he was piofcssor of natural history and
philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania
He was also vice provost of the university in
1855-68 For some time he was connected with
the Franklin Institute as a lecturer He also
edited the Journal of the Institute and to it
contributed several papers, which constitute the
most important part of his published writings
He was elected to the American Philosophical
Society in 1842, and in 1863 became a charter
member of the National Academy of Sciences
FRAZER, PEBSIFOB (1844-1909) An Ameri-
can geologist, born in Philadelphia, Pa He
graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in
1862, was an aid on the United States Coast
Survey in 1862-63, served as acting ensign in
the Mississippi squadron in 1863—65, and from
1866 to 1869 studied in the School of Mines at
Freiberg, Saxony In 1869-70 he was mmeialo-
gist and metallurgist on the United States Geo-
logical Survey, in 1870-74 was professor of
chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, and
from 1874 to 1882 was assistant in connection
with the second geological survey of Pennsyl-
vania He received the degree of Docteur-e's-
Sciences Naturelles from the Universite de
France, being the first person, not a native of
France, to whom this degree was ever awarded
Among his contributions to science may be cited
his explanation of the cause of the white color
of the moon as observed by day. He was elected
to the American Philosophical Society in 1871
His publications include, in addition to four
volumes of reports of the second geological sur-
vey of Pennsylvania, Tables for the Determina-
tion of Minerals (1874) and BibUottcs, or the
Study of Documents (3 eds , 1894-1901) In
1905 he received from the city of Philadelphia
the John Scott medal for contributions to the
science of bibhotics
FRAZIER'S or FRAYSER'S FARM, BAT-
TLE OF, also called the BATTLE OF GLENDALE,
the BATTLE OF CHARLES CITY CROSS ROADS, and
the BATTLE OF NELSON'S FARM A battle fought
at Glendale, Va , about 12 miles southeast of
Richmond, on June 30, 1862, during the Civil
War, between a Federal force tinder General
McClellan and a Confederate force under Gen-
erals Longstreet and Hill The losses were about
1800 on the Federal and about 2000 on the
Confederate side
FBEAB, WALTER FRANCIS (1863- ). An
American public official, born at Grass Valley,
Cal He graduated from Oaliu College, Hono-
lulu, Hawaiian Islands, in 1881, from Yale Uni-
versity in 1885, and from Yale Law School in
1890 In 1886-88 he taught Greek, mathe-
matics, and economics at Oahu College He was
second judge of the first circuit under the
Kingdom of Hawaii in 1803, second associate
justice of the Supreme Court undei the Pro-
visional Government of Hawaii in the same year,
fhst associate -justice of the Supreme Couit of
the Republic of Hawaii in 1896, and Chief Justice
fiom 1900 to 1907, after annexation to the
United States He also served on the Hawaiian
commission to recommend legislation regarding
Hawaii to the United States Congress, and in
1903-05 was chairman of the Hawaiian Code
Commission From 1907 to 1913 he was Gover-
nor of Hawaiian Temtory
FREAR, WILLIAM (1860-1922) An Ameri-
can agncultural chemist He \\as born at
Reading, Pa , graduated in 1881 from the Uni-
versity of Lcwisburg (now Bucknell Univer-
sity), wheie he was an assistant in sciences in
1881-83, and studied also at Illinois Wesleyan
University (PhD, 1883) He was assistant
chemist in 1883-85 and special agent after 1900
of the United States Department of Agriculture,
professor of agricultural chemistiy (1885-
1907) and of experimental agricultural chem-
istiy (after 1907) at Pennsylvania State Col-
lege, and held various important positions in
connection with State agricultural work In
1802-94 he was editor and proprietor of Agri-
cultural Science He was elected to high office
in seveial scientific and educational associations
FRECHETTE, fra'shSt', Louis HONORU
(1839-1008) A French-Canadian poet He
was born at Point Levi, Province of Quebec, and
was educated at the Quebec Seminary and Laval
University He was called to the bar in 1864,
but was in newspaper work in Chicago during
1866-71 In the latter year he returned to
Canada, and in 1874 he represented his native
county in the Dominion Parliament, and piac-
ticed his profession in Quebec until 1879, when
he went again into journalism and successively
edited three French papers, respectively in Quo-
bee, Montreal, and Chicago He is the represent-
ative poet of French Canada, and his produc-
tions brought him honor from many societies,
including the French Academy and the Imperial
Institute, London He was also made Knight of
the Legion of Honor and was elected pioaident
of the Royal Society of Canada His poetry IB
chiefly lyrical and is often inspired by intense
patriotic feeling The beauties of nature and
the bonds of the family and of friendship were
with him far stronger poetic motives than the
passion of love He was the first to perfect the
form of French-Canadian verse His publica-
tions include a remarkable pathetic drama,
Veronica, and other plays, one sketch in English
called Christmas in French Canada (1899), a
few prose essays in Fiench (Onginaua; et
detraques, 1892, and La noel au Canada, 1900),
translations of Howell's Chance Acquaintance,
and Cable's Creole DaySj but he will be best
remembered by his poems Mes loisirs (1863) ,
La voix d'un exile (1869), Pdle-Mele (1877),
Les fleurs oor&ales (1879) , Les oiseaux de neige
(1879), La legende d'un peuple (1887), Les
feuilles volantes (1891) ^ Consult Roy, "Frene]i
Canadian Literature," m Canada and its Prov-
inces, vol vi (Toronto, 1914) See CANADIAN
LITERATURE
FRECKLES, freVk'lz (older form frecken,
from Icel freknur, freckles, ultimately connected
with Gk Trep/cj/os, perknos, spotted), sometimes
called tentigo and ephelis Small yellowish or
brownish-yellow irregularly rounded spots, from
the size of a pin's head to that of a split pea,
FREDEOAR
205
PBEDEBICK
frequently seen on the skin, especially of fair or
reddish-haired persons, though they are seen even
in mulattoes They occur most commonly dur-
ing adolescence and are not often met with
under the age of six or eight They are seen
usually on the face, but often occur on the hands
and sometimes elsewhere They are always
most distinct in summei , hut though the in-
fluence of the sun's rays undoubtedly increases
their distinctness, it is doubtful whether it can
cause them They are due to increased local
deposit of pigment granules in the epidermis,
persons subject to them do not bronze uniformly
under the mlluence of exposure nearly so deepl'y
as others Many methods of treatment have
been advocated for their removal, but m most
cases they return upon exposure to the sun
Among the milder measures which sometimes
succeed in improving the condition is a solution
of hyposulphite of soda, 15 to 30 grains, or of
chloride of ammonium, 15 grains to the ounce of
watei A mixture of bichloride of mercury,
dilute acetic acid, borax, and rose water is
generally efficacious when applied as a wash
night and morning
FKED'EGAB, or ERED'EGKA/BITTS SCHO-
LAS'TICirS A chronicler of the Franks, who
lived in the seventh century He was one of the
three compileis of the Historia Francorum, a
history of the Franks down to the year 642 AD ,
written in corrupt Latin, but of great value as
a source for the history of Fiance during the
first half of the seventh century During the
eighth century it was continued in the so-called
Qesta Fiancorum Fredegar traced the descent
of the Franks from the Trojans Consult
Kiusch, Fiedegarn et Ahorum Ohromca (Han-
over, 1888)
ERED'EGTTN'DA (c 545-597). A Fiankish
queen Onginally a servant of Audoverc, wife
of Olnlperic of Neustna, she soon won the King's
heart and got him to put his wife in a convent
and to divorce her But Clulperic married Gal-
svintha and put away Fredegunda Galsvmtha
died in the same year (567), probably strangled
by Fredegunda, who succeeded her as Queen
This brought on war between Clulperic and his
brother Sigebert, King of Austrasia, and a bitter
nvalry between Fredegunda and Brunlulda,
sister of the murdered Queen and wife to Sige-
bcrt, who was soon assassinated by Fredegunda's
agents at Vitry (575) Chilpenc's sons by
Audovere also died suddenly, and in 584 Chil-
peric was murdered, and contemporary his-
torians accuse the Queen of instigating all three
murders Unsuccessful in her efforts to kill
Brunhilda and her son Cinldebert, she made war
on Austraaia after Childebert's death (595), ob-
tained possession of Paris and other cities in
596, but died in the following year See BRUN-
HILDA
FRED'EIIXC, HAROLD (1856-98) An Ameri-
can novelist and journalist He was born m
Utica, N Y, Aug- 19, 1856, and was London
correspondent of the New York Times from 1884
till his premature death in Hornby, England,
Get 19, 1898 He was educated in Utica, worked
at journalism there, in Albany, and in New
York, but won distinction for novels, chiefly
of rural life in central New York, written after
his going to England His first important story,
8eth'$ Brother's Wife (1887), was followed by
The Lawton Gwl (1890) , In the Valley (1890),
a story of 1777, The Return of the O'Mahoney
(1892) , The Copperhead (1894), a story of the
Civil War, and Marscna (1805), a collection of
keenly humorous character stories All these,
however, were surpassed by The Damnation of
T heron Waie (1896, 1()12), a brilliant analysis
of religious life m the Amcncan middle class,
minutely realistic in detail, clever m con-
versation, and unfailing in insight, imme-
diately recognized by the public as a human
document His last works, March Hates (1896),
G-lona Mvndi (1898), and In the Marketplace
(1800), were less significant The New Exodus
(1802) was a study of anti-Semitism, the result
of a visit to Russia, undertaken in 1891
FREDERICK, fra'de-riK, BERTHA (pseudo-
nym, GOLO RATMTJND) (1825-82) A German
novelist, born at Hanover She was the wito ot
Eduard Fredeneh, editor of the Hannoverschn
Courier, in which paper her Jfiist effoits appealed
Tn older to conceal her identity more effectually,
she not only chose the above pseudonym, but
managed to have the true authorship of her
novels ascnbed to a fictitious personage, uGeoig
Dannenborg " She wrote, m all, about 22 novels,
neailv all of which, have been lepublished
Among them are Bauetnlelen (3d ed , 1888),
Zioci Braute (4th ed , 1888), Schlo<i<> FJkrath
(3d ed, 1885), Ton Hand au Hand (2d ed ,
3885) , Mem ist die Rache (3d ed , 1885) , Zv,ci
Men&chcnaltcr (3d ed , 1886), Em dcutschet
Weil (5th ed, 1880)
EREDEBICIA, Md'er-is'i-a, or FKIBD-
EJIICXA. A seaport of Denmark, situated on
the east coast of Jutland, on a projecting tongue
of land, at the northern entrance to the Little
Belt (Map Denmark, C 3) The town is sur-
rounded by fortifications, now falling into rums,
and has a famous bronze statue, "The Danish
Soldier," by Bissen, erected in commemoration
of the victory of the Danes over the Schleswig-
Holstcm forces in 1849 Frodericia is connected
with Middclfort, a seaside resort on the island
of Funen, by steamer, has manufactures of
tobacco, salt, hats, cotton goods, and chicory,
and carries on a considerable trade in exports of
moat, fish, eggs, and imports of potteiy, salt
and pcti oleum Pop, 1901, 12,714, 1911, 14,228
IFHED'EBICK A city and the county seat
of Frederick Co , Md , 60 miles west-northwest
of Baltimore, on the Baltimore and Ohio and
the Pennsylvania railroads (Map Maryland,
E 2) It is situated in a beautiful and fertile
valley near the famous battlefields of Monocacy
and South Mountain It is the seat of a State
institution for the deaf and dumb, and of the
Women's College (Reformed church) , organized in
1803, and has Frederick College and St John's
Literary Institute, and Frederick City and
Emergency hospitals There are large canning
establishments, briekworks, planing mills, a
foundry, knitting mills, and manufactures of
flour, tobacco, fibre brushes, hosiery, leather,
shutter fasteners, and coaches The government
is administered under a charter of 1898 by a
mayor, elected every thiee years, who controls
the appointments to all municipal offices except
that of city register, and a council elected at
laige The city owns and operates ita electric-
light plant Pop, 1900, 9296, 1910, 10,411,
1914 (U S est), 10,886, 1920, 11,066 Fred-
erick has been made famous by Whittier as the
scene of Barbara Frietchie's exploit Francis
Scott Key, the author of "The Star-Spangled
Banner," is buried m Mount Olivet Cemetery,
and a splendid monument to him marks its en-
trance, and the remains of Roger B Taney (qv )
FKJEDEBICK
206
FREDERICK I
lie in the burial grounds of the Roman Catholic
church. Frederick was first settled in 1745 and
was incorporated in 1817, In 1755 Washington
met Braddock here to prepare for the expedition
against the French. Near by Robert Straw-
bridge, in 1764, organized a Methodist church,
"the lirst in Maryland and America " Consult
a sketch in Powell's Historic Towns of the
Southern States (New York, 1900)
FREDERICK A city and the county seat
of Tillman Co, Okla , 150 miles southeast of
Oklahoma City, on the St Louis and San Fran-
cisco and the Wichita Falls and Northwestern
raihoads (Map Oklahoma, C 4) It is in a
productive agricultural region and has extensive
interests in cotton, cottonseed oil and cake,
alfalfa, wheat and poultry The water works
are owned by the city Pop , 1900, 2036, 1910,
3027.
PBEDEBICK (FRIEDRICH MABIA ALBRECHT
WILHELM KAEL) (1856- ) Archduke of
Austria Boin at Gross-Seelowitz, near Brunn,
he was a great-grandson of the Era pel or Leo-
pold II, grandson of the Archduke Charles Louis
John, the great Austnan gcneial in the campaign
of 1809 against Napoleon, and a son of the Arch-
duke Charles Ferdinand (d 1874) His sister
Maria Christina married Alfonso XII of Spain
In 1878 Frederick mariied Isabella, Princess of
Ci oy-Dulmen, who bore him one son, Albert
(b 1897), and six daughters, one of whom, Isa-
bella Marie (b 1888), married Prince George of
Bavaria in 1912 and was separated from him in
1913 The archduke's training was almost en-
tnely mihtaiy, and he became general of in-
fantiy and army inspector (1905) and com-
mander of the Landwehr (1907) This position
made him the natural successor in military mat-
ters of Prince Francis Ferdinand ( q v ) , upon
whose death he became practically chief com-
mander of the Austro-Hunganan foices For
this command in the great War of 1914 he was
especially fitted by his close intimacy with the
German Kaiser (See WAS IN EUBOPE ) His
Vienna palace contains the remarkable Albertina
collection of engravings and drawings.
FBEDEUICK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1829-
80), Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Augustenburg, and claimant to the duchies of
Schleswig and Holstem He was born on the
island of Alsen and was educated at Bonn
After the unsuccessful revolt of Schleswig-Hol-
stein against Danish rule the ducal family was
banished Frederick was very popular, however,
and when, after the War of 1864, the rule of
Denmark in the duchies was terminated, he
triumphantly entered Kiel But political com-
plications prevented the formal reinstatement of
the dynasty By the Treaty of Vienna (October,
1864), the duchies had been relinquished to
Prussia and Austria, to be disposed of by them
Prussia was not inclined to permit the creation
of a new German state and imposed conditions
upon Frederick which made it impossible for
him to assume the government After the Peace
of Prague, which terminated the Austro-Prussian
War of 1866, the lands were finally absorbed into
the Kingdom of Prussia Frederick served on
the staff of the Crown Prince, Frederick William
of Prussia, during the Franco-German War of
1870-71 His daughter, Augusta Victoria, be-
came the wife of Emperor William II of Ger-
manv Consult Samwer, Her&og Friedrich
(Wiesbaden, 1900)
FREDERICK I (c 1121-90) Holy Roman
Emperor fiom 1152 to 1190, burnamed Barba-
rossa or Kedbeard He succeeded his father,
Fiedenck, as Duke of Swabia, in 1147, and his
uncle, Conrad III, as King of Germany, in 1152
On his father's side he belonged to the Hohen-
staufen family, on his mother's side to the
Guelphs In the early years of his reign Fied-
erick reduced Germany to order and then pio-
ceeded to reestablish the Imperial authority in
Italy The Lombard cities, with Milan at their
head, flourishing and powerful, and strengthened
by the papal power in their opposition to the
Imperial pretensions, were prepared to resist
Fiedenck's attempt to subjugate them After
receiving the Lombard crown at Pavia, Frederick
marched m 1155 to Rome, reinstated the author-
ity of Pope Adrian IV, to whom he delivered up
Arnold of Brescia, and was crowned Holy Roman
Emperor In 1158 he besieged and took Milan
In the same year, after a diet held at Roncaglia,
Fredenck attempted to establish his rule fnmlv
over the Lombard cities Although the cities
submitted for the moment, they sonn lobelled
In 1159 began the long contest between Frederick
Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III, the suc-
cessor to Adrian IV The Empeior created an
antipope m the person of Victor IV, the nrbt
of several antipopes set up by him The citv of
Crema was reduced by Fiedcrick after a long
siege m 1160, and in 1161-62 he besieged and
took Milan and razed it to the ground Fied-
enck was triumphant eveiywhere, but in 1167
the Lombard cities formed a league against him
and renewed the struggle Fiedenck was com-
pletely defeated at Legnano in 1176, and in
1183, in a peace concluded at Constance, he
finally agreed to leave the Lombard cities the
right to choose their own municipal rulers and
to conclude tieaties and leagues among them-
selves, although he retained his suzerainty over
them, together with the power of imposing
certain fixed taxes The difficulty of settling the
Italian differences had been aggravated by the
attitude of Pope Alexander III At last, m
1177, Frederick made his peace with the Pope
and was enabled to turn his attention to Ger-
many, where he had to contend with Henry the
Lion (qv ), Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, the
powerful head of the house of Guelph By lua
energetic measures Frederick succeeded 11?
thoroughly humbling his troublesome vassal and
crushing the Guelph power in Germany In 1189,
having settled the affairs of the Empire and pro-
claimed universal peace in his dominions, he
resigned the government to his eldest son,
Henry, and at the head of a large army set
forth for the Holy Land After gaining twr
great victories over the Moslems at Philomelmm
and Iconium, he was drowned m the Calycadnus
a small stream in Cihcia (1190) His remain?'
were rescued by his son and buried at Tyre
The death of Frederick, which led to the dis
persion of the Crusaders before any material
advantage had been obtained over the infidels,
excited the deepest grief in Germany, where his
memory has always been cherished as that of
the best and greatest of his race Frederick
made Poland tributary to the Empire, raised
Bohemia to the rank of a kingdom, and erected
the Margraviate of Austria into an independent
hereditary duchy He was a patron of learning
and enacted many admirable laws, some of which
were based upon the Roman law Consult %
Prutz, Kaiser Friedrioh I (3 vols , Danzig, 1871-
74) , Fischer, Kreuzzug Fried rirhs I (Leipzig,
it
207
FBEBERICK I
1870) , Giesebrecht, Geschichte dei deutscJien
Xaiserseit, vols v-vi (ib, 1888-95), Jastrow
and Wintei, DeutscJie GreschicJite im Zeitalter
dcr Uohenstaufen (2 vols, Stuttgart, 1897-
1901 ) , for a cornpleter bibliography, sec Dahl-
mann-Waitz, Q uellcnkunde det dcutschen Ge-
sohichte Nos 5240-5323 ( 8 tli ed , Leipzig, 1912)
FREDERICK II (1194-1250) " King of
Sicily from 1198 and Holy Koman Emperoi tiom
1215 to 1250 He was a grandson of Frederick
I and the son of the Emperor Homy VI and of
Constance, heiress of Sicily He was bom at
Jcsi, near Ancona, in Italy, Dec 2C, 1194 His
mother secured the favor of Pope Innocent III
for her infant son by conceding many important
privileges to the papal chan , and on the death
of Constance, in 1198, the Pope became the
guardian of the young Prince As early as 1208
Frederick assumed the reins of government in his
realm, which included south Italy in addition to
Sicily Supported by the Pope, Frederick, in
1212, engaged in a contest for the Imperial
throne of Germany, with Otho IV, who had as
>et not succeeded in seeming himself in its pos-
session after his long struggle with the rival
claimant, Philip of Swabia, assassinated by Otho
of Wittelsbach, in 1208 The blow dealt to Otho
IV by Philip Augustus of France m 1214, in
the battle of Bouvines, secured the triumph of
Frederick, who was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle
in 1215 On his coronation Frederick took a
vow to go on a crusade Having secured the
election of his son Henry as King of the Ro-
mans, and leaving Archbishop Engelbert of
Cologne as his vicegerent, he went to Italy and
was crowned Emperor at Rome, by Pope Hono-
nus, in 1220 Frederick now devoted himself to
the task of organizing his Italian temtones
He founded the Univeisity of Naples, gave en-
couragement to the medical school of Salerno,
invited to his court men of learning, poets, and
artists, and commissioned his chancellor, Petrus
de Vmeis, to draw up a code of laws Frederick,
however, was hampered in his projects by the
refractoiy conduct of the Lombard cities, which
in 1226 renewed the league formed against
Frederick Barbarossa, and still more by the
opposition of the popes As he delayed going on
a crusade, he was threatened with excommunica-
tion unless he fulfilled his pledge Being com-
pelled to depart on this expedition, he made the
necessary preparations for its prosecution and
actually started m 1227. He returned in three
days, saying that he was ill, whereupon Gregory
IX, the successor to Honorms III, excommuni-
cated him In 1228 Frederick again set out for
the Holy Land This second expedition proved
successful, and im 1229 Frederick made a 10
years' truce with the Sultan of Egypt, who gave
up Jerusalem and the territory around Jaffa and
Nazareth, Frederick crowning himself King of
Jerusalem The rest of his life was spent in
attempting to bring his rebellious Lombard sub-
jects to subjection and in struggles with Popes
Gregory IX and Innocent IV, who had both ex-
communicated him He died suddenly m 1250
Frederick II was famed for his talents and for
his varied learning, he gathered scholars and
men of letters about him. Some excellent poetry,
highly praised by Dante, was written at his
court He was tolerant in matters of religion
and in his reforms showed himself far in advance
of his time His strong sympathies with his
Italian motherland and his unremitting en-
deavors to establish a compact and all-supreme
empire in Italy weie the causes, not only of his
own misfortunes, but of the inrsonos which he
brought upon Geimany, fen, by embi oiling him
in costly wais abioad; they led him to neglect
the welfare of his Gennan subjects Consult
Hmllaid-Bre'liolles, ffistona Diplomat tea Fude-
rioi Secundi (12 vols, Pans, 1852-01), fas-
ti ow and Winter, Deutsche (jewhichte iin Zeit-
altcr der Hohcnstaufen (2 vols, Stuttgart, 1897-
1001), Wmkelmann, Kaiser ffncflticli II (2
vols, Leipzig, 1880-97), Hampe, "Kaisei Fried-
rich II" in Historische ZeitscJinft, vol Ixxxjn
(Munich, 1900) , Allshorn, Stupor Mundt The
Life and Times of Frederick II (London, 1912)
Foi a fuller bibliography, see Dahlmann-Waitz,
QitellcnJcuncie der deutschen Oeschichte (8th ed ,
Leipzig, 1912) , Blondel, Etude sur la pohtique
de rempetoitr Fred&ic II en Allemagne (Paris,
1892) , Folz, Kaiser Friedrich II un4 Papst In-
nocent IV (Strassburg, 1905). See HOHEN-
FREDERICK III (1415-93) Holy Roman
Emperoi fiom 1440 to 1493, ab Gemian King,
Frederick IV Ho was the son of "Ernest, Duke
of Austna, and was born Sept 21, 1415 After
the death of the Emperor Albeit II, m 1439, he
was elected Ina successor m 1440, and two yoais
afterward he was solemnly crowned at Aix-la-
Chapelle Ten years later he leceivecl the Im-
perial crown at the hands of the Pope. In the
Concordat of Vienna with the papacy, concluded
in 1448, in the bringing1 about of which the
Emperor's adviser, JiJneas Sylvius (the future
Pius II), had an important share, the church in
Germany sacrificed the advantages obtained by
the restrictions imposed upon papal authority
at the Council of Basel Frederick's only desire
was to increase the hereditary possessions of his
house He failed to get the crown of Hungary,
to which he laid claim, and even lost possession
of Austria for a time, Vienna itself falling into
the hands of the Hungarian King, Matthias
Corvinus He did nothing to check the progress
of the Turks He died in 1493, after an in-
glorious reign of 53 years In 1477 he married
his son and successor Maximilian to Mary, the
heiress of Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In
1486 Maximilian was elected King of the Ro-
mans, and Frederick had to resign the govern-
ment to him From his time the Imperial dig-
nity continued peimanently in the "house of
Austria Consult JEneas Sylvius, Historia
Reruwif Fridenci III (Strassburg, 1685) , Coxe,
House of Austria, vol i (4th ed , London, 1864) ,
Bachmann, Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeit-
alter Fnednchs III un-d Maximilian I (2 vols,
Leipzig, 1884-94)
FREDERICK I (1371-1440) First Elector
of Brandenburg, of the house of liohenzollern,
successor (1398) of his father, Frederick V,
Burgrave of Nuremberg He served in the Hun-
garian army and rescued King Sigismund at the
battle of Nicopohs (1396) In 1401 he married
Elizabeth of Bavaria For the suppoit which he
gave to Sigismund as candidate for the Im-
perial crown, he was invested in 1417 with the
electoral dignity in Brandenburg (of which h6
had been administrator for seven years ), thus
becoming the founder of the royal Prussian
dynasty Frederick quarreled with Sigismund
in 1423. He sold his rights as Burgrave of
Nurembeig to the city in 1427 In 1438 he was
a candidate for the throne of Germany Con-
sult Brandenburg, Konig ftigtownd un$ Kurftirst
'Fnednch I (Berlin, 1891)
in
FBEDEBICK III, ELECTOR OF
BUBG See FREDERICK I, King of Prussia
EHEDEBXCK I (c 1471-1533) King of
Denmark and Norway from 1523 to 1533 With
Ins elder brother John he was joint mler of the
duchies of Schleswig and Holstoin at the time
his nephew Christian II was dethroned (1528)
Frederick was elected to succeed him A long
war, waged for the possession of Norway, ended
in his favor (1524) He showed great cruelty
to his unfortunate relative, whom he detained
in close captivity, but he was an able ruler
He embraced the Lutheran faith, which spread in
his dominions He granted the nobility many
privileges at the cost of the powei of the throne
He also lost much of his contiol over cities,
especially the seaport towns
FREDERICK II (1534-88). King of Den-
mark and Norway, son of Christian III He
was bom at Hadersleben and succeeded to the
throne when only two years old Under his
reign the independent Ditmarsh Republic in
West Holstein was conquered in 1559, from
1563 to 1570 he was at war with Sweden Din-
ing the period of peace that closed his reign he
suppressed pnacy on the North and Baltic seas,
erected the fortress of Kronborg, and by his
ability and upright life greatly endeaied himself
to his subjects Consult DanmarLs Riges Sis-
tone (3 vols, Copenhagen, 1897-1905)
FREDERICK III (1609-70) King of Den-
mark from 1648 to 1670 He was the son of
King Christian IV and was bom in Hadeisleben
He was made Archbishop of Bremen in 1634 and
Bishop of Veiden in 1635 On the death of lus
fathei, in 1648, he became King of Denmark and
Norway The country had been reduced by war
to a state of great misery, but Frederick never-
theless plunged into a, struggle with Sweden
(1657) in the hope of regaining the provinces
which had been lost by the Treaty of Bromsebro
m 1645 Poland, Biandenbmg, and Holland
were his allies Charles X of Sweden invaded
Jutland, overran Funen and Zealand, and forced
Frederick to sign the Treaty of Roeskilde, Feb
28, 1658, by which a number of the Danish
islands and a portion of Norway were ceded
to Sweden Hostilities were resumed by the
Swedes in the same year, but Frederick, with
the aid of Brandenburg, succeeded in expelling
the Swedes from Jutland, and Charles X was
compelled to raise the siege of Copenhagen m
1659 Abandoned, however, by his allies, Fred-
erick was forced to conclude peace in 1660 on
the most unfavorable terms, being obliged to re-
linquish all claims to the territories which Den-
maik had possessed in the Swedish part of the
Scandinavian peninsula In the latter part of his
leign the nature of the government was changed
to an hereditary and absolute monarchy by the
voluntary act of the commons and clergy. In
1666-67 he fought a war, of minor importance
only, with England In 1667 he added Oldenburg
and Delmenhorst to his realm Consult "Land,
Kong Fredenk Ill's Somagt (Odense, 1896)
FREDERICK V (1723-66). King of Den-
mark from 1746 to 1766 He was the son and
successor of Christian VI and one of the best
and wisest of the absolute monarchs of his time
With the exception of a threatened attack by
Peter III of Russia, nothing disturbed the peace
of his reign, owing to the skill of his Min-
ister, Bernstorff Denmark owed to him the
increase of her national wealth and the en-
oouragement of various branches of commerce
20&
VII
and manufactme Fredeiick established the
Asiatic Company, opened the American colonial
trade to all his subjects, founded the military
academy of Soro in Denmark, and caused schools
to be opened at Bergen and Trondhjem in Nor-
way foi the instruction of the Laplanders He
established academies of painting and sculpture
at Copenhagen and introduced the culture which
was prevalent in Europe at this time into his
own court
FREDERICK VI (1768-1839) King of
Donmaik from 1808 to 1839 and of Norway from
1S08 to 1814 He was the son of Christian VII
and Caroline Matilda of England, and assumed
the regency in 1784, on account of the insanity
of his father, on whose death, in 1808, he as-
cended the throne He himself was a semi idiot,
but nevertheless his reign is one of the most
eventful in Danish history During his leign
serfdom was abolished in Denmark and Schlos-
wig-Holstem, monopolies were abrogated, the
ciimmal code was amended and the slave tiade
prohibited, the Jews received civil rights, and
f i eedom of the press was granted All this was
laigely the work of Frederick's great Minister,
Bernstorff (qv ) In 1800 Denmaik joined the
armed neutrality of the North, formed against
England by Russia, Sweden, and Prussia This
led to the seizure by England of all Danish
vessels in British ports, and to the dispatch of a
poweiful fleet, under Sir Hyde Parkei and Nel-
son, to force the Regent to withdraw fiom the
convention His refusal was followed by a fierce
naval engagement at Copenhagen (April 2,
1801), in which the Danish fleet was almost
wholly destroyed without even a declaration of
war A peace was concluded on the Regent's
withdrawal from the confederation, but in con-
sequence of his persistence in maintaining an
attitude of neutrality, instead of combining
with Great Britain against Napoleon, the war
was renewed in 1807 by the appearance before
Copenhagen of a British fleet Copenhagen was
bombarded for three days (September 2-5), the
arsenals and docks destroyed, and all the ship-
ping disabled, sunk, or carried to England
This blow paralyzed the national resouices and
brought ruin on the country In retaliation
Fredeiick became the ally of Napoleon and
suffered m consequence In 1814 Norway was
taken, by the allies fiom Denmark and given to
Sweden The state became bankrupt, and many
years passed befoie order could be restored to
the finances Notwithstanding his autocratic
tendencies, Frederick so far yielded to the move-
ments of the times as to establish representative
provincial councils in 1831—34 In the last two
years of his reign the demand for a constitu-
tional government took root and rapidly ex-
tended over the whole country Consult Gies-
sing, Zur Regierungsgeschichte Fnednchs VI
(Kiel, 1851-52), and Thorsoe, Ft a Fredertlt, VI' $
Ilofhredse (Copenhagen, 1898)
PHEDEHICK VII (1808-63) King of Den-
mark from 1848 to 1863 He succeeded his
father, Christian VIII, who died Jan 20, 1848.
Frederick promulgated the Unionist constitution
devised by his father The principal events of
his reign weie the wars and diplomatic negotia-
tions-arising out of the revolt of the duchies of
Schleswig and Holstein, and the dispute over the
succession to Denmark proper and the duchies,
on the death of the King and of his uncle, the
heir presumptive, both of whom were childless.
See SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,
FREDERICK VIII
209
FREDERICK V
J?BEDERICE: vni (1343-1912) King of
Denmaik He was the eldest son of Christian
IX and of Louise of Hesse-Cassel He was edu-
cated in a grammar school and fought in the
War of 1864 After studying for some tune at
Oxford and traveling abioad, he mamed, m
1869, Princess Luise of Sweden, a niece of Oscar
II He succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, Jan 29, 190G Kmg Fiedeiick died
suddenly in Hamburg (May 14, 1912), and for
several hours his body was not identified He
was succeeded by his eldest son, Piince Chris-
tian (See CITEISTIAN X ) The King's second
son, Charles, became, in 1905, King of Norway
under the title Haakon VII (qv ) Frederick
was a biothei of Queen Alexandra of England
and of King George I of Greece
FREDERICK: III, called THE PATE (cl28G-
1330) Gennan King and Duke of Austria He
failed to gain the throne after the death of his
father, Albert I, and he quarreled with his
cousin Louis IV, Duke of Upper Bavaria, who
defeated him at the battle of Gammelsclorf in
1313 After the death of Henry VII, who had
succeeded Albert I, a minoiity of the electors
chose Frederick as German King (1314), and he
was crowned by the Archbishop of Cologne, his
cousin Louis was the choice of the majority of
the electors War was continued between the
two rivals until Frederick was defeated and cap-
tured at Muhldorf in 1322 He was released
fiom captivity in 1325, but shortly afterward
returned to the custody of Louis according to a
previous agreement between the two His le-
tmn to captivity is referred to by Schiller in
the poem Deutsche Treue
FREDERICK II (1720-85). Landgrave of
Hesse-Cassel He was educated at Geneva,
fought in the War of the Austrian Succession
and (m 1745) against the Stuart pretender in
Scotland, and succeeded his father, William
VIII, m 1760 He contributed greatly to the
improvement of Cassel, particularly its Museum,
its Academy of Fine Arts, and a number of the
fine buildings To provide for his lavish ex-
penditures, he sold a corps of 12,000 soldiers to
England during the war of that country with
the American Colonies
FREDERICK II, called PRINCE OF HOMBUBG
(1633-1708) A German general, Landgrave of
Ilesse-Homburg He entered the Swedish serv-
ice m 1654, and at the siege of Copenhagen in
1659 lost his left leg The artificial leg with
silver trimmings which he wore gave him the
nickname "mit dem silbernen Beine" He was
made general of cavalry by the Great Elector
of Brandenburg, Frederick William, and had a
great share in the victory over the Swedes at
Fehrbelhn in 1675 In 1681 he succeeded his
brother, George Christian, m Hesse-Homburg
He restored and improved Homburg, now one of
the most beautiful spas of Germany He married
three times the widow of Oxenstiema (1661),
Louise of Courland (1670), and Sophie Sibylle
von Lemmgen (1691) Seven of his 15 children
survived him Von Kleistjs play Prm$ Frwdrich
von Hamburg gives an entirely incorrect idea
of his character Consult the biographies by
Hamel (Berlin, 1861) and Jungfer (ib, 1890)
FREDERICK I (1425-76) Elector Pala-
tine, called the Victorious. At the death of his
father, in 1439, a portion of the Palatinate de-
volved upon him, which he later ceded to his
brother, Louis IV In 1449, upon the death of
Louis, he assumed the guardianship of his infant
nephew Philip and administered the govern
ment In 1451, the country being troubled by
warlike neighbors, Frederick peisuadod the
estates to invest him with the dignitv of Elector
for life, with the understanding that his chil
dien should not rank as princes, and that the
succession should devolve upon his nephew Hf
was one of the opponents of the Emperor Fred
enck III and tried to dethrone him His allies
turned against him, but he defended himseli
ably and in 1462 won a ^reat victory over his
enemios at Seckenhenn His success secured him
undisturbed possession of his principality until
his death The territory of the Palatinate was
greatly increased during his reign Consult
Menzel, Kurfurst T^riedrich der Sieqmche von
der Pfalz (Munich, 18f>l), and Feeser, Fnednch
der Rieqrewlie (Neuburg, 1880)
FREDERICK II (1482-1556) Elector Pala-
tine, surnamod the Wise He was the fourth
son of Philip the Magnanimous and assumed the
electoral crown m 1544, succeeding his brother
Louis When, in 1529, the Sultan Solyman be-
sieged Vienna, Fiederick assumed command of
the Imperial army In 1535 he married Doro
thca, daughter of Christian II, ex-King of Den
mark Through the teaching of Melanehthon he
became familiar with the pimciploa of the
Reformation and joined the Schmalkald League
In later life he signed the Augsburg Interim
Consult Bott, Fnedrwh Jl von dev Pfalz und
die Reformation (Heidelberg, 1904)
FREDERICK III (1515-76) Elector Pala-
tine, surnamod the Pious He succeeded his
father, John IT, in the ducal possessions of the
Sinimern Palatinate in 1557 and upon the ex-
tinction of the elder Palatine line became
Elector Palatine in 1559. From Lutheranism,
winch he embraced in 1546, he passed over in
1561 to Calvinism and aroused the hatred of the
Lutheran princes He lent aid to the adherents
of the refoimed religion m France and m the
Nethei lands He laid the foundation of sys-
tematic Calvinism by causing the Heidolberg
Catechism to be drawn up in 1563, devoting his
personal attention to the work Consult A
Kluckholm, FnedrwJi der Fromme (Nordlmgen,
1877-79) and Brief e Fncdnchs des Frommen,
ed by Kluckholm (Brunswick, 1868-72)
FBEDEBICK IV (1574-1610) Elector
Palatine, surnamed the Upright He was the
son of the Elector Louis VI and Elizabeth of
Hesse His father died during his infancy, and
Fiederick succeeded to the throne in 1583., under
the guardianship of his uncle, John Casimir,
assuming the reins of government in 1592, upon
his uncle's death Through his influence the
Protestant Union was formed in 1608 He
raised Mannheim, where many Protestants had
taken refuge, to the dignity of a town, and his
reign is characterized by firm devotion to the
Protestant cause Consult L Hausser, Oc-
sohichte der rhe^n^schen Pfalz (Heidelberg,
1856), and M Ritter, Geschichte der dewtschen
Union (Schaffhausen, 1867-73)
FREDERICK V (1596-1632) Elector Paja-
tme and King of Bohemia He was the third
son of the Elector Frederick IV, whom lie suc-
ceeded in the Palatinate in 1610 He married,
m 1613, Elizabeth, the daughter of James I of
England, through whose ambitious counsels he
was induced to take a prominent part in the
proceedings of the union of the Protestant
princes of Germany, and finally, although against
his own inclinations, to accept tfye dignity of
FBEBEBICK I
210
FBEDEBICK II
King of Bohemia in 1619 His complete defeat
at the battle of the White Hill, November, 1620
(see THIRTY YEARS' WAR), terminated his short-
lived enjoyment of the regal crown, of which he
retained no other memorial than the mocking
title of "the Winter King " The rest of his life
was spent in exile, under the ban of the Empire,
and with resources obtained from the generosity
of his friends In 1623 he was declaied to have
forfeited his electoral title and his dominions in
the Palatinate The electoral dignity and the
Upper Palatinate were conferred upon his cousin,
Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of the Catholic
League Fiederick's daughter Sophia became
the wife of the first Elector of Hanover and the
mother of George I of England Her daughter
married Frederick I of Prussia and was the
grandmother of Frederick the Great He died
at Mainz, Nov 20, 1632 Consult Gmdely, Ge-
schwhte des dreissigjahngen Kneges (Prague,
1869-80), M Putter, "Friedrich V," in the
AHgemewie deutsche Biographie, vol vn (Leip-
zig, 1878) , J. Krebs, Die Politik des evangeh-
sohcn Union in Jahre 1618 (Breslau, 1890-1901) ,
Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkomg, ed by R.
Wolkan (Prague, 1899).
FBEDEBICK I (1657-1713). The first King
of Prussia, from 1701 to 1713, previous to his as-
sumption of the royal title, Elector of Branden-
burg (1688-1701), as Frederick III He suc-
ceeded his father, Frederick William, the Great
Electoi of Brandenburg, m 1688 His name is
a synonym for vanity and extravagance, but his
subjects, nevertheless, loved him He modeled
his life and his court after Louis XIV of France.
In the first half of his reign his main concern
was the acquisition of the royal title, in which
endeavor he was assisted by the difficult position
of the Emperor Leopold I, who pledged his con-
sent, after a year of negotiation, on the eve of
the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succes-
sion In return for the Imperial permission
Frederick was to furnish a considerable body of
troops His troops helped to win the day for
the allies on more than one occasion, yet at the
Peace of Utrecht his only reward was a small
district in Gelderland In this treaty Prussia
was, however, recognized in the possession of
Neuchatel, which had fallen to her by inherit-
ance Frederick I is remembered to-day as the
patron of learned and liberal-minded men — of
Spener, Fianeke, and Thomasius, and, above all,
of Leibnitz He is also known as the founder
of the Order of the Black Eagle, which is still
considered the greatest mark of distinction that
a king of Prussia can bestow He also founded
the University of Halle Frederick died Feb
25, 1713, after having drained Prussia of all her
financial resources Consult Henderson, Short
History of Germany (New York, 1902) , Pierson,
Preussische Geschichte (Berlin, 1898), Fnedens-
burg, Histonsche Zeitschnft, vol li, pp 407-432
(Munich, 1901)
FREDERICK II (1712-86). King of Prus-
sia from 1740 to 1786, known as THE GBEAT
He was born Jan 24, 1712, and was the son
of Frederick William I (qv ) of Prussia and
of Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George I of
England The plan of education pursued by his
father soon tended to render their relations un-
bearable Frederick William insisted on instill-
ing into his son his own practical instincts
and stifled the literary and artistic impulses
which Frederick manifested at an early age
At last Frederick determined to escape the pa-
rental tyranny by flight to England The plan
was discovered, and the most seveie punishment
followed Frederick's aider and abettor, Lieu-
tenant Katte, was beheaded before his eyes, and
the Prince himself was led to expect a similai
fate The father, however, relented, and Fred-
erick was placed, instead, m the War and Do-
main Bureau at Custrm and made to work
as an assistant clerk Here he learned most
valuable lessons with regard to the task of ad-
ministering a great kingdom A reconciliation
finally took place between father and son The
only act which Frederick never forgave his
father was his forced marriage, for reasons of
state policy, with Elizabeth of Brunswick-
Bevern, whom he respected but never loved
Frederick's great wars fall in the first half
of his reign Almost immediately after his ac-
cession, on the news of the death of the Em-
peior Charles VI and the accession of his daugh-
ter, Mana Theresa, in the Hapsburg dominions,
he invaded Silesia, basing his claim to a large
part of the country on an old transaction m
which Austria had played a grasping and dis-
honest part (See SUCCESSION WARS ) In the
first battle of the Silesian campaign — that of
Mollwitz, April, 1741 — Frederick's general
(Schwerin) found the situation so critical that
he urged the King to fly for his life, and
Frederick did not know until the next day that
he had won the victory Mollwitz gained foi
Frederick the Fiench alliance which practically
decided the campaign After the victoiy of
Frederick at Chotusitz, Maria Theresa agreed
to the Peace of Breslau (1742), in which
France, however, was not included In this
treaty Austria ceded most of Silesia to Prussia
Two years later Frederick reenteied the strug-
gle, ostensibly as the champion of the Emperor,
the Bavarian Charles VII France was still his
ally, while Maria Theresa could count on Eng-
land, Saxony, and Holland Frederick took
Prague, but was forced to abandon the city
and make a disastrous retreat He soon re-
trieved his f 01 tunes, however, at Hohenfrieclberg
(June, 1745), and his victory over the Saxons
at Kesseldoif (December, 1745) was followed
by the Treaty of Dresden, which was a icpeti-
tion of the Peace of Breslau In 1756 Mana
Theresa, inconsolable for the loss of Silesia,
formed an alliance against Prussia with France
(the old enemy of the Hapsburgs), Russia, Sax-
ony, and Sweden England, as the enemy of
France, now sided with Frederick The King
of Prussia at once descended upon Saxony, thus
opening the great struggle which involved all
the European powers and their colonies (See
SEVEN YEARS' WAR } The outcome of this gi-
gantic conflict, which was the culmination of
Frederick's military career, but Which taxed
the resources of his little kingdom to their ut-
most, left Prussia m 1763 territorially un-
changed and in the enjoyment of great military
prestige
Frederick had come through the war without
incurring a national debt or increasing the di-
rect taxes, on the other hand, he had inflated
the currency, but by wise measures he soon put
the finances of Prussia on a sound bas;i&, He
practiced the most rigid economy in the royal
household and was enabled to spend large sums
in agricultural and industrial improvements.
He reclaimed thousands of acres of waste land
by a system of canals and drainage, peopled
them with colonists, and set on foot a large
FREDERICK THE GREAT
FROM A PAINTING BY GEORGE MEYN
FREDERICK II
211
FREDERICK III
number of industries, visiting at intervals
every part of his dominions He began a codi-
fication of the law, abolished serfdom within
the royal domains, insisted on the impartial
administration of justice, granted freedom of
speech, and, at least in literary and scientific
matters, liberty of the press Toleiant towards
every form of religious belief, he was one of the
most intolerant of autocrats towards his minis-
ters. To his enlightened despotism were due the
legulation of customs and the equalization of
taxation He grimly put a tax on. the lured
Hessians that passed through his dominions, as
"on cattle bought and sold" Fredeiick took a
gieat interest in the American Revolution and
admired and appreciated the greatness of Wash-
ington, and was one of the first sovereigns to
conclude a commercial treaty with the United
States The desertion of Prussia by England at
the critical period in the Seven Years' War had
inspired in Frederick a bitterness towards the
latter country which permanently influenced his
foreign policy On the other hand, he had
drawn closer to Russia after the death of his un
compromising enemy, the Empress Elizabeth,
and he and Catharine II were able to see their
value as allies to each other, hence the parti-
tion of Poland
Frederick's relation to the intellectual devel-
opment of Germany was peculiar Although.
Prussia had become through him one of the
great continental powers, he had no sympathy
whatever with German national aspirations
While he foresaw the future literary greatness
of Germany, he ignored the eminent writers
who were appearing upon the scene and despised
the German language, winch he never wrote with
ease French he spoke and wrote fluently,
though he did not spell it correctly He culti-
vated the society of French writers and schol-
ars, among them Voltaire and Maupertuis,
whom he invited to Sans-souci He was con-
sistent m his admiration of Voltaire, though
not blind to his personal weaknesses Conver-
sation with his literary friends, and playing on
the flute, on which he was a really skillful per-
former, were Frederick's only relaxation from
incessant work. He was a voluminous writer
Of his numerous works, the most important
are Mtimoires pour s&rvir & I'histoire de Bran-
debourgj Histoire de la guerre de Sept AnSj
and the Anti-Macchiavel, written before he be-
came King, in which he laid down his views on,
government The Berlin Academy published an
edition of his collected works (30 vols, ed by
Preuss, 1846-57).
Throughout his reign Frederick took the
greatest interest in the improvement of the
Prussian army He wrote for the guidance of
his generals a number of works covering the
whole science of war. The army, which num-
bered 80,000 men when he ascended the throne,
was increased to nearly 200,000 in his lifetime
Frederick died, Aug 17, 1786, at Sans-souci
Consult Tuttle, History of Prussia under
Frederick the Great (3 vols , Boston, 1888), the
best work in English, unfortunately cut short
at 1757 by the death of the scholarly author;
Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven
Years3 War (New York, 1881), a useful little
compendium Carlyle, History of Frederick 11
(London, 1888), is, on the whole, inadequate
as history. These are the principal useful works
in English The greatest living authority is
Ko&er, whose Fnedmofa der Grosse als
prina (Stuttgart, 1903) is a small classic lie
has also written a larger history, Gfeschichte
Friednchs des Grosser (4= vols, ib , 1912-14)
Consult also Lavisse, La yeunesse du grand
Frederic (Pans, 1891; 3d ed, 1899) and Le
grand Frederic avant Vavenement (ib, 1893) ,
Preuss, Friednchs des Grossen Leoensgeschichte
(Berlin, 1832-34), Kugler, Geschichte Fried-
nchs des Grossen ( 12th ed , Leipzig, 1887 ) , and
numerous other general and special studies,
a bibliography of which may be found m Lavisse
and Rambaud, Histoire generate, vol vii (Pans
1893-1900) , Bordeau, Le grand Fr&dtrio (2
vols, ib, 1900-02), J. W Whittall, Fred&icL
the Great on Kingcraft (New York and Lon-
don, 1901), L Paul-Dubois, Frederic Ic gtand,
d'apres sa correspondance politigue (Pans,
1903), F T Kuglei, Life of Frederick the
Great (London, 1903), W F Keddanay, Fred-
erick the Great and the Rise of Prussia (ib ,
1904), G Winter, Friedrich der Grosse (Ber-
lin, 1907), G L Mamlock, Friednchs des
Qrossen Korrespo ndence w it kertzen (Sttittgait,
1907), G B Volz, 4,us der Zeit Friedrich der
Grossen (Gotha, 1908), A Kohut, Fnedtich
der Grosse als Humorist (Leipzig, 1908) , E
Daniels, Frederick the Gteat and his Successor,
m "Cambridge Modern History" (London, 1909).
FREDERICK III (1831-88) German Em-
peror and King of Prussia from March 9 to
June 15, 1888 Before his accession to the
throne he was known as Frederick William He
was the only son of William I, King of Prussia
and first Emperor of united Germany, and was
born Get 18, 1831 His earnest character and
decided talents were developed under the care
of excellent masters, among others Ernst Cur-
tius (qv), who accompanied him to the Uni-
versity of Bonn, where the Prince was matricu-
lated in the law faculty After the completion
of his education the Prince visited several for-
eign countries In England he became attached
to the Princess Royal, Victoria, to whom he was
married, Jan 25, 1858 The marriage was
highly approved by both nations, and the life
of the royal couple was an exceedingly happy
one After his father's accession to the throne
the Crown Prince took part in the more impor-
tant affairs of the state During the war with
Denmark in 1864 he was sent to the scene of
operations in order to exert his personal in-
fluence towards removing the friction among
those in charge of affairs In the war with Aus-
tria in 1866 he commanded the Second Prussian
Army, and by a forced march arrived on the
scene of the battle of Sadowa in time to decide
the issue In the Franco-German War he com-
manded the Third Army, consisting of the South
Geiman forces He won the first victory of the
war, that of Weissenburg (August 4), and in-
flicted a decisive defeat an the army of Mac-
Mahon at Worth (August 6) Seconded by the
Crown Prince of Saxony, he vanquished Mac-
Mahon at Sedan and compelled him to sur-
render with his whole army (September 2)
Two weeks later he began the investment of
Paris and had the principal share in its re-
duction He played a considerable part in the
founding of the new German Empire, although
his plans differed in some essential respects
from those advocated by Bismarck, During the
Emperor's illness m 1878, his public functions
were discharged by the Crown Prince, who
showed great ability in the performance of to
duties In January, 1887, he was attacked- by a
EBEDEBICK I
212
FREDERICK AUGUST-ITS i
cancerous throat trouble, necessitating several
surgical operations, which were heroically borne
On the death of his father, March 9, 1888, he as-
cended the thione as Frederick III He died
June 15 of the same year Liberal, cultivated,
and a friend of parliamentary government, he was-
greatly beloved by all, especially by the army,
and bore the popular appellation of "Unser
Fritz." He wrote diaries of his travels in the
East and of his part in the wars of 1866 and
1870-71. He had eight children, the eldest of
whom is the reigning Emperor, William II
(qv) Consult Gustav Freytag, Der Kron.-
pnnz und die deutsche Kaiserhrone (Leipzig,
1889) ; M von Posclimger, Kaiser Fnednch (3
vols, Berlin, 1898-1900), adapted into English
by Sidney Whitman, Li/e of Emperor Frederick
(New York, 1901) , Schuster, Brief e des Kaiscis
und Komgs Fnednch III (Berlin, 1907)
EBEDEBICK I (1369-1428) Elector and
Duke of Saxony, called the Warlike He was
the son of Fredenck the Stern, of Meissen.
With his two brothers he succeeded, on the
death of the father, m 1381, to the inheritance,
but they were compelled to divide with their
two uncles Frederick distinguished himself as
a soldier, and m 1423, in recognition of his suc-
cesses against the Hussites, Emperor Sigismund
made him Elector and Duke of Saxe-Witteinberg
He was defeated by the Hussites a-t Aussig in
1426 He and his brother founded the Univer-
sity of Leipzig m 1409 Among his direct de-
scendants is the Gf-uelph dynasty of England
Consult Bottiger and Flatte, G-eschichte des
Kurstaates und Eomgreichs Sachsen (3 vols,
Hambuig, 1830-73).
FBEDEBICK II, called the Mild (1411-
64) Elector and Duke of Saxony, son of
Elector Frederick I He was joint heir of the
family lands with his three brotheis, defended
Saxony against the Hussites, increased his pos-
sessions by obtaining a part of Lower Lusatia
and the Burgraviate of Meissen, and succeeded
in establishing his right to the Electorate of
Saxony over Bernard IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauen-
burg From 1446 to 1451 he was engaged in a
fierce struggle with his brother William over the
partition of the lands of their deceased cousin,
Frederick the Peaceful In 1455 an attempt was
made to abduct Frederick's two sons, an event
referred to m German history as the "Prmzen-
raub "
FREDERICK III (1463-1525) Elector and
Duke of Saxony, called the Wise He was a
grandson of Frederick II and succeeded his
father, Duke Ernest, in the government He
founded the University of Wittenberg in 1502
and called Luther and Melanchthon to chairs in
the faculty He never adopted the creed of the
Reformers, but he accorded them toleration, pro-
tected Luther at the Diet of Worms and shel-
tered him in the castle of Wartburg In 1493
lie visited the Holy Land and in Jerusalem was
made a Knight of the Sepulchre He brought
about many reforms in the constitution of the
Empire, and on the death of Maximilian I, in
1519, lie was offered the Imperial throne, but de-
clined it, and recommended Charles I of Spain,
who became Emperor as Charles V Consult
Kolde, Fnedmch der Weise und die Anfange der
Reformation (Erlangen, 1881)
FBEDEBICK III (1272-1337) King of
Sicily, son of King Peter of Sicily and Aragon
Upon the accession of his elder brother James
to the throne of Aragon, Frederick was made
Regent of Sicily, but whon James sunendered
the island to be held by the Chinch for Charles
II of Anjou the Sicilians revolted and chose
Frederick as their King, at Palermo, m 1296
In the war that followed Fiedeiick met with
varying success until 1302, when he concluded
a favorable treaty with Charles II In 1313 he
entered into an alliance with Emperoi Henry
VII and again made war on the Angevins, with
whom he fought intermittently until the end
of his icign From 1321 to 1335 he was
excommunicated by the Pope Frederick's lule
served to weld the Sicilians into a united
nation
EBEDEBICK I, WILLIAM CHARLES (1754-
1816) Duke, and subsequently first King, of
Wurttemberg He was born at Treptow, Pom-
crania, and was a son of Duke Frederick Eugene
and Sophia Doiothea, niece of Frcdeiick the
Great After serving in the Prussian and Rus-
sian armies, in 17D7 he succeeded his father as
Duke and m 1803 was invested with the elec-
toral dignity At the close of 1805 Napoleon,
in reward for his aid against Austria, erected
his state into a kingdom, and on Jan 1, 1806,
Fredenck assumed the royal title He soon af-
terward joined the Confederation of the Rhine
The territory over which he ruled was- gieatly
enlarged during his reign m 1802, when he
ceded territory on the left bank of the Rhine
to Franco, he received nine Imperial towns in
letuin, m 1805 he got some Austnan teiritor) ,
and in 1S09 his kingdom was further enlarged
Especially after 1801, his autocratic government
and subserviency to Napoleon I and the oppres-
sive conditions of enforced conscription and ex-
cessive taxation made him an unpopular ruler
Frederick joined the league against France after
the battle of Leipzig and thus preserved the
kingdom he had gained through aiding Napo-
leon Consult Pfister, Komg Friednch von
Wurttem'betg und seine Zeit (Stuttgait, 1888),
and Schlossbergei's edition (ib, 1886-89) of the
King's coirebpondence with Napoleon and with
his daughter, who married Jerome of Westphalia
FBEDEBICK I, WILLIAM Louis (1826-
1907) Grand Duke of Baden He was born at
Karlsruhe, son of the Grand Duke Leopold and
of Princess Sophia of Sweden He was educated
at Heidelberg and Bonn and, after acting as
Prince Regent for four years, succeeded to the
government in 1856 Immediately upon his
accession to the throne he restoied the constitu-
tion of the grand duchy and during a rule last-
ing more than 50 years he zealously promoted
economic and educational progress He sided
with Austria m the War of 1866, but afterwards
entered into close relations with Prussia and the
North German Confederation In 1856 he mai-
ried Louise, daughter of William of Prussia
(afterward German Emperor) Consult the
sketches by Dove (Heidelberg, 1902) and Lorenz
(Berlin, 1902)
FBEDEBICK ATJG-US'TUS I (1750vl827)
Elector (as such Frederick Augustus III) and
from 1806 first King of Saxony He was the
son of the Elector Frederick Christian and suc-
ceeded his father under the guardianship of his
uncle, Prince Xavier, in 1763 In 1768 he was
declared of age In 1769 he married Princess
Maria Amelia of Zweibrucken He sided with
Frederick the Great against Austna in the
War of the Bavarian Succession (1778-79) and
afterward joined the League of German Princes.
In 1791 he was offered the crown of Poland, but
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS 11
213
FREDERICKSBITRC*
declined it In 1792 he reluctantly took up arms
against France During the war between Fiance
and Austria, in 1805, he maintained a strict
neutrality, but in the following year he joined
Prussia against France The disastrous battle
of Jena forced him to conclude a tieaty of al-
liance witk Napoleon, December, 1806 He was
allowed to assume the royal title and joined the
Rhenish Confederation In 1807 he was in-
vested with the newly created Duchy of War-
saw, but was ruler of it only in name, the con-
trol being exeicised by Napoleon himself Dur-
ing the subsequent wars of Napoleon he was
A faithful ally of the Emperor He was taken,
prisoner by the allies after the entry into
Leipzig, Oct 19, 1813, and by the decrees of
the Cong less of Vienna he was compelled to
cede moie than half of his kingdom to Prussia.
He devoted the remamdei of his life to the de-
velopment of the agricultural and commercial
lesources of his kingdom, and directed his at-
tention especially to the administration of jus-
tice Consult A Bonnefons, Un A1U6 de 2V a-
pol6ont Frederic Auguste premier rcw de Saxe
(Paris, 1902)
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II (1797-1854)
King of Saxony from 1836 to 1854 He was the
eldest son. of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and
brother of Frederick Augustus I In. 1830, on
the outbreak of political disturbances in Dres-
den, he was named joint Regent of the kingdom
with King Anthony In 1836 he succeeded An-
thony on the throne An insurrection in Dres-
den in May, 1849, obliged him to avail himself
of the help of Prussian tioops. But, the rising
once quelled, his leign continued tranquil and
prosperous He died as the result of a fall from
his carriage while traveling in Tirol, Aug 9,
1854 Consult F F von Beust, Aus drei-viertel
Jahrhunderten (2 vols, Stuttgart, 1887), and
F Foerster, Friedrich August II "der Sttarbe,"
Kutfurst von Sachsen (Leipzig, 1910)
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS III (1865-
) King of Saxony. He studied at Strass-
burg and Leipzig, entered the army in 1883, and
in 1902 attained the rank of general of infantry
in the Prussian service He succeeded his
father George on the throne Oct 15, 1904 In
1891 he married Princess Louise of Tuscany, by
vvhoni he had five children In 1902 she eloped
with Andre" Giron, a tutor in the Prince's house-
hold, and in 1903 was divorced by her hus-
band She received the title of Countess of
Montignoso Consult the sketch by Von Metzsch,
(Berlin, 1906)
FREDERICK CHARLES ( 1828-85 ) Punce
of Prussia He was the only son of Prince
Charles, brother of Emperor William I, and was
educated at Bonn His early military training
he got from the great Von Roon He served
with distinction in the early stage of the first
Schleswig-Holstein War in 1848 and was
wounded at Weisenthal m Baden (1849) He
devoted himself assiduously to the study of mil-
itary science and m 1858 traveled in France and
studied the French army In 1860 he became
commander of the Third Army Corps During
the Danish War of 1864 he stormed the fortifi-
cations at Duppel (April 18, 1864) and in the
following month was intrusted with the chief
command of the allied forces He was com-
mander of the First Division of the army dur-
ing the conflict with Austria (1866) and, after
winning the stomishes of Podol, Munchengratz,
and Gitscliin in rapid succession, obstinately de-
fended the Prussian centre at the battle of Sa-
dowa until the arrival of the army of the Crown
Prince Still rnor^ conspicuous was his leader-
ship during the Franco-German War of 1870-
71, when he commanded the Second Army, con-
sisting of six army coips, 500 guns, and 260,000
men He defeated Ba/,aine at Vionville (Mars-
la-Tour) on Aug 16, 1S70, and two clays later,
seconded by General Stemmetz, at Gravelotte,
ultimately * compelling Bazaino to capitulate
with his army of about 180,000 men and to sur-
render the fortress of Met/ He subsequently
defeated the Army of the Loire, under General
Aurelle de Paladmes, after a campaign of six
weeks After the war he became inspector of
Prussian cavalry In 1S37 he married Mana
Anna of Anhalt His son Frederick Leopold
(1863- ) married a younger sister of the
German Empress, and one of his daughteis,
Louisa Margaret (1860- ), married Arthur,
Duke of Connaught Consult the biographies
by Homg (Berlin, 1885) and Mullcr-Bohn
(Potsdam, 1902)
FREDERICK FRANCIS II (1823-83).
Giand Duke of Mecklenbuig-Schweim He was
a son of Grand Duke Paul Frederick and of the
Princess Alexandrine of Piuasia and was edu-
cated at Bonn In 1842 he succeeded his father
and was appointed general in the Prussian
army, in which capacity he fought with dis-
tinction in the War of 1866 In the war with
Fiance, as commander of the Thirteenth Army
Corps, he invested the fortress of Toul, which
surrendered on Sept 23, 1870, and in December
distinguished himself in the operations on the
Lone During the siege of Paris lie commanded
the divisions guarding the approaches to the be-
sieging army. A magnificent monument was
erected to his memory at Schwerm in 1893
Consult the biography by Von Hirschfeld (Leip-
zig, 1801)
FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647) . Prince
of Orange, son of William the Silent, born at
Delft He was trained to aims by his elder
brother, Maurice of Nassau, whom he succeeded
to the paternal honors and estates in 1625 He
demonstrated his generalship by capturing Her-
togenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632), Breda
(1637), Sas van Ghent (1644), and Hulst
(1645), and lus statesmanship by concluding a
tieaty with Spain in which the Dutch gained
every point for which they had fought so long
Under his stadtholderate the Dutch Republic
is considered to have reached its greatest power
and influence Consult M6movres de Frgdtiric
Henri (Amsterdam, 1743)
FR^DERICK-LEMAITRE, ANTOINE Louis
PROSPER See LEMA?TRE
FREDERICK LOTT'IS (1707-51) Prince of
Wales He was born at Hanover, Germany,
the eldest son of George II and Queen Caroline
He came to England at the age of 17, was made
Prince of Wales in 1729, and married the Prin-
cess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha in 1736 The bit-
terness between him and his father and mother
went to great lengths It was due in the first
place to the veto on his marriage to Wilhelniina
of Prussia and was aggravated by his father's
stinginess towaids him An attempted recon-
ciliation in 1742 was unsuccessful The Prince
was a gambler and a loose liver His son after-
ward came to the throne as George III and his
voungeat daughter married Christian VII of
Denmark
FREDGERICKSBTJRG, A town and the
FKEDERIGKSBTTRG
214
county seat of Gillespie Co , Tex , 80 miles west
of Austin and 25 miles north of Comfort, the
shipping point on the San Antonio and Aran-
sas Pass Railroad (Map Texas, C 4) Stock
raising and farming are the leading industries,
and there are roller mills and a tombstone
factory A German colony founded Fredericks-
burg in 1846 The town owns its electric-light
plant Pop, 1914 (local est ), 3000.
EKEDEBICKSBTJBG An independent city
of Virginia, 60 miles by rail noith of Rich-
mond, on the Rappahannock River at the head
of tidewater, on the Potomac, Fredericksburg,
and Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericks-
burg, and Potomac railroads, and on the Mary-
land, Delaware, and Virginia boat line (Map
Virginia, G 3) The city lies in a valley in-
closed by high hills and has two public libraries,
several bridges across the river, a beautiful
park, and the famous Stonewall (Confederate)
and National cemeteries, the latter having 15,-
300 graves It is the seat of Fredericksburg
College (Presbyterian), opened in 1893, and of
a State normal school It contains also the
Washington and Paul Jones homes A dam
above the city, 900 feet long and 18 feet high,
affords valuable water power, and there are
manufactures of flour, silk, and woolen goods,
iron, shoes, shirts, pickles,, cigars, sumac, car-
riages, wheels, hubs, spokes, tanned leather,
and excelsior Fredericksburg has adopted the
commission form of government The city owns
and operates its water works and gas and
electric-light plants Pop, 1000, 5068, 1910,
5874 On the site of Fredericksburg, Capt. John
Smith fought d, skirmish with the Rappahannock
Indians m 1608 The town was named in 1727 m
honor of the Prince of Wales and incorporated in
1782 It was the home of Gen. Hugh Mercer,
killed in the battle of Princeton, and of the
Revolutionary officers George Weedon, William
Woodford, Thomas Posey, and Gustavus B Wal-
lace A monument has been erected in honor
of Washington's mother, who died here in 1789,
and a statue to General Mercer During the
Civil War, Fredericksburg changed hands sev-
eial times and was the scene of several bat-
tles See FBEDEBicKSBURa, BATTLE OF, CHAN-
CELLORSVILLE, BATTLE OF
FREDERICKSBTIBG-, BATTLE OF. An im-
portant battle of the Civil War in America,
fought on Dec 13, 1862, at Fredericksburg, Va ,
between the Federal Army of the Potomac,
numbering about 116,000, under General Burn-
side, and the Confedeiate Army of Northern Vir-
ginia, numbering about 78,000, under General
Lee On November 15 Burnside, who on Novem-
ber 7, seven weeks after the battle of Antietam,
had superseded McClellan as commander of the
Army of the Potomac, then stationed near War-
renton, Va , started down the left bank of the
Rappahannock with the intention of crossing at
Fredei icksburg, where he expected General Hal-
leek to have pontoon bridges in readiness, and
of marching thence on Richmond The Right
Grand Division under Sumner arnved at Fal-
mouth, near Fredericksburg, on the 17th, but
could not effect a crossing, owing to the ab-
sence of bridges, and was accordingly stationed
on Stafford Heights, opposite Fredericksburg
Hooker and Franklin, commanding the Centre
and Left Grand Division, arrived soon after-
ward Meanwhile Longstreet, acting under or-
ders from Lee, hastened to Fredericksburg by
forced marches, reached there on the 21st, and
immediately took up a position on the hills bacfe:
of the town, which he proceeded with great
energy to fortify Jackson's coips arrived from
the Slienandoah valley about November 30, and
Jackson assumed command of the right of the
Confederate army, the whole Confederate line
ultimately extending for more than six miles,
though it was broken m several places by
streams and ravines Burnside was not ready
to cross the Rappahannock until December 11,
and on that day and on the 12th the Right and
Left Grand Divisions succeeded in passing to
the other side, though the former, which crossed
directly in front of Fredericksburg, met with
considerable opposition from Confederate sharp-
shooters concealed m a cluster of brick and
stone houses on the opposite bank Hooker's
Centre Giand Division crossed on the morning
of the 13th and was broken up to assist the
Right and Left After much hesitation and
vacillation Buinside, bewildered and confused
by a task far transcending his ability, finally de-
cided upon a plan of battle, in accordance with
which, about noon on the 13th, Franklin, facing
Jackson at the weakest point of the Confederate
line — their extreme right — ordered Meade for-
ward, with a single division, supported by two
other divisions under Gibbon and Doubleday, to
sei/e one of the opposing heights Meade suc-
ceeded in penetrating the Confederate line, but
along with Gibbon was soon forced back, so
that this movement, which was the only one
made by the Federal left, resulted in nothing
but loss Meanwhile, on the Federal right,
Sumner six times attacked the almost impreg-
nable Confederate works on Marye's Hill, but
was each time driven back with terrific loss,
the Federal troops, however, displaying in each
attack wonderful steadiness and gallantry The
hill itself was heavily fortified At its base,
and parallel to the line of battle, ran a sunken
road protected by a stone wall, behind which a
large force of Confederates was stationed, and
the approach was such as to expose an attack-
ing force to an irresistible ram of shot and
shell At the end of the day's fighting the Fed-
eials had lost in killed, wounded, and missing
12,653, the Confederates, 5377 Burnside con-
templated repeating his attack on the following
day, but was dissuaded by his officers and with-
drew unmolested to the left bank of the liver on
the night of the 15th Consult Official Rec-
ords, vol xxi, Johnson and Buel, The Battles
and Leaders of the Cwil War, vol 111 (New
York, 1887), Ropes, The Story of the Civil
War, vol 11 (ib, 1898), Palfrey, Antietam and
Fredencksburg (ib, 1882), Nicolay and Hay,
Abraham Lincoln A History, vol vi (ib,
1890) , Allan, The Army of Northern Virginia
in 1862 (Boston, 1892) , Henderson, Campaign
of Fredemcksburg, November-December, 1862
(London, 1886) , Alexander, Military Memoirs
of a Confederate (New York, 1907) , Steele,
American Campaigns (Washington, 1909)
PBEDERICKTOWH. A city and the county
seat of Madison Co , Mo , 104 miles by rail
south of St Louis, on the St Louis, Iron Moun-
tain, and Southern Railroad (Map Missouri,
F 4) It is the seat of Marvin College (Metho-
dist Episcopal, South) In the vicinity is La
Motte, a lead mine in continuous operation for
more than 200 years The chief industries of
the city are the mining of cobalt, lead, nickel,
and copper, and the manufacture of railroad
ties An electric-light and power plant is
FREDERICK:
215
FREDERICK WILUAM 1
and opeiatcd by the municipality Pop , 19£)0,
1577, 1910, 2632
FREDERICK WIL'LIAM (1020-88) Elec-
tor of Brandenburg from 1640 to 1688, com-
monly called the Great Elector He was the son
of the Elector George William, and was born
Feb 16, 1620 On his accession he found an
empty exchequer, the towns and cities depopu-
lated, and the whole electorate devastated by
the ravages of the Swedish and Imperialist
armies during the Thirty Yeais' War, which was
not yet concluded A portion of his inheritance
had even been seized by the Swedes. His first
acts were to regulate the finances and to con-
clude a treaty of neutrality with Sweden, which
left him at leisure to devote himself to the 01-
ganization of his army and the repeoplmg of
the deserted towns and villages by means of im-
migration By the Treaty of Westphalia in
1648, he secured Further Pomerania (east of the
Odor) and received the bishoprics of Halber-
stadt, Mmden, and Kammin as lay principali-
ties, together with the reversion of the see of
Magdeburg In the comse of ten yeais he had,
by the help of his generals, Derfflmger, Schom-
berg, and Kannenberg, created an army of 25,-
000 men, organized on the Swedish model In
1856 he entered into an alliance with Charles X
of Sweden against Poland and cooperated with
him in the taking of Warsaw In the following
>ear he forsook the Swedish alliance and placed
himself on the side of Poland, which, in the
Treaty of Wehlau, renounced its suzerainty over
the Duchy of Prussia The aggressions of Louis
XIV, who sought to extend the French domin-
ions to the Rhine and made an onslaught upon
Holland, alarmed the Elector, who induced the
Emperor Leopold I, the King of Denmark, and
the Elector of Hesse-Cassel to enter into a league
against France (1672) The result was un-
favorable, and Frederick William was obliged
to content himself with making highly disad-
vantageous terms in the following year The
war was soon renewed, and Brandenburg was
again laid open to the inclusions of the Swedes,
who, at the instigation of Louis XIV, advanced
upon Berlin, laying waste everything on their
march The Elector, who had taken up his win-
ter quarters in Franconia, hurried across the
Elbe at the head of Ins cavalry and signally de-
feated the Swedes at Fehrbellm (June 18,
1675), driving them from his dominions. De-
serted, however, by the other German princes,
and his dominions overrun by the troops of
Louis, he was obliged to agree to the Treaty
of Saint-Germain, by which he restored all his
conquests to the Swedes, in return for the
withdrawal of the French army and an indem-
nity of 300,000 crowns After this Frederick
William devoted himself to the task of further-
ing the prosperity of his dominions By his re-
ception of 20,000 French Protestants, after the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes ( q v ) , and
the encouragement which he afforded to the im-
migration of Hollanders and other foreigners,
he augmented the population of his states and
introduced numerous industries among his sub-
jects It is difficult to estimate his services
for they were so great as to deserve the eulogy
given by Frederick the Great, "Messieurs, celw-
01 a fait de grandes choses" He founded the
University of Duisburg and the Royal Library
at Berlin and reorganized the universities of
Frankfort on the Oder and Konigsberg He
opened canals, established a system of posts,
and gieatly enlarged and beautified Bcilin He
left a well-filled exchequer and <x highly oigan-
i/ed army Consult Tuttle, History oj Prussia,
1134-1740 (Boston, 1884), Hiltl/ Dei giosw
Kwfurst und seme Zeit (Bielefeld, 1803), H
Landwehr, Die Kirchenpolitilc dcs grosscn 2\.ut-
furstcn (Berlin, 1894), E Heyck, Der gtosse
Kwfurst (ib, 1897-1903), Philippson, Der
giosw Kurfur&t (ib , 1897-1002), Spahn, Der
grosse Kurfurst (Mainz, 1902) , A Wadding-
ton, Le Grand Eleoteur et LOUI& XTT7 (Paris,
1905) , A W. Ward, The Great Elector and the
Fitst Prussian King, in "Cambridge Modern
History" (London, 1908), F Fehhng, Die eu-
ropaiiche Politik des grossen Kurfwstc, 1607-
1688 (Leipzig, 1910)
FREDERICK WILLIAM (1771-1815)
Duke of Biunswick He entered the Prussian
seivice in 1788 and was actively engaged with
the army during the war with France, which
began in 1792, and aftei the battle of Aucrstadt
was taken prisoner at Lubeck (Nov 7, 1806)
Fiederick William joined Austna in the \\ai
against Napoleon in 1809 The defeat of the
Austrians at Wagram left him Isolated in cen-
tral Germany, and he cletei mined to make for
the North Sea and England With 1500 men ho
set out from Leipzig (July 20), passed thiough
Brunswick, where he ovei threw 4000 Wcstpha-
hans under Reubcl, crossed the Weser, i cached
Elsfleth, seized all the available shipping, and
sailed for England (August 7) He entered the
English service with his men and afterwaid took
part in the War of the Peninsula, where he
served with distinction till his return to his
own dominions in 1813 His attempts to main-
tain an excessive army and to force reforms
upon his people made him very unpopular He
joined the allied army with a force of 8000 men
after the return of Napoleon from Elba, and
fell while leading his men at Quatre-Bras, on
June 16, 1815
FREDERICK WILLIAM I (1802-75).
Elector of Hesse Pie was educated at Mai burg
and Leipzig and became Coregent in 1831 and
Elector in 1847 He sided with Austria during
the War of 1866, and his refusal to accede to
the terms of Prussia led to the invasion of his
territory In consequence of his obstinate re-
fusal to treat with the Prussian government he
was ariested and conveyed to the fortress of
Stettin, and his territories were annexed by
Prussia His morganatic wife, Gertrude Falken-
stem (1806-82), whom he married in 1831,
was the divorced wife of a Prussian lieutenant
Consult the biography by Grebe (Cassel,
1902)
FREDERICK: WILLIAM i ( 1688-1740 j
King of Prussia from 1713 to 1740 He was
the son of Frederick I and was born Aug 15,
1688 He was in almost every particular the
opposite of his father — simple and almost pe-
nurious in his habits, attending to business,
passionately fond of military exercises, averse
to culture, fond of the low and illiterate, and
carrying to the utmost his Ideas of arbitrary
power and the divine right of kings. From
Charles XII of Sweden he wrested a great part
of Hither Pomerania, including Stettin, playing
a r61e which he himself confessed was not fit foi
an honest man He died at Potsdaan, May 31,
1740 As the founder of an administrative sys-
tem, of which he himself worked out the mi-
nutest details, Frederick William stands promi-
nent among the monarch s of Ins century His
FBEDEKICK WILLIAM II
216
FBEDERICK WILLIAM IV
childish love for tall soldieis induced him to
resoit to the most flagrant outrages, both at
home and abroad, for kidnaping tall men and
forcing them into his service The result of
this system, which was greatly moderated to-
wards the end of his reign, was that he left at
his death a well-drilled army of 80,000 soldiers
What was of more consequence to his son and
successor was that his exchequer contained
9,000,000 thalers, and that his kingdom had
attained an area of more than 45,000 square
miles and a population of upward of 2,200,000
Consult Tuttle, History of Prussia, 1134-1740
(Boston, 1884) , Forster, G-eschichte Friednch
Wilhelms I (Potsdam, 1835), Carlyle, History
of Ftiedrich If, called Frederick the Great
(London, 1858-65).
FBEDERICK WILLIAM II (1744-97).
King of Prussia fiona 1786 to 1797. He was
the son of Piince Augustus William of Prussia,
the brother of Frederick the Great, and was born.
Sept 25, 1744 Duimg his reign Prussia de-
clined, owing to his indolence and lack of politi-
cal sagacity. He gave himself up to sensuality
and to the mystic vagaries of the Rosicru-
cians He contracted four marriages, besides
making no seciet of his relations with the
Countess Lichtenau His good nature led him to
abrogate taxes which the country could hardly
spare A futile expedition into Holland, in
support of the stadholdeis, cost him 6,000,000
thalers, and his efforts, m conjunction with
Austiia, to uphold royalty in France, resulted,
after a war lasting from 1792 to 1795, in the
cession to France, by the Treaty of Basel, of the
Prussian territories west of the Ehme Fred-
erick William II shared in the second and third
partitions of Poland (1793, 1795), by which
Prussia received large accessions of territory.
Consult Treitschke, Deutsche Q-eschichte iw*
XlXten Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1878-95) , Paulig,
Friedwch Wilhelm //, sein Privatle'ben und sein-e
Regierung (Frankfort on the Oder, 1896) , Stan-
hope, A Mystic on the Prussian Throne (Lon-
don, 1912)
FBEDERICK WILLIAM III (1770-1840).
King of Prussia from 1797 to 1840 He was
the son of Fredenck William II and was born
Aug 3, 1770, at Potsdam On his accession m
1797 he dismissed the favorites of the preceding
reign and entered upon a tour of inspection
through the numerous provinces of his kingdom
for the purpose of investigating their condition
But though Frederick William was well inten-
tioned, he lacked the force of will to cope with
the difficulties of his position In the recon-
stitution of the German Empire after the Peace
of Luneville (1801), Prussia acquired the sees
of Hildesheim, Paderborn, and Munster, as a
compensation for her territories west of the
Rhine wrested fiom her by France The re-
peated and systematic insults of Napoleon, who
despised Frederick William while he professed to
tieat him as a friend, roused the spirit of the
nation, and the King saw himself obliged to
agree to a convention with Russia, the real ob-
ject of which was to drive Napoleon out of Ger-
many. But when Napoleon marched against
Austria m 1805, Frederick William remained
inactive After the battle of Austerlitz (De-
cember, 1805) he even entered into a convention
with Napoleon, by which Prussia gave up Ans-
pach, Bayreuth, Cleves, and Neuchatel, and re-
ceived more than their equivalent in Hanover,
wrested by Napoleon from the English dynasty
The affronts of Napoleon Mere redoubled after
this fresh proof of Frederick William's indeci-
sion The Piussian nation, hoaded by the Queen,
the beautitul Louisa of Mecklenburg-Stre4itz,
now called loudly for -wai, and the King yielded
The Prussian aimy was annihilated in the bat-
tles of Jena and Auerstadt, fought on the same
day (Oct 14, 1806), and the French overran the
kingdom The Russian annies advanced to the
aid of Prussia The indecisive battle between
the allies and the French at Eylau (Feb 7, 8,
1807) was followed by the victory of Napoleon
over the Russians at Friedland (June 14] , which
left Prussia at the mercy of the conqueror In
the Treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807, Prussia was
almost dismembered, being forced to give up
hei possessions west of the Elbe and the Polish
dominions acquiied in 1793 and 1795 During
the next few years Prussia remained almost
effaced as a European power, and Napoleon
seized every opportunity of humbling Frederick
William But during this period of humiliation
the King and his people were quietly under-
taking the task of regeneration Frederick Wil-
liam's great Minister, Stein, emancipated the
seifs and inaugurated local self-government in
the towns. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau leorgan-
ized the army, training m secret three times as
many men as were allowed by treaty with Na-
poleon The disastrous teimmation of Napo-
leon's Russian campaign was the turning point
in the fortunes of Prussia At the beginning
of 1813 the German people rose in arms against
France, Frederick William entering into an al-
liance with Russia Napoleon was victorious at
Lutzen and Bautzen, May, 1813 Austria now
took up arms against France, and the battle of
Leipzig, October, 1813, achieved the liberation
of Germany Prussia joined in the invasion of
France, and her armies entered Paris The Con-
gress of Vienna restored to Prussia a great part
of her former possessions, and among her ac-
quisitions weie half of the Kingdom of Saxony
and large territories in the Rlnneland The
part played by Blucher at Waterloo determined
Prussia's rank among the great military powers
of Europe The Prussian people, however, were
doomed to disappointment in the erection of a
new era of liberal government In 1815 Fred-
erick William joined Czar Alexander I and the
Emperor Francis of Austria in the formation of
the Holy Alliance, the chief object of which soon,
showed itself to be the maintenance of abso-
lutism The Prussian. King played into the
hands of Metternich, who directed the policy
of the Holy Alliance Frederick William III,
however, did much for the material advance-
ment of his realm In his reign the Zollverem,
01 customs union, was established, which at the
time of his death included the bulk of the Ger-
man states, exclusive of Austria He died June
7, 1840 Consult M W Duncker, Aus der Zeit
Friednchs der Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelm
III (Leipzig, 1876) , Treitschke, Deutsche Qe-
schichte im XlXten Jahrhundert (ib, 1886-95),
especially vol i, Correspondence ( Brief wechsel)
of King Frederick William III and Queen Louise
with Emperor Alexander I (ib, 1900), ed by
P Baillen See GERMANY; PRUSSIA, GNEI-
SENATT, STEIN, SCHARNHORST
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV (1795-1861)
King of Prussia from 1840 to 1861 He was
the son of Frederick William III and was born
Oct 15, 1795 He received a careful education,
and was fond of the society of learned men,
EKEDEKICQ
2x7
EREDERIKSHALD
such as Delbiuek and Ancillon He was a great
lover of ait and the study of antiquity He as-
cended the throne June 7, 1840 He exhibited
much of his fathei's vacillation and instability
ol purpose , and although he began his reign by
granting nnnoi reforms and piomising ladical
changes of a liberal character, he always, on
one plea or another, evaded the fulfillment of
these pledges He had high but vague ideas of
"the Christian, state" and showed through life
a strong tendency to mystic pietism He re-
fused to allow a constitution to come between
himself and God Equally vague was his dream
of a Germany united under a "college of kings"
lulmg by divine light A step in the direction
of populai government was taken in 1847 by the
convocation of the so-called "United Diet/'
whose activity, however, was to be meiely that
of an advisoiy body The February i evolution
m France in 1848 was followed by an outbreak
in Piussia which shook the throne of the Ho-
henzollein to its foundations On March 18 the
people of Beilm lose in arms. To save his
crown, the King yielded to the demand for con-
stitutional lefoim, although the Piusbian aimy
remained tiue to him, he did not want to use
it against "his Berlmeis" In May a national
Constituent Assembly met, at the same time
that the Frankfort Parliament assembled to
leoiganize the political system of Germany On
Fob 26, 1849, the new Prussian Chambeis met,
but the constitutional legime thus inaugurated
Vvas granted meiely as the King's fiee gift, to
be modified at his pleasure On March 28, 3849,
the Frankfoit Parliament offered the Imperial
crown of Germany to Frederick William, but
he declined it, as coming ctfiom the gutter"
( See GERMANY ) In the meanwhile the King
had been forced, in 1848, by the clamor of his
subjects, to take up aims in support of the peo-
ple of Schleswig-Holstem ( q v ) in their revolt
against Denmark, but Prussia soon abandoned
the cause of the duchies Aftei the complete
cessation of the revolutionary movement m Ger-
many the reactionaiy regime was in full sway
The "pietists" legamed their former influence
at couit, and the freedom of the press and of
lohgious and political opinion was strictly cir-
cumscribed In 1857 Frederick William was
seized with intermittent attacks of insanity, and
in 1858 he resigned the management of public
affairs to his brother and heir, Prince William,
who acted as Regent of the kingdom till his ac-
cession, on the death of Frederick William,
which occuncd Jan 2, 1861 Consult Bieder-
mann, Drmssig Jahre deutscher Qesch/ichte
(Brcslau, 1896) , Memecke, "Fnednch Wilhelm
IV und Deutschland" (Histonsohe Zeitscnnlt,
vol 1m, Munich, 1902) , Ludwig, Ueber Fmednch
Wilhelm IV }s SteUung zur preussischen Verfas-
sungsfrage (Breslau, 1907)
EBEDERICQ, fra'de-r$k, PATTL (1850- ).
A Flemish historian, born at Ghent He was
educated at Liege and held successively the
chairs of history at Arlon, Li<§ge, and Ghent,
where he became a prominent leader of the na-
tional movement for the extension of the Flem-
ish language, customs, and laws His numer-
ous works, in Dutch, French, and Latin, dis-
tinguished by scholarly research and clearness
of exposition, include De Nederlanden onder
Kewer Karel V (1885) , GescJwedenis der tn-
quisitie in de Nederlanden (1889-1902), On&e
h^stonsohe volksli&d&ren van voor de godsdien-
stige 'beroerten d&r 16e eeivw (1894), Corpus
Document 01 um Inqmntioni<$ TIcereticce Pravrta-
tis Neerlandicw (1889-1003)
PREIXERICTOW A city and port of entiy,
the capital of York County and of New Bruns-
wick, Canada, on the St John River, 67 miles
north-northwest of St John, and on the Ca-
nadian Pacific and the Intercolonial railroads
(Map New Brunswick, C 3) The river is
navigable for large vessels to this point, 84
mileb from its mouth in the Bay of Fundy,
small steamers go 65 to 75 miles farther up
The city, built on a low point of land nearly
sin rounded by hills, is well laid out and has
elegant public buildings, among which are the
residence of the Lieutenant Governor, Parlia-
ment buildings, Government House, Legislative
Libiary, exhibition building, Victoria Hospital,
customhouse, the New Brunswick University,
the piovmcial normal school, a collegiate and
other schools Fredencton is the seat of an
Anglican bishopric, and the cathedral is a hand-
some edifice The city is the centie of a lumbei-
ing district The manufactuied products include
flour, canoes, motor boats, boots and shoes, shoe-
packs and lariigans (tanned leather shoes and
boots for lumbermen ) , foundry and machine-
shop pioducts, leather, lumber, and cotton The
United States has a consular agent here
Founded about 1740, the village was first called
St Anne After New Brunswick became a
British possession, Sir Guy Carleton, who in
1786 was appointed Governor-General of all the
British North American provinces, in that year
laid out the principal streets of St Anne to
lun parallel with the river, changed the name
to Fredencton, and two years later it became
the capital of the province It was incorporated
in 1849 Pop, 1901, 7117, 1911 7208
EEEDEHIKSBEKa, f rao'er - Iks - ber G A
westein subuiban municipality of Copenhagen,
Denmaik, with which it is connected by the
wide Fiederiksbeig Allec, lined with pleasure
gardens (Map Denmark, F 3) It is a hand-
some residential place, with the beautiful park
of Sondei marken, a zoological garden, the Ny-
Carlsberg Glyptothek, an art musoum? and the
Frederiksberg Palace, constructed in Italian
style, now used as a military college The
palace was built by Frederick IV in the first
half of the eighteenth century, and stands in a
prominent lull park commanding a fine and ex-
tensive view Near by are the Royal Porcelain
Works and also a faience factory, in another
adjoining territory are two great breweries
Pop, 1901, 76,237, 1911, 97,237 It became a
port of Greater Copenhagen during the first
decade of the twentieth century
EREDEBIKSBORG, fraD'er-iks-b6rG A Dan-
ish castle, situated on three islands of a lake of
the same name, on the island of Zealand, 22
miles north-northwest of Copenhagen It was
built in 1602-20 in Danish Renaissance style, by
Christian IV of Denmark, on the site of an older
building of Frederick II Since a fire in 1859
it has been restored as a national historical
museum, with handsome rooms, notably the
knights' hall and the dining hall Its church
was formerly the coronation place and contains
a king's oratory, with 23 Passion paintings by
Bloch Its gardens are laid out in French style
It has fine paintings and mural decorations by
J Ovens, and sculpture "by De Vnes and L P.
Sweis
FBEDEBIKSHALD, fra'der-iks-hal' A f<n>
tified seaport of Norway, beautifully situated on
FBEBEBIKSHAVN
2x8
HREE CO^GBBGATIOHS
tlie Idefjord, where the Tistedalselv falls into it,
about 85 miles south-southeast of Christiama
(Map Norway, D 7) It has a Latin school
It exports a considerable amount of wooden
ware, and is one of the centres of the timber
traffic for East Norway. The harbor is good
and is guarded from an eminence by the fortiess
of Frederiksten and the smaller Glydenlove
fort A monument marks the place where
Charles XII fell in an attempt to capture the
town in 1718 The town withstood a two years'
siege by the Swedes (1658-60) Pop, 1900,
11,936, 1910, 11,992
EKEDERIKSHAVN, fra'der-Iks-haVn A
seaport town of Jutland, Denmark, situated on
the Cattegat, 52 miles northeast of Aalborg
(Map Denmaik, D 1) It has an excellent
haibor, free from ice throughout the year, with
accommodation for vessels of 20-foot draft
The chief imports are wood, gram, coal, iron,
yarn, and cotton goods, while the exports con-
sist of dairy products, beef, pork, fish, oysters,
and eggs Regular steamship lines run to the
cities of Sweden, to England, and to Copen-
hagen, It is one of the youngest of Danish
towns, having received municipal rights in 1818.
Pop, 1901, 6478, 1911, 7916
FBEDEBIKSTAD, fra'der-ik-stad A sea-
port of Norway, situated at the mouth of the
Glommen, 58 miles southeast of Christiama
(Map Norway, D 7) It is an important cen-
tre for the lumber trade with Germany, Hol-
land, and France, the wood being- rafted down
the Glommen It is a very busy industrial
centre, manufacturing bricks, lumber, engines,
and boilers, ships, cotton and woolen goods^
and chemicals It was founded in 1570 and
was for a long time strongly fortified Near
it is Hanko, the most fashionable of Norwegian,
watering places* Pop, 1900, 14,635, 1910,
15,597
FBED/MAN, THE. A name sometimes used
by the Swedish poet Karl Mikael Bellman (qv ).
FBEDO'NIA A city and the county seat
of Wilson Co, Kans , 91 miles east by south of
Wichita, on the Frisco, the Atchison, Topeka,
and Santa Fe, and the Missouri Pacific rail-
roads, and on the Fall Kiver (Map Kansas,
08), It is the centre of an agricultural and
stock-raising district and has a supply of nat-
ural gas and oil Its industrial establishments
include brick and cement works, a linseed-oil
null, window-glass and ice plants, and a foundry
The water works and sewage system are owned
by the city Fredonia has adopted the com-
mission form of government Pop , 1900, 1650 ,
1910, 3040
FBEDONTA A village in Chautauqua Co,
N Y , 45 miles southwest of Buffalo, on the
Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley, and Pittsburgh Kail-
road (Map New York, A 6) It is the seat of
a State normal school and has the D K, Barker
Free Library The village has extensive nurser-
ies, wine cellars, seed companies, canning estab-
lishments, and grape-juice and patent-medicine
factories It is the centre and chief village of
the famous grape belt of western New York
The water works and electric-light plant are
owned and operated by the municipality One
of the oldest villages in western New York,
Fredonia was settled in 1803 and incorporated
in 1829 Natural gas was utilized for lighting
the village as early as 1821. Pop , 1900, 4127 ,
1910, 5285
FBEDBO, fra'dr6, ALEXANDER, COUNT ( 1793-
1876) A Polish playwright, born at Smoehow,
Galicia For several years he served in the
army, and at the end of that time (1814) he
visited Pans and there studied the French
theatre Upon his return to Poland he produced
18 comedies, which were played with success
He is praised for his depiction of comic types and
for the entirely national spirit of his work His
plays were collected and published in 1877 and
again in 1880 Some of his plays have been
translated into German — His son JAN ALEX-
ANDER (1829-91), born in Lemberg, was also a
dramatic author His comedies had some suc-
cess, but he was far from equaling his fathei
His works were published in 1881
FUEE BEKTCH (francus lancus) An an-
cient foim of dower existing by custom, and not
by common law, in certain manors in England
The right of free bench was independent of en-
dowment and was a purely customary provision
for the wife, who became entitled to it at once
upon her husband's death, without waiting, as
is still the case with ordinary dower, for its
assignment by the heir. Coke says "This right
is called francus ~bancus, to distinguish it from
other dowers, for that it cometh freely, without
any act of the husband's or assignment of the
heir" (Co Litt 94, b) The custom varied in
different manors, the widow being entitled to
the whole of her husband's lands in some, while
in others she leceived one-half or one-third only
The right applied only to estates of inheritance
held by the tenure of free and common socage
and \vas usually, if not always, limited to the
period of widowhood and the good behavior of
the wife (dum sola et casta wixent] . See
DOWER
FBEE CHUBCH OF EISTGKLANI). See RE-
FORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH
F&EE CHITBCH OE SCOTLAND. See
PRESBYTERIANISM
FREE CITIES (Ger Freistadte). The name
given to the three German cities of PTamburg,
Bremen, and Lubeck, which are sovereign states
and members of the German Empire Since the
middle of the fourteenth century the term "free
cities" has been used for certain German towns,
but not alwavs with the same meaning The
designation was applied 1 To cities in the
Rhine valley (Cologne, Mai"*1", Worms, Speier,
Strassburg, Basel) and elsewhere which had been
under the control of bishops, but had become
almost independent m the course of the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries They enjoyed
even greater freedom than the so-called "Im-
perial" cities All of these cities have become
parts of the larger political divisions 2 To
the Hanse cities — Frankfort on the Main, Ham-
burg, Bremen, and Liibeck These cities were
wealthy and became centres of active popular
life and of free institutions m the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries They main-
tained their freedom until the time of the
Napoleonic wars By the Congress of Vienna,
m 1815, they were restored to their former
rights as free cities Hamburg, Lubeck, and
Bremen still retain their privileges under the
reconstituted German Empire, but Frankfort
was annexed to Prussia in 1866 Consult
Arnold, Verfassungsgescfwchte der deutschen
Freistadte (Gotha, 1854), and Hullmann,
Btndte wesen ties Mittelalt&rs (Bonn, 1826-29)
FBEE C03STGBEGATI03STS (Ger frwe Ge-
mewden ) * An association of German rational-
ists It originated in Saxony m 1841, where
FKEEDEN
219
FKEEDOMC OE THE CITY
the membeis weie called "Piotestant Friends"
and "Fi lends of Light" The immediate occa-
sion was an attempt to discipline a Magdeburg
pieacher who had cxpies&od heretical views
Early leaders in the movement were Leberecht
Uhhch ( q v ) and Gustav Adolf Wishcemis
( q v ) 3 both of whom wei e forced out of the
Evangelical church for expressing liberal views
In like manner independent congregations arose
in a number of places, and in 1847 a union was
effected between them on the basis of a simple
piofe&sion ot faith in God By this time their
gatherings, held symbolically in the open air,
had come to number more than 2000, including
delegates from England and Ameuca In 1850
they were united with the Geiman Catholics
(qv), and in the same year and the years
immediately following some 40 congregations
wcie established in the United States, but had
a short existence After the revolutionary move-
ments of the middle of the centuiy several of
the German governments undertook to suppress
them, partly for political reasons Many con-
gregations were broken tip Those still in
existence in 1859, about 50 in number, undei
Uhhch's leadership, formed a "Union of Fiee
Congicgations in Germany/5 upon a highly ra-
tionalistic basis Inasmuch as the fullest indi-
vidual liberty is allowed, the belief of members
and congregations varies greatly There has
been a tendency towards radical free thought,
and some even deny the existence of a personal
deity At present there are about 22,000 mem-
bers in the cntue association Consult Kampe,
(levchichke der religwsen Bewegung der neuern
Zeit (Leipzig, 1852-60) ,and Fi eidenker-Almanach
(Goth a, annually)
FKEEDEiNr, fra'den, WILHELM IHNO ADOLF
VON (1822-94) A German mathematician and
expert on navigation, born at JSTorderi, Hanover,
and educated at Bonn and Gottingen He was
cluector of the school of navigation at Elsfleth,
Oldenbuig, and later became established at Ham-
buig, where, m 1867, he founded the German
Naval Observatory, which he conducted until
1875 The purpose of this institution is to pro-
mote and facilitate maritime intercourse It
comprises the department of maritime meteor-
ology, a bureau of nautical, meteorological, and
magnetic instruments, the department of coast
meteoiology and signal service, and a bureau for
testing chronometers Freeden, who was a mem-
ber of the Reichstag from 1871 to 1876, founded,
with H Tecklenborg-Bremen, the publication en-
titled llansa, Zeitschrrft fur Seewesen, which he
edited until 1891
FBEEDMAIfl" See FBEEMAN AND FREBDMAK
FBEED'MAN'S BUREAU A "Bureau of
Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands,"
established in the War Department of the
United States by the Statute of March. 3, 1865
This act provided that the bureau was to be
maintained through the war and for one year
thereafter, and that it should have "the super-
vision and management of all abandoned lands,
and the control of all subjects relating to ref-
ugees and freedmen," under "such rules and
regulations as may be presented by the head of
the bureau and approved by the President"
Especially important was the provision authoriz-
ing the President to appropriate for the use of
freedmen the confiscated and abandoned lands
within the Southern States, not more than 40
acres for a period not longer than three years
being assigned to each man thus aided Pro-
VOL. IX.— 15
visions, fuel, and clothing weio, moreover, to be
distributed free of charge by the buieau to desti-
tute fieedmen and loyal ie"fugecs "The bureau
assumed, in short, a general guaidianship of
the emancipated race, and, backed by the para-
mount military force of the United States,
undertook to play a detei mining- rOle in the
piocess of reorganizing Southern society" The
administiation of the bureau was placed 111 the
hands of a chief commission 01 and his deputies,
and in the actual application of the statute
much was done with reference to labor, clothing,
fuel, provisions, and schools for the beneficiaries
of the plan A second Freedmenjs Buieau bill
was passed by Congiess, Feb 6, I860, but was
vetoed by President Johnson and was not passed
over his veto Later, however, there was passed
over the President's veto the Act of July 16,
18G6, \vlnch extended foi t\vo years the term of
the bureau's statutoiy life, increased its powers,
authorized the sale foi educational pui poses of
Confederate public propeity, and gave to the
bureau military jurisdiction ovei infringements
of civil lights secured by the act In June, 1868,
another bill was passed, extending the term of
the bureau foi one yeai in unreconsti ucted
States The bureau's chief woik ended on Jan
1, 1869, and its educational woik was concluded
a year and a half thcieaftcr Moie than $15,-
000,000 was spent by the buieau, and, in addi-
tion to the general relief afforded, it aided
appreciably in the movement for the higher edu-
cation of the freedmen which resulted in the
founding of such institutions as Atlanta Uni-
versity, Fisk University, and Howard Univer-
sity, the last being named after the chief figure
in this woik, the commissioner of the bureau,
Gen Oliver 0 Howard (qv ) Widely differing
opinions have been, and are, held with regard
to the rnethods used and the results attained
by the bureau — some writers maintaining that
its work was almost wholly beneficent, others
that on the whole much more harm was done
than good However useful and beneficent an
institution it may have been, it was cordially
detested by the greater part of the white people
of the South who saw in the bureau only a
diabolical device for perpetuating the national
government's control over the South and for the
humiliation of the whites before their former
slaves The text of the first Freedmen's Bureau
bill may be found in 13 Statutes at Large
(Thirty-eighth Congress) , that of the second in
13 Statutes at Large (Thirty-ninth Congress)
For an account of the bureau's work, consult
General Howard's report for 1869, published
among the executive documents of the House of
Representatives, Forty-first Congress, second
session Also consult "The Freedmen's Bureau,"
in Atlantic Monthly, vol Ixxxvn (Boston,
1901), and Peirce, The J?i eedmerfs Bureau
(Iowa City, 1904)
IFBBIEXDOM A borough in Beaver Co , Pa.,
25 miles northwest of Pittsburgh, on the Pitts-
burgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago Railroad, and
on the Ohio Eiver (Map Pennsylvania, A 6)
The chief industries are the manufacture of
oil, caskets, and monuments Pop, 1900, 1783,
1910, 3060
FKEE'DOM: OF THE CITY The custom,
prevalent both in American and European cities,
of conferring on a distinguished visitor the
privileges connected with municipal citizenship
The names of such honorary citizens or "bur-
gesses are "entered upon the register of mumci-
OF THE
220
pal eleetois, but they aie not entitled, when
nonresidents, or not engaged m business in the
particular city or town, to exercise the munici-
pal franchise or to be admitted to inembeiship
in the governing bodies The practice of confer-
ring the freedom of the city, which at present
amounts to little moie than an expiession of
esteem on the part of the public magistiates,
may be traced back to medieval times, when
the principle of freedom of domicile was by no
means universally recognized, and cities paitook
almost entirely of the nature of piivate corpora-
tions, admission "into which was hampered by
many restrictions The most usual way of ob-
taining the privileges of citizenship at that
time was by a long term of apprenticeship
(seven years as a rule) to one of the lecogmzed
guilds, followed by an examination in the pun-
ciples of the craft, and, wheie the candidate
was successful, enrollment in the lanks of
master workmen In view of so cumbious a
process the presentation of the freedom of the
city by a special vote of the magistiates was,
m fact, a substantial favor and was granted
only in cases where great wealth or renowned
citizenship made a man a desirable accession to
the list of burghers See GUILDS
FREEDOM OF THE PBESS See PRESS,
FREEDOM OF THE
FREE FTJG-tTE. See FUGUE
FREE GIFT See BENEVOLENCE
FREE'HOLD A to^n and the county seat
of Monmouth Co , N J , 33 miles by rail east
of Trenton, on the Pennsylvania, and the Cential
of New Jeisey railroads (Map New Jeisey,
D 3) It has* a Carnegie libiary, two military
schools, and a park m which is a fine granite
monument, 100 feet high, commemorating the
battle of Monmouth (qv ) The town is com-
mercially important as a distributing ^centre for
a farming district and has a large canning
factory and manufactories of caipets and lugs,
foundry and machine-shop products , and rasps
Freehold was settled about 1735, when county
courts first began to be held heie, and for many
years was known as Monmouth Court House
It was incorporated in 1869 and has adopted the
commission form of government The watei
works and sewage system aie owned and
operated by the town Pop, 1900, 2034, 1910,
3233
FREEHOLD (Lat hocrwn tenementitm, fioe
holding or tenement) In the classification of
estates in land, any estate of inheritance 01 for
life, held by a free tenure It is distinguished
from the copyhold (qv ) and from the leasehold
(qv ) As thus employed, it is a mere teim of
classification, but m its origin it was coextensive
in meaning with the term "fee/' as signifying
lands held of some lord by feudal tenure (See
FEE; TENUBE ) The original freehold or fee
was the life estate, and the terra "freehold" has
always been employed by law writers from
Littleton down in a special and technical sense,
as signifying an estate for life But its more
common use, especially in American law, is as
above indicated Under the feudal system a free
holding or freehold was such a tenement as a
free vassal might properly hold The tenure
might be military or nonmilitary, and the estate
might be corporeal or incorporeal, but the hold-
ing must be for life at least, and not for a
definite term of years, nor, as in the case of
copyhold, at the will of the lord of whom the
land was held For a description of the various
torms of freehold, see FEE SIMPLE, FEE TAIT ,
LIFE ESTATE See also ESTATE, FEUDALISM
FREEHOLD; CUSTOMARY See CUSTOMARY
FREEHOLD
FREE LANCE (fSjei frcier fjandsLwceht, free
land troopei, in distinction fiom the Swiss
mountaineers, but confused with Lanybitecht,
lance troopei) In the later Middle Ages and
early modem times, one of the roving companies
of knights and men at aims who wandered fiom
state to state, selling their sei vices to any lord
who was willing to purchase their aid They
played their most prominent part in Italy,
where they weie known as condottieri (qv)
See BE AH A NOONS
FBEE'LAND -A borough in Luzerne Co ,
Pa, 18 miles (dnect) south of Wilkcs-Barre on
the Lclngh Valley Railroad (Map Pennsyl-
vania, K 4) The borough contains the Min-
ing and Mechanical Institute, Gills Industrial
School, and the Hill Observatory It is in a
coal-inmmg and agiicultmal legion and has a
foundi y and machine shops, a brcweiy, hames
and oveiall factones, and a silk mill Pop , 1900,
5254, 1010, 6197
FBEE LIBRARIES See LIBRARIES
FREE'MAlsT A to\vn in Hutchmson Co ,
S Dak , 45 miles southwest of Siouv Falls, on
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St Paul Raihoad
(Map South Dakota, G 4) It is in a puiely
agiicultunil legion and contains the South Da-
kota Mcniiomte College and a fine city hall
The watei woiks are owned by the town Pop,
1900, 525, 1910, 615
FREEMAN, ALICE ELVIRA See PALMER,
ALICE ( FREEH \N)
FREEMAN", EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-92)
An English historian He was born at Mitchley
Abbey, Harborne, Staffordshire, Aug 2, 1823,
and at an eaily age was left an orphan Under
the care of his paternal grandmother he le-
ceived education in various private schools and
after a coiuse of piivate tuition received a schol-
arship at Trinity College, Oxford, in 1841 In
1845 he graduated and the same ycai \sas
elected fellow of his college In 1847 he mariied
Miss Eleanor Gutch, daughtei of his foimer
piivate tutor The following year, with <in ac-
cebsion to Ins prnatc foitune, he ictned to
Dursley, Gloucesteishiie, and applied himself
to a lite of historical study and icseaich With
a special predilection foi ecclesiastical arehi-
toctuio, m 1849 he published A History of
Architecture lie contributed articles and re-
views to the Guardian, the Saturday Review,
and othci periodicals, and also published pam-
phlets, all noted for their scholarship, accuracy,
and correction of popular orrois, which kept his
name prominently before the reading public
In 1857 and 1858 he was appointed examiner
in the School of Law and Modern History at
Oxford, a position he again held in 1863, 1804,
and in 187? In 1860 he had removed to
Someiloaze, neai Wells, Somerset, where for
some yeais he acted as county magistrate, and,
with political aspnations as a Gladstonian
Liberal, in 1868 unsuccessfully stood as membei
of Parliament for Mid-Somerset In 1863 ap-
peared the first volume of his History of Fed-
eral Qoveinment from the Foundation of the
Aohaian League to the Disruption of the United
States (a work that he left unfinished) , in
1867 was published the first volume of his His-
tory of the Norman Conquest (6 vols, 1807-
79), which established his position among Eng-
221
AND FBBEBMAN
hsli historians. He was created D C L of Ox-
ford m 1870, in 1874 received the honorary
degree of LL D from Cambridge, and m 1880
was elected honorary fellow of his college at
Oxford For the better elucidation of his sub-
jects he traveled extensively, visiting the places
connected with the histones he was wilting In
the winter of 1881-82 he visited the United
States on a lecturing tour, which icsulted in
the publication of Introduction to American
Institutional History (1882), Lectures to Amen-
can Audiences (1882), and Some Impressions of
the United States (1883) He succeeded Bishop
Stubbs of Chester as regius professor of modern
history at Oxfoid in 1884, and the same year
was created honorary LLD of Edinburgh Uni-
versity From 1886 to 1890 failing health
impelled him to spend the winters of each yeai
in Sicily, where he wrote his History of flicily
(4 vols , 1891-94) While traveling in Spain
he died of smallpox at Alicante, March 1C, 1892
Fieeman was the leader of the Teutonic school
of English histoiy and a voluminous wnter
His principal work, The History of the Norman
Conquest, in impartial, exhaustive treatment
and unimpeachable accuracy, is one of the
greatest monuments of historical reseaich It
is as a political historian that he is best known
Among his writings not already mentioned are
History and Conquest of the Saracens (1856) ,
Comparative Politics (1873-96) , Growth of the
English Constitution (1876), The Ottoman
Power in Europe (1877) , Historical Geography
of Ewope (1881) , English Toions and Districts
(1883), The Reign of William Rufus (2 vols ,
1882) , Western Europe in the Fifth Century
An Aftermath (1904), Western Europe in the
Eighth Century (1905) Consult Stephens, Life
and Letters of Edward Augustus Freeman (2
vols, London, 1895), and Bryce, Studies in
Contemporary Biography (New York, 1903)
EBEEMA3ST, JAMES (1759-1835) An Ameri-
can Unitarian cieigyman He was born in
Charlestown, Mass, graduated at Ilaivaid m
1777, and in 1782 became a reader in King's
Chapel, Boston Soon he became a Unitarian,
and in 1785 the people of his church altered
their prayer-book in accordance with his views
and became the first Unitarian church m the
United States He was ordained (1787) by
his own congregation, since the Bishop refused
to ordain him, and remained rector of King's
Chapel for 39 years In 1811 he received the
degree of D D.* from the University of Cam-
bridge He was a scholarly and philanthropic
man and was one of the founders of the Massa-
chusetts Historical Society Consult a sketch of
him in that Society's Collections, 3d series, vol
v (Boston, 1836)
FREEMAN", JAMES MJDWINTEB (1827-1900)
An American cleigyman and writer He was
born in New York City and was educated at
Wesleyan University and at Mount Union Col-
lege (Ohio) He entered the Methodist min-
istry and in 1872 became assistant editor of
various Sunday-school and tract publications of
the Methodist Episcopal church Under the
pseudonym of "Robin Ranger," Freeman wrote
several books for children His other works in-
clude Use of Illustration m- Sunday School
Teaching (1867); Handbook of Bible Manners
and Customs (1974); A Story History of the
English Bible (1879)
FREEMAN", JOHN RTPLBT (1855- ). An
American civil and mechanical engineer, born
at West Bridyton, Me Giacluating fiom
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1876,
he was an assistant oiigineei foi 10 yeais
chief engmeei ot the Associated Factoiy Mutual
Insurance Company in 1880-90, and a'ftei 18S(>
also consulting engmeei on ^vatei supply and
mill construction foi vaiious laige coi positions,
and on water supply foi nunieious cities, among
them New Yoik, Boston, Los Angeles, Baltimoie,
and San Francisco His advice vuib sought also
in connection with the Panama Canal looks and
dams, and by the Canadian govoniment on
waterpo\ver conservation In 1902-03 he was
vice president of the Ameiicau Society of Civil
Engmeeis, whose medal he twice received foi
the beat yearly contribution to its Transactions,
and in 1904 he served as president of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
PREEMAItf, MARY E WELKINS See WIL-
KINS
FKEE'MAN, MRS The name assumed in
lest by Saiah Jennings, wife of John Chui chill,
Duke of Marlboiough, during her friendship and
correspondence with Queen Anne The name was
adopted ahoitly atter the beginning of the ac-
quaintance in 1083 Queen Anne adopted that
of Mis Moilcy
FREEMAN, NATHANIEL (1741-1827) An
American physician and jurist, born at Dennis
(Barnstable County), Mans He settled at
Sandwich (also in Barnstabk County) in 1763
He studied both medicine and law, served in the
American army during the Kcvolution, com-
manding a militia regiment in the Rhode Island
expedition, and from 1781 to 1791 was brigadier
general of militia Prom 1795 to 1799 lie wan
a member of Congress He was also in the State
Legislatuie of Massachusetts, and long a judge
of probate and of the Court of Common Pleas
FBEEMAK", SUSANNA See CBNTLIVBE, SU-
SANNA
FREEMAET A3STD FBEED3S1AN. In the
most general acceptance of these terms, the fust
implies one who has inherited the full pnvilegeB
•and immunities of citizenship, the second, one
who lias been delivered from the restraints of
bondage, but wlao, usually, is not placed in a
position of full social or even political equality
with him who was born free With the Romans
the equivalent foi freeman (liber homo) com-
prehended all classes of those who were not
slaves, but the distinction, was preserved by the
application of the term ingenuus to him who
•was born free, and of libertinus to him who,
being born in servitude, was emancipated As
the organization of Eoman society survived the
convulsions of the Middle Ages to a far greatei
extent in the towns than in the lural dis-
tricts, where the institutions of feudality al-
most entirely superseded it, it is in the bor
ough and other municipal corporations of con-
tinental Europe that freemen still were found
comprising persons inheriting or acquiring )>y
adoption, purchase, or apprenticeship the rights
of citizenship The idea of a freeman was by ilo
means peculiar to the Roman or Romanized
population of Europe, on the contrary, it be-
longed to the constitution of society m all the
Iiido-Geimamc nations Among those branches
of them comtnonly known as Teutonic, it was
generally based on the possession of some por-
tion of the soil Thus, in Anglo-Saxon England
"the freeman was strictly the freeholder, and
the exercise of his full rights as a free member
of tlie community to which he belonged became
222
PBEE-SOIli PABTY
inseparable from the possession of his holding
m it " Consult Green, The Making of England
(London, 1882), and Crumley, On the Social
Stand^ng of Freedmen as Indicated in the Latin
Writers, part i (Baltimore, 1906) See ANGLO-
SAXONS, CITIZEN, SLAVERY
FE,EE/MA/S03STItY. A modern name of pop-
ular usage designating the principles of the
Order of Freemasons Formerly the word Ma-
sonry alone was employed and it is still used
in the writings, history, and ritual of the craft
The term "Fi eemasonry" seems to have risen
from the fact that only free men wei e eligible to
the 01 dei, and that they weie lequired to he
elected with practical unanimity The members
then denoted themselves "Free and Accepted Ma-
sons", but the public curtailed this to Fiee-
masons and the order to Freemasonry See
MASON, FREE
EBJEE METHODISTS See METHODISM
EBEE POBT (Ital porto franco) A harbor
where the ships of all nations may enter on
paying a moderate and uniform toll and load
and unload Free ports form depots wheie
goods are stored at first without paying duty,
these goods may then be either reshipped for
export on paying a mere transit duty, or they
may pay the usual full customs of the country
and be admitted for home consumption Free
ports thus facilitate transit trade and form, as
it were, a foreign district within a state See
WAREHOUSING SYSTEM
EBEE'POBT A city and the county seat
of Stephenson Co , 111 , 113 miles by rail west
by north of Chicago, on the Pecatonica River,
and on the Chicago and Northwestern, the
Illinois Cential, the Chicago Great Western, and
the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St Paul railroads
(Map Illinois, El) It contains the St Vin-
cent's Oiphanage and a public library There
are railroad shops and manufactories of organs,
\\agons, buggies, bicycles, windmills, novelties,
gasoline engines, and paints Freeport \%as
btittlcd in 1835 and chartered in 1885 The
government is administered by a mayor and a
•umcameral council Pop, 1900, 13,258, 1910,
17,567, 1914 (U S est), 19,018, 1920, 19,669
Here in 1858 occurred the debate between Lincoln
and Douglas in which Douglas enunciated his
famous "Freeport heresy" or "doctnne," "which.
\\as to the effect that, in bpite of the Died Scott
case (qv), any Territory might virtually ex-
clude the slave system by passing "unfriendly"
police laws incompatible with its existence
This doctrine alienated many of Douglas's
former supporters and greatly weakened him in
the presidential campaign of 1800
PREE'PORT A village on Long Island, in
Nassau Co , 1ST Y , 20 miles east of New York
City, on the Long Island Railroad (Map New
York, B 3) It is essentially a residential
place and contains a high school and two large
clubhouses Fishing is carried on to some ex-
tent The water works and electric-light plant
are owned by the village Pop, 1900, 2612;
1910, 4836
PBEER, CHARLES LANG (1856-1919) An
American capitalist He was born at Kingston,
N Y, and was educated in the public schools
Until his retirement he was engaged in railroad
and manufacturing enterprises at Detroit, Mich
He made a large art collection, which he pre-
sented to the Smithsonian Institution at Wash-
ington, D C The University of Michigan con-
ferred on him the honorary degree of A M
EBEE SCHOOLS See COMMON SCHOOLS
EREE SHIP. See ARMED NEUTRALITY, THE,
DECLAEATION OF PARIS.
Ij'HEE'SXA A genus of bulbous plants of
the family ludaceae, comprising two species,
natives of the Cape of Good Hope, which during
the closing quaiter of the nineteenth centuiy
became widely popular as greenhouse and \vin-
dow-gaiden plants for winter blooming The
leaves aie long and giasslike, the long scape,
bent at an angle, bears at the top five or six
pale-yellowish or white erect tubular flowers ot
exquisite fiagiance Peihaps Ficesia is the
easiest and most satisfaetoiy bulbous plant to
giow, since it lequires even less attention as to
soil and wateimg than the hyacinth, and unless
kept too dry, or watered too heavily, will pro-
duce flowers without forcing in from six to
eight weeks The principal producing centres
of freesias aie the Channel Islands, Calif 01 ma,
and Bermuda, wheie the finest bulbs aie saicl to
grow Foi illustration, see Coloied Plate of
IRIS
PKEE-SOIL PARTY, THE The name of a
political party in the United States, which was
fanned in 1848 and became merged in the Repub-
lican party in 1856 The activity of the Aboli-
tionists (qi ) tin ougliout the decade ot the
thirties, the energetic though indirect champion-
ing1 of the equal rights of all men by c onsen a-
tive leadeis, such as John Quincy Adams, and
the contioveisy over the extension of slavery in
connection with the admission ot Texas, brought
the question of the further extension 01 the le-
striction of slavery once more into the fore-
ground in 1844, although both of the existing
parties, Demoeiats and Whigs, virtually re-
fused to recognize the existence of any such
question Within the Northern wing of each
party there arose, therefore, groups of woikers,
such as that led by S P Chase in Ohio, who
aimed to commit their party to the punciple
of opposition to the further extension of slavery
in the national Terntories The issue was foiced
by the introduction, in the House of Repicscnta-
tives, of the so-called "Wilmot Proviso" (q^ )
in 1846 by David Wilmot, a Democratic member
from Pennsylvania, as an amendment to a bill
in Congiess making an appiopnation to nego-
tiate peace with Mexico The proviso passed
the House, but failed m the Senate Parti cu-
laily in Massachusetts was a vigorous effort
made to make the Whig party a free-soil party,
and the bitter contest between the "Conscience '
Whigs and the '"Cotton" Whigs enforced upon
the former the fact that for them there was no
place within their old party, and that, in order
to establish their principle, they must found a
paity whose dominant purpose should be op-
position to slavery extension The necessity for
this was still fuither emphasized by the refusal
of both national conventions of 1848 to indoise
the principle of the Wilmot Proviso, and so
in August of 1848 there met at Buffalo the first
national convention which stood for this prin-
ciple, and which compused in its membership
the "Barnburner53 Democrats of New York, who
had bolted their national convention, members
of the former Liberty party (q v ) under the
leadership of Chase, and the "Conscience" Whigs
of Massachusetts, led by Charles Francis Adams
and Charles Sumner By this convention Van
Buren and Adams were named as the national
ticket, and resolutions were adopted which con-
cluded "That we inscribe on our banner '
EREE SORTS OE ISRAEL
223
FBEE TBADE
Soil, Free Speech., Fice Labor, and Fice Men/
and under it will fight on and fight evei, until a
triumphant victory shall rewaid our exertions"
Although the ticket received no electoial vote,
and only 291,263 popular votes (sulhcient to
turn the scale m favor of Zachaiy Taylor as
against Lewis Cass), the party seemed such
local advantages that it was able to send Chase
to the Senate in 1849 and Sumner in 1851 On
the other hand, the alliance with the "Barn-
burners" was temporal y, and so hopeless was
the outlook that Chase formally Coined the
Democrats in the State elections in Ohio in
1851 In 1852 the Free-Soil candidate, John
P Hale of New Hampshire, icceived only 156,-
149 votes In that year many Noitherneis weie
reconciled to their onginal parties by the
"finality" planks and by the hope of thus
pi eventing fuither discussion of slaveiy exten-
sion When this hope proved ill founded, by the
Kansas-Nebiaska stiugglc, old party linos were
broken, and the principles of the Free-Soil party
were laigely adopted by the new Republican,
party Consult J C Smith, Liberty and Free
Soil Parlies in the Northwest (New York,
LSQ7) , Curtis, The Republican Party, vol i
(ib, 1904) , T H McKce, National Conventions
and Platforms of All Political Parties, If 89-
1905 (6th ed , Baltimoie, 1906) , and see LIBERTY
PAUTY, REPUBLICAN PARTY
FREE SONS OF ISKAEL, INDEPENDENT
ORDER OF A Jewish fraternal and benevolent
society, with headquarters m New York City,
founded on Jan 10, 1849 It has three grand
lodges and 89 suboidinate lodges, distributed
throughout the United States Up to 1914 it
had paid to widows and othei beneficiaries
$0,559,355, and at that date had 8745 members
EBEE'STOUTE. A name given to those sand-
stones which have a homogeneous texture and
can be cut readily in all directions so as to be
easily reduced to any form required for arcln-
tecttiial uses It occurs in rather thick beds,
without minor division planes or directions of
cleavage The name is sometimes applied alno
to limestones that have similar physical charac-
teis See SANDSTONE, BUILDING STONE
FREE THEATRE. See TmSATBE LIBRE
FREE'THIJyTE/EB One who rejects au-
thority, particularly that of ecclesiastical tiadi-
tion, in the formation of his religious opinions
The term came into common use eaily in the
eighteenth century, after the publication of
Anthony Colhns's Discourse of Frccthmling, oc-
casioned l)y lhe ttise and Growth of a Sect called
Freethinkers (London, 1713), and was applied
paiticulaily to the English Deists (See DEISM )
It has been used to designate lationahsts, mfi-
dels, or skeptics Consult J M Robertson, A
^hott Ifistort/ of Preethought, Ancient and Mod-
ern (2d ed , 2 vols , London, 1906), and J B
Bury, A History of Freedom of Thought (ib ,
1913) See KSFKITS FOETS
FREE'TOWN". The capital of the British
West African Colony of Sierra Leone, situated
on the left bank of the Sierra Leone "River,
about 5 miles from the coast and 33 miles by
rail from Songotown (Map- Africa, C 4) It
lies on low ground and is separated from the in-
terior by a mountain chain It is the headquar-
ters of the British forces in West Africa and a
second-class imperial coaling station It has a
fine harbor protected by several batteries of
heavy modern ordnance There are a cathedral,
a governor's palace, a Supreme Court, a tech-
nical school, and Fourrih Bay College, an ex-
cellent institution affiliated with the University
of Dm ham Freetown is the greatest seaport
in West Africa, and has a conbideiable expoit
trade in India lubbci, palm oil, gums, nuts,
and ginger, gold and silver ornaments and
filigree work are skillfully made by natrve e\-
peits Freetown was foimerly so unhealthful
that it was called "the white man's grave,1'
but since the neighboring marshes ha\e been
drained or filled m the health of the town has
notably improved Pop,, 1901, 34,463, 1911,
34,090, including only about 500 Europeans
FBEE TBADE As first used m English ht-
eiatuie, the term "free trade" designated trade
open to all mei chants, as distinguished fiom
that monopolized by charteied trading companies
In. couise of time icstrictions othei than monop-
olies attracted attention, and the term was ex-
tended to cover tiadc unhampered by any sort
of govci nmeiital icgulation It was even used
by some writeis in a sense piactically synony-
mous with "fiee competition " During the eight-
eenth century customs duties became the fa-
vorite mode of tiadc restriction, and "ficp
tiade" bocame tiado camcd on in defiance of
customs regulations The fiee tradeis of this
penod weie the class wo now call snm^gleis
At present "fiee tiadc" designates tiade that is
cither entirely unrestricted 01 restricted only
an ways that afford no protection (qv ) to home
mdustiies The former exists only in the imagi-
nation of economists, as no government has cvoi
attempted to put it in practice The latter, on
the other hand, is actually realized m the policy
of the United Kingdom It is to it, rather than
to absolutely free trade, that the present article
lefers
Although advocates of freedom of trade were
not lacking in Europe bcfoie the eighteenth cen-
tury (eg, DC la Cioix, in Fiance, in 1623, and
Nicholas Baibon, in England, in 1600), it was
not until then that any considerable number of
persons of influence declared themselves foi such
a policy The honor of having led in the crusade
against the lestrictions of the mercantile sys-
tem, which was begun about 1750, belongs to
the gioup of French writers called Physiocrats
(qv) By them free trade was for the first
time presented as an essential principle of a
woll-ioundecl system of economics The formula,
laissez-faire, laisscs-passer, first popularized by
the liberal Protectionist Gournay (qv ), was
adopted by the Physiocrats and given an abso-
lute character as a univeisal rule of state policy
Turgot, Finance Minis fcer of Louis XVI in 1774,
attempted to realize some part of the pro-
gramme of the Physiocrats by abolishing many
of the mteinal restrictions upon tiadc, notably
in the corn trade
At the same time that the Physiociats wcie
formulating their doctrine in France (1752-63),
Adam Smith was proving to his students at the
University of Glasgow that the lestrietions ou
trade, which were universal in Euiope at this
period, weie obstacles rather than aids to a coun-
tiy's industrial progress, and that freedom of
trade was the policy best adapted to promote
the general interest The distinguishing merit
of his famous Wealth of Nations, regarded as a
contribution to the literature of free trade, was
that it showed exhaustively the evil results due
to each kind of trade restriction advocated by
the Mercantilists To this part of his task
Adam Smith devoted six of the nine chapters
FREE TKADE
224
FREE TRADE
of his f oui tli book, and his treatment of "pro-
tective import duties," of "drawbacks," of
"bounties," of "treaties of commerce," and of
"colonial resti actions" was so convincing that it
did even more than the positive arguments in
favor of free tiade, contained in other parts of
his work, to disci edit the policy of trade restric-
tion, which in 1776 still commanded the suppoit
of nearly all classes But changes weie at work,
even as Adam Smith wrote, which were destined
to convert many of the very merchants and
manufacturers of whom Adam Smith despaired
to the doctrine which he advocated
The first prominent statesman to show the in-
fluence of Adam Smith's teaching was William
Pitt the Youngei To him is ascribed the clause
m the Act of Union with Ireland (1800) pro-
viding for complete freedom of trade between
the two countries after 1820 Although this pro-
\ision was not carried out, free- trade opinion
had made such progress by the latter year that
the merchants of London, headed by Thomas
Tooke, presented a petition to Parliament in
favor of revising the tariff in the direction of
freer trade An important factor in bringing
about this result was the corn-law controversy
carried on between the well-known economists
Malthus and Bicardo in 1814-15, and the pub-
lication in 1817 of the latter's Principles of
Political Economy Ricaido put the theoretical
aigument in favor of free trade in a clearer and
more convincing foim than had Adam Smith
Furthermore, he enjoyed the advantage- oi
being known as a practical and veiy success-
ful man of business rather than as a mere closet
philosophei
Official recognition of the growing influence of
free-trade sentiment was accorded in 1823 by
the appointment of William Huskisson to the
presidency of the Board of Trade Through his
initiation Parliament passed several important
statutes from 1823 to 1828 mitigating the se-
verity of the navigation acts,' reducing the num-
ber of dutiable articles, and scaling down the
rates on those which continued to be taxed The
leform of Parliament in 1832, and of the Pooi
Law in 1834, diverted attention temporarily
from the tariff question, but a crop failure in
1836 again brought the corn duties prominently
to the front Early m 1837 an Anti-Corn Law
Association was formed m London by men
prominent in public life The following year a
similar association was organized in Manches-
ter, and in 1839 these associations, and others
which had been formed in different parts of
England, were fused into the National Anti-
Corn Law League From that yeai until 1816,
when the repeal of the Corn Laws was definitely
entered upon, agitation for free trade was ear-
ned on continuously, and with ever-increasing
enthusiasm and confidence The leaders in the
movement were Eichard Cobden and John
Bright, representatives of the manufacturing in-
terests of Manchester It was this ciicuinstance
which gave use to the custom, still common m
Germany, of applying the designation "Man-
chester School" to the English advocates of free
trade, who are credited with more extieme
laissez-faw e views of government than even
Cobden and Bright really entertained See
BBIGHT, JOHN, COBDKN, RICHARD, COKN LAWS
In truth, there was good ground for opposition
to the policy of protection as practiced by Eng-
land prior to 1846, quite aside from the general
Question of the advantages of free trade The
most galling of the piotectrve duties were on
the food materials which entered into the every-
day consumption of the English laboier Under
the English land systom the high prices foi
agncultural pioducts which resulted from the
giain duties ledounded almost entirely to the
benefit of the landholding aiistocracy The
laboring masses had to pay more for bread than
was paid in neighboring countnes in order that
the landholding class might enjoy high rents
Meantime manufacturers had to pay wages ad-
justed to the high cost of living and see them-
selves outstripped in foreign markets by the
nval manufacturers of other countiies who bore
no such burden It was hard to make such a
policy seem either wise or just in a country
which was coming to depend more and more
for its prosperity upon the success of its manu-
factmmg industries In fact, the system was
doomed from the time that the Reform Act of
1832 gave repiesentation in Parliament to the
manufacturing towns of the north, and the
country needed only a clear demonstration of
the way in which the grain duties actually
worked to induce it to demand their abolition
Tins demonstration was given in 1845, when the
potato famine in Ireland cut off one important
aiticle of diet, and the giain duties weie seen to
stand like a dead wall between the starving
masses of Gieat Britain and the abundant food
supplies to be had from the Continent At this
cusis Sir Robert Peel, who had long acknowl-
edged free tiade to be the goal towards which
the policies of all countries should be dnected,
refused to stand out longer against the demands
for repeal He was unable to carry his col-
leagues in the ministiy with him, but was soon
recalled to form a new cabinet, under which,
after a long fight, the obnoxious duties were re-
duced and their ultimate abolition was brought
about by the Act of Parliament of June 26,
1846 The present policy of complete nonpro-
tection was introduced in 1869
The following table indicates the progress in
the reduction and simplification of the British
tariff made from 1787 to 1876
TEAB
Principal
articles
dutiable
Minor
articles
dutiable
Total
articles
dutiable
1787
1826
1841
1849
1855
1861
1876
290
432
564
233
153
19
10
1135
848
488
282
261
123
32
1425
1280
1052
515
414
142
42
In June, 1914, there were 12 distinct articles
on the dutiable list, viz , cocoa, coffee, chicory,
dried fruit, molasses, sugar, tea, tobacco, wine,
beer, glucose, and spirits
The present policy of England realizes the
free-trade ideal of imposing no duties that can
tend to protect or encourage home industries by
means of the following expedients
1 Most of the dutiable goods (eg,, coffee,
tea, cocoa, wine, etc ) are such as cannot, for
climatic reasons, be profitably produced in Eng-
land
2 The duties on tobacco, a commodity which
might be produced in England, are rendered non-
protective by the simple prohibition of such pro-
duction in the United Kingdom This policy
FREE THADE
225
FREE TRADE
dates fiom the reign of Chailes II and has
become so famihai as to involve little 01 no
haidship
3 The duties on goods like beei , spirits, etc ,
which are pioduced in England, aie exactly ofl-
bet by mteinal-ievemie duties which place the
home producer m the same position, so fai aw
taxation is concerned, as the foieign pioducei
The piactice of stoiing such goods, whethei pio-
duced at home or imported, in bonded \vaie-
houses, makes the admmistiation of this policy
easy The only exceptions to the geneial piiuci-
ple that no favor shall be shown to home as
distinct fiom foieign pioduceis die in connec-
tion with ship subsidies for the benefit ot the
merchant manne, and ceitain slaughteihou.se
legulations which put foieign product-is of live
stock at a disadvantage The foamei is defended
as a necessary featme of the postal system,
and the latter on sanitary grounds
Extended attention has been given in this
article to the fiee-tiade policy of England, be-
cause it is the only impoitant mdustual na-
tion to follow such a system Its example is
followed by British India, Hongkong, and the
Straits Settlements On. the continent of Eu-
rope, Holland and Belgium have taiills that aie
only slightly protective All othei Euiopean
countries and all other countnes outside of
Europe, however, are committed to the policy of
protection It is thus not far from the tuitli to
characterize free trade as the British policy, in
distinction from pioteetion, which, is the policy
o± the lest of the world
In presenting the arguments in favoi of free-
dom of tiade, we will begin with the advantages
claimed for this policy and conclude with the
disadvantages attributed to the opposite policy,
protection
As Adam Smith long ago pointed out, a piin-
cipal cause of the industiial pi ogress of the
world is the division of labor and the special-
ization and oiganization which accompany it
Many men, each working at a special task and
sharing his products with his fellows, can pro-
duce vastly moie in a given time than the same
number, each trying to produce for himself all
the things that he requires But one condition
of the division of labor is opportunity to ex-
change one's special products for the needed
products of others J^ee exchange thus gives
the widest extension to the division of labor
Obstacles to free exchange prevent the would-be
specialist from giving all of his time to the
occupation for which he is best fitted, because
they prevent him from disposing of Ins pioducta
advantageously and compel him to pioduce a
variety of tilings for himself 01 else go without
them When such obstacles aie natural — as bar-
riers to the transportation of goods from one
mountain valley to another — the situation is un-
fortunate, but perhaps irremediable When they
are artificial — as are the octroi duties which
prevent the free exchange of the products of
town and country in certain European countnes
— they should be condemned. But the same
reasons that make a free exchange of goods
within a country advantageous make fieedom
of trade between nations desirable Political
boundaries do not alter the essential nature of
exchanges, nor the benefits that accrue to society
from having them as free as possible Foreign
trade, like domestic trade, is at bottom an ex-
change of goods for goods, in which less-desired
are ^ven for mo^e-d^sired
modities, to the mutual advantage of both pai
ties to the transaction As dilleient individuals
are unequally fitted to cany on different pui-
suits, and gain an advantage by an arrangement
which allows each to follow hib bent, so dilTeient
coimtnes aie unequally adapted foi difteient in
dustnes Freedom of* tiade, which permits the
capital and laboi of each countiy to find em
ployment in those mdustnes toi which it is
best fitted, sei\es to increase the aggiegate out-
put ot goods in the haine way that free ex-
change does in the case of individuals From it
tlieie lesults a "teiritonal division of labor," bv
which each pait of the woild is devoted to those
mduatiies foi which nature has adapted it, and
thiough \\hich the aggiegate pi oductrveness of
the \\ 01 Id's laboi and capital is immensely in-
creased The chief purpose of foreign tiade is
to enable the woild to benefit from this terri-
torial division of labor — to permit, e g , a coun-
try like Biazil to produce coffee, not merelv for
its own inhabitants, but foi the \voild, a coun-
tiy like Cuba to pioduee sugai , a countiy like
Italy to pioduce olives, hurts, and silk, a coun-
try like the United States to pioduce corn,
wheat, and the important metals The gi eater
the freedom of trade between countries, the
greater the inducement \\ Inch is held out to each
to use its labor and capital in the ways calcu-
lated to contribute most to the \\oild's wealth
In spite of the above advantages of freedom of
trade, modem eountiies pel feist in maintaining
their protecti\e systems Advocates of fiee
trade condemn protective duties on several
grounds Their tendency, it is urged, is to divert
labor and capital fiom unprotected industries,
where they must othei wise find investment, to
the protected industry But this must mean
cm tailed production If it was desirable to
invest in the protected industry, business men
would have done so without any encouragement
That they needed encouragement is proof posi-
tive that the favored industry can only be ear-
ned on at a national loss The piotective duty
cannot cause laboi and capital to spring up
out of the giound All it can do is to influence
the use to which the available supplies of labor
and capital are put These supplies set a limit
to the amount of industry that can be carried
on Tf diverted from industries not needing pro-
tection to those requiring it, the available labor
and capital must produce less in the aggregate
The policy involves, therefore, a national sacri-
fice Unless good leasons for such a sacrifice
are advanced, protection must stand condemned
Of course protectionists have reasons for their
policy which they consider good, but to advo-
cates of free trade they seem inadequate.
Other arguments against a protectionist policy,
and therefore in favor of tree tiade, are begin-
ning to be urged in the Unijted States First,
protection is condemned on political grounds
Its tendency is to rear up a group of favored
industries Business men interested in these
mdustiies have a special inducement to watch
tariff measures which others in the community
lack They are too apt, under these circum-
stances, to become lobbyists and corruptioniats
Through them representatives, charged with
shaping the tariff policy, are subjected to influ-
ences fiom which legislator ought to be exempt
Secondly, protection i$ accused of being in prac-
tice a policy of change To be effective protec-
tive duties must adajpt themselves to changing
FREE WILL
226
FREE WILL
industrial conditions But changes are always
disturbing to business and at times disastrous
Free trade, by making no discrimination be-
tween the home and the foreign producer., does
not subject business to aibitrary fluctuations
Thirdly, protection is criticized on financial
grounds. Since the purpose of a protective
tariff is not primarily revenue, the income
which it affords to the goveinment bears no
regular nor constant relation to the latter's
financial needs. At times it may burden the
public treasury with an awkward surplus, which
encourages reckless extravagance on the part of
the legislature At others it may fail to bring
in even that necessaiy minimum without which
the business of go\ernmcnt must be seriously
interfered with Finally, ceitain protective du-
ties are attacked as responsible for the trusts
(q v ) The argument is that without protection
the blanches of production concerned would have
been open to world-wide competition, and that
no merely national tiust would have served to
secure the monopoly powers after which the
trusts are supposed to hunger If protection
has created trusts, and trusts are undesirable,
protective duties ought to "be reduced, it is
urged, until the offending trusts feel the whole-
some restraints of foreign competition The
conclusiveness of these arguments against pro-
tection can be determined only by weighing
them against the counterarguments in favor of
that policy, for which see the article on PRO-
TECTION, and references there given
Bibliography Adam Smith, The Wealth of
Nations, bk iv (London, 1770), Ricardo, "On
Protection to Agiiculture" (1822), Works, cd
by McCulloch (ib, 1846), Prentice, History of
the Anti-Corn Law League, 2 vols (ib, 1853) ,
id, The Debate upon the Corn Laws, 2 vols (ID ,
1846) , Mongredien, History of the Free Trade
Movement in England (ib, 1881); Allen, The
Tariff and its Evils (New York, 1888), Bas-
table, The Theory of International Trade (Lon-
don, 1897) , Smart, The Return to Protection
(ib, 1904), Brassey, Fifty years of Progress
and the Neio Fiscal Policy (ib , 1904) , Cun-
ningham, Rise and Decline of the Free Trade
Movement (ib, 1904) , Fisk, International Com-
mercial Policies (New York, 1907) , Pierce, The
Tariff and the Trusts (ib, 1907), Robertson,
Trade and Tariffs (London, 1908) , Curtiss, The
Industrial Development of Nations and a His-
tory of the Tariff Policies of the United States
and Great Britain ( 3 vols , Binghamton, N Y ,
1912), Higgmson, Tariffs at Work (London,
1913) , Mathews, Taxation and the Distribution
of Wealth (New York, 1914)
FREE WILL A term used in theological
and philosophical controversy in various senses
Hoffdingj in his Ethics, enumerates six different
meanings that the term has actually borne
These are 1 Will that is exempt from the prin-
ciple of causation, will that is a cause, but
not an effect 2 Will that is not determined
by external compulsion In this sense "I have
freedom to go out of my room if I have the key
in my pocket and if the door is not barred,
otherwise I am not free and must stay where I
am " 3 Will that is not determined by inner
compulsion In this sense, if I do what I like,
I am acting freely, if, on the contrary, I act
from fear, I am not free The express agent,
eg, who at the muzzle of the revolver deter-
mines to hand over the key of the safe is not
acting freely. He may indeed know what Jhe
is about and may choose this course as the wisest
under the circumstances, but the cucumstances
are not to his liking He is not merely physi-
cally overpowered, he is also overawed, he pre-
fers the surrender of the valuables committed
to him to the loss of his life He is acting
under the compulsion of fear 4 Will that is
not debarred by its nature from making choice
of good acts Certain Chustian theologians
have maintained that an unrcgeneiate man may
indeed choose between possible evil acts, but
cannot choose to act morally Only by divine
help, it is maintained, can a man will the good
5 Will that chooses between different courses
In this sense the question of free will is not one
whether the choice is determined, but whether
there is really an experience of choice Thus,
if I face a situation which seems to offer altei-
native courses of action and after dehbeiation
adopt one course to the exclusion of others, my
will is free If, on the contrary, I always act
from blind impulse, not having the power to
look alternatives in the face and choosing and
rejecting, my will is not free 6 Will that is
controlled by ethical motives Thus, a man
who chooses a course because it appeals to him
as right is said to act freely, a man, on the
other hand, who, even though he consideis al-
ternative courses, finally adopts from passion
or habit the one he judges to be wrong, is said
to be the slave of his passion or of habit He
is not free
Now, it is evident that with such vaiying
meanings of the term any controveisy about
free will must be futile unless some one meaning
is clearly adopted and maintained as the one at
issue As a matter of fact, controversy on the
subject has been confused by these different
meanings Facts which point to freedom in one
sense of the term have been urged as proving
freedom in another sense, and the obvious con-
nection of morality with one sort of fieedom
has been interpreted as involving a connection
with freedom of another sort Thus, freedom in
the fifth sense above mentioned is a fact of the
most indubitable kind We often do face possi-
bilities and make choice between them What-
ever may be the explanation of such choice, the
feeling that the choice is up to us is just as
much a fact as any other fact in the world
But to suppose that in making such a choice
the will acts without determination by previous
events, whether of heredity or environment, i e ,
to suppose freedom in the first sense, is to do
more than accept the fact, it is to give a theory
about this fact Again, that in civilized com-
munities no one would think of holding a person
lesponsible who is acting under external com-
pulsion, or, again, that we judge more leniently
a person who is acting under strong inner com-
pulsion, is often used to prove that moral re-
sponsibility demands freedom in the sense of a
will that is not subject to causal law Still
again, confusion results from not disci iminating
between freedom in the sixth sense and freedom
in the first sense given above There is, in-
deed, a feeling of superiority over circumstance
enjoyed by the man who acts from ethical mo-
tives, and a sense of slavery often felt by the
man who is a hopeless habitue" to some evil prac-
tice, and yet the freedom of the former man
should not be, as it often is, construed as imply-
ing that his will is not determined by its ante-
cedents The classical problem of freedom con-
cerns freedom as the exempts of the will
WILL 2:
causal determination, le, fieedom in the first
sense given above
The histoiy of controversy on this question is
too long to be given here, even in outline In
Christian theology St Augustine and Calvin
were the protagonists of determinism, and Ar-
minms and Wesley of freedom In this con-
troversy too often the facts have been subordi-
nated to the necessities of theological consist-
ency 01 to the supposed implications of the
moial judgment The theological determmists
have generally started from the premise of the
f 01 oknoA\ ledge of God and His causal relation
to all events in the world The conclusion de-
manded by this premise is that the will is de-
toi mined God cannot be the cause of every-
thing without being the cause of our volitions,
and lie cannot foieknow all events if oui own
volitions still hang in the balance The liber-
taiians l^e started fiom the fact of moral re-
sponsibility, and, confusing two 01 moie sensor
of the woid "freedom," they have concluded that
the will is not determined Even where the
aigurnent on this question has been carried on
without theological piesuppositions, there have
often been metaphysical or scientific presupposi-
tions For instance, it has been assumed that
the law of causality holds good in everything
and that the law of the conservation of energy
has been proved to obtain univei sally The laws
used by science arc, as a matter of fact, only
woikmg hypotheses, confirmed in certain test
caseb coming within the reach of observation,
and they have been found useful aa guiding
principles in further research But they should
nevei be used dogmatically to prejudge any
vital issue
In the matter before us it should be freely ad-
mitted that it lias never been demonstrated that
the will is universally subject to the law of
causality The actually known facts are com-
patible with the acceptance of cither determin-
ism or fiee will, and whichever view one accepts
one goes beyond known facts} as all generaliza-
tions of science do Now, the science of psy-
chology has geneially found it useful to assume
determinism, and it is not usually psychological
considerations that have led thinkers to believe
in fiee will, although some writers, such as
Bergson, do seek to build their defense of free-
dom on the immediate testimony of experience
But experience does not seem to give any reliable
testimony m behalf of freedom in the first
sense of the word, it testifies to freedom only
in some of the other meanings of the term
Now, it is probable that, apart from theologi-
cal considerations, very little opposition to de-
terminism would have arisen were it not sup-
posed that moral responsibility would have to
be regarded as an illusion on the deterministic
hypothesis In other words, it is mainly in
ethics that the question of freedom is a vital
issue And here it becomes an issue only on
one supposition, viz , that to hold a person re-
sponsible for his acts is reasonable only if his
will is not determined Such a supposition,
however, is either an a priori truth needing no
demonstration, or a sheer dogma, or just a
working hypothesis As an a priori truth it
will be accepted by those who find it self-evident ,
it will be questioned by those who do not, and,
unfortunately for such an alleged truth, there
are many who do not find it self-evident Self-
evidence is a firm prop for any theory only when
there is self-evidence As a dogma, the sup-
WILL
position we are discussing is not worthy of
scientific consideration It is only as a work-
ing hypothesis, therefore, that it meiits atten-
tion from the scientific student
Now, taking the position that it is a woikmg
hypothesis in moral judgments, let us ask the
inevitable question that always aiises in dealing
with such hypotheses Is it the only hypothesis
that is satisfactoiy, or aie theie others that
can equally or better lationahze the facts in
question Let us remember, in answering this
question, that moiahty is fundamentally social
( see ETHICS ) , and let us follow the clue afforded
by this character of morality What is the so-
cial nnpoit of responsibility ? May not responsi-
bility be regarded as a method adopted by society
to secure from its members the kind of conduct
that it regards as desirable9 An affirmative
answer to this question is what we shall now
examine as a working hypothesis opposed to the
hbeitarian hypothesis
On this hypothesis the tendency to condemn
or to punish must be re£ aided as based on funda-
mental instincts which aie in the first instance
in no need of -justification When we act in-
stinctively, we just act, we do not first seek the
appioval of reason Reason, when it comes into
play upon instincts, comes lathei as a check
than as an authorization Instinct may be
said to be the motive power, and icason to be
a brake to be applied when this power is liable
to work harm We instinctively react hosiilely
to what displeases us, to what harms us or those
in whom we are interested, to what offends our
sense of propriety based on custom Such in-
stinctive reaction needs no more justification
than the instinct to eat 01 to propagate our
kind But the results of this instinctive reac-
tion may in some cases be found by experience
to be prejudicial to other interests Then reason
comes in as a check, reason in such a case be-
ing nothing but a harmonization of interest
with interest, a repression of one interest in
favor of another
This is what seems to have been the actual
historical course taken in the historical develop-
ment of condemnation and punishment Primi-
tive justice is usually exticmc and harsh, i e.,
it is simply and blindly instinctive, or it is in-
stinctive with the instinct reinforced and in-
tensified by habit and custom There is little
or no reflection on the consequences of the pun-
ishment or condemnation meted out As time
goes on, there is a mitigation of the severity of
the hostile reaction, other interests besides
blind opposition begin to assert themselves, and
in so far as the consequences of inimical reaction
are found to be prejudicial to these other inter-
ests, the leaction is withheld or modified Thus,
the unmeasured character of savage punishment
is reduced to measure by the law of retaliation,
which to us seems harsh, but in reality was a
great step towards the mitigation of punishment
Again, primitive justice seems not to have taken
the offender's intention into account This was
inevitable in clan organizations, where the soli-
darity of the clan made it necessary to treat
each individual as representative of the clan
Only the individual offender intended his of-
fense, but hie intention could not be taken into
account behind the solid front presented by the
unmtending clan in whom the individual is not
recognized as such With the break up of the
clan system punishment could become more per-
sonal, and the importance of intention could
WILL
228
MIXTURES
gain recognition, the uselessness and wasteful-
ness of punishment where theie is no malice
became obvious Still again, the harsh punish-
ments which prevailed in England till within
\ery iccent times, eg, capital punishment for
grand laiceny, gave way before the knowledge
that such punishments cncoiuaged lathoi than
discouraged crime Thus, ^\e find that the de-
gree of responsibility and the things foi which
responsibility is assessed ^ary ^\ith gi owing in-
sight into the effects of assessing i esponsibihty
and with changes in social oigamzation All
thiough these changes the prime motive foi
exacting punishment is angci This anger, when
coordinated and fusod with othei interests, be-
comes what vve call moial indignation Just as
anger in pumitivo society does not lest upon
the conception that the infuriating offender is
free, so moral indignation in more advanced
communities does not necessarily continue only
on license issued by such a conception Such a
conception may be only a bad reason given for
a subdued instinct So the determimst regards
it Moral i esponsibihty for him icmains what
it historically has always been, an instrument
for enforcing ideals The question for him in
exacting punishment and in awarding blame is
1869), Mill, Logic (London, 1850) and in Ex-
amination of tiir William Hamilton's Philosophy
(ib, 1878), Dewey, Study of Ethics (Ann Ar-
boi, 1894) , James, Principles of Psychology
(New York, 1899) and Will to J3eheic (Lon-
don, 1897) , Howison, Limits of Evolution (New
Yoik, 1001) , Ward, Essays on Philosophy of
Theism (London, 1884) , G-utbeilet, Die Willens-
peiheit und ilire (legner (Fulda, 1893), Piat,
La, hberte (Paris, 1894-95) , Johnson, The Will
Problem in Modern Thought (Macmillan, 1903) ,
Meurnann, Intelligent und Will (Leipzig, Quelle
and Meyer, 1908) , Bergson, Les donnees im me-
diates de la conscience (Eng trans entitled
Time and Free Will, New York, 1910), Mc-
Dougall, Body and Mind (London, 1911) , Home,
Ftee Will and Human Responsibility (New
York, 1912) , Croce, Philosophy of the Practical
(Eng trans, London, 1913), W Bennett, The
Religion of Ftce Will (Oxford, 1913), P E
Levy, Rational Education of the Will (Boston,
1914)
FBEE-WIIX BAPTISTS, or FKEE BAP-
TISTS See BAPTISTS
FREEZING- MIX'TTTRES Mixtures of
substances used to produce low temperatures
The frigorific effect of such imxtmes generally
SUBSTANCES (PARTS BY WEIGHT)
100 parts of snow and 33 parts of common salt
100 parts of snow and 300 parts of cijstalhzed calcium chloride
100 paits of snow and 100 parts oi dilute sulphuric acid (initial temperature, 5° C , or 41°F )
100 parts of snow, 13 5 parts of potassium nitrate, and 26 parts of ammonium chloride
100 parts of snow, 52 parts of ammonium nitrate, and 55 parts of sodium nitrate
100 parts of snow, 9 parts of potassium nitrate, and 67 parts of ammonium sulphocyanate
100 parts of snow, 13 parts of ammonium chloride, and 37 5 parta of sodium nitrate
100 parts of snow, 32 parts of ammonium nitrate, and 59 parts of ammonium sulphocyanate
100 parta of snow, 2 parts of potassium nitrate, and 112 parts of potassium sulphocyanate
100 parts of snow, 39 5 parts of ammonium sulphocyanate, and 54 5 parts ot sodium nitrate
100 parts of water, 26 parts of ammonium chloride, and 14 parts of potassium nitrate
100 parts of water, 18 parts of ammonium chloride, and 43 parts of sodium nitrate
100 parts of water, 55 parts of sodium nitrate, and 52 parts of ammonium nitrate
100 parts of water, 57 parts of sodium nitrate, and 57 parts of ammonium sulphocyanate
100 parts of water, 9 parts of potassium nitrate, and 67 parts of ammonium aulphocyanate
100 parts of water, 52 parts of ammonium nitrate, and 59 parts of ammonium sulphocyanate
100 parts of water, 5 parts of ammonium nitrate, and 113 parts of potassium sulphocyanate
Solidified carbon dioxide and ordinary ether
Temperature attained
Cent
-21°
-485°
-41°
-178°
-258°
-282°
-307°
-30 6°
-341°
-374°
-178°
-224°
-258°
-298*
-282°
-306°
-324°
-1000°
Fahr
-58°
-55 3°
-41 8°
QO
-144°
-188°
-233°
-23 1°
-294°
-35 3°
0°
-83°
-144°
-21 6°
-188°
-23 1°
-263°
-148°
not whether the offender might have acted dif-
ferently, but whether by issuing and attempting
to enforce demands he can be made to conform
to these demands Where he can, blame and
punishment economically administered are ]usti-
fied by the event, where he cannot, blame and
punishment are futile Thus, responsibility does
not disappear in a deterministic theory and in
its practical carrying out, it meiely submits to
a different rationalization The ethical attitude
towards the problem of free will thus is deter-
mined by the comparative satisfactoriness of the
two hypotheses we have been considering As
a matter of fact, up to the present, there is a
disagreement as to this comparative satisfactori-
ness At the beginning of our century it seemed
as if the determmists had all but won their
battle in philosophical circles, to-day libertari-
anism is advocated by some veiy prominent
thinkers For a metaphysical as distinguished
from an ethical argument for hbertananism,
see BERGSON For various aspects of the sub-
)ect, see DETERMINISM, ETHICS, FATALISM,
PREDESTINATION , WILL
Consult Edwards, Freedom of the Will (Lon-
don, 1754) , Spencer, Psychology (New York,
depends upon the following facts (1) melting,
or the passage of a substance from the solid
state to the liquid, involves the conversion of
sensible heat into "latent heat," and if no heat
is added to a melting substance from without,
part of the sensible heat of the substance itself
disappeais, and therefoie the temperature falls,
(2) the solution of many salts m watei causes
the absorption of heat, and hence, again, if there
is little or no addition of heat from the sur-
roundings, there is caused a fall of temperature
The efficiency of the first of these causes may
be seen fiom the following If a piece of ice
having the temperature of 0° C (32° F ) is
placed in its own weight of water at 79° C
(1742° F ), it is found that, after the ice has
melted, the temperature of the liquid is reduced
to 0° C (32° F), much of the sensible heat
which the water contained having thus dis-
appeared during the melting of the ice The
lowering of temperature by solution is illus-
trated in a striking manner by the fact that
ammonium sulphocyanate, if thrown mto its
own weight of nearly boiling water, will reduce
the temperature to the point of freezing, if
thrown into its own weight of water of ordinary
POINT
220
POINT
temperature, the same salt will reduce the tem-
perature to — 21° C (— 58° F ) In the mix-
ture of pounded ice and salt used in making ice
cream, the lowering of the temperature is due
both to the conversion of sensible into latent
heat during the melting of the ice and to the
absorption of heat during the solution of the
salt The following table shows the moie im-
portant freezing mixtures and the temperatuies
that may be obtained by the use of them Sup-
posing that there is no absorption of heat fiom
the surroundings, the fall of temperatuie pio-
duced by mixing a given set of substances is
determined by the amount of sensible heat ab-
sorbed (le, the heat of fusion and solution)
and by the specific heats of the substances be-
tween the initial and final tempeiatures The
tempeiatures obtained depend, of couise, upon
the initial temperatuies of the mixtures The
initial temperatuie of any mixture given in the
following table, unless otherwise specified, is
assumed to be the freezing point of puie watei
Substances employed as fieezmg rnixtmes, if
solid, should be finely powdered, rapidly mixed,
and placed in vessels that have but little con-
ducting power These freezing mixtures are only
available for use on a small scale. A fact ex-
tensively utilized for the production of low
temperatures on a large scale is that, like the
liquefaction of solids, the evaporation of liquids,
too, involves the absorption of considerable
amounts of sensible heat See EVAPOBATION ,
REFRIGERATION, and especially FREEZING POINT
For an extensive list of freezing mixtures, con-
sult Landolt-Boinstein, Physifoaliscli~cheini>sche
Tabellen, pp 318-323 (Berlin, 1912)
FBEEZIJSTG POINT The tempeiature at
which a single pure substance can exist partly
in the solid, partly in the liquid, state. If,
while the substance is partly solid and partly
liquid, heat is added to it, some of the solid
portion melts, the added sensible heat changes
into "latent heat of fusion" (see FREEZING MIX-
TURES), and, as long as the solid portion lasts,
the temperature remains constant Again, the
abstraction of heat can only be effected at the
expense of the latent heat of the liquid portion,
which is thereby gradually solidified, and hence,
as long as the liquid portion lasts, the tempera-
ture remains constant If heat is neither added
nor abstracted, the solid and the liquid portion
remain in equilibrium, le, neither does the
solid melt nor the liquid solidify Now, as long
as this equilibrium exists, the vapor tensions of
the solid and liquid portions must be precisely
equal If the vapor tension, say, of the liquid
were greater than that of the solid, a process
of distillation would take place, and the amount
of solid would grow at the expense of that of
the liquid, but, by definition and by common
experience, if no heat is gained or lost, the rela-
tive amounts of solid and liquid remain, at the
freezing point, unchanged The freezing point
of a given substance may therefore be defined
as the temperature at which the substance has
the same vapor tension in the solid and in the
hqwd state That temperature may be referred
to either as the freezing point of the liquid or
as the melting point of the solid Thus, the
freezing point of water is the same as the melt-
ing point of ice This is, however, true only in
the case of a single pure substance In the case
of solutions and all other sorts of mixtures the
temperature at which freezing commences is by
no means the same as the temperature at which
the mixture, if entirely solidified, would begin
to melt, the lattei temper atuie is practically
always lower, and can never bo higher, than
that at which solidification of the completely
molten mass would first set in In other woids
the freezing point and the melting point of a
given mixture of two substances ! and B are
by no means the same
Freezing Point of Solutions. AM mipoitant
fact to be remembered in connection with freez-
ing1 solutions is that wdwiaiily the pure solvent
alone freezes out It will be seen, fmthor, that
the freezing point of a solution is the lower
the $>i eater the amount of substance dissolved
While, therefore, the solvent alone is freezing
out, the tempeiature must obviously fall Hence,
if we \\rsh to speak of the freezing point of a
solution of given strength, we must refer to the
tempeiature at which freezing just commences,
foi freezing changes the composition Experi-
ence shows, however, that unless the given HO!U-
tion is very concentrated, and unless the amount
experimented upon is Aery small, a moderate
quantity of the solvent may be allowed to freeze
out, without the result of the observation being
thereby considerably impaired In other words,
under proper experimental conditions, the dilli-
cult determination of the point at which freez-
ing just commences is unnecessary The freez-
ing point of solutions is generally determined
by the use of Beckmann's apparatus shown in
the accompanyrng figure
The outer jar, (7, contains
some liquid whose temper-
ature is kept constant
and a few degrees below
the freezing point of the
given solution, a glass
stiirer serving to keep
the temperature uniform
throughout the volume
The wide tube, B, contains
nothing but air and serves
to prevent the too rapid
cooling of A In making
an observation, a known
amount (say, 20 grams)
of the pure solvent is in-
troduced into the strong
inner test tube, A, through
the side tube, and when
freezing has set in and the
thermometer shows a con-
stant temperature, the lat-
ter is carefully noted In
this manner the freezing
point of the pure solvent
becomes exactly known
Next, a known amount of
the substance to be dis-
solved is introduced to the
solvent in A, again through
the side tube, the contents
of A. are caused to melt by removing A from B,
and when all is dissolved A is replaced in R,
again, when freezing has set in and the ther-
mometer shows a constant temperature, the
latter is carefully noted. In this manner the
freezing point of the solution too becomes ex-
actly known, and then the difference between
the freezing point of the pure solvent and the
solution is found by a simple subtraction The
thermometer used in such determinations is of
the Beckmann type, such a thermometer is
usually graduated in one-hundredth s of a de-
BECKM ANN'S
POXETT 2
gree and permits of reading differences within
one-thousandth of a degree — a precision by no
means too gieat for the purpose involved A
great many determinations of this nature, car-
uod out with a great variety of substances, led
the Fienehznan Raoult to the establishment of
the following law The freezing point of a solu-
tion is lower than that of the pure solvent, the
difference being, for the same substance, propor-
tional to the amount, and, for different sub-
stances, not only proportional to the amounts,
but also inversely proportional to the molec-
ular iueight& of the substances dissolved A
comparison of this law with the one that holds
good for the elevation of the boiling point (see
BOILING POINT) will show the perfect analogy
between the two laws Here, too, as in the case
of the boiling point, the simple law holds good
only foi substances whose solutions do not con-
duct electricity, matters being much more com-
plicated in the case of solutions of electrolytes
(See DISSOCIATION ) Raoult's law permits of
determining the unknown molecular weights of
newly discovered substances The art of pre-
cisely measuring freezing-point depressions for
this purpose is called cryoscopy. The observer
determines the freezing points of the pure sol-
vent and of two equally strong solutions in the
hame solvent — one containing the new substance,
the other some substance of known molecular
weight — and then the molecular weight of the
given substance is found simply by the rules
of piopoition More usually, the moleculai
weight of a substance is calculated by Kaoult's
formula M = Ef» in which M is the desired
moleculai weight, t is the freezing-point de-
pi ession produced by dissolving m grams of the
substance in 100 grams of the solvent, and E
is the so-called molecular depression of the
fieezing point This quantity E vanes from
solvent to solvent Van't Hoff has shown that
for a given solvent E may be calculated by the
following theoietical formula
T, 0 02272
where T is the freezing point of the pure solvent
(in absolute degrees) and r is the latent heat of
fusion of 1 gram of the pure solvent The sol-
vents most frequently employed for such deter-
minations are glacial acetic acid, water, and
benzene Still, other solvents too can be and are
fiequently employed The molecular depressions
E for the three solvents just mentioned are
Solvent
Acetic acid
Water
Benzene
E
38 5
186
52
See MELTING POINT, SOLUTION, MOLECULES —
MOLECULAR WEIGHTS
!N"ernst and Ahegg's Theory of the Freez-
ing- Point The determination of the freezing
point, as explained above, seemed to be a per-
fectly reliable operation until experience had
shown that considerably different results are
obtained by using apparatus different in size
and shape, by having different temperatures in
the outer jar ((7), and by varying the rate of
stirring in the inner tube (A) In 1894 Nernst
and Abegg gave a mathematical explanation of
this important phenomenon — important because
of its connection with the theory of solutions
OYi/J nn+li -fit A
i0 FBEEZIHO POINT
The principle of these calculations is as follows
The temperatuie in the outer jar (0} is, as we
have seen, kept a few degrees below the freezing
point of the given solution If the latter did not
freeze and weie not stirred, heat would flow
from it into the outer vessel until the tempera-
ture in A and in C would be the same This
flow of heat would take place, for a given form
of apparatus, at a rate proportional at any
instant to the difference of temperatuie at that
instant between A and 0 On the other hand,
regular sturmg would cause the formation of
sensible heat in A at a constant rate When
the steadily diminishing rate of the outflow of
heat from A to C becomes equal to this constant
rate of production of heat in A, the temperature
in A must evidently become constant This con-
stant temperature Nernst and Abegg term the
"comeigence point" All this, however, pre-
supposes that the liquid in A does not freeze
Suppose, now, that as soon as the solution has
reached the convergence point, freezing has set
m, and suppose that in a given case the con-
vergence point is lower than the freezing point
During fieezing the latent heat of fusion is
evolved as sensible heat, and the temperatuie
rises, tending to approach the true freezing point
of the solution There is experimental evidence
to the effect that the rate at which the tem-
peiatuie thus rises is, at any instant, propor-
tional to the distance of the tempeiatme at
that instant from the tiue freezing point In
other words, the nearer to the tiue freezing
point, the slower the freezing, and hence the
slower the variation of the temperature caused
by it But "the nearer to the true freezing
point" means "the farther from the convergence
point", and we have seen that the farther from
the convergence point, the more rapid the rate
of variation in the direction of that point
There must therefore exist, somewhere between
the true fieezing point and the convergence
point, a point at which the rates of variation
upward towards the true freezing point, and
downward towards the convergence point, are
precisely equal That point Nernst and Abegg
term the "apparent freezing point" And they
justly maintain that, everything being taken
into account, the temperature usually observed,
after variation has ceased, is not the true freez-
ing point, which is, of course, dependent on
nothing but the nature and strength of the given
solution, but the apparent freezing point, which
may obviously depend on the temperature of
the outer jar, on the amount of solution experi-
mented upon, on the rate of stirring, on the
specific rate of freezing or melting of the sol-
vent, etc The effect of stirring is so consider-
able that in several cases the convergence point
has been found to lie, not below, but above the
true freezing point, in spite of the somewhat
low temperature in the outer jar In such cases,
too, the apparent freezing point is, of course,
somewhere between the true freezing point and
the convergence point The difference between
the true and apparent freezing points is, as
might be readily supposed, not very great In
fact, in many cases (eg, in the case of common
salt) it may be safely neglected In other cases,
however (eg, in the case of weak solutions of
cane sugar), it must be taken into account if
results at all reliable are to be obtained The
exact way of applying the theory in practice,
with a view to ascertaining the true freezing
FREEZING PItOCESS
231
FKEIBEBG
the original memoir, by Nernst and Abegg, in
vol xv of the Zcitschnft fur physikahsche
Oliemie (1894), arid even better in a monogiaph
by Raoult, Cryoscopie de Precision (Gienoble,
1899) It scaicely needs to be added that at the
apparent freezing point there is really no equi-
librium between solid and liquid, that either
melting of the solid portion or fiee/ing of the
liquid poition is continually going on, according
as the apparent freezing point is above or below
the tiue freezing point of the solution
Cryoliydrates We have seen above that
geneially the puie solvent alone freezes out of
solutions, and that the freezing out of much
of the solvent would cause a corresponding de-
pi ession of the fieezing point In othei words,
if fieezing were allowed to go on to a laige
extent, the given solution would become more
and more concentrated and the temperature
would fall lower and lower Finally the solu-
tion would become saturated Further fieezing
would then naturally cause the precipitation of
the substance dissolved, the concentration of
the solution would remain constant, and hence
the fieezing tcmperatuie, too, would remain
constant At one time solutions thus having a
constant freezing point weie taken to be chem-
ical compounds of the dissolved substances with
the solvent and were therefore named "ciyohy-
diates" It is now clear, however, that there
is no moie reason for such an assumption than
there is for assuming that, in general, any sat-
urated solution is a true chemical compound
The substance freezing out of a saturated so-
lution is nothing but a mechanical conglomeiate
of the fiozen solvent and the substance origi-
nally dissolved, and, of couise, the melting tem-
perature of this mixture, being identical with,
the fieezing temperatme of the saturated solu-
tion, is likewise constant It is also clear that
the melting point of the cryohydiate is the low-
est temperature at which a solution of a given
substance in a given solvent can exist Hence,
by mixing ice with salts in the proportion in
which they would form cryohydrates, we can
obtain freezing mixtures having the lowest con-
stant temperature that can possibly be attained
with the given salts Cryohyclrates are now
classed with the so-called "eutectic mixtures "
See MELTING POINT
Oiyohydrates are at times extremely useful in
that they permit of establishing and maintaining
perfectly constant temperatures below the freez-
ing point of water Following is a list of con-
stant temperatures that may be obtained with
the aid of a number of ordinary salts (hydrated)
and finely divided ice.
Constant
temperature
Hydrated salt (° C )
Acid sodium phosphate — 1
Sodium sulphate —12
Copper sulphate —16
Sodium carbonate —21
Magnewum sulphate —50
Zmc sulphate **
Cnlcmm nitrate —16
Sodium chloride —21 3
Sodium bromide - ~~28
Potassium carbonate . —36 5
Calcium chloride —55
Zinc chloride -"62
FBEEZJNG- PBOCESS FOB FOUNDA-
TIONS See FOUNDATION
FBEE ZONE. See ZONA LIBRE
FBEGENAL DE LA SIEBBA, fra'n&-nal'
da la s&-&r/r&. A town m the Province of Bada-
joz, Spain, 50 miles south by east of the city of
Badajoz (Map Spam, B 3) It is situated in
a fertile and picturesque valley north of the
Sierra Morena Mountains and is laid out with
regular and spacious streets Theie aic plazas
and fine buildings The ancient castle, which
was erected by the Templars to whom the town
A\as granted in 1283, has been com ei ted into a
bull ring The town has a consumable tiade
in cattle and manufactures cloth, baize, hats,
leather, and flour Pop, 1900, 9582, 1910,
10,415
FREHEB, fra'er, MARQUAKD U565-1614) A
Geiman historian, born at Augsburg He
studied law at Altdoif and Bourges, was pro-
fessor of Roman law at Heidelberg (159G-1C14),
and was fiequently sent as Ambassador to
Poland and other countries by the Elector Fred-
eiick IV He published several nnpoitant his-
toncal works in Latin, among which the work
Otigmes Palatines, with its mteiesting informa-
tion on Heidelbeig and other early Geiman
settlements, is among the most important It
was first punted m 1599 and has since been
frequently repubhshed Consult Ersch und
Umber, vol xlvm, pp 416-417
FBEIBJSBG, fri'bBiK An old and impoitant
town of Saxony, the centre and seat of the min-
ing district and mining admmibtiation of Sax-
ony, on the north slope of the Erzgebngc, 1325
feet above sea level and 25 miles southwest
of Dresden (Map Germany, E 3) Freiberg
retains portions of its fortifications and many
old buildings The southern portal of the late
Gothic cathedral (1490-1512), known as the
"Golden Door/' is a relic from the ancient
Romanesque church built on the same site, but
burned down in 1484 The sculptures on this
door are considered among the finest of the
plastic ornamentations of the Middle Ages The
church contains the burial vault of 41 Protes-
tant Saxon princes descended from Honry the
Good, and a laige organ built by Silberrnann
Also worthy of note are the old castle of
Freudenstcin, constructed in 1577, now used
as an arsenal, the late Gothic Rathaus dating
from the beginning of the fifteenth century, and
the sixteenth-century Kaufhaus, with its mu-
seum of antiquities, a library with 10,000 vol-
umes, and the King Albert Museum Among
the educational institutions are a sixteenth-cen-
tury gymnasium and the famous mining acad-
emy, founded m 1765 and attended by students
(422 m 1913) from all parts of the world
The school possesses extensive geological arid
mineralogical collections, chemical and assay
laboratories, a library of 50,000 volumes, and
the Werner Museum Other institutions are a
trade school, an agricultural school, a gym-
nasium, and a state experiment station for the
leather industry
Freiberg has large smelting works and foun-
dries The largest mines were acquired by the
state in 1886, but all but a small part for the
use of the mining academy was abandoned as a
state enterprise in 1913 There are now about
30, though formerly the number ran as high
as 60 They produce chiefly silver and lead
They are annually visited by many mining ex-
perts and tourists There are manufactures
of gold and silver wire, machinery, leather,
woolens, fertilizers, cigars, powder, chemicals,
pianos, scientific instruments, baskets, and linen
The city is lighted by gas and electricity and
II«LS an electric street railway Pop , 1890, 28,-
232
FREIGHT
955, 1900, 30,175, 1910, 36,237 The city
owes its ongin to the discovery of silver in the
vicinity in the twelfth century It was strongly
fortified and obtained municipal privileges about
the beginning of the thirteenth century After
being subject to various lulers it fell to the
Saxon Albertme line in 1485 Consult Gerlach,
Kleine Chromic von Freiberg (Freiberg, 1898) ,
Freibergs Berg und Huttenwesen, herausyegeben
durch den Bergmanmschen Verein zu Freiberg
(ib, 1893) , Ledebur, Ueber die Bedeutung der
Frei berger Bergakadamie (ib , 1903), H Muller,
Die komgliche? sachsische Bergakadamie au Frei-
berg (ib, 1904)
FREIBERG, HEINBIOH VON See HEINRICH
VON FRLIBERG
FREIBURG-, fri'boorK The attractive capi-
tal of a district of the same name in the Grand
Duchy of Baden, Geimany, and the former cap-
ital of Breisgau (qv ), situated in the charming
valley of the Dieisam, about 11 miles east of the
Rhine and 72 miles south-southwest of Karls-
ruhe (Map Germany, B 5) The envnons aie
exceptionally beautiful, embracing a rich plain,
lovely vine-clad hills, and a portion of the pic-
turesque Black Forest In appearance Freibmg
very agreeably combines features of an ancient
and a modern city It contains numeious speci-
mens of mediaeval aichitecture, and there re-
main portions of the old fortifications, though
these have been chiefly replaced by public walks
and vineyaids The cathedial, a rival of the
Strassbyrg Minster and lestored since 1880, is
one of the most perfect specimens of Gothic
architecture in Germany It is of red sandstone,
the Romanesque tiansept and the side towers
dating probably from the twelfth century The
choir was not completed before the beginning of
the sixteenth century Tlie famous tower, con-
sidered the finest of its kind in Bui ope, with
chimes and a curious clock, is 386 feet high
and has a square base, an octagonal bell tower,
and a pyiamidal spire of open stonework The
main portal is richly decorated with allegorical
figures, and the beautiful interior contains nu-
merous excellent examples of stained glass be-
longing to different periods, creditable monu-
ments, and a number of masterly altarpieces by
Hans Baldung and Holbein the Younger Other
interesting ecclesiastical edifices are the Roman
Catholic church of St Martin, dating from the
thirteenth century, with a modern tower, and
the Protestant Ludwigskirche, constructed in
Romanesque style in 1829-39
The noteworthy secular buildings of Freiburg
include the sixteenth-century Rathaus, adorned
with frescoes, the Kaufhaus, or Merchants'
Hall, with a vaulted portico and statues of Ger-
man rulers on the outer walls, the Kornlialle,
with a fine concert hall, the old university, a
sixteenth-century Renaissance structure, now
annexed to the Rathaus, the new university,
formerly a convent, the municipal theatre, and
the grand ducal palace Freiburg is not only
well provided with handsome promenades, but is
nch in monuments and memorial fountains, the
most prominent of the former being the monu-
ment erected to the Fourteenth German Army
Corps in 1876, and the monument to Berthold
Schwarz, the alleged mventoi of gunpowder
The celebrated University of Freiburg, founded
by the Archduke Albert VI of Austria in 1457,
has four faculties, about 150 professors and
teachers, and an attendance of about 2500 stu-
dents in 1912. There are attached to it a library
of 270,000 volumes and 600 manuscripts, and a
number of collections and institutes Besides the
university, there are two gymnasia and t\\ o Real-
schulen, several special schools, museums, a thea-
tre, and numeious scientific and art associations
Freiburg has electric lights, an electric street
railway, fine water supply, a sewage farm, and
several hospitals and charity houses The city
is well known for its manufactures of silk
thread, glass, artificial pearls, buttons, paper,
furniture, scientific and musical instruments,
machinery, chocolate and sugar products, wine,
tobacco, cigars, etc The city is the chief expoit
point foi the Black Forest district It has been
the seat of an aichbishop since 1827 Among
the attractions on the outskirts is the Schloss-
beig, with an ancient mined fortress and pleas-
ure grounds Pop, 1900, 61,506, 1910, 83,324
The foundation of Freiburg about the year
1090 is attributed to Count Berthold III of
Zdhrmgen It became a free town in 1120 and
attained considerable prospenty With the
death of the last niembei of the house of Zali-
rmgcn, Freibuig passed in 1219 to the counts
of Urach, whose interference with the rights
of the buigheis \\as followed by popular upus-
mgs The city finally bought its independence
in 1366 foi 20,000 silver marks and passed under
the piotection of the house of Hapsburg (1368)
Dm ing the Thuty Years' Wai it \\as taken
lepeatedly by the Swedes In 1G44 a bloody
engagement took place here between the Fiench
and the German Catholics It belonged to the
Fiench fiom 1677 to 1G97 Freiburg came into
the possession of Baden in 1806 In 1848 it
was the scene of a conflict between the insur-
gents and the troops of the German Confedera-
tion In the following year the revolutionary
government was expelled from the town by the
Pixissians, who remained there until 1851 Con-
sult Rietschel, Die Meren Stadtrechte von Frei-
burg im Breisgau (Vierteljahrschnft, Berlin,
1905)
EREIBTJRG (Swiss city and canton) See
EREIDAETK, fri'dank (MHG Vridano) The
name assigned to the author of a German
thirteenth-century didactic work entitled Be-
scheidenheit. He was probably a native of
Swabia and accompanied the crusading aimy
of Frederick II to the Holy Land, where he com-
posed a poition of his poem, about 1228-29 It
is a soit of anthology of adages and moral reflec-
tions containing much worldly wisdom and was
very popular throughout the Middle Ages and
well into the sixteenth century Many manu-
scripts still exist of the original, which was trans-
lated into modern German by Simrock (1867),
Bacmeister (1875), and Pannier (1878)
EREIGHT (ME freyt, p aught, Dutch vracht,
OHG freht, from Goth fra, before + aihts,
property, probably influenced by Fr fret,
freight, from the same source) The hire of a
ship, or part of a ship, for the transport of
merchandise, also the merchandise so trans-
ported The agreement for the service is termed
a charter party (q v ) If a merchant freight a
whole ship, but neglect to fill it, the captain is
not at liberty to complete the cargo from other
souices, without accounting to the merchant for
any moneys received for such additional load
On the other hand, if the merchant covenant to
freight a certain portion of a ship, he Is bound
to pay the sum agreed on for that portion, not-
withstanding that his goods may fail to occupy
FREIGHT
233
FREILIGBATH
so much space If in the charter party a day be
appointed foi sailing, and either the merchant
fail to have his goodb ready for embarkation
by the time fixed, or the vessel be unpiepared
to stait — wind and weather pei mitt ing — the
agreement may be declared void by the aggiieved
party, who can also lecover at law foi any detn-
ment caused to his property in consequence of
the delay The use of chartei parties has been
tiaced back as far as the icign of Hemy Til
This contract, which in England, and geneially
m the commercial language of the United States,
is called fi eight, is more commonly spoken of
by the legal writers of Scotland as affreightment
(qv ), from the French affretement (Bell, Oom ,
i, p 414), but there is no e&sentia1 di/ieience in
the laws of the two countnes with icgard to it
Thioughout the whole commeicial woild, indeed,
in so far as its provisions aie not made the sub-
jects of positive stipulation eithei by chaitet
paity or l)iU of lading (qv ), they will be held
to be in accoi dance with the usage of trade, and
of that paiticular branch of trade to which the
hiring has reference The contract foi freight is
generally con.sideied to be an "entire" contiact
and not capable of part performance It con-
templates the completion of the voyage and the
safe anival of the cargo at its destination.
Usually, theiefore, no freight is earned in the
event of a loss at sea, noi in case of a clehveiy
at any other port than the one specified in the
charter party
It was formcily held that the payment of the
wages of the crew was contingent on the earning
of freight by the ship, m accoi dance with the
maxim of Lord Stowcll, that "ii eight is the
mother of wages }> But this lule, which was
already subject to many exceptions, has been
abiogated in Groat Britain by the Meichaiit
Shipping Act (17 and 18 Viet, c 104), and by
statute in the United States, and wages may
now be recovered either by seamen or appren-
tices, even though no freight has been earned by
the vessel^ but in cases of shipwreck the claim
for wages will be barred if it be proved that the
man did not exert himself to the utmost to save
the ship, cargo, and stores The provision was
first introduced by 7 and 8 Viet, c 112, § 17,
which enacted that, in order to enable him to
recover his wages, the seatnan should be bound
to produce a certificate from the master or chief
suivivmg officer of the ship, to the effect that he
had so exerted himself By § 183 of 17 and
18 Viet , c 104, the onus of proof is very prop-
erly laid on those who impugn the conduct of
the &eaman The old rule is still adhered to in
America, but it is not applied to the master,
and it does not hold with reference to seamen if
the freight has been lost by the fault either of
the master or owner , e g , if the ship has been
seized for debt or for having contraband goods
on board
The word "freight3* is a term formerly applied
only to maritime business, such as the hire and
use of vessels, but more recently extended to
goods transported on land, as on railways Vheie
there are regular "freight" cars The term is
used to signify also the money or consideration
paid for carrying With regard to freight by
ships, the laws of the United States are practi-
cally the same as in England
While much ocean freight is still carried by
specially chartered or other steamers which
follow no definite routes * but seek cargoes
wherever tbiey can he found, the greater part of
o\ersea-freight cariying is done by lines of
freight steamers (ubually having accommoda-
tion for a feu passengers) which run ovei
definite loutes and have legular dateb of sailing
The sailing ship has become a negligible factoi
in fi eight carrying Consult L D Weld, Pri-
vate Ft eight Oars and imenoan Railways (N"e\\
York, 1908) , E Watkms, tihippeis and Garnet s
of Interstate Freight (Chicago, 1909), J A
Droege, l?t eight Tetmnalft and Tiains (New
Yoik, 1912) , J F Stioiubvcli, Ft eight Classifica-
tion (Boston, 1912) Consult also the imports of
the United States Committee on Interstate Coin-
meice See CAKRIEB, COMMON, TRANSPORTATION
PBEILIG-BATH, fn'llK-iat, FEKDINAND
(1810-70) A popular Geiman lyric poet of
onginality, an admirable translator, and a
stuidy libeial agitator, bom at Detmold His
lathei was a teacher Though apprenticed to a
grocei at 13, Fieiligiath continued his studies
and publiblied veiae^ in local journals before he
was 20 The yeais 1831 to 183G he spent as
banker's cleik in Amsteidam Then, alter pub-
lishing ti an slat ions of Flugo s Odes, and Chants
dn cu'pwtoule, and launching a liteiaiy journal,
Rhemisclic^i Odeon (18M-38), ho became a book-
keeper at Baimen, but continued \\iitmg lynch,
of which a volume (1838) won immediate and
•\\ ide favoi This contained the famouB ''Luweix-
iitt/' "Prows Eugen," and "Dei Blumen Kache,"
among" Ins masteipieee» He afteiward gave
himself wholly to literature, cooperating in
seveuil now unnnpoitant wot kg, and gaming a
pension of 300 thalcis fiom the Prussian King
Gradually his associates drew him into political
strife In 1844 lie surrendered his pension, and
in his (jlaubcnsbekentijtms placed his poetic gifts
at the seivice of the democratic agitation that
\vas to culminate in the revolution of 1848
Such poems as "Trotz alledem" (a translation
of Buins's "A man's a man foi <i} that"), "Die
Fieiheit," "Das Recht,1' and "Hamlet," made his
absence fiom Geimany expedient He went to
Belgium and Switzerland, published in 1846
Jflnyliitche (Jedichte aits neuo&t Zeit, a volume
of fine tiiiiiHlations, and (Ja ira, a collection of
political songs, and lived till 1848 in England
At the invitation of Longfellow, whom lie knew
personally, he meditated going to America, but
on the short-lived tnumph of liberalism re-
turned to Germany as a democratic leader, was
for a tune imprisoned, published Ziwschen den
Gatlcn (1849) and 2V$ne pohfosche wnd somale
Gedwhte (1850), after which he went once more
into exile m England (1851), where he remained
till 1868, as representative of a Swiss bank He
made some admnable poetic translations, among
which an anthology, the Rose, Thistle, and
Shamrock (1854), and Longfellow's Hiaioatha
(1857), with Shakespeare's Oymbehne and
Winter's Tale, are worthy of record for their
felicity and faithfulness These kept up his
popularity in Germany, where in 1866 a subscrip-
tion of 60,000 thalers was raised for him, partly
as a political manifesto The general amnesty
proclaimed in 1868 brought lum back in time to
celebiate the triumph of 1870 in the popular
*f Hurrah, Germania'" and "Die Trompete von
Vionville " Freiligrath's works are collected 111
8 vols (Stuttgart, 1870-71), and those up to
1858 in G vols (New York, 1858-50) There
is a volume of select translations into English,
ed by his daughter, Mrs Kroeker (Leipzig,
1871) For his biography, consult Bappenbexg,
(Leipzig, 1868) , Schniidt-Weissenfels (Stuttgart,
RAIHAR,
234
1876) , Buchner, Ferdinand Freiligratli, Em
Dichterleben in Brief en (Lahr, 1881-82), Rich-
ter, Freiligrath als Uebersetzer (Berlin, 1899) ,
Rodenbeig, Jugendennnerungen (ib, 1899)
PRErMTCTND BAIMAR, fri'moont ri'mar
A pen name of the German poet Friedrich Ruck-
ert (q v )
PUEIK"B, frind, JOHN (1675-1728) An Eng-
lish physician He was born at Croton in North-
amptonshire, graduated at Christ Church, Ox-
ford, in 1698, entered the medical piofession,
and in 1705-07 acted as physician to the English
aimy under the Earl of Peterborough in Spain
In 1722 he was a member of Parliament, but be-
ing suspected of favoring the restoration of the
Stuarts, he was imprisoned in the Tower for
six months Fiom 1727 until his death he was
physician to Queen Caroline He published
several works on medical subjects, the most im-
portant of which is his History of Physick pom
the Time of Galen to the Beginning of the BICD-
teenth Century, chiefly with regard to Practice
(2 vols, 1725-26) His brother, ROBEKT (1667-
1751), was a well-known classical scholar
tfBEIRE, fra'e-ra, RAM6N (1787-1851) A
Chilean soldier and legislator, a giandson of
Freire de Andrada, born at Santiago, Chile He
served in the War for Independence fiom 1811
to 1820 and soon thereafter became the leader of
the Liberal party, which elected him Supreme
Dictator of the government in 1823, his reelec-
tion following in 1827 In this capacity he put
an end to Spanish domination in Chile in 1826,
when he forced the last Spaniards to leave the
island of Chiloe" Upon the accession of the Con-
servative party to power he led an army revolt
and was banished to Peru He returned in
1842, after an absence of five years, but did not
reenter politics There is a bronze statue of
him in Santiago
EREIBE BE ANDRADA, da an-dra'da,
GOMES (1685-1763) A Brazilian administrator,
born at Coimbra, Portugal From 1733 until
shortly before his death he was Governor and
Captain General of Rio de Janeiro, and his ad-
ministration finally extended also to the other
provinces of Brazil He contributed greatly to
the development of the mining interests of the
» country and was an active promoter of coloni-
zation and public works The war over the
boundaries of Brazil and Paraguay was fought
during- his administration (1754-56) As the
greatest colonial Governoi of Brazil, his achieve-
ments have been celebrated in the epic poem en-
titled Epicos Brasileiros ( 2d ed , under the title
0 Uruguay, 1811), by Jose Basilio da Gama
FBEISCHTTTZ, frl'shuts (Ger free shooter ).
A legendary marksman who enters into compact
with the devil that six balls from his gun shall
follow his own will, but the seventh the devil's
The idea was general in the fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries and especially during the Thirty
Years' War It emerged in literature in Apel's
0-espensterbuch (1810-15) and as adapted to
Weber's opera, Der Freischute (1821, text by F.
Kind), is universally known
FKEISCHTTTZ, DEB (Ger. The Poacher) An
opera by Weber (qv ), first produced in Berlin,
June 18, 1821, m the United States, March 3.
1825 (New York)
PREISIUG, f rl'zing A town of Upper Ba-
varia, situated on the Isar, about 22 miles north-
east of Munich (Map Germany, D 4) It is
of Eoman origin and has a fine restored twelfth-
century Romanesque cathedral, with two towers
and a curious quadruple crypt The former
episcopal palace is now occupied by a clencal
seminary The historian Otto von Freismg
was Bishop here from 1137 to 115S Frei-
sing has a theological lyceum, a gymnasium, a
teachers' seminary, and a prepaiatoiy school,
and a number of benevolent institutions The
chief manufactures are agricultural machinery,
pottery, and stained glass Neai Fieismg is
the former Benedictine abbey Weihenstephan,
now an agncultuial bureau, with a training
school for brewers and fruit growers The town
was the capital of the bishopric of Freismg,
which was founded m 724 by the Romans and
united in 1803 to the bishopric of Munich Pop ,
1900, 10,092, 1910, 14,946
FBEISINGr, OTIIO OF See OTIIO OF FBFISING
FUEJES, fni'hes, FRANCISCO ('-1845) A
Mexican historian He was born in Guadalajaia,
was educated for the pnesthood, and became a
Franciscan monk He became widely known as
a pulpit orator, but left the pulpit to pursue his
historical studies For this puipose he entered
the Convent of Guadalupe in Zacateeas, and he
became its superior in 1838 His most valuable
work was his Historia "breve de la conquista de
los estados indepcndientes del impeno meyicano
(new ed , 1878) He also wrote Afcmona lus-
tonca de los sueesos mas notables de la conquista
particular de Jalisco por los Espafioles (1842)
FREJUS, fri'zhus' (Lat Forum Juln}. A
town m the Depaitment of Var, Fiance, situ-
ated 15 miles southeast oi Draguignan (Map
France, S, L 5) It is a bishop's see since
the fourth century and is much frequented as
a health resort Originally settled from Mar-
seilles, it was afterward colonized anew by
Julius Caesar and called Forum Juln Its nu-
merous Roman remains, including walls, a
pharos, a circus seating 12,000 spectators, and a
viaduct constitute its only importance to-day
Augustus made the harbor, which is now silted
up, the most important naval station in Gaul
Among its long list of native celebrities aie
Agricola the general, Roscius the actor, Corne-
lius Gallus the poet, the Abbe" Sieve's, etc Pop ,
1901, 4156, 1911, 4022
FBEKI See GERI AND FREKI
FBELINGHTTYSEN, fre'ling-hl'jzen, FREDEB-
ICK (1753-1804) An American lawyer and sol-
dier, grandson of Theodoius Jacobus Frelmg-
huysen He was born in Somerset Co , N J ,
graduated at Princeton in 1770, studied law, and
was admitted to the bar in 1774 In 1775 he
was elected to the Provincial Congress of New
Jersey and at the outbreak of hostilities became
a member of the Committee of Public Safety
He was elected again in the year following, and
in the constitutional convention took an active
part m drawing up the new Constitution He
was a ma] or in the "Minute Men" organization
early in 1776 and recruited and became captain
of the Eastern Artillery Company He partici-
pated in the battle of Trenton, and it is said
to have been a shot from his pistol that mortally
wounded Colonel Rahl, the Hessian commander
Early in 1777 he was made colonel of New York
militia and took part in all the military opera-
tions of Washington's army m that yeai and in
the battle of Monmouth, in June, 1778 In
1778-79 and in 1782-83 he was a member of
the Continental Congress During the next 10
years he practiced his profession, attaining great
eminence, and from 1793 to 1796 he was a
235
PBEMIET
United States Senator In 1794, during the
Whisky Insurrection., he served as a major gen-
eral of the New Jersey militia
FBELINGHUYSEET. FREDERICK THEODORE
(1817-85) An American lawyer and political
leader, a giandson of Frederick Fi elmghuysen
He was born m Millstone, N J, giaduated at
Rutgers College in 1836, studied law in the office
of his uncle and adoptive father, Theodore Fie-
hnghuysen, at Newaik, and in 1839, though but
22 yeais old, succeeded to his large practice
He \\as city attorney of Newark in 1849 and be-
came widely known as a counsel of many im-
portant corporations, among them the Central
Railroad of New Jersey and the Moms and
Essex Canal Company Originally a Whig in
politics, he was one of the founders of the
Republican party in New Jersey In 1861 he-
was a delegate from New Jersey to the Peace
Congress at Washington, and in the same year
became Attorney-General of the State, sexving
until 1866 He was appointed United States
Senator m 1866 to fill the vacancy caused by
the death of William Wright, and he seived until
1869, achieving a reputation as an able debatei
In 1870 he was appointed Minister to Germany,
but declined the appointment after he had been
confirmed by the Senate In 1871 he was elected
to the United States Senate After the disputed
election of 1ST 6 he was one of the framcrs of
the bill creating the Electoral Commission, and
after the commission was constituted, in 1877,
solved as one of its members After several
yeais spent in the active practice of his pro-
fesbion he again entered political life (m Decem-
ber, 1881), succeeding James G Blame as Secre-
tary of State m Piesident Arthur's cabinet He
was a trustee of Rutgers College and president
of the Amciican Bible Society
FBELINGKHTJYSEiKr, THEODORE (1787-1862)
An American legislator and educator, son of
Gen Pieclerick Frehnghuysen He was born
at Millstone, N J , graduated at Princeton m
1804, was admitted to the bar in 1808, raised
and commanded a company of volunteers in the
War of 1812, and from 1817 to 1829 was Attor-
ney-General of New Jersey In 1828 lie was
elected to the United States Senate, where he
was & prominent debater on the Whig side, tak-
ing an especially active part in the discussions
over the rechartermg of the United States Bank
and the withdrawing of the government deposits
therefrom, and over the tariff , but, failing of re-
election m 1835, he resumed the practice of his
piofeHSion m Newark, N J , of which city he
was mayor in 1837 and 1838 He was chan-
cellor of the University of the City of New York
from 1839 to 1850, waa the Whig candidate for
the vice presidency on the ticket with Henry
Clay in 1844, and was president of Rutgers
College from 1850 until his death Consult
Chambers, Memoir of Theodore Prehnghuysen
(New York, 1863)
FEELHTGHUYSEN", THEODORUS JACOBUS
(1691-1747) An American clergyman He was
born in West Fnesland and, after holding a pas-
torate there, came to America and settled in
New Jersey as a missionary of the Reformed
Dutch church (1720) He became widely known
as an eloquent preacher, especially during the
revival period known as the Great Awakening,
and "was a delegate to the first convention of the
Reformed Butch church, held in New York
Several of his sermons, delivered in Dutch, were
published at Utrecht, where they were most
VOL. IX— 16
favorably received, others, translated into Eng-
lish by William Demarest, with a biographical
sketch, were published in 1850
FltE'MAHTLE The chief seaport of West-
ern Australia, m Swan County, at the mouth
of the Swan River, 12 miles southwest of Perth
(Map Australia, D 6) Its haiboi has been
much improved, has a fine modern town hall
with a lofty clock towei, a handsome Anglican
church, a hospital, an insane asylum, and a
liteiary institute with a public library It
manufactures leather, beer, flour, fuimtme, lum-
ber, soap, iron and steel goods, and ships On
an island in the harbor are government salt
woiks The town is divided into thiee dis-
tricts— Fremantle, Fiemantle East, and Fie-
mantle North Pop, 1901, 14,623, 2489, and
3247, 1911, 14,499, 3856, and 3315, respectively
FREMANTLE, SIR EDMUND ROBEET (1830-
) An English naval officei, born in Lon-
don and educated at Cheam School, Suirey He
entered the navy m 1849, served in the Burmese
War in 1852, became lieutenant in 1857 and
commander m 1861, was in the New Zealand
War in 1864-06 and in the A&hanti War of
1873-74, blockaded the east coast of Africa in
1888-89 and commanded the Witu punitive ex-
pedition of 1890, became vice admit al in 1890
and (after commanding in China in 1892-95)
admiral m 1890 He wiote the Koyal United
Service Institution prize essay on Naval Tactics
(1880) , sketches of Hawke and Boscawen in
Prom Howard to Nelson, and The Navy as I
have Knoion It (1905)
PBEMA3STTLE, WILLIAM HENRY (1831-
) An English clergyman He was edu-
cated at Balliol College, Oxfoid, was fellow of
All Souls from 1854 to 1804, was ordained in
1855, was select preacher at Oxford in 1879-80
and Bampton lecttirer in 1883 Fiom 1883 to
1894 he was fellow and tutoi in theology at
Balliol lie was canon of Canteibuiy from
1882 to 1895, when he was appointed dean of
Ripon His works include The Ecclesiastical
Judgments of the Prwy Council (18G5, with
G 0 Broclrick) , The Gospel of the Secular life
(1882), The World as the Subject of Redemp-
tion (1885, Bampton Lectures) , Church Reform
(1887), a version of the principal works of
St Jerome (1893), Chwstian Ordinances and
Social Progress (1901), Natural Christianity
(1911)
JFBEMIET, fWmya', EMMANUEL (1824-
1910) A prominent French sculptor He waa
botn in Paris, and studied undei his uncle
Rude He began his artistic career as lithog-
rapher to the Museum of Natural History and
for a time was also employed to paint the
corpses in the Morgue In 1843 he achieved
marked success with his "Gazelle," which was
followed by a group of animal studies, of which
"The Mother Cat" and "A Hunting Dog" re-
ceived medals and were bought by the state
In 1850 his "Wounded Hound," now m the
Luxembourg, made a great sensation From
this time he exhibited constantly, and in 1855
Napoleon III commissioned him to model a
series of military statuettes, some of which are
preserved in the Fremiet Barbedienne collection
In 1875 he succeeded Baryo as professor of
drawing and modeling at the Jardin des Plantes
His celebrated "Goiilla Carrying off the Body
of a Woman," refused at the Salon of 18^9, re-
ceived the medal of honor (1887). He received
the Grand Prrt at the Exhibition of 1900 Many
FBEMONT
236
FUEMOKTT
critics consider him superior to Barye in his
animal studies, and his originality, his knowl-
edge of anatomy, and the power and realism of
all his work are unquestioned Other statues
and groups aie the giaceful "Faun," m the
Luxembourg, the well-known equestrian statue
of Jeanne d'Arc, in the Place des Pyi amides,
Paris — a bold and spirited production, admi-
lable in movement Other versions aie at Nancy
and in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia Among
other noteworthy works are "The Man of the
Stone Age", equestrian statues of Napoleon I
at Gienoble, the Duke of Orleans at Pierrefonds,
the Punce of Conde, the colossal elephant of
the Tiocadero Fountain, Paris, "A Mounted
Torch-Bearer of the Fifteenth Century", and
the statues ot De Lesseps at .Suez (1899, Chan-
tilly Museum), Du Guesclm at Dinan — one of
his finest \\oiks, Colonel Howaid in Baltimoie,
Md , and Velazquez, Jardin de 1'Infante,
Louvre, "St Michael" for the spire of Mont
•St Michael, and "Meissomer" at Poissy His
extensive exhibit at the St Louis Exhibition
(1904) included bronze statues of St Geoige,
a "Gorilla of Gabun," and "Race Horses " Fre-
miet was a grand officer of the Legion of Honoi
and a member of the Institute Consult his
biography by De Biez (Pans, 1910)
FUEMONT' A city and the county ^cat of
Dodge Co, Neb, 37 miles noithwest of Omaha,
on the Union Pacific, the Chicago and Noith-
Westein, and the Chicago, Bmhngton, and
Quincy railroads (Map Nebiaska, H 3) It
has important danying and live-stock mteicsts,
machine shops, flouring mills, planing nulls,
breweiies, mattress and incubator fae tones, etc
The city is the seat ot the Fremont noimal
school, and contains a Carnegie libiary, orphans
home ( Lutheran ) , and fine courthouse and high-
school buildings Settled in 1857, Fiemont was
incorporated in 1871 and is governed undei a
revised charter of 1901, winch piovides for a
mayor, chosen every two years, and a city coun-
cil, two of whose members are elected from each
ward The city owns and opeiates its water
works and electric-light plant Pop , 1900,
7241, 1910, 8718, 1914 (U S est ) , 9345
FREMONT A city and the county seat of
San dusky Co , Ohio, 30 miles by rail southeast
of Toledo, on the Sandusky River, and on the
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the Lake
Erie and Western, the Lake Shore Electric, and
the Wheeling and Lake Erie laihoads (Map
Ohio, D 3) The city is at the head of steam
navigation on the river, is the centre of a, fei-
tile agricultural legion and of pioductive oil
and natural-gas fields, and has manufactures of
electrocarbons, engines and boilcis, aguculti'iAl
implement^ sheais, cutler}, stoves and laug's,
flour, paper, underwear, beet sugar, sash, doors,
and blinds, etc Ample water power is fuzni&hod
by a large dam and powei plant at this pLue
There are several public paiks, a State liibtoiual
building, and the Birchard Public Lilnai},
founded and endowed in 1873 by Saidis Biuh-
ard, uncle of ex-President Hayes Spiegel Oro1^,
the home of ex-President Ha\cs, is still occupied
by his heirs Pop, 1900, 84 59 , 1010 <W9 1014
(U S est), 10,392, 1920, 12,468 A trading
post, probably temporary, was established heie
in 1785, and a fort, called Foit Stephenson, \\as
erected early in IS] 2 A popular rendezvous of
the Indian tribes, Fiemont was known as Lower
Sandusky until 1850, when its present name was
adopted in honor of J C Fremont On Aug. 2,
1813, Major George Groghan, with ir>0 men, was
attacked here by General Proctoi at the head of
400 English and 300 Indians The latter \vere
repulsed with the loss of 94 killed and wounded,
while of the Americans only one man was killed
and seven wounded Consult Ho^ e, Historical
Collections of Ohio (3 vola , Columbus, 1889-
91)
FKEMOHT, JOHN CIIAKLES (1813-90) A
distinguished Ameiican explorei and soldier,
son of a Fi enchman of the same name and Anne
Whiting, a daughter of a distinguished Vnginia
family, the divoiced wife of John Pryor He
was born in Savannah, Ga , Jan 21, 1813, and
•was educated in Chaileston College, fiom which
lie TV as expelled for insubordination, but which
latei (1836) confened upon him the degrees
of A B and A M In 1833 he went for about
three yeais as teachei of mathematics on the
South American cruise of the United States
sloop of war batches On returning he passed
the examination for regulai professor of mathe-
matics m the navv, but instead of following this
he joined a lailway survey party In 1837 he
assisted in another railway suivey and, that
wmtei, in the suivey of the Cheiokee lands in
parts of Geoigia, jSToith Carolina, and Tennessee
This was the beginning of his work as an ex-
ploiei lie \\asa next appointed to assist J N
Nicollet (qv) in the suivey of what is now
NebiabKa, Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa, which
occupied the fseahoiib of 1838 and 1839 Dm nig
the 1838 absence he was made a second lieuten-
ant in the Topographical Coips, USA While
piopaimg the maps in Washington, in 1841, he
met and eloped with Jessie Benton, daughter of
Senator Benton, returning to the Benton home
after the marriage ceiernony, which was per-
formed by a Catholic priest
Nicollet was expected to conduct a further
exploration into the West with Fremont as chief
assistant, but, las health failing, the proposed
expedition was placed in chaige of Fremont
rJhe older issued for him was to pioceod to the
fiontier beyond the Mississippi, but this did
not satisfy him, and he had it changed to ex-
tend as far as South Pass in the Rocky Moun-
tains This was all done by the influence of
Thomas H Benton (qv ), the real power behind
the plan, and it was the first of a series of
scientific examinations of what is now the
Mostein domain of the United States — the
Oiegon part then contested by Great Biitam,
and the California and New Mexican part be-
longing to Mexico On the first, or 1842, ex-
pedition Fiemont had 21 men The route was
piacticallv that of the already established
Oregon Trail of the emigrants, from West-
port (Kansas City) to and up the North Platte
and tlie Sweetwater through South Pass, where
a turn was made to the noith and a high moun-
tain (13,790 feet) of the Wind River Range,
since known as Fremont Peak, was climbed The
second, or 1843, expedition was projected on his
retuin, to connect the 1842 work with that done
on the Pacific coast by Captain Wilkes, U S N"
On the second expedition he had 39 men Barely
had he reached Westport when an order arrived
at St Louis commanding his leturn because,
without authority, he waa taking a twelve-
pounder howitzer His wife, leceiving the order
in St Louis, did not foiward it, but, instead,
sent a swift messengei telling him to get into
the wilderness as quickly as possible and ask no
questions By the Smoky Hill Fork, the Cache
FREMONT
237
FREMONT
3. la Poudre, the head of the Medicine Bow, and
the Sweetwater he again reached South Pass,
thence went to Great Salt Lake via Bear River,
and navigated a rubber boat to the island which
now bears his name Thence by Snake Rivei
valley and the Columbia he reached Foit Van-
couver, where he connected with the Wilkes
survey Instead of coming home by the way
he had gone, he swung south into the Territoiy
of Mexico and struggled through the western
part of the desert region he named the Gieat
Basin, in search of a mythical nver called the
Buenaventura, in which there was still a be-
lief, although Jedediah S Smith and Joseph
Walker, who had pieviously crossed the basin
fiom west to east and east to west, had not
found it Fremont was the first to inspect the
legion scientifically, and much of the way he
tiaveised original ground Discovering and nam-
ing Pyramid Lake, he proceeded south to what is
now Walkei River, ^here he concluded to stuke
west for Sutter's Fort, and accoidingly ciossed
the Sierra Nevada, by Carson Pass, in Janu-
aiy and February, 1844, reaching Sutter's on
March 5
Fiom this place he continued south up the San
Joaqum valley, recrossed the Sierra by Tcha-
chapi Pass, went to the Mohave River, then to
the Viigin via Las Vegas, Nevada, and up that
stream to the west foot of the Wasatch, which
he followed to Utah Lake Thence he struck
cast, via Umta River and Brown's Park, to the
North Platte and turned south thiough the
Parks of Colorado to the Arkansas, which he
followed eastward, arriving in St Louis, Aug 6,
1844, and a few weeks later in Washington His
report cieated a sensation, and Congress 01-
derod 10,000 copies printed for distribution
Numerous publishers reprinted it in their own
editions, one reaching a sale of more than 20,000
copies He was appointed captain by brevet,
July 31, 1844
The Mexican War was now imminent and Fre"-
mont's third, or 1845, expedition, speedily 01-
ganized, has a vital beaimg on the acquisition
of California From Bent's Fort on the Arkan-
sas, which was left Aug 16, 1845, Fremont had
a force of 60 well-equipped marksmen, to whom
prizes were offered for eveiy mcreabe of skill
They proceeded by the Arkansas, the Grand, and
the Uinta to the Wasatch Mountains, and across
them to Utah and Salt Lakes Thence they went
down the Humboldt, which Fremont named at
this time, to the Sierra Nevada, where they
crossed by what is now Donner Pass, descending
to Sutter's Fort Fremont asked permission of
the Mexican officials at Monterey to continue
his explorations in their country At first this
was granted, then rescinded, and he was com-
manded to depart Instead of doing so he
foitified himself, March 5, 1846, on a small
mountain about 30 miles from Monterey, called
Gavilan (Hawk's) Peak This was in reality the
first step in the Mexican War in Calif oinia Ho
presently changed his mind about resisting and
retreated towards Oiegon Near Klamath Lake,
May 9, 1846, he was overtaken by Lieutenant
Gillespie, U. S. N , a special messenger f i om
Washington, who had come incognito through.
Mexico with secret instructions for the Ameri-
can Consul and also for Fremont, but over the
exact nature of the latter there has been much
controversy* Fremont returned immediately to
the lower Sacramento valley
Tne American settlers of this locality were
in a state of excitement over threats of expulsion
by Mexican officials, and they finally openly re-
volted by seizing boine government horses Next,
the town of Sonoma was captuied, and a white
flag, with one red stripe at the bottom and a
large stai and boai for emblems, was laised
over the town proclaiming the "Republic of Cal-
ifomia," the&e words being mscubcd on the
flag From this the affair received the name of
"The Bear Flag Revolt " It was the second
ytep towards the acquisition of California Cap-
tain Fremont, USA, now took command, thus
creating an American military occupation and
lendeung it impossible for any othei nation
peacefully to make such a move, if, as was claimed,
there was this intention Rumors of the ex-
pected beginning of hostilities with Mexico on
the Rio Gi ancle came, and finally definite news,
but Commodore Sloat in command of the United
States fleet was slow to act At last he raised
the flag at Monterey, and soon after Commodore
Stockton assumed chief command and actively
coopeiated \vith Fiemont and Gillespie, the lat-
toi having remained as aid to Fremont The
Hag of the United States was laised at San
Fiancisco, Sonoma, and Suttei's Foit Stockton
appointed Fremont major of the land forces,
which Stockton considered in the nature of
maimes
When Los Angeles was taken, Gillespie was
put in command of the town, but his methods
caused a revolt, and the war broke out afresh
lust as General Kearny, USA, arrived over-
land from New Mexico Kearny cooperated
with Stockton and Fremont, but the question of
supenor authority between him and Stockton
was a souice of friction Fremont continued
to recognize Stockton as his superior officer
Fremont's commission as lieutenant colonel of
a rifle coips now «irnved fiom Washington Los
Angeles was again captured, the war was over,
and Stockton appointed Colonel Fre'mont Gover-
noi — a position he held 50 days in defiance of
G-eneial Keainy's contrary orders For this and
other refusals to acknowledge the official su-
premacy of Kearny over Stockton, Fremont was
tued by court-martial in Washington, on charges
of mutiny, disobedience, and conduct to the prej-
udice of good order and military discipline
Kearny himself made only one charge — mutiny
The trial lasted from Nov 2, 1847, to Jan 31,
1848 Fremont was judged guilty and sentenced
to dismissal from the service President Polk
refused to confirm the mutiny charge, but ap-
proved the verdict on the others, immediately
i emitting the sentence Fre'mont resigned, feel-
ing that he had been deeply wronged The
resignation took effect March 15, 1848
In October, 1848, with a party numbering
33, Fie*mont started on his fourth expedition,
to survey a railway route to the Pacific. They
attempted to cross the San Juan Mountains of
Colorado, at the head of the Rio Grande, in the
middle of winter, as Fre'mont wished to deter-
mine how much of an obstacle the snow would
be to railway operation After passing the crest
it was impossible to go on because of storm and
snow, and the party retreated to the Rio Grande
m the San Luis valley Eleven of the men died
from lack of food and from exposure before Taos
was reached There a fresh start was made, and
California was gained by a far southern route,
clown the Rio Grande and south of the Gila to
the 110th meridian at about 31° 6', where a
north course through Tucson was followed to
FBEM03STT
238
EKEMONT
the Gila and then that stream west Fremont
arrived m Sacramento in the spring of 1849
In 1847 he had purchased a laige land grant
known as the "Manposas," and now, finding gold
mines upon it, he began to develop them The
story of this "Manposa Grant" is a long one,
full of complications Fremont's title was re-
versed after being confirmed, but was finally defi-
nitely confirmed by the United States Supreme
Court Mortgage and litigation ensued, and at
last he lost the property altogether In 1850
he was elected one of the first two senatois
from California and repaned to Washington,
taking his seat in Septembei of that year The
new senators diew for the necessary shoit teim,
and it fell to Fremont He went to California
between sessions and did not get back to finish
the term Failing of reelection, his senatorial
career ended About this time he received a
gold medal fiom the King of Prussia, and the
Founder's medal from the Koyal Geographical
Society While in London in 1852 he was
ai rested and put in )ail for unpaid bills con-
nected with the conduct of the California revolt
— bills that should have been paid by Congress
In 1853, still faithful to his "cential route
to the Pacific," he organized his fifth and
last expedition, with 22 persons, 10 of the in
Delawares Leaving his fourth route in the
San Juan Mountains to his left, he passed over
into Grand River valley (following Cunmson
and Heap as far as Green River), ciossed the-
Green at the San Rafael, touched the head of
Fremont River, and went thiough Grass valley
and Fremont Pass to the pioneer settlement of
Parowan, where the party ai rived in an ex-
hausted state, one man, Olivei Fuller, dving
the last day before reaching the settlement
From Parowan he continued almost due west
across the desert Gieat Basin to the Sierra
Nevada and there turned south along its foot
to a pass near Walker Pass, where he went
over to the San Joaqum valley Little was ac-
complished by the fourth and fifth expeditions,
which were financed by himself and Senatoi
Benton.
In 1856 the new Republican party nominated
Fremont as its first candidate for the presi-
dency His nomination was due to his availa-
bility, to renown gained by his explorations, and
to his known opposition to the extension of slav-
eiy On account of this attitude towards slav-
ery, however, the entire South opposed him as
well as large numbers of Northern voters who
still wished to let slavery alone He was de-
feated, receiving 114 electoral votes to 174 cast
for Buchanan Had he been elected, the War
of the Rebellion would have come then, or per-
haps not at all, for he did not intend to dis-
turb existing conditions of slavery, only to pre-
vent extension of it into the new territory
Abraham Lincoln "took the stump" in his behalf
Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War Fre-
mont, through the efforts of his then friends,
the Blairs, was appointed a major general and
placed in command of the Western Depaitment,
with headquarters at St Louis, where, Aug 30,
1861, he issued a proclamation "The property,
real and personal, of all persons in the State
of Missouri who shall take up arms against the
United States, or who shall be directly proven
to have taken an active part with their enemies
in the field, is declared to be confiscated to the
public use, and their slaves, if any they have,
are hereby declared freemen " He established a
bureau of abolition to carry out the order re-
specting manumission. He contended that cap-
tured slaves of enemies of the Union were
automatically freed, as the government could not
reenslave them His action in this respect
was considered premature by Lincoln, who was
obliged to annul it, which he did September
11 Charges of incompetence and extravagance
were made against Fremont, who was full of
large plans Such charges were common at the
tune, and politics played a large pait in the
assignment of commands and the making of
generals, so that all that is said against Fre-
mont must Oe accepted with caution The echoes
of the 1856 campaign were also still in the an
Fiemont was removed from the Missouri field
and a few months later given command of the
Mountain Depaitment of Virginia, Tennes&ee,
and Kentucky The continued direction of op-
eiations from Washington was against military
cohesion in the field, and nothing went right
The tioops were ill armed, ill fed, and ill man-
aged The divisions were finally consolidated
under General Pope, who was Fremont's junior
in ia,nk, and Fremont declined to seive under
him Fremont retired from that field and was
not appointed to another command In 1864
he resigned
May 31, 1864, he was nominated by a small
faction of the Republican party for president,
but the support was so slender that he soon
withdiew Being still deeply interested in the
subject of a Pacific railway, he became involved
in zailway construction, which the financial dis-
asters of 1873 brought down in rum upon his
head He was prosecuted by the French govern-
ment for alleged participation in swindles con-
nected with the projected transcontinental line
and was sentenced on default to fine and im-
prisonment From 1878 to 1882 he was Gover-
nor of Anzona In 1890, then 77 years old, he
was appointed a major general on the retired list
by Act of Congress, and July 13 of that year he
died in New York of ptomaine poisoning. He
was buried in Rockland Cemetery, Piermont,
N Y., on the west side of the Hudson, 500 feet
above the river and only a few yards from the
brink of the mountain A monument was erected
at his grave in 1906 by the State of New Yoik.
His wife and his son Charles are buried beside
him
Consult J C Fremont, Report of the Explor-
ing Expedition to the Itochy Mountains in the
Year 18*$, and to Oiegon and North California
in the Years 1843-44 (Washington, 1845) , Fre-
mont, Memoirs of my Life (Chicago, 1887), one
volume only published, J B Fre'mont, Souvenirs
of my Time (Boston, 1887), id, A Year of
American Travel (New York, 1878), id, The
Story of the Guard (Boston, 1863) , John Bige-
low, Memoir of the Life and Public Services of
John Charles Fremont (New York, 1856) , S N.
Carvalho, Incidents of Travel and Adventure in
the Far West with Col Fremont's Last E ^edi-
tion (ib, 1857), Micajah McGehee, "Rough
Times in Rough Places," Century Maga&ine, vol
xix, N S, ib, 1890-91) ; E B. Fremont, Recol-
leetions (ib , 1912), Josiah Royce, California
(Boston, 1888) , I B Richman, California under
Spain and Memco (ib, 1911), F S Dellen-
baugh, Fremont and '49 (New York, 1914), Nic-
olay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln A History,
vol iv (ib , 1890) , Upham, Life of Fr4mont
(Boston, 1856) , Curtis, The Republican Party,
vol i (New York, 1904)
FREM&SDAD
239
EBEM'STAD, OLIVE (c!870- ) An
American diamatic sopiano, one of tlie world's
greatest interpreters ot Wagner's heroines She
was born at Stockholm, Sweden, about the yeai
1870, but received her eaily education and
musical training in Chrrstiania When she
was 12 yeais of age licr parents removed to
Amenca, settling m Minneapolis Even before
leaving Christiania hei progress on the piano
had been such that she had appealed as an in-
fant prodigy When 16 she gave piano lessons
and sang in chons Tn 1890 she came to New
Yoik, whoie she continued to give nibtuiction
on the piano and sang in vaiious choirs At
the same time she had her voice cultivated by
E F Bristol, for whom she played accompani-
ments, as well as for othei vocal teachcis After
she had made hei debut as a concert singor, in
Boston under Zerrahn and in New York under
Seidl, in 1892, she went to Germany and studied
for two years with Lilli Lehmann in Beilm In
1895 she made her operatic de*but as A/.ucena in
Trovatore at Cologne The following year she
attracted the attention of Madame Wagner
through her excellent work as one of the Rhine
maidens at Bayieuth In 1897-99 she was a
member of the Cologne Opera, but she also was
heaid in Vienna, Amsterdam, and Antweip. In
1900 she accepted an engagement for three years
at the Royal Opera in Munich, during which
time she likewise sang two seasons at Covent
Car den, London Her engagement for the Met-
lopohtan Opera House, in 1903, xnaiks a turn-
ing point in hei career On November 25 of
that year she made her Aniencan d<§but as Sieg-
lindo with overwhelming success Before long
she was idolized by the public, and when, in the
course of time, she had appeared in all the great
\\aonenan roles (including Kundry), it was
generally admitted that her interpretations had
never been HUX passed For 11 consecutive sea-
sons, until 1914, she was one of the greatest
stars of the Metropolitan company Both in
Hew York and Paris she created the part of
Salome m Strauss's opera, As a liedei singer
also she must bo ranked with the world's finest
artists For her achievements she was twice
decorated by the French government
PBfiMY, fia'mfi', EDMOND (1814-94). A
French chemist, born in Veisailles He became
professor of chemistry at the Ecole Polytech-
mque, Paris, in 1846 In 1850 he was made pro-
fessor of chemistry at the Museum d'Hiatoire
Katmelle He acted as director of the Museum
from 1879 to 1881 Fremy's researches extended
to almost every branch of chemistry In addi-
tion to numerous papers m the Annales de
chvmie ct do physique, he published Trait$ de
chimi® gMrale (7 -vols , 3d ed , 1862-65). The
Hjncyclop&d'ie Chimique, a work in 10 volumes,
upon which he was engaged for 13 years, was
piepared by him in collaboration with several
distinguished scientists, and was completed in
1894
FBEMYOT, J< F , BARONESS DE See CHANTAL.
EltEKCH, ALICE (1850- ) An Ameri-
can novelist, better known as OCTAVE THANBT
She was born at Andover, Mass , and began her
literary career, about 1878, with studies of a
social and economic bent, but soon turned to
short stories, in which she achieved much suc-
cess, especially after her removal to the West
Iowa and Arkansas gave her opportunities for
exploiting regions hitherto little attempted in
fiction. Noteworthy among her books are The
Bishop's Vagabond (1884) , Knitters in the
(1887), Otto the Knight (1803), A. Book of
True Loveis (18J8) , The Man of the Hour
(1905) , Stores That End Well (1911) , A Step
on the Stair (1913) Her novel JBapmtion
(1890), won, and deseived, high praise "Octave
Thanet" also edited The Best Letters of Uwtf
Worttcy Montagu
FRENCH, ANNE WARNER See WABNEB
FUENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- )
An eminent Amencan sculptoi He was boo
at Exeter, N II , April 20, 1850, and in 1867 his
fathei, a judge in the New Hampshire1 courts,
moved to Concord, Mass lie studied foi a year
at the Massachusetts Institute o£ Technology
attended Dr Rimmer's lectures on anatomy at
Boston, and in 1860 woikcd foi a short time itt
the studio of J Q A, Waid In 1873 he made
foi the town of Coucoid the earliest and one of
the cleverest of his more important works, the
"Minute Man," and upon its completion went to
Florence, where he spent a year with ihe Amcii-
can sculptor Thomas Ball In 1878 French
opened a ntucbo in Washington, from 1878 to
1887 he made Boston and Concord his heudquar-
teis, and m the latter year settled in New Yoilv
Meanwhile he had made frequent visitw to Paris,
but although he absorbed whatever appealed to
him most, he does not seem to have come <h
rectly under the influence of an;y one French
master. His genius is peculiarly American, and
combines singular beauty of technique with
poetry, grace, and plastic charm The sculptural
compactness of his groups and the play of light
and shade are particularly admirable
French is a sculptor of gieat versatility, and
the catalogue of his works is large His "John
Harvard" (1882), Cambridge, MabS , is m the
seveie, simple style ot the "Minute Man " His
busts of Emerson and Alcott are in the firm,
close modeling of his earlier years, and aro
characterized by the lofty intellectual quality
which he so often dhows in his portraitures The
marble statue of Lewis Cass in the rotunda ot
the capitol ( 1888) m Washington is more loosely
handled than the two former works, but is large
and strong In the Gallaudet Monument in
Washington, French first introduces the element
of pathos which has become so familiar in his
later works Perhaps the most interesting is his
relief, "Death and the Sculptor/' foi the tomb
of the sculptor Martin Milmore in Forest Hills
Cemetery, Boston, which received a inedal of
honor at Paris in 1900 Of the large amount
of decorative sculpture which was done by
French, or under his direction, at the World's
Fair ot Chicago in 1893, the most noteworthy
were the many groups with animals, done in
collaboration with Edward Potter, his foimer
pupil, who later modeled the horses for his
equestrian statues The great gilded statue of
the Republic, which French placed m the Court
of Honor, is one of the most striking colos-
sal statues of recent times His other work in-
cludes the monument to John Boyle O'Rerlly in
the Back Bay Fens of Boston (1895) , the stat-
ues of Starr King in San Francisco (1890) and
of Rufus Choate (1898) in Boston, and the two
fine statues, "History" and "Herodotus," for the
Congressional Library m Washington With the
assistance of Potter he modeled the bronze eques-
trian statue of General Grant, in Fairmount
Park, Philadelphia (1899); that of General
Washington (1900) J presented by an association
of American women to the French nation, and
FRENCH
240
FRENCH
IHBIA1ST WAR
now in the Place d' Jena, Paris , and that of Gen
Joseph Hookei, State House Grounds, Boston
(1903) Othei important works aie the Hunt
Memorial in Central Park, New York, "Alma
Mater" (1903), in fiont of Columbia (Jmveisity
Libraiy, the fine bronze doors of the Boston
Public Library, in low relief, completed in 1904,,
four groups of the "Continents" for the New
Yoik customhouse, of which the models weie
completed m 1906 His moie iccent works in-
clude the impression of the Alice Fieeman
Palmer Memorial at Wellesley College (1909) ,
a "Mourning Victory" foi the Melvin Memorial,
Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord, Mass. (1910) ,
the statue of Geneial Oglethoipe, Savannah, Ga
(1910), Marshall Field Memorial, Giaceland
Cemetery, Chicago (1911) , the seated figure of
Emerson, Concord Library (1912) , a statue of
Lincoln for Lincoln, Neb (1912) A still more
lecent commission is the memorial of Andrew
H Green for Cential Park, New York He le-
ceived numeious distinctions, being elected a
member of the National Academy of Design, of
the American Academy of Arts and Letteis, and
of the Accademia di San Luca, Rome, and honor-
ary president of the National Sculpture Society
Consult Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture
(New York, 1903), Taft, History of Amcncan
Sculpture (ib, 1003), Coughlan, in Magazine
of Ait (1901), Catfin, in International Studio,
vols xx (1903), Ix (1910), and Ixvi (1012)
FRENCH, SIR JOHN DJENTON PINKSTONE
(1852-1925), A British soldier, bom at Ripple
Vale, Ripple, Kent He seived in the royal navy
in 1866-70, entered the aimy in 1874, seived
with the Nineteenth Hussars in the Sudan cam-
paign of IS 84-85 j and commanded that regiment
in 1889-93 From 1893 to 1894 he was assist-
ant adjutant general of ca/valry on the staff,
and from 1895 to 1897 was assistant adjutant
general at army headquarters He was pro-
moted to the command of the Second Cavalry
Brigade in 1897, and appointed major general
in command of the cavalry division in Natal in
1899. In 1900 he became lieutenant general
(local) commanding the cavaliy division in
South Africa He directed the operations about
Colesberg (Nov 10, 1899, to Jan 31, 1900) , was
in command of the cavalry in the operations ter-
minating in the relief of Kimberley (February,
1900), and of the cavalry division of Lord Rob-
erta's army in the operations leading to the
capture of Bloemfontein and Pretoria He also
commanded Lord Roberta's left wing in the vari-
ous battles east of Pretoria, For his services
he was promoted to be lieutenant general and
appointed to the command of the First Army
Corps at Alder shot. He became general in
1007, waa inspector general of home forces in
1907-11, and was made field marshal in 1913.
In March, 1914, during the controversy between
Asquith's cabinet and the army over the aimy's
service m Ulster, French resigned, but on the
outbreak of war later in the year he reentered
the army and commanded the English expedi-
tionary force in France See WAR IN EUROPE
FRENCH, MANSFIELD (1810-76). An Amer-
ican educator, born at Manchester, Vt , and edu-
cated at Burlington (Vt ) Seminary and at the
Divinity School of Kenyon College, Ohio. He
was one of the founders of Marietta College, in
1835 In 1845 he joined the Methodist Epis-
copal church, and from 1845 to 1848 he was
president of the Xenia (Ohio) Female College
He worked for the founding of Wilberforce Uni-
\eisitv, the first college for negioos in Amenca
In 1858 he became editor of a religious paper,
The Beauty of Holiness He was an ardent
Abolitionist, and at the outbieak of the Cnil
War made a study of the negro question with a.
view to preparing tor the emancipation of the
slaves In Febiuary, 1862, at an immense mass
meeting in Cooper Union, New York City, his
plans were explained and the National Froecl-
men's Relief Association was organized He be-
came its general agent and earned on its work
at Poit Ro>al, S C, where, in spite of oppo-
sition from both civil and military authoiities,
his woik among the negroes met \vith consider-
able success
FRENCH, WILLIAM HENBY (1815-81) An
Amencan soldier He was born in Baltimore,
Md , graduated at West Point in 1837, was as-
signed as second lieutenant to the First Aitillery,
seived m the Floiida War of 1837-38, and was
engaged on frontier duty until 1847 In the Mexi-
can War he served in the Southern campaign
On Sept 22, 1848, he was promoted to be cap-
tain, and between this time and 1861 was sta-
tioned successively at Fort Monroe, Fort
McHenry, Fort Clark (Tex ), and Fort Duncan
(Tex ) In September, 1861, he was piomoted
brigadier general of volunteeis, and, in Oetoboi,
to be a ma]or in the Second Artillery He served
thioughout the Peninsular campaign, earning the
hievet of lieutenant colonel, participated in the
Mai viand campaign and earned the brevet of
colonel, was promoted to be major general of
volunteers in November, 1862, served in the
battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville ,
and subsequently commanded the Third Army
Corps in various minor engagements On May
6, 1864, he was mustered out of the volunteer
service, and on March 13, 1865, was brcvetted
major general in the regular army He was
promoted colonel in July, 1877, was in command
of the troops engaged in the suppression of the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad riots, July 18-24,
1877, and on July 1, 1880, was retired from
active service
FRENCH, WILLIAM MERCHANT RICHARDSON
(1843-1914) A prominent figure in the de-
velopment of the Art Institute of Chicago He
was born at Exeter, N H , and gi aduatcd from
Harvard College in 1864 His first occupations
weie landscape gardening and civil engineering,
but he was early interested m art, and by 1874
was sought after as a lecturer on art and as a
writer for the reviews In 1878 he went to
Chicago to become secretary of the Chicago
Academy of Design, which after various changes
became the Art Institute of Chicago With
Charles L Hutchinson he worked — at first for a
salary far smaller than he would have earned in
other pursuits — to build up the institution to
its present great size and prominence, continuing
in its service till his death He was one of
the founders of the American Association of
Museums
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR The name
usually given to the struggle m America be-
tween the French and English (1754-60),
roughly coincident with the Seven Years' War in
Europe The French, being in possession of
Canada and Louisiana, reenforced their estab-
lishments on the banks of the St. Lawrence and
near the mouth of the Mississippi, and at-
tempted, by the occupation of various points in
the interior with a line of military posts and of
protected trading posts, to confine the English
PBEKTCH ABT
241 FBEHCH EQUATORIAL AFBICA
to a strip of teintory on the Atlantic coast,
while they themselves planned to occupy both
the land of the Ohio basin and that sm rounding
the Great Lakes The territoiy in dispute, and
especially that watered In the Ohio, was
claimed by both France and England, the French
resting their claims largely upon the alleged
effect on the ownership of an entire liver basin
of a settlement at the nvei's mouth, and the
English insisting that their King's grants of
land "from sea to sea" became literally effective
and valid when the coast line \vas peimanentlv
occupied No permanent settlements had been
made in the territory thus claimed bv both,
although a small settlement of Viigini<ins was
established on the Monongahela and settlements
in Ohio were in contemplation The Govoinor
of Virginia had organized a provincial foice to
protect the western frontier, and hostilities be-
gan in May, 1754, with an attack made by
Washington on a Fiench force undei Jumon-
ville In 1755 an aimy of regulars, under
General Braddoek, acting with a detachment of
Virginia troops, undeitook an expedition for the
capture of Fort Duquesne, which the French had
built at the junction of the Monongahela and the
Allegheny This foice was disastrously defeated
July 9, 1755, and the French retained full con-
trol of the frontier Being enabled to operate
on an "inner line" of communication, while the
English were obliged to conduct a seiies of
isolated and unrelated campaigns, the French
maintained their advantage until the summer of
1758, when they inflicted a great defeat upon
the British in the battle of Ticoncleioga, July 8,
their last important success The foitune of
war now turned Largely as a result of a more
energetic policy introduced by the Pitt ad-
ministration, the English campaigns weie prose-
cuted moie vigorously and resulted in the
capture of Louisburg (July, 1758), of Fort
Frontenac, on Lake Ontario (August, 1758), and
of Fort Duquesne (November, 1758) The French
line of defense and of communication was thus
broken, and this success was made secuie in
the following summer by the capture of Ticon-
deroga, Crown Point, and Fort Niagara
Finally, on Sept. 13, 1750, the forces of General
Wolfe defeated the army of Montcalm which was
defending Quebec, whose surrender followed, and
in September, 1760, control was gained of Mont-
real and the rest of Canada Peace was not
made until the Seven Years' War (qv ) on the
Continent was concluded, and m the Treaty of
Pans, of 1763, France ceded Canada, to England,
and England received from Spam the Floridas,
which she retained until 1783, while Spam ic-
ceived Louisiana from France Tims France
lost her possessions in America Consult Wm-
sor, The Mississippi, Basin (Boston, 1895) ,
Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (ib, 1884),
Sargent, History of an Expedition against Port
Duquesne, Jf77«5, edited from original manuscripts
(Philadelphia, 1856), Doughty and Parailee,
The Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the Plain?
of Abraham (6 vols,, Quebec, 1901), Bradley,
Fight iQith France for North America (New
York, 1902) , Thwaites, France m America (ib,
1005), Wood, The Fight for Canada (Boston,
1906) , Willson, Life and letters of James
Wolfe (New York, 1010)
FBEKTCH ABT. See GOTHIC ABT „ BARRIZON,
THE PAIOTEBS os, IMPRESSIONIST BCTOOL OF
IM^BSOAOTJ PAINTING;
BBOAD A n\ei using in the
Blue Ridge Mountains, in Transylvania Co,
western North Carolina (Map Noith Caiolma,
B 4) Tt flows northeast into Henderson
County, then north to Aflheville, then northwest
and \vest to its confluence with the Holston
Rivei, about 4 miles west of Knowille, Tonn ,
the two stieanib foinnng the Tennessee River
(qv)
FRENCH CHALK See CRAYON, TALC
FRENCH CONGO Sec FRENCH EQUA-
aoiii VL AFRIC v
FRENCH CK/EEK A stream in Jefferson
Co, N Y, emptying into the St La wi once On
Nov 1 and 2, 1813, a small Amencan force,
nuclei Cenoial Brown, intrenched on its banks
near the site of the present Clayton, N. Y ,
i epcllecl, with the loss of only two men killed
and four wounded, an attack of 12 British
vessels, which suilerccl severely m the engage-
ment
FRENCH EAST INDIA COMPANY See
E\ST INDFA COMPANY
FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA, piioi
to January, 1910, FKLNCII CONGO A Fiench
government-general in west ccntial Afuca, con-
sisting of the GUbun Ooloiu, the Middle Congo
Colony, and the Ubangi-Sluui Colony, to which
is attached the Military Temtory of the Chad
(Map Africa, F 4 and 5) The irregulanty
of the country's outline was increased by the
cession (Nbv*4, 1911) to Germany of about
280,000 square kilometers, carrying an estimated
population of 1,000,000 By the accession of
tins territory to the German Kamerun, the latter
now divides Fiench Equatorial Africa at two
points, reaching the rivers Congo and Ubangi
The government-general extends from the At-
lantic between Kamerun, on the north, ancl the
Congo district ot Angola ancl Belgian Congo, on
the south, east to the Congo and Kandeko rivers,
the Congo Thver separating it from the Belgian
Congo and the Kandeko from the southeastern
arm of Kamerun (which embraces the valley of
the Sanga), thence it extends northeast arid
1101 th to the Sahara, Kamerun and the Military
Territory of the Niger being on the west and
Belgian ' Congo and the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan
(including Darfur) on the east The northern
part of the government-geneial, i e , the Military
Territory of the Cli^id, thus includes the native
states of Bagirmi, Kanem, and Wadai North
of the confluence of the Ubangi and Congo the
latter nvei forms the boundary with Belgian
Congo The estimated area of French Equa-
torial Africa, subsequent to the boundary change
of 1011, is 1,439,000 square kilometers (555,508
square miles ) , and the estimated population
0,800,000 The coast is diversified by several
bays and many lagoons The interior is but
partly explored It is mountainous in the
south, with elevations reaching 3<>00 feet, the
river valleys aie numerous, extensive, and verv
feitile The Gabun, Ogowe, and Kwilu are
among the important rivers The fauna In-
cludes the buffalo, leopard, rhinoceros, and croco-
dile, and the home of the chimpanzee and
gorilla is found here The climate is unhealth-
ful for Europeans The forests are yaluafote, and
rubber is a prominent product There are
mineral resources of gold, iron, and copper
Manioc is raised by the natives, and coffee,
vamlla, cacao, etc, are grown by Europeans
The exports are chiefly rubber, ivory, and costly
woods Some of the other exports are coffee,
FBENCH ESTABLISHMENTS 242
cacao, palm keinels, palm oil, and piassava
The general commerce increased from 10,496,000
francs foi imports and 7,539,000 francs for ex-
ports in 1900 to 13,191,000 and 24,631,000
respectively in 1910 and 19,987,000 and 28,-
035,000 in 1012 In the latter yeai, imports
from France were valued at 8,320,000 francs,
and exports to France at 12,855,000 In 1911
tlieie entered 124 vessels, of 282,657 tons
French Equatorial Africa is admimstei ed by a
governor-general, who is assisted by a secretary-
gencial and a council of government There is
a general budget, and also separate budgets for
the constituent colonies Each of the three
colonies has a lieutenant governor and an ad-
ministrative council The capital of Gabun is
Libreville (pop, about 1500) , of Middle Congo,
Biaz/aville (5000), on Stanley Pool, opposite
the Belgian Congo town of Leopoldville , of
Ubangi-Shau, Bdngi The local budget of the
government-general for 1911 balanced at 15,-
263,000 francs, this does not include the French
subvention, winch for 1914 was estimated at
10,420,500 francs. Public debt, Jan 1, 1912,
14,784,000 francs Towns of importance besides
those mentioned above aie Franceville, Foit-de-
Possel, and the ports Cape Lopez and Loango
The tiansportatioix and communication facilities
are very meagre The inhabitants include the
Fan, Bakalai, Mpongwe, and several other im-
portant and inteiesting races or tribes
The coast of French Equatorial Africa was
discovered by the Poituguese in 1470 In 1S41
the Fiench established a footing on the Gabun
Hivei and actively began operations Libieville
was founded m 1849 In 18 62 Cape Lopez was
acquired and the French were then in possession
of the coast for 200 miles Explorations and
military expeditions extended the French rule
northeast until, by a series of conventions
(1885-87) with European Powers, the limits
of French Equatorial Africa were fixed Up
to 1894 continual encroachments were being-
made by the Congo Free State (now Belgian.
Congo), Great Britain, and France A con-
vention held in that year made a compromise
boundary By treaties with Great Britain in
1899, with Spain in 1900, and Germany in 1908,
the boundaries which exist to-day were definitely
surveyed and determined upon, Consult
Payeur-Didelot, Trente mois au continent mys-
tcneux, Galon-Congo, etc (5?aris, 1900) , Lorm,
Le Congo fran^ais et le regime des concessions
(ib, 1902) , Cuvilher-Flcui y, La mise en valeur
du Congo frangais ( ib , 1 904 ) , Terrail, La
Ghionique de Van 1911 les negociations a propos
du J/aroc et du Congo (ib , 1912)
FBENCH ESTABLISHMENTS IN INDIA.
The French colonies of Pondicherry, Chanderna-
gore, Karikal, Mahe, and Yanam (qqv ) in
India French India has a total area of 509
square kilometers (197 square miles) and a
population, according to the 1911 census, of
282,379 The estimated population in 1913 was
273,000 Imports and exports (general trade)
increased from 4,038,000 and 10,722,000 francs
respectively in 1900 to 8,377,000 and 37,466,000
in 1910 and 9,032,000 and 37,218,000 in 1912
FBENCH ESTABLISHMENTS ZJjT OCE-
ANIA. A French colony composed of widely
scattered islands in the South Pacific The
estimated area is 4395 square kilometers (1697
square miles), and the population in 1911 was
returned at 31,477, divided as follows Society
Islands, including Tahiti, Iles-sous-le-Vent, etc ,
1650 square kilometers and 21,543 inhabitants*
Marquesas Islands, 1274 and 3117, Tuamotu
Islands, 860 and 3715, Gambler Islands, 30 and
529 , Tubuai Islands, 579 and 2573 The capital
is Papeete (about 3600 inhabitants), m Tahiti,
the principal island Total imports and exports
were valued at 3,873,000 and 3,507,000 fiancs
respectively m 1890, m 1900, 3,484,000 and
3,549,000, in 1910, 5,569,000 and 6,031,000, in
1912, 7,747,000 and 8,840,000
FRENCH FTTBY, THE A name given to the
attack made by the Duke of Anjou on Antwerp
on Jan 17, 15S3 The attempt was repelled
and all of the assaulting force were killed 01
captured
FBENCH GOLD See OROIDE
FBENCH GUIANA See GUIANA
FBENCH G-UINEA, gm'£ A colony form-
ing part of French West Africa It is bounded
on the northwest by Portuguese Guinea, on the
noith by the French colonies of Senegal and
Uppei Senegal and Nigei, on the east by Upper
Senegal and Niger and the French colony of
the Ivory Coast, on the south by Liberia and
Sierra Leone, and on the southwest by the At-
lantic Ocean (Map Africa, C 3) French
Guinea includes the region of Futa Jallon
( q v ) , the circle of Dmguiray in the middle of
the colony, and in the east the ciicles of Siguiri,
Kmussa, Kankan, Kissidugu, and Beyla Part
of the eastern boundary is foimed by the river
Sankaram The estimated area is 239,000 square
kilometers (92,278 square miles) The coastal
zone i caches inland to a line varying from 25 to
60 miles from the sea, and is succeeded by a series
of abrupt terraces, which are believed to mark
the ancient seacoast Some of the rivers which
descend from the mountains of Futa Jallon
spread out, upon reaching the coastal zone, into
numerous branches forming a sort of network of
canals The alluvial soil of the region is par-
ticularly fertile and carries a luxuriant vege-
tation Sandy plateaus upon a granite substia-
tum stretch eastward to the mountainous region
of Futa Jallon, in which are the water partings
of the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger rivers The
eastern circles, attached to the colony m 1899,
are lower and less rugged In French Guinea,
rubber, palm kernels, and gums are gatheied,
and the cultivated crops include millet, nee,
sesame, manioc, etc Cattle raising is prac-
ticed on a large scale by the Fulah of Futa
Jallon Little is definitely known of the mineral
resources Native manufactures include ap-
parel, rush mats, pottery, dressed leather,
weapons, and jewelry Total imports and ex-
ports increased from 12,442,000 and 10,088,000
francs respectively in 1900 to 29,563,000 and
18,306,000 m 1910 and 19,274,000 and 20,058,000
in 1912 The principal export is rubber
French, English, and German steamers regularly
visit Konakry, where there is a jetty over 1000
feet long A railway to connect Konakry with
Kankan was opened in January, 1911, as far as
Kurussa, on the Niger (588 kilometers, 3$5
miles) An extension from Kurussa to Kankan
(74 kilometers, 46 miles) was to be opened to
traffic m 1914
Fiench Guinea comprises the Commune of
Konakry (which includes the Los Islands), 21
administrative circles, and, m the southeast, a
military territory The capital is Konakry,
where resides the lieutenant governor, repre-
senting the governor-general of French West
Africa The lieutenant governor is assisted by
FRENCH GUINEA
243
FRENCH INDO-CHINA
a seoretai} -general and by an administrative
council composed of six members, three chosen
from the goveinment officials and three from
piominent inhabitants
The population of Fiench Guinea as estimated
in 1911 was 1,927,000 In 1914 an official pub-
lication enumeitited the Afucan races, with a
total of 1,809,000 persons The Fiench num-
bered about 1100, and othei Europeans less than
100 The principal towns aie Konakry (occu-
pying Tumbo Island and connected by bridge
with the mainland), with 7100 inhabitants,
Kankan, a commercial centio, with 7200, Boke,
4400, Kurussa, 5900, Forecanah, 4000, Kindia,
2300 , Dubreka, 1200 The natives comprise sev-
eral moie or less mixed races, the most numei-
ous of which is the Fulah The Fulah of French
Guinea are descended from pastoial nomads who
came to Futa Jallon towards the end of the six-
teenth century They are good herdsmen, but
disdain agriculture They are fervent propa-
gandists of Islam and are socially organized
under a head (almamy) exercising spiritual and
limited temporal power The Fulah number
about 684,000 The Susu, or Jallonko, are gen-
erally supposed to have been driven out of Futa
Jallon by the Fulah They now dwell princi-
pally in the region between Futa Jallon and
the coast In intelligence they aie much supe-
rior to the coastal indigenes For the most part
they aie fetishistic, though sometimes classified
as Mohammedan, Islam is making rapid prog-
ress among them They number about 315,000
The Mahnke occupy the colony from Futa Jallon
eastward Though less intelligent than the
Fulah, they show marked aptitude for agricul-
1m e and commerce Though largely Mohamme-
dan, they are wtill given to fetishistic practices
They number about 507,000 Grouped with the
Malmke are the warlike Coniagui (12,000) and
the Bassan (11,300), both fetishistic tribes,
who dwell in the noithwcst of the colony near
tho borders of Senegal and Portuguese Guinea
The Timone, in the southwest, aie mainly fe-
tish in tic, quarrelsome, and degraded Allied to
the Timone are the Landuman (21,700) and the
Baga (23,900), of the northwest coastal region
The Landuman are fetishistic, drunken, and de-
giaded and seem likely to perish The Baga
are mild, m disposition, but drunken, an offi-
cial Fiench report says that their ears are sot
near the top of the head The Toma (30,300),
allied to the Malmke, dwell along the borders
of Libena and Sierra Leone They are fetish-
ists, as also are their neighbors, the Kissien
(104,500), the latter are timid, of small stat-
ure, and agricultural
Tho coast of French Guinea was known to
Portuguese explorers at an early date In the
first part of the ' seventeenth century French
merchants began trading in parts of the country,
and in 1085 the Compagnie de Guine"e obtained
from Louis XIV exclusive commercial privileges
for a large part of the west African coast, and
the region was embraced m a general way in the
French "pacte colonial " The littoral portion,
called Rivieres du Sud, was taken possession of
outright by France during the period from 1854
to 1869 The French, m 1884-85, obtained a
footing m Bure and forced the Almani rulers of
Futa Jallon and neighboring districts on the
east to a treaty of peace in 1887 A stubborn
contest was next undertaken with Samori and
his newly founded Kingdom of Wassulu, on the
hea4 streams of the Niger, northeast of
Liberia In February, 1891, at Kankan, on the
Milo, he was defeated and driven out of Bis-
sandugu, Sanakoio, and Kcruane, and his fol-
lowers, the Sofa, were scattered In 1899 that
part of the Sudan which contained the upper
Niger districts was addod to the Guinea Colony
The latest addition was the Los Islands in 1904
Consult Aspe-Fleunmont, La Gfumce paneaise
(Paris, 1900) , Le Barbier, Dans la Haute
Guinee (ib , 1904), Arcm, La Oumee pam<aise
(ib, 1906)
FRENCH HOBlsT. A name assigned to the
hoin without pistons formeily much used in the
full orchestra It has a lange from Bbi to f2,
but the four tones at either extreme are difficult
and seldom used See HORN
FKENCH INDIA See I^DIA, FKENCII
FRENCH INBO-CHHsTA The general name
foi the Fiench possessions in southeast Asia, to
wit, the Colony of Cochin-Chma and the pro-
tectorates of Tongkmg, Laos, Annam, Cambo-
dia, and Battambang (For fuither infoimation,
seo these dilloront headings ) Fiench Indo-
China is bounded by China on the north, the
China Soa on the east and south, the Gulf of
Siam on the southwest, and on the west, wheie
the Mekong Rivei was foimoily the bounclaiy
line between the Fiench possessions and Si/im,
the line has been pushed, by the Tieaty of 1904,
farther west at the expense of Siam, in the
northwest as well as the southwest The esti-
mated aiea and population of French Indo-Ohma
m 1914 are given as follows
Area in sq
miles
Population
TonRlcmg
Annam
Laos
Cambodia
Cochin-Chma
Battambang
46,000
51,000
108,000
37,400
21,900
8,000,000
4,200,000
800,000
1 ,500,000
3,000,000
500,000
250,200
18,000,000
The estimated population for 1021, 20,000,000
The French emigration to Tndo-Chma is very
small, but the Republic is oiganizmg the affairs
and improving the commercial and industrial
conditions of the country At the head of the
administration is the governor-general in Sai-
gon, under whom are the goveinor of Cochin-
China and the resident supenors of the four
protectorates Kwang Chow Wan, on the China
coast, is also since 1000 a political part of Indo-
Chma, having been leased from China for 99
years Its area is about 190 square miles and
its population about 170,000 Luang Probang,
the territory around Battambang, was ceded by
Siam m 1007, and is now administered by the
Government of Indo-China as a quasi protec-
torate Since 1887 a customs union has united
these various possessions In 1012 the imports
were valued at $52,726,427, the exports at $50,-
321,959 Of total imports, France and her
colonies send about 50 per cent In 1912 the
Philippine Islands received $6,477,126 worth of
rice from French Indo-Chma. Rice and rice
pioducts fonned 56 per cent of the exports in
1912 There is little American trade, with the
exception of kerosene, owing to the high tariff
and the absence of direct lines of communica-
tion Practically all the transit trade is to and
from the Province of Yunnan in China, over the
Yunnan Railway Tho local budget for'Indo
ERENCH LANGUAGE
244
FBENCH LANGUAGE
China foi 1912 was estimated, in piastres, at
59,580,500 The receipts are derived chiefly from
goveinment monopolies, customs, lailways, tele-
graphs, and posts The Indo-Chma Bank is a
large institution, capital 36,000,000 fiancb, and
is especially engaged in furthering local enter -
puses In 1912 there were 1183 miles of rail-
way The army in 1913 consisted of 10,873
European and 13,816 native troops, all ttndei
French officers The naval force consisted m
1913 of 4500 men
The beginning of French influence in south-
eastern Asia may be traced to missionaiv efforts
These were begun in the seventeenth centuiy in
Siam, whence they spread to Tongkmg and An-
nam A Siamese embassy appeared at the couit
of Louis XIV in 16S5 In 1774 local tioublps
broke out in Annain, and King Gya-Long was
foiced to seek shelter with the French Bishop in
the Province of Saigon Militaiy aid on a laige
scale was promised, but the troubles in France
delayed operations until 1802, when, with the
assistance of the French, King G>a-Long le-
gamed his throne His dominion extended ovei
what is now French Indo-Chma Several French
officers remained in his seivice, and French
engineers fortified the chief cities King Gya-
Long gave ceitain privileges to Ficnch and
Spanish missionaries, but his successor vveie
less friendly The adviseis of King Minli-man,
about 1820, urged him to a policy of lepiossion.
which turned into peisecntiou In 1861 the
French began the conquest of Cochin China, and
m 1867 they established a protectorate over
Cambodia In 1884 Annam A\as hi ought into
the same relation to the French powei In
1882 the conquest of Tongkmg was begun and
was completed within four years, though the
French met with repeated disasters in their con-
flict with the Chinese In 1887 the goveinor-
generalship of Indo-Chma was formed In 1893
the Laos protectorate, ceded by Siam, was added
In 1898 and 1899 the Kwangchow-wan tciri-
tory was leased fiom China, and m 1907 Bat-
tambang was ceded by Siam See ANNAM;
COCHIN- CHINA , TONGKING
FBEJSTCH LANGUAGE. History The
earliest-known inhabitants of the country now
called France were the Gauls, or Celts They
spoke the Gaulish, or Primitive Celtic, language,
which is the parent stem of Irish, Welsh, Breton,
and other modern Celtic languages (See CEL-
TIC LANGUAGES ) During the fast century EC
the Romans under Julius Csesar conquered Gaul
and gradually imposed the Latin language upon
its inhabitants In Rome at this time there
were two forms of Latin in constant use — that of
the writers and orators, called the sermo ur-
banus, and that of the uneducated classes, known
as the lingua vulgans The soldiers, merchants,
and others who came to colonize Gaul used
almost exclusively the latter, and the spread of
its use was so rapid that by the end of the fouith
century A D practically every trace of Celtic, ex-
cepting in a few remote districts, had disap-
peared It was thought for a time that Brit-
tany, because of its insular situation, had offered
a last refuge to the old language, but more
recent investigations have shown that Latin had
been victorious here as elsewhere m France, for
the modern Celtic dialect spoken in this province
at the present time is apparently due to the
exodus of the Celtic inhabitants fiom the
British Isles at the time of the Saxon invasion
fiom the fifth to the seventh centunes AD
Henri Ebtiennc and Claude Fauchet, who wrote
in the latter part of the sixteenth ceriturv, were
among the fiist to note the true oiigm of the
Fiench language, but it ib the philologists of
the nineteenth centuiv, especially Diez, the -well-
known German scholai, to whom the honor is
due of having established French philology on a
scientific basib Sporadic attempts ha\e been
made to prove that the Gauls did not gue up
the tongue of their ancestois, but that Latin
and Celtic possess in common a number of roots,
and that Fiench can as ea&ily be tiaced back to
Celtic as to Latin Ho\vever, very few scholai s
give this tbeoiy seiious consideiation, since
Thinner sen, Kcltofomanisohes (Halle, 1884), and
otheis have shown that the influence of Celtic
on French has been veiy slight, even in regaid
to the vocabulary, m which the number of pun*
Celtic woids does not exceed 50 Among the
woids which have passed thus fiom the Celtic
through the lingua ml gar is mto French, the fol-
lowing may be noted Lat -Celt alauda,, OF
aloe, from which is derived the Mod Fr dim
alouette, a lark, Lat -Celt Lecco 01 beccus, Fr
lee, beak, Celt i/raoa, Lat braca, Fr btaic*
clout, breeches, Celt bulga, Fr bouge, closet,
Lat -Celt can us (Olr carr) , Fr char, Celt cat-
iuca>chaint,e, car, Lat -Celt leuga or Icitca, Fi
heuc, league, Celt sagos, militaiy blouse, Lat -
Celt sagum, Fi saic, sagum 01 military cloak,
etc French toponymy has piesei'ved a fairl)
laigc number of Celtic words
In the fifth century Gaul was conquered a
second time by the Visigoths, Buigundians, and
Fianks, the last of whom, the strongest of the
Germanic tribes, established themselves firmly
in noithcrn Fiance, after having been driven
back from the southern part of the country bv
Syagrius in 486 But this time the conquerois
adopted the language of the conquered because of
their intellectual and moral superiority Hence
the only influence left by the Germanic tribes
on the language of Gaul are some 400 uords
pertaining to war, public and private institu-
tions, names of animals and plants, and house-
hold terms Among these the following may be
mentioned PtanLo, free man, Fr franc, frc<%
and francats, French, through the Lat frankti-
cuSj Alaman, name of a Germanic tribe, OF
Alemant, Mod Fr AUemand, Ludmg, OF
LooiSj Mod Fr Louis, ONFrank bergfrid, Fr
boffroi, belfrv, heriberga, OF albei gc and /te?-
berge, Mod Fr. auberge, inn, and hcbetge, lodg-
ing, fatduvtol, OF faldeskocl, Mod Fr fau-
teml, armchair, filt, OF jeltre, Mod Fr feutie,
felt, marahshalk, horse servant 01 groom,
Fr marechal, blacksmith, marshal, werra, Fi
guerre, war, etc
A considerable number of Greek words were
introduced into the lingua vulgans at many
different penods, either directly or through the
literary Latin Some may have come into Ft ance
m the sixth century through the Greek colonies
along the Mediterranean, such as Marseilles and
Nice Thus, Gk pao-rA^iv, Lat batfum, Fr "bdt,
paeksaddle, Gk p\a<r(t>7)/ueivs Lat blasphemaie,
Fr Wtmer, Gk /3tf/o<ra, Lat bursa, OF borse,
Fr bourse, exchange, Gk Ko\\a} Lat colla, Fr
colle, glue, Gk y/jLucpavta, Lat hemwrama, Fr
migraine, megrim, headache, etc In subse-
quent periods many words were introduced
through the influence of the Church, such as
evdyite, prdtre, heretique, mome, basihgue, while
still others were borrowed by scholars
By the seventh century the idiom spoken m
FRENCH LANGUAGE
245
FRENCH LANGUAGE
France differed enough from the popular Latin
to be called the Roman, or Romanic The main
transf 01 rnations undergone by Latin were the
disappearance 01 obscuration of all nonaccented
syllables in woids (hospital em becoming hotel,
rigidum, roidc, liberate, liurer ? etc), which
resulted in a gieat loss of case forms and tense
forms, and the prevalence of analysis ovei syn-
thesis in syntax (Petn becoming de Pctro,
amain being replaced by amatum,, habeo, habct
icquiiing the subject illc and becoming ille
liabet , etc ) As early as the sixth ccntiuy the
historian Gregory of Tours remaiks that "the
scholaily language [Latin] is no longer undei-
stood except by a few people, while the rustic
[Romanic] is understood by everybody" Fiom
the time of Gregory the homilies ot the Clmich
councils began to be translated into the popular
idiom, while the Ccrpitiilaircft, or royal edicts,
of Charlemagne in the eighth centinv require
the dignitaries of the Church to deliver their
sermons m Romanic
At a very early date a maiked dnTeience was
noticeable between the spoken language of the
northern part of France and that of the south,
the dividing lino extending from Villeneuve (a
little to the north of Bordeaux) southeast to
Lussac, then north to Angouleme and Mansle,
crossing the river Vienne just below L'lsle-
Jourdain, east to the river Allier and southeast
by Roanne to Samt-Etienne, a short distance
south of Lyons The Sa6ne and the Rhone are
considered the eastern limits of French, since-
beyond these rivers from Bescanc.on on the north
to Grenoble on the south a mixed dialect called
French-Provencal was used Among the more
important phonetic phenomena which distinguish
French from Provencal are the transformations
mi dei gone by the free unaccented vowel a of
Latin, which becomes e in French, but remains
unchanged in Provencal (Lat mare, Piov mar,
Fr mcrj Lat carricare, Prov cargai, Fr
cliwyer) These two languages were known
anciently as the langue d'oil and the langue d'oc,
fioni the words meaning "yes," oil (pop Lat
hoc ilh) and oc (Lat hoc), m the two respec-
tive idioms The two languages again branched
into several dialects or patois Of those of the
langue d'oil five were especially important —
those of the provinces of lie de France, Nor-
mandy, Picardy, Poitou, and Burgundy In the
twelfth century the dialect of He de France
began to prevail over the otheis, thanks espe-
cially to the political predominance of the kings
residing in Paris, who gradually succeeded in
compelling allegiance on the part of the barons
of the provinces By the end of the fourteenth
century the ascendancy of this dialect was com-
plete, and its rivals were reduced to the state
of mere patois
The langue d'oc also separated into different
dialects, such as Gascon, Langueclocien, Auver-
gnat, Provencal, Limousin, Bearnais, etc An
era of brilliant literary production that reached
its height in the twelfth century seemed for a
time to assure its supremacy in the future
over the langue d'oil But after the twelfth
century it declined rapidly, and though it 'has
not yet fallen back into the condition of
a patois, or spoken dialect, principally on ac-
count of the efforts of Mistral and other poets,
there is little doubt that its days of impoitance
have passed The langue d'od was influenced
by the langue d'oc from the very earliest times,
but the importation of Provengal terms probably
reached its height when Henry of Navarre be-
came King of France at the end of the sixteenth
century, and southern wuteis, such as Monluc,
Du Bartas, and Montaigne, bonowed ficclv fiom
then native tongue A giea-t many ot the words
contributed by the lanyiic d'oc to the langae
d'oil have become aichaic, so that a modern dic-
tionaiy will only show some 400 or f500 words
in actual use Among these words the following
are the moie common accolade, aigutlladc,
alarguer, asperge, aubadc, bader, badaud, bague,
balacfin, ballade, banquette, bai / icade, bastille,
beret, bordel, bouillabaisse, bourgade, brancard,
bus^erolc, cable, cabre? , cadcau, cadenav, cadet,
cac/ot, caw ail, cap, cape, cai yaison, caserne,
chatade, ciqale, dot, eglantine, emparer, escaho ,
e&rargot, estiade, fadaise, farandole, fat, gahellc,
e/avotkc, jane, luvwne, martingale, mascottc,
Milan, mistral, muscat, sari as in, soubrcsaut, sou-
bictte, triolet, troubadour, velours, mguier
Bun rig the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
Fiench was extensively used throughout Europe
Martmo da Canale and Buinetto" Latmi, two
Italian authors, mako possibly extravagant
chums as to the extent of its use, which they
attribute to the fact that it was "moie delight-
ful to read and to hear than any other " But
we do know that Maico Polo piefeiied it to his
own native tongue when lie wiote the account
of his voyages to Tartary and China m 1298, and
that it was for some timo the court language of
Naples In Germany princes and barons en-
gaged the services of French-born tutors for
their children, while in England French was the
foremost rival of the native tongue during the
two centuries immediately succeeding the Nor-
man Conquest (1066) and almost supplanted it
as the form of literary expression Foreign
students who were attracted from all parts of
Euiope to the University of Paris aided greatly
in the diliusion of the language During this
period an additional contubution was made to
the vocabulary in the introduction of a con-
siderable number of Arabic words due to the
prestige enjoyed by Arabian science as well as
to the Crusades, through which at the flame
time French was disseminated in the Orient
Among these words are alambic, alcJwmie, al-
coran, amiral, arsenal, azur, bala^$, carat,
chvffre, cimetiere, coton, 6hxir, tipmaid, gabelle,
gazelle, girafe, goudron, haras, yulep, jupe,
hmon, luth, mameluk, matelas, nadir, nuquc,
orange, papegai, safran, sirop, tambour, tasse,
zenith, etc The fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, the epoch of the disastrous Hundred
Years' War, were less important in the history
of the language Even as early as the tenth
century, when the classical Latin had fallen
already into complete disuse, a tendency pre-
vailed among scholais to introduce into the
current language words taken bodily from Latin,
and therefore unmodified by the natural process
of transformation through the medium of low
Latin and Romanic It happened, therefore,
that a considerable number of Latin terms gave
two French words — one of popular, the other of
scholarly origin — to which the term "learned
word" is usually given Besides hdtel^ from
Lat hospitalem, fadpital was formed, so rigide,
fragile, and Ube'rer, besides roide, fr$le, and
hwer from rigi,dum, fragilem, and hberare re-
spectively These pairs of words are called
doublets,' This method of enriching the dic-
tionary became quite common in the fourteenth
century and lasted th rough the fifteenth and
EUEDSTCH
246
FRENCH LANGUAGE
sixteenth The Renaissance served only to en-
courage tins tendency In the seventeenth cen-
tury, however, a reaction set m, due to a certain
extent to Moliere, who, desirous of putting an
end to the false erudition of his contempoi aries,
exposed them to pitiless attacks, especially in
the third "Intermede" of the Malacle imagmaire
But it was in the sixteenth century that the
first serious attempt ^was made to legulate the
French language, to adopt grammatical rules,
and to fix the vocabulary In this laudable
undertaking many picturesque and useful words
were saciificed to a need of order and to the
fear of impropiiety, but the language was m
the end the richer thereby, since it gained many
excellent dialectical ternis and neologisms such
as the chenshed patrie This movement began
with the Deffence et Illustration de la Langue
panQoyw of Du BelUy (1549) and culminated
in the woik of Malherbe m the beginning of the
seventeenth century Among the old French
terms that were proscribed are ardoir (bruler),
cinder (croire) , desduit (plaisir) , emmy (au
milieu de), ire (colere), oree (bord) , osb
(armee], prou (beaucoup) Some, like devaJer
(descendre), fetard (paresseuw), and others
have remained m the colloquial vocabulary
The numeious wars with Italy in the first half
of the sixteenth centuiy, together with the ad-
miration of the Pleiade for things Italian, re-
sulted in a formidable invasion of about 800
words,, which was only checked by the passionate
protestations of Henri Estienne at the close of
the centuiy These two distinct influences
brought in two distinct classes of words The
one consists of expressions boriowed from the
sphere of art arabesque, arcade, arlcquin,
ai tisan, balustre, balcon, bouffon, burlesque,
bustc, carnaial, charlatan., concert, contour, cor-
niche, escjuisse, fagade, feston, fugue, opera-, etc
The other is composed of military terms
ala-rme, alwte, bastion, canon, caporal, carrousel,
cartel, cartouche, colonel, embuscade, escalade,
estafilade, fantassin, sentinelle, soldat, timbale,
vedette, etc
In the early part of the seventeenth century
there was a similar Spanish invasion, and French
was enriched by about 200 words, especially
names of animals, or of exotic products, and
words of American origin, such as abncot,
alcove, bizarre, camarade, cacao, chocolat,
cigarre, coea, Creole, duegne, mantille, marme-
lade, negre, patate, serenade, sieste, tomate,
vamllc, etc At the same epoch a few words
came from Germany, several wars having
more than once brought its inhabitants into con-
tact with the soldiers of France bivouac, blocus,
fi>fre, havrcsac, hulot, lansquenet, obus, rosse,
tnnquer, sabre, cible, halte, retire, valser The
influence of the Pre*cieuses (see FRENCH LITERA-
TURE) cannot be ignored, A few illustrations
of expressions coined by them and subsequently
taken up in the current language may be of
interest here etre de quahte, un precede tout a
fait irregulier, une chose du dernier bourgeois,
donner dans le vrai, avoir des lumieres sur un
sujet, avow I' intelligence epaisse, etc The
Academie Frangaise, founded 1635 (see ACAD-
EMY), has always taken a rather conservative
attitude The policy of its members has been
from the beginning to recoid (constater), not
to innovate The eighteenth century was the
period in which France exerted the most re-
markable influence over European civilization
The glorious reign of Louis XIV had indirectly
contributed to make French an international
language It was recognized as such not only
by politicians and by the higher society in every
country, but even by the scholars who used it
in their books to increase the number of then
readers It was a few years after the death of
Voltane and Rousseau that the Academy of
Berlin established a prize contest on the thiee
following questions "Qu'cst-ce qui a iciidu la
langue franchise univeiselle9 Pourquoi merite-
t-elle cette prerogative ? Est-il a piesumer qu'elle
la conseive?" The enthusiastic answer of Rivarol,
known as the "Discours sui 1'universahte de la
langue franchise," was crowned (cw ccquo, with
that of a German, Schwab) The language
may have increased m accuracy, clearness, and
elegance during the eighteenth century, but it
acquired no new qualities It may be said that,
by lendering it too perfect, Voltaire robbed
French of a part of its strength and originality
The Revolution gave birth to a number of new
expressions The Academie had been suppressed
by a decree of Aug 8, 1793, the "Sections de
Gi ammaire et de Poesie" of the Institut ( founded
in 1795) took pi ovisionally its place An edi-
tion of the T^ctionnaire was, nevertheless, pub-
lished in 1798 by the new men, and as they did
not dare to introduce into it the woids that had
been recently coined, they put them in an ap-
pendix Some of them have disappeaied, some
have remained. Among the latter are ad-
mimstratif, aeronaute, assignat, lureaiicrate,
carmagnole, een-trahsation, clwb (pronounced
clob), dvcade, demorahser, divot cer, fcdetahser,
guillotine, giullotiner, monarchiste, polytech-
nique, r&vohUionner, septembrtser, terrotisme,
etc Most of them, as may be seen, are clumsily
constructed In the early part of the nineteenth
century the Romanticists tried to bring new life
into the language by adopting French words
which had been given up in the course of pre-
vious periods Victor Hugo says of himself,
that he has
"tii 6 de 1'enfer
Tons les vieux mots damn^s, legion s6pulorale "
Tins, however, was imitation of life, not life
itself, and the movement soon died out, until a
new and still less successful effort in the same
duection was made by the poets of the Sym-
bolist school (especially by the group of 'the
Romanists) m 1S9G. (See the (llossairc by
Plowert — pseudonym for Paul Adam ) Two
events of gieat importance took place in the
second half of the nineteenth century First,
the cosmopolitan tendency common at this epoch
to all European languages made itself felt m
French Its most noticeable result is the influx
of English woids- the more one advances, the
more Anglomania seems to gain ground All
attempts to check the movement have proved
vain Endless lists of these borrowed terms
have been made by scholars bol, boxe, boulc-
dogiie, chctfe, cheque, clown, conmct, dandy,
drainer, fashionable, groom, handicap, humour,
interview, lunch, meeting, plaid, puddler, speech,
sport, square, steamer, tender, ticket, toast,
tourist e} tunnel, verdict, wagon, waterproof,
whist, etc The second event is the still greater
invasion of scientific ternis which are common to
all countries photographic, t&legraphe, tele-
phone, anemometne, antalgique, automobile,
aeroplane, etc This double current results nat-
urally in a continual proportional decrease of
the stock of genuine French words The purity
and the beauty of the language do not gain by it,
FUEHCH LAHGtTAGffi
247
EBEETCH
either, and Petit de Julleville's statement seems
to be coircct — viz, that the new terms have
"demesurement grossi plutot qu'ennchi le vo~
cabulaire" Littre, Nodier, Julhen, Egger,
Darmestelei, Brunot, have raised their voices in
vain in the sense of Petit de Julleville The
Acade"mie itself can no longei lesist, no less
than 2200 neologisms wcie inserted in the seventli
edition of the Dictwnnaiie in 1878
The piescnt state of the French language may
be tabulated roughly as follows, taking as our
basis the 32,000 woids of the last edition of the
DictionnawG dc l^lcademie
Of Latin stock 3,800
Of early Germanic origin 400
By derivation from primitive words (such as nchard,
eniichir, iioin nche, pauvrette, from pauwe) 7,800
Of foreign, and scholarly origin 20,000
32,000
Moieovei, the style cannot be said to have im-
pioved The simultaneous influences of science
and icahsm have dned it up, and that of the
newspapers, which glows daily, is a constant
source of corruption However, a few individual
wiiters, like Renan and Anatole France, Kemy
de Goiirmojit and Bane's, m the second half of
the nineteenth centuiy, as Chateaubnand at its
opening, have gloriously upheld the traditions
of pure and elegant French
Fiench is used by about 40,000,000 people It
is the language of the gieatest pait of France
(Buttany and a few southern districts only be-
ing e\ceptcd), of part of Belgium and Swit-
zeiland, and part of Canada. If English has
become the predominant language in civilized
countries, Fiench is still considered the most
iclined among the leading idioms of the earth
It has been proposed seveial tunes as an inter-
national language, especially by Schwab, a Ger-
man (1784), and recently by Novicov, the
Russian economist, and by II G Wells, in his
volume Anticipations
Grammar and Syntax Foi the eaily period,
see ROMANCE LANGUAGES For a long time no
uniform system of orthography existed If one
reads, eg, the fable of "Tho Wolf and the
Lamb/' by Marie de France (thirteenth centuiy) ,
it will be found that within 38 lines the word for
lamb is spelled in six different ways, and that
for wolf in four The example of Rabelais who
wiote the word for oil in three different ways
within the space of six lines is often quoted
We have seen that the regulation of the lan-
guage began in the sixteenth century At once
t\\o schools were formed disputing over the best
method of spelling, one of these demanded ety-
mological, the other phonetic, orthography As
oiudition was in favor at the time, the phonetic
system had to yield, and a number of useless
loiters wore wrongly introduced under the pre-
text of etymology d in poids, ft in debvoir, I
in thevaulx, voult, and even poult, din-er, a con-
traction of dfyeuner, was written dipner, as if
from the Greek Semveiv
In the seventeenth century a number of these
letters were dropped, but new attempts at
phonetic spelling failed once more Grammar
and syntax at this period are still in a state
of disorder The greatest writers are at vari-
ance as to the gender of certain words; the ex-
istence of rules for the use of the partitive
article and of the personal pronouns is only
vaguely suspected, tie comparative 19 occasion-
ally used for the superlative, the participles,
present and past, agree or do not agree at the
will of the writer It was, however, at that
epoch that the present rules of the agreement of
participles was formulated by Vaugelas, in his
Remarques sui la langue panquise Briefly, it
may be said that the seventeenth century ob-
served the logical rather than the grammatical
connection of words
In the eighteenth century the rules established
during the previous period were gradually ear-
ned out, and the liberties of syntax and orthog-
raphy were dropped one by one Owing to the
influence of the experimental philosophy, re-
quiring precision of style, the sentences became
giadually shorter, while the long harmonious
period of the classical age fast disappcaiecl
Already at the close of the seventeenth century,
Bayle protests against this simplification of style,
which he conaideis a degeneration "Us recom-
mencement une penode a ehaque ligne, c'cst
prcndie le paiti le plus facile, un paicsseux s'ac-
comedo f 01 1 do cola ?J The Academic, in the
1742 edition of its Dictionnairc, chops a num-
ber of double letterbj lep laces the s by a cucum-
flex before a consonant (blame for blasmc) , and
in a few cases substitutes an i for the y In the
edition of 17G2 othei innovations have to be
recorded — viz , the distinction of i and j and of
u and v
The early part of the twentieth century was
an era of orthographic reforms After 1890 so-
cieties weie organized in France, Belgium, and
Sxvitzerland in order to bring about the dc»sircjd
improvements They established a special organ,
Le Reformiste, edited by Jean Bares, who made
his fortune in South America and devoted con-
siderable sums of money to the cause In 1903
the Minister of Public Instruction (then M
Ghjuimie") appointed a commission composed of
the best scholars, eg, Gaston Paris, F Brunot,
P Meyer, L Havet The report written by
P Meyer and handed m in 1905 marks a date
in the movement, in the main it was very
favorable to refoim The French Academy re-
fused to accept most of the propositions A
new commission had to be appointed for con-
ciliation The repoit, written by M Brunot,
was handed m in June, 1906
Phonetics For early period, see ROMANCE
LANGUAGES In the sixteenth century the pro-
nunciation of the letters was as variable as orthog-
raphy The letters a and e were interchangeable,
the same is true of ou and uy ou and eu, 01 and
<M The e, rarely accentuated, assumes different
sounds The consonants s and #, s and r} are
used freely, the one for the other, otseau and
oi%$au} and while m most cases one of the two
forms has disappeared, both chtiise and ohaire
have continued to be used simultaneously, though
with different meanings Phonetics are in close
connection with orthography, and they have been
studied with great care since the middle of the
nineteenth century, especially with a practical
object in view Lesamt, Vogel, and, above all,
Paul Passy, Abbe" Rousselot, should here be
mentioned Pasay's little treatise, Les sons du
fr&ngais, is widely known, Eng trans by Savory
and Jones (Oxford, 1907) Rousselot's P<nn~
Gipes d& phon&tiqwe eaep&nmentale (2 vols , Paris,
1901-08) is the standard work on the subject of
experimental phonetics Oh Nyrop, a Dane, has
also made for himself a reputation in this do-
main His Manuel phon&tique du fra<n,@w$ parU
(3d ed, Paris, 1902) is a model of patient, ac-
curate, and impartial labor Among tke workers
LANGUAGE
24.8
in this field who have come to the front in the
United States is Prof J Geddes, Jr , author of
a valuable work on. French Pronunciation (New
York, 1913) See PHONETICS.
Versification The chief element of Latin
poetry was the quantity of the syllables This
has been altogether given up m French versi-
fication A few poets, especially in the six-
teenth century, Baif and Jodelle, eg (see
FRENCH LITERATURE), under the influence of the
Kenaissance, tried to write French poetry ac-
cording to the Latin system They never suc-
ceeded in producing anything satisfactory
The elements of French versification are three
1 The number of syllables, from 12 down The
mute syllables at the end of a verse never count,
in the middle of the verse the final silent e
counts only when the following word begins with
a consonant In the Middle Ages the poet was
very free, in the classical period he was less so
The Symbolists and other poets of the end of the
nineteenth century have frequently allowed them-
selves as great a liberty as the poets of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries 2 The accen-
tuation. The verse must always end on an ac-
cented syllable, and if the verse is divided into
smaller parts (eg, 6 + 6, 4 + 4 + 4, 6 + 4,
4-1-4, etc ) , each part in its turn must end on
an accented syllable By accented, one mubt
understand the last syllable of a woid of im-
portance for the meaning conveyed, or an im-
portant monosyllable, such as a noun 01 a verb
Articles, conjunctions, and piepositions aie
rarely in place as accented syllables 3 The
rhyme The original foim is the assonance,
i e , the repetition at the end of a verse of a
vowel sound We find, eg, the following as-
sonances m a stanza of the Chanson de Roland
ale, able, abre, ace, aile, etc , or i, id, il&, vi, etc
Rhyme is only a more perfect assonance, the
letters following the vowel being also made to
agree, thus courage, village Still later the
consonant preceding the vowel of the rhyme was
required to be the same in both words ( consonne
d'appui) , thus, or age, courage The latter is
called "rime riche" or "pleme," while the other
one is only "suffisante "
Different rules concerning the rhyme were
added in the course of time the rhyme was to
connect verses two by two , in the sixteenth cen-
tury it was decreed that two masculine rhymes
(le, ending on a sounded syllable, like amoui ,
depait) must alternate with two feminine
rhymes (le, ending on a silent e, like table,
fille) The yoke of the narrow code of versifica-
tion established by Malherbe and Boileau in the
seventeenth century was not shaken off until
the time of Victor Hugo and Romanticism Even
their attempts to gain more liberty were tempo-
rarily crushed by the poets of the Parnassian
school from 1866 onward The fight was, how-
ever, taken up again by the Symbolists the vers
hire was the outcome of their sweeping reform
According to them everything — the number of
syllables, accentuation, rhyme — depends alto-
gether upon the subjective criterion of each
writer, there are as many forms of versification
as there are individual poetic feelings Few
of them, made much use of the freedom thus
regained
Bibliography The standard work on the
history of the language is Biunot's Histoire de
la lanque frangaise des origwes a 1900 ( 3 vols ,
Paris, 1905-11), which has now reached the end
of the seventeenth century. Among the philolog-
ical works tracing the development of the lan-
guage from the Latin to the piesent time the
following are the more important Nyrop, Gram-
maire histonque df let langue fiancaiw (4 vols,
Copenhagen, 1899-1913), Mcycr-Lubke, Hwto-
nsche (jiammatih d&r franzotischen ftprache
(Heidelberg, 1908), Cledat, NouvcUe giammaire
histonque du fran^ais (4th ed , Pans, 1908),
Sehwan Behrens, Q-t ammaii e de Tancicn fi an-
cais (2d ed of the Fi trans by 0 Bloch, Leip-
zig, 1013) , Littre, Histoire de hi langue
fran?aise (9th ed , 2 vols, Paris, 1886),
Tobler, Vermischte Beitrage ssur fi ansoswchcn
Gtammatik (3 vols, Leipzig, 1886-1908) Foi
Old French, consult Foerster, lltfransosisches
Uebungsbuch (4th ed, Leipzig, 1911) , Constans,
Chrestomathie de I'ancien fiangais (iXe-XVe
sieclcs}, precedee d'un tableau sommawe de
la litterature frangaise au moyen-age (Paris,
1906), Sudre, Chrestomathie du moyen-dge (5th
ed, Pans, 1910) , Voret/sch, Einfuhrung in das
fltudium der altfransosischen Spiache (4th ed ,
Halle, 1911) , Berthon and Starkey, Tables syn-
optiques de phonologie de Vancien pan<.ai<* (Ox-
foid, 1908), Luqujens, Introduction to Old
Ftench Phonology and Morphology (New Haven,
1909), Bourciez, Elements de hngmstique 10-
mane (Pans, 1910), Ettmayei, Totti age suit
Chatalteiistik de? Altfranvonschcn (Fieibmg,
1910) The best dictionaiy of Old Ficnch is
still that of Godofioy (10 vols, Pans, 1880-
1901), of -which an abridged edition was pub-
lished by Bonnard and Salmon (ib, 1901) For
words of Gieek origin, consult Claussen, Die
gnechisohen Worter im Franaosischen (Kiel,
1903) The following are also worthy of note
Jlemrne, Das lateimsche BpracJimatetial im
Wortschat&e der deutschon, fransosischcn, und
enghschen Sprache (Leipzig, 1904) , Ulrix, De
germaansche Elementen in de romaanscho Talcn
(Ghent, 1907) , Huberts, Beitrage ZUT Geschichke
der fran&osischen Worter latemisch~p) 'ebeyischer
Herkunft (Kiel, 1905)
For Fiench dialects, the reader should con-
sult, above all, Gillie'ron and Edmont's Atlas
Imguistique de la Fiance (Paris, 1902-10,
Table, 1912), which is the most important con-
tribution made to French dialectology Other
recent works on French dialects that may be
mentioned are Bruncau, La hmite des dialectev
Wallon, Champenois et Lorrain en Ardcnne
(Pans, 1913) , Bi£bion, Etude philologique sur
le nord de la France (ib, 1907) , Verrier, Glos-
sane etymologique ft histonque des patois et des
parters de I'Anjou (Angers, 1908) , Viez, Voca-
lisme du patois de Colembert (Paris, 1911) , La-
vergne, Le pai ler lourlonnai? auos X.IHe et XlVe
siecles (]b, 1909), Meunier, Monographic pho-
netique du parler de Chaulgnes (ib, 1912) , Le-
comte, Contribution <i V etude des htteratures
orales (ib, 1910) , Juret, G-lossawe du patois de
Pierrecourt (Halle, 1913), Boillot, Patois de la
commune de la G-rand' Combe (Pans, 1910) ,
Millardet, Etude de dialectologie landaise (Tou-
louse, 1910) , Gauchat, Qlossaire des patois de
la Suisse romande (Neuchatel, 1912) For the
language of the sixteenth century, consult Henri
Estienne (1528-98), La piecellence du langage
frangois, ed by Petit de Julleville and Huguet
(Paris, 1896)," Daimesteter, Le XVIe siecle en
Fiance (7th od., ib , 1908-09), Vaganay, uVo-
cabulaire fran^ais du XVIe sie"cle* deux mille
mots peu connus," in the festschrift fur roma-
nische Philologie, vol xxvin, pp 579-601 (Halle,
1904) For the seventeenth century, besides tb^
tfRENCH
249
FBBNCH LITEBATTTRE
work of Biunot mentioned above, one bhould
consult the giammai of Vaugelas entitled ttc-
maiques s/n la laiiguc jiainnisc (Pans, 1738),
which contains notes by P«itiu and Thomas
Corneille Other uoiks of impoilance aie ITaase,
La syntaxe jraw^aise «u \\Ilc <sucfe (ib,
1898) , Godefioy, Lcxiquc compaic dc la langue
de CorneiUe et de la languc du XVIIc <nede en
general (ib, 1862) On the language of the
eighteenth centmv we have Rivaiol, De I'ttm-
? erwhte de la langue jtanratse (ib, 1784),
Fiancois, La giammauc du pnn^mc tt rAtad-
<.'/me frangaise aw \VlIle swde (ib, 1905),
Brunetiere, "Lcs ti ansf onnations de la langue
haneaise au XVIlIe sieclc," in his Etudes on-
tiqucs sur la Utterature fran^aise, pp 213-259
(ib, 1907), Gohm, Let hansfoi mattonv de la
langue frangaise, 1740-M (ib, 1903) Con-
sult also the prefaces ot the Du homiaitn do
r Academic, 1694, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1708, 1H33,
and 1878
Among the woiks dealing with the language
ot the nineteenth ccntuiy we may note Des-
chanel, Les deformations dc la lanquc ftawaise
(Paris, 1898) , Remy de G-ourmont, L'Esthetique
de la langue frangaise (ib, 1899), Lcs fund-
tallies du style (ib, 1902), Dauzat, La langue
foangaixe d'aujourd'hui (ib, 1908), Haas, Neu~
framsosische Syntax (Halle, 1909) , Armstrong,
Syntax of the French Vert (New Yotk, 1909) ,
Tesson, Le verbe iai3onne (Pans, 1909) , Platt-
nei, Ausfuhrliche Qrammatik der p angosischen
Mprache cine Darsiellung dcs modctnen fran-
zowsthen 8piacJigcl>iauch$ mil Beiucl^siclitiquncf
dei VolLssprache, vol i (3d ed, Freibuig, 1912) f
Pfeiffer, Die neugermaivschen Bestandleilc do
frawosischen Sprache (Stuttgait, 1902) For
Canadian French, consult Geddes and Rivard,
Bibliographic du pavler franeais an Canada
(Paris, 1906) The best modem dictionanes
are the following Dictwnnaw e de I' Academic
(7th ed., ib , 1878-84), Little, Dutwnnaiie dc
la langiiG francaise (4 vols , ib , 1889, Huppl6-
menty od by Dcvic, 1910) , Platzfeld, DaimoH-
teter, Thomas, Dictionnaire general de la
langue frangaise (2 vola , ib , 1895-1900) , Kort-
ing, Etymologisvhes Worterbuch dw fraiizo-
sischen flprache (Paderbom, 1908) , Clcdat, Dic-
tionnaire etymologique dc la langue ftancaisc
(Paris, 1912), Stappers, Dictionnavc synop-
titjue d' etymologic franc_aisc, donnant la derwa-
iion de$ mots usuels (6th ed , ib , 1911) , Lafaye,
Dictionnaire des synonyms de la langue pan-
gaise (8th cd, ib , 1903) On argot or slang,
the following should be noted La Grassene,
Ktude scientifique sur I'argot ct le parler popu-
laire (ib, 1907) , Samean, V A.rgot ancientlri55-
3850 (ib , 1907) , Les sowces de V argot ancien
(ib, 1912), Villatte, Pansismen (6th ed , Bei-
1m, 1906) See ARGOT
With special reference to orthography we
have. Renard, La nouvelle orthographic (Paris,
1894) ; Barfis, L} Orthographic simphfiee, grawi-
maire pangaise (ib, 1900), Schinz, "The Sim-
plification of French Orthogiaphy," m Modern
Language Notes (Baltimore, 1906) , Brunot, La
reforme de I'orthographie (Paris, 1905), Du-
tens, Etude sur la simplification de I ortho-
giaphie (ib , 1906), Meyer, Pour la simplifica-
tion de notre orthographe (ib , 1905) For
French pronunciation and phonetics, see PHO-
NETICS ; ROMANCE LANGUAGES The most recent
and useful works are, besides those mentioned
above Passy-Hempl, International ffrench-JSng-
hsh and flnoUsh-flrmch Dictionary (New York,
1904), Beyer, Ft ctnvosmche rhonetik (2d cd ,
Cothen, 190S) , Chuichman, Tnh eduction to the
Pronunciation of French (Cambiidge 1907) ,
Kvetcise? on Ftench Hound? (New Voik, 1911) ,
Nicholson, Practical Introduction to Fi<nch Pho-
netics (London, 1909) , Koubsolot, Piccis dc fa
piononciation frawaiw (Pans, 1002) , Vanclaele,
J'honctique du jjcwtais modwiiG (Bosamon,
1909), Martmon, Comment on pionoHtc le
jtancai? (Paris, 1013) , Ploetx, Sy^trmatw he
DatsleihfHff det p atizosiwhen \ustpiachc (14th
ed , Beihn, 1913), Rosset, Les online? do la
ptonom lation modctne (Paris, 1911)
Vei bification Th4odoie de Banville, Petit
tiaitc de poewe franccnse (Pans, 1871), Guil-
launip, Vcrs fmnrQi? et prosodies modctnr*! (ib,
1898), Cliatolain, KecheicJic? 6"wr le vets fran-
£ftis au JV1 e siecle (ib , 1908) , Grammont, Petit
ttaite dc verification fiancaise (ib , 1908),
Kaatnci, Histoiy of French Verification
(Oxfoid, 1903) , Landrv, La tlicone du rythvne
ct le n/tJiHie du ftanrais dvclame (ib, 1911),
Lote, L' [Icxandnn ftawais d'apiis la pho
•ntttiqiic c^pcrl1nentale (ib , 1913), id, La
et VcYijamhenicnt daiis I'tifcxcLwdt in fntn
(ib , 1913), IVTaitmon, Les strophes, ttude
ct entitle sur left foimes dc la poa^ie
en France dcpinj In icnaiswucc (il>, 1911),
Eudinose Brown, JBtude tompatce de la veibifKar
tion f)an&tn<sc el dc la ictsification anghusc
(Gienoble, 1905)
FKENOH LITEHATUBE Until the ninth
centmy of our eia, Latin \\as the literary lan-
pfua^-e ot the country which is now called
France, and it was not until two centuries later
that anything that can be regarded as belonging
strictly to French literature made its appeal -
ance "To sketch the process by which the tongue
spoken in Gaul detached itself from Latin and
evolved into a new national language is not
within the province of this article Suffice it
heie to say that in the seventh century theie
aie references to this new romance language —
the lingua Itomana lusttcft — and that by the
eighth centmy it \\as hoaid even in the pulpits
of France To the last-named century belong
the gloswai ics of Reichenau and Cassel — hats
containing in the first instance Latin and Ro-
mance (Old French) equivalents, and in the
second Old Geiman and Romance equivalents
The oldest linguist jc monument of the French
tongue, the text giving the oaths interchanged
at Strassburg in 842 between the two grand-
sons of Charlemagne, Louib the German and
Charles the Bald, against their brother Lothan,
is of the ninth century, and to the tenth cen-
tury aie attributed the eaihest quasi-literary
documents, the "Cantilfene de Sainte Fulalie," a
shoit song celebrating the saint's martyrdom,
the "Fragment de Valenciennes," a homily on
the prophet Jonas, and the "Life of St Leger"
in 240 eight-syllable lines This brings us to the
eleventh centmy, when the eailiest form which
finished hteiatuic took in France appeared —
that of the so-called chansons de gestes (or
geste) But, before consideung this form, a
conspicuous poem of a religious cast, the "Life
of Saint Alexis " consisting of some 600 ten-
syllable verses, in five-line stanzas, and belong-
ing to the middle of the tenth century should
have passing mention To return to the chan-
son de geste To the end of the eleventh cen-
tury belongs the flowering of the national epos,
the Chansons de tyeste These were long poems
relating the heroic deeds of Otniatian Icnightc
250
LITERATURE
s, Lat gesta, deeds ) , which were com-
posed, according to the best accepted authority,
M Joseph Bedier, by monks and jongleurs to
entertain the pilgrims stopping at the various
abbeys on their way to some fair or sacied
place of pilgi image The monks furnished
the material from various legends and from
the chronicles, while the jongleurs are sup-
posed to have shaped these stones into the fa-
mous epics that have come down to us and which
they themselves either read or sang Both the
poets and the singeis weie for a while a great
power in the society of the Middle Ages, as they
were able to make and unmake the reputation of
a baron by what they chose to sing of him or of
his ancestors Their influence has been compared
to that of the newspapers of later centuries.
They allowed themselves to bo bribed later on,
and the kings and the Chmch had to make
seveic laws against them The authors of the
chansons drew then inspiration mainly from
tin ee different sources, and their poems belong
aceoidingly to one of the three groups known as
the French, the Breton, and the Classical cycles.
The Cycle de France deals especially with
French heroes who had put their aims at the
seivice of God and the Chuich The central
figure is Charlemagne, who is made the great
champion of Christianity The task ascribed to
him is the same as Chust's — to conquer the
world for God The great Empeior was rcpie-
sented as suriounded by Ins vassals, as Clmst by
His disciples Theie weie 12 chief barons, the
peeis of Fiance, as there had been 12 Apostles,
one of the Apostles had been a traitor, so theie
was a traitoi (Ganelon) among the 12 peers
God lepeated in favor of His kingly seivant the
miracles He performed formerly for His chosen
people He stopped the sun in its course in
order to allow the Christian knights to complete
the extei mination of the pagans, and at times
He sent down His angels to deliver heavenly
messages and to help His soldiers in case of
great danger The most ancient, beautiful, and
famous of the epics of this group is the Chanson
de Roland, composed piobably at the end of the
eleventh century, containing about 4000 verses,
whose author is not known The rear guard of
Charlemagne, headed by Roland, is attacked and
cut to pieces in the pass of Roncesvalles in the
Pyieiiees, and none escape It is on this rather
thin theme that legend worked and brought
forth the great chanson in three paits the be-
trayal of Roland by Ganelon, the death of Roland
at Roncesvalles with the 11 other peers and 20,-
000 men, and the avenging of Roland achieved
by Charlemagne The sincere Christian spirit
underlying the whole poem is wonderfully well
shown in the beautiful figure of the bishop
knight, Turpm Other remarkable chansons of
the Cycle de France are AUscans, Raoul de
Cambrai, G-ai-m le Lorrain^ Les gu&tie fils Ay-
monj Ogier le Danois
The Cycle de Bretagne displays an altogether
different spirit, as already shown by the second
title often given to it, L'Epopee courtoise Its
chief poet is Chretien de Troyes, through whose
influence the earlier Celtic mysticism, melan-
choly brooding, and passionate love element, of
the primitive legends were "transformed into an
exemplification of the social graces and of
courtly love," according to Prof C H Conrad
Wright Chivalrous deeds are here still in great
honor but they are no longer performed for the
sake of God and the Church and "la douce
France." A true Christian spirit is rarely pres
ent, despite the frequent allusions to the Bible
or to ecclesiastical customs, and the use made
of certain pseudoevangelical scenes, as, eg, in
the rather extraordinary fusion of the origi-
nally pagan legends of Bnttciny with the Chris-
tian legend of the Holy Grail in the last and un
finished poem of Clnetien de Troyes, Perceval le
G-allois Love, conceived of as the souice of all
human virtues and impersonated in fan ladies,
may be said to be in this cycle the only powei
which claims the devotion of knights and barons
The cential figure is here Arthur, or Artus, King
of Brittany He also is sui rounded by 12 peers,
with a traitor (Moidret) The 12 peers aie
seated at a lound table, the symbol of the per-
fect equality of them all, hence the name of
Knights of the Round Table often given to them
The principal poems of the cycle are Lancelot
du Lac, Ivain le chevalier au lion., Ereo et
Emde, Merlin, Tnstan, Perceval In no one
does the spirit of the whole cycle come out m
its good and bad featxires so clearly as in the
romance of Tristan and Iseut Under strict 01-
thodox appearances the fundamental ideas at
work are worldly love and pagan fatality, as
shown in the symbolic passion-bi ceding philtie
Those ideas were added by and by to the ongmal
story (Consult Bedier's rcmaikable Roman do
Tristan, 1905 ) Shorter poems, ti eating Bieton
legends, are in close connection with the Epopee
couitoise They are called the lais Bretons and
Were sung like the epics Love is the only mo-
tive, and the esprit chevaleresque in the mod-
ern sense of the word comes out still more un-
liampeied than before, and even with a fore-
taste of pre'ciosite' The scenes are laid in Brit-
tany or in Wales Marie de France is the
author of these graceful poems The best known,
most lefined, and at the same time most charac-
teristic of her sentimental strain are Eliduc,
Les den® amants} Le rossignol, Lyonec Among
the lais of other authois may be mentioned
Tydorel; Guingamor_, Graelentj Doon, L'Epine
r\o the same kind of literature, although the
heroes are not from Brittany, belongs Aucaswn
et Nicolette, a "chante-fable" of the twelfth 01
thirteenth century It gives, half m prose and
half in verse, the story of the love of a noble's
son for a slave girl, who finally turns out to be
a king's daughter
The Cycle antique is the least important of the
three groups of epics The authors turned to
antiquity to find new material for their poems,
they Christianized Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulys-
ses, and all the heroes of Thebes, Troy, and
Rome The best known among then productions
is the Roman d'Aleccandre, which contains some
most extravagant adventures It was wntten
probably in the twelfth century, by Alexandre
de Bernay, has 12,000 verses of 12 syllables, in-
stead of 10, as in the Cycle de France and the
Cycle Breton The Roman de Th&bes and the
Roman de Troyef belonging to the same group,
are composed of octosyllabic lines
AH this mass of epic and chivalrous litera-
ture dealt with heroes taken from the higher
classes of society and was more particularly
written for the nobility There existed, how-
ever, simultaneously a more popular literature
Its products are less pretentious, but just as
important as expressing the spirit of their
epoch They are short stories in verse A good
many among the earliest that we possess betray
the absolute control of the Church over liteia-
LITERATURE
251
FBEHCH LITERATURE
ture. The purpose of the conies devots or conte?
pietioe was to foktei faith among the people and
at the same time to bung some consolation for
the haidships of life to the lowly Tim saints
and especially the tender, compassionate Vngin
prove always ready to fight the devil 01 inter-
cede with God in behalf of faithful seivants of
the Church As the Church lost its empire over
souls, and lay authors began to write, the stories
that were written assumed a more woildly char-
acter If a few of the innumerable fabliau® or
fableaua) of the Middle Ages may be called di-
dactic, by far the greater number have no other
purpose than to entertain Some are really
artistic and graceful, with that touch of satire
which is characteristic of the French people,
but often the wit and humor are spoiled by
coarse realism Among the best may be men-
tioned the Lai d'Anstote9 Lai de I'oysvlet, La
bourse partie, Le -? air palefroi, Le mlain mire
(the original of Mohere's Medecin malgiti lui)
The fabliaux, in which the talent for story -tell-
ing of the French nation is for the first time
clearly shown, flourished especially during the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries They became
rare in the fourteenth Some of them wore used
at that time as themes for the stage, but most
of them disappear temporarily, to be used
again in prose two centuries later
The satire on the different classes of society
makes its appearance on a large scale during the
same period in two long poems, Le roman de
Rcnart and Le roman de la rose The first is an
animal epos of about 32,000 verses, not counting
the "branches" which were added later, and
which would raise this number to over 100,000
The clergy, nobles, and villains are mercilessly
criticized, though seldom with bitterness Sev-
eral collections of ancient animal fables written
in Latin and known under the name of Ysopets
(corruption of Esopets, or little JiGsop), togethei
with the Bestiaires, compositions aflcubmg
moral traits to real or fantastic animals, had
prepared the way for this kind of literature
Marie de France had translated a collection of
fables into French verse. There are two swoin
foes in the Roman' de Renart — Isengrin, the
wolf, and Renart, the fox, symbolizing strength
and cunning. The general idea underlying the
different episodes is that evil reigns supreme over
society, brute force crushes weakness, cunning
alone can overcome strength. In the Roman de
la rose allegory goes still further the abstract
ideas themselves are personified A lover wishes
to pick a symbolical rose, which grows in a
symbolical gaiden He is helped in. his under-
taking by Bel Accueil, Doux penser, Esperance,
etc , meanwhile fighting Banger, Male bouche
(slander), Talousie, and so forth The author
of the first 4000 verses, Guillaume de Lorns, had
left the poem unfinished. His sole thought had
been to offer in a poetical form a kind of code
of love But, 50 years later, Jean de Meun
added 18,000 verses, in which, with abundant
scholarly references to Ovid and other ancient
authors, he directed venomous attacks against
women and the conventional affected and false
forms that love had assumed at this period,
more especially in the higher classes of society
The success of the Roman de la rose was con-
siderable, not only in France, where its influence
continued far into the seventeenth century, but
all over Europe. Imitations and translations
appeared everywhere
Lyric poetiy attainted a great measure of pop-
VOL. IX.— 17
ular favor during the Middle Age&, at fiist more
particularly in the soutli of Fiance The songs
of the southern troubadours dealt equally with
moials, politics, and love, while those of the
northein troiiveies were almost exclusively
about love, the lofty conception of which was
bo i rowed from the South But a gieat num-
ber of ballades, pastouielles, diants-royaux, tri-
olets, lais, vnelais, snventes, motets, were lost
We know, howevei , about 200 names of authors ,
moreovei, 600 of these short poems have come
down to us anonymously There weie a great
many academies named Puys which encouiaged
lync and sometimes diamatic poetry by organ-
izing contests and awarding prizes Among the
poets that we know, a special mention is due,
in the twelfth century, to Conon de B6thune,
Grace Bmle, energetic Crusaders and delightful
poets, in the thirteenth century, to Thibaut,
Count of Champagne and King of Navarre, and
Colin Musot, an itmciant minstrel, and in the
fourteenth ccntuiy, to Christine de Pisan, Eu-
stache Peschamps, Guillaume de Maichault, and
chiefly to Hutebeuf , a Parisian tt ouvcre of the
Bohemian type, who took gicat mteiest in the
events of his time, Crusades, Church discussions,
and univeisity matters, besides his little mas
terpieces of lync and satnic poetiy, he wrote a
few contcs d&vots, fabliaux, and a muacle pl<xv
In the fifteenth century Charles of Orleans, after
his return from England, where he was a politi-
cal prisoner for 25 years, and where he wiote
most of his poems, made his brilliant couit an
asylum for letters and art. The greatest of
theae lyric poets up to the sixteenth century
was Francois des Loges, or de Montcorbier,
known to fame as Villon Owing to the resist-
less chaim of his verses, to his absolute sincerity
and spontaneity of inspiration, he has more
than once been regarded as a kind of patron
saint by the lyric poets of the nineteenth cen-
tuiy His chief compositions aie two collec-
tions of short poems, Le grand testament, in
which is to be found one of the most famous
poems in French literature, "La ballade des
dames du temps jadis," and Le petit testament
The theatre is the field m which the evolution
of literature during the Middle Ages is most
clearly shown. At first an institution of the
Church, it gradually severed its conn&ctipn with
it, until finally theatre and Church came to be
mortal enemies The drames liturgiques of the
eleventh century were representations in the
churches of biblical scenes, more especially of
the nativity and passion of Christ. They were
written in Latin prose and composed exclusively
of sentences of the Holy Scriptures Moreover,
the actors were all cleriGi, le, officers of the
Church Then came, in the twelfth century,
the drame profane, or s&cularis& The scenes are
still biblical, but imagination is permitted to
play a greater part, the language is no longer
Latin, the actors are laymen, the stage is re-
moved from the church to some public place
The Representation d'Adarn is the only piece
preserved in its integrity that belongs to this
early period of the French stage The scenes
are episodes from the Book of Genesis They
are followed by predictions by the prophets of
the coming of Christ, and the performance ends
with a sermon descubing the terrible signs which
will form a prelude to the Last Judgment In
the thirteenth century the scope of the theatre is
extended Iby the addition of miracle plays illus-
trating the marvelous deeds of the saints and
FRENCH LITERATURE
252
FRENCH LITERATURE
especially of the Virgin Rutebeuf has put in
dramatic form the old fabliau of St Theophile,
whom Mai 7 frees from the clutches of Satan
Le jeu de Saint Nicolas, by Jean Bodel, another
miracle of the same epoch, offers several scenes
which have nothing to do with religion Even
a few purely comical pieces, such as Le jeu
d'Adam ou de la feuillee, by Adam de la Halle,
are now represented, though they seem to be an
exception In this same period we find the first
example of the pastoral play and comic opera,
Le yen de Robin et de Marion
In the fourteenth century, which, on account
of continual political and social disorders, was
rather poor in hteiary productions of any kind,
no new step towards emancipation from the
church is noticeable The Miracles de Notre
Dame remained the favorite theme, while scenes
for religious plays are borrowed from all quar-
ters, even from the chansons de geste and ro-
mans d'aventure
No foim of literature is more popular during
the fifteenth century than the theatre Mystere
is the name given henceforth to religious and
even, though rarely, to nonreligious plays, as,
e g , the Mystere du siege d'Orleans, which -rep-
resents the rescue of that city by Joan of Arc,
and the Mystere de la destruction de Troie A
feverish interest in theatrical repiesentations
took hold of the people at that period The
mysteies were put on the stage with most elab-
orate machinery Some of them had over 50,000
veises and lasted several days There was,
however, something artificial about this univer-
sal enthusiasm, the plays are prolix, moreover,
a tasteless abuse of the comic and coaise ele-
ments clearly indicates that the genre had out-
lived itself In 1548 the government had to
withdraw the license to play from the Con-
fr&res de la Passion, a society of actors in Paris,
on account of the lack of decency in these so-
called religious performances, and thus put an
end to the mysteries On the other hand, the
profane theatre, free from the influence of the
Church, was then coming to the front full of life
and vigor
The three principal kinds of plays in the
second half of "the fifteenth century are the mor-
alites, the farces, and the sotties The morahtes
are a genre between the religious and the comic ,
sometimes grave, sometimes gay, they have a
didactic purpose, frequently the characteis are
allegorical, like those of the Roman de la rose,
which had set the fashion The farces corre-
spond on the stage to the fabliau® in the evolu-
tion of the verse story-telling, they are mildly
satirical, the main purpose being to amuse
Coarseness is a common feature Here belongs
the first masterpiece of the French comic thea-
tre, L'Avocat Pathelin, the author of which is
not known The sincerity of its humor and the
keenness of its psychological observation are
remarkable The moralites and the farces were
performed by special associations, such as the
Confreres de la Basoche, in Paris The sotties
were played by the Confreres des Sots (fools),
who only assumed the guise of folly as a stalk-
ing-horse for their wit, and for attacks on the
clergy, nobility, and all other great personages
of the day Originally they were merely farci-
cal interludes of the mysteries, but owing to
their revolutionary character they had to be
removed from the latter and thus acquired
independent existence
Except in one domain, that of history, one
may well say that pi ose docs not count in French
literature before the sixteenth century Trans-
lations are few The long romans d'aventures
that have enjoyed a certain populaiity since
the thirteenth centuiy are nothing but dieaiy,
prolix lepetitions in pro&e of the chansons de
gestes and epopees courtoises Leaving aside
Wace's Roman de Rou, also called La geste des
Normands, which is a tieatment in verse of
the history of the dukes of Normandy during
the tenth century, there are only a few histo-
rians deserving of mention m the twelfth cen-
tury Villehardoum, who relates, in his Histoire
de la prise de Constantinople, the stoiy of the
Fourth Crusade, in which he personally took
part, in the thirteenth century, Joinville (Me-
moires sur la vie de Saint Louis}, one of the
vassals of Louis IX, whom he accompanied in
his fiist expedition to the Orient, in the four-
teenth century, Chiistine de Pisan (Vie de
Charles V), Alain Chartier (Eistoiie de Charles
VII), and especially Fioissart, who m his
Chromgues gives a somewhat disconnected but
most vivid picture ot the brilliant period of the
chevalene (his authoiship of many of the best
chapters is now questioned) , in the fifteenth
century we have in the Memoires of Commmes
the fiist connected account of political events
from the point of view of a statesman — he lias
many ideas m common with Macluavelh and is
the precursor of many eminent philosophical his-
torians in Fiance, of the type of Bossuet, Mon-
tesquieu, Guizot, Tlners, Michclet, and Tame,
The sixteenth centuiy was a penod of tiansi-
tion, marked by the penetration into France of
the ideas of the Renaissance As regards the
stock of ideas available for aitistie pm poses, it
must be acknowledged that French literatuic
had become rather thin since the time of the
great epics Italian influence then introduced
a more artistic and intelligent understanding
of the classical authors of Rome and an ex-
tremely stimulating, if superficial, acquaintance
with the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle,
poorly interpreted before that time in France
This revival gave use to two opposing factions
of humanistic scholars — the Hellenists, who
only admired the Greek authors, and the Cice-
ronians, who advocated the exclusive imitation
of Cicero The humanistic movement intro-
duced a rationalistic philosophy, based on the
harmony of mind and matter and the belief in
the goodness of nature, all of which was tem-
pered with a desire to imitate the Greek form
of highly polished 0rt The individualistic note,
which was destined to be silenced temporal ily
during the seventeenth century, came from the
struggles of the Reformation against the des-
potic authority of the corrupt powers of the
Church Thus, the sixteenth century, in France
at least, is permeated for the most part by
Platonism and Individualism In 1531 Fiancis
I had established the College Royal de France
(now College de France), in which only Hebrew,
Latin, and Greek were at first taught, othei
studies coming later The influence of this in-
stitution was almost instantaneous, and a rich
harvest of scholars was the result Among them
were such men as Bude", Daurat, Pierre de la
Rame"e, and especially two who acquired a world-
wide reputation — Jacques Amyot, thanks to his
admirable translation of the Lives of Plutarch,
and Henri Estienne, the author of the Thesaurus
J^nguce G-rcecce (a work of immense erudition
for the time), of the Traite de la conformity dw
FBENCH LITERATURE 2
langage franeais avec Ic giec, and of the Precel-
lence du langage frangaw, in which he protests
against the invasion of Italian idioms that was
taking place at this epoch See FKENCH
LANGUAGE
The influence of the Renaissance was espe-
cially maiked in the domain of poetry The last
poet in the mannei of Rutebeuf and Villon was
Clement Marot In his epistles, ballades, ele-
gies, epigi ams, etc , we find the same wit and
satmcal humor as in the work of his prede-
cessors He was, however, by no means a
stranger to the new opinions, his attitude in
lehgious matters loused persecution, against
which he had to take refuge in Italy, where he
died His disciple, Melhn de Samt-Gelais, cie-
ated a permanent place foi the sonnet in French
poetry Moieover, his tianslations of authors
like Vergil and Ovid piove his interest m an-
cient literature Lemaire de Beiges deserves
mention heie, for, while a product of the pie-
ceding generation, the lyric note of Ins poetry
foreshadows the spirit of the Renaissance, his
works inspired much in Ronsaid's Fianciade as
well as in Rabelais's Gargantua But it re-
mained for the poets of the next generation to
give vent in their original compositions to the
new spirit created by the Renaissance Seven
of them- — the poets of the Pldiade, Daurat, Du
Bellay, Ronsard, Belleau, Jodelle, Baif, Ponthus
de Thiard — combined their efforts to bring about
a, now literary era Their aspirations are set
foith theoj etically in Du Bellay's Defense et
illustration de la langue fran^aise (1549), and
practically in a great number of poetical writ-
ings Ronsard is, by common consent, considered
the head of the group With the sole exception
of tragedy, he endeavored to resuscitate all the
genres of antiquity, even the epos (La fianci-
ade) , and furthermore adopted the Italian son-
net, which had come in along with the Renais-
sance The three directing principles of the
school are (1) their contempt for the light
French poetry of the foregoing centuries, such
as Villon's and Marot's, (2) their belief that
one who wishes to do truly artistic work must
study the ancients and imitate them, (3) their
love for French vernacular With regard to the
last point the work of the P16iade has been long
misunderstood They have been accused of over-
loading French with strange words On the con-
trary, they protested, as a matter of fact,
against the tendency manifested by many un-
intelligent Humanists to introduce into French
a number of Greek and Latin terms which gave
the language a false air of erudition and made
it heavy and inharmonious. A famous verse of
Boileau on Ronsard,
44 Mais sa muse en frangais parlait grec et latin,"
is responsible for the error of three centuries.
Malherbe, though himself convinced of his com-
plete disagreement with, Ronsard, was really
aiming at the same goal, i e , the purification
and refinement of the French language and
poetry But while Ronsard was a true artist,
who could rely upon his literary tact and feel-
ing, Malherbe had the spirit of system, requir-
ing rules in all places and at all tunes, to the
detriment of spontaneity and inspiration Mal-
herbe's mantle was taken up later by Boileau, a
man. fashioned like him in the schoolmaster's
world, and it is lie who is responsible to no
small degree for the stiffness of French poetry
in the great century of its literature The yoke
LITEBATITBE
of Malherbe was unbearable to most poets of
real talent Both Despoites and Berthaut fol-
lowed Ronsard, while Mathurin de Reginer (the
earliest repiesentative of modern French satue)
and Theophile de Viau deliberately attacked Mal-
herbe, claiming the rights of freedom and
originality
Jodelle, one of the membeis of the Pleiade,
entered the only field left untouched by Ronsard
in. his imitations of ancient literature, and
wrote his tragedy, Gleopdtre, in which, foi the
fiist time in France, the unities of place, time,
and action were introduced thiough the indirect
influence of Seneca, whose dramatic theory was
confused with that of Aristotle, and to whom
the idea of the three unities was falsely at-
tributed Gamier followed in the steps of Jo-
delle Larivey imitated servilely the Italian
comedy, but had the honor to provide Moliere
with several suggestions This century, which
only raised the plot fiom the setting of the
peasantiy to that of the bouigeois, first divided
the comedy into acts and scenes, it contubuted
but little to the diamatic field, especially with
regard to higher comedy, which was to be es-
sentially an Italian importation
In the domain of fiction, the short stoiy in
prose, alicady in tavoi in the fifteenth centuiy
when the collective work of the Cent nouvelles
nouvelles appeared, is at its bobt with Margue-
rite de Navarre, the sister of Francis I She
wrote (perhaps not without help) the Ileptame-
ronf an imitation of Boccaccio's Decamerone
Part of her material is taken from the fabhaua}.
Bonaventure Despeners, her secretary, cultivated
with success the same genre. The art of stoiy-
telhng is also remarkably exemplified in the
Memoires of La ISToue and in Biantome's Grands
capitaines and Dames galantes Blaise de Mon-
luc also furnished most interesting military
MtimoM es, while scientific discovei les were re-
corded by Bernaid Pahssy and Ambroise Pare
The writer who succeeded best in absorbing all
that is good in antiquity, without losing the
giace and freshness of French wit and humor, is
Michel de Montaigne In his delightful fissais
the philosophy and belief of the Middle Ages
are compared with those of ancient civilization,
and the result is the refined and gentle skepti-
cism which has made the "Que sais-^e?" of its
author a watchword the echo of which will be
heard in Shakespeare, throughout Descartes and
Pascal, and even in our own Emerson. What
Montaigne had said, with seductive art and com-
plete freedom from pedantry, was repeated with
all the apparatus of logical demonstration by
his fiiend Oharron in De la sagesse
When Rabelais, the greatest hteiary figuie in
the sixteenth centuiy, appeared, the conditions
all over Europe were exceedingly precanous and
the prospect for the future very gloomy France
had not yet recovered from the Hundred Years'
Warj Rome had been sacked by the French
troops, and the Pope was no longer secure in
it, Germany was the proy of terrible religious
disorders, the Peasant Revolt, and the move-
ment of the Anabaptists, finally, the Turks were
threatening Christianity in the East Yet fea-
bclais had the courage to break out in Homeric
laughter In his "Bistoire de Qargantua et de
Pantagruel, really composed of five separate
books, he ridiculed the muiderous political wars
of the time, the quarrels of the Church and of
the different ecclesiastical orders, the preten-
tious and shallow erudition of the scholars, the
FBEKTCH LITERATURE
254
FBEHCH LITEBATUBE
revolting method by which magistrates and
]udges rendered justice — in short, all the abuses
and follies of the turbulent times, which then
marked the course of European civilization But
he is not content with negations, his keen good
sense suggests to him a number of useful re-
forms in all the domains of life, education, sci-
ence, religion, politics Some of these lefoims
have been realized, some of them we are still
striving to bring about The gieatest social
power in the Middle Ages, the Church, had been
severely shaken At this moment the Reforma-
tion appeared upon the scene of which Calvin
was chief exponent m France He was so full
of the idea of the absolute authority and power
of God that m his Institution, chretienne, a mas-
terpiece of logic and deep faith, he does not
shrink from the extieme consequences of the
theory of predestination His efforts against
Rome were ably supported by Theodore de Beza
and especially Agiippa d'Aubigne, a man of
wonderful personality, whose poem in seven
cantos, Les tragiques, is one of the most power-
ful outcries of indignation the world has ever
heard To meet the danger of the domination of
the League, a few devoted citizens (among them
Pierre Pithou, Gillot, Passerat, Rapin) wrote a
number of short pieces in prose and verse, in
turn satirical, eloquent, comic, and grave, ap-
pealing to the patriotic feeling of their countiy-
inen These compositions were published m book
form in 1594 under the title La, satire memppee,
the first great French political pciniphlet An-
othei political writer of the same epoch was La
Boetie, the friend of Montaigne, who m his book
Ttaite de la setmtude volontaire expressed even
then opinions which were formulated two cen-
turies later by Rousseau and by the leaders of
the Fiench Revolution.
The seventeenth century is known as the
classic century of French literature It diffeis
from the sixteenth in its greater unity It car-
ried the French language to a point of literary
perfection^ a form that will be difficult to sur-
pass, this was attained under the influence of
Malherbe, an uninspired poet, but a mastei of
harmonious style and rhythm, who introduced
the criterions of the century, pure reason and
common sense Two institutions more particu-
larly contributed to this result — the Hotel de
Rambouillet and the Academie Franchise The
Marquise de Rambomllet brought together in
her salon the most refined and cultivated people
of Paris and thus exerted a beneficial influence,
moral, social, and literary There Balzac, "le
seul eloquent," first gave utterance to the great
French "periode oratoire," while Voiture was
the foremost representative of the witty, light,
amiable side of the French character Other
salons were formed on the model of the Hotel
de Kambouillet, that of Mademoiselle de Scu-
dery (les samedis de Sapho) deserves special
mention The women of the Grand Siecle, as
Madame de Mamtenon, Madame de Montespan,
la Duchesse de Bouillon, were highly important
factors in the general trend of literary fashions
The habitue's of these salons are the "precieux"
and "pre"cieuses" whom Moliere was to ridi-
cule so amusingly, yet one must not lose sight
of the excellent refining results of these coteries
They are apparent, eg, in the Lettres of
Madame de Sevigne" and in many other repre-
sentatives of le style epistolawe in that century
and the next
The Academie Frangaise was first a private
society of scholars, then tio,u«if<>i mod more oi
less willingly, in 1635, at the iirsh Cation of
Richelieu, into an olncial btite t'oipoiation The
Academicians weio to publish a, dictionary, a
grammar, and a rhetoiic The dictioaai\ alone
was completed Vaugelas, the authni of the /fr-
marques sur la langne ftanraiw, contributed
more than any othei to this woik Among the
other original members of the Academie aie
Conrart, its first picsident, the poets Chapelain,
the real sponsor of the famous three unities in
French tragedy, Mayiiaid, and Racan, the faith-
ful disciple of Malherbe, Balzac and Voiture,
and Furetiere, who was expelled for having pub-
lished a dictionary before that of the Academie
The great authority in literature, however,
was neither the Hotel de Rambouillet noi the
Academie, but Boileau, who \vith an undenicible
critical talent made and unmade reputations at
will, seldom going astiay in his judgments Like
Malheibe, he foimulated in his Epittcs and in
his Art poetiqiie a code of literature, whatever
did not meet its requirements \\ as pitilessly con-
demned Poets like Theoplule de Viau and
Scairon, the cicator of the genie burlesque (Vv-
gile tiavesti), are among his victims lie had
nothing but contempt for Ronsaicl and his
school, and yet he himself accepted the ancients
as the cutenon of excellence and e\en became
the chief advocate of classicism in the gieat
"queielle des anciens et des mod ernes, ' which
raged through many yeais of the seventeenth
century, while Peirault, who had started the
debate, was the puncipal representative of the
"modernes " Proceedings of so impel ions a
character were only the application to the field
of literary criticism of the principle of author-
ity which regulated the whole life of the sev-
enteenth century, social, ethical, religious, ar-
tistic If France received strong political unity
at the hands of Richelieu and Louis XIV, it waa
at the expense of that individuality which had
chaiactenzed so many authors of the anarchistic
sixteenth century Protestantism had been
crushed out, not so much on account of its in-
trinsic defects as by reason of political necessi-
ties Bossuet was really the incarnation of his
century in literature, the authority of (rod, the
authority of the Church, the authority of the
King, are the themes of his woiks, and the gran-
deur which cannot be denied to this epoch can
be seen in each sentence written by the "aigle
de Meaux," whethei in Ins splendid Otaisons
fundbres, Sermons, and Discours &ur lliistoire
unw&selle, in which the great of this world are
like dust before God, or in his Histoire des vari-
ations des eglises pi otestantes, and his attacks
on Fenelon and Quietism, in which he affirms
the absolute control of truth by the Roman Cath-
olic church, or yet again in his D&daratwn du
clerg6 de France, in which he defends the claims
of the Galilean church to certain liberties from
papal jurisdiction The same is true of his con-
temporary Bourdaloue, even more famous than
Bossuet in those days for his pulpit eloquence,
and, though to a less degree, of Fiddlier Even
Fenelon, 'le cygne de Cambrai," by humbly ac-
cepting the condemnation by Rome of his $s-
sais sur les maosimes des saints, showed how
deep-rooted the idea of social and ecclesiastical
hierarchy was in the temperament of that re-
markable epoch He had also to learn by batter
experience what it cost to suggest (in the Voy-
age de Telemaque, written for his royal pupil,
the Dauphin) modes of government which did
FRENCH LITERATURE
255
FREHCH LITERATURE
not agree with the autocratic ways of Louis
XIV "
In the drama the notion of authority takes a
somewhat different form, but is as much empha-
sized as in Bossuet Corneille's tragedies, Le
Old, Horace, Cmna, Polyeucte, and his comedy
Le menteur, preach an unconditional surrender
to the laws of honor and conscience, of God and
the state Racine, though his artistic tact
raised him in many respects above the narrow
spirit of his age, is not free from it, neverthe-
less, as is well shown in his fundamental thesis
of the submission of man to his passions (An-
dromaque, Phedre, Iphigeme, Berenice, Britanni-
cus) and in his illustrations of the omnipotence
of God in his later religious plays, Esther and
Atkahe
There are, however, a few men in the seven-
teenth century who do not assume this attitude
of deference to conventional grandeur and worldly
powei Chief among these is MohSre (pseu-
donym for Jean Baptiste Poquehn), who at-
tacks in his comedies, on the one hand, the
idola fori of his contemporaries, as, eg, the cur-
rent affectations of the society of his day
(Precieuses ndiculest Pemmes savantcs, Bour-
geois gentilhomme) , and the false eiudition of
scholars, especially ignorant physicians ( L' Amour
medecin, Medecin malgre* lui, Malade imagi-
naire) , and, on the other hand, the general
views of humanity, as in L'Avaro, Tartufe (re-
ligious hypocrisy), Don Juan (affectation of un-
belief), and Le misanthrope, his masterpiece
Descartes refused to accept the traditional
Catholic foundations of metaphysics He in-
vented a system of his own, resting on the prop-
osition "Je pense, done je suis" (I think, there-
fore I am) , but he had to take refuge in Hol-
land, in order to complete and give fiee ex-
pression to his new philosophy — a creed not so
different from the orthodox as might be imag-
ined if we were to form our judgment solely
from the negative part of the doctrine (Dis-
cours sur la methode, Meditations philoso-
phiques, Prinoipes de philosophie, Traite des
passions de I'ame) Descartes was also a great
writer, whose clear and concise style introduced
what the French call le langage de la philoso-
phie, and whose Cartesian school definitely es-
tablished the cold authority of untrammeled
reason in this century Thanks to a most cau-
tious and subtle way of expressing himself,
Malebranche, Descartes's pupil, was able to pub-
lish with impunity his long treatise De la
recherche de la verite In the line of theology
the whole group of the Jansemsts, who resem-
bled m some respects the Protestants, especially
in their hostility to the teachings of the Jesuit
Order, was subjected to persecution They pro-
duced some of the most powerful and original
writers of the time — Antoine Arnauld, Pierre
Nicole and, above all, Pascal, who has often been
called the most profound of French thinkers
His literary bequest is the Pensees (notes pre-
pared for a work in defense of the Christian
religion and published after his death) and the
Lettres promneiales, a most forcible and effec-
tive satire on the Jesuits Among the moralists
of this epoch are La Bmy&re (Les caracteres,
Pens&es) and La Rochefoucauld (Maximes) ,
better described perhaps as clever piecemeal
psychologists than as powerful ethical philoso-
phers Madame de Maintenon, in her letters,
deals chiefly with problems of education
La Fontaine, whom Ms contemporaries nick-
named "Le bonhomme," is a writer of marked
originality In his charming Fables and in his
Contes (which remind one in their substance
and form of the old fabliaux) we have once
more a repiesentative of the genuine "esprit
franc.ais" as it existed before the Renaissance
He had fed on all the poetic treasures of an-
tiquity that came in his way and created them,
as it were, anew, by his graceful, light, and ar-
tistic verses
Another man who freed himself from the con-
ventionalities of the seventeenth century, and re-
stored the connection with the national artistic
tradition of France, is Charles Perrault, the
author of the naive and humorous nursery tales
His Contes found hosts of imitators, even late
into the eighteenth century.
The numerous novels of this period also indi
cate a revival of the literature of the Middle
Ages, particularly in the stvle of the Roman
do la rose. But the reconciliation of natural
feelings and conventionality is here far from
being so complete as in the writings of the two
authors -just mentioned The lack of harnionv
between the two tendencies is disagreeably in
evidence in all these tedious novels, many of
which extended to 10 volumes The only out-
come of their efforts is an intolerable sentimen-
talism expressed in the exasperating jargon of
"pre"cieuse8," who play their parts in the garbs
of shepherds and shepherdesses Let us men-
tion only La Calprenede, and Honor£ d*Urf6
(UAstree), and Mademoiselle de Scude"ry (Le
grand Oyrust QUlie), who invented the carte du
tendre (map of tender feelings) and did in prose
what Racan in his Bergenes had done in verse
and in drama The first example of the French
novel, in the modern sense of the term, is
Madame de la Fayette's Princesse de Cleves,
but it stands by itself Coarseness disfigures
Cyrano de Bergerac's satirical Histoire comique
des etats du soleil et de la lune and his comedy
Le pedant youe Scarron's Roman comique is a
faithful picture in the form of fiction of an
actor's life in the century of Moli&re FuretiSre
furnished one of the first realistic novels in Le
roman bourgeois
The memoir literature continues to enjoy
favor in France and to show the real nature of
things behind the wings of this century's plastic
scenery of dry reason and pi atonic loves La
Rochefoucauld and the Cardinal de Retz are the
two best representatives in this field at this time
We reach the threshold of the eighteenth cen-
tury with the MSmoires of Saint-Simon, who
portrays in a lively style the still brilliant but
now thoroughly corrupt court of the last years
of the "Roi Soleil" Although rotten at the
core, so strongly organized a society as that
created by Richelieu and Louis XIV could not
fail to hold together for a time, and, until far
into the eighteenth century, we have nothing but
a servile imitation of the seventeenth century
But after 1750 literature becomes frankly an
instrument of propaganda, which will ultimately
destroy the existing political, social, and relig-
ious powers Regnard and Dancourt are imita-
tors of Moliere, CrSbillon takes up the be-
quest of Coineille and Racine, Chamfort and
Rivarol once more echo the spirit of the "pr6-
cieuses", Florian sometimes reminds one of La
Fontaine, Massillon follows m the steps of
Bossuet, and D'Aguesseau is a master of pom-
pous style in political eloquence. J B Rousseau
and his disciple Lefranc de Pompignan are lyric
FBENCH LITEBATTTBE
256
ERENCH LITERATUBE
poets whose wntings are in the style of the
earlier century, the same is true of Louis Ra-
cine, the son of the great dramatist, and also
true perhaps of Gilbert, it is only at the end
ot a life which spanned the century that even
Fontenelle learns to appreciate the aspnations
of the new generation in his work of popular
s.cience, De la pluralite des mondes, and inau-
gurates the art of interpreting in simple at-
tractive style the results of philosophy and
science for the general public The works of
other secondary authors, although sprightly and
witty, hardly contributed anything towards
progress in literature and art Among them
are Marivaux, who wrote exquisite comedies,
Piron, Gresset, even Nivelle de la Chaussee,
•ftith his comedie larmoyante, and Ducis, who
tried to intioduce Shakespeare into France At
the same time there are on the stage a few
plays which announce clearly enough the times
tli at are approaching Le Sage, in his bitter
Turcaret, and Destouches, in Le gloneux, ex-
pose the moral un worthiness of those who claim
to rule over their fellowmen by divine right,
while Diderot, m Le fils naturel, Sedaine in Le
philosophe sans le savoir, and Beaumarchais in
Figaro, already amrm deliberately the merits
of the bourgeoisie Diderot in his dramatic
writings was the originator of the comedies
seneuse and the melodrama, which received their
greatest element, pathos, from the Comedie
larmoyante of Nivelle de la Chaussee In his
drama Charles /X, ou L'Ecole des rois, M J
Chenier directlv attacks monarchy as a system
of government And soon after, the brother of
the latter, Andre Chenier, strikes his lyre in
favor of the newly conquered liberty, he was,
however, to pay with his head for the indig-
nant and patriotic protests that he uttered m
his lambes against the horrors of the Terror.
Three other descriptive poets, contemporaries of
Che'nier, call for a passing mention here — Dehlle
(for his poem Des yardms), Lambert (Les
saisons), and Roucher (Les mois) The gospel
of tolerance gains ground daily, thanks to works
like Le Sage's (hi Bias and Marmontel's Gontes
moraux, Belisaire, and Les Incas, in the do-
main of the novel, while men like the Abbe
Fleury and Rollin in education, and Vauve-
nargues in ethics, slowly and quietly suggest
positive reforms
If the list of highly talented men in the
eighteenth century is very long, that of writers
of real genms is short, as compared with the
preceding period. At the opening of the cen-
tury there is Bayle, the scholarly and bold au-
thor of the Pensees sur la comete and of the
Dictionnaire histortque et critique As early as
1697 all the traditional doctrines that will be
swept away by the Revolution are made a tar-
get for his dialectic, and many new ones are an-
nounced He was a precursor of Voltaire and
especially of the Encyclope'distes, "who used his
indirect method of attack against the abso-
lutism of religious doctrines Besides the ad-
vantage of a timely appearance, Voltaire had
the considerable advantage of a clear and beau-
tiful style. He is the incarnation of the eight-
eenth century In one part of his work, never-
theless, Voltaire plainly belongs to the group
of continuators of the traditional and classical
literature. His dramas, except a few like Ma-
homet (preaching tolerance), which betrays the
age in which its author lived, are patterned
exactly after those of the seventeenth century,
his Hennade, an epic poem, is another specimen
of a literature that belongs still moie surely
to the past, and the Siecle de Louis XIV is
the glorification of that France whose stand-
ards of life he contributed to tear down m so
many othei wntmgs In the Essais silt les
mosurs et V esprit des nations he takes up his-
tory at the point where Bossuet had left it in
his Discows, viz, with Charlemagne, but while
Bossuet had shown that Catholicism is the gicat
leading powei of a progressive woild, Voltane
attempts to prove that this sect is the mothei
of all crimes and has positively prevented prog-
ress Voltaire's criterion was plain common
sense, and from this stronghold he attacked in-
differently the methods by which he considered
that the Church took advantage of the imbecil-
ity of human nature (Lettres pMlosophiques) ,
the theistic and optimistic systems of philoso-
phers and theologians, particulaily the doctrine of
the best possible woild of Leibnitz and Shaftes-
bury (his poem Le dcsastre de Lisbonne, his
Gontes philosophiques, Candide, Zadig] , and the
men who deny the existence of God (Si Dieu
n'existait pas, il faudrait I'lnvcnter) His God,
however, is only that of deism, ic, a Cioator
who does not interfere with his cieation, in
other terms, he does not believe in Providence
Voltaire's action and influence aie essentially
negative But, nevertheless, his univeisality
of interests, his quick lesponse in favor of one
cause or another, especially toleration and jus-
tice, have eained him the title of fathei of
French journalism The only pait of his woik
in which he does not attack others is that in
winch he tries to spread the scientific ideas ac-
quired in his sojourn in England, especially
those derived from Newton's books
It is from England also, from the empirical
philosophy of Bacon and of Locke (whose pun-
cipal disciple m France was the Abbe Condil-
lac), that the group of writers known as ule
parti des philosophes" borrowed the new con-
ception of the world that they substituted for
the traditional philosophy, which they had re-
jected They embodied the results of their com-
mon efforts in the Encyclopedie Diderot, who,
though somewhat capricious, was one of the
profoundest writers of the time, made this un-
dertaking the work of his life, enrolling his
most distinguished contemporaries as his col-
laborators D'Alembert the mathematician
wrote the Discours prehnunaire, which estab-
lished his fame as a writer It is impossible to
mention all those who were connected with the
Encyclopedic and the "parti des philosophes "
It is enough to name Mably, Raynal, Grimm,
Helvetius, Holbach, and Condillac The salons of
the time, conducted by a number of veiy keen
and intelligent women, did much to spread the
new beliefs In the field of sociology and poli-
tics the most important writer is the Baron de
Montesquieu He began with a most happy and
brilliant criticism of the customs of his country-
men in the Lettres persanes Later, in the Con-
siderations sur les causes de la grandeur des Ro-
mams et de leur decadence, and in his more
elaborate work, L'Kspnt des lois, he does away
with the merely speculative and a prion method
of Bossuet in treating the philosophy of history
and replaces it by the empirical and compara-
tive method which has since been applied with
greater thoroughness, but not with greater skill
or attractiveness, by modern ethnologists and
sociologists.
FBENCH LITERATURE
257
FRENCH LXTERATtJBE
The most fai -reaching in its consequences of
the philosophical principles of the eighteenth
century was the return to nature The affected
cult of an unreal natuie as it was found in the
novels of the "pre"cieuses" had to go, and if we
find an echo of it m Marie Antoinette's hameau
at Versailles, no author of mark in the eight-
eenth centmy makes use of this old ideal In
1735 the Abbe Prevost offered a first example
of natural and passionate love in his novel
Manon Lescaut, and a few years later the great
naturalist Buffon proved that even m the so-
ciety of the nobles a more truthful conception
of nature was not excluded a priori He had
a mmd of a most aristocratic form and in Ins
style continued the great traditions of the writ-
ers of the "siecle dc Louis XIV," yet he devoted
his life to writing a monumental work, entitled
Histoire naturelle, in which the nature that he
studies with enthusiasm is one created by God
and not the one invented by ladies and gentle-
men of the court Most of his opinions are no
longer accepted, but they were original at the
time and well calculated to foster interest in
a subject so long neglected by philosophers and
scholars Of a somewhat different character,
but just as strong and sinceie, was the love for
nature as it appears in Bernardin de Saint-
Pierre's Etudes sur la nature and Harmonies de
la nature and in his romantic idyll Paul et Vir-
gime Then came an eccentric and restless
genius, Rousseau, who provided not merely most
of the ideas which the Revolution tried to put
in practice, but also many of those that have
been elaborated one by one m the literature of
the nineteenth century by the Romantic and
even by the Eealistic schools Extreme in every-
thing, he wiote with an enthusiasm which could
not fail to stir a society that had grown ac-
customed to hear only the dispassionate and cold
speech of common sense and dry reason En-
dowed with a strange combative disposition, he
never rested till he had reached the very roots
of the evils of his day, he was not content to
attack any particular institution, Church, mon-
archy, or class privileges, his attacks were di-
rected against society as a whole, and he declared
the very system of civilization to be rotten,
false, and contemptible That man is a creature
of nature, and that therefore nature must be his
teacher, his mistress m everything, was with
him a fundamental axiom If he tore down in
his Discours sur Jes sciences et les arts, Discours
sur I'megalite1, Lettres sur les spectacles, he
tried to reconstruct in the domain of education
(Hmile), in that of the family (Nouvelle
Heloise], and in that of sociology (Contrat
social) The last mentioned is a treatise m
which the author endeavois to trace the origin
of every organized society to an original though
tacit contract between all citizens; the latter
freely decide as to the government they want
This implies not only taking away from the
dominant class its privilege of ruling, but also
the power of appointing and dismissing magis-
trates at will. The Contrat social became the
Bible of the French Revolution, this was the
authority to which it appealed when it justified
the beheading of Louis XVI So did his Nou-
velle Heloise and his Confessions strike the
purely personal and lyrical note which inspired
the Romanticists to dwell on the ego and its
various moods »
When the destructive storm of the great Revo-
lution was over, Premchinen realized that it was
easier in theory than in practice to change an
organization rooted in the tradition of hundreds
of years Accordingly the first years of the
nineteenth century appear as a period of re-
action against the Revolution in the field of lit-
erature as well as in the field of politics Joseph
de Maistre preached in beautiful language on
the unconditional return to the old regime, nay
even to a mediaeval theocracy The belief in
Providence was according to him the only satis-
factory philosophy, the Church must rule over
Europe, and kings be considered as the sacred
representatives of God Chateaubriand., though
Catholic and Royalist, takes into consideration
moie than De Maistre the events of the eight-
eenth century In his XUssai sur les revolutions
he maintains the usclessness of revolution, and
later, having undergone terrible personal sor-
rows owing to the cruelties of the Terror, he
finds consolation in the Christian faith ("J'ai
pleure et j'ai cru") The Genie du Chris-
tianisme written soon after, offers a kind of
aesthetic religion for artists rather than a re-
ligion for humanity at large Yet it enjoyed
an immense success with his contemporaries,
who were tired of negations and greeted with en-
thusiasm the old bthef — even though in a some-
what unusual attire Chateaubriand, however,
is not entirely reactionary, he proves a true son
of the end of the eighteenth century when, after
his journey to America, he professes a warm ad-
miration for the life of the uncivilized tribes
he had visited and for the grandeur of the
scenery (Les Natchez, Atala) He is also a fore-
runner of the Romanticists in his half-autobio-
graphical story Rene, which, with Obermann
by Senancour and Adolpfie by Benjamin Con-
stant (the great orator of the Restoration),
correspond in France to the note struck m Ger-
many by Goethe's Werther Madame de Stael's
great achievement was the reestablishment of
the connection with the eighteenth century, and
especially with Rousseau In L'Allemagne she
advocates the natural and rationalistic religion
of Rousseau's Vicaire Savoyard,, the same work
brings out the idea of cosmopolitanism in the
intellectual sphere of life which is to be found
already in geim in Rousseau, and which
prompted her to reveal the genius of Germany
to her countrymen Her two novels, Connne
and Delphine, defend — like the Nouvelle HGloise
— the natural rights of love as against the con-
ventions of social life The Romantic move-
ment, which has also been traced back to Rous-
seau, is the most important literary event of
the nineteenth century Its purest product is
Lamartine Individualism had won the great
battle begun a hundred years ago the M&dita-
tions poetiques and Harmonies po6tiques et re-
ligieuses are like a glorious cry of victory
crowning the efforts of the eighteenth century
No bitter experience had revealed as yet the de-
ception that awaits the self-worshiper One
would wish that Lamartine had died before he
descended from the heights into the arena of
political intrigues and soiled his lofty aspira-
tions by contact with reality. His political ca-
reer was a failure, though — or perhaps because
— he was sincere
Very soon, taking advantage of its first suc-
cesses, Romanticism assumed an aggressive at-
titude towards Classicism Victor Hugo became
the leader of the new school and was joined
by Gautier, Sainte-Beuve, Vigny, Musset, Kodier.
The great battle by Hugo himself in favor of
FRENCH LITERATURE
258
FRENCH LITERATURE
Romanticism took place on the stage ( Cromwell,
with its important preface, Hernam, Ruy Bias,
Marion Delorme, Le roi s' amuse) Alexandre
Dumas, the father, and Vigny (in Ghatterton)
supported him The old school, however, re-
gained a temporary popularity with Ponsard;s
Lucrece, a play weak in itself, but put upon the
stage at the psychological moment when the en-
thusiasm of the public for Romanticism was be-
ginning to cool The triumph of Romanticism,
with its undue insistence on local color, its ex-
aggerated mysticism, and its undiscriminatmg
disregard for all restraints of classicism, was in
any case of short duiation Some of the most
prominent wuters of the group quietly withdrew
( Samte Beuve, Gautier), while others loudly
voiced the bitter disillusion The pessimistic
but proud poetry of Vigny (Poesies) and the
tragic youthful outcry of despair of Musset
(Le<$ miits, Souvenir) are the swan songs of
Romanticism In the domain of fiction the
passionate prose of the anarchistic George Sand
(Indiana, Jacques, Mauprat) gradually lost its
fervor, and in later years she abandoned the
fanaticism of her ^outh and sought the harbor
of happiness in an old-fashioned, conventional
society
Ever since the Restoration France has been
in danger of a new era of revolutions, and the
possibility of having to face another Terror led
many to attempt a pacific settlement of the
rising social and political difficulties Among
them were the poets Beranger and Casimir
Delavigne, the political writers and orators
P L Courrier, Benjamin Constant, Royer-Col-
lard, Lamartine, the historians Guizot, De
Tocqueville, Thiers, Blanc, Michelet, the phi-
losophers Cousin, Jouffroy, the Socialist Proud-
hon, the Catholic writers Lacordaire, Lemen-
nais, Montalembert All the generous efforts
of these men were finally brought to an end
by the revolution of 1848, followed three years
later by the coup d'etat of Napoleon III
In the meantime Victor Hugo's fame con-
tinued to mciease He was a giant well able
to stand the final failure of Romanticism with-
out being carried away in the disaster More-
over, his conception of individualism had al-
ways been very different from that of Lamar-
tine, Vigny, and Musset, and his understanding
of the needed reaction against Classicism was
more radical, more to the point, and also more
according to the trend of ideas since the Revo-
lution Hugo, now the high priest of the nine-
teenth century, had endeavored to show that
man is a tissue of contradiction, a mixture of
good and evil, of beauty and ugliness, of gran-
deur and villainy, with the inference that a king
or a nobleman has traits that make him, after
all, a very inferior being, while — and this is
the chief point — in the humble, the lowest in
the social scale, are intimations of sublimity
that render him the equal of the most highly
honored among men. See particularly the
dramas Le TO* s'amuse, Marion Delorme, the
novels Bug Jar gal, Notre Dame de Parts, L&s
miserables, and, in the Legende des siecles-,
poems like "Les pauvres gens" or "Le crapaud"
Not only are those traits not distinctly ro-
mantic, they are even characteristic of the
school that was to replace Romanticism, viz ,
the Realistic Another important feature that
made Hugo a favorite with the masses is Ins
optimism Though a great satirist in ISAvmee
terrible and Napoleon le petit, his confidence m
humanity and God was always piedommant
This is, among others, the idea which inspires
the whole Legende des siecles, poems in the epic
style, in which the author wished to show how
humanity rises constantly from a lower to a
higher level of civilization and happiness
Two other men in the first half of the century
took pains to study man under both his ideal
and his baser aspect, but, contrary to Victoi
Hugo's, their portrayals of characters have a
pessimistic tone The first of these is Honore
de Balzac, who in his stupendous Gomedie hu-
maine is so anxious to remain faithful to life
that, for fear of incurring the accusation of
undue indulgence, he shows a strong inclination
to lay stress on the weakness of man He is
the gieat master of the realistic novel in France
The titles of his best-known novels are Cesar
Birotteau, Eugenie Grandet, Le lys dans la
vallee, Peau de chagrin, Le pere Q-oriot, 8era-
phita The second was Stendhal (pseudonym of
Henri Beyle), who in his detailed studies of the
psychological springs of human action (Char-
treuse de Parme, Rouge et noir) seems to have
still more deliberately assumed the cynical tone
of skepticism as to the very possibility of
goodness The public was not ready for Balzac
and Beyle, and a whole generation was to pass
away before their efforts were duly appreciated
The old standards had first to be disposed of,
and this was the task performed by men like
Merimee, Flaubert, Gautier, Barbey d'Aurevilly,
and the poet Baudelaire In turn bitingly sar-
castic and humorous, they indicated the shal-
lowness and pettiness which the advent of the
bourgeoisie had introduced into art Flaubert,
D'Aurevilly, Meiimee, and Gautier still select
the characters of their stories for the most part
in the sphere of the romantic, but the method
of treatment is evidently realistic Flaubert's
Madame Bovary (1857) is in subject and treat-
ment the first great novel of the Naturalistic
movement of the third quarter of the century
The victories of science and the success of pessi-
mistic philosophy did much to promote the ulti-
mate triumph of the cause of Naturalism In
the seventies Zola published the first novels of
his series Les Rougon-Macquart The subtitle of
the work, "Histoire naturelle et sociale d'une
femille sous le second empire," is suggestive
enough To the author, and to the brothers
Goncourt, who immediately preceded Zola in
this newly opened path, man is a mere product
of his milieu and of the physical laws of nature,
especially those of heredity, therefore he can
be understood only by means of scientific study,
and true literature must be nothing but a col-
lection of scientific cases carefully recorded
Zola was himself the disciple of the philosopher
Tame, who had put forth the principle of his
system m the introduction to his history of Eng-
lish literature But Zola had taken only one-
half of the theory, laying stress merely on the
physiological causes that influence action, an-
other disciple of Tame, Paul Bourget, studied
in his novels particularly man's mental mech-
anism, as Beyle had done earlier, and repre-
sents the "roman psychologique," as Zola the
"roman naturaliste " Bourget was attracted by
the study of the female character on account
of its complexity, for the same reason he deals
by preference with society women rather than
with women of the people His most character-
istic novel is Le disciple, see also
Oosur de femme, Cruelle ewig^ne,
LITERATURE 31
Two of the principal writers in the two- do-
mains of the naturalistic and the psychological
novel are the genial Alphonse Daudet and
Edouard Rod They allow a touch of human
feeling to animate their books, and therefore,
although in some respects perhaps inferior fiom
the artistic point oJ: view, enjoy much favor
with the bulk of the public It is not always
possible to decide whether an author belongs
to one or the other of these two schools, this
is, eg, the case with Ferdinand Fabre and with
novelists like Edmond About or Cherbuliez
The extreme theories of Naturalism were soon
given up Five disciples of Zola — Rod among
them — published a protest against their former
master's conception of literature Zola himself,
in his Trois miles (Lourdes, Rome, Paris), re-
nounced his pessimistic views of humanity, and
in his four Evangiles (Fecondite, Travail, Ve-
nte, Justice), of which, only three had been
\\ritten at the time of his death, the note of
optimism and even of utopianism is dominant
If Naturalism has died out, it has, however,
loft noticeable traces m the works of novelists
up to the opening of the twentieth century
The brothers Rosny and the brothers Margue-
ritte are almost direct descendants of Zola,
with a slightly more pronounced tendency to-
wards moralizing, while Maurice Barres and
Paul Adam and L Descaves discuss not only
social but political issues Again, a tendency
to use the psychological method is manifest in
authors like Prevost, "Gyp," Estaume, Mirbeau,
and Hervieu Theuriet, Bazin, and Pouvillon
are realistic novelists of rustic life The master
of the naturalistic short story is Guy de Maupas-
sant His sober style seems to be an improve-
ment even upon that of Menmee, who was
usually considered the incomparable model in
this field The stones of Coppee may be men-
tioned here as belonging to the realistic style,
tempered by deep sympathy with the woiking
classes The names of Villiers de PIsle Adam,
Remy de Gourmont, P Louys, and Be Regmer
offer the best examples of novels written by the
modern Symbolists
As to the stage, since the fight of Roman-
ticism we record the appearance of the prolific
Scribe, and the original note struck by Alex-
andre Dumas, the son, and E Augier, in their
realistic and at the same time hortatory social
dramas (Dame auos cameliys, Demi-monde, flils
naturel, Affaire GUmenceau, by the former, and
L'Aventun&re, Le fils de Q-iloyer, Maitre Guervn,
by the latter) They were the forerunners of
realism in the drama For years Labiche, Sar-
dou, Meilhac, Halevy, and Pailleron contrived
clever novelties to amuse the stage goers Mean-
while the theatrical ventures of Zola and Dau-
det had failed, and it was not until 1882 that
Naturalism scored a triumph with Les corbeaua),
by H Becque The success was, however, of
short duration, for Naturalism degenerated soon
into what has been called "le theatre rosse"
Since that time all sorts of plays have appeared
on the Parisian stage — satirical by Lavedan,
and Donnay, social and moral by Curel, Hervieu,
Brieux, and Mirbeau, the author of Les affaires
sont les affaires. E Rostand's Romanesques
was a belated satire on Romanticism, an Cyrano
de Berfferac, his greatest success, the satiric and
serious elements are mixed in a most discon-
certing manner , while Lt'Avglon is a more or less
happy attempt at historical drama (a genre
cultivated also T>y Henmque, Coppee, and Sar-
;$ FBEHCH
dou) , in Chantecler, he attempted a ievi\al of
the bel esprit francais which was less foitunate
The best among contemporary comic authors
aic Capus and Courte-lme Finally, we should
mention a group of artists specially ehaiacter-
istic of an epoch in which antmaturalism is the
dominant note, the Symbolists Villiers de 1'Isle
Adam, Saint-Pol Roux, P Claudel, and, above
all, Maeterlinck The latter, however, has en-
tered a more usual path in his Monna Vanna
(1902) A resurrection of the Middle Ages,
fashioned on its miracle plays, also took place
on the eve of the twentieth century, with
M Bouchor and Vicarre, the Theatre de I'Ame
by Schure, also has a half-mystical note
The poetry of the last third of the nineteenth
century illustrates remarkably well the oscil-
lations of the literary ideals during this period.
The spirit of Naturalism made a deep im-
print on the devotees of the Muses known as
the Poetes du Parnasse, or Parnassiens Ban-
ville and Th Gautier insisted, above all, upon a
very accurate and, m appearance, scientific verse
construction, a pornographic inclination is evi-
dent in Baudelane's Fleurs de mal, a pessimis-
tic note in Leconte de Lisle, and a psychological
tendency in Sully-Prudhomme , while one notices
in Goppee, Richepm, Mendes, the general desire
to draw on the lower classes of society for artis-
tic material Only 15 years after the publica-
tion of the first volume of the Rougon-Macquart
senes and 20 after the foundation of the Pai-
nassian group, a host of new authors came to
the front and spared no efforts to shake off the
yoke not merely of the poets of the time, but
of Naturalism itself Some of these men,
though, essentially poets, wrote at times in
prose They called themselves 8ymtohstes, or
sometimes Decadents, which title, however, was
originally a nickname Instead of looking at
things as the Realists had done, they declared
that the world is essentially a subjective crea-
tion, and that therefore objects and thoughts
are better represented and conveyed by means
of symbols than by an accurate description.
The true field for art is not reality, but the
sphere of mobile, subtle sensations and feelings.
Symbolism is individualism carried to its ex-
treme limits They adopted a special vocabu-
lary and a special system of versification The
latter culminated m the vers l*ibre, i e , the verse
where nothing but the artistic feeling of the
poet decides as to rhythm, number of syllables,
and rhyme The Symbolists recognized as their
leaders Paul Verlame and Stephane Mallarme,
both of them former adherents of the Parnas-
sian school, the best known are, besides the two
already mentioned, Rimbaud, H de Regmer,
Viele-G-nfnn and Stuart Merrill (both American
by birth), J Laforgue, J Moreas, G Kahn, R.
Ghil, Paul Fort An important group flour-
ished m Belgium, Maeterlinck, Verhaeren,
and Rodenbach bemg the chief members In
some prose authors, such as Huysmans (a
former pupil of Zola), and the Sar Peladan,
who has created the Order of the Chevaliers de
la Rose Croix, related tendencies nave assumed
the character of a vague artistic mysticism
These authors never succeeded in altogether
gaining their point, the mass of the public be-
ing unable to follow them in suck esoteric
compositions Therefore the next move was
a return to theories more accessible to the
average mind Groups of young poets — one UL
Toulouse, the other m Paris — Gave led the
FUENCH LITERATTTBE
260
LITEKATUBE
way in this new direction They are known un-
der the name of Naturistes They speak highly
of Zola; but while his attitude towards nature
was purely scientific, they endeavor to bring out
also its poetical aspects There is nothing new
in this vague pantheism itself, however original
it may look after the extreme tendencies of
Naturalism and Symbolism Saint-Georges de
Bouheher, M le Blond, and L Balzagette are
the principal Natunstes Another group of 17
authors was formed still later, tlieir ideals
are the same as those of the school just men-
tioned, but they are more matuie poets Their
first manifesto was issued -ja the fall of 1902 It
is a collective publication Les poetes de I'eoole
frangaise, la foi nouvelle Another group of
ultrasubjectivists, inspired by the Futurist
painters, have tried, under the leadeiship of
Marinetti, a Franco-Italian poet, to form a new
school of political expression, but up to 1914
they had made little headway
Thus the swing of the pendulum becomes
quicker and shorter as sects and schools spring
up and die away In reality the twentieth cen-
tury opens without any prevalent literary ideal,
it cannot be said, however, that any kind of
artistic manifestation is altogether lacking
The most representative Frenchmen at the close
of the last century seem to be the novelist P
Loti, with his vague impressionism, and Eenan
and Anatole France} whose chief chaiacteristics
are a refined dilettantism and amiable skepti-
cism The advent of a great literary genius is
yet to be recorded for tlie twentieth century
It seems that the present-day brilliant but sec-
ondary authors are still showing signs of the
influences of Tolstoi, Ibsen, and Dostoyevski
Impartial critics, however, believe that the radi-
cal writers are losing some of their vigor,
while a certain vague religious mysticism ap-
pears to become more and more frequent in
contemporary literature, under the guise of a
rather opaque symbolism
History in the second half of the nineteenth
century assumed a more and more scientific
form of treatment, with Fustel de Coulanges,
Renan, Tame, Lavisse, Sorel, and it is consid-
ered by many, probably with reason, as belong-
ing no longer to the domain of literature The
same question has even been raised with regard
to- criticism Since the admirable work of Ville-
mam, D Nisard, and especially Samte-Beuve,
there has been a strong inclination towards
scientific criticism. Tame, and with a kind of
fanaticism Hennequin, systematized it to such
an extent as to make it render well-nigh auto-
matic judgments The reaction was not long in
setting in The two methods in vogue in the
last decade of the nineteenth century were that
of the dogmatists, like BrunetiSre and Doumic,
who judge works of literature according to their
agreement with an objective canon, and that of
the impressionists, like Lemaitre and A France,
who allow themselves to be guided solely by
their subjective feeling of the beautiful Critics
such as Faguet, Larroumet, Lanson, Pellissier,
may be called mtellectuahsts , they aim at im-
partiality and support their opinions with
rational motives. Among the rising stars in
criticism in the first years of the twentieth
century must be mentioned C Mauclair, and
A. Beaunier, for their openness to new ideas,
and E Charles for his energetic and independ-
ent criticism This department may turn
out to be the most important contribution of
this century in the domain of ideas The
solidity of thought of this function of liter-
ature is in great measure due to the scientific
methods of modem philology, initiated by
Dietz and other great scholais, whose example
was admirably followed by Fauriel Filon,
G-aston Paris, Paul Meyer, and moie recently
by Joseph Bedier
We ought to speak before ending of a deep
but almost unconscious conflict, independent
of any artistic standard, between two classes
of authors — those who endeavor to make lit-
erature conform to the tastes of the masses,
thus yielding to the demociatic spurt of the
nineteenth centuiy, and tlio&e who try to re-
sist these efforts Authors like Hugo have been
frequently accused of pandering to the popu-
lar taste The gieat successes in this lower
order of literature have lain in the domain of
the novel Foremost in this style is Dumas,
the elder, whose Monte Ori^to and Three
Guardsmen are familiar to all English leaders
Next to him, though not so famous, aie men
like P de Kock, E Sue, A Karr, Ponson-du-
Terrail, Gaboriau, Richebourg, X de Montepm,
Samtine, Souvestre, O Feuillet, and G Ohnet
On the stage a. deliberate step towaids popu-
lar art has been taken by M Potteehei,
who created in 1895 his "Theatre du peuple"
at Bussang, in the Vosgcs He has found
many imitators at Gerardmei, Ploujean,
Beziers, and other towns of France
Bibliography. Eistoire httfraire etc la
France, begun by the Benedictines of Saint-
Maur and continued by members of the Insti-
tut, of which 33 volumes have been published,
coming down to the fourteenth century (1733-
1898), Petit de Julleville (ed), Eistoire de
la langue et de la litterature franchise des ori-
gines a 1900 (8 vols , Paris, 1806 et scq ) ,
Nisard, Histoire de la* Utterature pan^aise
(4 vols , Brussels, 1846-50, last ed revised by
the author, 1879) , Albert, Literature fran-
g&ise (5 vols, Pans, 1886-87), also shorter
histories by Lanson (ib, 1912), Brunetidre
(ib, 1898), Lintilhac (ib, 1804), Doumic
(ib, 1896-1909), Faguet (ib , 1900), and Pel-
lissier (ib, 1902) For individual authois,
consult the excellent collection in course of
publication since 1887 under the direction of
J J Jusserand, Les grands ecrivains fran^cws,
and the Collection des classiques populaires,
under the direction of E Faguet (Pans,
1887-98) In German Birch-Hirschfeld, Ge-
schichte der franzosischen Litteratur s&it An-
fang des 16ten Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1889
et seq ) , Morf, Oeschichte der neuern frantzo-
sischen Litteratur, XV I -XIX Jahrhundert
(Strassburg, 1898), which provides an excel-
lent bibliography In English the following
may be mentioned Samtsbuiy, Short History
of French Literature (London, 1889) , War-
ren, Primer of French Literature (Boston,
1889), Kastner and Atkins, Short History of
JFrench Literature (Cambridge, 1901), 0 H
Conrad Wright, A, History of French Liter-
ature ("New York, 1912) For treatment of
special literary genres not restricted to any
one period Morillot, Le roman en France de-
puis 1610 a nos jours (Pans, 1893) , Petit de
Julleville, Histoire de la littSrature dramatique
depms $e$ origwies yusqu'a no& yours (ib,
1889) , Brunetiere, Les &poques du theatre
flanema, 1636-1860 (ib, 1892), L Levrault,
La comed^e (ib , 1901) For special periods:
FRENCH LITERATURE
261
PBE3TCH BEVOLITTIOH
Middle Ages, Ampere, Histoite liktetaire de la
France avant le Xlleme siecle (1839-40, new
ed, 1867) Gaston Paris, Esquisse de la lit-
terature au moyen-age (Paris, 1907), Bedier,
Les fabliaux (ib , 1803), id, Les Ugendes
epiques (ib, 1908-13), Langlois, La societe
fran^aise au moyen-age (ib, 1904), id, Re-
pertoire du theatre comique en Fiance (ib,
1885), id, Les comedies (ib , 1885), J Mor-
tensen, Le theatre frangais au moyen-age (ib,
1903) , Cohen, Histoire dc la mise en scene au
moyen-age (ib, 1906), G Pans, Legendes au
moyen-age (ib , 1902), Jeanroy, Ongmes de
la poesie lynque en France au moyen-age (ib,
1889) Sixteenth century Darmesteter and
Hatzf eld, Le XVIeme siecle en France ( 6th ed ,
Paris, 1895) , A Lefianc, Giands ecrivains
pancais de la Renaissance (ib , 1914), Samte-
Beuve, Tableau historique et critique de la
poesie frangaise au XVIeme siecle (ib, 1828-
42) , .Lenient, Satire en Fiance au XVIeme
siecle (ib, 1877), A Tilley, The Literature
of the Renaissance (New York, 1904) Seven-
teenth century Cousin, La societe frangaise
au XVIIeme siecle (8 vols , Pans, 1844-58),
Samte-Beuve, Port-Royal (7 vols, ib , 1867),
H Ducoudray, Du moyen-age, Xe siecle au
XVIHe siecle (ib, 1904), Le Breton, Le ro-
man au XVIIeme siecle (ib, 1890); Rigal,
Le theatre en France pendant la periode clas-
sique (ib, 1901), Deschanel, Le romantisme
des classiques (5 vols, ib., 1881-88) , A Tilley,
F?om Montaigne to Mohere -(London, 1908)
Eighteenth century Villemain, Tableau de
la literature au XVIIIeme siecle (2d ed ,
1901) , Vinet, Histoire de la htterature fran-
gaise au XVIIIeme si&cle (2 vols, Paris,
1853) , Le XVIIIe siecle , les moours, les arts, les
idees, recits et temoignages contemporams
(ib, 1900) Nineteenth century Peri ens, Lit-
terature frangaise au XTXeme siecle (Paris,
1898) , Pelhssier, Mouvement litteraare au
XlXeme siecle (ib, 1900), Pierre Lasserre,
Le romantisme frangais (ib, 1913), Gilbert,
Le roman en Prance au XlXeme siecle (ib,
1896) , Wells, A Century of French Fiction
(New York, 1898) , Parigot, Le theatre d'hier
(Paris, 1901), Sarcey, Quarante ans de
theatre (ib, 1900), Lemaitre, Impressions de
theatre (9 vols, ib , 1889-1902), Bmile Fa-
guet, Propos litUraires (ib, 1902-10), Dou-
mic, Le theatre oontemporain (ib, 1908),
Sauvageot, Le realisme et le naturahsme ( ib ,
1890), Zola, Le roman experimental (2d ed ,
ib, 1898), Brunetiere, Evolution de la poesie
lyrique en France au XlXeme siecle ( ib ,
1894) , Mendes, La legende du Parnasse con-
temporain (ib , 1884), De Gourmont, Pro-
menades Utte'raires (ib , 1894-1909), Ernest
Charles, Les samedis litteraires (ib , 1903-07),
E Faguet, Literacy History of France (Paris,
trans, New York, 1907), A. Konta, His-
tory of French Literature (New York, 1910) ,
Vigi6 Lecoq, La poesie contemporaine, 1884-96
(ib, 1896), Kahn, Symbolistes et decadents
(ib, 1902), Beaunier, La poesie nouvelle (ib,
1902), Le Blond, Ess&i sur le natunsme (ib,
1896), Lemaitre, Les contemporains (ib, 1889
et seq ) , Charles, Litteratwre frangaise d'au-
jourd'hut, (ib, 1902), Pahssier, Etudes de
Utt&patwre vontemporawe ., Gaubert and Ca-
sella, La nouvelle lit terature frangaise 1895-
1905 (Fans, 1905) , L. Claretie, Histoire de la
Utter ature frangaise, les contemporaws, 1900-
10 (ib., 1912), L$8 celelntSs d'oMjourd'lwi,
pul)he sous la direction de MM ttan&ot Orland,
ft le Brun, et Van Bever depuis 1903 (ib,
1903- )
FHE3SrCHMA3Sr BAY An ocean inlet in
Hancock Co , Me ( Map Maine, D 4 ) The bay
proper is about 10 miles long and has an
average width of about 4 miles Mount Desert
Island forms the western side oi the bay, and
Bar Harbor, the most prominent lesoit on this
island, is situated on its shoie It furnishes
numerous good harbors, and contains a number
of islands, chief of which are Poicupine, Iron
Bound, Jordan, Stave, Calf, and Hancock islands
EBENCH MEASLES. See GEBMAN MEASLES
:FEE3SrCH POLITICAL PASTIES See PO-
LITICAL PARTIES, France
FRENCH PHOPHETS A name guen m
England to certain Camisaids (qv ), who eame
thither from France in 1706, led by Marion,
Duiand-Fage, and Cavalier, making extravagant
claims of prophecy, the gift of tongues, ability
to work miracles, etc They preached communis-
tic doctrines, announced the speedy coming of
the Messiah's kingdom, and pioduced several
books, among them A Cry -from the Desert, by
John Lacy (London, 1707) Foi a shoit time
they gained converts, including some persons of
influence Consult David Hughson (le, Ed-
ward Pugh), A Copious Account of the French
and English Prophets (London, 1814) , Vesson,
Les prophetes camisards a Londtes (Paris,
1893)
EBENCH PBOTESTA3STT CHUBCH See
HUGUENOTS
EBE3STCH REVOLUTION; THE The Revo-
lution of 1789 in France which overthrew the
Bourbon monarchy and the old feudal regime
In this article the name is employed foi the
peiiod of French history beginning with the
meeting of the States-General at Versailles, in
1789, and ending with the establishment of the
Consulate, in 1799 For an account of the condi-
tion of France before the Revolution, and the
causes that brought it about, see FEANCE
When it was decided to summon the States-
General, two important constitutional questions
required solution — the distribution of represen-
tation among the three orders, and the method
of voting in the States-General itself Owing to
the somewhat irregular character and procedure
of this body, which had not met since 1614, there
were no valid precedents which could be fol-
lowed in 1789 In solution of the first question,
a royal decree revived or created certain elec-
toral divisions and provided for the election of
250 delegations of four members each — one from
the nobility, one from the clergy, and two from
the Third Estate — thus dividing the member-
ship of the States-General equally between the
two upper orders and the Third Estate Supple-
mentary decrees provided for special cases which
arose and considerably increased the number of
members In each electoral district, in con] unc-
tion with the election of the members of the
States-General, each of the three orders drew up
cahiers, or lists of grievances, including proposi-
tions for new legislation The question of tho
method of voting was not solved, but the official
expectation was that the vote would he by order,
which would have required a majority vote of
each of the orders to pass any measure This
would have been a bar to any vital measure of
reform The Third Estate, however, expected
and intended to have a vote by head, le, the
three oiders should vote as one body, and the
BEVOLtJTIOH
262
FBEHCH REVOI/tTTIOK
simple majority should suffice to pass any meas-
ure This would have placed the control in the
hands of the Third Estate, which would vote as
a unit and could depend upon the support of a
few liberal nobles and the considerable number
of parish priests among the representatives- of
the clergy When the States-General met, the
nobility and the clergy organized as separate
houses, but the Third Estate refused to take any
such action, in spite of royal and ministe-
iial piessure, and finally on June 17 declared
themselves the National Assembly and invited
the nobility and clergy to join the Assembly
When the "Third Estate first met on June 20,
they found their meeting hall closed, but secured
a place of meeting in the building called the
Tennis Court (jeu de paume) , where they took
the famous oath not to dissolve until they had
given France a constitution The parish priests,
or cures, and a few of the liberal nobles then
joined the Third Estate After the fruitless
royal session of June 23, in which the King
commanded the three ordeis to meet separately,
the remainder of the nobility and clergy, at the
royal bidding, joined their fellows in the Na-
tional Assembly, which came to be called the
Constituent Assembly, because of its self-im-
posed task of framing a constitution The
leader of the Third Estate was Mirabeau ( q v ) ,
an able but discredited noble who had secured
an election as a representative of the Third
Estate for Aix
In July, under the influence of a few ultra-
conservative and reactionary members of the
royal family and of the nobility, the King as-
sumed a hostile attitude, dismissed Necker, the
Minister of Finance, in whom the hopes of a
regenerated France largely centred, and con-
centrated troops on Paris Insurrectionary
movements, by which the masses of the people
began to show their interest, broke out in Paris
Blood was shed m the capital on July 12, and
on the 14th the Bastille (qv ), the visible sign
of generations of tyranny, was stormed and par-
tially destroyed The propertied classes and the
business people of the city, to prevent the recur-
rence of bloodshed and riot and to maintain
order, organized a city militia, called the Na-
tional Guard, and a provisional city government.
The King, in alarm, withdrew the troops, re-
called Necker, and in response to popular de-
mand visited Paris, where he legalized the pro-
visional measures and recognized Lafayette as
commandant general of the New National Guard,
and the astronomer Bailly as mayor of Paris,
and changed the national colors from the white
of the Bourbons to the new and popular tricolor
Having failed in their attempt to overawe the
National Assembly and the people of Paris, the
Count of Artois, the King's youngest brother,
and other leading reactionaries left France, be-
ing the first of the so-called emigre's ( q v )
Immediately following the capture of the Bas-
tille, local disturbances broke out in many sec-
tions of the country, while other parts were
swept by a panic known as the "Great Fear"
The old administrative machine had broken
down, and the nation was without an effective
local government In each locality the cool-
headed lovers of law and order organized com-
panies of the National Guard and established
a provisional local administration
On the night of August 4 a report on the con-
dition of the nation was read in the Constituent
Assembly and it was followed by the abolition
of the old feudal and manorial piivilooes The
Assembly did not begin at once the nooobbaiy
constructive woik, but dallied with academic
discussion on the rights of man, a doclaiation of
which was adopted, to be a preface to the new
constitution (See ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL ) The
King and his ministers failed to show any abil-
ity to deal with the crisis, while the attitude of
the Queen and the court gave coloi to nuiiois
and popular feais concerning the hostile designs
of the King against reforms This peiiod of sus-
pense was ended by another outbreak in Paris
A mob, composed largely of hungry women, after
some disturbances in the capital, marched to
Versailles on Octobei 5, followed by Lafayette
and the National Guard Lafayette le&cued the
royal family, but did not dispeise the mob, and
on the following day the National Guard and the
mob escorted the loyal family to Pans and quar-
tered them in the* Tuileries The Constituent
Assembly soon followed and found a neetmg
place near the Tuileries Thus fai the Assembly
had been dominated by admueis of the English
constitution, like Mourner and Mirabeau, and by
admners of America, like Lafayette and the
Laraeths Although theie were some theoretical
admirers of republican institutions, still, in
practice, all had contemplated a constitutional
monaichy for France Now the most conseiva-
tive members of the Assembly began to disap-
pear, and slowly moie radical pnnciples de-
veloped A symptom of this change was in the
organization of clubs, the eailiest and most im-
portant of which was the Society of the Fuends
of the Constitution, later known as the Jacobins
(qv), from the old monastery in which its
meetings were held The Jacobins became a
great political force, because of their system of
affiliated clubs in the provinces, with which they
were in close communication ( See FETJILLANTS ,
JACOBINS ) Another important club in Paris
was the Cordeliers (qv), under the radical
leadership of Danton Newspapers as well as
clubs sprang into existence in 1789, for the cen-
sorship ceased to discharge its functions These
papers differed widely in form, regularity of
issue, and character. In general their purpose
was political, and most of the space was occupied
with accounts of the sessions of the Constituent
Assembly The most famous of the journals
was the Momteur, the most brilliant was the
Revolutions de France et de Brabant of Caraille
Desmoulms, and the most erratic the Ann du
Pevple of Marat On November 2 the Assembly
decreed the transfer of the property of the
church to the nation In February, 1790, it
abolished succession by primogeniture In June
it suppressed all titles of nobility
The work of drawing up the new constitution
went on apace in the Assembly, so that the first
draft was accepted by the King on July 14,
1790, the anniversary of the taking of the Bas-
tille, at the Feast of the Federation in the
Champ de Mars, in which representatives from
all parts of the country participated The con-
stitution gave the King a suspensive veto on all
measures passed by the unicameral national
legislature The legislature shared with, the
King the control of foreign affairs Tlie most
successful and most enduring portion of the
new constitution was the provision made foi the
reorganization of France into 83 departments,
each with its local administration All officials
were to be elected by the people Another fea-
ture of the new arrangements was equally im-
FBBNCH BEV01UTION
263
FRENCH REVOLUTION"
portant because of the opposition ^hich it
aioused This was the civil constitution of the
clergy, which leorgamzed the church upon the
lines of the new civil administration and trans-
ferred the actual control of the church from the
hierarchy to the French state The clergy were
to be paid by the state and were required to
take an oath to support the new arrangement
This caused a schism in the church in France,
because two-thirds of the priests remained loyal
to the Catholic church and refused to take the
oath The Assembly had already confiscated the
estates of the church and issued assignats
(qv), or a kind of government notes based
upon these lands as security The confiscated
lands, comprising one-fifth of France, being
thus placed suddenly upon the market, depre-
ciated rapidly in value, and the assignats., owing
to new issues, declined more rapidly The only
other important event of the summer of 1790
was the military mutiny at Nancy and its sup-
pression by Bouille (q \ ) on August 31 Necker,
to whom, of all the King's ministers, the nation
had looked for wise and able measures, failed
to accomplish anything and retired from office
in September, 1790, leaving the King without a
single competent adviser Mirabeau was the
one man in public life who possessed real states-
man-like ability Though viewed with sus-
picion by his colleagues in the Constituent As-
sembly, and with unconcealed contempt by the
Queen and the couit, he attempted to place his
talents at the service of the nation, through both
the Assembly and the King Though his advice
was not accepted, the nation realized that his
death, on April 2, 1791, left France without a
single statesman to guide her Worst of all,
France was not to be allowed to solve her prob-
lems alone The Queen was in constant coiie-
spondence with her brother, the Emperor Leopold
II, the ruler of the extensive Hapsburg dominions
This was regarded by the people as treasonable
Both Leopold and Frederick William II of
Prussia regarded the events in France with
suspicion and desired to save the Fiench royal
family from humiliation arid possible danger
German rulers had allowed the increasing num-
bers of the emigres to gather within their terri-
tories and threaten armed invasion of France
to rescue the royal family and restore the old
order Contrary to the advice which Mirabeau
had given, the King and his family escaped
fiom Paris on the night of June 20, 1791, and
fled towards the eastern frontier to take refuge
with the Emigres under the protection of the
Empeior Leopold This confirmed the popular
suspicion that the Queen was in treasonable cor-
respondence with her brother, and that the King
had perjured himself in swearing to support the
new constitution The King and the royal
family were halted at Varennes and brought
back to Paris
The summer of 1791 witnessed two unfortu-
nate events which foreshadowed the evil days to
come The first was the unprovoked firing upon
a popular meeting in the Champ de Mars, in
Paris, on July 17 — an event known as the
Massacre of the Champ de Mars The other
was the meeting at Pilinitz of Leopold II and
Frederick William II in August, and the issue
of a joint declaration intended as a warning to
the pbpular party in France Meanwhile the
Constituent Assembly had revised the constitu-
tion on more conservative lines and submitted
the completed work, tfce constitution of 1791,
to the King, who took the oath to it on Septem-
ber 14 A new legislature having been chosen
according to the provisions of the new constitu-
tion, the Constituent Assembly dissolved on
Sept 30, 1791
The new legislature, known in history as the
Legislative Assembly, began its sessions on Oct
1, 1791 The Assembly was composed of about
750 members, chosen largely from the middle
class, and included no one who had sat in the
Constituent Assembly There were no organized
paities in the Legislative Assembly, but two
small groups, one liberal and one radical, early
came into prominence — the Girondists ( q v ) , so
named because their leaders came from Bordeaux
in the Department of the G-ironde, and the
Mountain, who took this name because they oc-
cupied the highest seats on the left side of the
hall The majority of the members of the As-
sembly were moderates or even conservatives,
but the Girondists were generally able to carry
their measures Unfoitunately the Girondists
were theorists and orators and included among
their number no person of statesman-like charac-
ter Under the leadership of Brissot they be-
came a republican party, and monarchy gradu-
ally became unpopular Differences in regard
to the nature of the proposed lepublic later aiose
between the Girondists and the Mountain — the
one desiring a federal republic like the United
States, the other advocating a republic one and
indivisible with a centralized administration
The Legislative Assembly enacted stringent
measures against the emigres and the priests
who refused to take the oath to support the
civil constitution of the clergy Failing to see
that France needed peace in order to complete
the solution of her internal questions and to
establish a stable form of administration, the
Girondists after prolonged discussions secured
the passage, on April 20, 1792, of the fatal act
declaring war against Prussia and Austria
Lack of discipline was largely responsible for
the failure of the French armies to keep the
Austnans and Prussians out of France The
advance of the foreign armies increased the un-
rest in Pans Small politicians began to form
an organization to use the mob of Paris as a
political force On June 20 they directed a
demonstration by the mob, which resulted acci-
dentally in an invasion of the Tuilenes The
knell of French monarchy had sounded King,
ministers, and legislators sat helpless awaiting
the final blow, while the leaders of the mob
quietly but without concealment matured their
plans They usurped the government of Paris,
organizing a revolutionary commune Volun-
teers were sent to the armies, while others were
brought to Paris from Brest and Marseilles, the
latter entering Paris singing the patriotic hymn
henceforth known as the "Marseillaise" On
July 25 the Duke of Brunswick, who commanded
the Austro-Prussian army which was preparing
to invade France, issued a proclamation against
the French Bevolutionists which aroused the
Parisians to frenzy On August 10 all was
ready, and the revolutionary leaders struck
their blow The Tuilenes was stormed and the
Swiss Guard was massacred The royal family
took refuge in the hall of the Legislative Assem-
bly, which suspended the King and placed the
royal family under strict surveillance in the
Temple. A national convention to revise the
constitution was called, to be elected not an
the restricted franchise provided in the consti-
FRENCH REVOLUTION"
264
FRENCH REVOLUTION
tution of 1791, but by universal manhood suf-
frage Numerous suspects were arrested, and
Danton as Minister of Justice acted virtually
as dictator Lafayette in alarm abandoned his
army and fled from France, but was seized and
imprisoned by the Austrians Further losses on
the frontier resulted in further disturbances m
Paris, culminating in the massacres of Septem-
ber, during which about 1000 royalists and non-
jurmg priests in the prisons weie slain by the
mob Popular outbreaks also took place in some
of the provincial cities The tide of disaster
and disoider was stemmed by the news of the
engagement of Valmy on September 20, between
Kelleiman and the Duke of Brunswick, who
vainly cannonaded the French position On the
had been engaged in a life and death struggle,
whose end was hastened by the tenible dangers
which beset Fiance Hostile azniies had crossed
the frontier and were pressing towaids Paris
Within was civil wai In the Tvords of Canton
audacious measures , ere aecesBajy Danton and
the Mountain were prepared to take them The
Girondists wanted to debate when delay was
treason The Girondists were overgrown on
June 2, and then leader expelled rom the Con-
vention and placed in custody The reyolution-
ary commune of Paris, which contained the most
radical individuals in power dunng the Keign
of Terror, was placed on a legal footing In
the meanwhile the deputies on mission wei<
wooing with patriotic aidor in the provinces,
The National Convention, composed of about
750 members, nearly 500 of whom were new
men, met on September 21 and promptly showed
its character by abolishing the monarchy and
declaring France a republic The first weeks of
the Convention were marked by the occupation
of Savoy and Nice, the successes of the French
armies on the Rhine, and the vietoiy of Du-
mounez over the Austrians at Jemappes (No-
vember 6) In December the King was brought
to trial and called upon to answer for alleged
acts of treason against the nation Sentence of
death was passed upon him, »and on Jan 21,
1793, he was beheaded The division of parties,
which had been noticeable to some extent in the
Legislative Assembly, became maiked in the
Convention The Girondists in the beginning
possessed a decided majority, but as the party
of modei ation they showed themselves less able
to cope with the many dangers that beset revo-
lutionary Fiance than the thoroughgoing mem-
bers of the Mountain As the representatives,
too, of the higher bourgeoisie, they were destined
to fall before the fierce champions of democracy
The downfall of the Girondist influence began
with the trial of Louis XVI, when, against their
will, they were compelled to vote to sentence
the King to death.
On the frontiers the year 1793 opened with a
series of disasteis, which emphasized the folly
of the declaration on February 1 of war against
Great Britain, the Protestant Netherlands, and
Spain Successive defeats were reflected at Paris
in successive measures of a vigorous and revolu-
tionary character Early in March 82 members
of the Convention were dispatched to the differ-
ent departments to raise 300,000 troops, and at
Paris a Revolutionary Tribunal was established
for the speedy trial of persons deemed guilty
of crimes* against the nation The defeat of
Dumouriez (qv ) at Neerwmden on March 18,
and the desertion of that general to the Aus-
trians, were followed in April by the establish-
ment of an executive committee of the Conven-
tion, the first Committee of Public Safety, which
under the leadership of Danton wielded dicta-
tonal powers of government Civil war was al-
ready developing in France because of the resist-
ance of the Catholic and royalist peasants of
the Vendee and neighboring departments in
western France to the levy of the 300,000 troops
Up to this time, April, 1793, the Girondists had
shared responsibility for every measure of a
revolutionary character and had themselves cre-
ated the instruments of their own overthrow and
destruction But ever since the early weeks of
the Convention the Girondists and the Mountain
abroad and at home A democratic constitution,
the constitution of 1793, was speedily drawn
up and promulgated, but it ncvei \\ent into
actual foice The Committee of Public Safety
ruled France from July, 1793, to July, 1794
In conjunction with the Committee of General
Secunty in charge of the police administration,
it saved France, though at the expense of the
Reign of Terror
The Great Committee of Public Safety appor-
tioned its work to the different inembei s Carnot
and Prieur of the Cote d'Or dealt with the ques-
tions of military stiategy and the supply of
arms and ordnance, Lindet and Prieur of the
Marne had charge of the provisioning of the
cities and the armies, Jeanbon Saint- Andre
looked after the navy, Billaud-Varenne and
Collot d'Herbois were charged with the mteinal
administration and were the real managers of
the Tenor, Barere and Saint- Just were the
spokesmen of the Committee in the Convention,
while Robespierre, as the only member with a
reputation, did little work, but was a figurehead
who received all the glory and later all the blame
for the acts of the Committee as a whole The
sei vices of Robespierre, though not very ma-
terial, were none the less real, because, hiding
behind his great personality, the workers were
able, unquestioned and unhampered, to save
France The Great Committee carried out the
internal administration by sending out mem-
bers of the Convention as deputies on mission to
the diffeient depaitments to control and direct
the revolutionary authorities established in each
locality Bluster, terror, imprisonment, and a
few executions kept most of the departments m
order War and measures of a haisher charac-
ter weie employed against the loyalist and
Catholic uprisings in the Vended and Brittany,
and against the Girondist insurgents in Caen,
Lyons, Marseilles, Toulon, and Bordeaux Pop-
ular indignation against the Girondists be-
came more bitter after the assassination of
Marat (July 13) by Charlotte Corday, at the
instigation, it was thought, of the Girondists at
Caen By the end of 1793 the Gnondist rising
had all been suppressed and the leaders, includ-
ing 21 deputies to the Convention, executed
The Vendeans were completely defeated, but con-
tinued to carry on a guerrilla warfare until
1800 Nantes, the largest city in the Vendean
country, was the headquarters of the infamous
deputy on mission Carrier ( q v ) , who executed
more victims than did his colleagues m all the
rest of Fiance At Paris Fouquier-Tinville
(qv) and the Revolutionary Tribunal sent
about ?600 persons to the guillotine, including
FRENCH DEVOLUTION 265
nearly all of the notable victims of the Revolu-
tion fiom Queen Mane Antoinette down to the
unsuccessful generals and the nonjuring priests
It is worthy of notice that the numbei of vic-
tims during the Reign of Terror has been greatly
overestimated, and that more Frenchmen per-
ished in single battles under Napoleon The
greatest sufferer dm ing the Terror \\as the
Catholic church, which had to expiate its abuses
during the ancien regime and to suffer for its
refusal to accept the civil constitution of the
clergy The opposition to the church culminated
in the spasmodic establishment of the Worship
of Reason, maiked by the Festival in Notre-
Dame at Paris on Nov 10, 1793 Danton and
Robespieire recoiled from such desecration, and
the Woiship of Reason gradually died out
Later Robespierre tried to establish the Wor-
ship of the Supreme Being and inaugurated the
new cult by the Festival of the Supreme Being
on June 8, 1794 With the introduction of the
Revolutionary Calendar in October, 1793, weeks
were replaced by decades, and the observance
of the Christian Sabbath and of saints' days
instead of the decade and the revolutionary fes-
tivals became a criminal offense These revolu-
tionary festivals were celebrated in Paris with
great pageants under the direction of the painter
David The measures of the government of the
Teiroi weie not alone destructive and revolu-
tionary, such as the Law of the Suspects and
the Law of the Maximum, establishing fixed
prices for commodities and wages, but included
much of a constructive nature The bases of tlie
civil and criminal codes were the work of the
committees of the Convention Another com-
mittee devised the system of national education,
afterward slightly modified and established by
Napoleon The military committee under Dubois-
Cranc£ effected the reoigamzation of the army
The metric system and the French decimal cur-
lency were among the other creations of the
Convention
The suppression of civil war and the establish-
ment of internal order permitted the use of all
the nation's resources against the foreign foe,
and a succession of victories planned by Carnot
and made possible by the labors of his colleagues
soon began to reward the efforts of the Great
Committee of Public Safety Beginning with
the successes of Jourdan at Wattignies (Oct 16,
1793), and of Pichegru at Weissenburg in De-
cember, the invaders were driven out of France,
and the French armies were able m the spring
of 1794 to take the offensive The series of vic-
tories was crowned by Jourdan m the capture
of Charleroi and the defeat of the Austrians at
Fleurus (June 26, 1794) Thus, not only at
home, but also against the foreign foe, the
government of the Terror had justified itself
The Revolution, however, was destined, Saturn-
like, to devour its offspring Robespierre and
the Great Committee of Public Safety felt that
the circumstances compelled them not only to
crush insurrection and revolt, but also to silence
any questioning of their policies and acts On
the one hand, Hebert, Chaumette, and the other
leaders of the Commune of Paris were more radi-
,cal than the Great Committee and incurred the
dislike of Robespierre, because of their devotion
to the Worship of Reason, and because of the
indecent character of the Pdre Duchesne, a series
of political tracts published by Hebert On the
otlier hand, the Great Committee and Robespierre
.{eared, Danton, who had begun to suggest that
FBENCH HEVOI/UTION
the Terror had gone far enough Robespierre
and the Committee acted with promptness and
vigor The Hebeitists were executed on March
24, 1794, and the Dantonists on April 5 After
the death of Danton, Robespierre seemed to be
supreme, and at his bidding the Revolutionary
Tribunal worked more speedily and sent daily
to the guillotine almost as many victims as it
had previously done in a week The Terror
was at its height, but the fullness of time had
come The victory at Fleurus rendered further
terroristic measures unnecessary Furthermore,
foes of Robespierre began to see that they stood
in the way of the coming of his expected reign
of peace and virtue and so were troubled for
then own safety Among these were even mem-
beis of the Gieat Committee, who conceived the
idea of making Robespierre the scapegoat for
their deeds The plot was laid, and on July 27
the blow fell Robespierre and his two friends
in the Great Committee, Couthon and Saint-Just,
and otheis of his followers were ordered under
arrest and executed on July 28 and the following
days This was the Revolution of the Ninth of
Thermidor and the end of the Reign of Terror
The remaining 15 months of the Convention
were a period of reaction The Committee of
Public Safety, with a changing membership, con-
tinued to direct the administration, but the
Revolutionary Tubunal was dissolved, the Law
of the Maximum was repealed, the deputies
ceased to go on mission, and the Jacobin Club,
which had been so closely identified with the
Terror, was closed Girondists and Conserva-
tives who had withdrawn from the Convention
or had been expelled were recalled Until the
close of 1794 the Convention and the Committee
of Public Safety were controlled by the Thermi-
dorians, the men who had overthrown Robes-
pierre During the winter of 1794-95 they were
superseded by the returning Conservatives and
Girondists, who devoted the last months of the
Convention to an attempt to obtain revenge for
their sufferings duung the Terror On April 1,
1795 ( 12 Germinal ) , and on, May 20 ( 1 Prairial ) ,
bread riots broke out in Paris, and the insur-
gents clamored for a restoration of the "red
republicanism" of 1793 Both insurrections were
crushed, the great Terrorists, like Billaud-Va-
renne and Collot d'Herbois, were deported, and
the survivors of the Mountain, imprisoned, de-
ported, or executed This reaction, known as
the White Terror, extended to the provinces,
especially to southern France, where the ven-
geance wreaked upon the Mountain was more
bloody than the Terror itself In the summer
of 1795 the Convention performed the task for
which it had been elected in the summer of
1792 and drew up a new constitution called the
Constitution of the Year III The closing
months of the Convention were marked by an
unbroken series of military successes and by
the first efforts towards the restoration of peace
The United Provinces were occupied by Pichegru
and organized as the Batavian Republic under
French protection , and the French Minister in
Switzerland signed at Basel treaties of peace
with Tuscany, Prussia (April 5, 1795), Saxony,
Hanover, Hesse- Cassel, and Spam (July)
France remained at war with Sardinia, Eng-
land, Austria, and the Empire
The Convention was not to close without one
more insurrection in Pans — that of the 13th
Vendemiaire (Oct 5, 1795), in opposition to the
new constitution This rto^g was quelled by
FRENCH REVOLUTION
266
FRENCH REVOLUTION
Barras with the aid of Napoleon Bonaparte
The Convention came to an end on Oct 26, 1795,
and was replaced by the Directory, the govern-
ment established by the Constitution of the Year
III The executive authority was vested an a
committee of five directors, and the legislative
power was exercised by two bouses, the Council
of the Ancients and the Council of Five Hun-
dred By order of the Convention the first
directors and two-thirds of the first legislature
were to be chosen from the members of the Con-
vention One member of the Directory and one-
third of the legislature were to retire annually,
beginning in May, 1797 The new constitution
had one fatal fault, it made inevitable a dead-
lock between the executive and the legislature
and provided no means of breaking it except by
revolution Such a deadlock occurred after the
elections of 1797 and was met by three of the
diiectors, Barras, Larevelhere-Lepeaux, and Reu-
bell, who, by the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor
(September 4), expelled their colleagues, Carnot
and Barthelemy, and a large number of the
members of the two councils, thus preventing
the triumph of the party of reaction which had
won in the elections The reverse happened in
the coup d'etat of 30 Prairial (June 18, 1799),
when the councils asserted themselves and seized
control of the executive, under the leadership of
Sieve's The directors were assisted in the con-
duct of the central goveinment by a ministry,
which at one time or another included such able
men as Talleyrand, Fouclie, and Merlin of
Douai The local administiation \\as conducted
in an arbitiary manner by national agents ap-
pointed by the central goveinment The govern-
ment was corrupt, and the reckless management
of the finances would have ruined the nation had
its coffers not been enriched by the plunder of
Italy, sent home by Bonaparte The measures
against the Smigres and the nonjuring priests
lost little of their harshness Though the Wor-
ship of Reason had been forgotten, the attempt
to give France civil religion continued, and new
religions, like "Theophilanthropy," were devised
and became the fad of the moment Society,
under the influence of the brilliant and dissolute
Barras, the most important of the directors, was
corrupt, irreligious, and dissolute In short,
little of importance and nothing of credit marked
the internal history of the Directory, and only
by the success of its military policy did it jus-
tify its existence In Italy Bonaparte crushed
Sardinia and forced her to accept peace, and in
a series of campaigns of unsurpassed brilliancy
drove the Austrians out of Italy, marched on
Vienna, and forced the Emperor, Francis II, to
sue for peace, which was concluded at Campo
Formio, Oct 17, 1797 In southern Germany
Hoche and Moreau had conducted equally glori-
ous but less successful campaigns against the
Austrians Bonaparte refused to invade Eng-
land, the one remaining enemy of France, and
was encouraged by the directors, who feared him
in carrying out his scheme of conquering Egypt
as a step towards destroying England's power
in India In spite of his victories the campaign
was a failure Tlie English fleet under Nelson
destroyed the French fleet in the battle of the
Nile (Aug 1-2, 1798) and held control of the
Mediterranean Meanwhile, freed from the fear
of Bonaparte, the enemies of .France once more
assumed the offensive Austria broke the Treaty
of Campo Formic and, in alliance with England
and Russia, lenewed the war The combined
Austrian and Russian armies, by the victories
of SuvarofF at the Trebbia (June 17-19, 1799)
and at Novi (Aug 15, 1799), drove the French
into Genoa The reverses of the Fiench arms
and the evil internal conditions caused discerning
men like Sieves, Fouche, and Talleyrand to turn
to Bonaparte as the possible savior of France
In response to their invitations he returned
from Egypt, and by the coup d'etat of 18 Bru-
maire (Nov 9, 1799) overthrew the Directory
and the councils and established a provisional
government, consisting of himself, Sieyes, and
Roger Ducos as consuls A new constitution,
the Constitution of the year VIII, was drawn
up, establishing the Consulate, with Bonaparte
as Fust Consul, Cambacerfcs, Second Consul,
and Lebrun, Third Consul A Tribunate was to
debate proposed laws, which were to be voted
upon without debate by the Corps L4gislatif
Piactically the First Consul was dictator, with
absolute powers
Primary Authorities The files of news-
papers, such as the Moniteur and Mallet du
Paris, Her cure de France, the memoirs of con-
temporaries, such as those collected by Berville,
Barriere, and Lescure, volumes in the Collection
des documents inedits sur I'histoire de France,
such as Aulard, Recueil des actes du comite de
salut public j Brette, Recueil des actes relatifs d
la convocation des Etats genGraux de 1789 , and
Guillaume, Proces-verlau® du comite ^instruc-
tion publique, the volumes of the Collection des
documents r&latifs a I'Jnstoire de Paris pendant
la Revolution frangaise, such as Aulard, La
societe des Jacobins, the publications of the
Societe d'histoire de la Revolution frangaise, and
the Societe d'histoire contemporaine, the legisla-
tive proceedings as given in Buchez and Roux,
Histoire parlementaire, and Mavidal and Lau-
rent, Archives parlementaires 3 and numerous
other publications, such as Kaulek, Papiers de
Barthelemy, may be mentioned as the most ac-
cessible and useful Special bibliographies on
the French Revolution are Tourneux, BMiogra-
phie de I'histoire de Pans pendant la Revolution
fran^aise, and a portion of the Catalogue de I'his-
toire de France a la, Bibliotheque national e
The best short accounts are Mignet, Histoire
de la Revolution frangaise (1st ed , Pans, 1824,
last ed , ib, 1SG1), Rose, Revolutionary and
Napoleonic Era (New York, 1897) ; Morse-
Stephens, Europe, 1789-1815 (ib, 1893) The
best product of modern scholarship is Aulard,
Histoire pohtique de la Revolution frangaise,
1189-1804 (Paris, 1901) Leading works in
English are Morse-Stephens, History of the
French Revolution (2 vols , New York, 1886-
91), and The French Revolution (vol vm of the
"Cambridge Modern History," 1904), Of the
more famous works, Carlyle, French Revolution
(1st ed, London, 1837, last ed, ib, 1910), is a
literary appreciation, Thiers, Histoire de la
Revolution -frangaise (1st ed., Pans, 1823-27),
is now useful only for the Directory, Qumet,
La Revolution (1st ed , ib , 1885), and Tame,
La Revolution (1st ed, ib , 1878-85), are philo-
sophical and psychological rather than historical
studies, Michelet, Histovre de la Revolution
franchise (1st ed., ib, 1847-53), is the most
brilliant literary history in French Though
differing widely in method, bias, and value, the
most useful special works are, for international
relations Sybel, Qescfoichte der ReriolwtiQn$8e4t
von 1789 Us 1800 (5 vols , Dusseldorf, 1853-74;
Eng trans to 1 79 5, i London, 1867-69),
FRENCH RIVER
267
FREUCHTOWN
going, Histoire diplomatique de I' Europe pendant
la Revolution fran^aise (3 vols, Pans, 1865-
71) , Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution fran^aise
(8 vols, ib , 1885-1902), for militaiy aftaiis
Jominij Histoire critique et mihtaire dcs cam-
pagnes de la Revolution de 1192 a 1801 (3d ed ,
15 vols, and 4 atlases, ib , 1819-24), Chu-
quet, Les guetres de la Revolut^on (11 vols,
ib , 1886-95) , lung, L'Armee et la Revolution
Dubois~Cv ance (2 vols, ib , 1884) and Bona-
parte et son temps, 1769-1799 (3 vols , ib , 1880-
85) , for naval affairs Mahan, Influence of Sea
Poiuer upon the French Revolution and Empwe,
1793-1812 (2 vols, Boston, 1892), Chevalier,
Histoire de la marine francaise sou's la ptemiere
repubhque (Pans, 1886) , for the gmigies
Forneron, Histoire gunwale des emigres pendant
la Revolution fianeaise (3d ed , 2 vols, ib ,
1884) , for internal affairs Aulard, L'Eloquence
pa?lementaire pendant la Revolution p anpaise
(3 vols, ib , 1882-86), Mortimer-Teinaarc, His-
toire de la Terreur (8 vols , ib , 1862-81) , Wal-
lon, Histoire du tribunal rcvohbtionnawe de
Paris (6 vols, ib, 1880-82), La Involution du
31 mai et le federahsme en 1793 (2 vols, ib ,
1886), and Les rcprtisentants du peuple en mis-
sion- et la justice r&oolutionnaw c dans les de~
partements en Van 2 (5 vols, ib , 1889-90),
Sciout, Le Directoire (2 vola , ib , 1895) , foi the
finances Stourm, Les finances de I'aneien r&gime
et la revolution- (2 vols, ib , 1885), 0 Gomel,
Histoire financiers de VA^sem'bUe Oonstituante
(2 vols , ib , 1897) , for religious affairs Seiout,
Ili&toire de la constitution- civile du clerge (4
vols , ib , 1872-81) , Aulard, Le culte de la raison
et le culte de I'Etre supreme (ib , 1S92)3 for
society Goncourt, Histoi? e de la societe fran-
gaise pendant la Revolution (ib , 1854) and His-
toire de la societe ftan^aise pendant le Directoire
(ib, 1855) , for the Vendean War Chassin, La
preparation de la guerre de Vendee ( 3 vols , ib ,
1892), La Vendee patnote (4 vols, ib , 1893-
95), and Les pacifications de VOuest (3 vols,
ib, 1898-99), P H Gible, Men and Women of
the French Revolution (Philadelphia, 1906) , C
Sarolea, The French Revolution and the Russian
Revolution Historical Parallel (Edinburgh,
1906) , E B Box, Story of the Fiench Revolu-
tion (London, 1907) , E Lamy, Temoins de jours
passes (Paris, 1907), J H Rose, The Revolu-
tionary and Napoleonic Era, 1789-1815 ("Cam-
bridge * Historical Series," London, 1907), A
Marty, La derniere annee de Marie- Antoinette
(Pans, 1907) , E JDaudet, Recite des temps re~vo-
lutionnaires (ib, 1908), 0 F Warwick, Dan-
ton and the French Revolution (Philadelphia,
1908) , R M Johnston, The French Revolution
(New York, 1909) , P A Kropotkm, La Grande
Revolution, 1789-1793 (Paris, 1909), F M
Fling, Mirabeau and the French Revolution
(New York, 1909) , C M Bearne, Four Fasci-
nating Frenchwomen (London, 1910) 5 L. L T
Gosselm, A Gascon Royalist in Revolutionary
Paris, the Baron de Bate, 1792-1795 (New
York, 1910) , F W A Aulard, French Revolu-
tion A Political History (ib, 1910), G Le
Bon, Psychology of Revolution (ib, 1913)
FRENCH RIVER A stream m Ontario,
Canada, emptying Lake Nipissmg into the
Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, after a course of
55 miles (Map. Ontario, D 2) It is noted for
its magnificent scenery, and for 150 years was
the regular route to tfte Upper Lakes
FRENCH RYE 'GRASS See ABBHETSTATHE-
EUM
FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. See FRENCH
ESTABLISHMENTS IN INDIA
FRENCH SHORE See NEWFOUNDLAND
FRENCH SOMALILAND. See SOMALILAND
FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS De-
mands made upon the United States government
by American mei chants for losses of ships and
cargoes between 1793 and 1800 at the hands of
the French, whose chief excuse for the depreda-
tions was that the United States had violated its
pledges under the Treaty of 1778 By the Treaty
of Sept 30, 1800, and by the Convention of
April 30, 1803, France released the United States
from ceitain treaty obligations, and in return
was released from paying the merchants' claims,
the United States securing peace at the expense
of her citizens Between 1800 and 1885 some
50 bills to leimburse the claimants or their
descendants came before Congress, and appro-
priations were twice voted, but were vetoed in
each case by Presidents Polk and Pierce respec-
tively No redress was obtained until 1885,
when the adjudication of the claims was given
to the Court of Claims, and decisions were
reached awarding some $4,800,000 to the
pctitioneis
FRENCH SUDAN, soo'dan' A name foi-
merly used to designate the territoiy forming
a French dependency m western Africa extend-
ing from about 12° W long to Lake Chad,
and from the Sahara on the north to the
northern boundaries of the countries along the
northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea (Map
Africa, D and E 3) By the Decree of Oct 17,
1899, French Sudan ceased to exist, being m
part allotted to Senegal, French Guinea, the
Ivory Coast, and Dahomey, while the remainder
was erected into two military territories and the
Civil Teintoiy of Upper Senegal and Middle
Niger The Decree of Oct 1, 1902, attached
Upper Senegal and Middle Niger to the pro-
tectorate dependent upon Senegal, under the
name of the Territories of Senegambia-Niger
The Decree of Oct 18, 1904, established the
Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, compre-
hending a civil territory and the Military
Territory of the Niger All of the posses-
sions above mentioned are within the Govern-
ment General of French West Africa (qv.)
The Military Territory of the Niger was detached
from Upper Senegal and Niger and constituted
an autonomous administrative subdivision oi
the Government General of French West Africa
by Decree of Sept 7, 1911 (effective Jan 1,
1912) Consult. A L Gatelet, Histoire de la
conquete du Soudan frangais, 1878-99 (Paris,
1901) , H Sarrazin, Les races humaines dot, Sou-
dan frangais (Chambery, 1901), C Favarcl,
Fiance africame, Sahara, et Soudan (Paris,
1905) See MILITAEY TERRITORIES OF FRENCH
SUDAN
FREltfCHTOWN" A township in Monroe
Co , Mich , on the river Raisin, about 22 miles
southwest of Detroit, formerly the name of a
village on the site of the present Monroe Here
on Jan 18, 1813, during the second war be-
tween the United States and Great Britain, an
American force of about 650, under Colonel
Lewis, defeated a force of about 100 British,
under Major Beynolds, and of about 400 Indians,
under Hound-Head and Walk-in-the- Water, the
American loss being 12 killed and 55 wounded,
and the British and Indian loss, though not
definitely known, probably being considerably
larger On the 20th Colonel Lewis was -joined
VOL, IX— 18
FRENCH VEIISION"
268
by General Winchester with about 250 men, and
on the 22d the combined force was defeated by
a force of about 500 British, under Colonel Proc-
tor, and about 600 Indians, under Bound-Head
and Walk-in-the-Water In accordance with the
orders of General Winchester, who had been
captured "by the Indians, Major Madison sur-
rendered his troops as prisoners of war, on
condition that protection be afforded by Proctor
against the Indians The prisoners who \\ere
able to march were taken by Proctor to Maiden,
Canada, and the wounded were left m the chaige
of an insufficient guard commanded by Major
Reynolds at Frenchtown On the 23d the
wounded were massacred by the Indians, in what
is known as the Massacre of the River Haisin
Of the total American force 397 were killed or
were missing, 537 were captured, and only 33
escaped The British lost about 24 killed and
158 wounded, while the Indian loss, though
doubtless very large, was never accurately deter-
mined Throughout the rest of the war "Re-
member the Kiver Raisin" was used as a "battle
cry by the frontiersmen Consult Dawson, Bat-
tles of the United States (New York, 1858) ,
Cullum, Campaigns of the War of 1812 (ib,
1879) , Johnson, History of the War of 1812
(ib, 1882).
PRE3STCH VEBSION See BIBLE
FRENCH "WEST AFRICA A Piench gov-
ernment-general created by Decree of June 16,
1895, to embiace Senegal, French Sudan, French
Guinea, and the Ivory Coast (Map Afiica,
CDE3) The Decree of Oct 17, 1899, dis-
solved and reallotted Flench Sudan (qv ) and
added Dahomey to the government-genei al Up
to 1902 the seat of government was at Saint-
Louis in Senegal, and the Governor of Senegal
was also the Cover nor-Q en eral, in that year,
by Decree of October 1, Senegal was placed un-
der a lieutenant governor (at Saint-Louis) and
the seat of the government-general was trans-
ferred to Dakar (Senegal) This decree also
attached Upper Senegal and Middle Niger to
the protectorates dependent upon Senegal, under
the name of the territories of Senegambia-
Niger, to be administered by the Governor-
General The Decree of Oct 18, 1904, which
established the Colony of Upper Senegal and
Niger, defined French West Africa as follows
(1) the Colony of Senegal (which embraces the
territories of direct administration forming the
actual circumscription of Senegal, and the pro-
tectorates on the left bank of the Senegal Rivei,
which cease to be a part of Senegambia-Niger) ,
(2) the Colony of French Guinea, (3) the Col-
ony of the Ivory Coast, (4) the Colony of Da-
homey, (5) the Colony of Upper Senegal and
Niger, (6) the Civil Territory of Mauritania
The estimated area and population (1911) are
leported as follows
ABEA
Sq km
Sq m
Senegal
Upper Senegal and Niger
Military Territory of the
191,600
782,700
73,977
302,200
1,247,096
| 6,035,090
Niger
1,383,700
534,347
Mauritania
French Guinea
Ivory Coast
Dahomey
893,700
239,000
325,200
107,000
345,058
92,278
125,560
41,313
250,000
1,927,000
1,265,000
902,000
French West Africa
3,922,900
1,514,632
11,626,000
By a Decree of Sept 7, 1911 (effective Jan 1,
1912), the Military Territory of the Niger
ceased to be a pait of the Colony of Uppei
Senegal and Niger and was formed into an ad-
ministrative subdivision of French West Africa
The figures in the foregoing table must not be
regarded as having the accuracy of a survey
or a census They are careful estimates, but in
the nature of the case cannot be e^act In 1911
and 1912 respectively the general commerce of
French West Africa showed imports valued at
150,817,649 and 134,781,982 francs, of which
67,573,618 and 55,336,990 fiom France and
2,273,595 and 2,516,518 from French colonies,
and exports valued at 117,125,103 and 118,-
567,231 francs, of which 58,552,060 and 57,-
614,182 to Fiance and 76,213 and 95,281 to
French colonies In 1911 theie entered at the
ports 2431 vessels, of 4,172,000 tons Railway
m opeiation (1913), 2400 kilometeis, telegraph
line, upwards of 20,500 kilometeis The several
colonies of French West Africa are m wneless-
telegraphy communication Post offices (1913),
231 The budget for 1911 balanced at 56,250 000
francs The public debt (Jan 1, 1912) was
156,277,000 francs See the articles on the col-
onies included in French West Africa, and con-
sult Henry Clievans, La inise en i^aleur de
VAfiique occidentale francaase (Dijon, 1907)
FREND, WILLIAM (1757-1841) An Eng-
lish lefoimer He was born at Canterbury and
was educated at Saint-Omer, France, and, aftei
a few weeks spent in business in Quebec, fust
at Oh list's and then at Jesus College, Cam-
bridge, wheie lie studied for oiders and took
high honors In 1781 he was chosen fellow, and
in 1783 was appointed rector at Madmgley, near
Cambridge In 1787 he became a Unitarian,
issued an Address to the Inhabitants of Cam-
bridge to turn from the false Worship of
Three Persons to the Worship of the one True
Gfod (1788) , and did his best to do away with
obligatory subscription to the Thirty-nine Ar-
ticles as a preliminary to the master's degree
In 1788 he was removed from his office of tutoi
Five years later, after travels abroad, he wrote
a radical pamphlet, Peace and Union Recom-
mended to the Associated Bodies of Republicans
and AntirRepubhcans, for which he was tried
and found guilty of breaking the Statute De
Conciombus At this time he seems to have
been popular among the undergraduates and to
have made a disciple of S T Coleridge, He was
banished from the university, but continued to
hold his fellowship until he was married (1808).
In 1806 he went to London and was connected
with the Rock Life Assurance Company until
1826 His daughter Sophia married the mathe-
matician Augustus De Morgan and was the
mother of the novelist William Frend De Mor-
gan William Frend was an able mathema-
tician, an excellent Hebraist, and prominent in
all radical movements of his time He wrote
Principles of Algebra (1796-99) and published
an annual called Evening Amusements, or the
Beauty of the Heavens Displayed (1804-22)
His pamphlets, besides those mentioned above,
were Thoughts on Religious Tests (1789), An
Account of the Proceedings in the University of
Cambridge against William Frend (1793),
Scarcity of Bread (1790) , A Letter to the Vice-
Ohanoellor of Cambridge (1798); Prmciples of
Taxation (1799), The Effect of Paper Money
on the Price of Provisions (1801), A Letter
on the &2ove Trade (1817).
ERENEATJ
269
JC JtvJoJciJlf
EBENEAU, fre-no', PHILIP (1752-1832)
An American poet, born of Huguenot parentage
in New York, Jan 2, 1752 When he was a year
old his family moved to New Jersey, near what
is now Freehold He was educated by his
mother till he was 10 years old, and then was
tutored in Latin and Greek by a clergyman
He graduated (1771) fiom Pimceton, where he
was a college mate of James Madison, with
whom he roomed, and of H H Biackenridge
( q v ) He wrote with the latter for the college
commencement a poem on "The Rising Glory of
America " He had begun writing verses early,
and did much ephemeral woik immediately after
graduating After teaching school for a time
he studied law and made his first essay in
journalism in Philadelphia In 1776 he made a
voyage to the Danish West Indies, serving as
mate and acquiring nautical expeiience On
his return to the United States he did some
editing with Braekcnndge, then took out letters
of marque and made a voyage in a privateer,
the Aurora-, which he had built (1780) In May
he was captured by the English, and recorded
his experiences on a prison ship at New York in
a prose narrative and in a strong poem in four
cantos, "The British Prison Ship " He regained
his liberty in July, 1780, wrote much in prose
and satiric verse in periodicals, collected his
poems (1786), and occupied himself as ship-
master and •journalist till Aug 16, 1791, when
Jefferson made him translator for the State De-
partment and induced him to take charge of the
violently Anti-Federalist 'National Gazette Two
years latei, on Oct 1, 1793, Freneau retired to
his home at Mount Pleasant, N J , and edited
the Jersey Chronicle for a year Then he tried
jouinahsm in New York, but soon abandoned it
for the sea He made several voyages, one as
far as Calcutta, but retired in 1809 in conse-
quence of the laws restricting navigation In
1789 he had married Miss Eleanor Forman An
enthusiastic walker, he insisted on returning on
foot from the house of a friend, where he had
been spending the evening, Dec 18, 1832 He
was overtaken by a severe snowstorm, lost his
way, and was found dead the next day Edi-
tions of Freneau's poems (which are hard to
obtain) were published during his life in 1786,
1788 (containing some prose), 1795, 1809, and
1815 The last was rilled with panegyrics on the
soldiers and sailors of the War of 1812 The
edition of 1786 was reprinted in London and
New York,, 1861 and 1865 Freneau was the
first genuine American poet of marked ability
His best poems aie lyrics, such as "The Indian
Burying-Ground," "The Wild Honeysuckle," and
"Eutaw Springs " He published a few volumes
of mediocre prose under the pen name of "Robeit
Slender" Consult The biography by Mary
Austin (New York, 1901), Tyler, Literary His-
tory of the American Revolution (ib., 1897),
Wendell, Literary History of America (ib,
1900) , E F De Lancey, Philip Freneau, the
Huguenot Patriot Poet of the Revolution (ib ,
1891) , S E Forman, The Political Activi-
ties of Philip Freneau (Baltimore, 1902), P.
E. More. Shelburne Essays (5th series, New
York, 1908 ), Paltsits, Bibliography of the WorJcs
of Freneau (ib, 1903) A complete edition of
Freneau's poems was prepared by F L Pattee
(3 vols, Princeton, 1902-07)
FBBNSSBN, fr^n'sen, GusTAV (1863- )
A German novelist and clergyman, born at Barlt
in Holstein. He studied theology at Ttibmgen,
Kiel, and Berlin and lived as pastor at Hemme
from 1890 to 1902, when he moved to Meldorf
Later, at Blankenese, he devoted himself ex-
clusively to liteiature His fiist novel, Die
Sandgrafin (1896), showed little originality,
his second, Die drei O-etreuen (1898), showed
progress, in Jorn Uhl (1901), a strong novel of
peasant life, he struck his pace and became fa-
mous An English translation appeared in New
York in 1905 His fourth, Hillegenlei (The Land
of Happiness) (1905), less successful, shows
traces of the purpose novel His next, Peter
Moors Fahrt nach Suduest (1906), with its in-
teresting pictures of life in German Africa, is
better done Klaus Hinrich Baas (1909) is a
realistic novel of money worship, while Der
Unteigang der Anna Hollmann (1011) is a pessi-
mistic sea tale of sustained interest with some
of the characteristics of the fate tragedy It is
not the equal of Jorn Uhl He wro^te also the
diama^owfce Enchsen (1912) Consult Lowen-
berg, Tfy enssen, von der Scwdgrafin lis zum Jorn
Uhl (1903)
FRENTA'NI. A people in central Italy, on
the east coast, in the early ages, descended from
the Samnites They dwelt in a hilly region on
the shores of the Adriatic Sea, and their chief
town was Histonmm ( see VASTO ) Consult Con-
way, Italic Dialects (2 vols, Cambridge, 1897)
FREWZEL, fignts'el, KABL WILHEOI (1827-
1913) A German journalist and novelist, born
and educated in Berlin In 1861 he became
dramatic and hteiary critic of the National-
Zeitung of Berlin His works include many
historical novels depicting eighteenth-century
French life and later German life, eg, Frau
Venus (2 vols, 1880), fichonheit (1887), and
Wahrheit (1889) Several of these are well
known, such as Charlotte Oorday (1864) , Wat-
teau (1864), La Pucelle (1871), Lucif-er, ein
Roman aus der Napoleonischen Zeit ( 1873 )
His Berliner Dramaturgic (reprinted 1882) is
a valuable contribution to the history of the
modern German diama.
FBEPPEL, f re-pel', CIIAKLES EMILE (1827-
91) A French prelate and historian He was
born at Obernai, Lower Alsace, studied at Strass-
burg, and, after being ordained a priest, taught
there In 1870 he became Bishop of Angers
He was a champion of the doctrine of the in-
fallibility of the Pope, and defended it before
the Ecumenical Council at the Vatican After
the Franco-German War he publicly counseled
the restoration of the monarchy, and on numer-
ous occasions, more particularly during the
controversy between Bismarck and the Vatican,
he revealed his anti-German tendencies The
Catholic University at Angers was founded by
him in 1875 He was, after 1881, a leader of
the Clericals in the French Chamber of Depu-
ties His 30-odd volumes on Church history and
kindred sub]ects include Les peres apostoliques
et leur epoque (3d ed , 1870), Les apologistes
Chretiens au He siecle (3d ed , 1887), E&amen
critique de la vie de J&sus-Chnst par M. Renan
(15th ed , 1866), a violent polemic, St Iren&e
( 1861 ) , Tertulhen ( 1863 ) , Ongene ( 1867 )
His complete works were published in 10 vol-
umes (1880-88) Consult the biographies by
Cornut (Paris, 1893) and Charpentier (Angers,
1904)
EBJlRE, frar A family of French painters
CHABLES THEODORE (1815-88), the eldest, genre
and landscape painter, was born in Pans He
was a pupil of Cogniet and Uoquelan, and made
FBEBE
270
FBEBE-OKBAN
he
his first exhibit in 1834 Two
went to Algeria, traversed the desert,
- - present at the fall of Constantme,
1837 In 1869 he accompanied the
wars and trouble with the Boers He was re-
and lived in retirement at Wimbledon
LIB death, March 29, 1884 He was several
president of the Eoyal Asiatic Society,
•t.m_-»-._. ___T J__.C XV. ~ T>,->1-r<-. 1 ft nn
L^r^e * ^"vo^^.he^e, £ j^Jjj- ^tlnl^on^f 5
letters, speeches, etc , include a Memoir of the
making a sketchbook of aquarelles at her re-
quest
^_. His f^vo"te sf3ect,f°Lpl±Isiorily S™ht~' Hon'John n'ookham Frere, prefixed to
481 a "Bazaar in Damascus," a "Harem in Frere (London, 1895)
S^:^!sS^2SS£ ^SfS^S^(1Sf^L^
S'&^^^o.^. -^ U ^^ii^kh££^c£E
jSStoTtar IdST'Sb' r^^TS^E Ug/Camb: xdge , graduated^ A , 1792 ,_ MA
1865 ~
He entered
TO AC A ^ iftfi* *TA rh^f! m Panq March m 1795, and was elected a fellow
1848 and ^^.^^^Y^^nre the Foreign Office under Lord Grenville, and
25, 1SSS— PIERRE EDOTJARD (ISIJ ^ J^ genre f^ ^^ 1802 presented West Looc, Corn-
As a contributor to the
Anti-Jacobin he supported Canning's defense of
Pitt's administiation, and in 1799 was made
Undersecretary of State He was appointed En-
painter; br'other of the pieeeding He ^asTjorn from 1796°to 1802 represented West Looc, Corn-
in Paris, Jan 10, 1819, and studied jinder wall, m Parliament
, ,
Paul Delaroche and in the Ecole des Beaux
Arts He exhibited his first picture in the Salon
of 1843 At the close of the Exposition of 1855
°he ^ d^S with tie crosTLof th^Legion of voy to L.bon in 1800 and twice went as Min
±T0f ja^is^swtK
of humble household scenes and child life are
marked by true sentiment He possessed also
a fine sense of color His pictures aie well
known through reproductions Among the best
are the "Little Gouimand," "Curiosity/' "Re-
pose," "The Little Cook/3 "Fust Steps/' "The
to Corunna, caused Ins recall He afterward
lefused an ambassadoiship at St Petersburg,
and he twice declined the offer of a peeiage
Owing to his wife's ill health, he retired to
Malta and devoted himself to literature and
languages His mock-heroic poem, Prospectus
fibr'ary," "Going' to School " There are six'of ndSpe™** of an Intend Xat^al Worl ^
. A ajj-j5 ^ *?,»,.,.„, /** n T>-IJ. W,»77rt/Y*v» /rio/7 TfrtT^f.vf. V^li.'j.stlfir.rfi.Tf:. or Ktntn-
,
his pictures m the Walters Gallery, Baltimore,
and one m the Metropolitan Museum, New York
Frere died at Anvers-sur-Oise, May, 1886 —
CHARLES EDOTJAKD (1837-94) A genre, land-
scape, and portrait painter, son and pupil of
Theodore He also studied under Couture He
received a first-class medal m 1865 Among his
William aiid Robert Whistlecraft, of Stow-
Market in Suffolk, Harness and Collar Makers,
intended to comprise the most interesting par-
ticulars relating to King Arthur and his Round
Table (1817), furnished the model for Byron's
Beppo and Don Juan Frere's fame rests on his
translations of Aristophanes, The Acharnians,
paintings are the "Muleteer m the Alps" (1865), The Knights, The Birds, and The Frogs, which
" -' "Before the Ram" (1875), were privately printed, and only made public m
"The Basket-Sellers/'
"The Surgical Operation" (1884)
FBEBE, frer, SIE HENBY BARTLE EDWARD,
familiarly known as SIR BARTLE FRERE (1815-
84) A British diplomat and administiator
1847 by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis in The Classical
Museum Consult Memoir and Works of the
Right Son John Hookham Frere, by W E and
Sir Bartle Frere (London, 1874), and Festing,
He was born at Clydach, Brecknockshire, March J H Frere and his Friends (ib, 1899)
29, 1815, and after education at Bath Grammar FBERE-ORBAH, frarx dr'baN', HUBERT
School went to Haileybury College to prepare SEPH WALTIIER (1812-96) A Belgian states-
for the Indian Civil Service, which he entered in
1834, and m 1835 he was appointed assistant
revenue commissioner at Poona His judicious
treatment of native agriculturists led to bene-
ficial results and to his advancement In 1842
he became secretary to Sir George Arthur, Gov-
ernor of Bombay, in 1846 proceeded to Smdh
as British Resident, and in 1850 was appointed
Chief Commissioner In 1859 he was cieated
man He was born at Liege, received his educa-
tion at home and m Paris, and began the
piactice of law in his native town He identi-
fied himself with the Libeial party, and was con-
spicuous m the controversy with the Catholic
clergy In 1847 he was elected to the Belgian
Chamber and appointed Minister of Pubhc
Works, and from 1848 till 1852 he held the
portfolio of Finance He founded the national
K C B in recognition of valuable services during bank of Belgium, reduced postage, and was a
the Indian Mutiny, for which he twice received
the thanks of Parliament From 1862-67 he
was Governor of Bombay On his return to Eng-
land he was created G C S I and nominated
member of the Indian Council in London In
1872 he went as special commissioner to East
Africa and induced the Sultan of Zanzibar to
sign a treaty abolishing the slave trade In 1875
he was chosen to accompany the Prince of Wales
strong advocate of free trade His work, La
mainmoite et la charite (1854-57), directed
against the Conservatives, pioduced a great ef-
fect on the position of parties in Belgium As
a result, in 1857 the Liberals returned to power
and Frere-Orban became once more Minister of
Finance in the cabinet of Rogier, whom he suc-
ceeded as Prime Minister in 1868 In 1870 the
Catholics regained their supremacy and forced
to Egypt and India He was Governor of Cape him to retire, but from 1878 to 1884 he was
Colony 1877-80, and as High Commissioner for again at the head of the cabinet Subsequently
British South Africa was deputed to arrange the he led the Opposition in Parliament till 1894,
confederation of the South African colonies, when he lost his seat, oyer the suffrage exten-
which was frustrated by the Kaffir and Zulu sion question He was a successful financier
FBEBICHS
271
FBESCO
and a believer in the doctime of free trade
His libeiahsm consisted in the assertion of the
authority of the state over the church and the
defense of the system of secular public instruc-
tion against the clergy He was at all times
opposed to the undue extension of the suffrage
Among other works he wrote Le question
won&laire (1874)
EBEHICHS, fra'riKs, FBIEDRICH TTIEODOR VON
(1819-85) A German physician, born at Au-
rich and educated at Gottingen and Berlin Al-
ter holding a professorship at Kiel and conduct-
ing the clinical institute and hospital in that
city, he was for eight years piofessor of pathol-
ogy and therapy at Breslau (1851-59), whence
he was called to Berlin in 1859, where he be-
came permanently established He was consid-
eied one of the leading medical authorities in
the German capital, and as physician on the
general medical staff of the Prussian army ren-
dered particularly valuable services during the
Franco-German War His principal work is the
Klmik der Lelerhtankheiten (2ded, 1861, Eng
trans, 1860, under the title A Clinical Treatise
on the Diseases of the Liver j also translated
into French, and Italian)
FK&RON, fra'rON', ELIE CATHERINE (1719-
76) A French critic and controvei sialist A
brilliant pupil of the Jesuits, he was made pro-
fessor at the College Loms-le-Grand at the age
of 20, and on leaving the Jesuits (1730) was
engaged for 35 years as contributor to literary
journals, in which he carried on a relentless war
with Voltaire in particular and against the en-
cyclopaedic movement in general, on account of
its antireligious doctrines His work is not
without cleverness and good literary judgment,
but is best remembered for the retorts it evoked
from Voltaire, notably Le pauure diable, L'Ecos-
saise and L'Ane litteraire (The Literary Don-
key), the title of which parodied that of
Freron's journal L9Awn&e Litteraire (1754-76)
and reminds one of Pope's famous Dunciad
Fre>on wrote also histories of Mary Btuatt
(1742) and of Germany (1771), as well as neg-
ligible verses He died in Paris, March. 10,
1776 Consult Nisard, Les ennemis de Voltaire
(Pans, 1853), Monselet, Freron (ib, 1864);
J Trevedy, Notes sur Freron et ses cousins
Royon (ib, 1902)
FKJERON, Louis MARIE STANISLAS (1754-
1802^ A French journalist and legislator, son
of the preceding, born in Paris He was edu-
cated at the College Louis-le-Grand and was a
schoolmate of Robespierre He first came promi-
nently before the public as editor of the Annee
Litt6ravre In 1790 he founded the revolution-
ary journal L'Orateur du Peuple He was
elected a deputy to the Convention in 1792, was
a follower of Danton, and after persecuting the
Royalists with great cruelty, contubuted to the
downfall of Robespierre and attacked the Ter-
rorists, finally entering into negotiations with
the Monarchist faction He was an unsuccess-
ful suitor of Pauline Bonaparte, and in 1799
was made subprefect of Haiti, where he died
soon afterward from the effects of the climate
His MSmovre Iwstorique sur la reaction royale
et sur les massacres du Midi ( 1796 ) defends his
conduct at Toulon in 1793, as commissioner of
the army of Italy Consult Arnaud, Le fils de
Frtron (Pans, 1909).
PRES'CO fit, cool, fresh), 01 FBESCO
PAINTING The term properly applied to
the process as well as to the painting executed
upon plaster while it is still wet or fresh
hence the Italian name al fiesco It is also
improperly used for painting executed directly
on the surface of a wall, such as tempei a ( q v ) ,
also called distempera, which is the process in
which water colors mixed with egg or some
glutinous substance are used The method of
true fresco painting" is as follows A wall, either
of brick or stone (better than laths) and per-
fectly dry, is plasteied with lime and water (hy-
drate of lime) , which has been prepared and
allowed to stand for at least a year Before
using it is mixed with sand, and while the water
is in process of being expelled by the carbonic
acid in the lime, the pigments must be applied
in order that the protective covering of carbon-
ate of lime may form over them The first and
coarser coats, called arriccio, may be applied
over the entire wall about half an inch thick
and with a roughened surface, the two nner fin-
ishing coats, called intonaco, are applied only on
whatever portion of the surface can be painted
in a day This surface is then coveied by the
corresponding portion of the artist's cartoon,
of the same size as the finished fiesco is to be
This cartoon is executed usually in black and
white and quite sketehily, though the aitist
often has for further assistance a smaller sized
colored sketch for use in the details and color
scheme The impression of the cartoon is left
on the plaster either by pouncing or by indent-
ing the outlines with a pointed implement of
wood or bone, and the cartoon being then re-
moved, the painter proceeds to apply the colors,
these are mostly earths or minerals, as few
others will stand the action of lime, and they
are ground and applied with pure water The
coloring is necessarily thin, transparent, and
light, though since the late Renaissance the
more liberal use of impasto has lessened these
qualities, giving greater opacity When the
day's work is finished the artist cuts away any
of the plaster that he has not painted on, bevel-
ing it at the very edge of his finished work,
and the next day the plasterer joins closely an-
other portion of plaster to the edge of the por-
tion painted on the previous day The lime, in
drying, throws out a kind of crystal surface,
which protects the color and imparts a degree of
clearness much superior to, and easily distin-
guishable from, that of a work in tempera or
size paint This process, although apparently
simple, nevertheless requires great dexterity and
certainty of hand; for the surface of the plaster
is delicate and must not be overworked, besides,
the lime only imbibes a certain quantity of ad-
ditional moisture in the form of liquid colors,
after which it loses its crystallizing quality
and the surface, or a portion of it, becomes what
painters call rotten Manv frescoes are defec-
tive in this way It is only after the lime has
dried that such flaws are discovered, the proper
plan in such a case is to cut away the defective
portion, have fresh plaster laid on, and do the
work over again But the flaws are too often
retouched with tempera or size colors, and
though they may escape notice for a time, the
parts touched will change or come off in the
course of a few years All retouching must, of
course, be done a secco on the dry plaster and
must be sparingly used Another difficulty in
fresco is that the colors become much lighter
after the plaster dries, and for this allowance
must be made However, by practice the painter
FRESCO
272
PRESH-AtR WORK
may soon, get over this difficulty and he can test
the difference between the color as wet and as
dry by putting a touch on a piece of umber he
has generally at hand which instantly dries the
color and shows it as it will be when the lime
has dried Fresco secco is a spurious kind of
fresco, ordinarily used only in house decoiations
The colors are the same, but they are laid on
after the plaster is dry Before the work begins
the dry plaster is rubbed with pumice stone to
remove the crust, and then washed with water
mixed with a little lime The effect is coarse,
dry, and common, and the thin protecting1 crust
is inadequate to preserve the painting
The preeminence claimed for fiesco painting is
founded on (1) cleainess and purity of color,
( 2 ) a dead sui face as far removed from the dull-
ness of tempera as from the gloss of oils and so
capable of being viewed fiom all points, (3)
durability under all conditions, (4) cheapness
of process 3 (5) necessity for quick work, pre-
cluding the frittering of aitistic energy on un-
essentiala On the other hand, it lahois under
the disadvantage of the fragility of the plaster,
the lack of depth and richness, and the necessity
of more or less retouching by another process
( a secco }
History Fresco painting seems to have been
known to the Egyptians, and it was certainly
practiced by the Greeks and after them by
the Romans, but the only surviving examples
were found in Heiculaneum and Pompeii It
occurs also in the catacombs of Koine and
Naples, but was neglected in the Middle Ages
The peculiar construction of the Italian Gothic,
with its flat wall surfaces, offered a splendid
opportunity for fresco painting on a gland scale
The church of St Francis of Assisi, which be-
came a museum of fresco painting of the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries, led the way,
and soon, particularly through the influence
of Giotto, the greatest development of the art
that the world has ever seen began in Italy
In the fifteenth century it nourished especially
in Florence in the works of Massaccio, Ghii-
landaio, and others, whose achievements paved
the way for its supreme achievement in Michel-
angelo's ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and
Raphael's Stanze in the Vatican In northern
Italy it flourished at Padua in the fifteenth
century, at Milan, and especially at Parma in
the cupola decorations of Correggio, perhaps
the consummate master of the technique, but
whose exaggerations of movement contributed to
the extravagances of the baroque (seventeenth
century) Fresco painting was very widely
practiced m the eighteenth century, but degen-
erated into superficial decoration, and only
charms by its gay lightness in the works of
such masters as Tiepolo and certain French
rococo painters In the early nineteenth century
it was practically rediscovered by the German
Nazarenes ( see PRE-RAPHAELITES ) at Rome, and
an important development in Germany was made
possible by the commissions of Louis I of Ba-
varia, who caused churches, palaces, and museums
of Munich to be decorated in this medium,
chiefly after the designs of Overbeck Its prac-
tice continued in Germany, and it was also in-
troduced into England in the decorations of the
Houses of Parliament, but its use has of late
diminished, giving place to oil and encaustic
painting ( qq v. )
Bibliography. The process of fresco, as prac-
ticed by the early Italians, is described in the
well-known work of the contemporary painter
Cenmno Cennim Its development is also treated
in the paragraph History of the general aiti-
cle PAINTING Modern treatises on the sub-
ject are those of Taylor, A Manual o/ Fresco
and Encaustic Painting (London, 1847), von
Seidhtz, "Ueber Frescotechmk," in Kunst fur
alle, vol xv (Munich, 1900) , Ward, Fresco
Painting, its Art and Technique (London, 1909)
FBESCOB ALDI, f i Ss'kS-bal'de, GIKOLAMO
(1583-1644) A celebrated Italian organist and
composer, born at Ferrara Very little of his
earlier life and training is known, although he
had published a collection of five-part madrigals
as early as 1607 He appears to have studied
with Luzzaschi in his native place, afteiwaid
taking up his residence in Belgium Returning
to Italy, he lived first in Milan and later 011 in
Rome, where some time about 1614 he obtained
the position of organist at St Peter's By this
time he had acquired wide fame as an organ
virtuoso, as many as 30,000 people, it is re-
corded, having gone to hear his first perfoimance
at St Peter's With the exception of one short
inteival (1628-33), dunng which period he held
the appointment of court organist at Florence,
he retained his position at Rome He is le-
garded by many historians and musical author-
ities as the greatest organist of the first half of
the seventeenth century, while as a composer he
is scarcely less famous. In the latter capacity
he is credited with anticipating the modern key
system and the intioduction of advanced ideas
in fugal form and musical notation Fresco-
baldi's music is the highest type of eaily seven-
teenth-century music and displays the consum-
mate art of the early Italian school His vocal
compositions include canzones, motets, hymns,
and the collection of madrigals already noted.
Consult F X Haberl, FrescolaUi (Leipzig,
1887)
PHESENIUS, fre-za'neHis, KARL REMIGIUS
(1818-97) An eminent German analytical
chemist. He studied at Bonn and at Giessen and
was assistant to Liebig In 1845 he became pro-
fessor of chemistry and allied sciences at the
Agricultural Institute of Wiesbaden Fresenms
carried out numerous important investigations
in analytical chemistry and did much towards
systematizing this art by the publication of ex-
cellent works His exhaustive standard trea-
tises, well known to every student of chemistry,
have passed through many editions in German
and have been translated into several languages
They include Anleitung zur quahtatwen chem-
tschen Analyse, first published in 1841, and An-
leitung vur quantitatwen chemischen Analyse
(1845) In 1862 he founded the Zeitschrift fur
analytische Cliemie See ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL
PHESEKIUS, EEMIGIUS HEINKICH (1847-
) A German chemist, born in Wiesbaden,
son of the chemist, Karl Kemigms Fresenms
He studied at the universities of Berlin and
Leipzig (under Kolbe) , in 1872 became decent
in the Wiesbaden chemical laboratory, in 1881
head of the agricultural experiment station
there, and in 1897 director of the Fresenms
Chemical Laboratory, and was editor of the
Zeitschrift fur analytische Chemie (in 1882-97
with his father, after 1897 with his brother
Wilhelm and E Hmtz) He wrote valuable
monographs on many European mineral springs.
TBESH-AIB "WORK, A form of charity
which consists in taking poor children from the
slums of great cities into the country or to the
FRESH-AIK. WOBK
273
FBESNEL
seashore for recreation The first authenticated
case of chauty of this kind was m 1849, when
Rev William A Muhlenburg a pastor m New
York City, sent poor and sick people from his
parish into the country for short vacations In
1872 the New York Times inaugurated a system
of free excursions, and its example was fol-
lowed in other parts of the country The first
general fresh-air societies weie organized in
1874 Since that time the number of such
societies has gieatly increased In 1914 they
numbered nearly 100 General agencies, chuich
organizations, and private funds piovide for
between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000 days' outing
for poor children of the cities The benefici-
aries are for the most part children from 6 to
12 years old, though some of them aie infants
A few adult women usually accompany them
They aie sent away from the city for periods
varying from a few hours to a fortnight spent
in the so-called country "homes,33 or as the
guests or boarders of private families As a
rule, the parents of the children are not re-
quired to bear any of the cost In London, on
the other hand, parents often pay as nuich as
a third or more of the expense
On the continent of Europe, Switzerland was
the first country to develop this form of charity
The Rev W Bion, of Zurich, established the
first of the vacation colonies in 1876 Provision
had been made for poor children previously, but
it ^as not until that year that the work was
systematized and brought into close i elation
with the public schools The colonies are usu-
ally situated m the mountains Comfortable
lodgings and wholesome food are furnished free
of charge. Part of the expense is borne by the
state and by municipal governments The or-
ganization of fresh-air charity in Germany "was
contemporaneous with its organization in Swit-
zerland The first children's sanatoriums were
organized in Kolberg and Rothenfelde in 1874
Two years later the first children were sent to
vacation colonies The plan soon gained favor
throughout Germany, most of the important
cities make provision through public and private
agencies for vacations in colonies for consider-
able numbers of the children of the poor In
addition, large numbers of children are given
excursions lasting a day Those who are sent to
a distance, to seaside or health resorts, are usu-
ally accompanied by a teacher It is also com-
mon in Germany and Denmark for the artisan
classes in the city and country to make a tem-
porary exchange of children during a part of the
summer In France fresh- air charities are less
developed than in any other important European
country, but they are gradually rising in impor-
tance Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Lille, Toulouse,
Nancy, Besancon, and other cities have estab-
lished colonies
Vacation colonies have also been established
m Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Rus-
sia, and in Argentina, The system m Europe is
superior to the system in the United States in
two respects — there is marked cooperation of
fresh-air agencies in Europe by means of confer-
ences and exchange of reports The most impor-
tant recent development of fresh-air work is the
founding of seaside and country homes for chil-
dren suffering from surgical tuberculosis Ex-
periments with open-air treatment for children
of the cities suffering from nonpulmonary tuber-
culosis have been conducted in European coun-
tries for several decades, the first being at
Calais, where a hospital was founded for this
purpose m 1861 In America the fiist syste-
matic experiment was conducted at Sea Breeze,
near New Yoik City, m 1904, and it was
demonstrated that a few months in the sea air
would cure children who otherwise would be
hopelessly crippled Since that time an active
propaganda foi this form of fresh-air work has
been earned on by the New York Association
for Improving the Condition of the Poor, and
elsewhere Consult Ufford, Fresh Air Charity
m the United States (New York, 1897), Ger-
main, "Vacation Colonies in Switzerland," in
Consular Reports, vol hi, No 193, Comte, "Les
colonies de vacances," in Revue philanthropique
(Paris, 1898) , Allen, "The Sea Air Treatment
for New Yoik's Bedridden Children," in Review
of Reviews, vol xxxii (New York, 1905) ,
Delperier, Les colonies de vacances (Paris,
1908)
FKESH'FIELD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1845-
) An English geographei and mountaineer
He was educated at Eton and at University
College, Oxford, became a member of the Alpine
Club in 1864 (president, 1893-95) and edited
the Alpine Journal in 1872-80, and prominently
identified himself with the Royal Geographical
Society (president, 1914), the Geographical Sec-
tion of the British Association (president,
1904), and the Association of Geographical
Teachers He traveled and climbed mountains
in many parts of the world, being the first to
make ascents in the Caucasus (Elbruz and Kas-
bek, 1868, later, Gulba, Tetnuld, 1837, Laila
1889) In 1899 he visited the Sikkim Hima-
layas and in 1905 the base of Ruwenzon (Equa-
torial Africa) Much interested in historical
problems relating to the Alps, especially as to
the pass utilized by Hannibal, lie published
Hannibal Once More (1914) His other writings
include Travels in Cent? al Caucasus and Bashan
(1869), Italian Alps (1875), Exploration of
the Caucasus (1896, 2d ed , 1902), Round
Kangchenyungo, ( 1903 )
FRESH- WATER HARSH HEIST See RAIL
FRESH-WATER MUSSEL Any of the
great many species of Umo or A.nodon — bivalve
or pelecypod molluaks of rivers and ponds,
especially abundant in North America See
MUSSEL
FRES3STEL, frS/neK, AtTGUSTlN JEAN (1788-
1827) A French physicist He was born at
Broglie and was educated at Caen at the Ecole
Polytechnique and at the Ecole des Fonts et
Chauss6es On the completion of his studies he
was sent as government engineer to the Depart-
ment of Vendee, and afterward to the Depart-
ment of DrSme, where he remained till 1814
He lost his position on the return of Napoleon
from Elba, because he, as a Eoyalist, had offered
his services to the Bourbons After the Second
Restoration he returned to Paris, where he re-
sumed his duties as government engineer In
the interval he devoted his enforced leisure with
great success to physicomathematical researches,
investigating m particular the polarization of
light In ignorance of the work of Thomas
Young ( q v ) , Fresnel demonstrated to his
countrymen the error of the Newtonian theory
of the propagation of light (qv ) by the emis-
sion of material particles and so ably advocated
the undulatory hypothesis that Arago, who was
a member of a commission appointed to con-
sider the paper containing the new theory, be-
came an enthusiastic convert to his ideas Fres-
nePs crowning experiment, which demonstrated
the truth of the theory, was with the t\vo mir-
ier s inclined at an angle of neaily 180°, so that
the incident beams weie reflected to the same
point, and alternate light and daik bands or
fringes were seen This was not caused by dif-
fraction, as the beams were reflected from the
surface of the mirrors Having convinced him-
self that light was due to wave motion, he fur-
ther advanced the theory that these waves in the
ether were transverse, i e , that the displacements
in the ether were perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of the waves No contribution to
the theory of light is more important With
Arago he investigated the action of polarized
light, and their discoveries, published in a joint
memoir, confirmed the new theoiy of the mode
of the propagation of light His theory of the
explanation of double refraction by biaxial crys-
tals, involving a most complicated wave surface,
has stood the test of modern -work He elabo-
rated a theory of leflection and lefraction and
deduced formulae which observations have pioved
to be coriect, even though his theory v\as defec-
tive Mention should also be made of his theoiy
of the aberration of light and its resulting
formulae His practical application of scientific
optics to the improvement of lighthouse illumi-
nation was of incalculable value, and he seized
for several years as a member of the light-
house commission Consult Robeit Moon,, Fics-
nel and his Followers (Cambudge, Eng, 1849),
and D F Arago Biogtaphies of Distinguished
Scientific Hen, vol. n (Boston, 1859) See
LIGHTHOUSE
FRES3STILLO, fras-nel'yo. A town in the
State of Zacate cas, Mexico, 36 miles by lail
northwest of the city of Zacatecas, on the Mexi-
can Central Railway (Map Mexico, H 6) It
is situated at an elevation of nearly 6900 feet
and is well built and laid out with broad,
straight streets Stock raising is carried on in
this region, but the town derives its chief im-
portance from the rich silver and copper mines
of the Cerro del Proano, discovered in 1554.
There are other mineral deposits Pop (est),
6500
FBES'ITO, freVnS A city and the county
seat of Fresno Co , Cal , 209 miles southeast of
San Francisco, on the Southern Pacific and the
Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe railroads (Map
California, F 6 ) . It is situated m the centre of
the San Joaquin valley and has many attractive
buildings, among which are the Federal building,
erected at a cost of $250,000, Carnegie library,
city hall, and courthouse Places of interest
in the vicinity are King's River Cafion, Roedmg
Park, and Kearney Park, an irrigated experi-
mental farm owned by the University of Cali-
fornia The city is the centre of an agricultural
and stock-raising district, has important petro-
leum interests, and extensively exports raisins,
wines and brandies, grapes, oranges, olives, and
other fruits, shipping more than 12,000 car-
loads annually, besides wheat, sheep, and horses
The chief industrial establishments are fruit-
packing plants, a cooperage, icing plants, plan-
ing and flour mills, an oil refinery, macaroni
factories, a brewery, wagon works, etc Under
a charter of 1901 the government is vested in a
mayor, elected every four years, a municipal
council, and administrative officials, all of whom
are appointed by the mayor with the consent of
the council, excepting the city clerk, police
judge, and school directors, chosen by popular
vote. Settled in 1S72, Fiesno became the county
seat in 1874 and wss chartered as a city in 1885
Pop, 1900, 12,470, 1910, 24,892, 1914 (U S
est ), 28,800, 1920, 44,016
FRET (probably from OF frete, iron band,
ferrule, syncopated from It, ML f errata, iron
grating, from ferrare, to bind with iron, from
Lat ferrum, iron) A charge in heraldry
(qv)
FKETEAU DE SAINT-JUST, fri'ty de
saN-zhust', EMMANUEL MARIE MICHEL PHILIPPE
(1745-94) A French politician, born in Paris,
In 1787 he was imprisoned in the castle of Doul-
lens for his opposition to the King, but returned
to his seat in Pailiameiit a year later He
was a deputy to the States-General and was
one of the first of his rank to join the Third
Estate He became a member of the Constitu-
tional Committee, then Secretary and twice
President of the Assembly In 1790 he intro-
duced a resolution that only the Assembly, act-
ing on the King's initiative, had the right to
make war, demanded that the title of Arch-
bishop should be done away with and voted for
the suppression of all titles of nobility, and
near the end of the year was elected judge in
Paris In 1792 he lesigned from the presidency
of the First Airondissement and retired to his
home at Vaux-le-Peml Two years afterward he
was arrested on the charge of joining two priests
in an antirevolutionary plot He was acquitted,
but was kept in prison, and two months later
was tried and executed for favoring the schemes
of Capet and for complicity with Thouret and
Le Chapelier
FRETTTM GALLICUM See BONIFACIO
ERETUM HEUCTILEITM See GIBKALTAK
FBETUM 1CAMEBTINUM See MESSINA,
STRAIT OF
FBETTTM SICILLEJ, fre'tmn si-siFi-e, or
FIIETUM SICILIEN'SE. One of the ancient
names of the strait between Italy and Sicily
See MESSINA, STRAIT OF
FBEITB, froit, SIGMUND (1856- ) An
Austrian physician and psychopathologist He
was born in Freiburg, Moravia, May 6, 1856
After graduating in medicine from the Uni-
versity of Vienna, he was, in turn, demonstrator
in the physiological institute, assistant physician
in the geneial hospital, and lecturer on nervous
diseases In 1885 he went to Paris, where for a
year he was a pupil of Charcot In 1902 he was
made associate professor of neuropathology in
the University of Vienna He visited America
in 1909 and received the honorary degree of
LL D from Clark University His most im-
portant works are* Zur Auffassung der Aphasie
(1891) , Studien ueber Hysteme, with J Breuer
(1895, 2d ed, 1908, Eng trans by Jelliffe and
White, 1913), Traumdeutung (1900, 3d ed ,
1911, trans by Brill, Interpretation of Dreams,
1913) , Ueber den Traum (1901, 2d ed , 1911),
Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens (1904, 4th
ed, 1912, Eng trans, 1914), Der Witz und
seine Bestiehung zum Unbewussten (1905; 2d
ed., 1912) , Drei Abhandlungen zwr Sewualtheorie
(1905, 2d ed, 1910, trans by Brill, Three Con-
tributions to the Sexual Theory, 1910) , Samm-
lung kleiner Schnften &ur Neurosenlehre (1906,
2d ed, 1911), Zwmte Folge (1909, 3d ed,
1913), Ueber Psychoanalyse (1910, 2d ed,
1912), Totem und Tabu (1913) He also be-
came editor of Jahrftuch ffyr psyehoanalytische
und psyvhopathologische ForschMngen, Iwt&rna-
twnale Zeitschrtft fur ar®tliche Psychoanalyse,
FREUNB
275
FREY
Imago, and Schnften vur angeioandten Seelen-
kunde
Freud's principal conti ibutions to science have
been a new method for the analysis and treat-
ment of hysteria (psychoanalysis) and a com-
prehensive theory of dreams (See DREAMING )
He believes that most cases of hysteria are the
indirect result of a nervous shock, emotional and
usually sexual in nature The ideas involved
are, for various reasons, suppressed 01 inhibited
until at length they are forgotten, i e , cannot
voluntarily be recalled They find expiession,
however, in the hysterical state The method
of psychoanalysis, which is highly technical, con-
sists in the employment of the patient's free as-
sociations as an aid to the subsequent recall of
the forgotten or submerged group of ideas When
this end is accomplished, the patient is believed
to be on the highroad to recovery, since the
ideas, once suppressed, are now bi ought into
connection with normal associations and the
cause of the hysteria is removed Consult
Freud, Selected Papers on Hysteria, trans by
Brill (New York, 1909) , Hart, "Fi cud's Con-
ception of Hysteria," in Brain (London, 1911) ,
Zentralolatt fur Psychoanalyse (Wiesbaden,
1911) , Bull, Psychoanalysis (New York, 1913) ,
Hitschraann, Fiends Newrosenlehte (Vienna,
1911) , Putnam, in Journal of Abnormal Psy-
chology, iv (Boston, 1909) , Jones, in Psycho-
therapeutics (ib, 1909) Jelliffe and White of
New York founded in 1911 an American
Psychoanalytic Association and in 1913 the
Psychoanalytic Review
FREUND, fromt, WILHELM (1806-94) A
Geiman classical scholar, boin of Jewish parents
at Kemp en, Posen. He was educated at Berlin,
Breslau, and Halle, and taught at Bieslau (1828-
29), at Hirschberg (1848-51), and at Glciwitz
(1855-70) After 1870 he worked at Breblau
His great work is the Worterbuch dcr lateimschen
Spraehe (1834-45), based on the great lexicon of
Forcelhni (qv ) He wrote also (lesamtworter-
buch der lateimschen Bprache (1844-45) and
the Lateinisch-deutsches und deutsch-lateinisch-
griechisches Bchulworterbuoh (1848-55) The
Latin-English dictionaries by Andrews, Smith,
Lewis and Short, and Raddle and White aic all
based upon his work Only a little less im-
portant than his lexicographical work was the
valuable Wie studirt man Philologie® (6th ed,
by Deiter, Stuttgart, 1903) He also wrote*
Tafeln der Litteraturgeschichte (1877), Tmen-
mum Philologioum (3d ed, 1906 et seq ) , along
series of Praparationen &u dew gnechischen und
romischen Klassikern, beginning in 1859, Wan-
derungen auf klassischem Boden (1889-92)
FREY, frSy, or FREYR (Icel , lord) The
son of Njord, of the dynasty of the Vanagods.
He was adopted with his father among the jEsir,
who, when he got his first tooth, bestowed upon
him the celestial castle Alfheim He is the god
of peace and fruitfulness, but particularly of
light; dispenses ram and fertility, and to him
prayers for a good harvest are addressed He
wakens the earth from the sleep of winter His
wife is Gerda, daughter of the giant Gymer
Frey had seen her as he once ascended the lofty
seat of Odin, Hhdskjalf, from which every-
thing on earth is seen. Gerda was so beauti-
ful that the brightness of her arms illuminated
air and sea Seized with love, Frey sent Skirnir
as spokesman, and for his services had to give
him his sword, which he will mis$ in the final
contest or eclipse of the gods. His magic ship
Skidbladmr, which could be folded up like a
cloth, represents the clouds that dissolve at the
lays of the sun Like Freyja, he was the patron
of marriage, and probably the two wore at one
time conceived as united herniaphroditically
Frey was held in gieat veneration, especially in
Sweden, of which he was patron god, in Norway,
and from there also m Iceland His chief temple
was at Upsala, where a bloody offering was
yearly made to him of men and aniraalh His
festival was at the winter solstice, and while the
god Vvas borne round the land all strife was laid
aside Oaths were often sworn in his name, ancf
he was called on to avenge wiongs He is even
called the god of the woild and the prince of
gods Both Njord and Frey are very much like
Nerthus, described by Tacitus in the Q-ermama
as tetra mater , possibly through a confusion of
gender the feminine Nerthus became the mas-
culine N]orcl Consult Paul, O-rundriss der ger-
manischen Philologic, 111 (Strassbuig, 1900)
FREY, fri, EMIL (1838-1922) A Swiss
statesman He was born at Arlesheim and,
atter studying at Jena, came to the United
States, where during the Civil War he fought
With distinction in the Union aimy, was taken
prisoner at Gettysburg, and was not released
until 1865 lie was advanced to the rank of
major In 1865 he returned to Switzerland In
the Nationalrat he was a leader of the Left
in 1872-82 and President in 1875-76 He was
editor of the Basel 'er Nachrichten from 1872 to
1882, when he was appointed Minister Pleni-
potentiary to the United States Returning in
1888, he was in 1893 elected President of the
Swiss Confederation He became an active pro-
moter of educational reform and an advocate of
international legislation for the regulation of
factoiy service He worked for the construc-
tion of the St Gotthard Tunnel and of other
avenues of intercourse, the modification of the
forestry laws, the extension of the fortification
system* and the improvement of the army In
1897 he was made director of the International
Telegraph Bureau at Bern In 1906 he was
piesident of the first Conference for Interna-
tional Protection of Workingmen
FREY, FKIEDBIOH HEBMANN See GBEIF,
MARTIN
FREY, HEINRIOH (1822-90) A German an
atomist and zoologist He was born at Frank4"
fort on the Main and studied medicine at Bonn,
Berlin, and Gottingen In 1848 he was ap-
pointed professor of comparative anatomy and
histology at Zurich, and professor of zoology at
the Polytechnic Institute in that city Most of
his works are devoted to histology and micros-
copy and are considered among the best pro-
ductions on those departments of science
Especially important are the following Ristolo
gie und Histochemie des Mensohen ( 5th ed ,
1876; Eng trans by A E J Barker, 1874);
Das Mikroskop und die mikroskopische Techmk
(8th ed, 1886, Eng trans by G R Cutter,
1874) , G-rund&uge der Histologie (3d ed, 1885)
He was especially skillful in researches in the
subject of microlepidoptera, which topic he dis-
cusses in the works entitled Die Tineen und
Pterophoren der Sohwei® (1856) and Lepidop-
teren der Schweiz (1880).
FREY, JAKOB (1824-73) A German-Swiss
editor and novelist, who wrote but little, but
that of rare quality He was born at Guten-
achwyl, Canton of Aargau, Studied at the uni-
versities of Tubingen, Munich, and Zurich, wafi
EBEY
276
FBEYJA
editor of a paper at Aarau and afterward at
Bern, and, having for some years lived at Basel,
settled in 1868 at Aarau, where lie died His
collection of tales, Zwschen Jura und Alpen
(1858), the novel Die Waise von HolUgen
(1863)? and the three volumes of Schweizerbilder
(1864 and 1877), are all works of distinction
and artistic genius, worthy to rank with the
works of Jeremias Gotthelf and Gottfried Keller
Consult A Frey, Jakob Frey, Lebensbild (Aarau,
1897)
THEY, JOSEPH SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FKEDEKICK
(1773-1850) An American clergyman, born at
Mainstockheim (Bavaria), Germany As a Jew,
he was instructed in Hebrew theology, and in
1794 became a reader in the Synagogue, but in
1798 he turned Protestant Christian and in
1800-07 was a missionary of the London Mis-
sionary Society among Hebrews in the United
Kingdom In 1816 he came to the United States,
in 1818 founded and was appointed pastor of
the Mulberry Street Congregational Church,
New York City, and in 1820 established the
American Society for Ameliorating the Condi-
tion of the Jews, which worked among Hebrew
immigrants He left the Congregational church
to join the Baptists in 1827 and, after having
occupied several pastorates in the Baptist de-
nomination, resigned and in 1837-40 labored
with little success in Europe as a representative
of the American Society for the Conversion of
the Jews In 1840 he returned to the United
States, and later he settled at Pontiac, Mich,
where he was inatiuctor in Hebrew in the pre-
paratory department of the University of Michi-
gan. His publications include A Narrative of
my Life (1809), Judah and Israel (1837), A
Hebrew and English Dictionary (1839) , a
Hebrew Grammar, which passed through many
editions, Joseph and Benjamin A Series of
Letters on the Controversy between Jews and
Christians (2 vols , 1842)
IPBEYCIETET, fra'se^na', CHARLES Louis DE
SAULCES DE (1828-1923) A French statesman
and engineer He was born at Foix, in the
Department of Anege, and was educated at the
Ecole Polytechnique m Paris In 1856 he was
appointed chef Sexploitation of the Railway
Company of the South From 1856 to 1861
Freycinet undertook several journeys in the
employ of the government and published as a
result of his observations an admirable work on
city sanitation and another on child labor in
England After the fall of the Empire Gam-
betta appointed Freycinet Prefect of the Depart-
ment of Tarn-et-Garonne, and in October, 1870,
he was associated with Gambetta as "personal
delegate of the Minister of War " In this
capacity Freycinet displayed remarkable energy
and ability, particularly in the rapid organiza-
tion of the military railway and telegraph serv-
ice, and the furnishing of the staff with strate-
gic maps. He retired after the armistice and
published La guerre en province pendant le siege
de Paris (1872), which was a defense of his ad-
ministration He was elected to the Senate in
1876, was appointed Minister of Public Works
in 1877, and was intrusted with the formation
of a cabinet by President Grevy, in 1879, as-
suming the portfolio of Foreign Affairs Not
being in accord with Gambetta, he resigned the
premiership in 1880, but on the resignation of
Gambetta in 1882, Freycinet formed a new
cabinet, which resigned a few months later, upon
being refused a vote of credit for the protection
of the Suez Canal It was through this that
France lost all her influence in Egypt In 1885,
on the downfall of the Ferry cabinet, he was
summoned by President Grevy to foim a new
ministry, but not succeeding in harmonizing
the conflicting elements, he entered the cabinet
formed under Henri Brisson as Foreign Minister
He formed a new cabinet in Januaiy, 1886, but
was forced to resign in December He "\\as
Minister of War from 1888 to 1893, being also
Premier from 1800 to 1892 He went out of
office, together with the rest of the cabinet, in
January, 1893, as a result of the investigations
into the Panama affair From November, 1898,
to May, 1899, Freycinet was once more Minister
of War in the Dupuy cabinet In 1887 he was
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences
and in 1890 a member of the Fiench Academy
He has written a number of works on engineer-
ing and mathematics, among others Ttaite dr
mecanique ratwnelle (1858) and De V analyse
infinitesimale (1860), also Essais sur la phi-
losophie des sciences (1895) , and La Question
d'Egypte (1905) In 1914 two volumes of his
Memoires had appeared
FE/EYCIKET, Louis CLAUDE DESAULSES DE
(1779-1842) A French naval officer and navi-
gator He was born at Montehmart in the De-
partment of Drome, Aug 7, 1779 Joining the
navy in 1793, in 1795 he took part in several
engagements against the English and Spanish
In 1800 he -joined, with his brother Louis Henn,
who afterwaid rose to the rank of admiral, the
expedition sent out under Captain Baudin m
the Natwahste and Geographe to explore the
south and southwest coasts of Australia Much
of the ground already explored by Flinders was
revisited and renamed In 1805 Freycinet re-
turned to Paris and was given an appointment
in the Department of Marine Maps and Charts,
in order to make maps of the territory the
expedition had covered In 1817 he commanded
the Uranie, in which Arago and others went to
Rio de Janeiro to take a series of pendulum
measurements This was part of a laiger
scheme for obtaining observations, not onlv in
geography and ethnology, but in astionomv,
terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology, and for
the collection of specimens in natuial history
For three years Freycinet cruised about, visiting
Australia, the Marianne, Hawaiian, and other
Pacific islands, and South America, returning to
France, notwithstanding the loss of the Urame,
with fine collections in all departments of
natural history He published several scientific
memoirs and two accounts of his travels
Voyages de decouverte auoo terres australes pen-
dant les annees 1800-04 (2d ed , 1824-25) and
Voyage autour du tnonde entrepris par ordre du
roi (13 vols, 1824-44) He was one of the
founders of the Geographical Society of Paris
FBEYJA, frgy'ya (Icel, lady, fern of Frey),
and FRIG-'GA (woman, wife) Two goddesses
in northern mythology Fngga, the older, is
found among nearly all Germanic peoples, while
Freyja is a later creation of the Icelandic.
Fngga, in the genealogy of the JBsir ( q v ) , is
the supreme goddess, wife of Odm, and presides
over marriages. Freyja is the daughter of
Njord, sister of Frey, and goddess of love She
is drawn on a car yoked with cats, to her de-
ceased women go and also the half of all men
that fall in battle, whence »he is called Val-
Freyja In this last respect she must be con-
sidered as signifying the earth, bat the earth is
FREYLINGHATJSEN
277
FBIAH,
also represented by Frigga, the wife of Odin,
and when Freyja seeks Odm, Odm symbolizes the
sun The names "Frigga" and "Freyja" are in
signification almost alike, and the two are often
confounded in mythology The Anglo-Saxons
and Lombards worshiped the wife of Odm as
Frea The name yet survives, probably, in Fri-
day. Consult Mortensen, Handbook of Noise
Mythology (New York, 1913), and Craigie, Ice-
landic Sagas (ib , 1913)
PHEYLIHGHATTSE1T, f riling -hou'zen, Jo
HANN AWASTASIUS (1670-1739). A German
pietistic theologian and religious poet, born at
Gander sheim fie studied theology at Jena and
in 1695 went as Francke's assistant to Halle,
where he later became chief pastor and director
of the Pedagogical Institute His Compendium
der ch'usthchen Lehre was translated into Eng-
lish by J Planta in 1804 under the title An
A bstract of the Whole Doctrine of the Christian
Religion His Grundlegung der Theologie (14th
ed , 1744) was also very popular in its day It
is chiefly, however, as a writer and editor of
hymns that Freyhnghausen is known, among his
principal publications of this kind being the
collection Geistreiches Gesangbuch (1714), con-
taining 683 hymns, and Neucs geisfa eiches Ge-
sangbuch, containing 798 hymns These hymns
obtained a wide popularity in the Protestant
church service and have been frequently re-
published Freyhnghausen is said also to have
been an excellent musician.
FUEYR See FEET
EBEYTAG, fri'taa, GEOEG WILTTELM FRIED-
RICH (1788-1861) A distinguished German
Orientalist, born at Luneburg He studied the-
ology and Oriental philology at Gottmgen and
from 1811 to 1813 acted as tutor there In 1813
he became public librarian at Konigsbeig, and
in 1815 chaplain in the Prussian army, in which
capacity he visited Paris, and remained there
after peace was proclaimed in order to continue
the study of Peisian, Turkish, and Arabic under
the famous De Sacy In 1819 he was appointed
to the professorship of Oriental languages in the
recently established University of Bonn, and this
post he held until his death. He edited and
translated into Latin two volumes of Arabic
songs, Eamasce Caimina (1828-52), and edited
three volumes of Arabic proverbs, Arabum Pro-
verbia (1838-43) He also published a Hebrew
grammar and a treatise on Arabic versification
His greatest work, however, was his Lexicon
Arabioo-Latmum (4 vols , 1830-37, abridged
ed, 1837)
EBEYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-95) A German
novelist, dramatist, and critic of distinction.
He was born at Kreuzburg, Upper Silesia, July
13, 1816, studied at Breslau and Berlin, lectured
on German literature as privatdocent at the
University of Breslau, and after a brief resi-
dence in Dresden went to Leipzig to become
editor of Die Grenzboten (1848-70) During
this period he had published, together with other
dramas of minor interest, Die Journalisten
(1853), still often acted, one of the very few
modern German comedies that can be ranked
with Lessmg's (qv ) Minna von Bamhelm, the
admirable novel Soil und Haben (1855, trans-
lated into nearly all European languages), deal-
ing with the inevitable conflict between the spirit
of caste and privilege, rooted in the feudal past
of Germany, and the new industrial and demo-
cratic spirit of the age; a novel of less merit,
Dte verlorene Handsoturrft (1864) , a, valuable
contribution to the theory of dramatic criticism,
Die Teohmk des Dramas (1863), indifferently
translated into English by McEwen (Chicago,
1894) , and the most popular historical essays
of his generation, Bilder aus der deutsohen Ver-
gangenheit (4 vols, 1859-62) From 1867 to
1870 Freytag represented Erfurt in the Noith
German Reichstag, and duung the French war
he was for a time attached to the staff of the
Crown Prince A journal of these days, Der
Kronpmms und die deutscJic Kaiserhrone, pub-
lished in 1889, one of Fieytag's few weak pro
ductions, revealed, in a way unwelcome to the
court, the liberal tendencies of the deceased
Frederick III and supplemented the brief auto-
biographic Ermnerungen aus meinem Leben that
had accompanied Freytag's collected Works (%%
vols, 1887-88) In his novels he was influenced
bv Scott and Dickens His great work after
1870 was the senes of historical novels Die
Ahnen (1872-80), a monument to the con-
tinuity of German character through all the
ages of its history and already a classic in its
literature To this national task Freytag gave
eight of Ins maturest yeais, and he brought to
it the preparation of long historic investiga-
tions. The stories leach back in Jngo und
Ingraban to the twilight of German history and
bring the reader to the Christian conversion,
show in a second volume, Das Nest der Zaun-
konige, the growing dominance of the Roman
church, in a third, Die Bruder vom deutschen
Bause, the struggles of the Teutonic Knights,
and in a fourth, Marfcus Konig, the Reformation
and the founding of the Prussian state The
fifth, Die Gesohwister, deals with the Thirty
Years' War, and the last, Aus einer kleinen
Stadt, with the revival of national life after the
humiliations of the Napoleonic conquest They
are, however, marked rather by histoncal learn-
ing and a thorough insight into German charac-
ter than by great artistic merit While these
novels were appearing, Fieytag wiote much for
a weekly, Im neuen Reich , but in 1879, Die
Ahnen finished, he withdrew fiom active life
and lived chiefly at Wiesbaden, where he died,
April 30, 1895 His complete works were pub-
lished in 22 volumes (1887-88) For his biog-
raphy, consult Alberti (Leipzig, 1885) , Seller
(ib, 1898), Emch Schmidt, "Dem Andenken
Gustav Freytags," in Deutsche Rundsohau, xxi
(Berlin, 1895) ; E EMci, "Gustav Freytag,"
in Biographisches Blatter, ed by Bettelheim,
vol 11 (Berlin, 1896)
FBIAKT, frfi'aw', Louis, COUNT (1758-
1829) A French general, born at Villers-Mor-
lancourt, Sonime After participating in the
wars of the French Revolution he accompanied
Napoleon as brigadier general to Egypt in 179*8
and was appointed Governor of Upper Egypt by
Kle"ber He fought with distinction at Heliopo-
hs (March 20, 1800) and Cairo and was ap-
pointed general of division, but after a futile
defense of Alexandria was compelled to sur-
render to the allied armies of England and Tur-
key (August, 1801) The title of Count was
conferred on him at the coronation of Napoleon
He participated in nearly all the great battles
of the Napoleonic wars, from Austerhtz to
Waterloo, particularly distinguishing- Mniself at
Borodino Consult the Vie mihtiavre (Paris,
1857), by his son, Gen Jean Frangois Fnant
PBI'AB (OF freret freir&, Fr. frdre, Sp
fray, frade, It frate, from Lai f rater, brother)
A generic name applied to the members of cer-
PRIAR BACON
278
tain comparatively modern religious communi-
ties in the Roman Catholic church, in contra-
distinction to the older title of monk, which
designated especially the Benedictines and their
branches Friar belongs to the members of the
four great orders — Franciscan, Dominican, Cai-
mehte, and Augustiman, and of the lesser
orders These orders, unlike those of the monks,
are devoted primarily to service in some form,
and their vow of poverty originally applied to
the order, as well as the individual, so that they
must beg their food and became known as
mendicant orders Their founders, from motives
of humility, chose the simple title of brother to
designate their followers St Francis called his
fratres minotes, friars minor (lesser brothers),
while St Dominic gave his order the name of
fratres ptcedicatores (pleaching friars) The
popular names of these orders were derived from
the color or other distinguishing mark of their
habit — such as gray fnars (Franciscans), black
friars (Dominicans), white friars (Carmelites),
crutched friars (Canons Regular of the Holy
Cross), and Austin friars ( Augustmians ) See
MONASTICISM
FRIAR BACON A popular title for Roger
Bacon It is employed in a play by Robert
Greene, entitled The Honorable History of Fria*
Bacon, and Friar Bungay} printed by Edward
White in quarto (1594) A prose work, first
printed in 1627, was reprinted in Thoms's Early
English Prose Romances (Pickering, London,
1828), under the title of The History of Friar
Bacon
ERIAR BIRD (so called from its bare head,
the ruff of featheis about its head, and its sober
plumage) A well-kno^n Australian honey eater
(Philemon, or Tropidorhynchus, cormcwlatus) .
It also has other names, as "Pimlico" and "Four
o'clock/3 imitative of its loud cry Several closely
related forms inhabit the Malayan islands to
the north of Australia All are dull drab in
color, have the head and neck more or less bare
of feathers, and the culmen of the large curved
bill furnished with an excrescence They in-
habit the tree tops, go in small flocks, and are
strong, bold, noisy birds An interesting cir-
cumstance connected with them is the fact that
in each island where a local species exists there
also exists an oriole which "mimics" its ap-
pearance perfectly (see MIMICRY) and thereby
escapes much harm from enemies that might
easily overcome it did they not mistake it foi the
more powerful friar bird Consult Wallace,
Daruimsm (London, 1889)
PRIAR BTTWGAY See BIWGAY, FBIAR
:FRIAR RUSH See RUSH, FRIAR
PRIAR'S BALSAM The popular name for
compound tincture of benzoin, of the United
States Pharmacopoeia, it is also applied to a
similar preparation, Balsamum traumaticum
Friar's balsam is used as a dressing for wounds
and ulcers, being stimulating and antiseptic
See BENZOIN
FRIAR'S TALE, THE In Chaucer's Canter-
bury Tales, the tale told by the friar Hubert
FRIAS, fre'as, TOMAS (1805-84) A Bo-
livian statesman, born at Potosi He was Sec-
retary of State under several presidents, and
after the assassination of Morales, in 1872, he
was selected to conduct the affairs of the gov-
ernment as acting President He was elected
Vice President in 1873, and upon the death of
President Ballivian succeeded to' the presidency
(FeK 14, 1874) . His administration was pro-
gressive and undistuibed T\so yeais after the
completion of his term of office (1877) he was
sent as Minister to France He was one of the
foremost of South American statesmen
FRIBOURGr, fre'boor', or FREIBURG, fri/-
burK A canton in the westein part of Switzer-
land (Map Switzerland, B 2) It has an area
of 646 square miles The southeastern part is
high and may be said to belong to the Bernese
Oberland legion, the northwestern part belongs
to the basin of Lake ISTeuchateL The mam rivers
are the Saane and the Broye The mountain
forests furnish wood for export, limestone, gyp-
sum, and pitch coal are found Of the total
area 88 per cent is productive Grain, fruit,
potatoes, tobacco, and grapes are grown Dairy
products, especially cheese, are exported Fri-
bourg produces a fine grade of draft horses and
gives its name to an excellent breed of black
cattle. Its manufactures are not important
They include watches, paper, tobacco and cigars,
glass, and products of the loom Straw plaiting
and tanning are leading industries The canton
is administered by a Grand Council, elected by
the people It sends seven representatives to
the National Council Pop, 1900, 127,628, 1910,
130,200 Tlie inhabitants are mostly Roman
Catholics French is the official language, al-
though legislative measures are published also in
German The canton is on the line separating
the German and French speaking population of
Switzerland The educational institutions com-
piise the univeisity at the capital, Fribourg
(qv), a seminary, a college, and many sec-
ondary, elementary, and industrial schools The
ancient dwellers of the land were the Celtic
Helvetn During the great barbaric migrations
the district was occupied by the Alemanni in
the east and the Burgundians in the west In
the sixth century it came into the possession
of the Franks It passed under the control of the
Holy Roman Empire in 1032 The inhabitants
refused to allow the spread of Protestantism
within their borders In 1798 the French oc-
cupied the land, and it remained under French
influence till 1814. The canton, winch has al-
ways been ultramontane and conseivative, is the
only one without the referendum and with re-
stricted popular rights Consult Berchtold,
Histoire du canton de Fribourg (Freiburg, 1841-
45), and Mar rot, Ohronique du canton de Fn-
lowrg (ib, 1878)
FRIBOTJRGr, or FREIBURG The capital
of a canton of the same name, Switzerland, situ-
ated on the Saane, 19 miles southwest of Bein,
on the main line of railway between Berne and
Lausanne (Map Switzerland, B 2) The town
stands on a promontory, is ancient, and is ir-
regularly built, with many walls and towers
The river is crossed by a number of fine bridges,
including two of the suspension type, of which
the larger, built in 1832, is 808 feet long The
most notable buildings are the church of St
Michael, formerly belonging to the, Jesuits, and
the town hall, with its Gothic clock tower
Among the educational institutions are the uni-
versity (founded m 1889), the College of St
Michael, and the lyceum, containing the can
tonal museum A dam 590 feet long across the
Saane immediately above the town supplies
about 4000 horse power The chief manufac-
tures of the town are tobacco, pasteboard,
leather, and artistic objects Pop, 1900, 15,794,
1.910, 20,394
PRIG, or PRITSOH, frieh,
FBlB 2
(1832-1914) A Bohemian geologist and zo-
ologist, brothei of Joseph Vaclav Flic, bom and
educated at Prague He became piofes&or in the
Czech University at Prague (1863) and was also
director of the zoological and palcontological de-
partment of the Museum of Bohemia Among
his writings are Les oiseaux d> Europe (1832) ,
Naturgeschichte der Vogel Europas (1853-71),
Gephalopoden der l)ohmischen Nreideformation
(1872), Geologische Bilder aus der T orzeit
Bohmens (1873) , Die Reptihen und Fische der
bohmischen Kreideformation (187S), Fauna der
Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation
Bohmens (4 vols , 1879-99), Fischer eikarte des
Komgreichs Bohmen ( 1888 ) , Der Mleluchs
(1894)
FRIG, JOSEPH VACLAV (1829-90) A Bohe-
mian poet, born in Pi ague Because he took
active part in the risings of 1848-49 he was
punished by imprisonment and exile He went
to London m 1859, then to Paris and to Berlin,
and in 1879 returned to Pi ague His literary
productions, which do not rise above mediocrity,
include PUc koruny cesKe (The Wail of the
Czech Crown, 1866) , contributions to the Czech
periodicals Blanik and Oorrespondance tcheque
and to the Agramer Zeitung (1870-77) , the his-
torical woik, with Leger, La Boheme histonque,
pittoresque, et litterawe (1868) , the dramas
Svatopluk, Ulryk Hutten, and Mazeppa,; an al-
manac, Lada Niola (1885) , and lyric poems in a
Byronic manner, of which Upir (The Vampire,
1849) is the best example His collected works,
Sebrane spisy, were published at Prague (1879-
80), and his Memows appeared in four volumes
(Prague, 1885-87) He frequently used the
pseudonym "Brodsk^ "
FRICK, HENRY CLAY (1849-1919) An
American manufacturer and capitalist, born at
West Overton, Pa At the age of 19 he became
bookkeeper in a flouring mill at Broad Ford, in
the centre of the Connelsville territory He
early took an interest in the possibilities of the
coking industry, then in its infancy, and in 1871
organized the firm of Frick and Company with
300 acres of coal lands and 50 ovens — one-eighth
of the total number in the Connelsville region
In the panic of 1873 the coking industry suf-
fered severely Frick had the sagacity to ac-
quire the properties of his hard-pressed competi-
tors, as well as the interests of his partners,
thus laying the foundation for his later control
of the industry. By 1889 he controlled 35,000
acres of coal lands and 1 5,000 ovens, representing
two-thirds of the capacity of the region. This
control of the fuel supply placed him in a posi-
tion to enter into an alliance, on extremely favor-
able terms, with the rising Carnegie steel firm
In 1889 he became chairman of the board of
managers of that company and was thereafter
one of the chief influences in its development
and during the year 1892 became director of
several important corporations During the
Homestead strike of 1892 an attempt on his
life was made by Alexander Berkman, the anar-
chist. In 1897 he was made chairman of the
board of directors of the H 0 Frick Coke Com-
pany, which was soon the largest coke-producing
company in the world In 1905 lie was head of
a committee appointed to draw up a plan, of re-
form in connection witk the management of the
Equitable Life Insurance Company,
FRICTION* (Lat. frwtio, a rubbing, from
frwwfy to rub) . If a solid body with a ftat sur-
face rests on a liomomtal taWe, it requires a
70 FBICTIOOT
definite force to start it moving, and if it )R
set in motion, it will come to rest unless acted
upon by a sufficient force These phenomena
are said to be due to the force of "friction" be-
tween the two sui faces It is found by experi-
ment that the force required to stait the motion
of one body over the other varies diiectly as the
force pressing the surfaces togethei, but is inde-
pendent of the area of contact The ratio of the
force required to produce motion to the foice
pressing the surfaces togethei is called the "co-
efficient of statical friction " It varies largely
for different kinds of material and is always
diminished by lubricants.
Similarly, if one body is caused to slide over
the other, a definite force is required to prevent
its motion being retarded, in other words, a
force is required to maintain a uniform speed
This force bears a definite ratio to the force
pressing the surfaces together, which is called
the "coefficient of kinetic friction" and is inde-
pendent of the area of contact This coefficient
is different for different materials and for the
same substances is less than "the coefficient of
statical friction " It is independent, further,
within certain limits of the degree of speed
Some values of this coefficient of kinetic friction
are as follows , oak on oak, fibres parallel, 0 48 ,
the same, with surfaces rubbed with diy soap,
0 16, iron on oak, fibies parallel to motion, 0 62,
iron on iron, surfaces well lubricated, 0 04
The resistance noticed when a wheel rolls on a
plane surface with no slipping is not a true case
of friction, although it is sometimes called "roll-
ing friction " It is due to the plane surface be-
coming deformed and rolled up in front of the
advancing wheel or to the wheel itself flattening
out This opposition is, however, in most cases
extremely small, when compared with sliding
friction Whenever work is done in overcoming
friction, the surfaces which are rubbed over each
other experience heat effects, and thus friction
always causes loss of available mechanical en-
ergy On the other hand, without friction most
motions would be impossible — e g , a man walk-
ing, a belt driving a pulley, a tram moving on a
track, etc If there were no friction, all these
motions would necessarily be produced by cog-
wheels or their equivalents
Friction between solids is due to slight un-
evennesses on the surfaces in contact and is
therefore what may be called a force between the
minute portions of the bodies, and heat effects
are produced The exact mechanical explana-
tion is not evident In the case, however, of
friction between moving layers of liquids or
gases, it is. It is known that all molecules of
these forms of matter are moving about at ran-
dom through distances which are considerable
with respect to their own size, if, then, a layer
of fluid is moving relatively with reference to a
contiguous layer — e.g, the currents produced in
a, tumbler of water by stirring a spoon in it, or
the currents of air produced by whistling — mole-
cules move freely from one layer into the other.
The effect is exactly that of having two long
trains of cars, or movable platforms, on parallel
tracks — one train in motion, the other not; if
enough people step back and forward from one
train to the other, the moving one will ibe slowed
up, the one at rest will be set ux motion, and
finally both, trains will be moving at the same
speed If one train is kept at rest, the other
will be brought to rest also Thus, moving
layers of liquids and gases are hxought to rest
FB1DA
The kinetic energy of the currents goes into in-
creasing that of the molecules, and the tem-
perature is raised Friction between layers of
fluids is sometimes called "viscosity," and a
fluid is said to be "viscous" if this frictional
force is large
There is thought to be little, if any, friction
between a fluid and a solid, when, eg, the fluid
is flowing through a pipe or tube in case the
fluid "wets" the solid, in general there is a
layer of the fluid close against the solid and
attached to it, so that any friction is between
this layer and the rest of the fluid
Still another case of friction is to be consid-
eie(i — that between portions of a solid body
when it is making- elastic vibrations , e g , a
vibrating tuning fork When any solid is de-
formed, there is always to a greater or less
degree a slipping of layers of the solid over each
other, and thus there is produced "internal"
friction Owing to this, the energy of vibration
of the body decreases, the vibrations cease, and
the body as a whole has its temperature raised
Consult Thurston, Treatise on Friction and
Lost Work in Magnet y and Millwork ( 7th ed ,
New York, 1903) , Davis, Friction and Lubrica-
tion (2d ed, Pittsburgh, 1904), Loffler, Meoha-
nische Triebwerk und Biemsen (Munich, 1912)
FBXDA, fre'da, EMIL Bonuses (1853-1912).
A leading Czech poet and dramatist, whose pen
name was Jaroslav Vrchhck^ He was born at
Laun, Bohemia, was educated at Prague, and
was appointed piofessor of liteiary history in
the Czech University there m 1893 In 1901
he was called to the Austrian House of Peers
For his talent and versatility Frida has been
compared to Victor Hugo His poetic works
comprise epics, tragedies, comedies, several
novels, and translations from the best writers
of France and Italy. Many selections from his
works have been translated into German In
English appeared his one-act play, "At the
Chasm," in Poet Lore, voL xxiv (1913).
FRI'DAY (AS frigedceg, Fngdoeg, OHG-
Friatag, Ger Freitag, from AS Frige, OHG.
Fria, Icel Frig, a goddess partly identified
with the Roman Venus -j- AS dceg, Ger. Tag,
day, a German translation of the Latin name
dies Veneris, day of Venus, whence It venerdi,
Fr vendredi, Friday) The sixth day of the
week. Among the Germanic peoples it was
sacred to the goddess named above, the wife of
Odin In the Christian Church it was in very
early times consecrated to the commemoration
of the crucifixion of Chiist, which took place on
that day ( See GOOD FRIDAY ) The supersti-
tion that Friday is an unlucky day may probably
be traced to association with this event Clem-
ent of Alexandria, Epiphanius, and other early
writers show that it was already marked by
fasting and prayer In the Roman Catholic
church it has always and everywhere been a day
of abstinence from flesh meat, except when
Christmas falls on a Friday The Anglican
churches also desjgnate all Fridays (with the
same exception) as days of fasting or abstinence
Since the spread of the devotion to the Sacied
Heart of Jesus in the last two centuries, the
first Friday of every month has been a day
marked for devout Roman Catholics by special
observances in honor of it Among the Mo-
hammedans it is the day for religious gather-
ings, said to have been chosen by Mohammed in
memory of the creation of man, as well as to
differentiate his followers from Jews and Chns-
280 PBIEE
tians They are not required to rest fiom labor
except during the time of the Fiiday midday
prayer, at which all adult males are required to
be present
FBIDAY In Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, a
savage whom Robinson Ciusoe saved from death
on Friday, and who became his faithful servant
FRIDAY CLUB, THE A social club, started
by Sir Walter Scott, in June, 1803 It met at
Fortune's Tavern and was piobably modeled on
Johnson's famous club at the Turk's Head A
list of the members is given in Lockhart's Life
of Scott, vol 11 (Edinburgh, 1850)
FBIDEBICIA, fre'da-re'se-a, JULIUS ALBERT
(1849- ) A Danish historian He was
born and educated at Copenhagen and was ap-
pointed assistant librarian at the univeisity
library m that city in 1891 and professor of
history in 1899 Many of his works are based
upon a careful study of the archives of Den-
mark, Sweden, Holland, England, Germany,
France, and other European countries His
principal works comprise Danmarks ydre poll-
tiske Histone i Tiden fret Freden i Lybek til
freden i Bromselro, 1629-60 (1876-82), and
Adelsvaldens sidsfe Dage, DanmarLs Historic
fra Christian IV's Dod til Enevwldens Indfo-
relse (1894), Revolution&n og Napoleon I
1189-1S15 (1903) With Biicka he published
Christian IV* egenlicendige Breve (1878-91)
FKIDIGEHIN' See FEITIGEEN
iFRIDOLIN', fre'do'lfiN', or FRIDOLB, fre'-
dolt (less frequently TEIDOLIN, or TBUDELIN),
SAINT A Christian missionary of the sixth
century, called "the First Apostle to Allemania "
All that is known of him was written four cen-
turies later by Balthei , a monk, whose biography
of the saint contains a great amount of legend
intermingled with historical fact He was an
Irishman, who, after labors among his heathen
country folk, went to Poitiers, where he restored
the church of St Hilary, much impaired through
Arian heresy, to it a former prosperity He
afterward founded a church and a monasterv
on the island of Sackingen in the Rhine He is
the patron saint of the Canton of Glams, Swit-
zerland, on whose coat of arms he appeals His
day is March 6 An edition of Balther's Life
is contained in Mone's Quellcnsammlung dci
badischen Landesgesdiiclite, vol i (Karlsiuhc,
1845) Consult also Heber, Die vorlaroJinc/i-
scJien G-laubenslielden (Gottingen, 1807), and
Heer, SanJct Fridohn, der A postel Alemanniens
(Zuuch, 1888)
FRIED, fret, ALFEED HEEMANN (1864-1921)
A German publicist and advocate of interna-
tional peace He was born m Vienna, but
about 1883 settled in Berlin, wheie he was first
a bookseller and then an author Having de-
voted himself to the peace movement m 1891,
he founded the German Peace Society in 1892
and became editor of the Fnedensioarte ( founded
1899) In 1911 he received part of the Nobel
award for peace Among his many published
works are Fnedenskatechismus ( 1895 ) , Tage-
~buch eines zum Tode Verurtenlter (1898, m
English, 1899) , Lasten des bewaffneten Friedens
und des Zukunftskrieg (1902) , Hand'buc'h der
Friedensleioegung (1905, 2d ed , 1911); Die
moderne Friedens'bewegung (1906) , Pan-Amer^
ika (1910); Der kranke Krieg (1910), Der
Kaiser und der Welt friede n (1910, Eng version,
1912)
FBIED, OSKAB (1871- ) A German
composer and conductor, born in Berlin, Aug;
FBIEDBERGt
281
10, 1871 Owing to adverse circumstances, he
was obliged to pick up a scanty musical edu-
cation as best he could, playing foi many yeais
in infeiior oichestias While a hornist in the
opera orchestra of Frankfort, he attracted the
attention of Humperdmck, from whom he re-
ceived the first systematic instruction in com-
position In 1900 he retuined to Berlin, wheie
he completed a thorough course m counterpoint
under Philip Scharwenka As a composer, he
scored his first great success in 1904 with
Das trunLene Lied, op 11, for soli, choius, and
orchestia, a woik of real power, exhibiting at
the same time masterly contrapuntal and ca-
nonic bkill In 1907 he became conductor of
the Stemscher G-esangverem in Berlin, and in
1910 he organized a symphony orchestra for the
purpose of pioducing the latest orchestral
woiks As a leadei of both choral and orches-
tral forces, he soon became famous His prin-
cipal works are a pi elude and double fugue for
stung orchestra, op 10, the great choial works
with orchestra, Verklurte Nacht, op 9, Das
trunkene Lied, op 11, Erntelied, op 15, andante
and scherzo for wind instruments and two
haips, op 2, and very remarkable songs pub-
lished as op 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 Consult H Leich-
tentntt, Oskai Fried (Leipzig, 1906), and P
Bekker, OsLar Fried Sein Werden und Schaf-
fen (Berlin, 1907)
PBIEDBEKG-, fret'b&rK, EMIL ALBEKT (1837-
1910) A German canonist He was born at
Konitz, West Prussia, and was educated at
Beilm and Heidelberg After having been a
member of the faculty at Berlin, Halle, and
Freibuig, he was appointed professor at Leip-
zig in 1089 The new critical edition of the
Corpus Jmis Ganonici (1879-81) was prepared
by him, as was also the FormelluoJi des deut-
schen Handels-j Wechsel- und Seerechts (3d ed ,
1894) Alike in his collaboi ation m the Prus-
sian chuich laws of 1872 and as an author, he
showed himself a champion of state supremacy
in ecclesiastical matters, and many of his works
deal with this subject in its various bearings
Perhaps the best known of his numerous pub-
lications are the following Die Oeschichte der
Ziwlohe (2d ed, 1877), Lehr~buch des katho-
lisohen und evangelischen Kirohenrechts (5th
ed , 1903), Verfassungsgeset&e der evangelisch-
deutschen Landeskirchen ( 1885 et seq )
FRIEDEE, frS'del', CHAELES (1832-99) A
French chemist and mineralogist, born at
Strassburg He was educated at the Protestant
gymnasium and subsequently studied, under
Pasteur, at the University of Strassburg After
spending a short time in his father's banking
business he went to continue his studies m
Paris, where he resided with his grandfather,
the celebiated zoologist Duvernois After a
thorough preparation in the mathematical
sciences he entered the laboratory of Wurtz,
with whom he soon formed a close friendship
In 1869 he presented two remarkable theses, one
in organic chemistry and one in mineralogy,
which immediately attracted to him the atten-
tion of the scientific world In 1871 he became
instructor in mineralogy at the Bcole Normale
Supe"neure and In. 1876 succeeded Delafosse as
professor of mineralogy at the Sorbonne Two
years later lie succeeded Regnault as member of
the Institute On the death of Wurtz, in 1884,
Friedel was appointed professor of organic
chemistry and director of the research labora-
tory at the Sorbonne, a position which he re-
tained to the end of his life In 1892 he organ-
ized and became director of the Ecole de Chinne,
a school of industrial chemistry connected with
the University of Paris Fiiedel's researches
contubuted extensively to the development of
organic chemistry and synthetic mineralogy
The results embodied in his 254 original me-
mons have, without a single exception, joined
the structure of science as valuable and indis-
putably coirect data His classic researches on
the ketones, his discovery of the secondary al-
cohols, his total synthesis of glycerin, his dis-
coveries of many new mineral species and of
methods of reproducing many minerals artifi-
cially, his discovery of the pyroelcctric proper-
ties of minerals, his researches on the chemistry
of silicon and its organic compounds, and his
discovery, jointly with James Mason Crafts, of
the synthetic method well known as "the Friedel
and Crafts reaction," entitle him to a distin-
guished place among experimental scientists
The Friedel and Ciafts leaction consists in the
action of various chloi mated compounds on
aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of alumi-
nium chloride, thousands of different organic
compounds being thus conveniently prepared on
any ordinary scale As to the compounds of
silicon, Friedel, working in conjunction, partly
with Crafts, partly with Ladenbmg, showed
that the element silicon is, like carbon, quad-
rivalent, and obtained a series of compounds
perfectly analogous to the hydrocarbons and
capable of yielding many substances perfectly
analogous to derivatives of the hydrocarbons
Friedel's book-form publications include a text-
book of mineralogy and crystallography, and a
work on organic chemistry, entitled Oours de
cliimie organique professe a la faculty des
sciences de Paris (2 vols , 1887)
FBIEDELITE, fre-del'it A crystalline min-
eral magnesium chloiosilicate discovered by
Bertrand in the mines of Adervielle It has a
dark-red color and is translucent It was named
in honor of Charles Friedel (qv)
ERIEDENTHAL, fre'den-tal, KARL R.TJPOLIT
(1827-90) A German statesman He was born
at Breslau and was educated at Breslau, Hei-
delberg, and Berlin He became a member of the
North German Reichstag m 1867 and was one
of the founders of the Free Conservative party
He was a member of the conference convened
at Versailles during the Franco-German War to
assist in framing the constitution of the new
German Empire In 1874-79 he was Minister
of Agriculture and then became a member of
the House of Lords His influence upon the
economic development of the German Empire
vtas most important
ERIEDENWALD, fre'den-wald, HERBEBT
(1870- ) An American writer on histori-
cal subjects, born at Baltimoie, Md He gradu-
ated at Johns Hopkins University in 1890 and
received his Ph D from the University of Penn-
sylvania in 1894 From 1897 to 1900 he was
chief of the division of manuscripts of the Li-
brary of Congress He edited the American
Jewish Tear Boole in 1908-13, was secretary of
the American Jewish Committee in 1906-13,
and became recording secretary of the American
Jewish Historical Society. His writings in-
clude Material for the History of the Jews
in the British West Indies ( 1897 ) , Some News-
paper Advertisements of the 18th Century
(1897) , Historical Manuscripts in the Library
of Congress (1898) , A Calendar of Washington
FBIEBEHICIA
282
M88 in the Library of Congress (1901), The
Declaration of Independence, An Interpretation
and Analysis (1904)
FHIEDEBICIA See FREDERICIA
FBIEDERIKE VOW SESEKHEIM, fre'der-
e'ke fon sa/zen-him See BBION, FEIEDEKIKE
ELISABETH
FHIEDHEIM, fretliim, AKTHUR (1859-
) A distinguished German pianist, born
in St Petersburg, of German parents Al-
though he appeared as a vntuoso when only
nine years of age, he did not give his entire
time to music, but completed the regular
courses of the German gymnasium and univer-
sity In 1880-82 he studied -with Liszt in
Rome After an activity of several years as
conductor at various smaller theatres, he stud-
ied once more with Liszt in Weimar His real
eareei as a pianist began in the United States
about 1890, but recognition came very slowly
Excess of temperament led him to hammer un-
mercifully, rendering his playing colorless
When he gradually gamed in artistic modera-
tion, the many excellent qualities of his playing
appeared, chief among which is wonderful tone
color During his extensive tours in Europe
he soon became famous as perhaps the gieatest
Liszt player, and as such lie was acknowledged
also in America when he returned in 1910 In
1908 he settled in Munich As a composer, he
became known thiough a concerto for piano
and orchestra in B flat and an opeia, Die Tan-
zerm, produced in Cologne in 1905
TBIEDLAJSTD, fretlant, Enff pron fied'land
A to\\r> of East Piussia, on the left bank of the
Alle, 26 miles southeast of Konigsberg (Map
Germany, J 1) It is celebrated as the scene
of one of Napoleon's most splendid victories,
gained over the Russians under General Ben-
nigsen, June 14, 1807 On June 10 the corps
of Soult, Lannes, and Murat had delivered an
attack on the Russian intrenchments at Heils-
berg and had been repulsed with a loss of nearly
10,000 men Napoleon thereupon swung his army
to the north of Heilsberg and took up the march
for Konigsberg, hoping by this manoeuvre to en-
tice the Russian commander fiom behind his for-
tifications On the llth Bennigsen abandoned
Heilsberg, and for three days, till the 13th, the
two armies were engaged in a race for the threat-
ened town, the Russians advancing by the right
bank of the Alle, the French to the left of the
river and at some distance away. On June 13
the corps of Murat and Davout were in the neigh-
borhood of Konigsberg, Soult was at Kreutz-
burg, about 10 miles south of Konigsberg, and
Lannes was at Domnau, some 15 miles south-
east of Kreutzburg Napoleon, with the Guard
and the corps of Victor, Ney, and Mortier, was
at Preussiseh-Eylau, about 5 miles from Dom-
nau Early in the morning of June 14 Bennigsen
began the crossing of the Alle at Friedland, in
the hope, probably, of surprising Lannes s iso-
lated corps Had the passage of the river and
the attack on Lannes been carried out with
rapidity and decision, victory would have cer-
tainly resulted for the Russians But Bennig-
sen's dilatormeas and Lannes's intrepid resist-
ance allowed time for Napoleon to arrive on
tlje field of battle with the main body of troops
and to turn the advantage of numbers in favor
of the French, 70,000 against 55,000 The po-
sition of the Russians was perilous in the ex-
treme, with the greater part of their forces
hemmed in within a narrow arc pf the Alle
curving behind them In case of disastei then
only means of retreat weie the bridges across
the Alle at Friedland Against these bridges,
as the key of the situation, Napoleon directed
his attack Mortier, on the left wing, was
ordered to content himself with merely holding
the enemy in check, while Ney, on the right,
was sent against Friedland The battle began
about six o'clock in the afternoon Ney ad-
vanced to the attack under cover of a heavy
aitillery fire, but his ranks were immediately
thinned under a withering cannonade and
were thrown back in utter confusion by a
smashing charge of the Russian Household
Cavalry The corps of Victor and the division
of General Dupont were thrown into the breach,
while Senarmont with 30 guns took up a posi-
tion 100 yards in front of the infantry line and
drove back the Russian cavalry, gaining time
for Ney to rally his division A charge by La-
tour-Maubourg's dragoons and a iurther ad-
vance of Senarmonfs batteries decided the fate
of the battle The Russians fled through Fried-
land pursued by Ney and Dupont, a part of the
aimy with 120 guns reaching the light bank
of the Alle before the bridges were burned The
Russian light, meanwhile, under Gortchakoff,
had been skirmishing with Mortier, upon the
retreat of Bennigsen, Goitehakoff attempted to
retake Friedland, but, failing, was forced to
move northward along the river in search of a
folding place, losing one-third of his men in
the passage of the river The loss of the Rus-
sians in the battle was nearly 20,000 killed and
wounded, the French loss was less than half
that number On June 19 Konigsberg fell into
the hands of the French, and on June 25 oc-
curred the meeting between Napoleon and the
Emperor Alexander at Tilsit (qv ) Pop, 1910,
3029. Consult Johnston, Napoleon A Short
Biography (New York, 1904)
PKIEDLAHD, SAGAN AND MECKLENBURG,
DUKE OF See WALLEN STEIN
PBIEDLAKD, VALENTIN (1490-1556). A
German educator, generally called Trotzendorf,
from the little village in Upper Lusatia where
he was born, Feb 14, 1490 He taught for a
time in the school at Gorlitz, soon after obtain-
ing his baccalaureate from the University of
Leipzig, but, adopting the principles of Luther
and Melanchthon, he was obliged in 1518 to give
up his instructorship In 1523 he became rector
of the gymnasium at Goldberg in Silesia for a
brief penod, he came a second time to Gold-
berg in 1531, in the same capacity, and remained
for over 20 years, making the school so famous
throughout Europe that it often had several
hundred pupils at once The school administra-
tion was modeled on that of the Roman Repub-
lic, thus affording a measure of self-government
among the pupils, and Latin was the only lan-
guage allowed in and out of school The com-
plete destruction of the buildings by fire in
1554 compelled a removal to Liegnitz, and here
Friedland, while superintending the erection of
new buildings at Goldberg, died, Apul 26, 1556
For his biogiaphy, consult Pinzger (Hirsch-
berg, 1825) and Lo^chke (Breslau, 1856)
FBIEDLANDEB, fret'len-der, DAVID (1750-
1834) A German Hebrew scholar. He was
born in Konigsberg, Prussia, and was attracted
to Berlin by the reform movement under Men-
delssohn There he devoted himself to the
emancipation of the Jews and labored assidu-
ously to improve , their condition. He was tte
283
FKEEDRICH:
first JeAvish member of the Berlin city council
He contributed to Mendelssohn's greatest bibli-
cal woik, Das Buch Kohleleth (1772), and also
published Aktenstuche, die Reform dcr judi-
schen Kolonie in den preussischen Staaten be-
faeffend (1793), Sendschreiben an den Ptopst
Teller von einigen Hausvatein judischer Relig-
ion (1799) , Veber die Verbesserung der Israeli-
ten im Konigreich Polen (1819)
PHIEDLANDEU, (C GOTTFRIED) IMMANTJEL
(1871- ) A German geologist, born in Ber-
lin, and educated theie, at the University of
Kiel, and at the Zurich School of Technology
He traveled in North America, Hawaii, and
Samoa in 1893-94, m the Canary Islands in
1896, m Madeiia in 1897, m Mexico in 1906,
in Fiji and Samoa in 1907, in Japan in 1908-
09, and in the Cape Veide Islands in 1912 His
interest was especially in volcanoes, and in
1910, at the International Geological Congress
in Stockholm, he urged the establishment of
a vulcanological institute at Naples, wheie he
had lived since 1901, studying Vesuvius, and
wheie in 1913 he built a private institute and
established the Zeitschrift fur Vulkanohgie
His writings on volcanoes and precious stones
(particularly the relationship of the genesis of
diamonds, etc, to volcanic action) were pub-
lished mostly in technical journals.
FHIEDLAISTDER, JULIUS (1813-84) A
German numismatist He was born in Berlin
and was educated at Bonn and Berlin During
the last 30 years of his life he was director of
the cabinet of coins in the Berlin Museum,
which establishment was gicatly enlarged under
his management He edited the Aufsatze und
Bwefe of G Schadow (2d ed , 1890) and pub-
lished woiks on the coins of the Knights of
St John (1843), the coins of Justinian (1843),
and on those of the Ostrogoths (1844) and Van-
dals (1849), also a monograph entitled Das
homghclie Mumskabinett (with Sallet, 2d ed,
1877)
PKIEDLAISTDEB, LUDWIG (1824-1909) A
German classical scholar and archaeologist, born
at Konigsberg He was educated at the gym-
nasium of his native town and at the universi-
ties of Leipzig and Berlin He became privat-
docont at Konigsberg in 1847 and full professor
in 1858 In 1892 he retired and lived thereafter
in Strassburg Friedlander's studies were
chiefly concerned with Roman archaeology and
the history of Homeric criticism His most im-
poitant works are Die homemsche Kntik von
Wolf bis Grote (1853) , Analecta ffomerica
(1859) , Ueber den Kunstsinn det Romev in der
Kaiser&eit (1852), Darstellungen aus der Sit-
tengescliiclite Horns, etc (8th ed , 1910), an
edition of Martial ( 1886 ) , an edition of the
Oena Trimalchionis of Petronius (1895, 2d ed,
1906) , and an edition of Juvenal (1895) His
editions of Latin authors are especially strong on
the side of antiquities, i e , of Roman life and
manners Hia Sittengeschiohte has been trans-
lated into English, as Roman Life and Manners
under the Early Empire ( 4 vols , London, about
1910-13)
FBIEDLABTDER, MAX (1852- ) A
prominent German musical scholar, born at
Brieg" (Silesia) He gave up a business career
to study singing with Garcia m London and
Stockhausen in Frankfort In 1880 he made
his d6but as a concert singer (bass) in Lon-
don Soon his interest in the history of music
VOL IX— 19
engrossed his attention, and when, after settling
in Berlin in 1883, he met Spitta (qv ), he was
stimulated to begin anginal reseaich He
abandoned his caieer as a singer and in 1887
received the degiee of Ph D from the Umveisity
of Rostock In 1894 he became instructor in
the science of music at the University of Berlin,
in 1903 professoi While gathering materials
for an exhaustive biogiaphy of Schubert, he dis-
covered moie than 100 lost songs of that master
and many old folk songs, all of which he pub-
lished Among the most valuable of his writ-
ings aie Goethe's Gediohtc in der Mu&ifc, Ge-
dichte von Goethe in den Kompositionen seiner
Zeitgcnossen, and Das deutsche Lied im IS
Jahrhundert In 1912 he visited the United
States on a lecturing tour
FBIEDMAHH, fred'man, ALFRED (1845-
1923) A German novelist and poet He was
born at Frankfort on the Main, was educated at
Heidelberg and Zurich, and became established
at Berlin in 1886 He became known alike as a
poet and novelist, his poetic productions being
chai acterized by a thorough mastery of form and
diction His works include Die Feuerprobe
der Liebe (a humoious epic, 3d ed , 1879)
An-gioletta, two poems (3d ed , 1879), and the
novel Zwei Ehcn (3d ed , 1890) His more re-
cent Novels are entitled Inez de Castro (1898) ,
Tantalus (1901) , Die letzte Hand (1902) , Tan-
talus, Vorurteilj Vier Liebhaber der Marquise
(1905)
FRIEDMAJSnsr, MEIB BEN JEREMIAH (1831-
1908) A Hungarian Jewish scholar, born at
Kraszna, Hungary, and educated m the yeshi-
bah at Ungvar and at the University of Vienna
He was a professor in the Hebrew Theological
Seminary of Vienna, and coeditor of the Bet
Talmud in 1881-86 He is known chiefly for
his editions of the Midrashim texts, which in-
clude Sifte (1864), Melilta (1870), Pesikta
Rabbati (1880) He also published Eshet
Hayil (1878), fla Ziyyon (1882), Sefet STiofe-
tim (1801) , Tanna debe Ehyahu (1900)
FHIEDHEXCH, fred'riK, NIKOLA us (1825-
82) A German physician, born at Wurzburg
and educated m that city and at Heidelberg
In 1857 he was appointed profes&oi of pathology
in the University of Wurzburg and director of
the Anatomical Institute From 1858 until his
death he held the chair of pathology and thera-
peutics at Heidelberg and was clinical director
there In addition to "Die Krankheiten der
Nasenhohlen, des Larynx und der Trachea," in
Vir chow's Handbuch der speoiellen Pathologie
(1854), he published a valuable work on cardiac
diseases, entitled Die KrankJieiten des Herzens
(2d ed, 1867)
FBIEDBICH, fre'diiK, JOHANNES (1836-
1917 ) A German theologian and historian,
prominent as a Icadei of the Old Catholics He
was born at Poxdorf, studied at the universities
of Bamberg and Munich, was ordained a Catho-
lic priest in 1859, and in 1865 became professor
of theology m the University of Munich, and in
1867 a member of the Academy of Sciences
The most noticeable of his works is the JBTtr-
chengesclnchte Deutschlands (1867-69) He
was a pupil of Dollmger and in 1869 was called
to the Vatican Council at Rome His Tageluch
w a for end des ~Vatikanisc7ien Kon&^ls gefunrt
(1871) and Doeumenta ad lllustrandum Con-
cilium Vaticanum (1871) are important sources
of information concerning the proceedings This
council indorsed the papal infallibility dogmaa
FBIEDHICH
284
SOCIETY
which Fnednch with Dollmgei strongly op-
posed Frieduch \vas consequently excommuni-
cated in 1871, and m 1882 the Mimstoi of Public
Worship, yielding to UHiamontano picbsuio m
the Chamber, transferied Fuediicli from the
chair of theology to that of history Ho
opened in 1874 the Old-Catholic theological fac-
ulty at the Univei sity of Bern and lectured there
for a year Among his works may be men-
tioned " Der Mechawismus der vatil^anisohen Re-
ligion (1876), GescJuchte dcs VatikamscJien
Konzils (1877-87) , Beitrage xur Geschichte des
Jesuit enordens (1881), Johann Adam Holler,
der SywlohJcer (1804) , Jacob Ftohscliamme?
(1896), 7 von Dollwger (1800-1901)
FBIEBKICH, JOHN (1858- ) An Amer-
ican violin maker, bom at Cassel, Germany He
was a pupil of Oswald Mockel, a prominent Ger-
man violin maker and icpaiier, came to the
United States in 1883, and in a shoit time
ranked among the American leaders in his pro-
fession In addition to violins he has made also
bows, violas, and violoncellos of high quality
He received the highest award bestowed for vio-
lins, violas, and violoncellos at the World's
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 He has
also become known among collectors as an ex-
pert in the identification and valuation of rare
instruments Four of the choicest specimens
of his violins are in the possession of Dr Frank
Waldo, of Cambridge, Mass
FRIEDRICH, KASP^R DA\ID (1774-1840)
A German landscape pamtci Pie uas bom at
Greifswald, studied theie under Ruistoop and
afterward at the academies of Copenhagen (under
Eckersberg) and Diesden He found subjects
for his pictures in his wandeimgs on the Baltic
coast, in the island of Rug en, and later among
the Harz Mountains and the Riesengebirge, and
became one of the principal exponents of Ro-
manticism in painting His true place in art
was first revealed in the German Centenary Ex-
hibition at Berlin in 1906 In 1817 he was made
a member of and professor at the Dresden
Academy A series of drawings in sepia, de-
picting scenery m Rugen and other regions near
the Baltic coast, is among his most highly
prized works Prominent among Ins oil paint-
ings are "View in the Harz" and "Moonrise
by the Sea" (1823) in the National Gallery,
Berlin, "Repose during Hay Harvest" (1835),
in the Dresden Mu&eum , ' The Grave of Ar-
rnimus," in the Hambuig Gallery, "Pine Forest
with the Raven," Castle Pulbus, Rugen
FRIEDHICH, WOLDEMAB (1846-1010) A
German historical pamtei and illustrator, born
at Gnadau, Province of Saxony He studied in
Berlin under SterTeck and in Weimar under
Plockhorst, Ramberg, and Verlat, took part
in the Franco-German War of 1870-71 and fur-
nished the illustrations for HiltFs work on the
war After a visit to Italy, in 1873, he re-
turned to Weimar, where he was made pro-
fessor at the School of Art in 1881 Called to
Berlin in 1885 as instructor at the Academy, he
was awarded the gold medal in 1886 for his
allegorical ceiling-painting in the Exhibition
Building Among several other decorative works
on a large scale aie to be especially noticed
"The Diet of Worms" (1892), m the Aula of the
Gymnasium at Wittenberg, and the two mural
paintings, "Art and Science" and "Book-Trade
and Printing," in the Booksellers' Exchange at
Leipzig A series of landscapes and genre pic-
tures in water colors and the illustrations to
his work Rcchs Monatc //? fndicn (1803) weie
the fruits of a journey to India In 1880 he
became a momboi ot, and piofossor at, the Hoi-
1m Academy
EBIEDBICHSBUH, fie'diiKs-ifio A \ilUgo
and railway station oi Lauenburg, Prussia, IB
miles southeast of Hamburg by rail Pop , ]<K)0,
279 Its celebrity is deiived from the piov-
imity of the castle and estate of the Bismaick
family, where Prince Bismarck ( q v ) died and
is buried
FE/IEND'I/F ISLANDS See TONGA IS-
LANDS
FRIENDLY SOCIETY The name given to
English benefit associations established as a rule
by the workmgmen themselves for ceitain forms
of self-help, but now developed into mutual in-
surance societies The origin of the friendly
society is frequently ascribed to the mediaeval
guild They began as sick clubs composed of
small groups, usually neighbors, who met at the
public houses, uniting conviviality with the pay-
ment of sick benefits and funeral expenses The
large orders arose from the renewed interest of
the eighteenth century in Fieemasonry At
first they had no regular benefit funds, but
grants were made to members in distress Af-
ter 1834, when the Poor Laws were changed and
the opportunities for thrift were better, socie-
ties increased rapidly Since 1870 an eilort
lias been made to put them on a stionger finan-
cial basis
In general the benefits given by friendly so-
cieties are for sickness and funeral allowances
The question of superannuation funds is now
important Other forms of benefit sometimes
found are endowments, insurance for ship-
wrecks, loss or damage to boats, nets, tools, or
implements, medical aid dispensaries, widows'
and orphans' funds, convalescent homes, asy-
lums for the aged, and traveling relief for those
out of employment Formerly many local socie-
ties existed, but they are gradually disappear-
ing A frequent foim was the dividing society,
which shared the surplus at the end of the
year The strongly centralized societies have no
social union, but only a business relationship
with their members, as the dues are paid
through agents or the post ofiicc
The members are usually clerks, tradesmen,
or highly paid artisans There are two kinds of
societies, not properly friendly societies (1)
deposit societies with savings-bank features, and
(2) burial societies — some merely local clubs,
others large societies with many abuses, in
which the cost of the management is 40 to 55
per cent, and which appeal to the poorest
classes Many children are insured in them
There are funeral and local factory and shop
clubs for particular trades — often compulsory
and subsidized by employers The large rail-
road and coal-mining societies provide princi-
pally for accidents The most important
friendly societies aie the affiliated orders, in-
cluding the temperance societies and contain-
ing the pick of English workmgmen and of the
lower middle class The orders are democratic
social centres, thoroughly educational in char-
acter. Societies for women have not been very
successful The United Sisters* Friendly So-
ciety (1885), however, promises well Juvenile
branches lately started have prospered
Many friendly society acts have been passed
since 1783 The Act of 1875 is especially im-
portant Royal commissions have made valuable
FBIEHD OF MAW
285
FBXENDS
reports (especially those of 1825-27 and 1870-
74), showing the weakneskos flue to small ron-
tributions, mismanagement, and competition
These reports and permissive legislation, pio
viding a logal status and supei vision, have aided
reform Many societies aie still iini e^i&tered,
and hence statistics are inaecurate In 1892
there weie 29,742 societies, of which 24,598 gave
m returns, comprising 8,320,262 members and
funds amounting to £26,003,061 In 1904 the
funds of the friendly societies weie over £50,000,-
000 More comprehensive reports have been
made under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896
as amended in 1908 Of tht 31,469 societies ic-
ported in 1910, 29,425, with a membership of
14,507,000 and funds amounting to £62,866,000,
submitted reports The Independent Order of
Odd Fellows, Manchester Unity (1822), with
about 750,000 members and an income of £1,-
500,000, and the Ancient Order of Foresters
(1835), with 620,000 members and an income
of £1,400,000, are the leading affiliated ordeis
The Hearts of Oak Benefit Society and the Ra-
tional Aid and Burial Association are repre-
sentative of the centralized associations Since
1870 the friendly societies have formed an as-
sociation to watch legislation and protect their
interests This has led to cooperation through
medical aid associations and investment associa-
tions Scotland has many societies, they are a
later growth in Ireland, several have been in-
troduced into Australia, Canada, and the United
States The friendly society has an important
place in the development of the English work-
ingman, but it does not reach equally all grades
of the working class, especially the very poor
and helpless Consult Baerrir either, Enghsh
Associations of Working Men (trans by Alice
Taylor, London, 1893) , Wilkinson, The Friendly
Society Movement (ib, 1886), id, Mutual
Thnft (ib, 1891) , Nineteenth Century, 45, 891,
Fuller, The Law Relating to Friendly {Societies
(3d ed, London, 1910) See BENEFIT SOCIE-
TIES s FBATERNAL INSURANCE, OLD-AGE PEN-
SIONS, POOR LAW
JTBIENT) OF MAK, THE A sarcastic popu-
lar title for Victor Riquetti, Marquis de Mira-
beau, the father of the revolutionist It was
suggested by the title of his work, L'Arm des
hommes
FRIENDS, THE, or THE SOCIETY OF FBIENDS
A denomination of Christians often known as
Quakers, dating from about 1647 In spite of
cruel and severe persecutions the Friends suc-
ceeded in establishing themselves in Europe and
America They have never been numerically
powerful, having at no time exceeded, if indeed
they have ever reached, 200,000 members, but
the purity of life winch has so honorably distin-
guished them as a class has unquestionably ex-
ercised a salutary influence on the public at
large , while in respect to certain great questions
affecting the interests of mankind, such as ww,
slavery, and oaths, they have, beyond all doubt,
originated or emphasized opinions and tendencies
which are no longer confined to themselves, but
have widely leavened the mind of Christendom
History. The founder of the Friends was
George Fox (q v ) , who was born in Fenny Dray-
ton, Leicestershire, England, 1624 He began to
preach about 1347 and soon drew around him
many who, like himself, were "dissatisfied \vith
the teachings and practices of the day and were
longing for a higher asnd more spiritual life"
Neither Fox nor his adherents at first had any
intention of establishing a new branch of the
Chinch Such, a result, howevei, v\as inevitable
irom the doctrines which they pi cached, for
such were practically incompatible with the
practices of the denominations then existing
For three or four years Fo^'s missionary
labors were for the moat pait confined to the
central part of England But in 1652 he came
into Lancashire, to Swarthmoor Hall, near Ul-
verstone, the residence of Judge Fell and his
wife, Margaret This able woman became one
of Fox's strongest adherents and supporters
From this neighborhood a band of 60 Quakei
missionaries went forth to preach the doctrines
of the new religious movement The continual
travels of Fox, and the labors of this band of
preachers, enforced by the simplicity, the truth-
fulness, <ind the spmtual power of their mes-
sage, soon gathered thousands of adherents It
is estimated that in London alone there were
10,000 It has often been said that these early
preachers were ignorant men from the lower
classes Such a statement is far from the truth,
as among them weie fouuei Independent minis-
ters, unncrsity graduates, officcis of Cromwell's
army, schoolmasters, and not a few persons of
propei ty
The doctrines held by the Friends, and their
refusal to take any oath, to pay tithes, to obey
laws deemed by them iniquitous, such as the
"Conventicle Act" and the "Five-mile Act,"
brought them into constant conflict with the
authorities During the 25 years of the reign
of Charles II 13,562 were imprisoned in various
parts of England, 198 were transported as
slaves, and 338 died in prison or of wounds
received in attacks upon their meetings It was
not until after the revolution of 1688 that they
were secure from serious molestation
The increase in numbers made necessary some
kind of organization That adopted was almost
wholly the work of Fox, and in its essential
features is still preserved, as described below
After the time of persecution came a lull in
the history of the denomination, and more atten-
tion was given to internal affairs than to mis-
sionaiy effort The "discipline" was admin-
istered rigidly, and the number of members
diminished gieatly during the eighteenth and
first half of the nineteenth centuries Still as
in America, great attention was paid to philan-
tlnopic work Later foreign and home mission
work was actively entered into, the loss in mem-
bership was checked, and a new spirit of earnest-
ness, which still continues, pervaded the body
The Quaker movement was not confined to
England, it spread to Scotland, to Ireland, in
some degiee to the Continent, and in 1656 to
America In that year Ann Austin and Mary
Fisher arrived in Massachusetts They were
cruelly treated, imprisoned, and then sent back
to Barbados, whence they had come Similar
harsh treatment meted out to others, or even
the execution on Boston Common (1659-61) of
three men and one woman (see BOSTON, DYEB,
MARY), did not deter Friends from visiting
America In spite of persecution converts were
made and meetings established in nearly all bhQ
English colonies (Jeorge Fox himself traveled
in America (1671-72)
Their numbers weie relatively large, and the
Friends exercised no little influence in Rhode
Island, Long Island, New Jersey, and Maryland
Perhaps the most important incident m their
bistor/y, whether in the Old or $ew World,
286
FRIENDS
the settlement of Pennsylvania by William Perm
in 1682, and the control of that Colony by the
Friends for about 70 years See PENNSYLVANIA
Soon after the cessation of persecution the
Friends withdrew from active aggiessive move-
ments and tuined their attention to perfecting
and administering their discipline, to the prac-
tice of philanthropy, notably to the extinction
among their membership of the custom of hold-
ing slaves, and to labors in the geneial antislav-
ery cause, also to caring for the Amencan
Indians, improving the condition of pusoneis,
the insane, etc The rigid application of the
"Discipline," especially the "disowning53 ( de-
pi ivmg of membership) of those who had mar-
nad nonmembeis, A\as one of the chief causes
of a steady decline in membeiship which m-
ci eased in extent as the years went on The
gieatest blow to the Friends, however, was the
''separation of 1827-28" This was a schism
due to several causes The immediate occasion
was the preaching and teaching of Ehas Hicks
(qv), a prominent Friend He promulgated
doctrines closely appi oachmg what aie usually
known as Unitarian views He also made state-
ments which seemed to undervalue the Holy
Scriptures and their divine authority More
than one-half of the Friends in the Middle States
followed Hicks, but they were largely in the
minority as compaied with the whole body of
Friends The larger paity was recognized by
the London Yearly Meeting ni England The
two divisions aie often called "Chthodo^33 and
"Hicksite," and aie so distinguished in the
United States census repoits Neither name is
strictly accurate The smaller division prefer
to be called the "Liberal Bianch"
The effect of the schism upon the "Orthodox"
body was to bung about a movement in favor of
a higher education and a doctrinal belief more
nearly allied to that of the so-called "evan-
gelical" bodies The leader in this movement
was Joseph John Guiney (qv), a highly edu-
cated and prominent Friend, of Norwich, Eng-
land This new tendency, however, excited con-
siderable opposition among some of the ""ortho-
dox" Friends in America, which resulted in
another separation These separatists were
called "Wilbiintes"fioin. John Wilbur, of Massa-
chusetts the leader of the movement The
points of diffeience did not concern the essen-
tials of Christianity, but rather their piactical
application, and also points of discipline and
methods of administration This schism was
not general, and the number of separatists were
small
There remains still another body called the
"Primitive Friends " They may be described as
ultra-Wilburite They number less than 250
members
The Friends in Great Britain and Ireland
do not differ in any important respects fiom
their brethren in America Owing to the con-
sciiption laws which prevail on the continent of
Europe, it has been almost impossible for the
Friends to maintain meetings there In all, only
about 250 members are found In Australasia
there are about 500, and there are a few in
Turkey and in Asia Bodies of considerable
size of native converts to Christianity winch
are organized as Friends exist in India, China,
and Japan
Doctrine It is perhaps more in the spirit
than in the letter of their faith that the Friends
differ from other orthodox Christians. This was
so from the fiist The epistle addressed by
Geoige Fox and other Friends to the Governor
of Barbados, in Ib71, contains a confession o!
faith not diffeimg materially fiom the funda-
mental doctimes of evangelical bodies The
Friends have no foimal creed or confession, and
they have avoided the use of technical theologi-
cal phraseology Declai ations of faith, howevei,
have been issued fiom time to time, notably in
1693, 1829, and 1887 In all of these the position
taken on essential points of doctrine is substan-
tially the same as that of the great bodies of
Protestant Christianity
Then most distinguishing doctrine is that of
the immediate peisonal teaching of the Holy
Spirit to the individual This has often been
called the "Inner Light," or the "Chiist
Within" This doctime has often been mis-
undei stood Some of the eaily Fiiends them-
sehes are not clear in then statements regai cl-
ing it George Fox unquestionably states the
doctnne truly when he says, "I saw that the
giace of God which bungs saltation had ap-
peal ed to all men, and that the manifestation
of the Spmt was given to every man to profit
withal " "The Lord opened to me," he says in
another place, "how eveiy man was enlightened
by the divine light of Christ " Robert Baiclav
in the Apology taught that even the heathen
were illumined by this light, though they micjht
not know — as, indeed, those who Ined before
Chiist could not know — the histoiical Jesus
in whom Chustians believe In consequence of
this view the Fi lends held that every one who
lived up to the light which he had ^ould be
accepted of God This fact, howevei, in no wise
relieved the individual from the duty of seek-
ing to obtain more light, neither did it relieve
those who had the gospel fiom the duty of
carrying it to those who had it not The early
Friends were among the most active Protestant
missionaries of their day The doctrine of the
direct manifestation of the Holy Spirit to the
individual lies at the root of most of their
special doctrines It is the Holy Spirit who
calls and qualifies for religious service, therefore
all believeis are "priests unto God," and tlieie
is no division into clergy and laity
The eaily Friends accepted the usual view
of the Bible that it was a divinely naspiicd
volume Because, however, they exalted the
direct teaching of God, it was sometimes chaiged
that they depreciated the histoiic record There
does not seem to be much basis for this chaige
Later m some sections a more easy view of in-
spiration has obtained, made possible by ni-
ci easing emphasis upon the exclusive authority
of the "Christ Within "
Practice. It follows fiom the doctrine that
the Holy Spirit calls and qualifies whom lie will
for lehgious service, that the Friends do not
consider human leainmg a necebsary qualifica-
tion for the minister of the gospel They behe\e
that the call to this work now, as of old, is "not
of men, neither by man," and that it is be-
stowed irrespectively of rank, talent, learning,
or sex Consequently they have no theological
schools or professors of divinity At the same
time education is not undervalued, and pro-
vision is made in nearly all their colleges and
higher schools for instruction in Church history,
biblical languages, and allied subjects, but
above all in the Bible itself These courses are,
however, not restricted to any class, but are open
to all *
FRIENDS
287
FRIENDS
As fitness for the ministry is held to be a fiee
gift of God through the Holy Spirit, so it ought
to be freely bestowed upon otheis But3 on the
other hand, whenever ministers are engaged from
home in the woik of the ministry they aie, in
the spirit of Christian love, freely entei tamed
and have all their wants, including traveling ex-
penses, supplied Of recent years, in some places
and under some en cumstances, a minister re-
ceives partial or even whole support , but neither
by minister nor by congregation is the min-
ibtiy put upon a pecuniary basis In some
cases "secretaries" have of late been appointed,
\\lio aie expected to exercise pastoral caic and
attend to the various organizations of the
chinch These may or may not be ministers
Their mode of don ducting public worship like-
wise illustiates their dependence on the guidance
of the Holy Spiut The Friends meet and
usually remain in silence until some one believes
that he 13 called upon by the Spirit to speak
in exhoitation, praise, prayer, testimony, in-
struction, or the ministry It follows from this
that theie may be several communications of
different kinds in the same meeting, and the
exeicisc may be from old or young, male or
female, from those who are recorded ministers
or fiom those who are not While this theory
of the meeting for worship is still realized in
England and in many of the Eastein States of
the United States, in the West the form more
nearly approaches that of other religious bodies,
with, a prearranged programme and a prepared
sermon
Friends reject the ordinances of baptism and
the eucharist as these are observed by other
Christians They believe that the true Christian
baptism is a spmtual one and not one with
water They believe that the true communion is
inward and spiritual and consists, not in any
symbolic breaking of biead and drinking of wine,
but in that daily communion with Christ
through the Holy Spirit and through the obedi-
enco of faith by which the believer is nounshed
and strengthened They believe that Christ did
not command any outward oidinance as of per-
petual observance, that if the true spiritual
baptism is experienced and the true spiritual
communion is partaken of, there is no need of
any symbol They believe, moreover, that the
symbol tends to call attention away from the
essential and beget a reliance upon the outward
and nonessential
The taking and administering of oaths is re-
garded by the Friends as inconsistent with the
words of Christ, "swear not at all," and with
the injunction of the Apostle James, "Above all
things, my brethren, swear not, neither by
heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any
other oath, but let your yea be yea, and your
nay, nay , lest ye fall into condemnation "
They have also refused to contribute to the sup-
port of a state church
The Friends have likewise consistently pro-
tested against war in all its forms, and they
have repeatedly advised their members against
in any way aiding or abetting military affairs
In support of this belief the Friends have at
various times suffered much in person and prop-
erty They regard the profession of arms and
fighting as diametrically opposed to the general
spirit of Christ
The Friends may certainly claim to have
cultivated the moral sense of their fellow coun-
trymen in regard to the emancipation of the
slaves and the abolition of the slave trade As
early as 1688 the Friends of Germantown, Pa ,
made a wntten piotest against slavery The
feeling that slaveiy was wrong continued to
grow, through the labors of John Woolman,
Anthony Benezet, and otheis the feeling became
a conviction of the body, and by the close of the
eighteenth century slavery was banished from
the Friends
Discipline By the term "discipline" the
Fi jends understood "all those arrangements and
regulations which are instituted for the civil
and religious benefit of a Chustian church "
The necessity for such discipline made itself
felt soon after the rise of the body, and the re-
sult was the giadual establishment of ceitain
meetings or assemblies These arc four in num-
ber first, the preparative meetings, second, the
monthly meetings, third, the quarterly meet-
ings, and fouith, the yearly meetings Pre-
paiative meetings aie wholly subordinate to the
monthly meetings, they have little power, they
attend exclusively to local matters, and where
they evist must repoit to monthly meetings
The decided tendency in America is to ^ive
them up, and in the new Unifoim Discipline
they are discontinued The monthly meeting
is the executive power, so fai as the membership
is concerned, subject to appeal to the quarterly
and yearly meetings It decides in cases of vio-
lation of the discipline and has the power to
receive into membership or to disown It at-
tends to all cases of immoral conduct, cares for
the poor, and encourages the right exercise of
the gifts of the members The quarterly meet-
ings are composed of several monthly meetings
and exercise a general supervision over the lat-
ter, fiom which they receive leports, and to
which they give such advice and decisions as
they think right The quarterly meetings send
representatives to the yearly meeting The teim
"yearly meeting" is used in two senses first, the
body of members who live within certain defined
geographical limits , of this use mention will be
made later on under the head Statistics, second,
the animal assembly or conference, consisting
primarily of representatives from the quarterly
meetings, but every tnembei has the right to
take part in the deliberations and conclusions of
the assembly The function of the yearly meet-
ing is to consider the condition of its member-
ship in all its aspects To it exclusively the
legislative power belongs, and from its decisions
there is no appeal As its name implies, it is
held but once a year, but in order that the in-
terests of the body might not suffer between its
sessions, a meeting was instituted first called
the "Meeting for Sufferings," because its chief
business was to take cognizance of the sufferings
of Friends for conscience' sake, then, the "Rep-
resentative Meeting", and still later the "Per-
manent Board " This body has stated times of
assembling, but can, if necessary, be called to-
gether at short notice
The officers of the organization are (1) over-
seers, appointed by each monthly meeting for a
term of three years, they are two or more in
number, usually equally divided between the
sexes, and their duties are the oversight and
watchful care of the membership, (2) elders,
two or more in number, of both 3exes, appointed
by monthly meetings with the approval of the
quarterly meeting, they new usually hold office
for three years, their chief duty is to exercise
care over the ministry, (3) mwi$tersj as al-
FBIE3STD&
288
FBIEKTDS OP GOD
ready implied, the Friends do not appoint min-
isters, but "record" those upon whom they be-
lieve the gift is conferred through the Holy
Spirit
There is no doubt that a great change has
come over the Friends This is noticeable in ex-
ternals rather than in doctrine Any distinctive
garb has been laid aside by almost all members,
the use of the "plain language"— "the thee and
thou of the Quakeis" — also, except familiarly
among themselves, has been practically dropped,
and the numerical names of the days and months
are used only in official statements and among
themselves It is true some exception to these
statements must be made more particularly in
regard to the " Willmrites" and the Friends in
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, but even in the
Uttei the tendency is towaids disuse The dis-
cipline is administered in accordance with the
spirit lather than the letter, and there is a
general falling away from formalism In many
of the meetings of the Middle West and West
there are "pastors" whose duty is pastoral
visitation and the care of the meetings for wor-
ship, where the whole time of the "pastor" is
given to such work a very moderate support is
geneially afforded
The Friends are an active missionary body,
and foreign missions aie suppoited at various
points in Madagascar, India, China, Japan,
Africa, Mexico, Cuba, and Jamaica, and among
the Indians of the United States and Alaska
There is an American Friends' Board of Foreign
Missions, whose duty is to have a general over-
sight, but not control, of the foreign missionary
field Gieat effoits have been made to bring
about a closer union of the various yearly
meetings, for they are now independent This
is shown by general conferences held at various
times, and smce 1887 every five years From
these conferences the plan of a regular meeting
with defined powers to be held every five years
has been adopted This Five Years' Meeting,
as it is called, is composed of delegates from
all the yearly meetings uniting in the plan , the
first meeting was held in October, 1902, at
Indianapolis, Ind Besides this a "Discipline"
for all the American yearly meetings has been
diawn up and has already been adopted by a
majority and probably will be adopted by all
except one or two yearly meetings This Disci-
pline and the Five Years3 Meeting form the basis
of a union which somewhat resembles that of
the United States under the Articles of Con-
federation It is too soon to forecast what the
result of these efforts will be All these remarks
apply only to the "Orthodox" body
In England a most significant movement is
the establishment of an "Adult School" — a
movement originated and still largely managed
by Friends This now embraces some 100,000
adherents, mostly of the working classes.
A pleasant feature of recent date is the tend-
encv for all branches of Friends to meet in con-
ference to consider questions like peace, temper-
ance, and social work, upon which, they can
unite on common grounds The fCHicksites"
have not entered into the foreign mission field,
but have been active m philanthropic efforts of
various kinds, and the different yearly meetings
have found a close bond of union in association
for this philanthropic woik.
The subject of education has claimed the ear-
nest attention of both "Orthodox" and "Hicksite"
bodies The former, besides a number of board-
ing schools, have, for lughei education, Haver-
ford College, Haverfoid, Pa , Guilfoid College,
N C , Wilmington College, Wilmington, Ohio,
Earlham College, Richmond, Ind , Penn College,
Oskaloosa, lovta, Friends' University, Wichita,
Kans , Whittier College, Whittier, Cal , Pacific
College, Newberg, Oreg Bryn Mawr College
for Women, Bryn Mawr, Pa , though controlled
by Friends, is 'undenominational The "Hicks-
ite" body has excellent schools, and Swarthmore
College, for both sexes, at Swarthmoie, Pa
During the past few years general summer
schools for the study of religious history and
biblical liteiatuie have been held at Haveiford,
Eailham, and Swarthmore colleges, and else-
where, besides other summer schools of more
limited extent
Statistics The "Orthodox" have 16 yearly
meetings, viz , London (for Great Britain), Dub-
lin, Canada, New England, New York, Philadel-
phia, Baltimore, North Carolina, Ohio, Wilming-
ton (for southern Ohio and Tennessee), Indiana,
Western (Indiana), Iowa, Kansas, California,
and Oregon, theie are also the small communi-
ties scattered throughout the world, as already
noted The "Hicksites" ha\e seven yearly meet-
ings— New York, Genesee (western New York),
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Ohio, Indiana, and
Illinois The "Wilbuntes" have six — New Eng-
land, Canada, Ohio, Western (Indiana), Iowa,
and Kansas In 1913 the "Orthodox" m America
numbered 99,308 members, in Great Biitain,
Australia, and Ireland, 22,350, total, 121,658
The "Hicksites" had about 19,000 members, the
"Wilburites" 4000, the "Primitive" branch 200,
total, for all bodies, 144,858
Bibliography. Journal of George Fox (1G94,
new ed , Cambridge, 1913) , Sewel, History of the
Quakers (ib, 1722), Penn, Brief Account of
the Eise and Progress of the People Called
Quakers (ib , 1694, often reprinted) , Beck, The
Friends (ib, 1893), Turner, The Quakers (ib,
1889) , Rowntree, The Society of Friends Its
Faith and Practice (ib, 1901) , Janney, Histoiy
of the Society of Friends (4 vols , Philadelphia,
1867} , A C and E H Thomas, History of the
Society of Friends in America, in "American
Church History Seiies," vol xn (New York,
1894) , Christian Disciple (London, 1883) , Con-
stitution and Discipline for the American Yearly
Meetings of Friends (Philadelphia, 1901),
Smith, Descrlpt^vG Catalogue of Friends' Books
(ib, 1867-93) , id, BMiotheca Anti-Quakenana
(ib, 1873), Myers, Immigration of Irish
Quakers into Pennsylvania, 16S2-1150 (Swarth-
moie, 1902), id, Quaker Arrivals at Philadel-
phia, ItiS^-llSO (ib, 1902), Sharpless, A
Quaker Experiment in Government (Philadel-
phia, 1903), Braithwaite, The Beginnings of
Quakerism (London, 1910) , Jones, The Quakers
in the American Colonies (New York, 1911) ,
Holder, The Quakers in Q-reat Britain and
America (Pasadena, 1913)
FBJEND'SHIP IN FASHION A comedy
by Thomas Otway
FRIENDS OF GOD (Ger Gottesfreunde]
A small body of religious reformers of mystical
tendencies, which originated m the fouiteenth
century and labored for the reformation o-f the
Church and society, continuing their adherence
to the former The name was derived from John
xv 15 Tauler (qv), the great Dominican
mystic of Strassburg, and Heirmch Suso (qv )
were of tlie biotherhood, and Meister Eckiart
(qv) sympathized with it, although probably
FKIENDS OF THE PEOPLE
289
FRIES
not belonging to it It also included many Do
minican nuns The brotherhood is heaid of in
Basel, Stra&sbuig, and Cologne, but probably
had members elsewheie Sympathizing to some
extent with the Brothei s of the Free Spirit, they
nevertheless avoided the fanaticism ascribed to
that body (See BBOTIIEBS AND SISTEK& OF THE
FREE SPIRIT ) Consult Jundt, Les amis de
Dieu au quatorweme siecle (Pans, 1879) ,
Rieder, Der G-ottespeund vom Overland (Inns-
bruck, 1905) , Jones, Studies in Mystical Re-
ligion (New York, 1909)
FKIEJSTDS OF THE PEOPLE An English
society founded in 1792 by Sheridan and Giey
for the purpose of promoting paihamentaiy re-
form Among its membeis were Lord John Rus-
sell and Loid Edwaid Fitzgerald It was op-
posed by Fox and Pitt The reform bills bi ought
forward by Grey in 1792, 1793, and 1797 re-
ceived scarcely any support In fact, during the
struggle with Napoleon the times were not favoi-
able to any constitutional change, and so the
association languished, serving mainly as &
school in which were tiained the gieat leaders
who 40 years later saw its original puipose ac-
complished in the Refoim Bill of 1S32
FBIENDS OF THE TEMPLE (Ger Tern-
pelgesellschaft, 1 enipelve? wn, Jerusaleinsfreunde]
A Geiman sect, called also the TEMPLE SOCIETY
and HOFFMANNITES, who, accepting the Sciip-
tures in full, expect the fulfillment of all the
prophecies and behe\e it the duty of Christ's
disciples to labor to promote that end, as Christ
Himself came to do The fhst step is to gathei
the people of God in Palestine, and with this
idea spiritual communities called Temples are
instituted in different countries, to assist in
the construction of the Temple in the Holv Land
The society originated in Wurttembcrg towards
the middle of the nineteenth century under the
lead of the Rev Christopher Hoffmann In 1808
a colony was established at Jafla, the following
year one at Haifa, and otheis have been added
at Sarona, near Jaffa, at Jerusalem and at
other places in Palestine The doctrines of the
Friends of the Temple have not been foimulated
into a creed The spintual development of the
members is a matter to which careful attention
is given The rite of baptism and the Loid's
Supper are observed, but are not under definite
regulation, individual convictions being allowed
to prevail in the choice of the method The
religious aspects of the movement have declined
from Hoffmann's death in 1885, and its impor-
tance to-day is chiefly on the economic side and
in its support of German interests in the East
There is a community in Wurttembeig, one in
Alexandria, Egypt, and one in the United States,
with about 350 members There are about
1500 colonists in the East Consult Hoffmann,
Occident und Orient (Stuttgart, 1875), id,
M em Weg nach Jerusalem (ib, 1881-85) , Kalb,
Kirchen, und Bekten der Gegenwart (1907)
FRIES, fres, ADBIVEK DE See VRIES
FBIES, BEENHARD (1820-79) A German
landscape painter, born at Heidelberg He stud-
ied at Karlsruhe under Koopman and at Munich,
where he was influenced by Rottmann, and later
in Geneva under Calame He tiavele^ in France
and Austria and remained eight years in Italy
His best works are a cyelus of 40 Italian views
He was forced to sell tfoem separately, two are
in the vestibule of the Technical High School
in Munich They are ^poetically conceived and
carefully painted Otter landscapes are in the
Munich Pinakothek, the Sehack Galleiy, Munich,
and the Stuttgart Museum — His biothei EBN&T
(1801-33) was born at Heidelberg He was a
pupil of K Kuntz at Kailsruhe and aitenvaid
studied in Munich, Heidelberg, and in Italy
On his letuin he Irved in Munich and Kailsruhe
Despite his short life, Fries left some excellent
pictures, such as "A View of Tivoli," "The
Waterfall of Lirib at Isold di Sora" (Munich
Pinakothek), ""Landscape in the Sabine Moun-
tains" (Leipzig Museum )3 and UA View of
Heidelberg" (National Gallery, Berlin) The
\\oiks show a smceie feeling foi nature
PBIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794-1878) An
eminent Swedish botanist He was born in the
pansh of Ferns jo and studied at the University
of Lund, where he became demonstrator in
botany in 1828 In 1834 he went to the Univer-
sity of Upsala as professoi of economic science,
to which chair aftei the death of Professor
Wahlenberg, in 1851, was united the chair of
botany In the lattei yeai he was also appointed
directoi of the Upsala Botanic Gaiden, and in
1859 he letired fiom active work Fries made
important contiibutions to all departments of
systematic botany, but especially to the knowl-
edge of lichens, fungi, and mosses, upon which
gioups of plants he wrote many important
woiks Some of his publications aie 8y sterna
Mycologicum (3 vols , 1820-32), Elenchus
Fungoium (2 vols, 1825), Licheno graphic
fliiropcea Reformata (1831), Flora Scanica
( 1835 ) , Smd die N aturu/issensohaften em Bil-
dungsnutteiv (1844) t Summa Vegetabiliwn
Scandmamce (2 vols, 1846-49) , Novce Sym'bolce
MycologiccB (1851), M onograplna Hymenomy-
cetuw* SueciccB (2 vols, 1857-63), Epicrisis
Generum Hieraciorum (18G2); Svenges athga
och giftiga scampa! , Fungi flsculenti et Vene-
nati Scandinavice (1862-69), with 93 colored
plates, BotamsJid, utflygter, three volumes of
collected short papeis (1843-64)
FRIES, JAKOB FBIEDBIOH (1773-1843) A
Oeiman philosopher, born at Barby, Saxony He
studied there and in the universities of Leipzig
and Jena and became a lecturer in philosophy at
the latter in 1801 Fiom 1806 to 1816 he was
professor of philosophy and elementary mathe-
matics at Heidelberg, and from 1816 until his
death professor of theoietical philosophy at
Jena His chief work is the Neue Kritik der
Vernunft (3 vols, 1807), an attempt to find a
new basis for the critical philosophy of Kant
His method is psychological He holds that a
knowledge of the a priori cognition of Kant is
to be attained only "by the a posteriori process
of subjective experience Hence, the a priori
element, inasmuch as it is discoverable only by
subjective experience, is not, as Kant contends,
transcendental to all experience Therefore
philosophy finds its ultimate foundation in sub-
jective knowledge and its true exposition through
psychological analysis Other differences from
the Kantian teaching are also encountered in
Fries, whose work, though ingenious, may be
said to contribute little to the progress of
speculation
PBIES, JOHN (e 1764-1 825) The leader of
the so-called "Fries Rebellion" in Pennsylvania
in 1799 He was the son of a Pennsylvania
farmer and was successively a cooper's appren-
tice, a soldier (during the Whisky Insurrec-
tion), and an auctioneer In July, 1798, Con-
gress voted a direct tax of $2,000,000, $237,000
of which was fixed upon, in January, 1799, as
IFRIESE
290
JTRIETCHIE
Pennsylvania's quota Soon afterward Federal
officers began to make the assessments In Penn-
sylvania the tax fell chiefly on houses and
lands, the value of the former being determined
by the number and size of the windows Among
the Germans m the counties of Montgomery, Le-
high, Bucks, and Berks, a regular opposition,
under the leadeiship of Fries, was organized
to the assessment of what they considered a
"window tax" This led to open conflict with
the Federal officeis, and at Bethlehem, on March
7, a considerable force of disaffected farmers and
some militia under Fries compelled the United
States marshal to liberate 30 prisoners who
had been arrested for opposing the law Finally
the militia was called out by President Adams,
and many of the noters, including Fries, weie
captured and taken to Philadelphia Here Fries
vtas twice tued for treason, and was each time
found guilty and sentenced to death, but was
eventually (April, 1800) pardoned by President
Adams, who at about the same time issued a
geneial amnesty to all who had been concerned
in the uprising Afterward Fries settled in
Philadelphia and acquiied a considerable for-
tune in the tinware trade Consult Davis, The
Fries Rebellion (Doylestown, Pa, 1899),
McMaster, History of the People of the United
States, vol n (New York, 1907) , and, for an
account of the trial, Das erste iind iywc^te
Verhor ion John Fries (Allentown, Pa, 1839)
FBIESE, freeze, RICHARD (1S54- ) A
German animal and landscape painter, boin at
Gumbinnen, East Prussia He studied at the
Academy in Beilm After traveling- in the East
in Norway, and as far as the polar regions, he
rapidly acquiied his present reputation as one of
the best animal painters in Germany He is
especially noted for his vivid delineations of the
lion's life in the desert and also of the native
deer world in the German forest The landscape
portion of his pictures is especially good He
became a member of the Berlin Academy in 1892
and professor in 1896 His works include
"Lions Surprising Caravan's Camp" (1884),
Dresden Gallery, "Elks on Field of Battle"
(1890), National Gallery, Berlin, "In the Breds-
zell Moor" (1895), Komgsberg Museum, "A
Twenty-pronged Stag under Way," owned by
Emperor William II
FRJESEKE, fre'ze-ke, FEEDEKICK GAEL (1874-
) An American genre painter, born at
Owosso, Mich He studied at the Art Institute,
Chicago, the Art Students' League, New York,
and under Constant, Laurens, and Whistler at
Paris After his twenty-fifth year he lived in
France, spending much of his time at Giverny in
Eure, the residence of Claude Monet He is a
decided Impressionist, yet does not seem to have
been influenced by any master of the group ex-
cept Renoir His subjects are usually female fig-
ures in bright-colored interiors or m his beauti-
ful garden The nude has played a considerable
part in Fneseke's work, as, eg, in his picture
in the Luxembourg Gallery (Paris), "Before the
Mirror " He made frequent and successful trips
to America, painting decorations and contribut-
ing to various exhibitions The first individual
exhibition of his work in New York was held
in 1912 He received numerous awards, includ-
ing gold medals at Munich (1904) and Philadel-
phia (1913), was elected an associate of the Na-
tional Academy and the Socie'te Nationale des
Beaux-Arts, and is represented in the galleries
of Vienna, Odessa, Venice, Savannah, and other
cities The Metropolitan Museum, New York,
possesses "The Toilet", the Art Institute,
Chicago, "The Open Window "
FBIESEN, fre'zen, HEBMANN, BAKON (1802-
82) A German Shakespearean scholar He
was educated at Leipzig and Gottingen and oc-
cupied several positions at the court of Saxony
He became known for his Bnefe ubei Shake-
spear es Hamlet (1864) and Shakespeare-Studien
(1874-76) He also made valuable contributions
to the Jahrbuch of the German Shakespeaie
Society
FB.IESEN, KARL FBTEBKIGH (1785-1814:) A
Geiman patriot He was born at Magdeburg,
studied at the Academy of Architectuic, Berlin,
collaborated on the great atlas of Mexico edited
by Humboldt, and in 1810 became an instructor
in the Plamann Institute In 1810-12 ho ren-
dered important services to Jahn in the estab-
lishment of German gymnastics Upon the out-
break of the German War of Liberation, m
1813, he assisted in organizing the volunteer
corps of Major von Lutzow, whose adjutant he
became After the dispersion of the coips by
Napoleon at Rhemib he was cap tin ed and shot
by the French at La Lobbe, Ai demies, March
15, 1814 In 1843 his body \\as bmied in the
military cemeteiy at Beilm He has fiequently
been celebrated by German wiitcrs, in particular
by E M Ai ndt in "Es thront am Elbesti andc "
Consult the life by Euler f 2d cd , Beilm, 1899)
FRIESEN", RICHARD, FBEIIIFRR vov (1808-
84) A statesman of Saxony He was boin at
Thurmsdorf, Saxony, was educated at Gottingen
and Leipzig, entered the civil service of Saxony,
and was Minister of the Interior from 1849 to
1852, resigning because he did not agiee with
Von Beust on tariff questions In 1858 he be-
came Minister of Finance and m 1867 of Foreign
Affairs also He was appointed in 1870 a com-
missioner to arrange in Versailles treaties with
the South German states looking to the unifica-
tion of Germany From 1871 until his retire-
ment in 1876 he was president of the mimstiy
Consult his Ennnerungen, aus meinem Lelen
(Dresden, 1880), and Beust's reply, Ennn&un-
gen zu Ennnerungen (Leipzig, 1881)
FBIESIAW, or HOLSTEIF-ERIESIA3ST,
CATTLE See Dairy Cattle, undei CATTLE
FBIESIAlsr ISLANDS See AMBUM, TER-
SCHELLING, TEXEL
FRIESLABTD, or VRIESLAND, freVland
(Lat Fnsia) A northwestern province of the
Netherlands, bounded by the North Sea, Zuyder
Zee, and the provinces of Gromngen, Drenthe,
and Overyssel (Map Netherlands, D 1) Area
(including the islands of Ameland and Schior-
monnikoog), 1282 square miles The land is flat
and in some parts of the northeast below the level
of the sea, but very gradually ascends towards
the southeast It is walled up by numerous
dikes and sluices Streams are feW", but there
are numerous canals and lakes abounding in
fish About 60 per cent of the area being com-
posed of meadows and heath, Friesland is
better adapted to pastoral than purely agricul-
tural industries It breeds excellent horses
and other domestic animals, which, with dairy
products, are the chief exports On the higher
ground industry is confined to peat digging
The manufacturing industries are comparatively
insignificant The capital is Leeuwarden (q v )
Pop, 1905, 356,017, 1912, 366,305
PRIETCH'IE, BARBARA See BAEBABA
FBIETCHIE
EBIEZE
291
FBIGATE BIBB
FRIEZE, frez (OF frise, frise, Fr frise, Olt
foigio, friso, fregio, It fregio, piobably from
ML plwyqium, fusium, embioidered work, from
Lat Phri/gius, G-k $pvyios, Phrygios, Phrygian,
from <E>/oijf, Phryx, Phrygian, otherwise connected
with OF fiiser, pizer, Fr fiiser, OFnes frisle,
fresle, han of the head) In architecture, a hori-
zontal band, plain or decorated, especially in
classic and neoclassic styles, the middle mem-
ber of an entablature (qv ) In the Doric order
(see ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE) the frieze is
divided into square panels, called metopes
( q v ) , by the vertically grooved triglyphs In
the othei orders the fueze is either plain or
adoined with relief sculpture of figuies (whence
the Vitruvian name zoophorus, 'beaier of living
forms') or oinamcnt The celebrated frieze of
the Paithenon, with its relief of the Panathenaic
procession, surrounded the cella wall at the top
immediately under the pteroma ceiling Othei
famous Greek fuezes were those of the choragic
monument of Lysicrates, the mausoleum of Hah-
eamassus, the Xanthus tomb, the Treasury
building at Delphi, the temple of Nike Apteros
at Athens, that of the temple of Apollo at
Phigaleia and of the temple and altar at Pcr-
gamon The Romans adorned their friezes with
rich carving of ornament and of symbolic forms,
rarely with figure reliefs The Renaissance re-
\ivcd the Roman practice and developed also
splendid forms of painted frieze decoration.
Modern ait has followed both the Greek and the
Roman system, but without as yet producing
any consummate example
FRIEZE, HENRY SIMMONS (1817-89) An
American scholar and writer, born in Boston,
Mass After 1830 he was a clerk and organist
He graduated at Brown University in 1841,
until 1845 taught there, and then until 1854 in
the grammar school of the university He then
left Biown to accept the professorship of Latin
at the University of Michigan, a position which
he held until his death From 1869 to 1871 he
was acting president of the university, during
this period most of the academic privileges were
thrown open to women Frieze devised a sys-
tem of inspection which established an official
connection between the university and the high,
schools of the State In the year 1880-81 he
was again acting president He edited Vergil's
JEneid and books x and xn of the Institutes
of Qumtihan, delivered and published addresses
on Anoint and Modern Education and Art
Museums, and presented valuable reports to the
Michigan State Board of Regents His last
work was The Story of Giovanni Dupr& (1886)
FUXG'ATE (fiom OF fregate, possibly from
I/at fabricata, sc navis, ship, p p of falbncari,
to build, from fabnca, workshop, from / after,
artisan) A warship of a type now long obso-
lete The term was used in the Mediterranean
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries — and
perhaps for many centuries before — to designate
a nairow, fast-sailing vessel, fitted also to be
propelled by oars, and having holes in the sides
for the passage of the latter resembling gun
ports These vessels were small and were used
for ordinary purposes of traffic and not foi war
Their shape and speed caused the model to be
followed for larger craft adapted for heavy
weather in the open sea In the sixteenth cen-
tury the term was very generally applied to
merchant ships in all the countries of western
Europe Towards the close of the century cer-
tain of these merchant frigates were hired for
service in the English navy, but they appear
to have been quite small craft The first frigate
built in England was the Constant Warwick,
built at Rat cliff G by Peter Pett the eldei, as a
privateer for the Earl of Warwick, and after-
ward purchased by the government The model
was taken from a Ficnch fug ate, according to
the Earl's son, but Pett, or his friends, claimed
that he was the nrventor of the frigate The
Constant Warwick carried 26 guns as a priva-
teer, but the battery was gradually mci eased
to 42 guns in 1677 The distinguishing charac-
teristics of frigates grew to be speed and handi-
ness combined with moderate size The type
began to crystallize during the seventeenth cen-
tury, and soon after the middle of the eighteenth
it was well established Frigates were then
rated as forty-fours, thirty-eights, thirty-sixes,
thirty-twos, twenty eights, and twenty-fours,
according to the number of guns earned Ships
carrying less than 32 guns were rarely frigate-
built, and it was common foi frigates to cany
several guns moie than implied in their rating,
particularly after the introduction of carron-
adoa (See CABRONADE ) At the beginning of the
nineteenth centuiy a fugate was a vessel cany-
ing guns on one coveiod deck and on an uncovered
deck above this. If these were all long guns, the
gun-deck (lowei) batteiy consisted of 26 to 32
long 18-pounders or 12-poundcrs, and the spar-
deck battery of six: to twelve 6, 9y or 12 pounders
The rig was that of a ship, three masts, square-
rigged on all The tonnage — a rather uncertain
measure of size — of the British frigates varied
between 500 and 1200, some of the United States
navy were laiger (See CONSTITUTION, also,
section on Navy in aiticle UNITED STATES )
After the application of steam to war vessels
the term "frigate" steadily lost significance and
is now no longer used, except in some European
navies, where captain of frigate is a title of
rank of naval officers answering to that of com-
mander in the United States navy Consult
G C V Holmes, Ancient and Modern Ships (2
vols, London, 1906), and E K Chatterton,
Ships and Ways of Other Days (Philadelphia,
1913)
FRIGATE BIRD (so called from their at-
tacks on other sea birds ) , or MAN-OF-WAR HAWK
A sea bird (Fregata aqwla-) of the order Stega-
nopodes, related to the pelicans, and hence some-
times called "frigate pelican " It is a large
bird, with black plumage, sometimes measuring
10 feet from tip to tip of its extended wings,
and is capable of very powerful and rapid
flight It inhabits the intertropical coasts, both
of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, often flying
far out to sea, but most of the time remaining
near shore Its aerial evolutions aie extremely
graceful, and it soars to a great elevation It is
said nevei to dive for its prey, but to seize
fishes only when they appear at the surface or
above it, and flying fishes constitute no small
part of its food It also pursues gulls and terns
and eats the fish which it forces them to dis-
gorge The feet are very small, but the bill is 5
inches long and strongly hooked at the tip A
closely allied species (Fregata minor) is found
in the Pacific and Indian oceans, and the two
with perhaps a third comprise the whole genus,
which is the only one in the family Fregatid^e.
These birds breed m companies on the ledges of
sea cliffs, on trees near shore, or on the ground
of oceanic islets, making a very rude nest and
laying a single white egg In the breeding
EBIGATE MACKEBEL
292
FBINGES
season the gular pouch of the male becomes a
vivid scarlet and is gieatly distended, so that
these birds form very striking ob]ects as they
roost upon the ground or wheel about in the
throng of the colonies The interior of the
pouch is in communication with the air sacs of
the neck and is filled 01 emptied (slowly)
through the bronchi When full, it is a semi-
transparent balloon and reaches forward as far
as the end of the beak and downward so as com-
pletely to hide the breast When empty, it
letracts to invisibility between the rami of the
lower mandible Consult Bennett, Gatherings
of a Naturalist in Australia (London, 1860) ;
Mosley, A Naturalist on the Challenger (ib,
1879), Buller, Buds of New Zealand (2d ed ,
ib , 1888), Forbes, Wanderings in the Eastern
Archipelago (New York, 1885) ., Leiter, account
of nesting of frigate birds on Phoenix Island,
South Pacific Ocean, in Proceedings of the Zo-
ological Society of London (London, 1891) ,
Chapman, Papet s p om the Tortugas Laboratory,
Carnegie Institution Publication No 103
(Washington, 1908) See TROPIC BIRD, and
also Plate of FISHING BIRDS
PHI GATE HACKEE-EL. A species of mack-
erel (Auxis thazard], abounding in all warm
seas, sometimes in immense schools, but of little
value See MACKEREL
PBIGGA, fieg/ga See FREYJA AND FRIGGA.
FRIGIDAHIITII See BATH, Rome
PRILL BACK A domestic pigeon of an
East Indian breed, TV hose featheis aie wholly
turned foi \\aid The beak is very shoit
PRILLED LIZARD A large agamoid
lizard (Chlamydosaurus hingi] of the tropical
parts of Australia, remarkable for its erectile
ruff and for its running on two logs only Its
habits are sylvan, and its chief resort is the
trunk or lower limbs of a tree It subsists on
beetles almost exclusively, all captured alive and
in daylight At night it rests clinging to the
bark in an upright position Its ordinary atti-
tude is with the hind legs spread and flexed,
letting the vent and tail rest upon the ground,
while the fore part of the body, with the head
uplifted, is supported high upon the stiffened
forearms When this lizard runs, howe\er, it
holds the foie part of the body clear of the
ground and goes upon the hind legs alone, after
the manner of a bird This feature, and its
bearing upon the animal's ancient avine and
A FRILLED LIZABD, RUNNING
lacertihan relationships, are discussed by Pro-
fessor Saville-Kent in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London for 1895, pp 712-
717 The same specialist describes, from a study
of captive examples, the skin membrane about
the neck as a denticulated frill, which in old
lizards may measure 8 or 9 inches in diameter
It may be erected or depressed at will, but as
slender processes of the hyoid bone extend into
it, the membrane cannot be expanded unless the
mouth is open, nor can the opening of the jaws
fail to lift the bill, which is otherwise folded
inconspicuously upon the neck (See LIZARD )
It is dun-coloied on the outside, like the rest
of the body, but its inside, bi ought to view
when erected, is bulhant with red and yellow
mottlings, as also are the paits of the head
otheiwise concealed Its function, evidently, is
to act as a "scare1' oigan The sudden ex-
pansion of this gaudy disk in the face of an
enemy, with the wide-open, sharply hissing
mouth in the centre, followed, as a rule, by an
instantaneous rush forwaid, is calculated to
terrify the foe completely In addition to this
harmless demonstration the long, whiplike tail
is vigorously lashed from side to side, and able
to inflict sharp blows hkelv to be both discon-
certing and painful Cf JEW LIZARD, and con-
sult Saville-Kent, The Natwahst in Australia
(London, 1897) See Plate of LIZARDS
FBIMAIBE, fre'mar' (Fr , sleety) The
thud month in the Fiench Republican Calendar
of 1793 It began on November 21 in years 1 to
3 and 5 to 7, on November 22 in years 4, 8 to
11, 13, and 14, and on November 23 in year 12
FBI MO XT, fre'mong', JOHANN MARIA
PIIILIPP, COUNT, PRINCE OF ANTRODOCCO (1759-
1831) An Austnan general, bom at Fmstin-
gen, Loname He studied at the College at
Pont-a-Mousson, entered the Austnan army in
1776, fought against Napoleon, notably at
Marengo, and commanded a cavalry division
under Prince Schwaizenberg in Russia in 1812
In 1815, with the rank of gcneial of cavaliy,
lie was in command of the Austrian forces in
noithein Italy and subsequently of the aimy of
occupation in France He was appointed m
1821 to the chief command of the aimy sent to
lestore order at Naples and suppress the Car-
bonari, and for his services received the Italian
title of Prince of Antrodocco and 220,000 ducats
In 1831 he suppressed a using in Modena a
short time before his death
FRINGES (dialectic Fr fnnche, ML fringia,
OF, Fr f range j piobably fiom Lat fimbria,
border, fringe) In optics, the alternate bands
of light and dark, due to the interference of
^\aves of light, which aie produced whori a
beam passes the shaip edge of a screen, or is
transmitted through a nariow slit or hole, or
biprism, or by icllection from a Fresnel mirror,
aie called fringes See DIFFRACTION AND DIF-
FRACTION GRATINGS, INTERFERENCE, LIGHT
PBI3STGES In the English Bible, the trans-
lation of the Hebrew gedilim in Dent YXII 12,
and of sisith in Num xv 38 The marginal
reading of the Revised Version, "twisted threads"
and "tassels," is probably better In the pas-
sage in Deuteronomy the Hebrews are com-
manded to place fringes upon the four corners
of their lobes, in Numbers, in a later passage,
the description is more detailed, and the reason
is assigned "to remember all the commandments
of the Lord " The injunction was much elabo-
rated by the rabbis and made a mattei of the
first importance in Judaism (cf Matt xxm 5)
Originally the garment to which the fringes
were attached was the outer one, passages in
the Gospels in which it is stated that the heal-
ing power of Jesus was experienced if the liem
or border of His garment were touched doubt-
less refer to the fringes or tassel (Matt ix 20,
xiv. 36, Mark vi 56, Luke vin 44) In the
course of time, because of persecution, the
fringes came to be concealed and are now put
by orthodox Jews on a separate garmewt worn
under the outer, reaching only to the chest, and
293
FBIISCHLIF
called the smaller talUth, to distinguish it fiom
the larger talhth, which also has fringes and
is woin only during the recital of the piayeis
In form it is a modern smvival of the ancient
dress of the Jews The wearing of fungcs is
doubtless based on some ancient custom of a
religious character, possibly they weie regaided
as amulets Consult Robertson Smith, Religion
of the Semites (London, 1894) , Nowack, He-
braische Arcliaologie (Freibuig, 1894) , Ben-
zinger, Hebraisclie Archaologie (2d ed , Tubin-
gen, 1907)
FKENGE THEE (Oluonanthus) A genus of
plants of the family Oleaceoe, comprising about
three species of small tiees or large shiubs, na-
tives of America and China The common fringe
tree, or snowflower (Chionantlius ?.m #vmco- ) > JS
found in the United States fiom Pcnnsyl\ania
and Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico and west
to Texas It sometimes attains the height of
20 or 30 feet, but is rarely more than 8~o: 10
feet high; has opposite oval leaves 0 or 7 inches
long, and very numerous snow-white flowers in
FRINGE TREE
pamcled racemes The limb of tlie corolla is
divided into four, sometimes five or six, linear
segments an inch or more long, whence the
name "fringe tree " The fruit is an oval drupe
The tree is frequently cultivated as an ornamen-
tal plant
FBINGII/LI3XS3 (Neo-Lat nom pi, from
Lat fnngilla,, a sort of small bird, probably the
chaffinch) A family of typical passerine birds,
having a conical or nearly conical bill, some-
times short and thick, sometimes comparatively
slender and elongated, sometimes convex above,
below, or at the sides, the commissure — line of
junction of the mandibles — straight The neck
is short, and neither the tail nor the wings are
long The Fnngillidae are all small birds and
feed chiefly on seeds, but to some extent also on
insects The family is an extremely numerous
one and is distributed over all parts of the
world. It is represented in America by finches,
sparrows, grosbeaks^ crossbills, etc, elsewhere
described, and has by some systeinist& been
placed at the head of the list of all birds, being
legarded as the most highly organized &ioup
(See FINCH ) Typical foims aie illustiated in
the Plates FAMILIAR SPARROWS, in the article
SPAKKOW, BUNTINGS AND GROSBEAKS, CACJE
BIRDS
FRISKY, EDGAR (1837- ) An Anieii-
can astionomer, bom at Gieat Easton, Leicestei-
fehire, England He graduated fiom the Univei-
sity of Toronto in 1863 (MA, 1864) Aftei
teaching m Canada in 1863-07, he was for a
short time acting professor of mathematics at
Northwestern University, in 1868-78 was assist-
ant astronomer in the United States Naval Ob-
servatory, Washington, and in 1878 became pro-
fessor of mathematics in the United States navy
He observed several eclipses for tho goveinment,
computed the orbit of the comet of 1882, and
had charge of the 12-inch equatorial telescope
until his retirement in 1899
JETCSGH, frish, JOIIANN LEONIIARD (1066-
1743) A German philologist and lexicographei ,
born at Sulzbach He studied at Altdoif, Jena,
and Stras&buig, was for a short time a pastoi
at Neusohl, Hungary, and after extensive tiavels
settled at Beilin, wheie in 1727 he was ap-
pointed rector of the Gymnasium zum Grauen
Kloster In 170G he became a member of the
Royal Scientific Society, and in 1731 director of
the historical-philological division Best known
and most important of his works is the Teutsch-
latet,msches Worter'buch (1741), the result of
30 years3 labor, the first work of the sort pre-
paied on scientific principles
FRISCHES HAFE, frish'ez haf (LG, Fresh-
water Bay) A large lagoon on the north coast
of Prussia, southeast of the Gulf of Danzig
(Map Germany, HI) It is rather less than
GO miles in length from northeast to southwest,
with a breadth which varies from 2 miles to 18
miles, and an area of 330 square miles It has
a depth of from 10 to 16 feet and was once en-
tirely walled oil from the Baltic by the Frische
Nehiung, a narrow spit of land extending
for about 40 miles along its north shore In
1510, however, the waters of the Frisches Haff
broke over the Fiische Nehrung and formed the
passage called the Gatt, which unites the lagoon
with the Baltic The Gatt, ongmally from 10
to 15 feet in depth, is now dredged to 22 feet
All large vessels load and unload at Pillau,
which is situated at the mouth of the Gatt; on
the shore of Danzig Bay Cargoes are conveyed
to and from the ports on the Frisches Haff by
means of lighters The lagoon receives the
waters of the Nogat, Pregel, Frisching, and
Passarge and part of the waters of the Vistula
FRISCHIrlN, frish'Mn, PXHLTPP NIKODEMUS
(1547-90) A German philologist and Latin
poet, born at Bahngen, Wurttemberg He stud-
ied at the University of Tubingen and became
professor of history and poetry theie in 1568
Through the jealousy of his colleagues and the
hatred of the nobility, whom he had angered
by his satiric wit, he was compelled to relin-
quish his chair and in 1582 became rector of
the school at Laibach in Caimola From 1584
to 1587 he was again at Tubingen, but in 1588
became rector of a school at Brunswick Ex-
pelled thence in 1589, as the result of a pasquin-
ade, he wandered about for a time and finally
was imprisoned in 1590 in the Hohenurach Dun-
geon at Mainz He broke his neck in an at-
tempt to escape He wrote in Latin some
indifferent tragedies, a few comedies, of some
PBISOOTCAltflT 2(
worth, of which the best is Juhus Ccesar Ttodi-
vwus (1584) , and poems, including principally
De Natah Jesu Christo, and the Hebrews, a hexa-
metric chronicle of the Jewish kings His philo-
logical study is best represented by the Gram-
mat^ca Latina (1585) He wrote commentaries
also on Vergil and Persms and translated Calli-
machus and Aristophanes Consult Strauss,
Le'ben und Schriften des Dichters und Philologen
FnschUn (Frankfort, 1856)
FRXSCH'MAWW, DAVID (1SC3- ) A
Hebiew writer He was born at Lodz and
made Warsaw his residence Beginning to write
at 13, he soon caused a sensation by declaring
relentless war on all the archaic traditions that
hindered the development of Hebrew hteiature
Ever after, he endear oied to Europeanize He-
brew loainmg He made admirable translations
of Beinstem's Naturwissenscliafthche Volks-
tucher, By ion's Gain, Nietzsche's Also Sprach
Zarathustra, and many other works His origi-
nal writings consist of both verse and prose
A complete edition of his works in 17 vols
(the last consisting of critical comments on his
work) was published at Warsaw
IFRIS^CO A popular abbreviation of the
name San Francisco
rRISI, freeze, PAOLO (1728-84) An Italian
mathematician He was boin at Milan, taught
philosophy at Padua, and became, in 1756, pio-
fessor of mathematics at Pisa and m 1764 at
Milan In 1777 he became diiector of a school
of architecture at Milan When less than 23
years of age, he published a remaikable Dis~
guisitio Mathematioa (1751), upon the physical
causes which have determined the magnitude
and shape of the earth He also published
De At mo splicer a, Cosiest lum Covpoiuwi (1758),
De Inasquahtate Motus Planetarum (1760) , Del
modo di regolare i fiumi e i tortenti (1762).
Consult Verri, Memorie . del signor dom
Paolo Fnsi (Milan, 1787), and J C Poggen-
dorff, Biograpfusoh-litefarisches Handworterluch,
vol i (Leipzig, 1863-1904)
EBISIA See FRIESLAND
EKISIA3ST. See FRIESIAK
FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE (OFris Fnse, Frese, AS Frisa, Lat
Fnsiij possibly connected with OFris /rase,
danger, AS frasian, Goth fraisan, OHG fraison,
to test) The language and literature of a
branch of the Germanic family of dialects which
was formerly spoken along the coast of the
North Sea and on the coast islands from the
Khine to the Ems The Frisians are first men-
tioned by Tacitus, who divides them into the
greater and the lesser. Their boundaries varied
at different periods, however, so that the entire
coast line from the Scheldt to the Weser has at
one time or another been occupied by those who
spoke the Frisian language. Of all the Germanic
dialects this is the one nearest akin to Anglo-
Saxon, so that the two tongues are sometimes
classed together as Anglo-Saxon Frisian Thus,
we have AS mono,, OFris mdna, moon, but
OHG mdno, Goth mena, or AS. cecer, OFris
ekker, field, acre, but OHG acohar, Goth akrs
On the other hand, Frisian has many points of
association with Dutch, and Icelandic which are
not found in Anglo-Saxon, as of, or, wer, true,
while the Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon have the
so-called "breaking" of the vowels before r, I +
consonants which does not occur in Frisian, e g ,
AS beorh, Icel Iwg, hill, but OFris, OHG
berg It seems probable, on the wliole, that the
4 FRI&IA3ST LANGUAGE
Anglo-Saxons once occupied the land between
the Frisians and the Scandinavians, and that
of the Anglo-Saxon dialects the Kentish stood
nearest the Fnsian (eg, OEFns biade, he
commanded, Kent biade, but WS teode) , while
next to the Kentish in this lespect came the
West Saxon, and finally the Noithumbrian and
Mercian
Frisian is divided into numerous dialects,
many of which now differ from each other to a
sm prising degree Indeed, so diveigent are
many \\ords in the vocabularies of the various
dialects that some of the commonest teims be-
come unintelligible after a very short distance
It is, furthermore, necessary to bear in mind
the stiong influence exeicised by Danish ovei
the vocabxilaiies of many dialects By a phe-
nomenon, somewhat unusual in language, many
terms for the most familiar objects are loan
woids in Frisian, being boriowed from the Danes
Fnsian may be divided first into East and
West Frisian, and the former of these again
into East and North Frisian The East Frisian,
using the term in this restiicted sense, is sub-
divided into the Weser and the Ems dialects
This group has been gradually supplanted by
Low German ( Plattdeutsch ) , so that what is
now often called East Frisian is, in reality, a
Low Gorman dialect In 1890, 32 peisons on
the island of Wangeroog, and about 2000 in the
Sateiland of Oldenbmg still spoke East Fri-
sian The North Frisian group, which foimed
the vernacular of about 2600 persons in 1885,
is divided into seven dialects on the mainland
and thiee on the islands The dialects of the
coast have been strongly influenced, not only by
Low German, but also by Danish, and island
dialects seem to show in addition the piesence
of West Saxon elements Of Old North Frisian
hardly any iccords exist, the oldest being a short
inscription on a font of 1452 at Pelworm Old
West Frisian, on the other hand, is represented
by literary remains which are relatively exten-
sive, while the New West Frisian is that in
which the bulk of modern Frisian literature is
composed The dialects of New West Frisian
are not separated by such wide divergences as
the East and North groups, although they num-
ber six, since the majority of the diifeienees are
due to the operation of analogy (qv )
The Fnsian employs the Roman alphabet, but
uses u, v3 and w, as well as o and k, almost in-
discriminately The vowels have the Italian
values, and the consonants are pronounced in
general as in Geinian, excepting that s is soft
like the English », and that fc or o is frequently
palatalized before e and i to ch or sh (written
80, sth, ts, t#, tsz, or, m West Frisian, simply
s, z) There is a tendency to elide r and I (dega
beside degar, days, Mod Fns weed, woe, AS
wolde, Eng would) The guttural g is often
vocalized to ^ (3 eld for geld, payment, cf AS
geard, Eng yard] The old pronunciation of
th, as in Eng thorn, is still retained in some of
the island dialects (WFris thank, thanks, but
NFris tdnk) The sound of h was extremely
weak The morphology of Frisian is essentially
Germanic in its type In nouns there are the
three genders, two numbers, five cases, and the
division into strong and weak declensions
Even in modern North Frisian the pronoun re-
tains the dual (wat and yat, cf AS wit and
git), which lias been lost in all other modern
Germanic languages The verbs are strong,
weak, and preterite present, forming their paat
FBXSIAN LANGUAGE
tenses, as m the other dialects of this group,
either by ablaut (qv ), or by composition with
the verb signifying to do (eg , Fiisian infinitive
finda, to find, preterite singular fandf pietente
plural fundon, past participle funden, AS findan,
fand, fundon, funden ^ Fus hatia, to hate,
pretente hatade, hatadon, past participle Jiatadj
AS hatian, hatade, halation, gehatad, Fris
mota, to be obliged, present singular mot, pies-
ent plural moton, preterite mvste, AS motan,
mot, moton, moste] The passive is foimed like
the Germanic passive generally, except in Gothic
and the Scandinavian dialects, by wcsa (AS
wesan) , to be, with the past paiiiciplc (eg,
Frisian iL was funden, AS 1,0 ivces fundon, I was
found) The syntax of Frisian follows the
general type of the older Germanic languages
Frisian Literature Fn&ian literature is,
relatively speaking, extremely scanty The old-
est specimens of Frismn date no farthei back
than the thirteenth century, although it may be
shown by references to the ancient Latin chroni-
cles that here, too, the Germanic epics had
flounshed at least five centuries before These
ancient epics were doubtless alliterative like the
Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic poems, but beside
the alhteiation might be found now and then
rhymed verse, as we find it, eg, in Old High
German in Otfnd's JSvangelienbuGh As an ex-
ample of such A verse, which also shows a trace
of the older alliteration, we may quote
ho stifte and stcrde treuwe and werde
(he founded and strengthened fidelity and
worth) Of this class of literature the most
noteworthy is the so called Privilege of Charle-
magne, which pin ports to confer certain politi-
cal rights on the Fusians The production is,
however, a forgery of the thirteenth century
It is written in rhythmic prose The Rudolf
Book, claiming to belong to the twelfth centuiy,
but probably written two centunes later, is a
legendary account of the laws given by one
Rudolf to the Frisians, who had been summoned
to contribute a levy of troops for service against
the Northmen There is also a collection of 1671
verses edited under the title Thet freske R^Jm}
which is a translation of Low Gciman verses
and composed in a baibarous mixture of dialects
which renders it practically useless for the study
of the language The prose literature is much
moie extensive and important It begins about
the eleventh century with an interim eai trans-
lation of the Psalms and with a late Chronicle
The remainder of the prose is devoted to legal
topics Tnese law books fall into two sections,
general and local To the general codes belong,
among otheis, the 17 Keren (petitions) and the
24 Londriuchta (land rights) These were origi-
nally written in Latin and later translated into
the various Frisian dialects Besides some addi-
tions to the Keren, there is also the code of
Upstalbom, dating from 1323 Among the local
law books by far the most important class is
formed by the Prologues and Tractates The
Prologues, as the name implies, are introduc-
tions to the codes proper and deal with, the his-
tory of the land or the dynasty, or tieat of the
theory and nature of law Old sagas, too, are
found m some Prologues, such as the saga of
Karl and Bedbad or that of Magnus More
miscellaneous topics contained in them are de-
scriptions of the Day of Judgment, the Creation,
the grades of the priesthood, and the like The
Tractates themselves contain the legal codes
Tax lists, formulas for taking the oath, letters,
295
FRISIAN LANGUAGE
and synodical epistles (smuthtiuclita) are also
found in the prose literature of Old Frisian
The modern Frisian literature dates from the
sixteenth century Poetry is dead m East Fries-
land In 1632 Imel Agena, of Upgant, composed
a trivial poem, in Alexandrines,, which seems to
have been a portion of a dance song In North
Fnesland poetry was little bettei developed,
although there are a few veises preserved, as
well as a numbei of sagas cuirent on the
islands The only important piece of North
Frisian literature is J P Hansen's comedy Di
Gidtshals of di Sol'rmg Pi&ersdw (Flensburg,
1809, 2d ed with the addition of a story, Di
Icddelk Stjuurnian, and some poems, Soncler-
buig, 1833) The most important of the modern
Frisian literatures is the West Frisian, which
has a continuous line from the sixteenth cen-
tuiy to the present time Between the old and
new periods of this dialect there is, therefore,
almost no gap, for the last example of Old West
Fiibian is a law of 1559, and the first specimen
of the New is a comic dialogue of 1609, Een
tsamcnspreLinghe van twee boetsche Petsonen,
Wouter en Tialle Early m the seventeenth cen-
tury arose one of the greatest nami^s in Fiisian
literature, that of Gilbert Japiks (1603-60)
He was a true poet, tuimng especially towards
peasant life, rich, too, in love poetry, and in the
dialogue with which the modern period had be-
gun He was influenced by Dutch and classical
models, but was, nevertheless, unaffected and
unpedantic In his last years, however, he lost
his early simplicity His imitator, Jan Althuy-
scn (1715-63), like Japiks, made a translation
of 52 Psalms and composed in addition many
occasional poems From the tune of Althuysen
till the present, no great literary name has
arisen among the Fusians Many brief poems,
epithalamia, and the like, have been written,
but only comedy deserves any special mention
Full of wit, and turning on the difference be-
tween the country and city, these plays portray
excellently the peasant life Most noteworthy
are JSelke Meinderts's It liblen fen Aagtye
Ijsbrants, of dy fneske l>ocnnne (1779)., De
tankbrc Qoeieffoon (1778), De reys fen Maicke
JMelis (1778), and Ilet jonge lieuws "boosk
(1*80)
Of the later Frisian writers, the most note-
worthy are the Halbertsma brothers, Joost Hi ti-
des (1782-1869), and Eeltje (1797-1858) The
latter was a poet of talent, as is evident from,
his Lapekoer fen, Qabe Scroar (1822) and his
filmen en Teltsjes (1868) Among other poets
may be mentioned P 0 Salverda (Ifthjcke
fnesohe Rymckes, 1824) , Bmse Postlmimis,
who wrote Prwmuecke fen friesclie Rijmmelcmie
(1824) and translated se\eral of Shakespeare's
plays, such as Julius Ccssar and The Merchant
of Venice J G van Blom (1796-1871) was a
poet of the people, and J F van der Wey-
Butgers, H G van der Veen, and C Wielsma
wrote of child life Waling Dijkstra (1821-
) is the most prolific of contemporary
Frisian authors, while the most elegant is prob-
ably Pieter Jelles Troelstra (1860- ), who
is known not only as a lyric poet, but also as
one of the editors of the Frisian monthly, For
Hus en Hiem
Bibliography The most complete account of
the Frisian language and literature is found in
Siebs, "Geschichte der friesischen Sprache," in
Paul's Qrun&riss der germam&ofaen Philologie,
vol 11 (2d ed, Strassburg, 1901-09), and #e-
FBIT
296
FRITH
scJiichte dei foiesischen Littet atut , vol m (ib?
1900), wheie references to all the liteiature on
the subject are collected Consult also Bend-
sen, Die nordfnesisclie Spracfie nach der Mohr-
mger Mundart (Leyden, 1860) , Johansen, Die
nordfnesische Sprache nach der Fohtmger und
Amrumer Mundart (Kiel, 1862) , Winkler, A.I-
c/emeen nederdwtsch en fnesch Dialectwon (The
Hague, 1874) , Cummins, Grammar of the Old
Frisian Language (London, 1887), Colmjon,
Beknopte piesche SpiaaLlunst vor den tegen-
woordigen Tijd (2d ed , Joure, 1889), Siebs,
Zur Oeschichte der enghscJi-fnesischen 8prache
(Halle, 1880) T Van Helten, Altostfi lesische
Q-ramwatilv (Leeuwaiden, 1890) , Outzen, Glos-
sarium der nordftiesischen, Sprache (Copen-
hagen, 1837) , Richthofen, AltfriesiscJies Wot-
teibuch (Gottingen, 1840), Sturenburg, 0<?£-
ftiesisches Worteibuch (Aurich, 1862), Ten
Doornkaat Kooman, Woitetbuch det ostfriesi-
schen Spiaohe, etymologise^ beatleitet (3 vols ,
Nor den, 1879-84) , Dykstra and Eettema,
Priesch WoordenbceJc (4 vols , Leeuwarden,
1896-1903) , Bichthofen, Fnesiselic Iteclitsquel-
len (Berlin, 1840) , Hettema, Oude fnesche Wet-
ten (Leeuwarden, 1845-51), id, Untet suchun-
gen uber friesische Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin,
1880-86) , id , Bloemlesing uit oud~, tmddel- en
meuwfriesche Geschrvften (Leyden, 1887 et
aeq ) , Siebs, Hylicr Litstspiele (Greifswald,
1898), Hensei, AH fne&isches Lese'bucli mit
Qrammatik uvd Glossal (Heidelberg, 1903),
Kock, "Vocal-balance im Alt fnesiflchen," in
vol xxix of the Beitiage sw GescUwJite dor
deutschen Sprache und Littetatur (Halle, 1904) ,
Helten, "2um altfriesischen Vokalisnrus," in
vol xix of the IndogwrnaniscJiG JForsohungen
(Stiassburg, 1906) , Jaekel, "Die alt friesischen
Verse vom. hute des abba,)J in vol xx^i of the
Zeitschrtft fur deutsche Philologie (Halle,
1907) , Walter, Der Wortschatz des Altfuesir
schen (Naumburg, 1911) , Sipma, Phonology
and Grammar of Modern West Frisian (Oxford,
1913)
3TBXT (Fr fntte, from It fntta, frit, from
fmggere, Lat fngere, to parch) An active
greenish-black fly (Oscinis frit], of the size of
a large flea, which does great injury to barley
crops in the north of Europe It lays its eggs
in the flowers, and its larvae live on the young
grains The family is represented in America
by the species 0 semis variabiUs and other
minute "grass-stem flies" of the genera Mero-
my&a,, Ohlorops, etc, which damage various
crops In the Southern States they swarm in
clouds at certain seasons and get into the eyes
of animals and men, and to them has been
attributed the spread of the disease pink eye
(qv)
EBITH, or FBYTH, JOHN (1503-33) An
English Piotestant martyr He was born at
Westerham in Kent and educated at Eton and
Cambridge, where Gardiner, subsequently Bishop
of Winchester, was his tutor Immediately af-
ter taking his bachelor's degree (1525), invited
by Wolsey, he transferred his residence to the
newly founded Cardinal College (now Christ's
Church ) , Oxford He made the acquaintance of
Tyndal and assisted him in his translation of
the New Testament His zeal in the cause of
the Reformation led to his imprisonment at
Oxford for some months At the instance of
Wol&ey he was released (1528) and fled to the
Continent, where he resided chiefly at the newly
founded Protestant University of Marburg and
was again associated with Tyndal in literary
labois At Marburg he became acquainted with
several scholars and Reformeis of note, particu-
larly with Patrick Hamilton (qv) His first
publication was a translation of Hamilton's
Places, made shortly after the martyrdom of
the author, and soon afteiwaid appeared A
Pistle to the Christen Reader, under the pseudo-
nym "Richaide Bnghtwell" (1529), and A Dis-
putaeion of Purgatorye, a treatise against
Rastell, Sir Thomas More, and Fischei, Bishop
of Rochester (1531) In 1532 he ventured back
to England Warrants for his arrest weie al-
most immediately issued, at the instance of
More, then Lord Chancellor After evading
pui&uit for some weeks he fell into the hands of
the authorities as he was on the point of mak-
ing his escape to Flanders The rigor of his
imprisonment in the Tower was abated when
Sn Thomas Audley succeeded to the chancelloi-
ship, and it was understood that both Cromwell
and Cranmer were disposed to leniency But the
treacherous circulation of a, manuscript, Lytle
Treatise on the Sacraments, which Filth had
wutten for the information of a friend, with no
view to publication, further excited the hostility
of his enemies He was tued and found guilty
of denying that the doctrines of purgatory and
tiansubstantiation were necessary articles of
faith June 23, 1533, he was handed over to
the secular aim and was burnt at Smithfield,
London, July 4 Duimg his captivity he wrote
a controveisial work on the eucharist, and sev-
eial tracts Firth was the fiist to maintain the
doctrine legarding the sacrament of Christ's
body and blood which ultimately came to be
incorporated in the English communion office
Twenty-three years after his death as a martyr,
Cranmer, who had been one of his judges, went
to the stake for the same belief, and three years
later it had become the publicly professed faith
of the English nation Frith's woiks were pub-
lished by Foxe (London, 1573)., and there was
another edition in 1631, Alcoek, 8no Heroic Men
(London, 1905)
EEITH, WALT KB An English dramatic au-
thor and critic, the son of the Royal Academi-
cian W Powell Frith He was born in London,
was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, then
studied law, and became a barrister in 1880
His best-known plays are Brittany Folk
(1889) , Not Wisely lut Too Well (1898) , The
Man of Foitij (1900), Margaret Catchpole
(1910) He also wrote several novels
FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1819-1909) An
English figure and genre painter He was born
at Aldneld, Yorkshire, and was a pupil of Sass3s
art school in Bloomsbury and a student of the
Royal Academy In 1840 he exhibited his "Mal-
voho before the Countess Olivia," which at-
tracted much public attention His "Village
Pastor," painted in 1845, made him an associate
member of the Academy For some time he con-
tinued to paint in a similar romantic vein sub-
jects chosen chiefly from Scott, Dickens, Sterne,
Goldsmith, Shakespeare, and Cervantes, such
as "The Oood-Natured Man" and "Dolly Var-
den" (South Kensington Museum) , "Uncle
Toby and the Widow Wadman" (Tate Gallery,
London), which aie good in color and well
handled After he was elected a Royal Academi-
cian in 1853 he began to depict the humorous
aspect of an English crowd in such subjects as
"Life at the Seaside, Ramsgate," purchased by
Queen Victoria "Derby Day" (1858, Tate G-al-
FRITHJOFS SAGA
297
EBITSCH
lery), and the "Railway Station" (1862, Leices-
ter Museum) In spite of their anecdotic and
liteiary chaiacter, these works possess real pic-
torial qualities Frith was commissioned by
Queen Victona to paint the "Marriage of the
Prince of Wales" (1865), and made an unsuc-
cessful attempt to rival Hogaith in Ins benes
"The Road to Rum" (1878) and "Poveity and
Wealth " His latei works include "John Knox
at Holyrood" and "Private View of the Royal
Academy" His pictmes were exceedingly popu-
lar and often engiaved "The Dinner at Bos-
weirs Rooms" (1809) sold in 1875 foi £4567,
the highest pi ice then leached foi a woik by a
living artist Frith was a menibei of se^elal
foreign academies and a chevalier of the Legion
of Honor Consult Futh, My Autobiography
and Reminiscences (London, 1887) and Futther
Reminiscences (ib, 1888), Ward, Reminiscences
(ib, 1911)
FKITHJOFS SAGA, fret'ydfs sa'g«i An
ancient Icelandic myth It was probably first
wntten down at the end of the thirteenth or in
the beginning of the fouiteentli century and
recoids the life and adventuies of the heio
Frithjof (propeily Fridhthjtifr, peace destroyei ),
who loved the beautiful Ingeborg, the daughter
of a petty king of Norway After being rejected
by the brothers of Ingeborg and having com-
mitted vanous acts of revenge on his enemies,
he comes to the couit of the old King, Hring,
to whom Ingeborg has been maiiied, and is re-
ceived with kindness At the death of her hus-
band Ingeborg is mariied to hei lovei, who ac-
quires with hei hand the dominions of Hring,
over which he lules prosperously to the end
of his days Frithjof is supposed to have lived
in the eighth century, but some writeis assign
to him a much eaihei peiiod This saga was
included by Bioiner m his collection Notdisha
Kampadaley (Stockholm, 1737), and by Rafn
in his Fornaldar Bogur Nordhrlanda (Copen-
hagen, 1829) Attention has of late years been
more especially diawn to this ancient saga,
which is, in fact, meiely one of a number of
similar mythical nairatives, in consequence of
the Swedish poet Tegne*r (qv) having selected
it for the gioundwork of a poem, Frithjof s Saga,
which was published in its complete foim in
1825 and at once became the most popular poem
that had ever appeared in Sweden and raised its
author to the height of his reputation At
times the author has preserved the severe stern-
ness of the old vikmg type, often, however, he
has tempered it with the sentimental character-
istics of his own age On the whole, the picture
of the old Norse life is very much idealized — a
fact which has brought the author much adverse
ciiticism But the lyric beauty alone of the
poem is enough to insure it a permanent place
in Swedish literature TegneVs Frithjofs Saga
has been translated into most of the European
languages , among the 22 or more English trans-
lations, we may instance those by Holcomb
(Chicago, 1905) and Shaw (ib, 1911), For
poetic beauty, Longfellow's partial translations
are unsurpassed Consult H Hermannsson,
Bibliography of the Mythical-heroic Sagas
(Ithaca, 1912), and W A Craigie, Icelandic
Sagas (New Yoik, 1913)
FRITIGERN, frit'i-gern, or FRIDIGEHN"
A Visigothic chieftain When, in 376, the Visi-
goths were crowded from Dacia by the inroads
of the victorious Huns, he was permitted by
Valens, Emperor of the East, to transport his
band, which nominally was Christian (Arian),
across the Danube and to settle in Mcesia
Quarrels ensued between the immigrants and the
Roman officials and culminated in the battle
of Adnanople (Aug 9, 378) Futigern, in
pimcipal command of the Visigoths, there de-
btioved fully two-thuds of Valens's army, thus
inflicting a defeat which, foi actual loss on the
field, was equaled in Roman annals only by the
disaster at Cannae (216 BO) Valens himself
was killed, and his body vias never recoveied
Futigein's leadeislup for a brief time main-
tained Visigothic unity, which was dissolved
immediately after his death (c380)
FHIT'ILLARY (from Lat fntillus, dice-
box, from the foim of the perianth), Fritillaria
A genus of bulbous-rooted plants of the family
JLihacese, natives of Europe and other temperate
i egions of the Northern Hemisphere The droop-
ing perianth, which is bell- shaped, has six dis-
tinct segments, each with a conspicuous honey
poie (nectary) at the base About 40 species,
some beautiful, aie known One species, the
common futillaiy, 01 snake's head (Fritillaiia
meleagns), a native of Gieat Britain, blooms
in April and May in meadows and pastures in
the east and south of England The stem, about
1 foot high, beais several lincai leaves and, in
genet al, only one flesh-colored, dark-spotted
flower Many varieties, including the crown im-
penal (Fritillaria imperial is ), a native of Persia
and the north of India, aie in cultivation
Among1 the indigenous American species, which
have scaly bulbs and are confined to the Pacific
coast, the best known are Fntillarta pudica,
Fritillaria recurva, and Fritillaria camtschat-
censis, sometimes called black lily, which occurs
from California to Alaska and in Siberia In
Alaska the bulbs were foimerly gathered, dried,
and eaten to a considerable extent They are
sui rounded by many small white bulblets of the
size and shape of a grain of popcorn and are
sometimes called wild rice They have been fre-
quently taken from the crops of birds at con-
suleiable distances fiom where they were grown
FRITILXiARY (Neo-Lat fntillaria, nom
pi, fiom Lat pitillus, dicebox), or SILVEESPOT
A nymphahne butterfly, of a group mostly the
geiuis Argynms, with fulvous and black check-
ered wings The hind wing is often marked with
a row of silveiy eyespots There are more than
50 species in the United States, whose larvae
feed at night on violets The great spangled
(A.rgynnis cylele] and the variegated fritillary
(Euptoieta claudia] are two common North
American representatives
FK.ITSCH, frich, ANTON JOHANN See FKI&
ntlTSCH, GUSTAV THBODOB (1838- )
A German scientist and traveler, born at Kott-
bus (Brandenburg) He studied at Berlin,
Breslau, and Heidelberg, in 1863-66 made a
scientific journey to South Africa, and in 1867
became an assistant in the Anatomical Institute
at Berlin In 1868 he was a member of the
expedition to Aden to observe the total eclipse
of the sun, and in 1874 of the expedition sent
to Ispahan, Persia, to observe the transit of
Venus He was appointed in the latter year to
the chair of comparative anatomy at the Univer-
sity of Berlin and subsequently to that of physi-
ology Under commission from the Royal Acad-
emy of Sciences, Berlin, he visited the Mediter-
ranean countries m 1881-82 for the study of
electric fishes His publications include- Drei
Jahre in Sudafrika (1868); Die .Emgeborenen
FKITSCH 298
Sudafrikas (1873), anatomical and ethnographi-
cal observations, Die elchtriscJien Fische (2
parts, 1887-90), Die Gestalt des Menschen
(1899, 2d ed, 1905), Aegyytische Voltetypen
(1904), Das Haupthaar wid seme Bildungs-
statte bei den Rassen, des Mensclien (1912)
FRITSCH, JOIIANN (1849- ) A Ger-
man neurologist, bom at Tepl, Bohemia He
studied at the University of Vienna, \vas ap-
pointed a lecturer there, and afterward professor
of psychiatiy His publications include TJeber
die primare VenucJctheit (1879) and Erfahrun-
gen uler Simulation geistigei Storung (1890)
FRITSCH, KARL (1812-79) An Austrian
meteorologist, born at Pi ague He attended the
university theie, Mas for a time a government
official, but privately puisued meteorological in-
vestigations, and fiom IS 62 to his retirement in
1872 was \ice dnectoi of the Austrian meteor-
ological service Laige increase was made by
him in the number of observation stations, and
he contributed valuable aifcicles to the publica-
tions of the Vienna Academy and of the Oester-
reicnische Gesellschaft fur Meteorologie
FHITSCH, KABL, BAKOIT (1838-1906) A
German geologist, born at Weimar He studied
at the University of Gottingen and in 1873 be-
came professor of geology at Halle His publi-
cations include Reiselilder von den Kanawschen
Inseln (1867), with Reiz, Geologische BescTw 6i~
lung der Insel Tenet ife (1868), Allgemeine
Geologic (1S8S)
FBITZ, frits, DEE ALTE (Ger, Old Fritz)
A nickname given by the soldiers to Frederick
the Grieat
FH1TZ, JOHN (1822-1913) An American ex-
pert in the manufacture of iron and steel, born
at Londondeiry, Pa He was trained as a ma-
chinist in small establishments at Parkers-
burg and Koixistown and afterward was em-
ployed m the construction of rolling nulls In
this connection he made so thorough a stii4y
of the details of iron and steel manufacture as
to become an authority on the subject and to
be commissioned with the equipment of the
Cambria Iron Woiks and the well-known Beth-
lehem Iron and Steel Works For many years
lie was manager of the latter He was among
the first to introduce the Bessemer process into
the United States and was a pioneer in other
methods now generally used. In. his honor a
medal was established by a group of scientists
and manufacturers, in 1902, to be known by his
name and to be awarded in recognition of notable
discoveries in industry and science, and in 1910
the Franklin Institute awarded him the Elliott
Cresson medal He was president of the Ameri-
can Institute of Mining Engineers in 1894
and of the Society of Mechanical Engineers in
1896,
FRITZ, SAMUEL (1656-1728). A German
Jesmt missionary, born in Bohemia He entered
the Jesuit Order in 1673, went to Cartagena in
1084, studied at Quito m 1685, and m 1686
became a missionary on the upper Amazon Ow-
ing to ill health, lie withdrew to the Portuguese
colony of Para, at the mouth of the river, and
was held prisoner as a, spy there until 1691 by
the Governor Having been liberated and hav-
ing reported to the Viceroy at Lima bis various
observations, he returned to his missionary field
an 1693 During his 42 years of activity among
the Indians he founded the Omaguaa missions
and others and prepared the material for his
great map of the Amazon This appeared at
FBITZSCHE
Quito in 1707, in the Letties edifiantes (vol
xn) in 1717, and was for many years the recog-
nized authority on the region included by the
nvei system The Jesuits call him "the Apostle
to the Omaguas "
FBITZ, UNSER (Ger, Our Fritz) A name
given by the Germans to Frederick William,
Crown Prince of Piussia, later Emperor Fred-
erick III
FBITZLAB, frits'lar, HERBORT and HEKMANN
vow See HEEBORT and HEBMANN vo^r FEITZLAK
FRXTZNER, frits'ner, JoiiAN (1812-93) A
Norwegian lexicographer, born at Asko, near
Bergen He was educated at Christiania and
after holding several pastoiates demoted himself
entirely to scientific labois, as a result of which
he published the Ordbog over dot gamle norsle
Sprog (1861-67, 2d ed , 1883-96), an excellent
dictionary of ancient Norse
FBITZSCHE, frit' she, ADOLF THEODOK HER-
KANN (1818-78) A German classical scholar
He was born at Groitzsch, Saxony, and was edu-
cated at Leipzig, where, after an activity of
several years at the University of Giessen, he
occupied the chair of philology from 1850 until
his death Besides original poems in Latin and
Geiman, he published valuable editions of sev-
eral works of the Greek and Roman classics, the
most noteworthy being the elaborate edition of
Theooritus (2d ed , 1869) and that of the $afrwes
of Horace (1875-76)
FEIT25SCHE, FKANZ VOLKMAR (1806-87)
A German classical scholai , son of the theologian
Christian Friedrich Fntzsche (1776-1850) He
was born at Stembadi in Saxony and, after
studying under Beck and Hermann at the Uni-
versity of Leipzig, was professor o! eloquence
and poetry at Rostock from 1828 until his death
Hi& works deal chiefly with Lucian and the
Greek dramatists, particularly Aristophanes
Among the most important ale the Qu^stiones
Lucianece (1826) , an edition of the Dialogi Deo-
rum of Lucian (1829), an edition of Aiibtoph-
anes' Thesmophormzusce (with a commentary,
1838) and Ran& (1845), and a critical edition
of Lucian's complete works (1860-74) In de-
fense of his old teacher, Hermann, he published
Recension des Bitches Jflwhylos Eumeniden von
K 0 Mutter (1834)
FEITZSCHE, KAEL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1801-
46) A German theologian, the eldei bi other
of Franz Volkmar Fntzsche He studied un-
der his father and subsequently attended the
University of Leipzig After holding a pro-
fessorship at that institution for one year lie
was successively professor of theology at Ros-
tock (1826-41) and Giessen (1841-46) His
philological interpretations of biblical texts are
accurate, and in the defense of his views he was
a skillful controversialist His principal works
are the commentaries on Matthew (1826), Mark
(1830), and the Epistle to the Romans
(1836-43)
FBITZSCHE, OTTO FEIDOLIN (1812-96) A
German theologian, brother of F V and 1C F A
Fntzsche, born at Dobrilugk, southwest of
Frankfort; he studied at Halle, became professor
extraordinary at Zurich (1837), full professor
(1842), and also chief librarian at the cantonal
library in 1844 He published a critical edition
of Lactantius (1842-44), The Life and 'Writ-
ings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, (1836) and his
Exegetical Fragments (1847), Aiiselm's Oidr
Deus Homo9 (1868), and other works He is
best known by his work on the Old Testa-
ment Apoct ypha and Pseudepigrapfaa ( 6 vols ,
1851-60)
FBIITLI, fre-oo'le The name of a district
on the north and northeast shores of the Adri-
atic Sea now forming the Province of Udme,
Italy, and the Austrian coast districts of Gorz
and Giadiska (Map Italy, D 1) Fimli was
anciently one of the 30 duchies into which the
Longobards divided the north of Italy It de-
rived its name from that of its chief town,
Forum Julii, which was said to have been
founded by Julius Caesar This town is now
known as Cividale del Fnuli Another impor-
tant town in the distiict was Aquilcia The
district was from an eaily period divided into
Tyrolese and Venetian Friuli, the former of
which came into the possession of Austria in
1500, while the lattei remained attached to
Venice till the Peace of Campo-Forrmo (1797),
when it also was given to Austria Venetian.
Fnuli finally came into the possession of Italy
in 18C6 The area of the district is about 3300
square miles, its population, about 700,000
The inhabitants, called Furlam, aio for the
most part Italian, but speak a peculiar dialect,
with many words of Celtic extraction Consult
Manzano, Annah del Fwuh (Udme,, 1858-79),
and Fracassctti, La fltatisea etnografico, del
FtmU (ib, 1903) See UDINE
FRITTLI, DUKE OF See DUEOC, GERARD
CHBI&.TOPIIE MICHEL
FRIZ'ZLE A breed of fowls, so called from
the strangely curled ends of the feathers, es-
pecially those of the neck and back They are
bred largely for their grote&que appearance, but
are hardy and useful
FROBEL, fie'bel, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AU-
GUST (1782-1852) A Geiman educationalist,
the famous promoter of what is known as the
kmdergaiten movement He was born at Obcr-
weissbach in Thuringia, April 21, 1782, where
his father was a pastor of the old Lutheran
church As his mother died while her son was
an infant, the boyhood of the future fuend of
children was lonely, and his father's second mar-
riage did not inciease the happiness of the child.
He became strongly introspective, and the sever-
ity of the religious influences under which he
waa trained placed him in a morbid attitude
towards life, both the present and the future — a
disposition which he overcame in his majority.
At the age. of 10 years he was sent to his uncle
in the town of Ilm, where a happier life began.
When 15, he was apprenticed to a forester, and
his duties were such that, while he added to his
knowledge of the outer \*orld, he could devote
himself (as he says) "in many vandus ways to
self-education, self-instruction, and moral ad-
vancement Especially did I love to indulge my
old habit of self-observation and introspection "
In 1799, when the days of his apprenticeship
were over, he went to Jena and for several
months came under the influence of the univer-
sity, where his brother had been enrolled as a
student of medicine His studies were irregular
and unfruitful, and at length, after confinement
for several weeks in the "caicer," because he
had not money to pay his bills, he withdrew from
the university and secured employment in the
Office of Woods and Forests in the Territory of
Bamberg He was then brought again into close
companionship with nature, for his calling re*
quired him to live out of doors in a region of
lovely scenery. After a short service of this
kind he was engaged as a surveyor in tlie service
VOL. IX— 20
)$ FHOBEL
of the Bavarian government, and later he became
manager of a private estate Having inherited
a little property at the death of an uncle, he de-
termined to become an aichitect and for this
purpose went to Frankfort on the Main Gruner,
the master of the Frankfoit Model School, then
said to him "Give up aichitecture It is not
your vocation at all Become a teacher We
want a teacher in our own school Say you will
agree, and the place shall be youis " Ihe young
man accepted, and thus began his educational
caieer Gruner had been a pupil of Pcst<ilozzi,
whose name was the watch woid of the Fiank-
fort school "It soon became evident to me,"
says Fiobel, "that Pestalozzi was to be also the
\\ atchword of my life " So Frobel went to
Yveidon and remained for a fortnight on a
visit to the gic<xt educational reformer, whom
he greatly admned, but whose methods he did
not wholly approve Unceitainty as to his call-
ing— due perhaps to fickleness, peihaps to ver-
satility, pei haps to genius — &till embarrassed
him Seveial openings came to him, but none
attracted him So he retuincd to Peatalozzi and
remained many months at Yverclon, where lie
wrote out an account of the woik tlieie in pi og-
ress His career continued uncertain, and he
tried once more the enviiomncnt of umvci&ity
life — first at Gottingen, and then at Beilin,
where he showed such proficiency in mineralogy
that his professor, Dr Weiss, gave him an as-
sistant's post in the mineralogical museum
War mteirupted this service In 1813 he joined
Lutzow's famous troop and saw some active
service, and again in 1815 he enlisted as a vol-
unteer At the close of the war he determined
to devote himself to the promotion of education.
A curious passage in his autobiogiaphy declares
that in the minei alogical laboratory "the stones
in my hand turn to living, speaking forms
The crystal world, in symbolic fashion, bore un-
impeachable witness to me, through its bulhant
unvarying shapes, of life and of the laws of
human life, and spoke to me with silent yet true
and readable speech of the ical life of the world
of mankind "
His approaching marriage (in 1818) may have
had some influence in concentrating his mind
upon the purpose of life, for he founded in 1816
a school at Gne&heim (afterward removed to
Keilhau), called "the Univeisal German Educa-
tional Institute," and in it he proceeded to de-
velop his plans Up to this time all the events
of his life had been preparatory He was now
36 years old, his life half gone During the next
34 years his work was accomplished
Eight years later he published his most im-
portant book, a volume entitled H&nschener&ve-
hung ( Education of Man ) , which is a sort of
corner stone in his philosophy of education.
Notwithstanding its comprehensive title, it
really discusses the education of a child The
Institute awakened suspicion, and finally oppo-
sition, on the part of conservative governments,
and the Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
caused an official inspection ot it to be made
The report, on the whole, was favorable. Fro-
bel's attention was now called by Krause (a
well-known philosopher, whose acquaintance he
had made) to the writings of Comemus, and
from them he received a fre&h impulse towards
the development of his educational plans After
unsuccessful attempts to establish his Institute
at Helba, near Memingen, and afterward near
Lucerne, at Willisau, the Bernese government
FHOBEL
300
EROBEL
invited Frobel to consider a plan for founding
an orphanage at Burgdoif To this place lie
removed m 1835, and success followed the
change It is said that he consideied at tins
time a visit to the United States in ordei to
establish his system in a new country He was
now committed fully to the doctrine that the
education of the nurseiy must be reformed, and
the need of tiainmg for mothers became raoio
and more evident to him Aftei a shoit stay
111 Switzerland he went to Beilm in 1836, 10-
turned to Keilhau, and then established himself
in Blankenburg, a small town not fai fiom
Keilliau Langerfial, Middendoif, and Baiop
weie his serviceable assistants About this time
he hit upon the name "kmdergaiten," which has
since been introduced into many lands and many
tongues — a, much better term than one originally
employed by Fiobel — "Anstalt fur Kleinkmdei-
pflege" (an institution for the care of little
childien) His friend Baiop tells this stoiy
"Midden dorf and I were one day walking to
Blankenburg with him ovei the Stei^ei Pass
He kept on repeating, 40h, if I could only think
of a good name for my youngest bom1'
Blankenburg lay at our feet, and he walked
moodily towaids it. Suddenly he stood still
as if riveted to the spot, and his eyes giew
wonderfully blight Then he shouted to the
mountain so that it echoed to the four winds,
'Eureka' Kmdeigaiten shall the institute be
called ' ' "
Embariassments still beset him His ideas
weie not geneially accepted, he lacked money
for the maintenance of his school, his publica-
tions weie not lemunei alive, moie than this,
his nephew, Call Frobel, a professor at Zurich,
became the loud advocate of measuies which
were radical, if not revolutionary, and Fredenck
Frobel was accredited with his nephew's opin-
ions In 1851 Von Baumer, Minister of Educa-
tion and Public vVorship, forbade the founda-
tion of kindergartens in "Prussia, and the edict
remained in foice until 1860, long after FrobeFs
death. After 1850 Frobel made his home in
Manenthal, where the Grand Duke of Weimar
gave him the use of a countiy seat Here he
was aided in his school by Luise Levin, who in
1851 became his second wife, and by Alwme Mid-
dendorf, who married Dr W Lange, the futuie
editor of his writings His death occurred June
21, 1852 The school at Marienthal was then
removed again to Keilhau
FrobePs literary style was not good, and his
works were never popular, but his thoughts ai-
re&ted the attention of able and influential
people, and by these interpreter and followers
kindergarten methods have been introduced into
many countries "Let childhood ripen the chil-
dren," says H 0 Bowen, "is the keynote of the
new gospel " "It is what he did for the educa-
tion of children between the ages of three and
seven that chiefly demands our gratitude " As
a statement of his principles, the summary given
by H C Bowen is adequate "The mam prin-
ciples, it will be remembered, whose applications
form FrobePs system, are self-activity, to pro-
duce development, all-sided connectedness and
unbroken continuity, to help the right acquisi-
tion of knowledge, creativeness or expressive
activity, to produce assimilation of knowledge,
growth or power, and acquisition of skill, well-
ordered physical activity, to develop the physical
body &nd its powers , and happy and harmonious
surroundngs, to foster and help all these"
(Fiobel and Education by Self Activity, pp. ISO,
181 )
The pimcipal wntings of Frobel have been
collected in three volumes by W Lange (Beihn,
1862) and by Fuedrich Seidel (Vienna, 1888)
Among them the most important is the Educa-
tion oj Man, which appeared in 1826 It has
been tianslated into Fiench and into English
The Muttei- und Kose-Lieder (Mother's Songs,
Games, and Stories) has had many translators
The autobiographies weie translated by H K
Mooie and Emihe Michaelis, and in part also by
Miss Lucy Wheelock (new ed , London, 1899)
In addition to his own writings, materials per
taming to the life and influence of Fiobel aie
abundant and aie enumeiated in bibliographies
that are leadily accessible A selection is not
easy Dr Barnard's collection of Papei s on Proc-
ters Kindergarten (Hartford, 1881) is compre-
hensive and important There are two English
translations of The Education of Man — one by
Muss Josephine Jarvis (New York, 1885) and
the other by W iNT Hailraan (ib, 1887) The
Moth&t Play (2 vols , ib , 1895) was translated
by Miss Susan E Blow, who has also written a
book on Symbolic Education (ib, 1894), a com-
muifcaiy on the first five songs of the Mother
Plaijy and a volume entitled Letters to a, Motlici
(ib, 1900)
Among the estimates of FrobePs work these
citations may be made Henry Barnard declined
the kindergarten to be by fai the most oiigmal,
attractive, and philosophical form of infant de-
velopment the woild has yet seen Dr James
Ward holds that the kmdergaiten system, in the
hands of one who understands it, produces ad-
miiable results, but is apt to be too mechanical
and formal F W Parker says that the kinder-
gaiten is the most important, far-reaching edu-
cational reform of the nineteenth century Mi
Quick in his Educational Re-formers (New York,
1896), from which these words aie taken, con-
cludes his estimate by saying that among those
who have contributed to the science of education
there are probably no greater names than those
of Pestalozzi and Frobel The memoir by H
Courthope Bowen in the Great Educators Setiet,
ed by Nicholas Murray Butler (New York,
1S97), is an admirable study of FrobePs piin-
ciples The fullest biography is that by A B
Hanschmann (Eisenach, 1874) A short mem-
011 was written by Miss Emily Shirreff (Lon-
don, 1887) Of the last foui years of FiobePs
life there are delightful reminiscences by an ac-
complished enthusiast, the Baroness von Maren-
holtz-Bulow (trans by Mrs Horace Mann, Bos-
ton, 1887) Two autobiographical fragments (a
letter to the Duke of Memmgen and a letter to
the philosopher Krause), which narrate the per-
plexities and obstacles of his early life, are con-
tained in a volume entitled Autobiography of
Ftobcl (Syracuse, 1889) It also includes a
convenient bibliogiaphy Consult also Fletcher
and Welton, Froebel's Chief Writings on Edu-
cation Rendered into English (New York,
1912) See KINDBBGARTJEN , PEDAGOGY, CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY
FBOBEL, JULIUS (1805-93) A German
writer and politician, nephew of Friedrich
Fiobel After studying at Munich, Weimar, and
Berlin, he went to Switzerland, and in 1833 be-
came piofessor of mineralogy jn the industrial
and high schools of Zurich In the inteiests of
the extreme Radical party he edited Der scjhw&r
Repubhkaner In 1844 he gave up his
EROBEN
301
FROG
professorship and established a publishing house
at Zurich and issued several scientific woiks and
many political pamphlets Some of his works
were suppressed by the government In 1846 he
took up his residence in Diesden until the i evo-
lution of 1*848, when he became a leader of the
Democrats and a member of the National As-
sembly at Frankfort-on-the-Mam He accom-
panied Robert Blum to Vienna and was ariested
and sentenced to death, but was pardoned by
Windischgratz on account of his brilliant mmcl
After the dissolution of the Pailuiment he came
to the United States (1849), edited a German
paper in New York, went in 1850 to Nicaia^ua,
and afteiward engaged in one or two commei-
cial expeditions to Santa Fe and Chihuahua In
1855 he edited a journal in San Francisco and
in 1857 retuined to Germany Fiom 1862 to
1873 he edited newspapeis in Vienna and Mu-
nich He was Geiman Consul at Smyina from
1873 to 1876 and at Algieis fioni 1876 to 1880
lie letiied fiom active life in 1890 His works
include Aus Amenka (1857-58), translated bv
himself in 1859 under the title of Seven Yews'
Ttavel in Central America, Northern Mexico,
and the Far West, Die Wwtschaft cZes Menschcn-
geschleohts (1870-76), Ein Lebenslauf (1890-
91), his autobiography
FROBEK", frozen, or FBOBE'NrUS, JOAN-
NES (c 1460-1527) A German scholar and
pi inter He was born at Hammelburg, was edu-
cated at the Umvfisity of Basel, and estab-
lished in Basel, in 1491, a punting pi ess, at
which the art of piintmg was first bi ought to
a high degree of excellence in Germany An
intimate friend of Erasmus, he printed his writ-
ings and had his help in editions of St Jerome,
St Cyprian, Tertulhan, Hilaiy of Poitieis, and
St Ambrose Luther used Froben's Gieek Tes-
tament of 1516, edited by Eiasmus, for his tians-
lation Holbein illuminated texts foi Fioben
Fioben did not live to cany out his pio^cct of
editing the Greek Fathers, but it was done by his
son Jeiome and his son-m-law, Nikolaus Epib-
copius See ERASMUS
FROBEHG-EB, fro1>5r-ger, JOIIANN JAKOB
(c 1605-67) A German organist, born prob-
ably at Halle When very young, he entered
the Impei lal choir in Vienna, in 1637 was couit
organist there, and the same year went to Koine
to study under Freseobaldi He was again court
organist (1641-45 and 1653-57) in Vienna, and
then made a series of concert tours, appearing
with gieat success in London and Paris Fro-
berger is a most important figure in the history
of organ music, combining German power of
expression with Italian nicety of form He died
at Hericourt, France Consult F Beiei, J J
Froberger (Leipzig, 1884)
FBOBISHEB, froblsh-er, SIB MARTIX
( * 1535-94) An English navigator and the first
of his nation to seek a northwest passage to
China He was born either at Doncaster 01
Altofts in Yorkshire and belonged to a family
which came onginally from Wales His eaily
years were spent in voyages to the coast of Nortli
Africa and to the Levant In 1575, at the in-
stigation of Elizabeth, he received a license from
the Muscovy Company to search for the North-
west Passage With two vessels (the Gabriel of
25 tons and the Michael of 20 tons) and a pin-
nace of 10 tons, he sailed north in 1576 and
sighted the southern point of Greenland, which
he took to be the Friesland of the brothers Zeni
Here a storm, occurred in which the pinnace was
lost and the Michael dosoitcd But with the
Gabriel Frobishei came a few davs later to a
cape lie named Queen Elizabeth's Foi eland, neai
the southeast end of Frobisher Bay, which he
supposed to be a strait After a fortnight's
exploiation of the coasts and islands he re-
turned to England, bringing with him some
' 'black earth" from which originated a rumor
of the discovery of gold The prospect of un-
limited wealth aioused the attention of the
merchant adventuiers of the time A second
expedition, better equipped than the first, was
fitted out, and the command was given to
Fiobishei He sailed in Ma^, 1577, but his
activity waft chiefly confined to hunting for gold,
and his discoveries, which were compai atively
tiifhng, were restricted to the locality which he
had previously visited A thud expedition,
with 15 ships, \vas sent out in the year following,
with no othei lesult than the discoveiy of a new
strait, which was not exploied until the time
of Heniy Hudson Fiobisher aftei \yaid seived
under Drake 111 the West Indies and was
knighted for distinguished seivicc in the fight
with the Spanish Vrinada (1588) In the hpung
of 1591 he was sent by Sir Waltoi Raleigh with
a squadion to ravage the Spanish coast and hold
tbe attention of the Spanish fleet while efloits
weie made to intercept the mci chant vessels
laden with bullion on their way from Panama
He died in November, 1594, from the effects of
a wound received while leading an attack by
sea against Brest, then in the hands of the
Spaniards The narrative of Fiobishcr's three
\oyages may be found in the Hakluyt Society
Publications for 1867 For an account of his
life, consult Jones (London, 1878)
FHOBISHEIt BAY. An inlet of Davis
Stiait, in North America, opening1 wostwaid be-
tween Hudson Strait and Cumberland Sound,
into the territory called the Frobisher Meta In-
cognita, at the south end of Baffin Land (Map
North Ameiica, MS) It is about 200 miles
long and above 20 wide, with rugged mountain-
ous shores It was till Hall's voyage called
Frobisher Strait, being cironeously rcgaidcd as
a passage into Hudson Bay
FROG- (AS. froffga, Icel froslr, OHG /rose,
Q-er Frosohj ultimately connected with OHG
TYPES OF SHOULDER GIRDLE
1, 2, Arciferous (Bombinator and Bufo), 3-7, Firmister-
nal types (3, adult Rana, 4, young Rana, showing: change
from arciferous to firmisternal type with advancing age,
5, Himi'Sus, 6, lBrenceps, 7, Cacopus") Cartilaginous parts
are dotted, ossified parts are left white Lettering, cl,
clavicle, co, eoracoid, e, epicoracoidal cartilage, h, humeras;
w, metasteinum, 0, omosternum, p, precoracoid, sc, scapula,
ss, supraseapula
fro, Ger froh, joyous, Skt pru, to jump) Any
member of the Ranidse, a family of tailless Am-
phibia, of the group Fiinaistejrnia (qv), i.e.,
the two halves of the shoulder girdle meet and
FROG
302
FEOG
are firmly united in the median ventral line, so
that the chest cannot be expanded, and m this
family, as distinctive from other Firmisternia,
the sacral diapophyses are cylindrical The
young, known as "tadpoles," live in the water,
have fnngehke external gills, which disappear
while they are still young, are without legs, and
have a tail provided with a membranous swim-
ming fin
The family Ramdse is divided into three sub-
families, according to the ariangoment of the
teeth 1 Ceratobatrachimse, with teeth m both
]aws This is represented alone by the great
horned, tree-climbing fiog (Ceialo~bat?aclius
guentheri) of the Solomon Islands, which is le-
markable chiefly for its exti aoi dmary adapta-
tion in coloi and appearance geneially to its
customary sui i oundmgs, giving it entiie con-
cealment from oidinaiy observation 2 Ramnse,
with teeth (vomenne) in the upper but none
in the lower jaws This is the gioup of tine
frogs, regarded as a family by most authois
previous to 1901, and typified by the genus
Rana, which contains about 140 species 3. Den-
drobatmae, an abcirant group of South Ameri-
can and African, frogs, with no teeth at all.
They are small and usually brightly colored and
take remarkable eaie of their young, the mother
allowing the tadpoles to fasten themselves by a
secretion to her back when their native puddle
dues and thus cairying them to a safer place
One Brazilian species (Dendrolates tinctonus]
furnishes from its &km the poisonous secietion
used by bud fanciois to change the color of the
plumage of the Amazon gieen pairots
There are about 270 species of Ramdse, which
aie distributed ovei neaily all pairs of the
\Aoilrl except Australia, but there are veiy few
species in South America and these only in the
northern part In the
United States the
family is well repre-
sented by 13 species
of the genus Rana
Of these the bullfrog
(fiana, catesfacvna) , so
named on account of
its bellowing note, is
pei haps our most
widely known, as it
is our most character-
istic, frog It is very
large, attaining a length of 8 inches, loves the
shore, and is green> with olive and dusky blotches
(See BULLFROG ) It is equaled in size only by
an East Indian species (Rana tignna] and by
one in the Solomon Islands (Rana guppyi] The
leopard frog ( q v ) , or shad frog ( Rana vw es-
tens] , is green or often brassy-colored, with two
lows of black, white-edged blotches on the back
It is the commonest North American Rana The
wood frog (Rana s^lvat^ca) is small and reddish
biown, with a dark band on each side of the
head , it is the most silent frog of the genus, and
avoids water except at the breeding season, and
its brown color well conceals it among the fallen
forest leaves The green spring frog (qv )
(Rana, clamata) inhabits cold springs It is
brown or green above and white below and may
be readily distinguished by the very large ear-
drums Like most aquatic animals, frogs can
change slightly the color of the skin, according
to external conditions. Two species of Rana
are common in Bui ope, viz , Rana esculenta and
temporw ia. Ihe latter alone is indigenous
1KOG CARRYING TADPOLES
to Great Britain, and varieties of it extend
throughout temperate Eui ope and Asia to Japan,
and one (variety pretiosa) exists in the western
United States The edible fiog (Rana escu-
lenta), however, has been introduced into Eng-
land An Indian species (Rana breviccps] and
seveial South African species burrow in the
gi ound
Besides the tiue frogs, several othei families,
such as the spadefoots (Pelobatidse), the tree
fiogs (Hylidsa), and the piping fiogs (Hylodes),
aie often so called These show structural affin-
ities which bung them as near to the toads as
to the frogs, and are described elsewhere under
then separate names
Ecology and Habits The skin of frogs is
usually smooth and free from waits 01 horny
exciescences It is invested with a coloiless epi-
dermis, which is shed fioxn time to tune as the
cieatuie glows, this splits along the back and
thighs, is woiked over the head like the taking
off of a shut, and is usually eaten by the wearei
The deeper layeis contain much pigment, in cells
which aie more or less under mubculai contiol,
enabling fiogs to change their hue to confoim
to the background (For fuither information
on this point, see METACHEOSIS , TBEE FROG )
The skin also secretes in numerous glands a
viscid milky fluid, -which is of poisonous chaiac-
ter — in some speciPS veiy decided — and i& their
only defensive propeity That obtained fiom
a South Amenean fiog is said to be used as an
anow poison by the Amazonian Indians In a
rare East Indian foiin, the ai boreal flying frog
(qv ), the skm spreads mto broad webs between
the greatly extended toes, enabling the animal
to make long sailing leaps, analogous to those
of the flying squiirel All frogs move on land
by leaps, which are often of surprising vigor
and extent
Frogs are carnivorous and in the season of
activity are likely to be very voracious The
terrestrial and arboreal foims feed mainly on
insects, wonns, etc The aquatic kinds also
catch insects, but subsist more on aquatic ani-
mals— worms, tadpoles, small fishes, and other
frogs These are sei/ed and slowly swallowed —
often, where the prey is large, so slowly that the
engulfed paits will be digested before the re-
mainder, peihaps still alive, has been got within
the mouth
Extremes of cold or drought in climate must
be avoided by fiogs Moistuie of the skin is
nece&sary to their health, and in very dry places
or seasons they survive only by going deeply
underground Thus some tropical species get
through the "dry season " The frogs of northern
climates endure the winter by clustering about
spring holes and other places where the water is
compai atively warm and free of ice, or else by
hibernating in the mud Terrestrial species bury
themselves for the winter in the loam, or burrow
into the dry dust of rotting logs and stumps
Their vitality is strong, and their power of re-
generation from partial congelation is very great
Though most species live always in or near
water, many spend the greater part of their
time away from it and often in bushes 01 trees
These, however, go to the water to breed , and as
this function is likely to demand attention early
in the spring, it is then that these animals make
themselves most conspicuous by the incessantly
uttered croaking or rattling calls of the males,
which are almost as varied as the songs of the
birds and more ventriloquistic These are
PBOG
303
FEOG-
wholly the cries of the male frogs and cease
when the mates have been found and have
spawned, and to assist in producing them many
species have gular air sacs, which are connected
with the vocal organs and fuinish the power re-
quiied for the loud and insistent utterances.
The great eardrums con elated with this vocal
powei aie conspicuous in many species
The reproductive habits of frogs ate vauous
All of our common species lay then eggs in
AUCTION or FROG'S TONGUE IN CATCHING A PLY
water, the eggs being feitihzed as they aie laid
As the eggs aie laid, they aie inclosed in. a ge-
latinous envelope secieted by the female This
s\\ells and protects the eggs from in -jury, from
being fed upon, fiom the diiect rays of the sun,
and in some species it serves to float the eggs at
the surface of the v^ater, wheie oxygen is most
abundant, finally, the envelope seives as food
for the young frog The mouth of the tadpole is
small and piovided with a horny beak, which
takes the place of the teeth which are not yet de-
veloped The tadpole feeds on algae that cover
stones and on the flesh of dead animals The
long, spnally coiled intestine, which can be seen
on the undei side of the animal, is an adaptation
to its pievailmgly heibivorous diet, which re-
quiics a piolonged digestion
The tadpole usually lives in the water for two
01 thiee months before it takes to land In the
bullfrog, however, the transformation (see TOAD)
does not take place until the second summer
In many tropical frogs the reproductive habits
are much modified One species (Phyllobates
trinitatis) of Venezuela/ and Trinidad carries its
DEVELOPMENT OF HYLODBS
Life history of Hylodes martimcensis 1 An egg with
embryo about seven days old 2 Embryo twelve days old
3 Young frog just hatched, 4 Adult male, natural size
tadpoles on its back, to which the young attach
themselves by means of their suckers A frog
of the Seychelles Islands lives in the tree ferns
far from water and carries its young about on
its back, to which they are attached by their
bellies, In the Kamenms lives a frog that lays
its eggs in a foamy mass on the leaves of a tree.
When the larva? aie developed, the mass be-
comes slimy, and the tadpoles swim about it,
and when a heavy lain falls, they are washed
into pools of water lying at the bases of the
tiees The foam is piobably produced, as it is
in culinary operations, by air being entangled
in it by a beating that the fiog gives the felly
with its feet The inclosed air may well serve m
lespiration Cf TOAD
Utilities Among both civilized and savage
men frogs are a cuhnaiy dainty The edible
European fiog is so much pn/ed in France that
it is bied for the niaiket in laige preseives In
the United States both the bullfrog and spring
fiog are sold in the markets In Fiance and the
United States the hind legs alone are eaten,
they aie known as "saddles" to American mar-
keting and aie usually served at table fried In
Gei many all the muscular parts aie seived
stewed, often with sauce Frogs have enabled
man to contribute much to his knowledge of
physiology The tail of the tadpole, so fie-
quently fed on by dias»on flv laivo1 and othei
aquatic enemies, has gioat capacity of icgeneia-
tion The study of its rc-foimation has added to
oui knowledge of the icgoneiation of animal
tissue Ihe ciiculation of the blood, so leadily
soen by the aid of the microscope in the web
of the fiog's foot, is a, classic and painless class-
room clemonstiation Obscivations on the re-
sponse of frog muscle to stimuli led the great
Italian physiologist Galvani to the discovery of
dynamical or curzent electricity, known to us
as galvanic or voltaic electricity See TREE
FROG, Factors of Organic Evolution, in article
EVOLUTION
Fossil Forms Fossil frogs and toads have
been found in the Eocone phosphate deposits of
southwestein Fiance, and they seem to be iden-
tical \\ith or veiy closely allied to the modern
genera Rana and Bufo The Miocene deposits of
Geimany, France, and Bohemia have also fm-
mshed fossil frogs and toads The genus Palce-
obattacJius of the Ohgocene lignites has been
obtained in laige numbers in both, the larval
tadpole stage and the adult tailless condition
Tailed batrachians, Stegocephalia ( q v ) , were
common members of the late Paleozoic and Meso-
70ic faunas The stones of living frogs and
toads being found m the middle of freshly bioken
blocks of stone, so commonly told in various
parts of the country, are scaicely woithy of
credence They have originated either in delib-
erate falsehoods or in misapprehension on the
part of the original observer.
Bibliography Boulenger, Catalogue of Brit-
ish Gradientia (London, 1882), and many papers
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of
London ? Cope, Standard 'Natural History, vol
111 (Boston, 1885); id, Batrachia of North
America (Smithsonian Institution^ Washington,
1889), Dickerson, The Frog Boole (New York,
1906) , Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles (London,
1901) The last (vol, vin of the Cambridge
Natural History) is a comprehensive work on the
subject, both systematically and descriptively
For stiuctuie and dissection, consult Mivart,
The Common Frog (London, 1874) ; Marshall,
The Frog An Introduction to Anatomy, Histol-
ogy, and Embryology (llth ed , New York,
1912) For fossil forms, consult Wolterstorft,
"Ueber fossile Frosche insbesondere Palseoba-
trachus," in Jahreslenchte des "N atunmssen-
schaftlichen Vet ems von Magdeburg (1885-86).
See Colored Plate of AMERICAN FEOGS AND
TOADS, accompanying the article TOAD
EBOG- See RAILWAYS, Ft ogs and Switches
FROG- See HORSE, HORSESHOEING
FROG, PLYING See FLYING FROG
3?ROGr, NICHOLAS, or NIC A national nick-
name for the Dutch It fiist occuis in Arbuth-
not's Lato is a Bottomless Pit
FROG'BIT A popular name of certain watei
plants of the family Hydiochandaceae See AN-
ACHARIS, VALLISNERIA
FROGKETSH. One of a family of fishes (An-
tennanidixj), allied to the angleis lliey aie
lemarkable for excessive ugliness The head is
larger than the body, flattened, and spiny, the
mouth is very large, with many teeth, the lips
are often furnished with filaments, the pectoral
fins are supported by a short stalk or wrist
The skin is naked in some species, scaly in otheis
The species aie numerous and widely distrib-
uted, and many inhabit the deep sea They hide
themselves in the sand to surprise their prey
Of ANGLER, and see Plate of ANGLERS AND
BATFTSH
FROG ELY, OB FROGHOPPER. See FROTH
FLY
FROG'MORE A royal palace and mauso-
leum in the Home Park, 1 mile southeast of
Windsor Castle, Berkshire, England The pal-
ace, purchased in 1800 by Queen Chailotte, was
the residence of Queen Victoria's mother and
of Edward VII when Punce of Wales The
handsome mausoleum of Romanesque aiclntec-
ture, erected in memory of Punce Albeit, con-
tains the lemains of the Prince Consort and
Queen Victoria
FROG'MOUTH One of a group of laige
birds of the East Indian and Australian region,
constituting a subfamily, the Podaigmse, of the
nightjar family, Caprimulgidae They are noted
for the very wide mouth, especially in the birds
of the genus Batrachostomus, which is capable
of completely engulfing small birds They have
a soft plumage and are largely nocturnal, like
the owls. They have no oil gland, but possess
a pair of large powder-down patches, one on
each side of the rump One of the best-known
species is the Australian "more-pork35 ( q v )
See Plate of NIGHTJARS, GUACHARO, ETC
FROGS, THE One of the most brilliant of
the comedies of Aristophanes (qv )
FROG SHELL A small gastropod mollusk
of the genus Ranella, closely i elated to the tri-
tons (family Tritonidse), so called because of a
fancied resemblance of its rough, flattened form
and mottled colors to a frog. There are many
species in tropical waters, all of which feed upon
decaying matter and are useful scavengers See
Colored Plate of MABINE GASTROPODS
FROG-S' LEGS See FISH AS FOOD
FROG SNAKE See MATTIPI
FROG SPAWN. The popular name of cer-
tain fresh-water algse which make green and
slimy masses on the surface of ponds and slug-
gish streams The name is applied properly to
the gelatinous mass inclosing the ova of frogs
See ALOS:, FROG
FROG SPITTLE (so called because formerly
believed to be the spittle of frogs) A frothy
substance appearing on weeds, grasses, etc , and
produced m self-protection by the nymphs of
certain plant bugs, called froth flies ( See FROTH
FLT ) In England the substance is called cuckoo
spit
FROHLICH, fre'liK, ABRAHAM EMANUEL
(1796-1865) A Swiss poet, bom at Biugg
From lS3r> until his death ho was pastoi at
Aarau His poems and fables aic very populai,
and the fable* rank high ainon^ liteiatme of
thatvaiiety His works include Fahcln (1825),
Das Kbangehum FanKt Joliannt? in Ijiedein
(1830) Elegieu an Wieg' und 8ai</ (1835),
the epics Ulnch Zwingli (1840), Ulnch von
Hutten (1845), and Jo/mm? Calvin (1864) His
collected \\oiks weie published in 1SS3
FROH'MAItf, OiiAKi-ES (1860-1915) An
Ameiican theatrical manager, one of the leaders
of \\hat is commonly called the Theatrical Trust,
of which he became the pioducing partner He
was born in Sandusky, Ohio While a youth he
was advance agent for a traveling minstrel
show, later, after a period as independent man-
agei of various companies "on the load," he es-
tablished himself m 1893 at the Empire Theatre,
New lork, and in the season of 1895-96 formed
with seveial managerial firms the so-called "syn-
dicate " He brought out as stars Maude Adams»
Julia Mailowe, John Diew, and other well-
known actois In 1905-06 he managed E H
Sothern and Julia Mailowe in their notable
seiies of Shakespearean pi eductions He also
became interested in several theatres in London^
and was laigely insti umental in effecting the
system of exchange of successful plays which
now exists between England and the United
States He died on the Lusitama
FROmOJST, DANIEL (1853- ) An
Amencan theatucal manager, born in Sandusky,
Ohio In his youth he was employed in news-
paper woik in ISTew York, but he early embarked
m theatrical management with tiavelmg com-
panies Previous to 1885 he managed the Fifth
Avenue and Madison Squaie theatres, and more
recently the Lyceum and Daly's Theatre, besides
the Daniel Frohman Stock Company and various
special attractions He related himself closely
to the so-called Theatrical Trust, formed by his
brother Charles Frohman
FROHSCHAMMER, fro'sham-er, JAKOB
(1821-93). A Get man theologian and philoso-
pher, born at Illkofen, near Ratisbon, and edu-
cated at Munich For more than 40 years he
was associated with the University of Munich,
where he occupied the chair of philosophy from
1855 until his death He had been ordained a
priest in 1847, but because of his radical utter-
ances on theology, especially for his Beitragc zur
Kirchengesclitchte (1850), which was put on
the Index ^Expurgatorms, he was compelled to
resign bis position as pieacher at the university
in 1855, in 1862 an apostolic brief denounced
him, and in 1871 he was excommunicated He
refused to join the Old Catholics and in 1862
founded the Athenaum as a Liberal Catholic
organ A large number of his writings were di-
rected against the authority of the Chuich in
matters of science, the freedom of which he de-
fended in the \vork entitled Ueber die Freiheit
der Wissenschaft (1861) He attacked the
dogma of infallibility with equal vigoi in a
number of publications, which involved him in
a long and bitter controversy with Catholic the-
ologians In his philosophical writings he de-
fends the idealistic conception of the universe —
a conception possible through a central principle
which he defines as "fantasy" This idea is
carried out in his books, Monaden imd Welt-
phmtasie (1879), Die Phtlosophw als Idealtws-
sensohaft und System (1884), and TJeb&r das
My sternum Magnum de<* Daseins (1891). Con-
FBOHSDOUF
30$
FBOME
suit his autobiogiaphy in Hi nucli sen's Deutschc
!)cnhe> (1888), and ciitical studies by Fnediich
(1899), Attcnbpei£»ei ( 1899 ) , and Miui7 (1894)
FBOHSDOKF, fuVdoif 01 PROSCHDORF,
frosWOrf (ongmally Kiottendoif) A village
of Lower Austna, 30 miles south of Vienna, on
the right bank of the Leitha It has acquiied
some political significance, owing to the fact
that its castle was the residence of the Duchess
of Angouleme aftei 1844 and later of the Count
of Chambord (qv ), and became the icnde/vous
of the elder Bourbon party Pop , 1900, 706
FROISSAUT, frwa'sar', JEAN (c 1338-n410)
A Fiench poet and lnstouan, boin at Valen-
ciennes He was destined foi the Chuicli and
consequently received a hbeial education, but he
soon, displayed a passion for poetiv, "for the tales
of chivalry, and for tiavel lie \i6ited England
and Avignon, and in 13G1 he went to London to
piesent to Queen Phjhppa, a poem concerning
the recent war between England and France It
secured for him. a position as secictary to the
Queen, who encouraged him to continue his work
In 1365 he made a journey to the Scottish couit
at the expense and under the protection of Queen
Philippa. In 1366 he left England in the tiam
of the Black Prince and in 1368 visited Italy
under the protection of the Duke of Clarence
Upon the death of his patroness the Queen, in
1369, he returned to Valenciennes Soon, how-
ever, he found new patrons who admired his
writings In 1370 he entered the service of
Duke Wenceslas of Luxemburg He was also be-
friended by Robert of Namui, to whom he dedi-
cated the first book of his Chronicles, and by
Guy of Chatillon, who in 1373 appointed him
cuie" of Lestmnes-au-Mont For 10 yeais lie led
an uneventful life, working upon his Chionicles
or composing poems with Duke Wenceslas In
1383 or 1384 he became the chaplain of Guy of
Chatillon, who had just inherited the County of
Blois Then foi 15 yeais Fioisbait tiaveled
much, seeking men who could tell of the gieat
wars in which they had taken pait Thus in
1388 he visited the court of Gaston Phoebus at
Beam To this journey we owe the striking
description of this remarkable tytant, whom
Froissart admired In 1394 he visited England
a second time Little is known of his life after
he returned from England, and the date of his
death is uncertain
The work for which, Froissart is famous is his
four books of Chronicles, in which he recorded
the events and wars of the last three-quarters of
the fourteenth century He was engaged on this
work for over 40 years He had little critical
ability and recorded supernatural tales with as
much' credence as he gave to knightly feats of
arms Nevertheless he gives a masterly account
of the character and manners of his age He
was able to describe most of the localities from
his own knowledge, and he was fortunate in be-
ing able to consult important actors in every
war which he described Thus, he learned of the
Scottish wars from King David, of Crecy from
King Edward, of Poitiers from, the Black Prince,
of the famous Great Companies from their com-
manders, of the death of Wat Tyler from Kobeit
of Namur, who had been present
In the first redaction of his first book he bor-
rowed freely from Jehan le Bel's Chronicle
Later he made two revisions, and in each he
deleted many of the portions borrowed from
Jehan le Bel One defect in his work, con-
sidered as an historical source, must be noted
Froiwsart \\as far fiom being unpaitial In the
first redaction of his first book he was an English
paitisan In the second icdaction he snpjn osbtid
much that was favoiable to England in the
thud ledciction, which he made after 1400, when
he was filled with grief ±01 the murdei of Kich-
aid II, the grandson of his formei pationesa, he
made some veiy se^ie reflections on the Eng-
lish nation The bebt editions of Ins Chronicles
aic those of Korvyn de Lettenhove (23 vote,
Brussels, 1863-77) and Luce (Pans l8u9-S8, in-
complete), in the publications of the Societe de
Tlustoire cle Fiance Iheie aie many othei edi-
tions and translations, for \\hich bee Molimer,
Le? soiuces dc Vhistoire de France, vol iv
(PAHS, 1904) Special mention should be made
of the fine old English rendering by Lord Ber-
neis Fioissart is also noteworthy as a poet
lie wioto many vei.ses, \\hich were greatly ap-
pieciatcd by his patrons His fiist production
wan entitled L'Epwiette amoveiise (The Little
Thorn of Love) and is an account of his boy-
hood and first love affair The Dit du florin,
which is paitly autohiogiaphical, is the most
pleasing of his poetical woiks The most lengthy
was his Mehadoi, which ho lead to Gaston
Phoebus It is a poem twice as lon# as the
Divine Comedy of Dante and is an echo of the
tales of the "Hound Table", but although it
contains beautiful and interesting passages, afe
a whole it is exceedingly prolix and tiresome It
has been published by'Longnon foi the Societe
des Anciens Textes (3 vols , Paris, 1895-99)
The other poems have been published by Scheler
(3 vols, Biussols) For Froissait's life, con-
sult the introductions to the two editions of his
Chronicles, which have been cited, the secondary
works given in Molinier, and especially Mary
Darmesteter, Fioissatt (Pans, 1894)
FROT/IC, THE A British sloop of war cap-
tuied in 1812 by the American sloop of war
Wasp, under Capt Jacob Jones, who received a
medal from Congress for the exploit
FROLICH, fie'liK, LOBENTZ (1820-1908).
A Danish painter, illusti atoi , and etcher He
was born at Copenhagen studied there under
Eckei sberg, in Diesden undei Bcndemann, and
in Paris under Coutoure Afterward he lived
much in Rome and m Paris, where he constantly
exhibited at the salons In 1877 he was ap-
pointed professor at the Copenhagen Academy
His illustrations, especially of children's books
and old Danish ballads, are known everywhere
and are more important than his paintings He
also furnished original etchings for Fabricius,
History of Denmark } for Apuleius, Cupid and
Psyche, The Lord's Prayer, JDte Gotter cZes A'o?-
dens, and many other works Among his paint-
ings are 'King Harold Blaatand" (1840),
"Cupid and the Water-Sprite35 (1845, Leipzig
Museum) , "Family of a Wood-God", and deco-
ration in the Court of Appeals at Flensburg,
Prussia, and in some public buildings of his
native land
PROLOG. A Roman knight, serving as Gov-
ernor of Fiance and Killed by King Aithui, in an
Arthurian legend of the fifteenth century en-
titled Arthur, and other chronicles
PBOMCE, formerly FBOME SELWOOD An agri-
cultural and manufacturing town in Somerset,
England, on the Frome, a branch of the Avon,
12 miles south- southeast of Bath (Map Eng-
land, D 5) Frome has a museum and a school
of art Its staple products are broadcloths,
woolen goods, dyestuflfs, silk£, h'at&, ale3 cards
306
for dressing woolen cloths, cutlery, and iron-
ware The town owns its water works The
celebrated Selwood Forest, part of which still
exists, was in the vicinity Pop, 1901, 11,057,
1911, 10,901
FBOMElSTTIlSr, f 1 6'maN't3LN', EUGENE (1820-
76) A French painter and author He was
born near La Rochelle, France, Oct 24, 1820
His father was a physician of note, who had an
inclination towards art, which he had cultivated
while a student in Pans. In November, 1839,
at the age of 19, Eugene was sent to Paris to
study law He became also much interested in
literature and was associated intimately with
eminent authors, as Benjamin Fillon, Michelet,
Quinet, and Samte-Beuve He wiote much him-
self and at this time formed the vivid and charm-
ing style so well known m his later works Not
until 1840, at the age of 20, did Fromentm show
any disposition towards painting In 1843 he
leceived his license in law and began to study
for the doetoi's degree At this time he decided
to abandon law and first entered the atelier of
a mediocre painter, named Remond, but a year
later changed to that of Cabat Fromentm oc-
cupied several studios in Paris, but finally set-
tled in a little hotel in the Place Pigalle, which
he occupied dm ing the rest of his life In 1846
occuried his first visit to Algeria, winch decided
the main direction of his interest in life and
art, for he is essentially the painter of northern
Africa, the Sahara, and its oases. From 1847,
when he fiist exhibited his Salmi a pictures in
the Salon, he was chiefly in the Sahaia 01 in
Paris
Interest in Fromentm culminated in the Salon
of 1859, when he received a first medal and the
cross of the Legion of Honor. The attention
of Paris and the world had been especially awak-
ened by his two newly published works, "Un
£te dans le Sahara," which first appeared in the
Revue de Pans (1856) and "Une annee dans le
Sahel," in the Revue dcs Dense Mondes (1858) —
published together in 1878 by Plon, in a me-
morial edition, superbly illustrated with Fro-
mentin's pictures of the Sahara Fromentm also
wiote a novel, Dominique (1862), characterized
by delicacy of observation and sincerity of feel-
ing His most important literary effort is his
critical work, Maitres d'autrefots (1876), an ap-
preciation of Dutch and Flemish painting His
paintings are characterized by brightness and
harmony of color, excellent diaftsmanship, and
spirited execution Among the most impoitant
are "A Farm Near La Eochelle" (1847), his
earliest work, "Gazelle Hunt in the Hodna"
(1857) , "A Street in El-Aghouat" (1859) , "An
Aiab Bivouac at Sunrise," in the collection of
Edouard Delessert, Pans, "The Falcon Hunt"
(1863), and "An Arab Camp," his last picture,
in the Louvre, which possesses six other pic-
tures by him Several good examples of his
works are in America, notably in the Walters
collection, Baltimore, and in the Vanderbilt col-
lection and the Metropolitan Museum, New
Yoik Fromentm died suddenly at Saint-Maur-
ice, near La Eochelle, Aug 27, 1876 Fromen-
tm's letters were published, with biography and
notes, by Blanchon (1909) Consult Vmgt-
cmq de&sms de Eugene Fromentm par Monte-
fiore, texte foographique par Burty (Paris,
1877) , Gonse, Eugene Fromentin, pe^ntre et
fwivwm (ib, 1881), Jouin, "Fromentm," in
Metres contemporoins (ib, 1887), Claretie,
"EugSne Fromentm," in Peintres et sculpteurs
contempo', ams (ib, 18S2) , Huther, Ihvloiy of
Modern Painting (Neu \ork, 1907)
PBOMMAH2ST, fio'mcin, GEOKG KARL (1814-
87) A German philologist, bom in Cobuig He
was librarian of the Gei manic Museum and ed-
ited the periodical Die dcutsche Mundartcn In
1865, with 10 other Protestant theologians, he
undertook the revision of Luthei's tian&Ution of
the New Testament This revision was subse-
quently extended, at the lequest of the Piotes-
tant Conference, to the Old Testament, and the
revised edition of the complete Bible appeared
in 1892 Consult the memon by Vogt (Nui em-
berg, 1888)
PBOMMEL, fio'mel, EMIL (1828-96) A
German theologian and author He was bom at
Karlsruhe and studied o,t Halle, Eilangen, and
Heidelberg After holding several pastoiates,
he served as army chaplain in the Franco-Gci-
man War of 1870-71 and in 1872 was appointed
court preacher at Beihn and pastor of the garri-
son in that city His principal theological
woiks include Die zelin Gcbote Gottes in Pre-
difjten (Gth ed , 1898), In drei 8tufen, an an-
thology (8th ed, 1890), Festflammen (6th ed ,
1896), Das Gelet des ffenn in Piedigtcn (4th
ed , 1893) He also wrote tales and miscella-
neous essays, collected and published undei the
title of Gf-esammelte Schtiften, ErvaJihtngen fur
das Voile, Aufsatve und Vortragc (1873-97)
FBOMMEL, GASTON (1802-1900) A Swiss
theologian, born in Alsace Fiom 1894 until his
death lie was professoi of theology at the Uiu-
veisity of Geneva Like Vinet, he followed the
method of psychological analysis of conscience
and also emphasized personality as the sum-
mation of reality He made libeity, however,
of secondary importance, as being conditional
upon the Divine Will Consult G Godot, Qas-
ton Frommel (Neuchatel, 1906)
FBOMMEL, KARL LUDWIG (1789-1803) A
German landscape painter and engraver, bom
at Birkenfeld, Oldenburg He studied at Karls-
luhe, under F J Becker and Haldenwang, visited
Paris, and earned a consideiable reputation in
Italy (1812-17) On his retmn he was ap-
pointed professor at Kailsruhe, wheie he founded
the Society of Art and Industry for the Giand
Duchy of Baden After a visit to London, in
1824, to acquaint himself with the technique of
steel engraving, he opened at Karlsiuhe, in con-
junction with the Englishman Winkles, a studio
for that blanch of art From 1830 to 1858 he
was directoi of the picture gallery, which owes
to his clever administration its present flourish-
ing condition In it are pieseived several of his
attractive landscapes Among his best plates are
six original etchings and the engravings "Arricia
Near Borne," "View of Tivoh," "Mount Vesu-
vius,3* and "Mount ^Etna " They are character-
istic in conception and delicate in execution
F B 0 M M E L - MNDEMAOTT, lln'de-man,
KARL AUGUST See LINDEMANK-FROMMEL
FBOMCWT JEUNE ET BISLER AtKTE,
f ro/m6N/ zhen a. re'sla7 a'na' ( Fr , Fromont Jr
and Risler Sr ). A novel by Alphonse Dauclet
(1874)
FBOND (Lat irons, OLat pi frundes, foli-
age) In botany, a term applied to a shoot in
which stem and leaves are not differentiated
Among the lower plants this would apply to the
bodies of many liverworts, to the sexual body
(gametophyte) of ferns, etc, but in these cases
the term "thallus" is more generally used per-
haps the most general application of the term
FBOETDE
307
EBONSPEBGEB
"frond3 has been to the leaves of ferns, which
aiose from a misconception as to the real char-
acter of a fern leaf Since in common feins the
leaves seem to arise directly from the ground,
the older botanists concluded that they repre-
sent a combination of stem and leaf and there-
foie called them fronds This application of the
term has been abandoned by botanists, but it is
still in geneial use The only application of the
term now in scientific u&e is in connection with
certain iloweiing plants, such as the duckweed
(Lemna), in which there is no differentiation of
stem and leaves The application of the teim
to the leaves of palms has been meiely a popu-
lar lecognition that they resemble the leaves of
feins
FRONDE, fioNd (Fr, sling) The name
given to the period of domestic intrigues and
political tioubles in Fiance during the minority
of Louis XIV, fiom 1648 to 1653 The giaspmg
and despotic policy of Mazarin had given offense
to all classes The princes and nobles s<w them-
selves excluded from all high offices in the state,
and their places filled by xoreigneis, the Pai le-
nient of Paris saw itself thieatened in its polit-
ical lights, and the people complained of the
burden of taxes and administrative abuses The
Parlement, therefore, commenced a course of
detei mined opposition, refusing to register the
loyal edicts, more especially the financial meas-
ures initiated by Mazarin At first the opposi-
tion was along constitutional lines, but finally
it was turned by the nobles into a struggle to
get back the civil and political rights which they
had lost under Richelieu Among the ieaders
in opposition, in addition to the first President,
Mathie Mole, were the councilors Blancmesnil
and Broussel After Condi's victory over the
Spaniards at Lens (Aug 20, 1648) had strength-
ened the hands of the court party, violent meas-
ures were determined on, and on Aug 26, 1648,
Blancmesnil and Broussel were arrested by order
of Mazarin The people took up arms, dispersed
the Swiss Guard, and on the 27th of August
erected barricades in the street around the
Palais Royal. The court, without an army at
the time in Paris, now removed to Rueil, and
after some negotiations yielded m so far that
an ordinance was issued regulating the financial
and judicial administration of the realm This
victory gave courage to the supporters of the
Parlement who continued to keep a sharp look-
out on the court and were styled by the adher-
ents of Mazarin frondeurs, i e , censurers ( liter-
ally, slingers) The court, when the army re-
turned after the Treaty of Westphalia, resolved
to suppress the movement, and on Jan 6, 1649,
removed secretly to Saint-Germain, leaving Paris
to be blockaded by the Prince of Conde" with
7000 men The Parlement, instigated by the
astute Cardinal de Retz and publicly supported
by various nobles, including the Pnnce of Conti,
the dukes of Longueville, Beaufort, Bouillon,
and IDlbeuf, and the Marshal de la Mothe, called
upon the people to resist A sanguinary en-
counter at Charenton resulted in the defeat of
the Frondeurs, and they were forced to enter
into negotiations for peace. Accordingly, a
treaty was made at B-neil, March 11, 1649,
granting a general amnesty and regulating the
matter of financial control After the return of
the court to Paris in August, a new turn was
given to the contest, the princes of the blood dis-
puting the power with Ma-zaxin This, on Jan
18, 1650, led to tlie sadden arrest of Conde,
Longueville, and Conti, which was the beginning
of the new Fionde The young sons of Louib
XIII were roused against Mazarin, and Marshal
Turenne assumed the title of lieutenant geneial
of the royal army for the liberation of the
princes After some initial successes Turenne,
who was fighting in conjunction with the Span-
laids, was finally completely defeated by Maza-
nn's troops under Du Plessis-Praslm, neai
Bethel, on Dec 13, 1650 Mazarin retuined to
Paris, but found all paities against him, and his
removal was insisted upon so urgently that he
was obliged to lelease the punces and flee to the
Nethei lands A system of intrigue was now sub-
stituted for force of arms, and the contest, winch
had begun for the interests of the people, was
conveited into a court cabal Turenne was
gained over by the Queen Regent, Anne of Aus-
tua, De Retz by Caidinal Mazarin, and Conde,
who had made himself geneially odious by his
haughty conduct, was obliged to (lee for safety
into Guienne Louis XIV, who had now attained
his fourteenth year, endeavored to induce Conde
to return, but the latter, mistiusting the King's
overtuies, repaiied to Boideaux m 1651, wheie
he had many adheients There he commenced a
regular war against the couit which might have
had dangerous consequences had not Tuienne
opposed tlie Prince A large foice of Spanish
regulars were continually under his command,
and people gradually came to look upon him as
a foreign invader On July 2, 1652, an engage-
ment took place between the two parties in the
outskirts of Paris Conde" was in danger of de-
feat, when, through the efforts of his friends, he
was allowed to entei Paris Paris itself, weary
of these fruitless dissensions, now entered into
negotiations with the court, demanding, how-
ever, the final removal of Mazarin, who had
meanwhile retuined This demand was com-
plied with by Louis XIV, and the royal entry
took place Oct 21, 1652 Various nobles were
exiled as a result of the contest Conde, who
refused to enter into the compact, and had
quitted Pans on Octobei 15, lepaired to Cham-
pagne, and finally, finding no one disposed to
take up arms in his cause, entered the Spanish
service and was declared a traitor Mazarin re-
turned to Pans and was once more intrusted
with the reins of government Thus ended the
period of the Fionde in Pans, but the last signs
of revolt in the provinces were suppressed only
in 1653 The defeat of the Frondeurs contrib-
uted to make Louis XIV an absolute monaich
Consult Barante, Le parlement de Paris et vie
de M Mole (Pans, 1859), Perkins, France
under RtcheUeu and Mazarm (New York, 1888) ,
Par doe, Louis XIV and the Court of France, etc
(London 1888) , Memoirs of Cardinal de Retv
(ib , 1896) , Gordon, The Fronde (Oxford, 1905) ,
Lettres du Cardinal Mazarin (Paris, 1878-
1906) See CONDE, Louis XIV, RETZ, CAR-
DINAL HE, TUEENNE
HTBONSPEBG See FBTJNDSBERG, GEOKG VON
EBONSPEBGEB, frSns'perK-er, LEONIIARD
(c 1520-75) A German writer on the art of
war He was born at Ulm and began the study
of military science m early boyhood In his
celebrated Kneqsbuch kaiserlicher ]£rieg$ge-
rechte und Ordnungen vom Geschutst (1573,
4th ed , 1596, rendered into Modern High Ger-
man by F W A Bohra, vol i, 1819), he dis-
plays a remarkable knowledge of army organiza-
tion, equipment, fortification, military law, arti-
cles of war, and artillery practice life was, th$
FBOWTAL BOJSTE
308
PBO3STTO
most competent German military writer of the
sixteenth, century
FRONTAL BONE See SKULL
FKOKT BE BCETJF, froN de bef In Scott's
Ivanhoe, a feiocious baron, who threatens Isaac
the Jew in older to extort money
FRONT'ENAC A city in Crawford Co ,
Kans., 100 miles south of Kansas City, on the
Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, the Joplin and
Pittsburgh, and the Kansas City South em rail-
roads (Map Kansas, H 8) It is important as
the distributing centre for the pioductive coal
region in which it lies The water works are
owned by the city Pop , 1900, 1805, 1910, 3396
FBO^rTElSTAG, frONt'nak', Louis DE BUADE,
COMTE DE (1620-98) The greatest of the gov-
ernors of New Fiance He ^as bom in France
in 1620 At an early age he cnteied the mili-
tary service and rapidly attained promotion
He became colonel at 23 and brigadier general
at 26 and saw active service in Italy ^ Flanders,
and Germany In 1672 he was appointed to
succeed De Comcelles as Governor of New
France Frontenac was choleiic and arbitrary
by nature, but extiemely energetic, and sincerely
ambitious to inaugurate an eia of prosperity
for Canada His first act was to convene the
three estates — eleigy, nobles, and commons — and
to establish municipal government m Quebec
The royal policy, however, was adverse to the
granting of extensive political rights to the
Canadians, and the Go\ernoi's lefoinis in tins
direction were disapproved and his powei was
decreased as well, by inci easing the power of
the council and reestablishing the office of m-
tendant He next became involved m contro-
versies with the Jesuits, with the Tntendant
Talon, and with Perrot, the Governor at Mon-
treal The first were determined to make the
state subordinate to the chuich These quarrels
divided the colony into factions, and led at
length to the recall of Frontenac in 1682 In
1689 he regained the King's favor and was re-
stored to his former position, which he held
until his death, in November, 1698 Fiontenac's
first administration was especially marked by
energy and tact in his dealings with the In-
dians, and by his encouragement of French
exploiations in the West He aided Johet,
Marquette, and La Salle, and established posts
at Mackmac, Niagara, and in the Illinois coun-
tiy After his reapp ointment he waged a vigor-
ous war against the Iroquois, who had i educed
Canada to desolation, and against then allies
and instigators, the English The frontier
towns of New England and New York were re-
peatedly ravaged by his punitive expeditions
His most signal achievement in these campaigns
was the show of force by which he foiled Sir
William Pliipps's fleet before Quebec m 1690
At different times he might have made peace
with the Iroquois if he had been willing to
abandon to their vengeance his Algonquin allies ,
but this lie steadfastly refused to do, and it
was not until his last campaign in the Mohawk
country in 1696 that the Iroquois were brought
to sue for peace Frontenac, for his bravery
and success, was decorated with the cross of St
Louis Consult. Winsor, Gartner to Frontenac
(Boston, 1894) , Parkman, Frontenac and New
Prance under Louis XIV (ib , 1877) , Le Sueur,
Gown,t Frontenctc (Toronto, 1906)
FRONTEBA, fr6n-ta'ra A seapoit on the
Guli of Campeachy, in the State of Tabasco,
Mexico, 230 miles east by south of Vcra Cruiz
(Map Mexico, N 8) It is the poit of San
Juan Bautista, the capital of the state, and has
a good harbor, which is being improved by ex-
tensive works Its exports, valued in 1912 at
$2,083,327, comprise coffee, cocoa, hides, rubber,
and dyewoods Its imports, valued at half the
above amount, consist of machinery, iron, steel,
and cotton goods Frontera is the residence of
the United States Consul Pop , 1910, 5760
PRONTXEH, MILITABY The furthermost
limits of military lines of national defense,
observation, and concentration By the mutual
consent of countries contiguous to each other
the military frontier is usually placed some
little distance back of the actual geogi aphical
dividing line The sentries of England and
Spain at Gibraltar are separated by a strip of
land agieed upon as neutral territoiy With
the principal military countries of Europe the
various mobilization schemes are designed to
secure the greatest possible concentration on the
fiontier, where they are knitted together by a
moie or less complete system of forts 01 in-
trenched camps Both France and Germanv
keep their fiontier corps at a much higher
peace strength than the remainder of their
armies The most impoitant British Indian
camps of exeicise, as well as their stiongcst
points of concentration, are along the militai v
fiontier of northwestern British India The
Mihtargien&e, or military frontier, was the for-
mer name of a narrow strip of land along the
Turkish frontiei in Hungary and Cioatia-
Slavoma, which had a special military consti-
tution See FORTIFICATION, MOBILIZATION
PBONTIlsrO, frdn-te'nd The horse of Rogero,
in Aiiosto's and Boiardo's Orlando
FRONTIOSrUS, SEXTUS JULIUS A Roman
author, who flourished in the second half of the
nrst century AD In 74 AD he was sent to
Britain as governor of that island and obtained
a great reputation by his conquest of the Silures
and his vigoious maintenance of the Imperial
authority He appears to have been twice con-
sul and" to have held several other important
offices, notably that of curator aquarum, or
water commissioner He died about 105 Sev-
eral works are attributed to Frontmus, only two
of which are certainly genuine — the Stratcge-
inatica, a treatise on the art of war, in three
books, and the De Aquis Ur'bis Romce, in two
books The latter is a highly important tech-
nical account of the Roman aqueducts and the
marvelous water supply of the ancient city
There is an edition of the Strategematica by
Gundermann (Leipzig, 1888), and of the De
Aquis by Herschel, in Two Books on the Water
Supply of the Oity of Rome (Boston, 1899, 2d
ed , London, 1913), including the text, transla-
tion, explanatory chapters in the Introduction,
and commentary, numerous illustrations, and
maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts
FRONT'ISPIECE (fiom OF fronhspwe,
ML front^sp^c^umJ front view, from Lat frons,
front + specere, to look) The name generally
given to an engraved and decorated titlepage
of a volume, or an engraving or other illustra-
tion placed opposite the titlepage The term
was formerly used in architecture to denote the
front or pnncipal face of a building, particu-
larly when it is a scieen without organic con-
nection with the building.
IFRON'TO, MABCUS CORNELIUS A teacbei
and author He waa born at Cirta, in Numidia,
and came to Home in the reign of the Emperor
309
FROST
Hadrian, where he soon obtained a high reputa-
tion as a teacher of eloquence and as an oratoi
Antoninus Pms intiusted to him the education
of Marcus Aurelms and Lucius Verus, both of
whom always retained the waimest admiration
of their pieceptor Pronto gradually rose to
the highest offices of the Empire, became veiy
wealthy, and died, it is thought, about 175 AD
Until 1814 nothing was known of Fronto as an
author, except from a few fiagments of a gram-
matical treatise (De Differentns Vocabulary m) ,
but in that year Angelo Mai discovered in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan a palimpsest which,
being deciphered, was found to contain a con-
siderable number of Fronto's letters, with some
short essays Ihese were published by Mai in
1815, in 1816 an edition was published at Ber-
lin by Niebuhr, who wrote a critical preface, and
also printed the commentaries of Buttniann
and Heindorf A few years afterward Mai
found in the library of the Vatican at "Rome
another palimpsest containing more than 100
of Fronto's letters, including his coirespondcnce
with the Emperor and with his royal pupils
The result was a new edition by Mai (Rome,
1823), embodying the new discoveries The con-
tents of these letters are on the whole unim-
portant, although they help to confirm the good
opinion which history lias formed of the Em-
peror Marcus Am elms The best edition of
Fronto is by Naber (Leipzig, 1867). Fronto be-
longed to the archaizing school of Latin writers,
who found their models in the authors before
Cicero Consult Knapp, "Archaism in Aulus
Gelhus," in Classical Studies in Honor of Henry
Dnsler (New York, 1894), Ellis, The Corre-
spondence of Fronto and M Aurehus (Oxford,
1904) , Brock, Studies in Fronto and his Age,
a strong plea for Fronto against adverse modern
judgments (Cambridge, 1911), Teuffel, Ge-
schichte der romischen Litteratur (6th ed ,
Leipzig, 1913)
FROBXEP, frd'iep, ROBERT (1804-61) A
German physician, born at Jena and educated at
Bonn In 1833 he received a call to the Patho-
logical Museum of the Charite* at Beilm, of
which he was director for nearly 13 years His
medical and surgical atlases are widely known
They include Chirurgische Kupfertafein (96
parts, 1820-47), Klinische Kupfertajeln (12
parts, 1828-37) , Atlas der Hautkrankheiten
(1837), Pferderassen (6th ed , 1874), Atlas
Anatomicus (6th ed , 1877) His treatise On
the Therapeutic Application of Mectro- Magnet-
ism in the Treatment of Rheumatic and Para*
lytio Affections (Eng trans by R M Lawrence,
1850) was a very important contribution to
electrotherapy in its day
FBiOSCHDOBP, frosh'dOrf See FROHSDORF
FROSIWOlSrE, fro'z^-nf/na A city in the
Province of Rome, south Italy, 955 feet above
the sea, 53 miles southeast of the city of Rome,
on the river Cosa near its junction with the
Sacco (Map Italy, D 4) Here are rmns of the
ancient Volscian town, Frusino Frusino is men-
tioned by Juvenal, 111, 224, as a place where one
might buy property for less than the cost of one
year's rental of a daak hole at Rome It pro-
duces and maikets wine Pop (commune),
1901, 11,191, 1911, 11,646
FROSSARD, frO'sar', OIIAELES AXJG-USTE
(1807-75) A French general. He was born at
Versailles, studied at the military school at
Metz, and served with distinction m the en-
gmeeis He participated in the siege of Rome
in 1849, commanded the Second Engineer Coips
in the Crimean War, and m 1855 became briga-
dier general He was chief of the engineering
department during the Italian campaign of
1859 and in 1867 \\as appointed governoi of
the Prince Impel lal In the war with Germany
he commanded the Second Corps of the Army of
the Rhine, with a gieatly superioi foiee diove
the Piussians out of Saarbrucken (Aug 2,
1870), but was defeated foui days later at
Spicheren (or Forbach), where he had dug in-
trenchments At Metz (August 16), when his
tioops were retreating, he gave the costly order
that the Imperial Guard cavahy should charge,
and he was taken prisoner when Bazaine sur-
icndeiecl and was detained until the close of
the war He published a Rapport vur les opera-
tions di( denvit'inc coips de Parm^e du Rhin
dans la campagne de 1S10 (1872)
FJEIOST (ME frost, forst, Afi forst< from
ficosan, Eng freeze] A foimation of ice on
the ground or on plants, also the temperatuie
32° F 01 0° C that corresponds to the forma-
tion of ice and sno^ AVhen air whose dew
point is below 32° F comes in contact with a
substance whose surface is coldei than this, a
portion of the aqueous vapor in the air 1=1 con-
densed upon that surface m the foim of ice or
frost, although this deposition is truly ice, yet
the particles of ice are usually small, separate
from each other, and reflect the rays of light m
such a way as to make the deposit appear white,
like crushed ice, instead of being transparent,
as is the case with solid ice In fact, the par-
ticles of ice usually have a crystalline structure,
more or less perfect, as may easily be seen
when moisture is deposited on the inside of
a windowpane when the temperature outdoors
is below freezing In the latter case, when the
air within the loom has a dew point far above
the freezing temperature, the moisture first con-
denses in drops of dew upon the pane of glass,
but is afterward frozen into ice if the exterior
cold is sufficiently intense
When the air of the room has a dew point
below the freezing temperature, then the moist-
ure is deposited upon the windowpane directly
in the form of spiculse or slender prisms of ice,
and it is under these circumstances that the
most delicate frost figures are formed The lat-
ter is also the ordinary case in the formation
of frost on vegetation and on the ground in the
open air, in such a case every object is studded
more or less thickly with small crystals of ice,
the whole deposit is as white as snow and is
usually called "hoar frost " It frequently hap-
pens that ram (or sleet, which is frozen rain)
falls on objects that are already colder than 32°
F In such cases the rain or sleet remains con-
gealed as a layer of almost transpaient ice on
the upper surfaces of the hmbs, the leaves, the
fences, and other objects This usually happens
when rain falls at the close of a period of very
cold weather On the summits of high moun-
tains, notably Mount Washington and the
mountain stations of southern Europe, it fre-
quently happens that, although the air is ap-
parently clear, yet it is filled with the most
minute diops of watei, which are cooled far be-
low the freezing point, but retain their liquid
condition When these strike any object, they
lo&e their spherical shape and are converted im-
mediately into ice at the temperature of 32°,
They therefore build up an accumulation of ice
on the windward sid<> of every object, giving
FROST
310
FBOST
rise to remarkable displays of so-called "frost-
work "
Aeronauts have occasionally ascended into and
through thin layers of air beaung similar
aqueous globules that are cooled below freezing,
but still liquid water These layers appear from
a distance 'like thm stratus clouds, but are
scarcely perceptible when viewed directly from
below on account of their transparency The
globules instantly change to snowflakes or frost-
work when they strike any object
Tender vegetables m northern gardens and
tropical plants in the southern portion of the
United States and in California are severely in-
jured or killed by freezing temperatures The
meie deposition of frost on the outside of such
plants does not necessanly argue that the plant
is frozen tlnough and through, it may there-
foie produce only slight damage, on the other
hand, when the air is too dry to deposit much
moisture, and when it deposits fiost only when
cooled greatly below 32° F , it often happens
that the plants are frozen under a clear sky or
during a cold, dry ^md without the deposition.
of much, if any, frost upon their exterior sur-
faces, in such cases the sap within the cells
and especially within the medullary rays is
frozen, the structure of the plant is destroyed,
and when the sun's warmth has melted the
frozen sap, the leaves and stalks sink to the
ground, wilt away, and tuin black, being in.
fact dead This phenomenon is known as "bUek
frost" It is, however, more propeily a freeze
than a fiost
The interval between the last frost of spiing
and the first frost of autumn is the so-called
growing season of the agriculturists Between
these dates tender plants of all kinds must per-
fect their crops, while those that can withstand
fiosts continue their growth uninterruptedly
Especially must the great staple crops of the
country — the Indian corn or maize, the cotton,
tobacco, and a large range of tender fruits, as
well as spring wheat, rye, and buckwheat — all
complete their growth between these dates The
accompanying maps show by curved lines the
i egions in the United States over which the first
and last frosts occurred on given dates on the
aveiage of the past 30 years A comparison of
these maps will therefore show the length of
time that is available as a normal growing
season in any part of the countiy Although
agriculturists always select seed that is likely
to produce a quick-growing crop that may be
hai vested before the early frost of autumn, yet,
owing to the irregularities of climate, the late
spring fiosts, and the early autumn frosts fre-
quently bring their crops into jeopardy This
has stimulated the invention of many methods
of frost protection, which are fully described
in the Monthly Weather Review for the years
1894-97 and 1910-11, and especially in Bulle-
tins on Frost Protection, issued by the United
States Weather Bureau
The methods of frost protection are divided
into several categories, as follows* 1 A light
screen of any material, even a few slats or a
gauzy veil, stretched above a plant prevents the
radiation of the plant's heat into space and by
reflecting back the heat from the soil may keep
the temperature of the plant so high as to pre-
vent frosty temperatures. 2 Fires with clouds
of smoke warm the air of a field, while the
sinoke cloud prevents radiation, in perfectly
air such & cloud of smoke will spread evenly
m all directions and continue effective through
the night 3 Without reliance upon a cloud
of smoke, one may warm the ground and the air
either by fiies or by streams of water or by
flooding the field All these methods and va-
rious combinations of them are in legular use
for the protection of tropical fruits in Cahfoi-
ma and Florida and for the piotection of to-
bacco, cranberries, and early vegetables in
Koi them States Many patented devices for
making smudges are on the market, but in gen-
eral the smudge disfigures the fruit, and other
piotective devices aie preferred
Although the tender portions of plants aie
destroyed by frost, yet the upened mature seed
is much less susceptible The kernels of both
coin and wheat may be subjected to very low
temperatures without being injured Unfortu-
nately many of the bactenal germs and fungoid
spoics also are not injured by cold It was for-
merly supposed that freezing weather destroyed
the germs of malarial and yellow fevei , but it
is now probable that such germs are not af-
fected by cold, but that, on the other hand, the
cold checks the mosquitoes and othei insects by
which these germs are introduced into the hu-
man body
The prediction of frost is a matter of great
importance to a farmer and can usually be made
with gieat exactness by the help of the daily
weather map, whoiefore special attention is paid
to tins subject by the officials of the Weather
Bureau All persons whose interests depend
laigely upon the knowledge of frost keep in
close touch with the Weather Bureau and re-
ceive special telegrams when freezing tempera-
tures are approaching In general, when the
dew point is below 32° F and the night is still
and clear, the temperature will fall lapidlv, and
it may reach the freezing point befoie sunrise
Air Drainage. This name is extensively ap-
plied to a type of convective local circulation
of the air occurring chiefly during the nighttime
and often playing an important part in the dis-
tribution of frosts, especially in regions where
lull and valley conditions form a conspicuous
feature of the topography As the words sug-
gest and as is generally supposed, the air on
the higher slopes, becoming heaviei as it cools,
flows or drains down into and fills the valley
locations, there forming a lake as it were of
cold air, the warmer air being found higher up
the slopes Thus the valley regions experience
heavy frosts, while the higher slopes escape
The conditions are generally pretty well recog-
nized and understood by gardeners and horti-
culturists, who avoid the low valleys and pre-
fer the upper slopes for their gardens and or-
chards The idea, however, that the flow of
cold air downhill into the valley resembles
the flow of watei under the action of giavity,
is quite erroneous and not in accord with the
fundamental principles of thermodynamics
The type of air drainage in hill and valley
locations now under consideration occurs chiefly
when little or no wind prevails and during a
night of comparatively cloudless skies following
a still, warm, sunny afternoon During the
course of the day the soil and surface vegeta-
tion becomes strongly heated by solar radia-
tion, the air in contact therewith is also heated
and ascends more or less vertically, cooling by
expansion as it rises. As a result of the active
vertical convection thus established during the
e^ th$ air for several hundred feet
FBOST 3
the surface is in a state of adiabatic equilibrium
in which the temperature diminishes at a rate
of slightly more than 05° F pei 100 feet
When nightfall sets in, cooling takes place
lapidly by radiation from the soil and vegetal
cover The free masses of air cool only very
slowly, but those next to the soil and among
the foliage of trees, plants, etc, cool rapidly
by contact The suiface air in the bottom of the
valley lemams practically where it is, the cool-
ing by radiation goes on continually, and, since
the air in the valley is constrained to remain
theie, it grows colder and colder in propoition
to the loss of heat made possible by the clear
skies and the active radiation The surface
air on the slopes is also cooled by contact with
the cooled soil and vegetation and flows downhill
to a slight extent In this descent, however,
the air is heated by compression at the adia-
batic rate of 0 5° F per 100 feet. Moreover, the
surface air below it is already dynamically as
cold or colder and denser than the air up the
slopes. What happens then, briefly, m hill and
valley locations on still, clear nights is that
the surface air in the valley cools chiefly by
contact with the cooling soil and vegetation,
and with very little motion remains where it is,
becoming colder and colder The surface air on
the slopes also cools m a similar manner, de-
scends slightly, and not remaining close to the
surface flows out to overspread laterally the
lakelike mass of cold air that has formed in
the valley Thus this lakelike mass continually
gious m depth and extent throughout the night,
with the temperatuie warm at its top and
colder at its bottom The "drainage" is not
along the surface of the giound from the upper
edges of the "lake" to the bottom, but from
the lull slopes slightly down and then out over
the suiface of the lake Similar lines of rela-
tively horizontal flow beginning tangential to
the slopes also occur in the intermediate layers
of the atmospheric lake
Frosts will occur over regions occupied by
lakes of cold air, as described above, whenever
the conditions of humidity are favorable and
the temperature falls to or below 32° F It is
also apparent why the upper levels of the hill
slopes may be warmer than the lower valleys
A somewhat similar explanation of "air
drainage" has b.een published in the Bulletin,
Mount Weather Observatory, vol. vi, pp 118-124
(Washington, 1914)
Inasmuch as severe frosts have sometimes
been very destructive to the staple crops, they
have occasionally been the dnect cause of severe
famines, lists of memorable frosts for the
last 400 years will be found m Andrews, Famous
Frosts and Frost-Pairs in G-reat Britain (Lon-
don, 1887), also Walford, paper on "Famines"
in Journal of the Statistical Society (ib, 1878)
The record for the United States will be found
most conveniently in Pierce on The Weather
(Philadelphia, 1860) and in the successive
numbers of the Monthly Weather Review
(Washington)
A special and elegant form of frostwork oc-
curs as "ice needles" or "ice columns," that rise
up in masses from gravelly ground, raising up
the top layer of gravel and small stones on
their summits to a height of two, four, or
six inches These ice columns are hollow, and
are apparently formed by the freezing of the
films of moisture that rise up from the lower
warm wet soil and freeze on the under side of
[I FROST
the top layer of stones when the latter are
chilled by radiation dining cleai nights These
columns do not foim when the an is cold enough
to fieeze the soil below the top la^eib A sinai-
lai formation exudes fiom a thin ciack in the
baik of a tiee when the body of the tree af-
fords moistme enough The mechanics of this
piocess is treated by Pi of Cleveland Abbe in
the American Meteorological Journal for April,
1893 (Detroit), and by W W Coblentz in
the Monthly Weather Review, August, 1914
( Washington )
Consult also the following works Beals, Fore-
casting Ptost in the North Pacific States,
Tl eather Bureau Bulletin [1 (Washington,
1912) , Cox, Frost and Temperature Conditions
in the Craribcrnj Marshes of Wisconsin,
Weather Bureau Bulletin T (ib, 1910), Day,
Ftost Data of the United States and Length of
the Crop Grouing Reason, . Weather Bureau
Bulletin, V (ib , 1911), Fassig, "Penod of Safe
Plant Growth in Maryland and Delawaie,"
Monthly Weather Renew, vol xlu, p 152 (ib,
March, 1914) , E B Garnott, Cold Waves and
Frost in the United titates, Weather Bweaii Bul-
letin P (ib, 190G) , Canada's Feitile Northland
(Department of Interior, Ottawa, 1907) , Stu-
pait, 'Climate of Yukon Temtoiy," Tiansac-
tions of Canadian Institute (Toronto, 190G)
Hann, "Zum Kbma Manitoba," lleteorologische
Zeitsohrift (Vienna, 1894) , Hann, "Zum Klrnia
von Winnipeg, Manitoba, 30-]ahnge Temperatui-
mittel/' etc, Meteorologische Zeitscluift (Vienna,
1905).
FBOST, ARTHITB BUEDETT (1851- ) An
American cancaturist and illustrator He was
born at Philadelphia and at 15 worked as an
engraver and afterward as a lithographer, but
was 111 the main self-taught Subsequently he
was employed by the New York Graphic, and m
1876 he changed to Harper and Brothers, where
he was associated with Abbey, Eeinhart, and
Alexander Frost's works show thorough diafts-
manship Honesty, healthy and delightful hu-
mor, and convincing naturalness are the principal
characteiistics of the artist He diaws all the
elements that compose the picture with equal
interest and sympathy His fust illustrations
for a volume, entitled Out of the Hwrly-Bwly
(1872), attracted much notice Other impor-
tant illustrations are found m Stockton, Rud-
der 0-range (1879), Octave Thanet, Stories of
a Western Toion (1803) , Bunner, Stories of a
New York House (1887) Publications of his
own are- /Stuff and Nonsense (1888) , Bull Oalf9
and Other Tales (1892), The Golfer's Alpha-
bet (1898), Sports and 0-ames in the Open
(1899), Book of Drawings (1905)
!FBOST7 EDWIN BBANT (1806- ) An
American astronomer He was born at Brattle-
boro, Vt, and graduated in 1886 from Dart-
mouth College, and also studied at Princeton,
Sti ass-burg, and the Royal Astrophysical Observ-
atory at Potsdam, Germany At Dartmouth
he was instructor (1887-90), assistant pro-
fessor of astronomy and director of the observ-
atoiy (1892-95), and professor (1895-98) He
became professor of astrophysics (1898) and di-
rector of the Yerkes Observatory (1905) at the
University of Chicago After serving six years
as an assistant editor he became editor of the
Astrophysical Journal in 1902 In 1806 he was
secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science His researches in-
clude pai ticularly stellar velocities in the line of
PROST
3*2
FROSTBtTRG
sight, stellar spectroscopy, sun spots, and ther-
mal radiation of the sun In 1911 Daitmouth
conferied on him tlie degree of D Sc He trans-
lated, revised, and enlarged J Schemer's A
Treatise on Astronomical tipecttoscopy (1804)
FROST, GEOKGE HENRY (1838- ) An
American publisher He was born ni Ontario,
Canada, and graduated as civil engineer fiom
McGill University in 1860 He was a railroad
engineer and land surveyor at Chicago until
1878, when lie moved to New York City He
founded the Engineering News in 1874 and pub-
lished it until 1911 He became president of the
Courier-News Publishing Company and a mem-
ber of various engmeeung societies of the United
States and Canada
FROST, JACK See JACK FROST
FROST, JOHN (1800-59) An American com-
piler He was bom in Kennebunk, Me, studied
at Bowdoin and graduated at Harvard ( 1 822 ) ,
and taught in Boston and in Philadelphia, where
he had a girls' school in 1828-38, and afterwaid
until 1845 taught in the Central High School
He published many school books, juveniles, and
historical and biographical compilations, among
which may be mentioned Pictorial History of
the United States (2 vols , 1844), which was ex-
ceedingly popular, Pictorial History of the
World, Lives of American General s^ American
~Ndial Biography
FROST, PEKCIVAL (1817-98) An English
mathematician, bom at Hull He attended
school at Beverley and Oakham and in 1835 en-
teied St John's College, Cambridge Although
as a boy he showed great aptitude for classics,
at Cambridge he devoted his attention chiefly to
mathematics He was made a fellow of St
John's in 1839, and on his marriage in 1841
he became tutor in mathematics, among his pu-
pils being, somewhat later, W K Chiloid He
held a mathematical lectureship at Jesus College
for 12 years, and afterward at King's College
for 30 years, become" fell^v of Turner a and tak-
ing his degree of D <x (Pamlnidae ) m 1882
His chief works were A Treatise on the Prin-
cipia (1854) , A Treatise on Solid Geometry
(with Wolstenholme, 1863) , A Treatise on
Cwve-Tracmg (1872). Consult Taylor's bio-
giaphical note in the Proceedings of the Lon-
don Mathematical Society, vol xxix (London,
1898)
FROST, WILLIAM EDWABD (1810-77) An
English historical and portrait painter He was
born at Wandsworth in September, 1810, and
studied chiefly in the schools of the Royal
Academy At first he painted portraits, but,
under the influence of Etty, devoted himself to
mythological subjects, many of which were in-
spired by Spenser and Milton In 1839 he ex-
hibited "Prometheus Bound," for which he le-
ceived the Academy's gold medal. In 1847 he
won a competition piize at Westminster Hall
by his cartoon, "Una Alarmed by the Fauns "
Among his principal paintings are "Una and
the Wood Nymphs" (1847), painted for Queen
Victoria; the "Disarming of Cupid" (1850),
painted for the Prince Consort, "The Sirens"
(1849), which is particularly good in color,
"Narcissus" (1857), "Hylas and the Nymphs"
(1867), "Masidora" (1871) The Dublin Mu-
seum possesses "Dancing Nymphs", the Vic-
toria and Albert Museum, London, "Contem-
plation" and two studies His pictures, which
were frequently engraved, are highly finished
bxit deficient in color and design Some of Ins
licrwovei, have considerable
He wah elected <o tho lloval
smallor canvases,
grace and charm
Academy in 1870
FROST, \VILTTAM COODLIYL ( 1 854 - } An
American college piesident, bom at Lo Roy,
N Y In 1876 he giaduated at Obeilm College
(AM, BD, 1879), and latei lie studied at
Woostei (PhD, 1891), Haivaid, and Gottin-
gen universities At Oheilm he TV as instructor
in Greek in 1877-79 and piofessoi of the Greek
language and hteratuie fiom 1879 to 18<)2
As president of Berea College after 1892 he did
much to promote higher education among the
"mountain whites" He is author of Alpha
A Creel* Primer Introductory to Xenophon
(1889), Inductile Studies in Oratory (1890),
University Extension in the Southern Moun-
tains (1898)
FROST BIRD, or FROST S3STIPE An
Ainencan gunner's name for the stilt sandpipci
(Ulicropalama himantopus) See STILT, and
Plate of BEACH BIRDS
EROSTBITE A tenn Ubually applied to
local eilects of cold, although it may be properly
used to designate all results of low degrees of
tempeiatuie, from chapped hands to freezing to
death (asphyxia congelatorum) The frostbitten
part is at first pale, cold, tingling, and numb,
then still, with loss of sensation and motion,
later, shrunken, haid, even brittle, livid and
mottled from coagulation of blood in the veins
Moleculai death occurs, the blood corpuscles dis-
integrate, sloughing and modification result,
and a line of demai cation is established (See
GANGRENE ) Although a sudden violent appli-
cation of cold may cause death of the tissues
by reducing the temperature to a degree incom-
patible with animal life, the mobt common cause
of the destructive effects of moderate frostbite
is perhaps the excessive icaction which occurs
on sudden removal of the cold, or tho application
of heat, this is especially the case with moist
cold
Most cases of frostbite are veiy trifling, the
most common being chilblains (See CHAPPED
HANDS, CHILBLAINS ) The treatment of frost-
bite is best effected by friction, at first with
snow, then with ice water, and then with water
at ordinary tempeiatuie, no warmth being ap-
plied for some time. If the frozen part is
buttle, spraying with ice water miibt be sub-
stituted for rubbing with snow As the coldness
subsides, the painful tingling and then redness
and heat return, in a short time the heat is
above the normal, and a febrile reaction sets in
Partial recovery may always be expected unless
the freezing has been continued too long When
sloughing begins, it is necessary to employ sup-
portive and stimulative treatment, with hot fo-
mentations or moist antiseptic dressings After
the line of demarcation is established amputa-
tion should be performed Eczema and pruritus
may follow moderate frostbite Partial paraly-
sis of the parts supplied by the facial and
radial nerves, 01 even hemiplegia, may follow
The use of alcoholic drinks when one is exposed
to cold is a fatal mistake" The drug brings heat
to the surface of the body, where it is rapidly
lost, and the vitality of the individual is low-
ered Alcoholism predisposes to a fatal result in
comparatively mild frostbite, from which tem-
perate persons would quickly recover
FROST'BTTRG- A town in Allegany Co,,
Md, 80 miles (direct) southeast of Pittsburgh,
Pa, on the Western Maryland and the Cumber-
FUOSTF1SH
313
FBOTHIHGHAM
and and Pennsylvania lailroads (Map Maiy-
and, B 1) It "is pictincsquely situated at an
>le\ation of about 2200 toot and is A MI miner
esoit It is the seat of a State noimal school
ind contains a imneis' hospital Fiostbmg has
arge lire-buck and tile woiks, planing mills,
oundnes, hosiery mills, etc , but is engaged
•lueily ni coal mining The government is ad-
nmistered under a chaiter of 1870, which pro-
, ides for a mayor, chosen annually, and a city
'ouncil elected at laige The water \^orks aie
3wned bv the municipality Pop, 1900, 5274,
L010, 6028
FBOST'PISH 1 A slendei, scaleless, pela-
gic nsh (Lepidotus caudatus) , elsewheie known
is scabbard fish, but called hostfish in New
Zealand, where it visits the eoabt to spawn at
irregular intervals and is much sought after
is a delicacy by a strange method of capture
Ft has the exti aoi dinary habit, in winter, oi:
coming ashore alive on ceitain sandy beaches,
where it wriggles on to the nimer sands above
the surf line, there to die or be quietly devoured
by some animal No satisfactory reason has yet
been assigned for this suicidal piocecdmg, but
it is taken advantage of by the "fisherman"
When the night is clear and calm, with com-
paratively low surf, as well as frosty, the nsh
may be expected, and then parties of men go
to the beach shortly before daybieak (or pei-
haps camp there overnight and rise early)
and walk back and forth, seizing the fish as
they come floundering out of the surf and
killing them
2 In New England, a tomcod (qv )
FROTH FLY, EUOTH-HOPPEK, FUOG
FLY, or FROG-HOPPER Insects of which the
young — larvae and pupae — arc found in a fiothy
exudation on plants They form the family Cer-
copidse of homopterous bugs and are allied to
aphids and still more nearly to cicadas and lan-
tern fh.es The larvse and pupae differ little in.
appearance from the perfect insect, except that
the latter possesses four large wings The fioth,
commonly called frog spittle, is believed to be
composed of sap which the insect sucks up
through its proboscis The sap passes thiough
the intestine and is emitted as a clear mass,
into which the insect draws bubbles of air by
means of its tail claspers, and thus makes foam
When the insect is about to transform, the foam
dries in such a way as to produce a shelter for
the ensuing quiescent stage The most common
insect in the eastern United States is Aphrophora
quadrangulans Some of the tropical forms
assume very bizarre shapes, caused by out-
growths from the thorax The fluid is emitted
by some species in drops which may be thrown
a considerable distance, causing the phenomenon
known as weeping trees A few dozen larvse of
a Madagascar form may exude a quart of fluid
in an hour and a half Frog spittle is supposed
to be produced as a protective covering for the
>oung insect, but in spite of it certain Hymen-
optera pick the larvse out and carry them off to
be stored as food for their larvae The winged
stage is a much flattened one and capable of
long leaps, whence the name "froglxopper," first
given to them because they came from the frog
spittle, is doubly appropriate
> FROTHOTGHAM:, froth'mg-am, AETHTJB
LINCOLN (1859-1923). An American archaeolo-
gist and educator, born in Boston, Mass, He
studied at the Catholic Seminary of San Apol-
hnare, Home, Italy, the Eoysll University oi
Rome, find the Umvcisity of Leip/ig (PhD,
1883 ) , was fellow in Semitic languages and
lecturei in aichoeology at the Johns Hopkins
University in 1882-86, in 18S7 was appointed
to the Princeton chair oi aieli^oloi>\ and the
histoiy of ait, and in 1808-1906 was piofessoi
of archeology and ancient lu&toi^ In 1884 he
was secretaiy of the Aich geological Institute oi
America, m*1885 founded the Amcncan Joiunal
of Archceology, of which he was ownei and
editor until 1896, and in 1895-06 wab an as-
sociate director of the American School oi
Classical Studies at Rome His publications in-
clude contributions to pcnodicals, monogiaphs
on sculpture and painting, Stephen Bar Nudaili*
tlie Syrian Mystic and the BooL of Hictotlieos
(1886) with A Maiquaml, A Text-Boole of the
History of Rciilptine (1896) , Monuments of
Chnstian Rome (1908) , Roman Cities in Italy
and Dfilmatia (1910) , J History of Architectw e
(1011) He prepared aiticles on architectuie
for the NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOP EDIA
PBOTHINGHAM, ELLEN (1833-1902) An
American tianslatoi, the dau^litei of Nathaniel
Frothing liam She \\as bom in Boston She
made a special study ot Get man liteiatuie and
is well known foi hoi translations into English
of Les&mg's Nathan do Weisc (1808), Goethe's
Hermann nnd Dorothea (1870), Aucibach'b
Mclrlioeiss ( 1 871 ) and Lossmg's Laoloon ( 1874)
FROTHIlsrGHAM, NATHANIEL LANGDON
(1703-1870) An American clergyman and
writer He was born in Boston and In 1812
graduated at Harvard, where he became the first
piofessor of rhetoric and oiatory In 1815 he
was ordained pastor of the First Church (Uni-
tarian) in Boston, which position he occupied
until 1850, when lie devoted himself to litera-
ture He published Sermons in the Order of a
Twelvemonth (1852) and Metrical Pieces, Trans-
lated and Onc/mal (1855, 1870) He translated
Aratus' Phenomena, contributed largely to
periodical literature, and was a thoiough student
of German, when such scholaiship was rare in
America His biography was wntten by his
son, Octavius Brooks Frothmgham, in the volume
entitled Boston Umtananism, 1820-1850 (Bos-
ton, 1890)
FROTH'IN'GHAM:, OcrAVius BBQOKS (1822-
95) An American Unitarian clergyman He
was born m Boston, Nov 26, 1822, a, son of
Kev Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham He was
graduated at Harvard College in 1843, at the
Cambridge Divinity School in 1846, and was
settled as pastor of the North Church (Unita-
rian), Salem, Mass , in 1847 In 1855 he became
minister of a church m Jersey City, N J., where
he remained four years In 1859 lie accepted a
call to the pastorate of the newly formed Thud
Unitarian Congregational Church in New York
and remained at that post for 20 years, when
ill health compelled his resignation From the
beginning he belonged to the most radical wing
of the Unitarians, and the name of his church
was finally changed from the Third Unitarian to
the First Independent Liberal Church of New
Yoik, the connection with the Unitarian denomi-
nation being thereby sundered After 1881 he
resided in Boston and devoted himself to literary
work He died Nov. 27, 1895 Frothmgham
was one of the founders of the Free Religious
Association, and its president for the first 12
years of its existence He ranked high as a
scholar, and as a preacher was impressive and
eloquent He contributed largely to the peri-
314
FROZEN STRAIT
odical press, on a great variety of subjects, and
published more than 200 sermons Other works
worthy of mention are A translation of Eenan's
Studies of Religious History and Criticism
(1864) , Child's Book of Religion (1866) , His-
tory of Transcendentalism in New England
(1876), Boston Umtarianism , 18W-1850, in-
cluding a memoir of his father (1890) , and
lives of Theodore Parker (1874), Gernt Smith
(1878), George Ripley (1882), William Henry
Channmg (1886), and David Atwood Wasson
(1889)
FROTHXNGHAM, RICHARD (1812-80) An
American journalist and historical writer, born
in Charlestown, Mass He was a member of the
State Legislature in 1839, 1840, 1842, 1849, and
1850, was mayor of Charlestown in 1851-53,
was a delegate to the National Democratic Con-
ventions of 1851, 1852, and 1876, and fiom 1852
to 1865 was managing editor of the Boston Post,
of which he was also for many years a proprietor.
He devoted much of his time to historical study,
was treasurer of the Massachusetts Historical
Society, and published, in addition to pamphlets
and magazine articles, a History of CJiarlestown
( 1845-49 ) , History of the Siege of Boston
(1849), Life and Times of Joseph Warren
(1865) , The Rise of the Republic of the United
States (1871), his most important work
FROTTOLA, frot'to-la (It ballad) A kind
of Italian folk song, much cultivated in the six-
teenth century It was midway between the
veiy simple villanella (qv ) and the more
elaboiate madrigal (qv) Between 1504 and
1509 Petrucci published nine books of Frottole.
The words were generally of an erotic character,
FROTJDE, frood, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-94).
An English historian, litterateur, and educator
The youngest son of Robert Hurrell Fioude
(1771-1859), Archdeacon of Totnes, he was born
at Dartington, Devonshire, April 23, 1818 He
was educated at Westminster School, and at
Oriel College, Oxford, where in 1840 he ob-
tained a second-class in classics and in 1842
graduated B A , won the Chancellor's prize for
an English essay, and was elected a fellow of
Exeter College He graduated M A in 1843 and
to retain his fellowship took deacon's orders in
1845, which the Clerical Disabilities Act enabled
him to relinquish in 1872 For, influenced by
the Tractarian movement, of which his brother
Richard Hurrell Froude and Newman were lead'
ers, his views changed, and his early works, The
Shadows of the Clouds (1847), published under
the pen name of "Zeta," and the Nemesis of
Faith ( 1848) , being condemned by the university
authorities, he resigned his fellowship, also an
appointment as head master of the Hobart High
School, Tasmania, abandoned the clerical profes-
sion, and devoted himself to historical study and
literature He wrote for the Westm^nster Re-
view and other periodicals, including Eraser's
Magazine, of which he subsequently became
editor, and in 1856 appeared the first two vol-
umes of The History of England from the Fall of
Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada
(12 vols, 1856-1870), on which his fame chiefly
rests. In 1868 he was elected rector of St.
Andrews University and received the degree of
LL D The preparation and publication of his
important historical and biographical works were
relieved by intervals of travel and lecturing In
1872 his lectures in the United States on the
relations between England and Ireland, in which,
arguing from historical parallels, he scoffed at
all attempts to conciliate the Irish, involved him
in an animated controversy with the Dominican
Father Thomas Burke In 1849 Froude marned
Charles Kingsley's sister-m-law, Chailotte
Maria, fifth daughter of Pascoe Grenfell She
died in 1860, and 17 months latei he married
Henrietta Elizabeth, daughter of John Ashley
Wane Upon her death, in 1874, he resigned
the editorship of Eraser's Magazine, and m 1874
and again in 1875 was sent by the Earl of Car-
narvon, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to
the Cape of Good Hope to investigate the plan
of South African federation The result of these
missions was singularly unfortunate and disas-
trous to Lord Carnarvon's policy, owing to
Froude's tactless speeches and leprcsentations
In 1884-85 he visited Australia and in 1886-87
the West Indies , he wi ote accounts of these two
visits, which were violently assailed by colonial
writers as biased and misleading As Carl vie' s
peisonal friend and literary executor, he edited
his Reminiscences (2 vols, 1881), Mrs Carlyle's
Letters and Memorials (1883), and Thomas
Carlyle A History (4 vols, 1882-84), but their
copious personal criticism excited much discus-
sion as to Fronde's editorial discretion In 1892
he succeeded Edward A Freeman (qv ), one of
his most caustic critics, as regms piofessor of
modem history at Oxford Froude died at Sal-
combe, Devon, Oct 20, 1894 Besides the woiks
already mentioned, his writings include The
English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (3
vols, 1872-74), Short Studies on Great Sub-
jects (2 vols, 1877-82), Ccesar (1879), Two
Lectures on South Africa (1880) , Oceana
(1886) , The English in the West Indies (1888) ,
The Two Chiefs of Duriboy (1889), an histoiical
romance, Life of Lord Beaconsfield (1890) ,
Erasmus (1894), Elizabethan Seamen (1895)
Froude was afflicted with constitutional senti-
mentality and an unfortunate, if unconscious,
facility for inaccurately adapting facts to suit
the views he sought to promulgate His parti-
san glorification of Henry VIII as the disinter-
ested and magnanimous executor of the public
wish in regard to ecclesiastical refoim is one of
the most striking examples Hence the frequent
storms of protest and criticism that his writings
evoked, and the blemishes of his otherwise splen-
did works For although he at times subordi-
nated accuracy to the exigencies of desci iptive,
vivid, and emphatic writing, and justified his
action on the score of dramatic effect, the
lucidity and beauty of his style make his works
rank among the finest examples of English prose
of the nineteenth century and have earned for
his magnum opus an imperishable position in
the chronicles of British history "The descrip-
tion of the setting sail of the Armada is an echo
perhaps of Thucydides' account of the great
Athenian fleet leaving the Piraeus for Syracuse,
but an echo so beautiful as amply to justify
itself " Froude's life has been written by Her-
bert Paul (London, 1905), whose treatment
without being definitely eulogistic is ceitainly
conceived in a spirit of admiring appieciation
Consult also Harrison, "Histoiical Method of
Froude," in Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and Other
Literary Estimates (New York, 1900) , Bourne,
Essays in Historical Criticism (ib, 1901) , Cecil,
Six Oxford Thinkers (London, 1909)
FROUFROTT, froo'froo' A five-act comedy,
the most celebrated work of Meilkac and Hal&vy,
produced at the Gymnase in 1869
FROZEN STRAIT. A passage leading nortK-
WELLS
315
FKITIT
west from Fox Channel, the northern continua-
tion of Hudson Bay, to Howe's Welcome (Map
Canada, O 3) It separates Southampton Island
from Melville Peninsula It is 15 miles wide
and is nearly always icebound and inaccessible
to navigation
FROZEN WELLS Wells in which ice is
found either with or without water They occa-
sionally occur m the United States and Europe
A famous one in Brandon, Vt , was sunk through
a mass of frozen ground 15 feet thick and for-
merly showed ice at 14 feet below the surface 111
the summer time In most frozen wells the ice
lasts until late summer, and the temperature is
seldom above the freezing point The low tem-
perature and ice were originally attributed to the
fact that the well pierces a stiatum of glacier
drift in which ancient glacier ice still survives,
but the researches of Kimball have shown that
this extreme hypothesis is quite unnecessary.
He has demonstrated that the low temperatures
in frozen wells, ice caves, and similar situations
aie due to the percolation of cold air into the
interior of the earth during cold winter weather
and the coldest hours of the morning He has
shown that the deserted iron mines at Westport,
N. Y, give a complete key to the method of
formation of ice in caves and wells. Consult
United States Monthly Weather Review (Wash-
ington, 1901). See ICE CAVES.
PKTTCTIDOR, fruk'ti-d6r' (Fr, from Lat.
fructus, fruit, G-k. dtapov, doron, gift). The
twelfth month of the French Republican calen-
dar It ran from August 18 to September 16
in the years I-VII and from August 19 to
September 17 in the years VTII-XIII, being
followed by five supplementary days, known as
sans-culottides, which filled out the year The
18th Fructidor, Year V (Sept 4, 1797), is cele-
brated as the day on which Barras, Kewbell,
and La Revelliere, members of the Directory,
by a coup d'etat, expelled their colleagues Car-
not and Barthelemy and saved the Republic from
the machinations of the party of reaction, who
had obtained the upper hand in the Council of
Five Hundred. See FRENCH REVOLUTION.
FRUCTOSE. See SUGAES
FBTTGONI, froo-go'ne, CARLO INNOCENZIO
MAEIA (1692-1768) An Italian poet, charac-
teristic of the Arcadian school at the height of
its development Born at Genoa, after many
wanderings he settled down in Parma, under
ducal protection, as tutor, court poet, director
of the court theatre, and secretary of the Acad-
emy of Fine Arts. The verses he produced
with extraordinary ease are marked by graceful
superficiality and sensuous Idealism Consult
his Opere poeticJie (10 vols, Parma, 1779) , the
Poesie (15 vols., Lucca, 1779-80), Carducci,
Poet* erotica, del sec XVIII (Florence, 1878) ,
Lettere inedite, ed. by Bertoldi (Forlt, 1891),
and others ed. by Mazzatmti (ib, 1892), the
biography m Fabroni, Vitce, vol i (1778-1805) ,
Torelh, Paesaggi e profiU (Florence, 1861) , E.
Bertana, "Intorno al Frugom," m (hornale
stonco della letteratura itaUana, vol xxiv
(Torino, 1883- ).
FBTTIN, froin, ROBEBT (1823-99). A Dutch
historian, born in Rotterdam He was educated
at Leyden, where lie was appointed professor of
the history of the Netherlands in 1860 He
was editor of the Niyhofs Bi?dragen voor Vader-
Icwdsahe Gewlwedews and was a frequent con-
tributor to D® (hds and other publications He
was regarded as the greatest living Authority on
Vot.
Dutch history, and his work entitled Tien jaren
uit den tachtigjangen oorlog (4th ed , 1889)
is considered one of the best historical works
of modern times His Reply to Sir Bartle Frere
and an Appeal to the People o/ England (1881),
relative to the Transvaal question, created con-
sideiable comment Another of his publications
is Qeschiedenis der staatsinstelhngen in Neder-
land tot den val der republiek (1901) His
Verspreide Oeschnften- were published by Blok,
P L Mullci, and S Muller (8 vols, 1900-03)
FBUIT (OF, Fr. fruit, Lat puctus, fruit,
from frui, to enjoy) The structure that ripens
in connection with the seeds in the spermato-
phytes (seed plants). In popular application
the term is also used in connection with the
sporogonium of mosses and the son of ferns
( see FEEN ) , but it is misapplied in these senses
The structures of seed plants included in the
fiuit are exceedingly variable. In typical cases
the fruit is the ripened ovary, as in ordinary
pods, the tiansformed wall being called the peri-
carp, in apples it includes floral structures out-
side of the o\ary, in strawberries it consists in
the main of a very much enlarged receptacle,
while in pineapples it is the whole inflorescence
So variable are fruits in structure that it is diih-
cult to classify them satisfactorily, and it is nofc
profitable to give a complete list of the numer-
ous and often pedantic terms which have been
applied to them. It will be sufficient to describe
the principal forms. It seems to be most con-
venient to divide fruits into two great divisions,
dry fruits and fleshy fruits
Dry Fruits, Dry fruits either open (dehisce)
in various ways to discharge their seeds, or they
contain but a single seed, which accompanies
the fruit m the dispersal The dry fruits there-
fore naturally fall into two groups (1) those
which are dehiscent, and (2) those which are
indehiscent Such fruits also consist of the
ripened ovary and therefore have a strict mor-
phological boundary (1) Dehiscent fruits have
received the general name of pods and are
grouped on the basis of the number of carpels
they contain and the method of dehiscence The
piomment forms are as follows Follicle, a pod
consisting of a single carpel and dehiscing by
splitting down the inner side, as in the peony
Legume, a pod consisting of a single carpel and
dehiscing by splitting down both sides into two
pieces or valves, as in the common pea and
bean Very frequently legumes are simply spoken
of as pods, and they are so characteristic of
the great pea family that it has been called
the Leguminosse Capsule, a pod consisting of
more than one carpel and dehiscing variously
The dehiscence is said to be septicidal when the
carpels separate from one another, and in such
case each carpel may split down the inner face
as if it were a follicle, as m the genus Hyperi-
cum In other cases the carpels do not separate,
but each one splits down the back, such dehis-
cence being called loculicidal, as in iris, evening
primrose ((Enothera) , etc In still other cases
there are no slits of dehiseence, but the seeds
are discharged through porelike openings near
the summit of the capsule, as in the common
poppy Silique, the peculiar pod of the mustard
family ( Crucif erse ) , which consists of two car-
pels and is divided into two chambers by a false
partition, to which the seeds are attached In
dehiscence the two carpels split away as two
valves from the membranous partition, which is
thus exposed with its attacked seeds
PRTJIT
316
FBTJIT
a short silique, -which is little if at all longer
than bioad, as in the common shepherd's-purse
(Capsella) Py®is> a pod which opens by means
of a caphke lid, as in twmleaf (Jeffersoma)
(2) Indehiscent fruits mature but a single
seed, although they are often deivved from an
ovary composed of more than one carpel, and
the pericarp so closely invests the seed that such
fruits are popularly spoken of as seeds Com-
mon illustrations are as follows Achene, or
Akene, the most common seedhke fruit, chai-
acteristie of the great family Compositse, to
which belong the sunflowers, thistles, dandelions,
etc In this family the achene commonly bears
at its summit the modified calyx (pappus),
which in the form of a tuft of hairs 01 plumes,
bristles, hooks, etc , aids in dispeisal by wind or
animals Caryopsis, or Qtwn, the peculiar seed-
like fruit of the grasses, as maize, wheat, barley,
rice, etc Nut, a dry indehiscent fruit, in which
the pericarp becomes very hard and bony, as in
the acorn, chestnut, beechnut, etc Very com-
monly there is associated with the nut a peculiar
involucre, as that which forms the cup of the
adorn and the characteristic investment of chest-
nuts and beechnuts
Fleshy Fruits Fleshy fruits are indehis-
cent, since the flesh is intimately associated with
the seeds in their dispeisal It is these fiuits
which are so variable on account of the diffeient
stiuctures which ripen The most common forms
are as follows Beiri/, a fleshy fiuit, which is
pulpy throughout,, and which has a thin sluna or
rind In this case the fruit is a ripened ovaiy,
and common examples are the grape, currant,
gooseberry, tomato, etc ffespendwm, a berry
with a leathery rind, as the orange and lemon
Pepo, a pulpy fruit with a liard rind, as the
pumpkin, squash, melon, and the whole race of
-gourds Drupe, or Stone fruit, in which the
peiicarp ripens in two layers — an outer pulpy
one and an inner stony one, as the peach, plum,
cherry, etc In these cases the pit, or stone, is
often spoken of as the seed, but it invests the
seed, which is the kernel Drupelet, a small
drupe, as the individual grains of raspberry,
blackberry, mulberry, etc Drupelets are usually
aggregated to form a single fruit, as in the il-
lustrations cited In the raspberry the fruit is
simply an aggregation of drupelets, while in the
blackberry and mulberry there is associated with
the aggregation of drupelets a fleshy axis Pome,
a fleshy fruit in which the pulp is the ripened
urnhke outgiowth which surrounds the carpels
and bears the sepals, petals, and stamens on its
rim Common illustrations are apple, pear,
quince, hawthorn, etc In these cases the modi-
fied ovary is the so-called core
, While this classification is fairly complete, it
does not include some of the most familiar
fruits For example, the strawberry is a fruit
which consists of a very much enlarged and
fleshy receptacle, in which are embedded nu-
merous minute achenes (pits) The banana is
a fleshy fruit, but it dehisces by the pericarp
splitting into valves, and hence it is often called
a fleshy capsule, which is really a contradiction
of terms Almonds are dry fruits, but they are
constructed exactly like the peach, except that
the pulpy layer of the pericarp in the peach is a
fibrous layer in the almond The almonds of the
markets correspond to the stone of the peach,
being the hard inner layer of the pericarp, in-
vesting the seed or edible kernel. The pineapple
is a whole inflorescence, in which axis, bracts^
flowers, and all have become a mass of luscious
pulp
Fruits, Pood Value of Fiuits aie eaten
fresh, both law and cooked, dried or evaporated,
canned and preserved They are frequently
divided into a number of classes, the edible hurts
being mostly pomes, e g , apple, pear, etc , stono
fruit, eg, cherry, plum, etc , berries, eg, blue-
beriy, giape, currant, etc , aggregate fiuits,
eg, strawbeiry, laspbeiry, pineapple, etc ,
hesperidium, e g , orange, grapefruit, lemon, etc ,
sycomum, eg, fig A large class of edible
fiuits, such as tomatoes and melons, are moie
commonly spoken of as vegetables (qv), and
another as nuts ( q v ) The accompanying table
gives the composition of the moie common fresh
hints as well as of a number of dried or
evaporated and canned or pieserved ftuits
These figures repiesent average values, indi-
vidual specimens will vary gieatly from the
average Many fruits contain more 01 less in-
edible material or refu&e, such as stems, seeds
pit, etc, while otheis are entirely edible The
inedible portion may be considerable, thus, in
oranges the skin and seeds amount to about
27 per cent In bananas the skin constitutes
about 35 per cent of the fruit as pui chased
On the other hand, the inedible portion may be
very small Thus, the pits of cheines or the
hulls of stiawbernes constitute about 5 per
cent of the weight ot the fruit It will be
seen in general that fiuits have a high watei
content Carbohydrates, which include starches,
sugars, and similar bodies, make up the principal
nutritive material Pectin is an impoitant car-
bohydrate constituent of fiuit To it is due the
jelly-making quality which so many fruits pos-
sess, particularly when green or undempe
Pectin, with acid, sugar, and a relatively laige
amount of water, has the property of setting,
or jellying In general, fruits contain very little
protein, or fat An exception is the avocado 01
alligator pear, which contains about 10 per
cent of fat The ash content of fruits is small
However, mineral matter is important in the
diet, and fruit is a valuable source of it The
ash is made up of salts of calcium, potassium,
magnesium, sodium, etc For instance, the ash
of one sample of cheines (which constitutes
about 0 6 per cent of the total fruit) contained
4 2 per cent of calcium oxide, 57 7 of potassium
oxide, 5 5 of magnesium oxide, 15 1 of phos-
phoric acid, 6 8 of sodium oxide, and 5 8 of
sulphuric acid The ash of three samples of
figs ( also constituting some 0 6 per cent of the
total fruit) contained an average of 2 4 per cent
of calcium oxide, 55 8 of potassium oxide, 5 6 of
magnesium oxide, 12.4 of phosphoric acid, and
3 9 of sulphuric acid In the ash of five sam-
ples of grapes (which made up 0 5 per cent
of the fruit) there was an average percentage of
5 calcium oxide, 50 9 potassium oxide, 3 mag-
nesium oxide, 212 phosphoric acid, and 4 3
sulphuric acid
Dried or evaporated fruits contain much moie
nutritive material in proportion to their bulk
than do the fresh fruits, owing to the fact that,
like other dried foods, they have been concen-
trated by evaporation Canned or preserved
fruits are, generally speaking, cooked fiuits, with
or without the addition of sugar Fruits owe
their flavors to the presence of esteis, acids,
volatile oils, salts, and other chemical bodies
The coloring is due to the presence of erythro-
phyll and other complicated chemical compounds
FBUIT
317
FRUIT
In food analysis such materials arc not estimated
separately The total amount is not laige, and
such bodies aie generally included under the
carbohydrates, or, as the most important part
of the gioup is teimed, the nitrogen- fiee extract
The fiavoi, appearance, and composition of fruits
may be modified by cultivation
A few experiments have been made legaidmg
the digestibility of fruits, i e , the amount of
material which they give up in their passage
through the digestive tiact The results indi-
cate that they aio quite thoroughly assimilated
Overindulgence in fruit and the consumption of
fiuits have value in addition to their nutritive
value They contain salt, acids, and other bodies
which are believed by physiologists to have a
beneficial effect on the system, and doubtless
very often they stimulate the appetite for other
food They are also useful in counteracting a
tendency to constipation
Another point — and one entirely apart from
food value — should not be overlooked, i e , fruits
add very materially to the attractiveness of
the diet It is not easy to estimate their value
fiom this standpoint, since often the appear-
ance of food has a value which cannot be
COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION OF FRUITS, FRESH, DRIED, AND PRESERVED
FBUITS
Water
Protein
Fat
Carbohy-
drates
Ash
Fuel value
per pound
FRESH
%
%
%
%
%
Calories
Avocado or Alligator pear
811
10
102
63
9
512
ATDple
846
4
5
142
3
290
JVJJ^JiV*
Apricot
850
1 1
134
5
270
Bandn<j
753
1 3
6
220
8
460
Blackberry
Cherry
863
809
1 3
10
10
8
109
167
5
6
270
365
Cranberry
Currant
889
850
4
15
6
99
128
2
7
215
265
Fig
791
1 5
188
6
380
Grape
Huckleberry
Lemon
774
819
893
13
6
10
16
6
7
192
166
85
5
3
5
450
345
205
Nectarine
829
6
159
6
305
Orange
869
8
2
116
5
240
Pear
844
6
5
141
4
295
Pel Simmon
661
8
7
315
9
630
Pineapple
Plum
893
784
4
1 0
3
97
201
3
5
200
395
Pomegranate
Prune
768
796
1 5
9
16
195
189
6
6
4(50
470
Raspberry, led
Raspberry, black
Strawberry
Whortleberry
858
841
904
824
10
17
10
7
1 0
6
30
126
126
74
135
6
6
6
4
255
310
180
390
DRIED
Apple
Apricot
Citron, candied
Currant, Zante
Date
281
294
190
172
154
16
47
5
24
21
22
10
1 5
1 7
28
661
625
781
742
784
20
24
9
45
13
1350
1,290
1,525
1,495
1,615
Fier
188
43
3
742
24
1,475
il *
Pear
16 5
28
54
729
24
1,635
Prune
223
21
733
23
1,400
Raisin
Raspberry
146
81
26
73
33
18
761
802
34
26
1,605
1,705
PRESERVED
Apple, crab, canned
Apncot, canned
Blackberry, canned
Fruit jelly
Grape juice
Orange marmalade
424
814
400
21 0
792
145
88 1
3
9
8
2
6
7
24
21
1
1
544
173
564
783
203
845
108
5
4
7
7
3
3
3
1,120
340
1,150
1,415
370
1,585
220
Pineapple, canned
618
4
7
364
7
715*
unripe fruit or of that which is more or less
decayed, frequently cause pain or other un-
pleasant symptoms, and there are persons who
because of personal idiosyncrasy cannot eat cer-
tain fruits without distress Judging by the
results of a large number of dietary studies
made in the United States, fruits furnish about
1 per cent of the total food, 5 6 per cent of the
total carbohydrates, and 49 per cent of the
total protein and fat taken together
In many dietary studies which nave been
made the cost of foods has been recorded It
has iDeen found that a large consumption of
fruits or fresh, vegetables, owing to their low
food content, increases the cost of the diet out
of proportion to the nutritive material fur-
nished It must not be forgotten, however, that
measured m dollars and cents For bibliog-
iaphy, see separate articles on vauous kinds of
fruits See also FOOD PRESERVATION, and con-
sult "Use of Fruit as Food," United Mates De-
partment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No
293 (1911), "Raising Figs, and Other Dried
Fruits and their Use,'7 United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, "Yearbook 1912., Bailey,
Sketch of the Evolution of our 'Native Prmfs
(New York, 1898)
FRUIT, CULTIVATED Cultivated fruits ex-
hibit great diversity of form, color, texture,
flavor, and keeping quality All are intimately
associated with the flower which precedes their
formation, and all find their ciuef use as food
for man. The plants that produce them are
adapted to great diversity of climate and soil,
318
FRUIT
and may be divided into three mam groups —
tropical, subtropical, and temperate — depending
upon the temperature they require for their
perfect development The leading fruits of the
tropics aie date, banana, coconut, and pineapple,
of the subtropics, orange, lemon, fig, pomelo,
of the temperate, apple, grape, plum, olive,
peach, pear, cherry, strawberry All of these
contribute largely, not only to the diet of the
resident populace, but through export, in either
the fresh or the preserved state, to the pros-
perity of the region in which they grow.
The present commeicial importance of culti-
vated fruits is largely due to the developments
ot the latter half of the nineteenth century
Prior to that period few fresh fruits other than
apples, lemons, oranges, and coconuts, and such
dried fruits as figs, raisins, and prunes, could
be obtained for moie than a few consecutive
weeks in the general markets of the world, their
perishable nature precluding long shipment and
exposure previous to sale During that period
lade, jelly, cider, vinegar, wim, champagne,
brandy) , grape (wine, juice, vinegar, -jelly,
argols, or diied as laisins or cm i ants) , olive
(pickled, oil), lemon (candied, extract, citric
acid) , orange (cider, marmalade, candied) ,
coconut (dried, oil) , banana (evaporated) ,
peach (canned and dried) , plum (canned or
dried as prunes) , pear (canned, periy) , date
(dried) , % (dried) , strawberry (canned
jam), pineapple (canned), cherry (canned,
dried, and candied) If commercial standards,
quantity and variety of product, and quick pre
cision in applying scientific discovery and busi-
ness acumen to fruit growing and marketing, be
employed to determine the standing of a country
with respect to its cultivated fruits, the United
States stands without a peer, and among the
continents North Ameuca ranks first Immi-
grants from Europe, who brought with them the
fruits of the fatherland, found the land of their
adoption to be rich in new kinds of fruits The
dual list begun by them has been swollen by im-
by sea as well as by land, and the remarkable
improvements wrought in methods of canning
and evaporating and in holding fresh fruits in
edible condition by means of cold storage, have
had a wider influence in extending the area de-
voted to cultivated fruits than impiovements in
the fruits themselves or in the methods of cul-
tivation Impioved methods of preservation and
expeditious transpoitation have enabled fruit
growers throughout the world to educate the
taste and create a demand for fruits in remote
regions, with the result that the number of
cultivated and even of important wild edible
fruits not found either fresh or preserved in the
world's pimcipal markets is small indeed and
is becoming steadily smaller America and
Australia ship apples, pears, canned and dried
fruits to Europe, which reciprocates by export-
ing figs, raisins, and the seedless grapes known
in commerce as cm rants, California sends
grapes and raisins, citrous fruits, fresh and
canned peaches, pears, cherries, and apricots to
the States east of the Kocky Mountains, the
States bordering the Gulf of Mexico send citrous
fruits to the North, as well as strawberries,
peaches, and other perishable fruits befoie the
Northern season opens, the tropics export
bananas, coconuts, and pineapples to markets
in the temperate zones Apples, lemons, bananas,
and oranges may now be obtained in a fresh
state throughout the year, and many other
fruits, such as pears, strawberries, grapes, and
peaehes, that could be obtained for only a few
weeks, have had their seasons extended in some
instances to as many months. Fruit, fresh or
preserved, domestic or exotic, is so generally
included in the daily diet of the people of all
civilized countries, and the extension of planta-
tions in every country visited by commerce is
so active, that the world may be said to be in its
fruit age Fruits now form an important factor
in international trade The imports of fruits
into the United States in the fiscal year 1914
were valued at $33,600,000, and the exports at
$31,030,000
If the standing of fruits be determined by the
area devoted to each, the consumption of each,
and the variety of fruit products of each, the
order of sequence in a list of the world's culti-
vated frmts and their products would probably
not vary greatly in a series of years from the
following apple (evaporated, butter, marma-
Austrahan, and South American— and now far
exceeds in number of species that of any other
country All the hurts of the noithern tem-
perate zone, many of the southern and the sub-
tropical, and a few peculiarly tropical may be
found in some region of the United States
Europe contributed the apple, peai, and cherry,
Asia, the peach, plum, orange, fig, and coconut,
Africa, the date, South Ameiica, the navel
orange, and so on Ameiica has developed many
vaneties of the following indigenous fruits which
she offers in exchange viz, blackbeiiy, rasp-
berry, cranberry, dewberry, grapes, and some
gooseberries, plums, and apples, besides innu-
merable improvements in species already highly
developed abroad Yet she has scarcely made
more than a beginning, many fruits, such as the
persimmon, papaw, buffalo berry, and prickly
pear, have as yet attracted only temporary in-
terest, but are acknowledged by horticulturists
to be rich in promise of possible amelioration
But this remark is true also of fruits of other
regions, especiallv of fruits indigenous to the
tropics.
Apart from the business side of fruit growing
already touched upon, the impiovements made
in tlie fruits themselves and in fruit culture dur-
ing the last half of the nineteenth century have
resulted mainly from the application of scientific
discovenes in plant life These discoveries and
the improvements based upon them may be di-
vided into three general groups ecological (the
influence of temperature, moisture, wind, air,
drainage, soil) ; physiological (manuring, tilling,
mulching, pollenmng, thinning, pruning, hybrid-
izing, and selecting) , parasitical and pathologi-
cal (the control of animal and plant parasites)
Concerning these, see MANURES AND MANURING,
ECOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS, TILLAGE,
PLANT BREEDING, PRUNING, MULCH, POLLINA-
TION, CROSS- FERTILIZATION , FUNGI, ECONOMIC,
FUNGICIDE, INSECTICIDE, HARVEST AND HAR-
VESTING, IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL, WIND-
BREAK, KEFRIGERATION : and articles on the
various fruits Consult also Bailey, Prmwples
of Frwt-Growvng (New York, 1897), 8t<w$a,rd
Cyclopedia, of Horticulture (ib , 1914-15) , Goff,
Lessons m Commercial Frwt Q-r owing (Madi-
son, 1902) ; Thomas, Amerwan Fruit Cultur>i$t
(21st ed, New York, 1903) , Mlaynard, Suoaess-
ful Fruit Culture (ib, 1005); Turner, Frmts
~ Vegetables und&r <3tes {ib, 1912) , (keen,
PBTTIT
319
Popular Fruit Growing (4th ed , St Paul,
1912)
FBUIT, FOSSIL See OARPOLITH
FBUIT BAT Any fruit-eating1 bat, espe-
cially of the Old World tropical family Ptero-
podidse, called fox bats, or flying foxes These
constitute a suborder., Megacheiroptera, of the
bats, based not only upon their large si/e, but
upon distinctive structural features The wings
of fruit bats have three, instead of one or two,
joints in the second, or index, finger, which is
generally provided with a claw, while the thumb
alone of other bats possesses one The eais are
small, lack any inner tragus, and the conch
foims a ring at its base, the tail, when present,
is short, and beneath and free from the mem-
brane between the hind legs The teeth are
unlike those of oidmary bats, particularly in the
molars having elongated flat crowns, adapted to
crushing pulpy fiuits, such as the fig and
banana, which constitute nearly the entire diet
of the group These bats are regarded as a
specialized offshoot from the ordinary type of
insectivorous bats Consult Thomas, Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society of London (Lon-
don, 1888) See Fox BAT, HAJRPY BAT, TUBE
NOSE
FRUIT GROW A name for several South
American birds of the family Cotmgidse and
the genera Gymnocephalus and G-ymnodera They
are closely related to the bell birds and umbrella
birds (qv ), are crowlike in appearance, and
feed upon fruits to a great extent They possess
the baldness or tendency to wattles which char-
acterizes the group, and one or more prominent
species are known as baldheads
FRUIT FLY Any small fly of the family
Trypetidse They are very numerous and include
many species which injure fruit and others that
make galls Most of them are minute, and all
are marked with varied colors and spots Promi-
nent examples are Trypeta poinonella, whose
larva, the apple maggot, bores tunnels in apples
Another species, Ceratitis capitata, is highly
injurious to peaches m the Old World, but is
not met with m America The Morelos orange
worm (see ORANGE INSECTS) of Mexico is of
this family, and others might be named Con-
sult Loew, Monographs of the Diptera of North
America, parts i and 111 (Washington, 1862-
73), and Ooqmllett, "Descriptions of Trypetidse,"
in Journal of the New "York Entomological So-
ciety (New York, 1899) See GALL INSECTS
FRUIT PIG-EON. A pigeon of the family
Treronidse They have the bill considerably de-
pressed at the base, compressed and moderately
arched at the tip, the membrane in which the
nostrils are pierced little prominent or swollen,
the forehead low, and the feathers advancing on
the soft part of the bill, the wings moderately
long, the feet, and particularly the hinder claw,
large, and formed for grasping During the
breeding season a curious gristly knob grows on
the base of the tipper mandible of some of the
specjes and soon after disappears They are
birds of splendid plumage, natives of the forests
of India, the Indian Archipelago, the warmer
parts of Australia, the islands of the Pacific
Ocean, and one species is found m Africa There
are over 2 00 species m the family*. Their food
consists of fruits, which are swallowed whole
FRUIT SUGAR, See STOABS
FRUHElsTTIUS, fro^men'shl-us, SAINT
(c.300~c380) The apostle of the Abyssinians
About 316 he and his brother Bdesms, both young
"boys, accompanied their uncle Meropms, a Greek
philosopher of Tyre, on a trading voyage, or,
according to others, a scientific expedition
Landing on the coast of Abyssinia, all were
slam by the natives except the two boys, who
became slaves in the service of the King They
won the confidence of their master, were raised
to important positions, and ultimately were set
free After the death of the monaich Frumen-
tius became instructor to the young Punce
Aizanes and obtained great influence in the ad-
ministration of state affairs He formed a
church of native converts and Christian mer-
chants who came to the country Aftei the
Prince attained his majority Edesius returned
to Tyre and became a presbyter Erumentius
went to Alexandria and informed Athanasms,
who had lately been nominated Bishop, of the
progress he had made in preparing the way for
Christianity in Abyssinia and was consecrated
Bishop of Axum (328). After his return he
baptized the King and made many converts He
is supposed to have translated the Bible into
Ethiopian Frumentius' day is celebrated by
the Latins on October 27, by the Greeks on
November 30, and by the Abvssimans on Decem-
ber 18 The chief authority for his life is the
Church historian Kufinus See ABYSSINIAN
CHTTECH
PBUWDSBEBG-, frnnts'berK, or PB03STS-
PEBG, frSns'perK, GEORG VON (1473-1528) A
German soldier He was born at the castle of
Mindelheim, Swabia, and received his military
training in the wars of the house of Hapsburg
against Switzerland and in the Italian campaign
between the League of Cambria and Venice. In
1519 he was appointed commander in chief of all
the infantry troops of the Swabian League He
fought with distinction at the battle of Pavia
(1525) He was called "the Father of the Ger-
man Landsknechte" (or pikemen) because of the
help he rendeied Maximilian in organizing and
developing this military body, which continued
to take a prominent part in European campaigns
until the termination of the Thirty Years' War
Consult the biography of him and his son Kas-
par (1500-36) by Adam "Reissner (in Latin,
Frankfort, 1568, German, 1572), and Barthold,
G-eorg von Frundsberg (Hamburg, 1833)
FBUSIETO See FROSINONE
FBUS'TUU:. See CONE
FBY, SIR EDWABD (1827-1918) An Eng-
lish jurist, born at Bristol and educated at the
college there and at University College, London
He was called to the bar in 1854, was appointed
judge of the High Court (Chancery Division) in
1877, was judge of the Court of Appeal from 18^3
to 1892, and in 1897 was president of the Royal
Commission on the Irish Land Acts In 1Q06
he became president of the Royal Commission
for Inquiring into the State of Higher Educa-
tion in Ireland He was arbitrator in many
local and international cases, becoming a mem-
ber of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at
The Hague in 1901, and m 1907 was British
Ambassador to The Hague Peace Conference
His writings, which, were chiefly on law and bot-
any, include Assays on the Accordance of Chris-
tianity with the Nature of Man ( 1857 ) , A
Treatise on the Specific Performance of Contracts
(1858, 5th. ed,, 1911), British Mosse® (1892),
a life of James Hack Tuke (1899) , The Myce-
to&oa (1899), Studies by the Way (1900) j
The Lwerworts (1911).
ELIZABETH (1780-1845), An English
FEY
320
philanthropist and prison reformer, born at
Norwich, Norfolk, daughter of John Gurney, a
banker and member of the Society of Friends.
As a child of 15, she became deeply interested
in the house of coirection at Norwich In
1813 she first became practically engaged in
prison reform and turned her attention to the
condition of women prisoners at Newgate Under
her leadership an association was formed in 1817
for the improvement of these unfortunates and
did much to better their condition materially and
morally Mrs Fry also joined in the movement
to induce the government to make proper regu-
lations for the voyage of convicts, at that time
transported to New South Wales, and to make
provision for their employment at the end of
their voyage She extended her activities
throughout England, traveled from place to
place, and founded prison associations Hei
work attracted attention in other countries also
and contributed materially to prison reform on
the Continent She wrote several works of
minor importance For the story of her life,
consult the Memoirs, ed by her two daughters
(2 vols , London, 1847), Memoirs, by Thomas
Timpson (ib., 1847) , a Life, compiled from her
lournal by Susanna Corder (ib, 1853)
FRY, JAMES BAENET (1827-94). An Angli-
can soldier He was born in Carrollton, 111 ,
graduated at West Point in 1847, served for a
time as assistant instructor of artillery there,
vvas stationed successively in Oregon, Louisiana,
and Texas, was instructor at West Point m
1853-54, and was adjutant of the Academy from
1854 to 1859 In 1861 he acted as chief of
staff to General McDowell In 1862 he held a,
similar position under G-eneral Buell He was
then provost marshal general of the United
States from March, 1863, until August, 1866,
when this office was abolished He subsequently
served as adjutant general and was successively
brevetted colonel, brigadier general, and major
general He published- A Sketch of the Adju-
tant-G-eneral's Department, United States Army,
from 1775 to 1815 (1875), History and Legal
Effects of Brevets in the Armies of G-reat Britain
and the United States, from their Origin in
1692 to the Present Time (1877) , Army Sacri-
fices (1879), Operations of the Army under
Buell (1884) , McDowell and Tyler in the Cam-
paign of Bull Run (1884) , New York and Con-
scription ( 1885 ) , Military Miscellanies and The
Conkhng and Blame-Fry Controversy in 1866
(1893)
Fit YE, ALEXIS EVEKETT (1859- ) An
American geographer, born at North Haven, Me
He graduated from the Cook County Normal
School, Chicago (1885), and from Harvard Law
School (1890) , taught in the Chicago Normal
School (1883-86) , lectured on educational topics
( 1886-90) , was superintendent of schools at San
Bernardino, Cal (1891-93) , and traveled in
Em ope, Asia, and Africa in 1897 He served as
captain of the Harvard Graduates' Company in
the Spanish War in 1898 and as lieutenant of the
First Massachusetts Artillery in 1898-99 While
superintendent of schools of Cuba (1899-1901)
he organized the public-school system of the
island and conducted the Cuban teachers' expe-
dition to the United States m 1900 In 1904-06
he was president of the National Teachers' As-
sociation of Cuba His mast important books
are a large number of excellent and widely used
school geographies
FRYE, WILLIAM PIERCE (1831-1911). An
American legislator, born m Lewiston, Me He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1850, and after
studying law in the office of William Pitt Fes-
senden, practiced at Rockford and later at
Lewiston He was a member of the State Legis-
lature m 1861-62, was a presidential elector on
the Lincoln ticket m 1864, and was again a
member of the Legislature in 1866-67, serving
at the same time as mayor of Lewiston He
was Attorney-General of the State from 1867 to
1869. Elected in 1871 to the national House of
Representatives, he was reelected five times, re-
signing his seat m 1881 to fill the vacancy in
the United States Senate caused by J G Blame's
icsignation He was elected for the full term
m 1SS3, and was reelected in 1889, 1895, 1901,
and 1907 He was elected president pro tempore
of the Senate in 1896 and was the peimanent
presiding officer of that body after the death of
Vice President Hobart, in 1899, and again after
the elevation of Vice President Roosevelt to the
presidency in 1901 In 1898, after the close
of the Spanish War, Senator Frye was a mem-
ber of the Peace Commission at Paris He had
a great influence on national legislation, as
chairman of the Committee on Commerce he
framed the legislation and proposed legislation
in regard to American shipping
3THYEB, JOHN (1839- ) A promotei
of education m China He was born at Hythe,
Kent, England, and graduated at Highbury Col-
lege, London, in 1860 He was principal of St
Paul's College, Hongkong, China (1861-63), pro-
fessor of English at Tung-WSn College, Peking
(1863-65), and head master of the Anglo-Chinese
School, Shanghai (1865-67) From 1867 to
1896 he had charge of the tianslation of foreign
scientific books into Chinese at the Imperial
Government Arsenal in Shanghai He served as
an examiner of the Imperial Naval College at
Nanking in 1894-95, founded and from 1884 to
1911 was proprietor of the Chinese Scientific
Book Depot, Shanghai, and also founded the
Institution for Chinese Blind at Shanghai in
1911. He published more than 100 books in
Chinese, and also Educational Directory for
China ( 1895 ) , Translator's Vade-Mecum, or Vo-
cabulary of Scientific Terms in Chinese and
English, Admission of Chinese Students to
American Colleges (1909)
FRYING See COOKERT
FRYKEN", fru'ken A series of small lakes
in the southern part of Sweden, north of Lake
Wenern, into which their waters flow They are
arranged in three mam groups, are connected by
narrow channels, the whole forming a river of
in egular width, and are famed for their beauti-
ful scenery
FRYTH, JOHN See FEITH
FRYXELL, fruk-seT, ANDERS (1795-1881)
A Swedish historian He was born at Hessel-
skog in Dalsland, and after studying at the Uni-
versity of Upsala and taking holy orders, be-
came in 1819 instructor at the Djurgirdskole
in Stockholm, from which he went in 1822 to
the Mana-Skole in the same city From 1828 to
1836 he was rector of that institution In 1824
he published his Swedish Grammar, the only one
used for a long period of time His interest lay
chiefly in questions of public education In
1835 he became pastor at Sunne, and in 1836
Bishop of Northern Wermland From 1847 till
his death, March 21, 1881, he devoted himself
exclusively to historical research. His great
work is the B0ratt$l$er ur $v$nsJ$a
E.'S ATJ3STT
321
FUCHS
'Contributions to Swedish History' ( 46 vols ,
1823-79), dealing with the history of his countiy
till 1771 These narratives are marked not only
by their patriotic sentiment, but by their fiesh
and natural conception, their richness of bi-
ographic detail, and then naive and vivacious
style They possess, too, the faults of then-
kind, and have been criticized for their diffuse-
ness and lack of cutical insight The Berattel-
ser have nevertheless become a national classic
His Characteristics of the Period from 1592 to
1600 in Sweden (1830) leceived the grand prize
of the Swedish Academy Between 1845 and
1850 he published Om anstokrat-fordomandet i
Svenslca, historicn, 'The Role of the Aristocracy
in Swedish History * This was in the nature of
a defense of the Swedish nobility, and brought
upon him the hatred of the Liberal element m
Sweden FryxelPs minor works include Hand-
lingar rorande Svenges historia, 'Studies in
Swedish History3 (1836-43), and Bidrag till
Svetiges litteratur-historia, 'Contributions to the
History of Swedish Literature3 (1860-62) His
autobiography, Mm historias historic, appeared
at Stockholm in 1884 It was written by his
daughter, but fiom his own manuscripts.
F ?S ATJ3STT, MR A character in Dickens's
Little Dornt She was left to Mrs F by her
husband as a not very acceptable legacy
FTELEY, ALPHONSB (1837-1903) An Amei-
ican hydraulic engineer, engaged chiefly on the
construction of municipal water works He was
born in Paris, France, in April, 1837 After
serving in several European engineering offices,
he came to the United States in 1865 and for a
year was a mechanical draftsman on marine
steam engines Fiom 1866 to 1870 he assisted
William E Worthen, an eminent civil engineer
of New York City He then opened an office as
a civil engineer In 1873 he became resident
engineer in charge of investigation and con-
struction of the Sudbury River water works of
the city of Boston, under Joseph P Davis, then
city engineer of Boston, and from 1880 to 1884
he was chief assistant engineer of Boston Then
began his long and important connection with
the Croton Aqueduct Commission on increasing
the water supply of New York City by means of
the new Croton Aqueduct and the new Croton
Dam (see AQUEDUCT, DAMS AND EESEEVOIBS)
In 1884 he became principal assistant engineer of
the commission, from 1884 to 188C he was con-
sulting engineer , and he was chief engineer from
1886 until ill health led to his resignation in
1899 From time to time he was consulting en-
gineer on water-supply additions to many cities,
including Brooklyn, Cincinnati, Albany, and
Rochester, on sewerage for Brooklyn, Newark,
Hoboken, and the Passaic Valley Sewerage Dis-
trict (N J ) , on the lining of the Hoosac
Tunnel, and on rapid transit in Boston and
New York He was elected a member of the
American Society of Civil Engineers in 1876,
was president in 1898, and contributed to the
Transactions of the society
TTJAD PASHA, foo'ad p&-sha' (1814-69)
A Turkish statesman and scholar, born in Con-
stantinople He was the son of the poet Izzet
Mollah and nephew of Leila Khatun, one of the
very few Turkish poetesses He studied naedi-
cme at Galata-Serai frbm 1828 to 1832 In
1834 he was appointed Admiralty physician and
accompanied the Grand Admiral m his expedi-
tion against Tripoli On Ms return to Con-
stantinople he forsook medicin6 and entered the
Bureau of Interpreters for the Porte In 1840
he became First Secretary to the Turkish Em-
bassy at London and served in various diplo-
matic positions until in 1848 he was appointed
Grand Interpreter to the Poite In 1850 he
went on a mission to St Petersburg and m 1853
on another to Egypt On his return from the
first of these he became Minister of Foreign
Affairs under the grand-viziership of Ah Pasha
In 1854 Fuad went to Epirus along with Omer
Pasha, where he suppiessed the insurrection with
great energy In the following year he received
the title of Pasha and was again appointed
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and represented
Turkey at Pans in the regulation of the affairs
of the Danubian Principalities In 1860 he was
sent to Damascus in consequence of the disorders
in the Lebanon (See DRUSES ) In 1861 he
held the office of Grand Vizier. In 1862 he be-
came Minister of Finance and in 1867 again
Minister of Foreign Affairs He died m 1869
When the Turkish Academy of Science and
Bellcs-Letties was established, in 1851, Fuad be-
came one of the first members, and in the
following year he published a Turkish grammar,
which is highly esteemed by native scholars.
He also wrote a poem on the Alhambra He
received many honors and decorations from
European sovereigns
PTTCA See JUAN DE FUCA, STRAIT OF
FTJCA, foo'ka, JUAN DE (?-1602) A Greek
navigator, whose real name was Apostolos Va-
lenanos He was born in Cephalonia and in
1596 told Michael Lok, an Englishman, that in
1592 he had found the Straits of Aman con-
necting the Pacific with the Atlantic This
story appeared in Purchas, His Pilgrimes (1625,
vol 111, pp 849-852) and stimulated search for
a passage between the two oceans In 1788
Meares, discovering a great inlet on the north-
west coast of North America, called it the Strait
of Juan de Fuca, and the name is still used for
the channel from the Gulf of Georgia Most of
the details of his story as reported by Lok seem
false For criticism of his claims, adverse, con-
sult Bancroft, History of the Northwest Coast,
vol i, chap 3 (1884)
FTTCHAir, foo'chou' See FOOCHOW.
FITCHOW See FOOCHOW
FTTCHS, Inks, ERNST (1851- ) tA Ger-
man ophthalmologist He was born and edu-
cated at Vienna, and after holding a professor-
ship at the University of Liege (1881-86) wap
appointed to the chair of ophthalmology at the
University of Vienna. His principal publica-
tions, most of which are translated into English
and French, include Das Sarcom des Uveultrac-
tus (1882) , Die Ursachen und die Verhutung
der Bhndheit (1885) , Lehrbuch der Augenheil-
kunde (1889; llth ed, 1907, Eng trans by
Alexander Duane under the title Text-Book of
Ophthalmology, 4th ed , 1911).
PtTCHS, IMMANUEL LAZAKUS, also called
LTTDWIG (1833-1902) A German mathemati-
cian, born at Moschm, in Posen After teaching
mathematics in several institutions he became
professor extraordinary at Berlin m 1866 and
full professor of mathematics at Greifswald in
1869, at Gottingen in 1874, at Heidelberg in
1875, and at Beilin in 1884 His principal con-
tributions bear upon the theory of functions and
the theory of linear differential equations After
Kronecker's death, in 1891, he became editor of
the Journal, fur die reme und angewandte
Mctthematifr. His name Ms been connected by
FUCHS 3-
Pomcare with a discontinuous group (Fuch-
sians) which is very important in the general
theory of functions, and is frequently discussed
by Pomcare in the volumes of Acta Mathematica
(Stockholm)
FUCHS, JOHANN NBPOMTJK VON (1774-1856)
A. German chemist and mineralogist He was
born at Mattenzell and was educated at Frei-
berg, Berlin, and Paris In 1807 he became
professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the
University of Landshut, in 1823 curator of the
mineralogical collection at Munich, and in 1826
professor of mineralogy at the University of
Munich He published a number of interesting
papers on chemistry, mineralogy, and crystal-
lography, and his G-esammelte Schriften were
published at Munich in 1856 He is known for
his process of making a soluble glass used in
fixing fresco colors
FUCHS, KONEAD HEINRICH (1803-55) A
German physician, born at Bamberg and edu-
cated at Wurzburg He was professor of pa-
thology and therapy at Gottingen from 1838 un-
til his death, and wrote the important work en-
titled Lehrbuch dei speziellen Nosologie und
Therapie (1844-48). He also published Die
altesten Schriftsteller uber die Lustseuche in
Deutschland (1843) The pathologico-anatom-
ical collection at the University of Gottingen
was founded by him
FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, fuk'si-us, LEON-
HAED (1501-66) A German botanist, born at
Wembdmgen, in Bavaria, studied at Ingolstadt,
under Reuchhn, and in 1535 became professor
of medicine at Tubingen He published a num-
ber of excellent works on botany, the most im-
portant of which is his beautifully illustrated
De Historia Stirpium Oommentani Insignes
( 1542 ) Fuchs was one of the great herbalists,
and in his Historia Stirpium made the first at-
tempt at establishing a botanical terminology
Some of these terms are still in use, but most
of them were founded upon such crude con-
ceptions of morphology that they have been
abandoned Nevertheless it was a beginning
of scientific terminology and marked a great
advance in precision of observation and state-
ment
FUCHSIA, fuk'si-a, the plants and flowers
are popularly called fu'sha (Neo-Lat, named
in honor of Leonhard Fuchs) A genus of
plants of the family CEnotheracese, which con-
tains about 70 species, mostly natives of tropi-
cal America Some are climbers, some small
trees, but the majority are shrubs or half-
shrubby herbs The leaves are opposite The
flowers, which are solitary and axillary, or
sometimes arranged in terminal racemes, are
generally pendulous, have a funnel-shaped, four-
cleft, finely colored calyx, a four-petaled, usually
red, corolla, and a four-celled berry, which in
some species is edible Several species are
largely employed as greenhouse plants, and in
climates not too rigorous they are grown out
of doors with slight protection during the cold
season They are deservedly popular, because
they yield a satisfactory display of bloom with
less care in propagation and management than
almost any other house plant, and in conse-
quence of their beauty and gracefulness they
have developed a great number of varieties, not
only ot the colors and forms they possess in
nature, but others, such as white and double,
which are not peculiar to the species from which
they originate Fuchsia maarostemma, a very
£ FUEL
variable Chilean species, first attracted Euro-
pean attention about 1790, and for about 75
years usurped both name and fame of Fuchsia
coccinea, which is considered a more attractive
and free-blooming species It has been largely
employed, either singly or m crossing with
Fuchsia fulgens, in the production of cultivated
forms Consult Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of
Horticulture (6 vols , New York, 1914-15)
See Plate of GREENHOUSE PLANTS
FUCHSIBT, fook'sin. See COAL-TAB COLORS
FUCIUO, foo-che'nd, LAKE A former lake
2 miles east of Avezzano, in Abruzzi, Italy, the
ancient Lacus Fucinus, now a vast fertile farm
For history of its drainage, see AVEZZANO
FUCTSTUS LACUS See AVEZZANO, FUCINO
FUCUS See HYDROPHYTES and Plate of
HYDROPHYTES
FUDGE FAMILY IN PARIS, THE A
skit by Thomas Moore (1818), satirizing the
underbred English in foreign countries The
satire was followed by a sequel, The Fudge Fam-
ily in England
FUEG-IANT, fu-e'ji-cm See TIEREA DEL
FUEGO, ONA, YAHGAN
FU'EL (OF fouailles, from ML. focale, fuel,
from Lat focus, hearth) Any material that is
capable of being utilized for the heat it pro-
duces upon union with oxygen (See COM-
BUSTION ) The fuel of greatest economical im-
portance is coal Many other substances are,
however, rated very high commercially and in-
dustrially as fuels Some of these substances,
such as wood, peat, and crude petroleum, are
of natural origin, others, such as coke, char-
coal, and coal gas, are formed artificially A
useful classification of fuels is that which di-
vides them according to their state of aggrega-
tion, and this classification will be followed in
the present article To enumerate The prin-
cipal solid fuels are coal, peat, coke, charcoal,
and wood, the liquid fuels include petroleum,
shale oils, and vegetable and animal oils, the
gaseous fuels include coal gas, producer gas,
water gas, mixed gas, and natural gas The
Heat of combustion — i e , the heat generated by
the combustion of a certain quantity in oxygen
—measures the calorific power or heat value of
a fuel However, the terms "calorific power"
and "heat value" have, in common usage, a
slightly wider significance than the term "heat
of combustion " The latter term is applied
only to the quantity of heat generated by the
substance when completely burned , i e , when
the carbon and hydrogen are completely changed
to carbonic acid and water The terms "calo-
rific power" and "heating value," on the contrary,
apply to the measure of an industrial yield as
well as to the heat given off by the fuel during
its complete combustion Scientifically the term
"heat of combustion" is the most nearly correct
The units of measure of the quantity of the heat
of combustion are the calorie and the British
thermal unit The calorie is the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water one degree Centigrade at
the temperature of maximum density The
British thermal unit (usually abbreviated B.
T U ) is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of one pound of pure water
one degree Fahrenheit at its temperature of
maximum density, le, from 39° to 40° F.
There are two methods for finding the heat of
combustion of substances. (1) calculation based
om chemical composition, and (2) experimental
323
determination by means of a calorimeter By
the first method the units may be calculated di-
lectly from the composition of the substance,
or indirectly from the quantity of oxygen con-
sumed during combustion in a crucible The direct
calculation of the heat of combustion from the
chemical composition of the fuel is usually per-
formed by means of Dulong's formula Other gen-
eral formulas are in use, but they all resemble
Dulong's and are usually only modifications of
his Dulong's formula, with recent average fig-
ures foi the constants, as given by Prof William
Kent, for coal, is Heating value per pound in
B T U equals jfo [14,650 C + 62,000 H (- g
4- 4000 S] in which C, H, O, and S are respec-
tively the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and sulphur in the coal Prof Kent points
out, as the result of a comparison of numerous
data, that the relation of the heat of combustion
of coal to its ultimate analysis is expressed by
Dulong's formula with remarkable accuracy,
1 e , within a limit of error of usually less than
2 per cent The method of calculating the heat
of combustion indirectly, from the quantity of
oxygen consumed, is also expressed by a gen-
is nickeled on the outside, and has a coating of
enamel on the inside The stopper E screws
down tightly into the shell and is made of iron
It carnes a stopcock, R, of fine nickel, and
through its top passes an insulated electrode,
D, reaching the interior by a platinum wire.
Another platinum wire, suspended from the
cover, carries a disk, F, on which the fuel is
placed The bomb is supported inside a cylin-
drical vessel so as to be surrounded by water,
as shown by Fig 1 In this illustration L is a
pumphke mechanism for agitating the water
surrounding the bomb, 0 is a cylinder contain-
ing oxygen undei pressure, M is a pressuie
gauge, and B is an electric battery The manip-
ulation of the apparatus and the fuel in mak-
ing a test is substantially as follows Weigh
one gram of the fuel to be tested and place it
on the disk Fy then make connection between
the electrode D and the disk Fy sciew down the
cover E , put the stopcock R in connection with
the oxygen cylinder 0 and open it carefully, so
as to allow sufficient oxygen to pass into the
bomb for the required piessure, close the cock
of the oxygen chamber, then the cock R, and
then disconnect the oxygen chamber, place the
bomb in the water chamber and adjust the agi-
FlG 1 MAHLEB CALOBIMETEB FOB MEASUBING THE HEATING VALUE OF FUEL
FlG 2 SECTION OF COM-
BUSTION CHAMBEB OF
MAHLEB CALOBIMETEB
eral formula, but this
formula has been shown
to be of very question-
able value and is now
used only where no
other methods of deter-
mination are possible
It is generally conceded that the ultimate test
of the heat of combustion of a fuel is its deter-
mination by actual combustion in a calorimeter
Calorimeters are made in various forms, but
they all consist of a combustion chamber in
which the sample of fuel is burned, surrounded
by a chamber containing a known quantity of
water whose rise of temperature is shown by a
thermometer The Mahler calorimeter (one of
the most perfect of such devices) is shown in
the accompanying engravings, of which Fig 1
shows the apparatus complete with its acces-
sories, and Fig 2 shows the combustion cham-
ber, or bomb, separated from the other appara-
tus The combustion chamber (Fig 2) consists
first of a steel shell, P, and a stopper or ^ cover,
E The shell has a capacity of 40 cubic inches,
tator L and the thermometer, pour in the pre-
viously weighed water and operate the agitator
a few minutes to restore equilibrium of tempera-
ture, note the thermometer; connect the elec-
trode with the battery and thus kindle the fuel ,
read the thermometer one-half minute after
kindling, then at minute intervals until the
readings begin to decrease regularly, next open
the cock R and afterward the bomb, which
should be washed inside with distilled water to
collect the acids formed, and determine the acids
volumetrically The mode of procedure de-
scribed furnishes all the data to be obtained by
the test proper, the observer then proceeds to
calculate the heat of combustion from these
data This calculation is a rather formidable
one, and the interested reader should consult
special treatises on calorimetry for its explana-
tion The result obtained is the heat of com-
bustion expressed in terms of calories or of
British thermal units (See HEATJ THEBMO-
CHEMrsTRY ) When coal is the fuel tested, it
is reduced to moderately coarse powder before
being placed on the disk Heavy oils, tars, etc ,
FUEL 3:
are weighed directly onto the disk Volatile
oils are inclosed in pointed glass bulbs, which are
placed on the disk, and the ends of which aie
broken off just before closing the bomb Gases
are simply pumped into the bomb. A calorimetric
test, in order to give reliable results, requires
expeit manipulation and extreme caie
Solid Fuels Of the solid fuels used at pres-
ent, coal is by all odds the most important
Coal is a very varied product, and its value as
a fuel is correspondingly variable According to
geologists, a bed of coal was many ages ago
a mass of damp vegetable fibie, a portion of a
peat bog Through successive geologic ages the
peat bog was submerged and overlaid with mud
and glacial drift, tilted and compressed by up-
heavals of the eaith^s crust, and subjected to
intense heat Duiing these processes it undei-
went a more or less complete destructive dis-
tillation The conditions under which this dis-
tillation took place were not uniform, the va-
riable factors were time, depth, and porosity of
the overlying strata, pressure and temperatuie,
disturbance of the beds, and the intrusion into
them of mineral substances, such as clay, sand,
iron, and sulphur As a consequence the prod-
uct of the distillation — viz, coal — varies all the
way from the original peat, through brown coal
,4 ETJEL
of 250° to 300° F , then the volatile matter is
driven off at a red heat, then the carbon is
buined out of the leniainmg coke at a white
heat, until nothing is left but ash The fixed
carbon has a constant heating value of about
14,GOO B T U per pound The heat value of
the volatile Irydrocaibon depends on its compo-
sition, and that depends chiefly upon the dis-
trict in which the coal is mined It may be as
high as 21,000 B T U per pound in the best
bituminous coals containing very little oxygen,
or as low as 10,000 B T U per pound in some
of the poorest bituminous coals having a high
peicentage of oxygen The ash has no heating
value, and the water has in effect less than
none, for its evapoiation and the superheating
o± the steam made from it to the temperatuie
of the chimney gases absorb some of the heat
generated by the combustion of the fixed carbon
and the volatile matter The heating value per
pound varies in diffeient districts and bears a
relation to the percentage of volatile matter
It is the highest in the seimbituminous coals,
being nearly constant at 15,750 B T U per
pound, it is between 14,500 and 15000 B T U
in anthracite, and ranges fiom 15,000 B T U
down to 13,000 B T U or less in the bituminous
coals, decreasing usually as the source moves
TABLE I —CLASSIFICATIONS OF COALS ACCORDING TO THE RELATIVE PERCENTAGE
OF CARBON AND VOLATILE MATTER
KINDS OF COAL
Per cent fixed
carbon
Per cent volatile
matter
Heating value,
B T U per Ib
Relative
combustible
value
Anthracite
Semianthracite
Seimbitummous
Bituminous, Eastern
Western
Lignite
97 to 92^
Q2y2 " 87y2
S7y2 " 75
75K " 60
65 " 50
under 50
3 to 7^
7y2 " 12^
12^ " 25
25 " 40
35 " 50
over 50
14,600 to 14,800
14,700 ' 15,000
15,500 ' 16,000
14,800 ' 15,200
13,500 * 14,800
11,000 ' 13,500
93
94
100
95
90
77
or lignite, bituminous, seimbitummous, semi-
anthracite, and anthracite, to graphitic coal
Graphitic coal has nearly all the volatile hydro-
carbon gases and oxygen driven off from it,
leaving practically only fixed carbon and ash,
the carbon being m a form so hard to burn that
the coal is not used as a commercial fuel Lig-
nite is at the extreme opposite end of the scale
of coals, it being only one remove from the orig-
inal peat, le, the proportion of fixed carbon is
small and the proportion of volatile matter
large Between these two extremes come the
other classes of coal To summarize, there are
thus different varieties of coal, due to differ-
ences in the extent to which the volatile gases
have been driven off from the original peat or
other woody coal-forming substance There are
also differences in quality in each variety, due
to varying percentages of ash and water The
ash or earthy matter in coal ranges from 2
to over 30 per cent, the water ranges from less
than 1 per cent in the anthracites up to 14 per
cent or more in some of the bituminous coals,
and to 25 per cent or more in some of the lig-
nites The importance of stating the preceding
circumstances lies in the fact that they deter-
mine the relative heating value of the different
coals for fuel An illustration will explain this
truth Coal is composed of four different sub-
stances, which may be separated by proximate
analysis, viz, fixed carbon, volatile hydrocar-
bon, ash, and water When coal is burned the
moisture is first driven off at a temperature
westward, and as the volatile matter contains
an increasing percentage of oxygen, as shown
by Table II Tables I and II refer only to
American coals, and they will be undei stood
clearly if studied in connection with the pre-
ceding discussion, with the exception possibly
of the last column of Table II This column
has been inserted to show the lelative theoretical
value of the different coals for evaporating
water from 212° F to steam at 212° F The
following general figures of the heating value
of foieign coals give a basis for a rough com-
parison between the Amencan product and that
of other nations
COUNTRY
Heating value in
B T U
Chile
11,758 to 14,954
France
15,030
16,560
Great Britain
4,000
15,955
Austria-Hungary
Germany
12,213
11,045
15,131
15,847
Spam ,
9,556
14,113
Russia
8,748
15,665
New Zealand
9,846
15,364
These values are the maximum and minimum
in each case from a large number of tests The
purposes for which different kinds' of coal are
used do not admit of any very definite classifi-
cation The coal used in any particular country
or locality is determined nearly always by
questions of availability and cost. In America
the use of anthracite coal is nearly universal
for domestic purposes in the East, and it is also
used for industrial purposes in many Eastern
cities wheie public sentiment demands the use
of a smokeless fuel The great industrial fuel,
however, is coal of the semianthracite and bitu-
minous classes, and the coal used in any par-
ticular locality is usually the coal which is most
available and the cheapest
In recent yeais a practice has arisen in large
corporations of buying their coal on the basis
of the unit of combustible in a given weight
This is called buying coal on the "heat-unit
tial combustion in furnaces called coke ovens,
or by distillation in the retorts of gas works It
is considerably used as a domestic fuel, and
somewhat used for steam making where some
special condition prevails, such as the neces-
sity for a smokeless fuel For general steam
making, howevei, its cost and the difficulty of its
combustion in ordinary furnaces place coke
rather low in the list of fuels available to the
steam user For metallurgical processes, an im-
portant example of which is iion smelting, coke
is almost an invaluable fuel Coke is composed
mostly of fixed carbon and ash, the percentage
TABLE II —SHOWING PROXIMATE ANALYSES AND HEATING VALUE OF AMERICAN COALS
Mois-
ture
Vola-
tile
matter
Fixed
carbon
Ash
Sul-
phur
Heating
value per
Ib coal,
heat units
Volatile
matter per
cent of
combusti-
ble
Heating
value per
Ib com-
bustible,
heat units
Theoretical
evaporation
Ibs water from
and at 212° per
Ib combustible
ANTHBACITB
Northern coal field
342
438
8327
820
73
13,160
500
14,900
1542
East Middle coal field
371
308
8640
622
58
13,420
344
14,900
1542
West Middle coal field
3 16
372
81 59
1065
50
12,840
436
14,900
15 42
Southern coal field
309
428
8381
818
64
13,220
485
14,900
1542
SEMIANTHEACITB
Loyalsock field
130
810
8334
623
163
13,920
886
15,500
1605
Bermce basin
65
940
8369
534
91
13,700
1098
15,500
1605
SEMIBITTJMINOUS
Broad Top, Pa
79
1561
7730
540
90
14,820
1760
15,800
1636
Clearfield County, Pa
76
2252
71 82
3 99
91
14,950
2460
15,700
1625
Cambria County, Pa
94
1920
71 12
704
170
14,450
2271
15,700
1625
Somerset County, Pa
158
1642
7151
862
187
14,200
2037
15,800
1636
Cumberland, Md
1 09
1730
73 12
775
74
14,400
1979
15,800
1636
Pocahontas, Va
100
2100
7439
303
58
15,070
2250
15,700
1625
New River, W Va
85
1788
7764
336
27
15,220
1895
15,800
1636
BITUMINOUS
Connellsville, Pa
1 26
3012
5961
823
78
14,050
3403
15,300
1584
Youghiogheny, Pa
103
3650
5905
261
81
14,450
3873
15,000
1553
Pittsburgh, Pa
137
3590
5221
802
180
13,410
4161
14,800
1532
Jefferson County, Pa
121
3253
6099
427
100
14,370
3547
15,200
1574
Middle Kittanmng seam, Pa
181
3533
5370
718
198
13,200
4027
14,500
1501
Upper Freeport seam, Pa and
Ohio
193
3590
50 19
9 10
289
13,170
4359
14,800
1532
Thacker, W Va
138
3504
5603
627
128
14,040
3933
15,200
1574
Jackson County, Ohio
383
3207
5760
650
13,090
3576
14,600
15 11
Brier Hill, Ohio
480
3460
5630
430
13,010
3820
14,300
1480
Hocking valley, Ohio
659
3497
4885
800
159
12,130
4281
14,200
1470
Vanderpool, Ky
400
3410
5460
730
12,770
3850
14,400
1491
Muhlenberg County, Ky
433
3365
5550
495
157
13,060
3886
14,400 (?)
1491
Scott County, Tenn
126
3576
5314
802
180
13,700
34 17
15,100(?)
1563
Jefferson County,Ala
155
3444
5977
262
142
13,770
3763
14,400(7)
1491
Big Muddy, 111
750
3070
5380
800
12,420
3630
14,700
1522
Mount Olive, 111
1100
35 65
3710
1300
10,490
4700
13,800
1429
Streator, 111
1200
3330
4070
1400
10,580
4500
14,300
1480
Missouri
644
3757
4794
805
12,230
4394
14,300 (?)
1480
LIGNITES AND LIGNTTIC COALS
Iowa
845
3709
3560
1886
8,720
5103
12,000 ?
1242
Wyoming
819
3872
4183
1126
10,390
4807
12,900 *
1335
Utah
929
41 97
4427
320
118
11,030
4860
12,600 f
1304
Oregon lignite
1525
4298
3332
711
166
8,540
5495
11,000 ?
1139
basis " A sample is taken from each car or
boat load, and the percentage of incombustible
matter, ashes, and moisture is determined by
the analysis in the chemical laboratory The
percentage of caibon is made the basis of the
price to be paid per ton of coal, le, the gross
weight is corrected for the net weight of com-
bustible and the price paid is agreed upon on
the basis of the net heat value of the coal
Many corporations simply deduct the weight of
moisture and then determine the B T U by
means of an explosion calorimeter and pay on
that basis
The solid fuels other than coal are. coke, char-
coal, coal briquettes; coal dust, peat, wood, saw-
dust, tanbark, straw, and bagasse Coke is the
solid material left after evaporating the vola-
tile Ingredients of coal, either by means of par-
of volatile matter being seldom over 2 per cent,
and often less than 1 per cent, of the total Its
heating value ranges generally between 14,400
and 145600 B T U See COKE
Charcoal is the carbonaceous residue of wood
which has been subjected to a process of smoth-
ered combustion Its principal use as a fuel is
in smelting certain kinds of iron (See IRON"
AND STEEL ) A small amount is used for do-
mestic heating and cooking, and for heating
purposes in certain trades and arts Pure char-
coal is nearly pure carbon, but commercial char-
coal contains considerable volatile matter which
is a decided advantage to it as a fuel In fact
it has been shown that half-burned charcoal is
superior as a fuel to that more completely
burned The heat value of ordinary commercial
charcoal is between 7000 and 7200 calories.
Briquettes, or patent fuel as they are some-
times called, are composed of coal or coke dust
mixed with a binder of pitch, tar, or other sub-
stance and pressed or molded into blocks,
bricks, ovoids, or other forms Briquettes are
not yet made to any extent In the United States,
but in Great Britain and continental Europe
their manufacture constitutes an important in-
dustry They are used like coal for steam mak-
ing, and industrial and domestic purposes gen-
erally ,
Goal dust, as the name implies, is coal ground
to a fine dust or powder Theoretically coal
dust should be a most excellent fuel, but it has
the practical objection of requiring a rather
costly apparatus for grinding the coal and feed-
ing it to the furnace and of requiring great care
in its combustion The manner in which coal
dust is burned is to inject it into the furnace
through nozzles or burners by means of air
pressure The furnace used differs from the 01-
dmaxy coal-burning furnace in being closed
and without grates, both the fuel and the air
for its combustion enter the furnace through the
nozzle or burner Powdered coal was used as a
after from 8 to 12 months' drying in air is
reduced to from 20 to 25 per cent When ut»ed
as a fuel, wood should be as diy as possible, as
otherwise some of the heat geneiated by its
combustion is wasted in vaporizing the contained
moisture Evapoiative tests made by Brix in
Europe gave the following results in pounds of
water evaporated per pound of fuel pine, 5 5
pounds, elm, 46, birch, 45, oak, 456, ash,
4 63 , beech, 4 47
It will be noted that the coniferous woods
have the higher heating values, due to the con-
tamed hydrocarbons in the form of pitch and
turpentine Pine knot containing much pitch
has given as high as 10,863 B T U by test
Wood was formerly much used for steam rais-
ing, and is now used for this purpose in newly
settled countries and where coal cannot be ob-
tained cheaply The countries using wood for
making steam are, however, growing fewer each
year, owing to the discovery of new coal de-
posits and the development of transpoitation
systems by which coal can be cheaply imported
The following table shows the composition
and heating value of the more common woods
KIND
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Ash
B T U.
Ash
Beech
Birch
Elm
Fir
Oak
Pine
4918
4906
48 88
4889
5036
5016
5031
627
611
606
620
5 92
6 02
620
43 91
44 17
4467
4425
4339
4336
4308
07
09
10
06
05
09
04
57
57
29
50
28
37
37
8,480
8,591
8,586
8,510
9,063
8,316
9,153
fuel in England as early as 1873, but without
much success, and the same lack of success has
distinguished most of the subsequent attempts
to employ it in steam making Quite recently,
however, coal dust has been used in firing cement
kilns of the rotary type with so much success
that it is now the standard fuel for the rotary-
kiln process of cement manufacture The heat of
combustion of coal dust is of course the same
as that of the coal from which it is ground, its
economy as a fuel conies from the fact that in
the finely powdered state of dust the coal burns
rapidly and thoroughly without the waste of un-
burned particles and the formation of clinker,
that the combustion is smokeless, and that the
cost of firing, furnace repairs, and handling of
waste is reduced
Peat is the agglomeration of partly decom-
posed vegetable matter obtained from peat bogs,
cut into blocks, and dried to serve as a fuel
Its composition varies but little from that of
wood, the composition of Irish peat, eg, being
carbon 59 per cent, hydrogen 6 per cent, oxygen
30 per cent, nitrogen 1 per cent, and ash 4 per
cent Air-dried peat contains from 10 to 25
per cent of water The heat of combustion of
peat is lower than that of brown coal or lignite -,
for dry Irish peat it is about 10,250 B. T U ,
and for moist Irish peat it is about 7390 B T U.
Generally speaking, a pound of peat will evap-
orate about five pounds of water from and at
212° F. Peat does not rank as a commercial
fuel in the United States, but in Ireland and
some of the western countries of continental
Europe it is so extensively used that the peat
industry is one of importance.
Wood is perhaps the most widely known and
used of all fuels Wood when newly felled con-
tains from 30 to 50 per cent of water, which
Sawdust is often used as a fuel in steam saw
mills The conditions necessary for burning saw-
dust are that plenty of room be given it in the
furnace and sufficient air supplied on the sur-
face of the mass It is sometimes burned by
blowing it into the furnace by air pressure,
much as coal dust is burned The heating
power of dry sawdust is naturally the same per
pound as that of the wood from which it is de-
rived Generally speaking, sawdust cannot be
profitably burned except in furnaces especially
designed for its combustion and where it costs
nothing Sawdust briquettes have been made
and utilized as fuel, but only to a very limited
extent Taribark, or more correctly the residue
of tanbark which has been used m the process
of tanning, is sometimes used as a fuel where it
can be had at slight cost The heating value
of perfectly dry tan containing 15 per cent of
ash is 6100 B T U, according to Peclet The
same authority states that tan in the ordinary
state of dryness, containing 30 per cent of water,
has a heating value of only 4284 B T U The
weight of water evaporated fiom and at 212°
J1 by one pound of tan, equivalent to these heat-
ing powers, is, far perfectly dry tan, 5 146
pounds, and for tan with 30 per cent moisture,
3 84 pounds Straw, like sawdust and tanbark,
is used as fuel under special conditions Ex-
periments have shown dry winter -wheat straw
to have a heating value of 6290 B T. U , and the
same straw with 10 per cent water a value of
5448 B T U Bagasse is the refuse of sugar
cane after the juice has been extracted. It is
much used as a fuel under the boilers of sugar
mills, Its Seating value is from 2000 to 3000
B T. U , depending upon the quality
Liquid Fuels. The liquid fuels of greatest
practical importance are ixte mineral oils,
FUEL
327
FUEL
leum and its distillates and residues Of much
less, but increasing, importance is alcohol
Crude petroleum is a hydrocarbon often contain-
ing a small percentage of sulphur and oxygen
as impurities It may be broken up by distilla-
tion into gasoline, benzine, kerosenes, and other
less familiar distillates and residuum of vaii-
ous qualities, any one of which makes a very
good fuel under certain conditions Gasoline
and its associated distillates are too valuable
for other purposes ever to be used as liquids
for fuel in metallurgy or for steam making or
general heating Rename will also have a re-
stricted use as fuel owing to the difficulty, dan-
ger, and expense of transporting it and to the
caie with which it must be handled Were it
not for these objections, benzine would be the
best of all oil fuels Kerosene is much more
suitable for use as a fuel than benzine, because
of its portability and the safety and case with
which it can be handled Roughly speaking,
American crude petroleum contains from 50 to
75 per cent of benzine, and kerosene and Russian
crude petroleum contain from 15 to 50 per cent
Peruvian oil is about the same composition
as Russian.
The use of kerosene as a liquid fuel is com-
mon, but this use is limited by the price of that
oil, and its value as an illummant, to small in-
stallations for special purposes For general
industrial purposes, therefore, resort must be
had either to the crude petroleum or to the re-
siduum lemammg after the kerosene has been
distilled off the crude petroleum In the United
States, where the percentage of residuum is so
small that its distillation is demanded for lubri-
cating oil, crude petroleum is the principal in-
dustrial fuel oil and is employed in locomotives,
steamships, and industrial plants In Russia,
however, the percentage of residuum is so great
that only a small portion is required for dis-
tillation into machine oil, and the remainder is
available for fuel The residuum is the fuel oil
par excellence, and in Russia it is used in every
possible place Fuel oils used as liquids burn
with great difficulty and with great smoke unless
very finely divided or atomized so as to enter
the furnace in the form of spray, the oil being
injected into the furnace through nozzle-like
burneis by air or steam pressure which breaks
it up into a fog or mist It then acts as a gas-
eous fuel Oil firing on locomotives or for gen-
eral steam making has all the advantages of
mechanical stoking — ease and controllability,
smokelessness and absence of sparks and ashes.
The coal production of the world is in the
neighborhood of 1,360,000,000 tons per year, while
that of petroleum is in the neighborhood of 47,-
000,000 metric tons, of which much is used for
illuminants and lubricating purposes The
amount of petroleum available for fuel purposes
is probably less than o per cent of the coal used
Obviously it cannot be used very extensively as
compared with coal Again, while oil has greater
heating value and evaporative efficiency than the
best coal, there is always some point where this is
counterbalanced by the lesser cost of coal. For
example, comparative tests between Lima (Ohio)
oil costing 2% cents per gallon and coal giving
an evaporation of 7% pounds of water per pound
of coal showed that the two fuels were equally
economical when the price of coal was $3 85
per ton. The heating value 6f fuel oils ranges
between about 18,000 and 21,000 B T U.
Since 19 07, when alooliol for use in the arts,
and rendered unfit for use in beverages, was
freed from tax in the United States (see
METHYLATED SPIRIT), it has been used as a fuel
for various purposes, as it has been employed
also in Europe Though its calorific value,
10,600 B T U, is less than that of the mineral
oils, it possesses certain advantages over them,
especially for household uses It burns freely,
without smoke or disagreeable odor, in almost
any kind of burner Theie is little danger of
explosion from it, and, moreover, burning alco-
hol can be extinguished with water, with which
it mixes
Gaseous Fuels. For many purposes the best
fuel for heating is combustible gas The ideal
fuel is natural gas, but this is obtainable over
only a limited area of the earth's surface. Next
in value are gases secured by distilling highly
gaseous coals or by enriching water gas The
following are some of the gases which may be
used for fuel Blast-furnace gas is the gas given
off by blast furnaces for smelting iron ore, and
its composition varies with the fuel consumption
of the fuinace and other conditions Six analy-
ses made from one blast furnace by Prof D
S Jacobus gave the following average figures
caibon dioxide, 7 08 per cent, carbon monoxide,
278 per cent, oxygen, 01 per cent, nitrogen,
65 02 per cent The heating value calculated
from this analysis was 1175 B T U per pound
Blast-furnace gas is used in large steel plants
as fuel for internal-combustion engines which
drive the blowers and electric generators, and
for raising steam under boilers, as well as for
heating the hot-blast stoves. Large installations
of this kind are to be found at the plant of the
Lackawanna Steel Company at Buffalo, N Y.,
where gas engines of 1000 horse power each run
on furnace gas, as well as at the Gary works of
the United States Steel Corporation at Gary, Ind ,
and also in plants at or near Pittsburgh Coke-
retort gas is the gaseous by-product distilled from
coal in making coke It makes an excellent fuel,
but until recently was for the most part wasted
in coke making as practiced in the United States.
To secure coke-oven gas for fuel or other pur-
poses special forms of ovens known as retort
or by-product ovens must be employed The
gas given off by retort coke ovens vanes in
heating value at different stages of the process
of coking the coal According to tests made on
retort-oven gas from Cape Breton coal, the heat-
ing value increased during th,e first three hours
from 690 to 770 B T U per cubic foot, then it
decreased for 18 hours to 630 B T U., and then
more steadily for 12 hours to 340 B T U
There is a wide field for the use of coke-retort
gases for fuel, but it has been only slightly
worked Water gas is produced where steam is
blown into a bed of white-hot coke, it consists
of equal volumes of carbon monoxide and hy-
drogen or by weight of 28 parts of carbon
monoxide and 2 parts of hydrogen The heat-
ing value of pnre water gas is by calculation 34£
B T U per cubic foot Thnty years or so
ago there was much hope that water gas could
be manufactured and sold extensively as a fuel,
but none of the plants established then or since
have been commercially successful It has, how-
ever, a field of usefulness in small furnaces in
manufacturing plants and in gas engines
Water gas enriched by hydrocarbon gases fiom
petroleum or gas coal has had great success as
an illummant, and is also much used for domes-
tic stoves and cooking ranges and in certain
FUEL
328
FUEL
of the arts where its convenience counterbalances
its cost See GAS, ILLUMINATING AND FUEL
Producer gas, or air gas, is a mixed gas con-
taining carbonic oxide and hydrogen compounds
and is formed by the incomplete combustion of
coal in special retorts or producers There are
a, number of producer-gas processes, and the
principal ones with the heating values of these
products per cubic foot are as follows Mond,
155 B T U , Siemens, 134% B T U , Dawson,
160 B T U , Lencauchez, 207 B T U Retort
gas, or coal gas, is gas made by distilling coal
in closed retorts heated by coke burning beneath
them Before the advent of water gas, illumi-
nating gas was produced by this process A
typical analysis of coal gas given by Dr Gideon
E Moore shows a heating value of 642 B T U
per cubic foot Oil gas is gas made by decom-
posing oil, usually peti oleum or its derivatives,
by means of heat or steam or by steam and air
Pmtsch gas, which is so extensively used for
car lighting, is, eg, made by allowing the oil
to fall drop by drop on a highly heated surface,
and it has a heating value of about 1320 B T U
per cubic foot Oil gases resulting from a less
perfect process range in heating value in the
neighborhood of 870 B T U per cubic foot
"Natural gas varies in composition and in heating
value The best kinds geneially range between
900 and 1100 B T U. in value and the poorest
kinds fall as low as 400 B T U Natural gas
has been used extensively for domestic pur-
poses, steam making, glass manufacture, iron
making, brick making, and for numerous other
purposes Its cheapness has until very recently
encouraged wasteful use, with the result that in
many places the available supply remaining is
very limited For the uses of gas and gaseous
fuels for power directly in a motor cylinder, see
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Economical Utilization of Fuel The ques-
tion of the economical use of fuel is one of
ever-increasing importance and is receiving much
study by engineers A high authority, Prof Wil-
liam Kent, has stated the conditions as follows
"A fair estimate of the average cost of coal to
the consumer, including transportation charges,
is $2 50 per long ton, which would make the
total fuel bill of the United States, in 1899,
approximately $562,757,560 A very large por-
tion of this amount represents a kind of waste
that may easily be prevented by means of well-
known modern appliances, another portion is
waste that is not preventable in the light of our
present knowledge, a third is waste that might
be saved by the use of appliances which are too
expensive to be economically practicable, and a
fourth portion is waste that may be saved un-
der some circumstances and not under others
Examples of the first kind of waste — i e , that
which is easily preventable — are ( 1 ) the use of
fuinaces for burning soft coal under steam boil-
ers, which are not well adapted to that kind of
coal, (2) the discharge of exhaust steam into
the atmosphere when all or a part of it might
be utilized for heating purposes An example
of the second kind of waste — i e , that which is
not preventable with our present knowledge —
is the heat losses in the condensing water of
condensing engines and in the jacket water of
gas engines An example of the third kind of
waste — i e , that which may be saved by the use
of expensive appliances — is that part of the heat
lost in the chimney gases of steam boilers which
might be saved by the use of an economizer.
An example of the fourth kind of waste, which
is preventable under some conditions and not
under others, is that of exhaust steam from en-
gines in a factory or other building, which may
be utilized for heating purposes in cold weather,
but for which there is no use in warm weather "
To the general reader the phase of the subject
which is of most direct practical interest is that
referring to waste that may be easily prevented
by the use of well-known modern appliances
First among these appliances comes the furnace,
which if properly designed will insure practi-
cally perfect combustion, and if improperly de-
signed will cause a very serious waste of heat-
producing fuel Smokeless combustion of fuel,
an important matter in cities, is simply a ques-
tion of perfect combustion The second kind of
preventable waste — viz , the discharge of ex-
haust steam without extracting its useful heat —
is less easy to handle Among the means for
saving this exhaust heat is the use of econo-
mizers and feed-water heaters
A calculation of the possible saving to be
accomplished by the use of an economizer has
been made by Prof Kent as follows "Assume
a boiler evaporation of 8 pounds of water per
pound of coal and a production of 20 pounds
of chimney gas per pound of coal, or 2 5 pounds
of gas per pound of water evaporated If the
temperature of the furnace is 2150° F (a theo-
retical figure, assuming that there is no dnect
radiation from the fire to the boiler) and the
flue gases are 600° F , the heat wasted in the
flue gases will be 600 — 2150 = 28 per cent. It
by an economizer the temperature of the gases
can be reduced to 300° F , half of this waste,
or 14 per cent of the total heating value of the
fuel, will be saved The efficiency of the boiler
alone will be 72 per cent and of the combined
boiler and economizer 86 per cent The gain
in economy is 14 — 72 = 193 per cent The
fam of heat per pound of gas is 300 X specific
eat 0 24 = 72 B T U , and per pound of water
evaporated 72 X 2 5 = 180 B T U Also, sup-
pose the feed water is supplied to the economise!
at 100° F and the steam pressure is 150-pound
gauge, corresponding to a temperature of 358°
F, and 1213 B T U per pound above 0° F
The heat furnished to the water by the boiler
and economizer will be 1213 — 100 = 1113
B T U, of which 180 B T U is supplied bv the
economizer and 933 by the boiler The gam
in economy is 180 — 933 — 19 4 per cent — a per-
centage quite possible in practice, provided that
there is sufficient heating surface in the econo-
mizer and that the feed-water temperature is
100° F, with the gas as hot as 600° F "
After economizers comes the use of steam
superheaters The economy gamed by super-
heating is stated to be from 15 to 20 per cent
with the most economical forms of engines, when
the steam is superheated 100° to 150° F For
many purposes the best method of utilizing coal
is to convert it into gas and burn the gas in
the furnace, or to grind it to dust and burn this
dust When all is said, however, the great
desiderata in the economical use of fuel are a
well-designed and suitable furnace, a similarly
perfect boiler, and a well-trained crew of stokers
intelligently supervised.
The literature on fuel and its economic utili-
zation is extensive and widely scattered, but the
following books will be found to meet all the or-
dinary requirements for information, William
Kent, Steam Boiler Economy (New York, 1901) ;
FUEL FOR SHIPS
329
EUENTEOVEJUNA
ileiman Poole, The Calorific Power of Fuels
(ib, 1903) , F J Brislee, An Introduction to the
Study of Fuel (London, 1912), J S Brame,
Fuelj Solid, Liquid and Gaseous (New York,
1914) The following articles in this ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA may also be consulted with advantage
COMBUSTION, COAL, CHARCOAL, GAS, INTERNAL-
COMBUSTION ENGINES, PETROLEUM, CO-KE, FUR-
NACE, BOILER
FUEL FOB SHIPS. While coal remains —
and is likely always to remain — the principal
fuel for steam vessels, oil has become a very nn-
poitant competitor, while it is also, m the in-
teinal-combustion engines of the Diesel type,
displacing to some extent both coal and boileis
Crude oil varies greatly in character The
heavy, black, viscous oils of the Mexican fields
contain a considerable percentage of asphalt
and sulphur, the Texas and Pacific coast oils
aie less viscous and contain a smaller percent-
age of these substances, the oils of Oklahoma,
Kansas, Louisiana, Colorado, and Wyoming show
practically no asphalt and very little sulphur,
the Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and In-
diana oils are the most fluid of all and are fiee
from asphalt and, except m certain districts,
fiom sulphur
Nearly all crude oil can be used for fuel If
it contains very little sulphur or asphalt, it
is suitable for heavy oil engines of the Diesel
type Crude oil is not, however, much used for
either of these purposes and the reasons are two.
First, the presence of the more volatile oils
renders storage dangerous, and second, these
light oils have much greater value when sepa-
rated
The total production of crude oil in the
United States in 1911 and 1912 was about 220,-
000,000 barrels pei annum Under former
methods of refining and distillation this would
have yielded about as follows gasoline, 20,000,-
000 barrels, kerosene, 65,000,000, gas oil,
20,000,000, lubricating oil, 20,000,000, fuel oil,
80,000,000, paraffin, coke, and loss, 15,000,000
Improved methods of refining and the constantly
increasing demand for gasoline will probably
increase that product to 25,000,000 barrels or
more The amounts of kerosene, gas oil, and
lubricating oil are likely to remain about as
given Fuel oil will be reduced, at one end by
removal of remaining light oils and at the other
by slightly increased amounts of paraffin and
coke The resulting product would be rather
heavy, and in such cases some of the gas oil
would be added to secure the necessary fluidity
The Mexican oils have a very much smaller
content of gasoline and kerosene and a very
much larger one of fuel oil So that it is to
them we shall look to supply the greater part
of the oil fuel and a large part at least of the
oil for Diesel engines Oil for both these pur-
pdses must be sufficiently fluid to flow readily.
For fuel it must not clog the burners, and for
the engines it must burn without undue deposit
of carbon
The advantages of oil over coal as a fuel
are reduced weight of boiler, reduced size of
fire rooms, greatly reduced force of firemen,
increased facility of bringing fuel to the fires
from considerable distances, ease of maintenance
of speed and quickness of attaining it, increased
amount of space available for fuel, greater
radius of action of the Ship, reduced time re-
quired to take on board fuel, facility of transship-
ping at sea through flexible piping or hose, a'b-
sence of ashes, ash-hoisting or ash-ejecting ma-
chinery, and all expense and trouble connected
with ashes When oil is buined, the amount of
smoke given out can be very exactly controlled.,
a most desirable feature for naval vessels in
war time A further advantage of oil is that
it preserves the metal of the compartments in
which it is carried, while coal bunkers require
frequent scaling and painting These advan-
tages are not only such as have value in naval
war, but they largely offset the greater prime
cost of oil in detei mining the total cost of pro-
pulsion per horse power, so that under certain
conditions oil fuel is economical for merchant
ships
The chief objections to the use of oil fuel
are its cost, uncertainty of supply in gieat quan-
tities, and lack of supply in many parts of the
world Consult F J Brislee, An Introduction
to the Study of Fuel (London, 1912), and J S.
Brame, Fuel, Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous (New
York, 1914) See PETROLEUM, FUEL SHIP,
NAVAL, COAL, COALING Snip
FUEL SHIP, NAVAL In the United States
navy the vessels of the fleet are, except when in
certain home ports, supplied with coal and fuel
oil by fuel ships The latei vessels of this type
are of great capacity ( 10,500 tons of car^o coal,
1000 to 2000 tons of fuel oil, 2200 tons of
bunker coal), and having a speed of 14 5 knots,
they are able to accompany the fleet when pio-
ceedmg at ordinary cruising speed When it
is not practicable for them to cruise with the
fleet they are sent to meet it at predetermined
points The use of radio (wireless) telegraphy
greatly facilitates such plans and enables change
of the point of meeting to be effected, if that
be necessary
The new fuel ships resemble in some respects
the cargo steamers of the Great Lakes, having
their engines and boilers in the stern and their
stores in the bow, the intervening holds being
reserved for coal and oil This facilitates dis-
charge and loading They are fitted with coal-
ing gear capable of delivering 1200 tons per
hour, all to a single vessel or to two vessels,
one on each side This gear is supported by a
high steel framework extending the full length
of the hold spaces The coal is lifted out of the
hold by means of clamshell dredge buckets,
When the loaded bucket reaches a point about
20 feet above the deck, it is drawn out on a
heavy wire rope on . which it is supported by a
trolley The outer end of the wire rope is helu
in position over the deck of the man of war bv
means of an adjustable arm supported by the
framework of the fuel ship When over the
proper point for discharging, the bucket is low-
ered and the coal dumped. Fuel oil is pumped
on board the warship through suitable hose All
recently built destroyers and some new battle-
ships are fitted to use only oil as fuel Othei
new battleships use both coal and oil Very
few navies have specially built fuel ships They
rely upon coaling stations or vessels of their
mercantile marines* See COALING SHIP, FUEL
FOE Snips,
FTTENTEOVEJUNA, fwan'ta-o-va^Koo'na, A
town in the Province of Cordova, Spam, 45 miles
northwest of the city of Cordova (Map. Spam,
C 3) It is situated in a well-watered agricul-
tural region. In the surrounding country are
deposits of argentiferous lead, calcite, and build-
ing stone The town manufactures leather, soap,
flpur, bricks, and tile , The caring of rneat 1$
FUENTEBBABIA
330
FTJEBO
an important industry, owing to the number of
cattle There is abundant trade in wheat, wine,
fruit, and honey The parish church occupies
the site of the palace of the Knights of Cala-
trava, to whom the village was granted by
Henry III in 1430 Some authorities maintain
that Fuenteovejuna is the ancient Mellaria
(named from the abundance of honey) Pop,
1900, 11,777, 1910, 13,470
FtTENTEBBABIA, fwan'ter-ra-Be'a, or
FONTABABIA. A town in the Province of
Gurpuzcoa, on the French frontier of Spain,
about 10 miles east-northeast of San Sebastian,
on the river Bidassoa, near its mouth (Map
Spain, El) It is built on a hill and retains
much of the picturesque interest of a ruined
mediaeval town, though outside of the walls a
modern quartei for summer colonists, who come
heie in increasing numbers, has grown since
1900 It has a castle dating from the tenth cen-
tury, a pretentious town hall, and many curi-
ously gabled houses The municipal archives
contain valuable records Magdalena, situated
in the vicinity, is a popular watering place.
The fisheries constitute an important industry,
there is some coastwise trade, and particularly
in the new quarter manufactures of rope, nets,
flour, lumber, railway supplies, and paper flour-
ish Pop, 1900, 4422, 1910, 4976 Owing to
its position on the French frontier, Fuenter-
rabia has been the scene of many conflicts, not
the least famous of which was when the Piince
of Conde" was repulsed in 1638 The town was
fortified towards the close of the twelfth cen-
tury, ca-ptured in 1794 by the French, and its
works were destroyed In 1813 the Duke of
Wellington crossed the Bidassoa near Fuenter-
rabia in spite of the opposition of the French
under Marshal Soult The town played a part
also in the Carlist wars of the nineteenth cen-
tury Latin inscriptions found in the vicinity
gave basis to the theory that this locality was
known to the Homans as Fons Hapidus
FTTENTES, fwan't&s, or FONTE, fon'ta,
BABTOLOME. A Spanish or Portuguese naviga-
tor, who is said to have discovered in 1640 a
passage uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
north of the American continent An account of
this voyage first appeared in a letter published
m the Monthly Miscellany (London, 1708), but
doubt has been cast upon its authenticity, and
by many Fuentes is believed to have been a
fictitious personage The mystery attaching to
the affair has led to considerable discussion
among scholars Vancouver admitted the possi-
bility of the discoveries of Fuentes The real
or fictitious discoveries assigned to this naviga-
tor have been treated in a number of works
published in Paris and in London and notably
in, the book entitled The Great Probability of a>
Northwest Passage, Deduced from Observations
on the Letter of Admiral del Fonte (1761)
FTJEJtfTES, DON PEDRO HENBIQUEZ D'AZE-
YEDOy CONDE DE (e 1535-1610) A Spanish sol-
dier and statesman, born at Zamora He served
in the Netherlands and under Alba in Portugal,
where he commanded the Spanish army in 1589
and defended Lisbon with complete success
against the English From 1591 to 1596 he was
civil and military assistant to the royal gov-
ernors in the Netherlands About 1600 he was
appointed captain general and Governor at
Milan, where he was incessantly busied with
crafty political manoeuvres. He has often been
confused, with another of the name (known to
the French as Fontaines) who fell at his defeat
by the Due d'Enghien, near Rocroi (May 19,
1643) Consult the life by Duro (Madrid,
1884), and Julio Fuentes, M Conde de Fuentes
y su tiempo Estudws de Histona Mihtar (Sig-
los XVI a XVII) (ib, 1908)
FTJENTES DE (XNOBO, fwan'tas da o-nyo'ro
A village of Spain, on the Portuguese border, 14
miles west of Ciudad Kodrigo It is celebrated
as the scene of a battle between Wellington and
the French under Massena and Bessieres, May 3,
1811 The French, by a furious charge, twice
drove back the British lines, but each time the
latter, at the point of the bayonet, regained the
lost ground When night came on, Massena re-
treated, with the loss of about 1000 men The
battle, indecisive m itself, served to keep the
French out of Portugal and encouraged the
English at home. Pop about 1200
FTJEBO, fwa'rd (Sp , jurisdiction) A teim
variously applied m Spam to special jurisdic-
tions of privileged classes, municipal charters,
and provincial and general codes
1 Special Fueros. In the development of
legal procedure in Spam during the Middle
Ages, certain classes came to be subjected to
special jurisdictions, laws, and procedure, known
as fueros Thus, there were the ecclesiastical,
military, naval, commercial, and other fueros, to
which these privileged classes were severally
subjected in civil and criminal matters By a
decree of Dec 6, 1868, and others of later dates,
these special fueros were abolished, and the
members of these classes were placed under the
ordinary tribunals, with the exception that cer-
tain necessary disciplinary powers were left to
the Church, the army, and the navy
2 Municipal Fueros The most common
use of the term "fuero" is to designate the
charters and privileges, dealing with civil and
criminal as well as economic and administrative
matters, which were granted to the municipal-
ities by the kings and the nobles duung the
Middle Ages. The Moorish conquest destioyed
the unity of the old Visigothic code, and as the
reconquest went on there arose need for the con-
cession of special privileges to those who under-
took the piotection of the newly acquired terri-
tory The municipal fueros then grew up as
the product of the ancient Gothic code and the
new circumstances under which its laws were
applied The earliest grants date from the
eighth century, they become common in the
eleventh, and few are found after the four-
teenth century In many cases the fuero of
one town was applied to another In all, over
800 municipal fueros were granted, some of the
more noted are the fueros of Le6n granted by
Alfonso V (1020), Najera by Sancho the Great
and confirmed by Alfonso VI (1076), Sepulveda
(1076), Logrofto (1095), and Toledo (11J8)
The essential elements of every municipal fuero
were exemptions from taxation, and the grant
of special privileges However, the fueros offer
a collection of administrative as well as civil
and criminal dispositions designed to satisfy
the necessities of the towns For example, the
Fuero of Le6n consists of 48 or 49 sections, the
first seven of which refer to ecclesiastical mat-
ters , sections 8 to 20 are the regulations regard-
ing civil matters, while sections 21 and follow-
ing provide for the special privileges, including
a right of asyltun and exemptions from taxation
These fueros were largely suppressed by, the
FUEBO
33*
ETTERO
legislation of Alfonso the Learned (1252-75),
winch was made effective in the following cen-
tury
3 Provincial Fueros. A natural develop-
ment in legislation was the extension of these
local fueros over more extensive regions and
their transfoimation, by virtue of the general
law of custom, into constitutional lights of the
kingdoms or provinces In time, under the in-
fluence of the introduction of the repiesenta-
tive element of the Cortes, these charters were
collected in the various kingdoms of Spain into
general codes, which were confiimed fiom time
to time by the petty monarchs This giadual
development, involving a struggle between the
princes and the people, forms an intei eating
chapter in the history of modern constitutional-
ism In this manner were developed the fueros
of Navarre, of the Basque provinces of Vizcaya,
Alava, and Guipuzcoa, of Catalonia, Aiagon,
and Valencia These piovmcial fueios weie
based upon the old Visigothie laws, as well as
upon the local charters, and giew up in the
period between the irruption of the Moors into
the Spanish peninsula and the consolidation of
the Spanish monarchy under the Hapshurg
house Thus, the fueros of Navarre, which had
been multiplied during centuries, are considered
to have been collected and recorded in 1237,
under the title of Cartulamo del rey Tilaldo,
as a result of the contest between Theobald I
and his Cortes. However, it is probable that
the compilation was really of a later date,
though it is usually held to be earlier than the
reform of 1330 Ferdinand the Catholic, who
united Navarre with the crown of Castile, main-
tained the fueros, adapting them to the new re-
lations existing with Castile According to the
fueros of Navarre the Cortes, chosen for three
years, and consisting of the three estates of
clergy, nobles, and commons, met yearly, and
without their consent no law could be passed or
anything of importance undertaken The gov-
ernment consisted of the Viceroy, who piesided
in the Cortes and Great Council, the Great
Council of Navarre, a, body similar to the old
French parlements, and the contaduria, befoie
which all accounts of revenue and expenditure
were laid There was no customhouse or toll
but at the frontier, and, except the trifling grant
of 176,000 reals, nothing flowed into the royal
treasury The King took an oath to respect
and maintain these fueros
In the Lordship (senorfo) of Vizcaya there
was the same development— first the grant of
local fueros and then the formation of a general
fuero through the struggle of the inhabitants
with their counts It was not till 1452 that the
customs of Vizcaya were formed into a fuero
general and confirmed by the King of Castile
After the final union of Vizcaya with Castile
the code was recast, completed, and confirmed
by King Charles I (Emperor Charles V) and
published under the title Fueros, pnvilegios,
franquezas, y libertades del may noble y mwy
leal senorio de Vizcaya According to this
charter of rights every new "lord" — this being
the title given by the Biscayans to the King of
Spain as their Prince — on attaining the age of
14, mujst come into the country within a year
and in certain places appointed for that pur-
pose take the oath to uphold the fueros The
government consisted of a corregidor, appointed
by the *lord," and two deputies, and these, aided
by six regidores and forming the regitmento, con-
VOL. IX.— -22
ducted the administration The supreme powet
resided in the General Assembly (junta gen-
eral] which met yearly under the tiee at Guer-
nica, regulated all the affairs of the lordship,
and appointed the deputies and regidores Jus-
tice was administeied, in the first instance, by
the lieutenants (tementes) of the Corregidor,
in the second by the Corregidor and his deputies ,
and in the third, by the royal couit at Valla-
dohd Other privileges weie, that every Bis-
cayan of pure blood was counted noble , that ex-
cept the post office there was to be no royal
goveinmg boaid in the province, that Biscayans
were not bound to serve in the Spanish aimy
The fueios of Alava and Guipuzcoa weie of
analogous ongm and character, but differed in
details It was on behalf of these fueros that
the Basque Provinces fought in the Carhst wars
They were abolished in 1837, restored in 1839,
and confirmed ^ith modifications in 1841 and
1844. In 187G a law abolishing the Basque
fueros was adopted, and in 1878 a decree was
passed assimilating the admimstiation of the
Basque Piovinces to that of the rest of Spam
A similai development took place in Cata-
lonia, Aragon, and Valencia The fueios of
Catalonia were fiist collected and confirmed by
RamOn Berenguei (1068), those of Aiagon by
Sancho Ramirez (1071) , and those ot Valencia,
by Jafme I (1230) These, with later modifica-
tions and confirmations, were the law of these
kingdoms till Philip V abolished them in 1707
and made the provinces subject to the laws of
Castile Later the fueros of Catalonia and
Aragon were lestored in part and so remained
till the nineteenth century
4 General Fueros The first geneial fuero
of Spain was the Fuero Juzgo, a codification of
the existing chaotic laws, made during the reign
of Chmdaswmth (642-649) Its purpose was
to unify legislation and by so doing to wipe
out the distinctions between the conquerors and
the conquered Its provisions were taken from
the older codes, especially the Roman, from the
decisions of councils, and from the decrees and
laws of the Visigothie kings The Fuero Juzgo
consists of 12 books, divided into titles and
laws The subject matter of the books is as
follows I Legislation, its effects and circum-
stances, II. Purpose of the code and judicial
procedure, III Civil code, IV Relationships,
V Ecclesiastical matteis, VI Accusations and
criminals, VII Robbery and deception, VIII
Coercion and injuries, IX Fugitives and ref-
ugees, X Land, XI The sick, dead, and mer-
chants in foreign trade, XII Conduct of the
judges, heretics, and Jews It is a code "with-
out parallel in the annals of jurisprudence "
Consult Scott, History of the Moorish Empire
m Europe (Philadelphia, 1904)
After the coming of the Moors, which largely
destroyed the force of the Fuero Juzgo, no
attempt at a general codification was made till
the time of Alfonso the Learned, who issued
among other codes the Fuero Real (1254) It
is divided into four books, the first deals with
the Catholic faith, contracts, and obligations,
the second, with judicial procedure, the third
presents a civil code, and the fourth treats of
criminal legislation
Bibliography. Antequera, Ilistorm de la
legislawdn espafiola ( Madrid, 1890); Ma,rieha-
lar y Manrique, Historic, de la le^i&lacidn ciwl
en Egpana (ib , 1861-72), Mufioz y Romero,
Coleccidn de fueros y cartas pueblos (ib , 1847) ;
EtTERO
332
FtJG-A
Rivero, Colecoion de fueros municipales (ib,
1847) , id, Oatdlogo de fueros y cartas puell&s
de Espana (ib , 1852), Lopez Ferreiro, Fueros
municipales de Santiago y de su tierra (San-
tiago, 1895-96), Martinez Sueno, Fueios mwn-
cipales de Orense (Orense, 1912) , Meruendano
Arias, El fuero municipal de Rivadavia (ib ,
1909 ) ; Fuero de Vi^oayat aco? dado en la
Junta, de 1452 . . (Bilbao, 1909) , Fueros,
observancias, actos de Oottes de Aragon
(Sp trans, Saragossa, 1907), Los codigos es-
panoles (ed, San Martin, Madrid, 1872-73)
See the article BASQUE RACE
EUEEiO, JoAQmN (1814-67) A Mexican sol-
dier He was born at Guadalupe Hidalgo and
was educated at the Military College of Segovia,
at which he subsequently became profe&sor and
vice piesident After suppiessing the insurrec-
tion of 1840 lie was, in 1843, appointed chief of
staff of the army division in Tamauhpas and
also fought with distinction in the war with the
United States, receiving a wound fioni which he
ultimately died Besides a Spanish translation of
General Makenna's Treatise on Military Tactics,
he published a Manual del wnlitar, 6 tratado
completo de mstrucoidn en la oidenanza (1842)
UTtTEItTES, fwar'tas, ESTEVAN ANTONIO
(1838-1903) An American crvil engineer and
edxicatoi, born at San Juan, Porto Rico He
took the degrees of A B and Ph D f i om the
Concihar College of San Ildefonso, at Sala-
manca, Spam, and of civil engmeeimg at the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N Y ,
the latter in 1861 From 1861 to 1863 he \vas
first an assistant engineer in the Department
of Public Works and later director of public
works for the western district of the island of
Porto Rico In 1863 and 1864 he was assistant
engineer, and from 1S64 to 1869 engineei, on
the Croton Aqueduct Board In 1870-71 he was
engineer in chief of the United States expedi-
tion to Tehuan tepee and Nicaragua, to investi-
gate the practicability of a trans-Isthmian ship
canal He became dean of the department of
civil engineering in Cornell University in 1873,
and from 1890 to 1902 was director of the
college of civil engineering and obtained for
Cornell an excellent special equipment for this
work On retiring from this position he was
made professor of astronomy at Cornell and
spent the last months of his life supei vising
the completion of the A C Barnes Observatoiy
Among other undertakings as a consulting en-
gineer, he was engaged on a drainage system foi
Santos, Brazil He was a member of the Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, the Societe d'ln-
genieurs of France, and other learned organiza-
tions, and published numerous scientific articles
and reports He was notably enthusiastic, ener-
getic, and courteous
FUERTES, JAMES HILLHOTJSE (1863- )
An American hydraulic and sanitary engineer,
born at Ponce Porto Rico, son of Prof E A
Fuertes He planned and constructed various
engineering works for the drainage, sewerage,
water purification, and water supply of cities
in Brazil, Canada, and the United States, and
served as a consulting engineer of various cor-
porations and municipalities He is author of
Water and Public Health (1897) , Water Filtra-
tion Works (1901) , and articles in the Engineer-
ing Record
FCTERTES, Louis AGASSIZ (1874-1927)
An American painter of birds and an illustrator,
son of Prof. E. A. Fuertes He wa& born a-t
Ithaca, N Y, and graduated from Cornell Uni-
versity in 1897 His habitat bird groups in the
American Museum of Natural History are one of
the most atti active features of the institution
He made 25 decorative panels for F F Brewstei,
of New Haven, Conn , illustrated Birding on a
Broncho (1896), Citizen Bird (1897), Song
Buds and Watei Fowl (1897), Birdcraft ( 1897),
The Woodpecleis (1901), Second Book of Birds
(1901), Birds of the Rockies (1902), Handbook
of Ei} ds of Westei n United States ( 1902 ) , Coues's
Key to X 01 tli American Birds (1903), Handbook
of Buds of Eastern United States, Upland Game
Birds (1902), Viatel-fowl (1903), and Bwd$ of
X'eio York (1910) , and prepared plates foi the
Report of the New Yoik Game, Forest, and Fish
Commission in 1903
FUEHTEVEETTURA, fwar'ta-ven-too'ra One
of the Canai} Islands (qv ), situated north of
Grand Canaiy and south of Lanzarote, across
the Straits of Bacayna (Map Spain, G4) Aiea,
665 square miles Theie are a number of ex-
tinct volcanoes, \utli a maximum elevation
leaching 2700 feet The soil is only slightly
pioductive, the larger portion being best adapted
for grazing Only a few fruit and nut trees
survne in this climate The annual lainfall
is cvfci aordmarily slight The chief products aie
figs, olives, almonds, chalk, and gvpsum, there
aie thriving fisheries Pop, 1900, 11,662, 1910,
12,060 Cabras, on the east coast, has a good
harbor Capital, Betancun a Pop , 1910, 673
FUESSLI, fnslB, or FTTSSLX A Swiss
family, oiigmally from Zurich, several members
of \\hich were aitists — MATTHIAS, called The
Old (1598-1665), the first engraver painter of
the family, studied m Italy and produced some
excellent battle pictures and portraits — His son
and pupil, JOHANN KASPAR (1707-82), also an
artist, painted portraits, but is celebrated for
his work on Swiss artists, Q-escfaichte und Ab-
bildungen, der besten Kunstler in der Schioew
(1769-79) — His son, JoHAisnsr HEINRICH (1741-
1825), born at Zurich, and called in England
Henry Fuseh, after traveling in Germany came
to England about 1763 and first tried a literary
career, but was encouraged by Sir Joshua Reyn-
olds to devote himself to painting He studied
in London and Italy and finally made his home
in London, where he fiist atti acted attention in
1782 with his painting "The Nightmare " In
1786 he painted a series of pictures illustrat-
ing Shakespeaie, of which the best is perhaps
"Titama and Bottom," in the National Gallery,
London, and these were followed in 1799 by 47
paintings illustrating Milton's poems His pow-
erful imagination makes these curious works,
often purely metaphysical, very interesting, for
he possessed a strong sense of the grotesque and
undoubted poetic power, but his action is ex-
aggerated, he was not a colorist, and he never
considered the factor of beauty He left about
800 drawings and sketches which are often more
characteristic than his paintings As professor
of painting in the Royal Academy, he delivered
lectures on art, which were in many ways re*
markable Twelve of his lectures weie published
in 1801-20 Consult his biogiaphy by Knowles;
who also edited his works (London, 1831}
PTJGA, foo'ga, FEHDINANDO (1699-1784) A
prominent Italian architect of the baroque
penod, born in Florence in 1699 He worked
principally at Rome, where his masterpieces are
the Corsmi Palace and the exterior of t&e
basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore HeJ theii
FUGATO
333
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW
went to southern Italy, and died while engaged
in reconstiuctmg the cathedral of Palermo
FITGATO, foo ga'to (It , p p of fugare, to put
to flight) A passage consisting of fugal imita-
tions Only the entrances of the several voices
are given Aftei the first development is com-
pleted the composition continues in the free
style See FUGTJE
FUGEB, fu'ger, HBINBIOH (1751-1818). A
Geiman historical painter, born at Heilbronn,
Wurttemberg He was a pupil of Guibal in
Stuttgart and of Oeser in Leipzig Afterward
he traveled, and spent some time in Rome and
Naples, where he painted frescoes in the Palazzo
Caseita On his leturn to Vienna he was ap-
pointed court painter, professor and vice director
of the Academy, and in 1806 director of the
Belvedere Gallery Among his histoiical paint-
ings aie "The Farewell of Coriolanus" (Czernm
Gallery, Vienna), "Allegory on Peace" (1801),
and four other canvases in the Vienna Gallery,
"Bathsheba" (Budapest Gallery) , and among
his portraits those of the Emperor Joseph II,
the Grand Duchess Elizabeth, Queen Caroline
of Naples, and Lord Nelson (National Portrait
Gallery, London) He painted in the classic
style of David and Mengs and was inclined to
be theatucal
FTTGGEH, fng'ger A German family of
Augsburg, important in continental financial
history — The founder of the family was JOHANN"
FUGGER, master weaver in Graben, near Augs-
burg, about the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tuiy, who married Marie Meissner of Kirchheim
— His eldest son, JOIIANN, acquired by marriage
in 1370 the freedom of Augsburg and began to
carry on a trade in linen together with weaving
By a second marriage in 1382, with the daugh-
ter of a counciloi, he had two sons and four
daughters This Johann Fugger was one of the
council of twelve (Die Zwolfer) , in the weaving
guild, and an assessor of the famous Velim-
gericht, or secret tribunal of Westphalia He
died in 1409 and left a considerable fortune —
His eldest son, ANDREAS, made such good use of
his shaie of the inheritance that he was known
as "the rich Fugger " He founded a noble line,
which died out in 1583 — Johann's second son,
JAKOB, who died in 1469, was the first of the
Fuggers who had a house in Augsburg and car-
ried on an extensive commerce — Of his aeven
sons, three, ULRIGH, GEOEG, and JAKOB II, by
industry, ability, and integrity, as well as by
their inheritance, laid the foundation of the
princely prosperity of the family Its members
married into the noblest houses and were raised
by the" Empeior Frederick III to the rank of
nobles The Emperor Maximilian mortgaged to
them, for 70,000 gulden, the County of Kirch-
berg and the Lordship of Weissenhorn and re-
ceived from them afterward, through the media-
tion of Pope Julius II, 170,000 ducats to assist
him. in carrying on the war against Venice —
QLRICH (1441-1510) devoted himself specially
to commerce with Austria, and there was hardly
an object that did not enter into his specu-
lations— JAKOB (1459-1525) engaged in min-
ing, he farmed the mines in Tirol and accumu-
lated Immense wealth, he lent to the Archduke
of Austria 150,000 gulden and built the magnifi-
cent castle of Fuggerau in Carinthia Under
Charles V the house attained its greatest splen-
dor, because it was chiefly through the Fugger
guldens that he was elected Emperor Jakob
having died childless, and the family of Ulrich
being also extinct, the foitune of the house
lested with the sons of Geoig (died 1506), one
of whom MAEKUS, entered the Church — The
two younger, RAIMUND and ANTONIUS, carried
on the business and became the founders of the
two chief and still flourishing lines of the house
of Fugger The two brothers were zealous Catho-
lics and with their wealth supported Eck in his
opposition to Luther Dm ing the Diet held by
Charles V at Augsburg, in 1530, the Emperor
lived in Antomus Fuggei's splendid house on
the Wemmarkt On this occasion he raised both
blotters to the rank of counts and invested
them in full sovereignty with the still moit-
gaged properties of Kirchberg and Wexssenhorn,
and a letter under the Imperial seal con-
ferred on them the rights of princes In 1535
they received the right of coining money An-
tonms, at his death (1560), left 6,000,000 gold
ciowns m ready money, besides jewels and pos-
sessions in all parts of Europe, Asia, and Amer-
ica Ferdinand II confirmed the Imperial letter
of Chailes V and confcired additional privileges
on the family The Fuggers continued to cairy
on commerce, attained the highest posts in the
Empire, and several princely houses prided them-
selves on their alliance with the house of Fugger
They possessed the most extensive hbranes and
collections of art, maintained pamteis and musi-
cians, and liberally encouraged art and science
Ulrich, Georg, and Jakob, the sons of the first
Jakob, bought houses in one of the suburbs of
Augsburg, pulled them down, and built 108
smallei houses, which they let to poor citizens
at a low rent This was the origin of the Fug-
gerei, which still remains under the same name,
with its own walls and gates Many other
benevolent institutions were set on foot by An-
tonius and his sons The race is continued in
the two principal lines of Kaimund and Anto-
nius, besides collateral branches, all of whom
aie hereditary members of the Upper House of
Havana, where the chief domains are A collec-
tion of portraits of the most important mem-
bers of this great house, executed by Dommicus
Custos, of Antwerp, appeared at Augsburg ( 1593
et seq ) This collection, increased to 127, with
genealogies written in Latin, was repubhshed
by the brotheis Kilian (Augsburg, 1618), and
in 1754 a new edition of the work, still fur-
ther improved, and containing 139 portraits,
was published at Ulm, under the title Pinaco-
theca Fuggerorum Consult Stauber, Das Haus
Fugger von semen Anfangen bis mr Gegenwart
(Augsburg, 1900), and Jansen, Studien zur Fug-
ger-gesGhic'hte (Leipzig, 1907)
FUGHETTA, foo-ggfta A miniature fugue,
following in all essentials the laws of a regular
fugue The dimensions of all the development
sections are reduced, and the more complicated
portions, such as strettas and organ points, are
omitted See FUGUE
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW In the history
of the United States, the name of two statutes
enacted for the purpose of securing to the slave
owners their rights in slaves who had escaped
from the State in which they were held in
servitude Such statutes were directed to the
enforcement of Art IV, Sec 2 of the Constitu-
tion, which provides that "persons held to serv-
ice or labor in one State, under, the laws
thereof," escaping into another, "snail be de-
livered up on claim of the party to whom such
service or labor may be due J; This is generally
supposed to have been suggested by a fugitive-
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW
334
PUGUE
slave clause in the Articles of the Confederation
of the New England Confederation of 1643 The
existence of slavery depended entirely upon the
sanction of State laws and could in no way be
affected by Federal laws If, however, slavery
was merely a status dependent upon positive
enactment, such status ceased when the slave
entered a State where slavery was prohibited
On the other hand, if the master's right in the
slave was a property right, the situation was
quite different Property rights were defined
by State laws, and the protection of such prop-
erty rights in all other States was guaran-
teed by the Federal Constitution Upon the
' property" theory of slavery, it was thus pos-
sible to pass such an enactment as that of Feb
12, 1793. This gave the owner or supposed
owner of a fugitive slave the right to seize the
alleged fugitive, to take him before any Federal
judge or certain local magistrates, and, upon
satisfying the judge or magistrates of his owner-
ship, to secure a warrant for removing the slave,
or alleged slave, to the State of the ownei's
domicile There was no provision for a jury in
this preliminary trial, the warrant might be
secured upon the testimony of the owner alone,
and a heavy fine was Imposed for obstructing
the owner or rescuing or concealing the alleged
fugitive The rigor of the act gave opportunity
for considerable laxity in its enforcement, and
as soon as the controversy o\ei slaveiy became
acute, efforts were made to amend the act or to
nullify its effect. A way towards the latter end
seemed to be opened bv the decision in 1842 of
the Supreme Court in the case of Prigg against
Pennsylvania, m which it was held that the
duty of enforcing the statute rested solely upon
the Federal authorities Thereupon various
States passed laws prohibiting State officials
from assisting in the enforcement of this Federal
statute and forbidding the use of State jails for
such a purpose
The continued and vigorous demands of the
South for a more complete recognition of its
rights led to the inclusion in the Compromise
Measures of 1850 (qv ) of a new Fugitive Slave
Law, the Statute of Sept 18, 1850 Tins in-
cluded many features of the old act and m addi-
tion provided for certain commissioners, with
jurisdiction concurrent with that of the courts,
who received a larger fee in case they decided in
favor of the claimant than if they decided in
favor of the fugitive Ex parte testimony was
sufficient to determine even the identity of the
fugitive, the testimony of the alleged slave was
expressly barred, and he was denied a jury trial,
even after being returned to the State whence
he had fled The enforcement of the law was
placed wholly in the hands of Federal officials,
and heavier penalties were imposed upon vio-
lators of the law. The extreme antislavery ele-
ment in the Northern States soon forced the
issue by refusing to recognize the "finality" of
the Compromise of 1850 and by securing the
passage of the so-called "personal liberty" laws
These prescribed heavy penalties for the seizure
of free persons, forbade State officials to aid in
enforcing the Federal act, and provided that the
fugitive should be entitled to a writ of habeas
corpus and to a trial by juiy Other require-
ments of the State laws served to minimize the
effect of the Federal statute and in some cases
almost to nullify it Ten States passed such
laws and thus afforded the South an available
ground of complaint The second Fugitive Slave
Law was finally repealed on June 28, 1864
Consult McDougall, Fugitive Slaves (Boston,
1891), and Rhodes, History of the United States
from the Compromise of 1850, vols i, 11 (New
York, 1893) See SLAVERY, UNDERGROUND
RAILWAY
FUGLEMAN*, fu'g'l-man (from Ger Flugel-
mann, file leader, from Flugel, wing, file + Mann,
man) A teim more common in Europe than in
the United States and used to denote a soldier
posted a little in advance of the body of troops
of which he is a part, to give the time to his
fellows, in the execution of an order entailing
moie than one distinct movement Fixing and
unfixing bayonets and drawing or returning
swords aie instances in point He is usually
a flank man, hence the name
FTJGTTE, fug ( Fr , from It fuga, fugue, flight,
from Lat fuga, flight, from fugere, Gk <J>ctyeu>,
pheugein, to flee, Skt bhuj, AS lugan, to bend)
In music, the name of a composition wherein
the parts do not all begin at once, but follow
or puisue one another at certain distances ,
hence the name fuc/a, a flight or chase, each
part successively taking up the subject or mel-
ody Any voice may begin the fugue, but the
others follow according to fixed rules The sub-
ject is generally a few bais of melody, \\hich
is given out in the principal key by the voice
\\hich begins The subject of a fugue should
always be short — three or four bars — so that
it impresses itself upon the memory and can be
followed and distinguished in the course of the
composition Also, it must never be constructed
periodically (See FORM ) After the subject
(dux] has been announced, the second voice re-
peats it a fifth above or a fourth below It is
then called the answer (comes) The first voice
meanwhile proceeds with a counterpoint, as does
every successive voice upon the completion of
the fugue theme This counterpoint, called
counter subject, is constructed so as to afford
the composer opportunities for ingenious con-
trapuntal combinations in the further develop-
ment of the fugue The third voice follows with
the subject again in the principal key, but an
octave higher or lower than the first voice,
and is answered by the fourth voice in the same
manner as the second voice answers the first
When the subject and answer have been intro-
duced in all the parts, the first section, or first
development, of the fugue is said to be com-
pleted, an episode of a few bars then follows,
sometimes in its form like part of the sub-
ject, and with a modulation into a nearly re-
lated key The subject and answer are again
brought forward, but following in a different
oider from the first section, while at the same
time all the parts are continued, and in some of
them the original counterpoint appears either
simply or inverted, the subject and answer
forming the predominating idea throughout the
whole composition
This is the second development and is again
followed by an episode The greater the num-
ber of voices that are employed in a fugue, the
greater will be the number of development sec-
tions A four-part fugue admits of no less than
24 possible development sections, while in a
five-part fugue the composer may use any num-
ber of developments out of a possible 120 In
extended fugues the composer must exercise all
his ingenuity on the episodes, otherwise the fre-
quent repetitions of the development section will
tir© tjie hearer Beginning with the third or
335
FUGUE
fourth development, tlie answer is often given in
anothei interval than the fifth, so as to avoid
monotony Even transposition into other keys
is permissible Masters of the fugue sometimes
give the answei in inversion, augmentation, 01
diminution (See the separate articles ) The
last development is generally an exhibition of
all the composer's contrapuntal art Bach gen-
erally closes with a stretto (qv), where the
subject and answer are crowded together, so that
the lattei begins before the former is completed
Often the stretto is elaborated over an organ
point (qv) When the subject does not ex-
middle of the composition, and afterward worked
up with the first subject, it is then called a,
fugue on two subjects
A double fugue begins at once with two sub-
lects in different parts, both of which are strictly
treated throughout
There aie also fugues with three subjects
(triple fugue) , a famous example is that in the
finale of Mozart's C Major (Jupiter) Symphony
A free fugue is that in which the subject and
counterpoint are not strictly treated through-
out, but mixed up with episodes and ideas not
connected with the subject The fugue is not,
as has been eironeously believed, a production
of German genius This form was gradually de-
veloped from the canonic tricks of the Dutch
masters by the great Italian masters of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries — Merulo,
Frescobaldi, Pasquini It reaches its highest
development in the eighteenth century, in the
works of Bach (instrumental) and Handel
(vocal) Bach's fugues have never been equaled
and are, in fact, musical pioblems of great
II subject
I subject
Answer to I
1 itiW " **'" "* '"• '""''B
<t/ Jf*'"
^b
^j*q „- ^^__
Answer tc
1 — _t—_i — 1
>II
m
etc
tend in compass beyond the half of an octave,
the answer is mvuriafoly made in the other half,
and, to avoid modulation out of the key, the
progression of a fifth is answered by a fourth
A fugue consisting of one subject with a counter-
point throughout is called a strict fwgue
When a second subject us introduced in the
depth. He devoted a special work to the sub-
ject, Die Kunst der Fuge (1749) Els Invenr
twnen and Das wohltempervrte Klam&r (1722)
are necessary to every pianist, &nd iis Musika-
Usches Opfer, elaborated on & theme given to
hm by Frederick the Great in 1747, are among
hia best examples Handel ranM next to Bach.
FTTHCHOW
336
FUJIYAMA
Celebiated treatises on fugues are by Mattheson,
Maipurg, Fux, Albrechtsberger, Andre", Marx,
Lobe, Jadassohn, Cherubim, and Fetis
FTJHCHOW, foo'chou' See FOOCHOW
FU-HI, foo'-he', or FO-HI, fo'-he' A legend-
ary or semimythical chieftain of China, the first
of the Wu-ti or "Five Rulers," who emerge m
succession from the haze of the puiely mythical
period of Chinese history, and ^\ho weie suc-
ceeded about 2356 B c by Yao, with whose reign
the Chinese histoncal classic kno\\n as the
Shu-king opens The first year of his reign is
usually placed in 2852 B c
Fu-hi is the reputed founder of the Chinese
nation, and is said to have laid the foundations
of civilization among a people who were still
little better than beasts, eating raw flesh,
clothed with the skins of wild animals, pan ing
promiscuously, and destitute of even the rudest
arts of life He taught them the arts of nsh-
ing, hunting, and pasturage, and instituted
marriage, dividing the people into 100 families
or clans, to which he gave a name, and ordain-
ing that persons of the same clan should not
intermarry, a custom observed in China to the
present day
His own surname was Feng, Vmd/ and his
birth was miraculous, having been cairied in
his mother's womb for 12 years Among many
other things, he is reputed to have discoveied
the elements of wilting on the back of a toi-
toise or dragon, which lose from the waters of
the Yellow River Fiom thence he evolved the
Pa-Lua (qv), or 'eight tngrams,3 which by
combination and multiplication form the 64
hexagrams, on which is based the text of the
I-king, the oldest book m China, and one of
the five King, or classics He died m 2738 B c ,
and was succeeded by Shen-nung, the 'Divine
Husbandman/ who introduced agriculture and
continued the task of civilizing and uplifting
his people Consult Mayers, Chinese Reader's
Manual (Shanghai, 1875), La Coupene, West-
ern Origin of the Early Chinese Civilisation
(London, 1894) , Legge, "The Yih-Kmg," m
Sacred Boohs of the East, vol xvi (Oxford,
1882) 3 Hirth, The Ancient History of China
(New York, 1908)
FUHKJCH, fu'riK, JOSEPH VON (1800-76)
An Austrian historical painter and engiaver
He was born at Kratzau, Bohemia, Feb 9, 1800,
and studied under Bergler at the Prague .Acad-
emy, where he was greatly influenced by the
literary works of Schlegel and Tieck He de-
signed 15 plates for the latter's G-enoveva (1824)
and went to Rome in 1827 In that city he
joined the German Nazarenes, and while theie
collaborated with Overbeck, Veit, and Koch in
painting the frescoes in the Villa Massuni, of
which he painted the three representing scenes
from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, Born and
bred a country boy, Fuhrich felt the beauty and
influence of landscape as a background to bibli-
cal subjects, and the study of Durer made him
lean towards the portrayal of patriarchal and
idyllic scenes, like "Ruth and Boaz," "Jacob and
Rachel " All his works are conceived in the
spirit of Christian mysticism and show purity
of form, grace of movement, and skill in com-
Eosition and in treatment of drapery, but they
ick true sentiment and feeling for color In
1829 he returned to Prague, and in 1834 re-
moved to Vienna, where he was appointed pro-
fessor at the Academy m 1841 There he con-
tinued many of his important woiks, including
a series of frescoes in the chuich of St John
Nepomuk (1844-46) For his fresco painted
in the church of Altleichenfeld, a work which
occupied the years between 1854 and 1861, he
was knighted and received the decoration of the
Order of the Iron Crown Among his paintings
are the "Mourning Jews" (Gallery of Count
Nostiz, Prague), "Christ on His Way to the
Mount of Ohves," "Peter's Draught of Fish,"
and "Mary s Journey over the Mountain" ( Gal-
lery of Vienna), his best work Among his
designs foi woodcuts and steel engravings, which
by manv aie considered finer than his paintings,
aie series illustrating the Psalter, Thomas a
Kempis, and the Prodigal Son His etchings
include the "Lord's Prayer" (1826) and a cycle
entitled the "Triumph of Christ" (1839) At
the age of 71 he illustrated the legend of St
Gwendolen Fuhrich died at Vienna, March 12,
1876 Consult his autobiography (Vienna,
1875), the monographs by his son Lucas (ib,
1886) and Dreger (ib , 1912), also Worndle,
Joseph Fuhnchs ~Werhe (ib, 1914), and Muther,
History of Modern Painting (London, 1907)
FUJI-SAiN", foo^e-san' See FUJIYVMA
ETJJT'TA SADTJSA'KE (1734-1807) One
of the leading Japanese mathematicians of the
eighteenth century His onginal name was
Honda Teiken and he was born in the Piovince
of Musashi He wiote several works, among
them the Beiyo Sampo (1779), which was de-
voted chiefly to algebra His son, FUJITA KA-
GEN (1765-1821), was also a mathematician of
some impoitance
FTJJIWARA, foo'je-wa'ra The name of one
of the most renowned noble families in Japan,
eminent in civil affairs, as the Taira and Mma-
moto were in militaiy, and the Tatchibana weie
in religious affairs The foundei was Kamatari,
Regent of the Empire 645-649 A D , reputed to
be the twenty-first in descent from his heavenly
ancestor who served the gieat-grandfathei of
the first Mikado The family was most power-
ful at court from the eighth to the twelfth cen-
tury and down to the piesent time has been
notably productive of statesmen, aitists, poets,
authors, scholars, historians, etc (Consult
Mentchikoff, Empire du Japon vol i, Geneva,
1881, for a list of these ) The present Empress
of Japan is of the Fujiwara family, of the
fortieth generation in descent from Kamatari,
the founder, the eighteenth from Tadamitsu, the
foundei of the Kujo family
FXJJIYAMA, foo'je-ya'ma (more correctly
FUJI-NO- YAMA, or FUJI-SAN, frequently but in-
correctly called FUSIYAMA) The celebrated
mountain of Japan, in the Province of Suruga,
60 miles west of Tokyo, and visible from 14
provinces far out at sea, height, 12,395 feet
(Map Japan, F 6) It is a volcano, with a
crater 500 feet deep and about 2% miles m
circuit Tradition says that it rose from the
plain in a single" night ( 285 B c ) , while at the
same moment Lake Biwa (qv), near Kyoto,
was formed The last recoided eruption began
Nov 24, 1707, and lasted until January 22 of
the following year A hump called Ho-vei-zan
(9400 feet), noticeable on* its south side, was
then produced As the sacred mountain of
Japan, it is annually frequented bv many thou-
sands of pilgrims from all parts of the Empire.
Its summit may be reached by five different
paths Shrines and temples are numerous
Fuji-San is the focus of Japanese legend, the
FUKIEN
337
ITTJIiAH:
frequent theme of the poet, and a familiar ob-
ject in Japanese art Consult Chambeilam,
Things Japanese (London, 1892), Griffis, The
Mikado's Empire (llth ed , 2 vols , New Yoik,
1906) , Satow and Hawes, Handbook for Trav-
elers in Central and Northern Japan (Yoko-
hama, 1881) , and the ordinary books of tiavel
FUIQElSr, foo'ki-en', or FO'KIEN, 111 the
local dialect HOKIONG A maiitimc province
of China, bounded on the north by Chekiang,
on the northwest and west by Kiangsi, on the
south by Kuangtung, and on the east by the
Foimosa Channel, area, 46,320 square miles,
pop, about 22,000,000, capital, Foochow (qv)
(Map China, L 6) In 1886 Formosa (now
belonging to Japan) was detached fioin it and
made a separate piovmce Low ranges cross it
from southwest to northeast, rising in heavily
wooded slopes on the west bolder to 9000 feet
The only level alluvial tracts are found near the
mouths of the Mm and the Lung and their nu-
merous tributanes The soil is feitile and m
a high state of cultivation, pioducing tea, rice,
A\heat, barley, sweet potatoes, indigo, sugar,
etc Quantities of timber are obtained from the
mountainous districts of the interior and floated
down the Mm to Foochow, where it is tians-
shipped to Shanghai and other ports The manu-
factmes are few Tea is extensively grown and
expoited, and in May every year Butish vessels
begin to load for England with the new harvest
of black tea, most of which comes from the re-
nowned Bohea hills on noithern tributanes of
the Mm, near Kienmng and Shauwu
The Province of Fukien has long been noted
for its production of porcelain That produced
in the Sung dynasty (960-1280) was originally
made at Kien-an hi en, and is described by an
author of the eleventh century as being "in-
vested with a soft black glaze flecked with
lighter spots, like the fur of a hare" Fukien
porcelain of the present day is white instead of
black and is produced at the potteiies of Te-hua,
established in the early part of the Ming dy-
nasty (1368-1644) This is the kind known to
collectors as "blanc de Chine'3
Fukien was the gieat centre of the early trade
with the Arabs and Sumatra and is noted his-
torically for its close relations with the Japan-
ese and its stubborn resistance to Manchu rule
In our day it is noted for its reformers and
progressives
Its two treaty ports are Foochow and Amoy
(qv ). In 1899 another port, San Tu Ao (Sam-
sah Inlet), farther north, was voluntarily opened
to foreign trade by the Chinese authorities
FUKTTDA, foo'koo'da, TOKUZO (1874- ).
A Japanese educator, born in Tokyo and edu-
cated at the Commercial High School there.
In 1897 he was sent by th& Japanese govern-
ment to study in Europe and, after several
years at Munich, leturned in 1901, became a
teacher in the Commercial High School, and
(1906) professor in the University of Tokyo
He wrote Die gesellschaftliche und wirtsohaft-
liche EntwioMung in Japan (1900)
FTTKTJI, foo-koo'S The name of seven or
more places in Ja£an, but especially of the chief
city of the Province of Echizen and the ken or
Prefecture of the same name ( Map * Japan, E 5 )
t has a population exceeding 50,000 Fukui
is situated on both sides of the Ashiwa River,
5 miles from the sea The chief manufacture is
habutai, a thin white silk, the production of
in recent years ha$ reached a value of
ovei $10,000,000 The city is clean and cheei
ful and has had a famous histoiy In the mod-
ern renascence of the nation Fukui was one
of the fust educational centres, and it is at
once the stronghold of Buddhism and the seat
of tin ning Christian missions Consult G-iiffis,
The Japanese Nation in Evolution (New York,
1911)
FtfKTJOILA, foo'koo-o'ka A piefectmal town
of Japan, situated on the north coast of Kmshiu,
about 50 miles fiom Kokura (Map Japan, B 7)
It has a number of fine streets, an old castle
now occupied by a garuson, and a public gar-
den Pop, 1903, 71,047, 1908, 82,106
FCJKUSHIMA, fdTJ'koo-she'ma A prefec-
ture! town of Japan, situated in the Province of
I\\ashira, 40 miles by rail from Sendai, and 168
miles fiom Tokyo (Map Japan, G 5) It is an
impoitant centre for tiade in raw silk and co-
coons Pop, 1903, 27,233, 1908, 33,493
FTJE1UYA1EA, foo'koo-ya'ma A seaport of
Japan, situated at the southern end of the
island of Yezo, ovei GO miles from Hakodate
(Map Japan, C 6) It was formerly the seat
of the lords of Matsumai and was the chief
outlet for the tiade of Yezo Since the abolition
of feudalism the town has lost its commeicial
importance and has been supeiseded by Hako-
date It contains a number of interesting
temples and has an estimated population of
15,000
FXTKtrZAWA, foo'koo-2a'wa, YtJKiciri (1834-
1901) A Japanese author and journalist, born
in the Province of Buzen Going to Yedo
(Tokyo) in 1858, he was so fortunate as to be
invited to accompany Awa Katsu m the first
Japanese steamer that crossed the Pacific, re-
maining several months in the United States
In 1862 he accompanied a Japanese embassy to
Europe and improved his opportunity while in
London to purchase a library of foreign books
and to improve his knowledge of English In
1866 he published a work, the first of its kind,
in several volumes, called Sei Yd Jijo (Westein
Manneis and Customs), which became im-
mensely popular and piobably did moie than
any other publication or event to turn the minds
of the Japanese towards Western civilization
He again visited the United States and on his
return was appointed an instructor in the Gov-
ernment College in Yedo, where he continued
until the civil war in 1868 He then entered
upon that systematic course of literary labor by
which, through his books and his newspaper, the
Jiji Shimpo, he has influenced the reconstruc-
tion of Japanese literary style He wrote on
an amazing variety of subjects, criticizing old
Japanese traditions, opinions, and customs,
opened lecture halls, and helped to form the
scholarly M<§i Roku Sha, or Society of the Sixth
Year of MeYji (1874) In 1898 the Emperor be-
stowed on him a gift of 50,000 yen He died
Feb 3, 1901 His second son, Sutejiro, entered
Yale in 1883 to study engineering and on his
return to Japan in 1890 became manager of the
Jiji Bh^mpo. Consult Chamberlain, Things
Japanese (London, 1891) , Griffis, The Japanese
Nation in Evolution (Few York, 1911) , Gulick,
Evolution of the Japanese (ib, 1903) j Lloyd,
Every -Day Japan (London, 1911) , Qku^ia, ffrfty
fears of New Japan (New York, 1909)
FTJLAH, foo'la (or Pulo, pi ffulle) An
important Hamite-Negro people on the upper
Senegal River m "Futa Toro and Futa Jallon
m compact masses ; elsewhere m scattered groups
338
from Senegambia east to Darfur and south to
Adamawa " They are of good stature and light
brown or copper color, having long heads (in-
dex 74 3 ) , Caucasoid features, black and frizzled,
but not woolly, hair, and negroid speech Ac-
cording to Passarge, they strongly resemble the
darker Berber populations of north Afuca
There are four great branches of the Fulah, the
Jel, the Baa, the So9 and the Beri, and many
tribes in each Their name undergoes many
changes m the mouths of their neighbors, being
variously known as Fula (Mandingan), Fulaji,
Fellam (Hausa) , Fulata, Fellata (Kanuri) ,
Fullan (Arab), Ufut, Ifulan (southern Tua-
regs) , Afellen, Ifellen (noithern Tuaiegs) ,
Peul, Poul (French) , Fulah (English) In the
term "Fulah-Zandeh" are sometimes included all
peoples lesulting from the mixing of Ethiopians
with Sudanese negroes, extending from east to
west across the whole of Africa over a belt of
five to six degrees in width Consult Passarge,
section "Kamerun," in Hans Meyer, Das deutsche
Kolonialreich, vol i (Leipzig, 1909)
FTTLBEBT, ful'bar' (c 960-1028) A French
bishop and scholar He was a charity student
in the school at Rheims under Gerbert and after-
ward was connected with the church of Chartres
Here he taught, and under his direction the
schools of the Academy of Chartres attained a
European reputation In 1006 he was elected
Bishop of Chartres He caused the buined
cathedral to be rebuilt (1020), and pait of the
present edifice dates from his episcopate He
was an active participant in the political affairs
of the time and was on intimate terms with
King Robert His coi respondence, discourses,
and hymns are in volume 141 of the Patrologia
of Migne The letters are valuable history of
those days and show the Bishop to have been a
man of character and piety. Consult Pfister, De
Fulberti Garnotensis Episcopi Vita et Operilus
(Nancy, 1886)
FTTLCO See FOULQTJES
FTTLDA, ful'da. An episcopal city, the capi-
tal of a distr ct in the Prussian Province of
Hesse-Nassau, situated on the river Fulda, 69
miles northeast of Frankfort (Map Prussia,
C 3) The most prominent buildings are the
noble cathedral erected at the beginning of the
eighteenth century in imitation of St Peter's in
Rome and containing the remains of St Boni-
face, the church of St Michael, consecrated in
822; the old palace of the prince bishops, the
former Benedictine convent, and a- new and mod-
ern barracks The town has a teachers' semi-
nary and a school of military music The Cath-
olic gymnasium of Fulda is believed to be the
oldest establishment of its kind in Germany and
has a library of 40,000 volumes The manufac-
tures include different kinds of textiles, plush,
leather, metal goods, farm machinery, musical
instruments, soap, chemicals, vinegar, and other
products. Fulda is an important cattle market
and has large railway shops Pop , 1900, 16,900,
1910, 22,487 The town is identified with the
life of St Boniface, who founded an abbey here
in 744 In the eighteenth century it was the
seat of a university It has belonged to Prussia
since 1866
FTJLDA, MONASTEBY OF One of the most
famous of the Benedictine abbeys in Germany.
It was founded in 744 by Boniface, the apostle
of Germany, who desired to establish safe head-
quarters for further missionary efforts A grant
of the spot, with 4 miles of surrounding terri-
tory, was obtained fiom Kailmarm, son of
Charles Maitel Boniface superintended the
clearing of the giound and erection of the build-
ing, while his disciple Sturmius, destined to be
the fiist abbot, spent a year in Italy, visiting
the monasteries and studying the mode of life
pursued at the celebrated Benedictine convent of
Monte Cassmo The abbey soon became a centre
of education and civilization for the surrounding
tribes and for centuries maintained its position
as a place of learning, to which, e g , Alcuin
looked for help in his great educational schemes
Many privileges were given to it, in 958 the
abbot was made primate of the abbeys of Ger-
manv, and he was latei created a prince of the
Empire But with the advance in influence and
wealth there was an increasing coriuption in
many of the monastenes, from which Fulda did
not escape At the beginning of the eleventh
century a reform was attempted by substituting
new monks from Scotland for the old and re-
establishing in all its strictness the Benedictine
rule The Reformation of the sixteenth century
brought discord into the community, but Bal-
thasar von Dermbach (abbot, 1570-1606) effected
the suppiession of the new doctrines Abbot
Schenk von Schweinsberg (1623-32) completed
the woik of reformation, supported by Pope Ur-
ban VITI In 1626 he brought 17 monks from
St Gall to set a good example With the elec-
tion of Joachim von Gravenegg, in 1654, the
abbey entered upon a new period of prosperity
Benedict XIV, in 1752, created the abbot Prince
Bishop of Fulda The diocese was secularized
in 1802, to be restored, with somewhat diffeient
boundaries, in 1829 The buildings of the old
monastery were occupied by a clerical seminary,
which was one of the first points of attack in
the Kulturkampf of 1874 The diocese is at
present an important one, with about 200,000
Catholic population, the cathedral and episcopal
seminary still being at Fulda Consult Arnd,
GescMchte des Hochsttfts Fulda (Frankfort,
1862), and Hartmann, Zeitgesclnchte von Fulda
(Fulda, 1895) A collection of original docu-
ments is in course of preparation
PULDA, LUDWIG (1862- ) A German
poet and dramatist, born at Frankfort-on-the-
Main He studied at Heidelberg, Berlin, and
Leipzig, and in 1882 obtained a prize in compe-
tition by his one-act verse comedy, Die Aufmch-
tigen (1883) After the appearance of a series
of comedies, including Em Meteor (1887) and
Die wilde Jagd (1888), he assumed the manner
of the so-called Berlin School of Beahsm In
1893 he was awarded the Schiller prize for the
very successful fairy drama, Der Talisman
(1893), but the Emperor refused his consent
Subsequent works are Jugendfreunde (1897),
Lost Paradise (1898), Die Zwillingssohwester
(1901), an English version of which was pre-
sented in America, Kaltwasser (1903) , Novella
$ Andrea (1903) ; a volume of dramatic studies,
Aus der Werkstatt (1904), Der Eeimliche
Komg (1906), Amerikamsche Eindrucke
(1906), Der Dummkopf (1907), Herr und
Diener (1910), Die Seerauber (1911), Herr
Aladdin und die Wunderlampe (1912), a tale
Fulda's verses are distinguished by their epi-
grammatic wit, and his plays are skillfully
contrived His translations from the French of
Beaumarchais, Moliere, and Rostand are ex-
cellent In 1906 and 1913-14 he lectured in the
United States
PtTI/POBB, FEANCIS (1803-68). A Cana-
339
EULKE
dian Anglican bishop, bom at Sidmouth, Eng-
land, and educated at Exeter College, Oxford
He was curate at Holne and Fawley, rector of
Trowbridge, Wiltshire (1832-42), and of Croy-
don (1842-45) , and minister of Curzon Chapel,
London (1845-50), and in 1848 was appointed
editor of the Colonial Gliwch Chronicle and
Missionary Journal His knowledge of colonial
chuich affairs led in part to his promotion in
1850 as the first Bishop of the newly created see
of Montreal, and his success in that' office was so
marked that in 1860 he was created Metropoli-
tan of Canada by royal letters patent, the see
of Montreal at the same time being given metro-
politan rank As an oigamzer of church work
and an administrator, he was eminently efficient ,
but his gieat popularity with all classes was
due to his tolerant and sympathetic attitude
In 1852 he won instant regard from the ad-
herents of non-Anglican churches by his public
statement that the Church of England in Ccxnada
existed but as one of many religious bodies.
He was a learned and scholarly prelate In
1850 he received the honorary degree of D D
from Oxford University He published Plain
Sermons on the Church and her Services (1837—
38 ) , Progress of the Reformation in England
(1841) , Sermon at the Consecration of Horatio
Potter, DD, in Trinity Church, New York
(1854) ; Sermons and Addresses (1865), besides
many pastoral letters, charges, and lectures
iFUXGrENTIUS. See GOTTSCHALK
FULGENTIUS, ful-jen'shi-us, FABIUS PLAN-
CIADES (c480-c550) An African grammarian,
of whose life and personality nothing is known
save from internal evidence His style is typi-
cally African Besides a Liber de Fictions Poe-
tarum and Liber Physiologus, both now lost, he
wrote Mythologicon Libri III, with etymologi-
cal explanations after the manner of Martianus
Capella, Expositio Vergiliance Continents,
which interprets the JSneid allegorically , a his-
tory, Alsque Litens, de Mtatibus Mundi, which
does not employ the letter A at all in the first
book, B in the second, etc, through 14 books,
and the very untrustworthy fflxpositio Sermo-
num Antiquorum, which contains many ficti-
tious quotations In the Teubner texts Helm
edited Fulgentn Opera (1898) His lelative
Fulgentms (468-533), Bishop of Kuspe, wrote
several volumes on theology Consult Zink, Der
Mytholog Fulgentius (Wurzburg, 1867)
FULGENTIUS, SAINT, or RUSPE (468-533).
A Latin Christian Father He was born at Te-
lepte, northern Africa, of senatorial family He
received a good education and became first pro-
curator of his province Disturbed by the tur-
bulence of the times, he retired to a monastery
near Telepte, Persecution, from the Arian kings
drove the monks elsewhere, and Fulgentius went
to Rome m 500 Returning to Africa, he
founded a monastery He was made Bishop of
Ruspe in 508 About 510 he was banished and
again in 515, and suffered other persecutions
from the Vandal King Thrasimund (496-523)
On the death of the Sing he was recalled and
passed his later years in peace He died at
Ruspe, Jan. 1, 533, and is commemorated on
that day by the Catholic church Fulgentius
was an ardent admirer of monasticism and a
rigorous ascetic, he was recognized as pne of
the ablest defenders of Christianity against
Ananism and Pelagianism. His works are in
Migne, Patrol hat, Ixv* His life by his pupil,
JFulgentius Ferrandus (cJ540), is contained in
Migne, Patrol Lat , Ixvn His letters have been
edited by Hurter (Innsbiuck, 1884) Consult
Mally, Das Left en des heiligen Fulgentius (Vi-
enna, 1885), and Bardenhewei, Patrology (St
Louis, 1908)
FULGUBATKOT. See SURGERY
FULGURITE, ftiKga-rtt (from Lat fulgwr,
lightning, from fulgere, to flash, connected with
flagrare, to blaze) A name given to tubes or
pipes found in rocks and sands and formed by
the actual fusion of these materials by light-
ning Such tubes may have a diameter of from
1 to 2 inches at the surface, but as they descend
m a vertical or oblique direction they branch
and rapidly lessen in size They aie commonly
found in such regions as are visited by frequent
and violent storms, often on mountain peaks
FULHAM, ful'am A metropolitan borough
of London, England, formerly a suburban vil-
lage, 6 miles southwest of St Paul's Cathedral,
on the left bank of the Thames, opposite Putney,
with which it is connected by two budges
(Map London, EG) It includes the residen-
tial districts of West Kensington and Walham
Green Its distinction dates from the reign of
Henry VII, when it was chosen as the summer
residence of the Bishop of London The episco-
pal palace, an extensive brick building, parts of
which date from the sixteenth century, stands
in fine grounds girded by a moat, 1 mile in cir-
cuit The parish church of All Saints, restored
in 18813 with a picturesque perpendicular tower
of the fourteenth century, contains the tombs
of several bishops ol London The borough
maintains electric lighting, public libraries,
baths, hospitals, and charitable institutions At
the Queen's Club most of the athletic contests
between Oxfoid and Cambridge and American
universities are held, Pop (borough), 1901,
137,289, 1911, 153,325
FULK, or EULC, or EOULQUES, f oolk The
name of several counts of Anjou — FULK II
(938-958), called "the Good,3' is remembeied
for his saying that "An illiterate king is a
crowned ass " — FULK III, called "the Black"
(972-1040), became Count in 987 He was a
successful and indefatigable warrior, but was
renowned chiefly for his repeated pilgrimages to
the Holy Land, whither he went as a penance
for his many crimes — FULK V, called "the
Young" (1092-1143), became Count in 1109 In
1129 he went to Jerusalem, where he married
Melisande, the daughter of I£mg Baldwin II
In 1131 he succeeded his father-in-law as King
(of Jerusalem), and reigned until 1143 He
strengthened the kingdom to a large extent by
making alliances and by driving back the Turks
He was succeeded by his two sons Baldwin III
and Amalric I
EULKE, fulk, WILLIAM (1538-89). A Puri-
tan controversialist He was born in London,
graduated from Cambridge, and began the study
of law, but gave it up for theology He became
fellow of his college (St John's) in 1564, rector
of Warley and Denmngton in 1569, and master
of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 1578 He was a
Puritan of the most extreme type and particu-
larly delighted in controversy His Defense of
the Sincere and True Translation of the ffoUe
Scriptures mto the English Tong Affamst the
Cavils of Gregory Martin (1583), Btapleton's
Fortress Overthrown (1580) ; RejQi^er to Mar-
tiall's Reply Against the Answer of Martin Calf-
Mil (1580), and Discovery of the Dangerous
Rook of the Popish Ohwrch Hy* been reprinted
FTTLLAM
340
by the Parker Society, with, a memoir ( Cam-
bridge, 1843-48)
PTTI/LAM, WILLIAM FKEELAND (1855-1920)
An American naval officer, born in Monroe Co.,
N Y He graduated at the head of his class
from the United States Naval Academy in 1877
and was promoted successively through the
lower grades to the rank of commander in 1905
and captain m 1909 From 1883 to 1904 he
served at the Naval Academy as instructor in
various departments and later as head of the
department of ordnance During the Spanish-
American War he served on the New Orleans
He commanded the Chesapeake, Tenoi, and
Marietta , was commandant of the Naval Train-
ing Station at Newport, K I , in 1907-09, com-
manded the Mississippi in 1910, and directed
naval training on the Gieat Lakes in 1912 In
1914 he became superintendent of the United
States Naval Academy He is author of Hand-
Book of Infantry and Artillery, United States
Navy (1899), and Text-Book of Ordnance and
Q-unnery (1902, rev ed , 1903, new ed , 1905)
FIJI/LEU, ANDREW (1754-1815) An Eng-
lish Baptist minister, controversial writer, and
promoter of foreign missions He was born at
Wicken, Cambridgeshire, Feb 5, 1754 He re-
ceived the rudiments of an education at the free
school of Soham and in 1775 was chosen pastor
of the Baptist congregation of that place In
1782 he removed to Kettering, Northampton-
shire, to take the pastorate of a congiegation
there, and remained theie till his death, May 7,
1815 His first interest in foreign missions was
shown in 1784, and his sermon, The Gfospel of
Christ Wot thy of All Acceptation (Northamp-
ton, 1785), greatly impressed Carey, the first
Baptist missionary When the Baptist Mission-
ary Society was formed at Kettering in 1792, he
became its secretary and gave the remainder of
his life to its affairs. His writings were very
popular, they include The Calvmistic and So-
cinian Systems Examined and Compared as to
their Moral Tendency (1794) , The Gospel its
Own Witness (1799^1 , An Apology for the Late
Christian Mission ro India (1808) There are
several editions of his collected works For his
biography, consult- Rylands (London, 1816) ,
T E Fuller (ib, 1863), and A G. Fuller (ib,
1882)
FULLER, AKTHTJR BUCKMINSTER (1822-62)
An American Unitarian clergyman He was
barn at Cambridgeport, Mass , graduated at
Harvard College in 1843, and studied theology
in the Harvard Divinity School He was a
teacher and missionary in Illinois, and pastor
at Manchester, N H, Boston and Watertown,
Mass He volunteered in the Federal army in
the Civil War, was made chaplain in a Massa-
chusetts regiment, and was killed at Fredericks-
burg, crossing the Rappahannock He was
a brother of Margaret Fuller (Marchioness
Ossoli) and edited several of her works (1855)
Consult R F Fuller (his brother), Chaplain
Fuller (Boston, 1863), and a sketch by Higgm-
son in Harvard Memorial Biographies, vol. i
(Cambridge, Mass, 1866)
FTTLLEB, GETOBGE (1822-84) An American
figure, portrait, and landscape painter, born at
Deerfield, Mass From 1836 to 1838 he was in
Illinois with a party of civil engineers and was
associated with Henry Kirke Brown the sculp-
tor Returning to Deerfield, he completed his
rather scanty education and tried his hand at
landscape and portrait painting. In 1842-43 he
studied with Brown in Albany He spent sev-
eral years in Boston as a portrait painter, then
lemoved to New York and continued his studies
at the Academy He was elected associate of the
National Academy in 1857, upon an exhibition
of a portrait of his fiist master, Hemy Kiike
Brown He spent three years in the South,
making many studies of negro life, and in I860
he went to Europe On his return to Deei field
he combined his interests as an aitist and
farmer For 16 years he ceased to exhibit his
pictures, and during this period he developed
an individual style, very different fiom his pie-
cise, piosaic eaily work, which differed little
fiom the average output of the day Finally,
being in need of money, in 1876 he exhibited J4
pictmes in Boston, which weie icceived with
enthusiasm This was followed by fiequcnt ex-
hibitions at the National Academy in 1879 he
showed the "Romany Girl" and "She Was a
Witch" (Metropolitan Museum, New York) , in
1880 the "Quadroon," an admirable production
(Metropolitan Museum) , and in 1881, the fin-
est of all his works, 'Wimfied Dvsart," and
"Nydia" (Metropolitan Museum) were pimted,
and m 1883 "Arethusa" and "Turkey Pastuie in
Kentucky" The subjects of Fullei's pictuies
are extremely simple, conceived in a pictonal
spirit His landscapes are not so much definite
pictures of localities as idealized studies of
coloi, light, and foliage, with a poetic expres-
sion of sun and shadow He pieseived all the
large lines of foirn, sacrificing the minor details
to the beauty of the whole The essence of his
ait was selection Fuller was the foieiuuncr of
a new tendency in art, that of the Idealistic
school He was one of the founders of the
Society of American Artists Consult his biog-
raphy by Millet (Boston, 1886) , Van Rennse-
laer, Six Portraits (New Yoik, 1889), Isham,
History of American Painting (ib , 1905)
PTJLLEU, HENRY BLAKE (1857- ) An
American novelist and story- writer, born in Chi-
cago His first story, The Chevalier of Pensien-
Vani) was published anonymously, won favor in
the eyes of Professors Norton and Lowell, and,
on its republication (1892), became popular
In 1892 also appealed The Chatelaine of La
Trinite Both were romantic The Cliff Dwell-
ers (1893) was an essay in relentless realism
This picture of Chicago life was followed by
the realistic With the Procession (1895), kind-
liei in touch, with humor playing over its seri-
ousness His work also includes Under the Sky-
lights (1901) , Waldo Trench and Others (1908) ,
and 12 one-act plays collected in The Puppet
Booth
FULLER, LOIE. An American actress and
dancer, noted for her invention of the "Serpen-
tine Dance" She was born near Chicago, and
as a child appeared at the Academy of Music
there Subsequently she appeared in a variety
of characters (including Ustane in She] before
devoting herself to her specialty In later years
she resided chiefly in Paris, where she appealed
at the Folies-Berge're and in 1900 in a theatre
of her own In 1913 she published a volume of
reminiscences called Fifteen Years of a Dancer's
Life
FULLER, LUCIA FAIRCHIUD (1872- ).
An American miniature painter, born in Bos-
ton She studied at the Cowles Art School
under Dennis M Bunker, and at the Art Stu-
dents" League undei William M Chase and H
Siddons Mowbray In 1893 she was married
FULLEB
342
FITLLEB
to Henry Brown Fuller After 1889 she came
to be known as a painter of miniatures She
won a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition in
1900, a silver medal at the Buffalo Exposition
in 1901, and a gold medal at the St Louis
Exposition in 1904 She became president of
the American Society of Miniature Painters,
and in 1906 was elected an Associate National
Academician
FULLER, MARGARET See FULLER, (SARAH)
MARGARET
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
An American jurist Born in Augusta,, Me , he
belonged to a family of lawyers, his maternal
grandfather, Nathan Weston, having been a jus-
tice of the Maine Supreme Court He graduated
at Bowdom College in 1353, studied at the Har-
vard Law School, began legal practice at
Augusta in 1855, and was also there foi a time
an associate editor of the Age, a Democratic
newspaper In 1856 he was president of the
Augusta Common Council and city attorney, but
resigned his offices and established himself at
Chicago, 111 He was a member of the Illinois
State Constitutional Convention of 1862, and
in 1863-65 was a member of the Lower House
of the Illinois Legislature In 1864, 1872, 1876
(when he placed T A Hendricks in nomina-
tion), and 1880 (when he withdrew from active
politics) he was a delegate to the Democratic
National Convention As a lawyer, he at-
tained prominent rank locally, but he was not
widely known when in 1888 he was appointed
by President Cleveland Chief Justice of the
United States Supierne Court, to succeed M R
Waite (qv), deceased In 31 cases during his
term he dissented from the majority of the
court In December, 1889, he delivered before
the two Houses of Congiess an address com-
memorating the inauguration of President Wash-
ington In 1899 he was a member of the Aibi-
tration Commission convened at Paris for the
adjustment of the Anglo- Venezuelan boundary
question, and in 1904-05 he was chosen by
Great Britain as arbitrator at The Hague in
the case of the French flag at Muscat He re-
ceived the degree of LL D from Harvard in
1891. Consult an article by Reeder m Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania Law Review (October,
1910), for a summary of his work in the Su-
preme Court
FULLER, RICHARD (1804-76) An Amencan
Baptist cleigyman He was born in Beaufort,
S C , studied at Harvard, was admitted to the
bar, and after successful practice entered the
Baptist ministry — in 1831 he had become a Bap-
tist after being brought up as an Episcopalian
From 1846 until his death he was pastor of the
Seventh Baptist Church in Baltimore He was
a leader of the proslavery party m the church,
as Francis Wayland was of the antislavery
party, and their controversies led to the split
into the Northern and Southern churches He
published Letters [to Bishop England] on the
Roman Chancery, Correspondence on Domestic
Slavery , Baptism and Close Communion (1849) ,
The Psalmist, a hymn book used in America and
England, Scriptural Baptism (1863) Consult
Cuthbert, Memoir of Richard Fuller (New York,
1879)
FULLER, (SARAH) MARGARET, (MARCHION-
ESS OSSOLI) (1810-50) An American critic and
essayist, born at Cambridgeport, Mass , May 23,
1810, The eldest of the eight children of Tim-
othy Fuller/ a Massachusetts lawyer and poli-
tician, she was strenuously educated by hei
father, by Dr Park of Boston, and m the Misses
Prescott's School of Groton, beginning Latin at
six and Greek at 13, and permanently injuring
her health by overapphcation On the death of
her father (1835) she supported her brothers
and sisters by public and private teaching in
Boston and Providence She was a frequent
guest at Biook Faim, though nevei sharing its
enthusiasms, held intellectual conveisations in
Boston, conducted the Transcendental oigan, the
Died, for the first half (1840-42) of its brief
existence, made translations fiom the German,
and published in 1844 her first volume, Summer
on the Lakes, the record of a season of travel in
1843 In December (1844) she went to New
York as literal y critic of the Tribune, taking
active part m the philanthropic, literary, and
artistic life of the city In 1846 she went to
Euiope, residing for some time at Rome, where
she man led (December, 1847) Giovanni Angelo,
Marquis Ossoli, by whom she had one child
She took an active pait in the Italian stiuggle
for independence and seived hcioically in the
hospitals during the French siege of Home On
its capture (July, 1849) she took refuge with
her husband nrst in the mountains of Abruzzi,
then at Floience, and on May 17, 1850, sailed
for America, but with her husband and son was
drowned off Fire Island Beach just as they were
approaching New York on July 16
Her life falls naturally into three periods
Till 1844 she lived an intense life; seeking self-
culture in the exciting stimulation of the Tran-
scendental circle The two years fiom 1844 till
her visit to Italy are those of original literary
production Women in the Nineteenth Centuty
(1844) and Papers on Literature and Art
(1846) are its monuments Her activities in
Rome found a literary expression in a book
on the Roman Republic, the manuscript of which
was lost with her With all her tact and bril-
liancy, she was not an original genius, she
needed the inspiration of an audience, talking
better than she wrote Her Letters are therefore
the most leadable of her works, and the posi-
tion that she held in Boston and in New York
is hardly to be understood fiom her writings
Some of these have been edited by Julia Ward
Howe It was a natural instinct that led her
to select for translation Eckermann's Conversa-
tions with Qoethe (1839) and The Correspond-
ence of Fraulein G under ode and Bettina von
Arnim (1840-42). There are biographies by
Emeison, Clarke, and Channing (Boston, 1852),
Julia Ward Howe (ib , 1883), and Thomas
Wentworth Higginson (ib, 1884) * There is also
a Memoir by her brother, Arthur B Fuller
(Boston, 1855) Her Love Letters 1845-6 were
published m 1903. Consult also reprint of the
Dial by the Rowfant Club (Chicago, 1002),
H C Goddard, Studies in New England Tran-
scendentalism (New York, 1908) , Maigaret and
her Friends, 10 conversations ed by Mrs. C H
Dall (Boston, 1895) , A Macphail, Essays in
Puritanism (ib , 1905), F A Braun, Margaret
Fuller and 0-oethe (New York, 1910).
FULLER, THOMAS (1608-61) An English
author and divine He was born at Aldwincle,
Northamptonshire, of which parish his father
was rector, and was educated at Queen's Col-
lege, Cambridge, graduating B A. in 1625 and
MA in 1628 Two years later he was ap-
pointed to the curacy of St. Benet's The next
year he became a prebendary in Salisbury Ca-
DULLER
342
thedral, and in 1634 he was appointed to the
rectory of Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire. Abandon-
ing both his living and his prebend in 1641, he
settled in London, \\here he soon became curate
of the Savoy, a church in the Strand In the
meantime he had published the Holy State and
the Profane State (1642), and an account of the
Crusades, entitled History of the Holy Warre
(1643), the most characteristic of his works
During the Civil War he adhered firmly to the
royal cause and shared in its reverses He was
a chaplain in the royal army, when he wrote for
the encouragement of his men a manual of
prayers and meditations entitled G-ood Thoughts
in Bad Times (1645), and a sequel, Better
Thoughts in Worse Times (1647) About 1648
he was presented to the living of Waltham in
Esses In 1650 he published a geographical ac-
count of the Holy Land, entitled A. Pisgah Sight
of Palestine and the Confines Thereof, with maps
and views In 1655 appeared The Church His-
tory of Britain, from the Birth of Chtist Until
the year 1648 (for a modern edition, see that of
J. S Brewer, 6 vols , Oxford, 1845) In 1658
he received the living of Cranford, Middlesex,
and at the Restoration he was reinstated in his
prebend of Salisbury,, of which he had been
deprived by the Parliamentarians. He was also
appointed chaplain extraordinary to the King
He died in London The next year (1662) ap-
peared The Worthies of England, valuable for
the information it contains on provincial his-
tory, and abounding in biographical anecdote,
witty remark, and acute obseivation on men
and manners Quaint humor is one of Fullei's
peculiar characteristics, but his writings are
no less remarkable for wisdom, imagination, and,
when occasion demands, even for pathos. Con-
sult Bailey, Life of Thomas Fuller t with Notices
of his Books, etc (London, 1874).
FTJLLER, THOMAS (1823-99). A Canadian
architect He was born in Bath, England, and
studied with architects there and in London
His first work was the designing and erection
of a cathedral m Antigua, West Indies, after
FULLERTCW
partment of Public Works, an office which he
held until his retirement in 1S97
FTTLLER-MAITLAlSrD, JOHN ALEXANDER
(1856- ) An English writer on music, bom
m London He graduated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1879, and, after having contrib-
uted for a number of yeais to the London
papers, became in 1889 music critic of the Times
He wrote many articles for the Dictionary of
National Biography, for Grove's Dictionary of
Music and Musicians (the appendix of which he
edited), and for some of the leading periodicals
He also wrote a standard life of Schumann m
the Great Musicians Series (1884) , Masters of
German Music (1804) , The Musician's Pilgt im-
age A Study in Attistic Development (1899),
English Music in the Seventeenth Century
(1902), The Age of Bach and Handel (being
vol iv of the Oxford History of Music, 1904) ,
Brahms (1911), and was joint translatoi with
Clara Bell of Spitta's Life of J S Bach (1884).
He is the editor in chief of the revised edition of
Grove's Dictionary
FULLER'S EARTH (AS fullere, from Lat.
iullo> fuller). A material resembling clay in ap-
peaiance. It is fine-grained, of variable color,
and has a specific gravity of from 1 8 to 2 2 It
derives its name from the fact that its principal
use once was for fulling cloth and wool, i e ,
cleansing these materials of grease At the pres-
ent day a much more important application is
for clarifying cottonseed and lubricating oil,
by filtering them through the earth, which ab-
soibs the impurities. Puller's earth was origi-
nally mined only in England, where it occurs m
Cretaceous beds which formerly served as the
only source of supply for the United States A
variety of fuller's earth, known as cimolite, oc-
curs in the island of Argentiera, Greece, and has
been mined since ancient times More recently
fuller's earth deposits have been discovered near
Quincy, Fla , and at other localities in the
United States, chiefly m Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations The following analyses of fuller's
earth show the composition of the material:
SiOa
Ala08
FeaOs
CaO
MgO
NasO
K20
H20
Moisture
1
2
5281
6283
692
1035
378
245
740
243
227
312
20
74
74
1427
772
ed
which he returned to England. Going to To-
ronto, Upper Canada, in 1857, he began practice
in that city, and in 1859, in conjunction with
his partner, ^Chilion Jones, won first premium
for the design, ultimately adopted, of the Par-
liament building at Ottawa At the same time
his firm won second premium for the design for
the departmental buildings and Governor-Gen-
eraTs residence. Fuller then removed to Ottawa,
where he remained until 1867 In that year the
competition for the new capitol at Albany was
opened, and Fuller's design was one of three
for which equal premiums were awarded In
the second competition he, in conjunction with
Augustus Laver, one of the three competitors,
made a design from which the capitol was built
Soon afterward the joint design of the two ar-
chitects for the city hall and the courts at San
Francisco,, Cal , was accepted Fuller, who had
removed to Albany, remained there until 1881,
when he returned" to Ottawa and in the same
year was appointed chief architect of the De-
1 is from Reigate, England, and 2 from Quincy,
Fla It should be added, however, that the
power of fuller's earth is a purely physical
property and stands in no relation to its chem-
ical composition The output of fuller's earth in
the United States in 1912 was 32,715 short tons,
valued at $305,522 Consult Ries, Clays, Occur-
rence, Properties, and Uses (New York, 1910) , and
Parsons, Bureau of Mines, Bulletin 71 (1913).
FULLER'S THISTLE See TEASEL
FTJL'LERTON, GEOKGE STUABT (1859-
1025) An American philosopher and psycholo-
gist He was born at Fatehgarh, India, gradu-
ated in 1879 from the University of Pennsyl-
vania and in 1883 from Yale Divinity School,
and returned to Pennsylvania to be instructor,
adjunct professor, and professor, dean of the
department of philosophy, dean of the college,
and vice provost of the university In 1904 he
was appointed professor of philosophy at Co-
lumbia University In 1913-14 he was exchange
professor at the University of Vienna! He was
343
president of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation in 1896 His philosophy is lealistic
His writings include The Conception of the
Infinite ( 1S87 ) , A Plain Argument for God
(1889) , On Sameness and Identity (1890) , On
the Perception of Small Differences, with Cattell
(1892), The Philosophy of Spinoza (1894),
On Spvnovistic Immortality (1899), A System
of Metaphysics (1904) , An Introduction to Phi-
losophy (1906) , The World We Live in, or Phi-
losophy and Life in the Light of Modern Thought
(1912)
FUL'LEKTON, LADY GEORGIANA (1812-85)
An English novelist and philanthropist, daughter
of the first Earl Granville She was bom at
Tixall Hall, Staffordshire, and in 1833 married
Alexander Fullerton In 1844 she published her
first novel, Mien Middleton Her second work,
Giantley Manor, was written in the interest of
the High Church party In 1846 she entered the
Roman Catholic chuich and afterward published
a number of controversial novels, chief among
which are Lady Bird (1852), Too Sttange Not
to be True (1864), and Constance Sherwood
(1865) After 1854 she devoted much time to
charity Consult Coleridge, The Life of Lady
Georgians Full&rton^ trans from the French of
Madame P de la IT. E Craven (London, 1888)
FULMAR, ful'mar (special use of fulmar,
fulmart, foulmart, polecat, from AS ful9 Eng
foul + OF wiarte, Fr martre, from OHG mar-
dar, Ger Harder, AS mearps, Eng marten).
Any of several species of strictly oceanic petrels
(See PETREL ) The common northern fulmar
(Fulmarus glacialis), the "mallemuck" of sail-
ors, is a "bird about the size of a duck, gray
above, white beneath, head, neck, and tail pure
white, bill yellow, the young are brownish gray
It inhabits the most northern seas, in which its
numbers are prodigious, breeds on the rocky
shores of the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland,
Spitzbergen, etc , on the grassy shelves of the
precipices, making a slight nest or a mere ex-
cavation, m which it lays one egg It is rarely
to be seen on the United States coast south of
Massachusetts or on the southern coasts of Great
Britain, but breeds in great numbers m St Kilda
and adjacent islets It is extraordinarily abun-
dant about these isles and is of importance to
the inhabitants of St. Kilda, who esteem its
eggs and flesh above those of any other bird and
gather them in the most perilous manner, de-
scending by ropes from the summit of the preci-
pices. The fulmars are also valued for their
feathers, down, and oil, the last is one of the
principal products of St Kilda and is obtained
from their stomachs The old are said to feed
the young with it, and when they are caught
or assailed these birds lighten themselves by dis-
gorging it It is amber-colored and has a pe-
culiar and nauseous odor Fulmars feed on all
animal substances which come in their way, giv-
ing an evident preference to fat and delighting
in the blubber of shales Another important
species is the giant fulmar (Ossifraga g<igant&a,
or Macronectes gigant&us) t notable for its size,
which equals that of a small albatross It is
found in the Pacific Ocean and is known to sail-
ors as "bone breaker/' because of the observed
crushing power of its great hooked beak The
slender-billed fulmar (Fulmarm, or Pnooella,
gla&ialoides) is a very widely ranging form
which occurs on the Alaskan coast of Bering Sea.
It is of the same size as the common fulmar,
but the bill is muck longer and more slender.
Several of the fulmars are remarkable for their
dichromatism See Plate of FISHING BIRDS
FULMINATE (ful'mi-nat) OF MERCURY
(from Lat fulminate, to lighten, horn fulmen,
lightning, from fulyere, to Hash), or FTJLMINAT-
IISG MERCURY (C = NO)2Hg%H,0, 01, in its
anhydrous state, (C = NO),Hg A highly ex-
plosive crystalline organic salt of meicury, spar-
ingly soluble in cold watei, freely soluble in hot
water It is obtained by dissolving mercury in
an excess of nitric acid and gradually adding the
solution to alcohol The operation is attended
with considerable danger and should not be con-
ducted in the neighborhood of flames, as the
vapors evolved during the reaction are very in-
flammable On cooling, fulminating meicury
separates out in ciystallme form When moist,
it may be handled without much danger, but
when dry, it explodes with violence if sti uck by a
hard body or if heated Mixtures of fulminating
mercury with nitre or with chlorate of potash
are employed as the primary of percussion caps
FULMINATE OF SILVEH, or FULMINAT-
ING SILVER, C = NO-Ag Aii organic salt of
silver, piepared by heating an aqueous solution
of silver nitiate with nitiic acid and alcohol
It is even more powei fully explosive than the
fulminate of meicury, for, even if it is moist
or under water, piessure with a hard body will
cause its explosion, and when it is quite dry the
slightest friction between two hard bodies pro-
duces a similar result
FULMINATES, A term applied to a class
of salts having the same percentage composition
as the cyanates, but, unlike them, exploding vio-
lently when heated or struck There are many
fulminates, corresponding to the different
metals. The prepaiation of the fulminates is
attended with very considerable danger and
should not be attempted by inexperienced per-
sons The structuial formula at present as-
signed to the acid, fulnunic acid, combined in
the fulminates is C = N — 0 — H, a formula
first demonstrated by Nef and remarkable be-
cause the carbon atom contained in it is shown,
not aa quadrivalent (as the caibon atom is gen-
erally found to be), but as Zn-valent The ful-
minate of sodium has been definitely shown to
have the corresponding formula C = N — 0 — Na
The acid itself has not been isolated, but has
been obtained as an unstable oily liquid in
ethereal solution See EXPLOSIVES
FULMZKPIC ACID. See FULMINATES
FUL'TON. A city in White&ide Co , 111 , 41
miles by rail northeast of Rock Island, on the
Mississippi River, and on the Chicago, Burling-
ton, and Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee, and
St Paul, and the Chicago and Nbith western rail-
roads (Map Illinois, D 2) It contains a Car-
negie library There are limekilns, novelty
works, and manufactures of clay pipes, stoves, etc.,
and an extensive trade is carried on in grain,
lumber, and produce The water works are
owned by the city Pop , 1900, 2685, 1910, 2174
FULTON A city in Fulton Co, Ky, 50
miles south of Paducah, on the Illinois Central
Railroad (Map Kentucky, A 6) It contains
the Carr Institute, Terry-Norman High School,
and Tennessee College The industrial estab-
lishments include flour mills, foundry and ma-
chine shops, a stirrup and whipstock factory,
tobacco prizing houses, a harness and saddle
factory, and lumber mills The water works are
owned by the city Pop , 1900, 2860, 1910, 2575
FULTON. A city and the county seat of
FULTON
344
FULTON
Callaway Co, Mo, 135 miles by rail west of
St Louis, on the Chicago and Alton Railroad
(Map Missouri, E 3) It is the seat of the
State School for the Deaf, State Hospital No 1,
an insane asylum, Westminster College (Pres-
byterian), founded in 1S53, Synodical College,
Conservatory of Music for Young Ladies, founded
in 1874, under the care of the Synod of Mis-
souii, and William Woods College of the Chiis-
tian church of Missouri, founded in 1890, and
it contains a Carnegie library The city is in
a rich agricultural and stock-raising region, has
an extensive supply of coal and fire clay of excel-
lent quality, and manufactures flour, fire brick,
and overalls Settled in 1825, Fulton was in-
corporated in 1859, and in 1903 became a city
of the thud class Its government is admin-
isteied by a mayor and a council elected every
two jeais The city owns and operates its
water works and electric-light plant Pop 3
1900, 4883, 1910, 5228
FULT02ST A city in Oswego Co , N Y , 25
miles northwest of Syracuse, on the Oswego
River, the Oswego Canal, and the New York Cen-
tral, the Lackawanna, and the New York, On-
tario, and Western railroads (Map- New York,
D 4) It has a public library The city cames
on a considerable trade in milk and tobacco, and
there are manufactuies of chocolate, Horn, woolen
goods, paper pulp, firearms, tools, pocket cut-
lery, butchers' supplies, excelsioi, water motois,
ensilage and stiaw cutteis, paper-mill machin-
ery, canned goods, motoi boats, canoes, and
yachts Pop, 1900, 5281, 1910, 10,480, 1914
(U S est), 13,303, 1920, 13,043 Fulton was
settled about 1791 and \\as fiist mcoipoiated in
1855 In April, 1902, the villages of Fulton and
Oswego Falls, with an aggregate population of
8206 (census of 1900), weie consolidated and
chartered as a city, the government of which is
administered by a mayor and common council
The water works are owned and operated by the
municipality
FULTON' The first steam war vessel, de-
signed by Robert Fulton and built in New York
m 1815 The Fulton was a vessel of 38 tons,
provided with central paddle wheels. She was
accidentally blown up in 1829
FULTON, FREDERICK JOHN (1862- )
A Canadian statesman He was born at Bed-
lington, England, and was educated at Magda-
lene College, Cambridge Removing to Canada,
he practiced law at Victoria, British Columbia,
in 1900 was elected a Conservative member of
the British Columbia Legislature, and in 1903
was appointed President of the Council in the
cabinet of Sir Richard McBride (qv ) He
afterward filled the offices of Provincial Secre-
tary, Minister of Education, Attorney- General,
and Commissioner of Lands In 1906 he was
appointed a member of the Royal Institution
for the Advancement of Learning, British Co-
lumbia,, in 1907 a member of the Irrigation Con-
vention, and in 1909 chairman of the Timber
and Forestry Commission When Commissioner
of Lands, Fulton procured the enactment of a
water and irrigation law of much importance
In 1909 he retired trom public life
FULTON, JUSTIN DEWEY (1828-1901) An
American Baptist clergyman He was born in
Earlville, N Y , graduated at Rochester Univer-
sity in 1851, studied in the Rochester Theolog-
ical Seminary, and was ordained in 1854 in St
Louis, where he was editor of the Gospel Banner
and whence his antislavery views soon drove
him He had pastoral charges in Sandusky,
Ohio, Albany, Boston, Biooklyn, N Y , and
Montreal, Canada, but was best known for his
attacks 011 the Roman Catholic chuich Among
his works aie Roman Catholic Elements in
American History (1859) , Woman as God Made
Her (1867) , Rome in America (1884) Consult
the sketch of the author in the last-named vol-
ume, by R S MacArthur
FULTON, ROBEET (1765-1815) A celebiated
Amoi ican engineer, born at Little Britain, Pa ,
of Irish parents, who were in such poor circum
stances that all the education young Fulton ac-
quired was the ability to read and wiite He
made good use, howevei, of Ins opportunities
and passed in study the time allowed him for
lecreation At an early age he was apprenticed
to a jeweler in Philadelphia, and in addition to
devoting himself to this trade, he applied him-
self to painting The sale of his poi traits and
landscapes enabled him, in the space of four
years, to buy a small farm, on which he placed
his widowed mother At the age of 22 he pro-
ceeded to London, where he studied painting
under Benjamin West, but aftei several yeais
thus spent he abandoned painting to devote him-
self wholly to mechanics Some woiks that he
executed in Devonshire obtained for him the
patronage of the Duke of Bridgewater and of
the Eail of Stanhope In 1794 he obtained from
the Butish government a patent for an inclined
plane, the object of which was to displace canal
locks, and in the same year he invented a mill
for sawing and polishing marble His next in-
vention was a machine for spinning flax, fol-
lowed by one for making ropes He was received
as a civil engineer m 1795 and wrote a work
on canals, in which he developed his system and
ideas Accepting an invitation from the United
States Minister at Paris, he proceeded to that
city in 1796 and lemamed there for seven years,
devoting himself to new projects and inventions
Among the inventions developed here was the
Nautilus, or submarine boat, carrying torpe-
does, invented to be used in naval warfare, but
he was unable to secure its adoption by either
the French, British, or United States govern-
ment He next turned his attention to a sub-
ject that had frequently occupied his mind be-
fore and about which he had written a treatise
in 1793, viz , the application of steam to
navigation.
In 1803 he constructed a small steamboat, and
his experiments with it on the Seme were at-
tended with great success The French govern-
ment, however, did not give him any encourage-
ment, but he had the cooperation of Robert Liv-
ingston, the Minister of the United States to
France, who assisted Fulton in his experiments.
Returning in 1806 to New York, Fulton super-
intended the construction of a larger steamship
provided with an English engine In 1807 he
launched the Olermont upon the Hudson, which
started off on her trip to Albany in the pres-
ence of thousands of astonished spectatois At
the beginning the average speed was only about
5 miles an hour, which was considered a great
achievement From this period steamers, for
the use of which on the waters of New York
State Fulton and Livingston were granted a
monopoly by the Legislature, came into general
use upon the rivers of the United States Al-
though Fulton was not the first to apply steam
to navigation, as a steam vessel had been tried
upon, the Forth and Clyde Canal ,as early as
345
FTTMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS
U89, and by Ramsey and Fitch in America in
1786-87, yet he was the first to do so with any
degree of success His reputation as an en-
gineer and inventor- was now firmly established,
and he was employed by the United States gov-
ernment in the execution of various projects
with reference to canals and other engmeenng
works In 1814 he obtained the assent of Con-
gress to construct a steam frigate, which was
launched in the following year Though the
labors of Fulton were attended with such great
success, various lawsuits in which he was en-
gaged in reference to the use of some of his
patents prevented him from ever becoming
wealthy, and anxiety, as well as excessive appli-
cation, tended to shorten his days His death
in New York, Feb 24, 1815, produced extraoi-
dmary demon stiations of mourning throughout
the United States He mairied, in 1806, a
niece of Robert Livingston, United States Min-
ister to France The centennial anniversary of
the construction of the Clevmont was celebrated
in 1909 and a replica of the vessel able to pro-
ceed undei its own steam was constructed Ful-
ton's published works included A Treatise on
the Improvement of Canal Navigation (1796) ,
Letters on Submarine Navigation (1806) , Tor-
pedo War (1810) , Letter to the Secretary of
the Navy on the Practical Use of the Torpedo
(1811), Report on the Practicability of Navi-
gating with Steamboats on the Southern Waters
of the United States (1813) , Memorial of Rob-
ert Fulton and Edward P Livingston in Re-
gard to Steamboats (1814), Advantages of the
Proposed Canal from Lake Erie to the Hud-
son River (1814) Consult Thurston, History
of the Growth of the Steam Engine (New York,
1878), id, Robert Fulton His Life and its
Results (ib, 1891), Golden, Life of Robert
Fulton (ib, 1817), Keigart, Life of Fulton
(Philadelphia, 1856), Knox, Fulton and Steam
Navigation (New York, 1886) , Sutcliffe, Robert
Fulton and the Olermont (ib , 1909), Dickin-
son, Robert Fulton, Engineer and Artist, His
Life and Works (ib, 1913)
FIJI/VIA Daughter of M Fulvius Bamba-
lio of Tusculum She married first P Clodius,
their daughter afterward became the wife of
Octavianus (Augustus) In44BC she married
Marcus Antonius, with whom she was deeply
in love, and into all whose ambitious plans she
entered with enthusiasm Cicero was murdered
in 43, and, when his head was brought to Anto-
nius, Fulvia is said to have pierced with her
needle, in vindictive spite, the tongue that had
uttered so many reproaches against her hus-
band But Antonms in the East fell into the
snares of Cleopatra, and Fulvia attempted to
stir up a riot in order to secure his recall to
Home, but failed and was banished from Italy
At Athens, Fulvia and Antonius met, and he
reproached her so bitterly for her part m po-
litical affairs that she retired to Sicyon in de-
spair, and died there shortly after (40 BO)
Consult Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient
Rome (New York, 1909) , Sihler, Cicero of Arpi-
num (New Haven, 1914).
FTJ'MAGKE (OF fumage, ML fumagium, fuel,
from Lat fwnus, smoke) In the law of Eng-
land, a chimney tax, commonly called smoke-
farthing This tax is mentioned in Domesday
as paid by custom to the King for every chim-
ney in the house Edward, the Black Prince, is
said to have imposed a tax of a florin for every
hearth, in iiis French, dominions. The first stat-
utoiy enactment on the subject in England is
13 and 14 Cai II, c 10, whereby a tax of two
shillings on eveiy hearth in all houses paying
to Church and poor was granted to the King
forever This tax was abolished m 1689
FtTMAKIACE JE, f ii-ma'ri-a'se-e ( Neo-Lat
notn pi, from Fumana, fiom Lat fwnuss
smoke) A family of herbaceous plants with
watery juice, alternate, much-divided leaves,
calyx of two deciduous sepals, corolla of four
very 11 regular, white, yellow, pale-red, crimson,
or purplish petals, stamens sometimes four and
distinct, more generally six, and in two bundles,
ovary free, one-celled, one-seeded, or many-
seeded, and seeds with abundant endosperm
The Fumariaeece aie related to the Papaveracese
(P°PPy> etc ) , but their general aspect is very
different, and they do not possess the same
powerful properties About 170 species in five
geneia are recognized, mostly natives of temper-
ate climates in the Northern Hemisphere, some
of great beauty in both flower and foliage
Bleeding heart (Dwentra spectabihs) , a native
of China, is a well-known favonte in gardens and
greenhouses Seveial species of Dicentra and
Corydahs are natives of America The common
fumitory (Fumana officinahs}, a rather deli-
cate and beautiful weed of frequent occurrence
in gardens and fields, is an annual of easy ex-
tirpation Its leaves, which have an intensely
bitter, saline taste, were formerly much em-
ployed in medicine as a tonic and diaphoretic,
and although disused in America, are still es-
teemed in France as a remedy for scorbutic affec-
tions, chronic eruptions, etc Some other spe-
cies are credited with anthelmmtic, antipenodic,
emmenagogue, and similar properties, but except
in household or in foreign medicine they are now
little used
WMAK'IC AHD MALE'IC ACIDS (from
Neo-Lat Fumana, the type of the herbaceous
order Fumariacese) Two organic substances
having not only the same composition and mo-
lecular weight (CJ1A), but the same chemical
constitution (COOK CH OH GOOH ), yet dif-
fering consideiably in4 both their chemical and
physical properties Fumanc acid crystallizes
in fine needles and sublimes without melting and
without decomposition at 200° C , at higher
temperatures it is converted into the anhydride
of maleic acid, and it is sparingly soluble in
water Maleic acid crystallizes in rhombic
prisms that melt at 130° C, and if heated to
160°, loses the elements of water and is con-
verted into maleic anhydride, it is readily
soluble in water Both fumanc and maleic
acids may be obtained by heating malic (oxysuc-
cinic) acid Maleic acid is, however, more con-
veniently prepared by distilling the acetyl deriv-
ative of malic acid Both fumaric and maleic
acids readily -form addition products with the
halogens and are therefore classed with the un-
saturated compounds The relation between the
two acids is explained by the modern stereo-
chemical theory, according to which the atomic
groups composing their molecules, though the
Same in kind and number, are in two cases dif-
ferently arranged in space The formulae of the
two acids are, accordingly, written as follows
CH-COOH HOOOCH
CH-COOH CH-COOH
Maleic acid Fumainc acid
See STEREOCHEMISTRY
FtTHABOLE
346
FTTHAROLE Volcanoes after eruption
often continue to send forth water vapor and
heated gases in great volume, both, from the
main vent and from parasitic cones A vent
emitting such gaseous discharges is a fumarole
or a solfatara Examples of fumaroles are
found also in regions where hot springs and
geysers occur, as in the Yellowstone Park, but
which have had no recent volcanic outbursts
The gases evolved differ among individual con-
duits , the commoner gases are water vapor,
hydrochloric acid, carbon dioxide, caibon mon-
oxide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
sulphur dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide The
nature of the gases seems to depend to some
extent upon the temperature, which ranges from
under 100° C in the cool fumaroles to 400° or
500° in the hot types, such as develop soon after
a volcanic eruption See VOLCANO.
FTTMBINA, foom-be'na. See APAHAWA
FTTMIGA'TIOIT (from fumigate, from Lat
fumigare, to fumigate, from fumus, smoke)
The cleansing or medicating of the air of an
apartment by means of vapors, employed chiefly
for the purpose of destroying odors or disinfect-
ing the room, as well as clothing, furniture,
etc. (See CONTAGION, INFECTION ) Most of
the methods of fumigation formerly employed
have little real value and are to be looked on
chiefly as grateful to the senses ; as, eg, the
burning of frankincense, camphor, etc The
really active processes are noticed under DISIN-
FECTANTS The application of fumes of medi-
cines to the respuatory tract is also called
fumigation For this purpose fumes of tobacco,
stramonium, nitrate of potash, muriate of am-
monium, and various gums are employed
FITNXJHAL, fooN-shal' (Portug, place of fen-
nel) The capital of the Madeira Islands,
Portugal, situated on the southern side of the
island of Madeira (Map Spain, E 5). It is a
picturesque and well-built town, and contains a
cathedral, an opera house, a casino, and a mu-
seum. Its streets are mostly narrow and, owing
to their steepness, sleds, drawn by oxen, and
sometimes luxuriously fitted up, take the place
of wheeled vehicles The houses are mostly
whitewashed and the principal streets lighted
by electricity The well-fortified harbor, though
not very safe, is the only port in Madeira for
ocean-going steamers Funchal is the seat of a
bishop The town lies in a fertile district sur-
rounded by sugar plantations, and vineyards on
the slopes of the picturesque mountains which
hem it in Owing to its mild climate, the town
has come into prominence as a health resort
Pop , 1900, 20,844
FUErCK - BBENTANO, fuNk'-braN'taW,
TH^OPHILE (1830-1906). A French philoso-
pher, born at Luxemburg He studied law and
medicine in France and abroad In 1873 he
became professor at the School of Political Sci-
ences m Paris His works include Les sciences
humazn-es (1869), La, civilisation et ses lois
(1876), La politique (1892), L'ffomme et sa
destinge (1895) , La science sociale, morale, poli-
*pue (1897), Les sophistes frangais (1905) —
•fcus son FRANZ, born at Munsbach, Luxemburg,
11 1862, became librarian at the Bibliothdque
ue 1'Arsenal. In 1900 he held the chair of com-
parative legislation at the College de France,
* m 1904 he lectured before the Alliance Fran-
11 the United States and Canada He pub-
lnter<2sting studies, dealing mainly with
e dramatic and episodical m French history.
These include Legendes et atchwes de la Bastille
(1808, 5th ed, 1902), La diame fas poisons
(1899, 6th ed, 1903), L'Aff w e du Collier ( 1901 ,
5th ed, 1903), Les lettres de cachets a Pans
(1904), Les nouvelhstes (1905), Louts Man-
dnn, capitame general des contrelandiers ( 1907) ,
La regence (1909)
FTJNCKE, fun'ke, OTTO (1836-1910). A Ger-
man Protestant" theologian He was born at
Wulfrath, near Elberfeld, and was educated at
Halle, Tubingen, and Bonn In 1868-1904 he
preached at the Friedenskirche in Bremen, where
he also published a great number of devotional
works which have made him widely known
Among these are Christliche Fragezeichen ( 15th
ed , 190? , Eng trans by E Steiling under the
title Self Will and God's Will, 1887), Reise-
IMer und Heimatklange (1869, 1871, 1872),
St Paulus su Wasser und m Land (8th ed ,
1891) , Die Welt des Glaulens und die Alltags-
welt (9th ed, 1895), Gottes WeisJieit in der
Einderstube (5th ed , 1890), UngeschminJtte
Wahrheiten (1902), Reisegedanken und Gedan-
kenreisen eines Emeritus (1905) , Ohnsti Bild in
Chnsti Nachfolgern (4th ed, 1906) , Vademecum
fur junge and alte Eheleute (1908)
FtTlSrC'TIOIW (from Lat functio, use, fiom
fungi, to employ, Skt Ihuj, to enjoy, to be use-
ful) The specific physiological processes of a
part or organ In the amtsba all the functions
of the organism are performed by the same pro-
toplasmic mass In higher forms, both plant
and animal, where division of labor is estab-
lished, certain parts take in water, digest food,
or excrete waste for the benefit of the whole
body This assumption of particular function
by certain parts must necessarily involve great
changes m form and structure of the organism
Any subsequent change in function that an or-
gan may undergo brings about far-reaching
changes in structure Certain organs, like the
liver and the brain, have many functions Some
of these functions we speak of as primary,
others as secondary Thus the primary func-
tion of an insect's wing is locomotor, while
secondarily the wing may serve in respiration
What are secondary functions may at times or
in certain animals become primary, thus the
allantois is an unimportant bladder in frogs,
in birds and reptiles it is the chief foetal res-
piratoiy organ, while in many mammals it
forms part of the placenta With the change
in function, and consequently in form and struc-
ture, are correlated changes in various other
organs, hence any change in one organ is of
far-reaching importance to the whole organism.
See BIOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, FUNCTION CHANGE
FUNCTION A mathematical term due to
Leibnitz (1692), but first defined in its present
sense by Johann Bernoulli (1718) In this sense
a function is a quantity whose value depends
upon that of another quantity E g , in the for-
mula for the circumference of a circle, c = 27ir,
c depends upon r for its value , c is therefore said
to be a function of r Likewise, in the equation
y = of -f- 2a? -f- 3, the value of y depends upon the
value of #, so that if x = . . — 2, — 1, 0, 1, 2,
etc, y = . 3, 2, 3, 6, 11, etc , y is therefore a
function of #, and this is expressed by the sym-
bol 2/=:/(a?), which was first employed almost
simultaneously by Euler (1734) and Clairaut
Instead of /(#) other symbols are often used, as
F(®)} <j>{a>), $(&), etc In y = /(or), the value
of y depending upon that of at, w is called the
and y the dependent variable In
FUNCTION
347
FUNCTION
a function like y = a® + ft, ?/ 1S called an e#-
pfocttf function of #, m the expression ar5 •+• Z%y
-j- 5 = 0, y is an implicit function, and this is
indicated by the symbols /(#, y] = 0 In the
same way we may have /(a?, #, 0) = 0, /(#i, a?2,
a?n) =0, or we may have 2 = /(#, i/),
i/ = jf (#1} a?.,, acw) If a function has only one
value for each given value of the vaiiable, it is
called a uniform (monodromic, monotropic, em-
deutig ) function, as in the case of y = a?2 -f- 2a? -f- 3
But if a function has moie than one value for
any given value of the variable, or if its value
can be changed by modifying the path in which
the variable reaches that given value, the func-
tion is said to be multiform (polytropic, mehr-
deutig] , as in the case of y^-tfx. If the
equation y = f(oc) is solved for a;, then a> will
equal some function of 2/, i e as = 0(2/)» and the
latter function is called the inverse of the formei
Eg, in the case of a sphere v = f(r) = |-7rr3
= /!=
and
v = f(r] and r = 4>(v) being inverse functions
Functions were classified by Leibnitz as alge-
braic and transcendental The former are such
as include only the four fundamental operations,
together with the use of constant exponents,
their simplest forms being a +
their most general form being
(a + bx + ex* +
®> ~, xa>
(a1 + b'x + c'z2 + )"* "
In the broadest sense we say that y is an algebraic
function of x when AQyn + A.^yn~-1 + ^22/n~2 +
4- J.n-i 2/ + An = 0, where JL< is a poly-
nomial in a; of the form A* = a*®m +a-i^7nr~1 •+-
4- am-i a? + am The transcendental func-
tions include all other functions, to which, from
the domain of the common operations, powers
with variable exponents, the so-called exponen-
tial functions and their inverse, logarithms,
chiefly belong
An important class of transcendental functions
are known as circular functions These include
the goniometric functions, y = sin a?, cos a?, tan oo,
cot a?, etc (see TRIGONOMETRY), and their in-
verses, the cyclometric functions, a? = sin-1 y or
arcsin y, etc. It is shown in trigonometry that
y = sin no = sm (a? =fc 2kir), where fc is any in-
teger, so that a? may be increased or decreased by
27r, 47r, 6?r, . . without altering the value of
y , the function is then called simply periodic
In the inverse function, a? = sin-ty, a? evidently
may have, for any value of y, an infinite number
of values, this function is therefore called in-
finitely multiform The inverse exponential func-
tion (i e , the logarithm) and the circular func-
tion are integrals of algebraic functions Thus,
/a:2-!
etc, all with the proper constants
If a function y = /(a?), or #(a>, y) = 0, is
plotted, the figure is a curve with infinitely many
points in immediate succession The continuity
of the curve and, corresponding to it, the con-
tinuity of the function, consist m this that any
two successive points lie infinitely near each,
other, so that an infinitely small variation of the
abscissas is attended by an infinitely small vari-
VOL IX.— 23
ation of the ordma/tes This suffices to explain
what is meant by a continuous function, the
meaning of the term "discontinuous function" be-
ing easily inferred E g , the functions a -f- ®> a%t
a*, sin a?, cos x aie continuous in the domain
( — - oo , -f- oo ) of the vai lable &9 as is also wn
when n is a positive integer The functions V^T
log a? are continuous in the domain ( 0, + oo )
The function —n, where n is a positive integer,
3/
is continuous in the domains ( — oo , a — e),
(° + e, + oo ), however small e may be, but foi
a? = 0 it breaks its continuity and y = =±= oo
The term "theory of functions" was first used
by Lagrange (Theorie des fonctions analytiques,
Pans, 1797) The branch thus denoted deals
with functions of more general form than those
described above E g , in the equation w =• f (2?) ,
z must, m general, be taken to be a complex num-
ber (qv), co -J- yi, where i stands for V — 1 "
The theory, therefore, has for its object the
study of functions of one or more vanables, in
which either the variables or the coefficients, or
both, aie complex numbers This general theory
may be said to have been founded by Lagrange
(1772, 1797, 1800), although Newton, Leibnitz,
Johann Bernoulli, Clairaut (1734), D'Alembert
(1747), and Euler (1753) had already woiked
towards it Gauss contributed to the theoiy,
especially in its application to the fundamental
theorem of algebra Cauchy, starting from La-
grange's work, greatly developed it, and numer-
ous propositions due to him are found m the
various textbooks on the subject His memoirs
extend over a period of nearly 40 years (1814-
51), covering a large pait of the general theory
as known to-day and placing the subject upon
a firm foundation The historical development
after Cauchy's time becomes interwoven with
that of special functions, notably the elliptic
and Abelian
Elliptic functions arose from the consideration
of the integral f — =, where R is a rational
/(a?) and X is the general lational and integral
quartic a0#4 + «X + <*>?& + as® + ^ The t^
ory of these functions had been suggested by
Jakob Bernoulli (1691) and by Maclaurm (1742),
and D'Alembert (1746) had approached it
Euler had gone further (from 1761) and had
prophesied (1766) that there would come "a new
sort of calculus of which I have here attempted
the exposition of the first elements " To Lan-
den (1775), however, the honor is usually given
of founding the theory But it is to Legendre
that its real development is due He worked
40 years in perfecting it, his labor culminating
in his Trait6 des fonctions elliptiques et des
mUgrales Eulenennes (1825-28) At the same
time that Legendre published this work, Abel
and Jacobi began their great contributions
Abel, whose fundamental theorem was not pub-
lished until after his death, discovered the
double periodicity of elliptic functions Jacobi
created a new notation and gave name to the
"modular equations" of which he made use
Cayley contributed to the subject in England,
his onlj1- book being devoted to it
The general theory of functions has received
its present form largely from the works of
Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass Endeavoring
to subject all natural laws to mathematical in-
terpretation, Kiemann attacked the subject from
CHANGE
34®
FUNDAMENTALS
tlie standpoint of the conciete, \vlnle Weierstrass
proceeded from a puiely analytic point of view
Riemann's theones have been elaborated by
Clebsch, and also by Klein, who has materially
extended the theoiy of Riemann's surfaces and
who has generalized Clebsch's application of
modern geometiy to the study of elliptic func
tions in his Theorie dei elhptischen Hlodulfunc-
twnen This last-named theoiy had its origin
in a memoir of Eisenstem ( 1847 ) and in the
lectmes of Weierstrass on elliptic functions
In the theory of functions the number of spe-
cial functions is very great Foi the list at the
present time, consult Muller, "Mathematische
Termmologie," in Btlhothcca Mathcmatica
(Leipzig, 1901), where some 200 are mentioned
The most notable work on the histoiic develop-
ment of functions is that of Brill and Noether,
"Die Entwickehmg der Theorie der algebraischen
Functioiien in alterei und neueier Zeit," in
Jahres'beriGht der deutschen MathematiLer
Veteimgung, vol 11 (Berlin, 1894) For theoiy,
bibliography, and historical notes, consult Hark-
ness and Moiley, Theory of Functions (New
York, 1893), and Forsyth, Theory of Functions
(Cambridge, 1893) For further bibliography
of historical development and for ai tides on
the theory of functions, consult Meiriman and
Woodward, Higher Mathematics (Ne\v York,
1896) , Osgood, Lehi'buch der Funltionen-theone
(2d ed, ib, 1912) , Buikliardt, Tlieoi ij of Func-
tions of a Complex Variable (ib, 1013), Ken-
nelly, Complex Hyperbolic and Citcufai Func-
tions (2 vols , Cambridge, Mass, 1014)
FUNCTION CHANGE The disuse of an
organ for one function and its modification for
the peiformance of another, thus an oigan may
be transformed into another homologous with it,
but performing a diffeient function, serving a
quite different use It originates in a senes of
functions performed by one and the same organ.
Of these several functions one w the chief or
primary, while the rest are secondaiy If the
primary function is for any reason suppressed,
some one of the secondary functions becomes the
chief one, and the final result of these processes
is the transformation of the organ
As an example may be mentioned the change
of function in the anterioi limbs of ceitain crus-
taceans from swimming and breathing uses to
organs of mastication (mandibles, maxillsc, and
maxillipeds ) , the outer division, or "expedite,"
undergoing reduction from disuse Thus the
original or chief function is suppressed, and
what was an accessory or minor function be-
comes the chief one More apparent examples
are the change from the five-toed legs of the
reptilian ancestor of birds into the wings, and
of the forelegs of the ancestors of whales into
the paddles of existing cetaceans All such
changes of function are the lesult of change of
environment, of habits, and of instincts
Still another good example of the principle
of change of function is afforded by the swim-
ming bladder of fishes This in most fishes is a
closed sac lying directly beneath the backbone
In the gar pike it has acquired a connection by
a duct with the throat It then becomes an
accessory breathing organ in such fishes as the
Protopterus of Africa, which is able temporarily
to live out of water Finally, by further change
in habit and structure, this bladder with its
pneumatic duct has become transformed into
the lung of the amphibians, reptiles, and higher
vertebrates The transformation is due to
change of sui i oundm&s and oi habit, resulting
in the changes ot function
This principle is pure Lamarekian. doctrine,
i.e , that changes of sunoundinqs and of habits
bung about changes of function 01 use, and
finally of structure Yet there aie veiy numer-
ous examples of this pimciplo, and it has been
most active in the origination of the classes and
oiders ot animals Consult many of the books
under EVOLUTION
ETJNC'TTTS OFPI'CIO (Lat , discharged from
duty 01 authoiity) A phrase applied to some-
thing which, having formerly had legal vitality
and foice, is without any further validity or
authority When an agent 01 officei has ful-
filled the duty assigned him, his oilice is functus
offic^o and his poweis are at an end The same
is true of legal instruments which have been
duly executed and ha\e been used foi the pui-
pose for which they were created, or on \\hich a
judgment has been entered Thus a warrant*
of attorney on which a judgment has been en-
tered is functus officio, and a second judgment
cannot be based upon it So, also, a bill of ex-
change paid by the diawce, or passed by him to
the credit of the diawer, is functus officto, and
cannot be furthei negotiated
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHRISTIAN DOC-
TRINE A teim much used in Protestant theo-
logical discussion, but veiy difficult to define
Tlie church down to recent times has usually de-
lined the fundamental Chnstian doctimes as
those which it is necessary to believe in order
to attain salvation But this logically involves
conclusions concerning the condemnation of
large classes of individuals which men, particu-
larly in the latei time, shrink from accepting
A distinction has been drawn between truths
necessaiy to salvation and the degree of knowl-
edge necessary in an individual in order that he
may be saved That is, a truth may be neces-
sary to salvation, yet an individual who does
not know it may not be condemned, it being
assumed that he would believe it if he knew it.
It is not involuntaiy ignorance of the truth,
but reaction or denial of it, that results in
condemnation Hence the fundamentals vary
for individuals, and it is impossible to draw up
a certain definite hst which shall hold good in
all cases A more scientific definition is that
the fundamental Christian doctrines are those
ttluch are tlie essential chaiactenstics of Chris-
tianity, differentiating it from other religions
All Chustians consider certain truths essential
to the Christian system, and others as compara-
tively unessential But each Christian body
lias doctrines essential to its own system which
are not held by the entire Christian Church
And a distinction must be made between doc-
trines fundamental to Christianity and those
fundamental to a particular system Adherents
to the various bodies do not always find it easy
to draw this distinction, and the best attempts
to state the former in terms of doctrine almost
inevitably prove unsatisfactoiy because of the
natural tendency to include the latter In gen-
eral, however, there is a practical tendency
towards agreement between the different Protes-
tant churches, whatever differences there may
be upon specific points in their statements of
fundamentals of doctrine, and such agreement
is increasingly recognized Modern Protestant-
ism denies that saving faith is an exercise of
the intellect, it is an action of the will m
respect to what is known The characteria-
FTTBTDI
349
FUNG-HUANG-
tics of Christianity aie to be found in the
sphere of conduct rather than in belief Roman
Catholic theologians claim that they do not use
the expression
The discussion of fundamentals in docti me has
had impoitance chiefly in attempts to unite the
various Christian bodies, particularly the Lu-
theran and Reformed churches It was actively
carried on in Germany in the eaily post-Kef 01-
mation period In England a committee of
clergymen was appointed in 1653 to draw up a
list of "fundamentals" and report to Parliament
Richard Baxter, who was one of the committee,
proposed that it should consist of the Apostles'
Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Com-
mandments A catalogue of 16 articles was
adopted, however, including doctrines concern-
ing God, Christ, divine worship, faith, sin, the
resurrection, the judgment, everlasting life, and
everlasting condemnation The aim seems to
have been to exclude rather than to furnish com-
mon ground for agreement The Federal Coun-
cil of the Churches of Christ in America (1908),
while not professing to form a creed, so defines
itself as to make belief in " Jesus Christ as
Divine Lord and Saviour" the fundamental
Many would regard the fundamental to be a
belief in Jesus Christ as the highest revelation
of God
FUNDI See FONDI
FU3HTDI, fun'di, or FUNDUNGI (West African
word) A kind of giam, Paspalum exile, much
cultivated in the west of Africa It is allied to
the millets and still more nearly to some of the
kinds of grain cultivated in India It is whole-
some and nutritious, and has been recommended
as a light and delicate food for invalids The
natives of western Africa throw it into boiling
water, pour off the water, and add palm oil, but-
ter, or milk In Sierra Leone it is much used
with stewed meat and sometimes made into por-
ridge with milk See PASPALUM
PIT1TDY, BAY OF (from Fr fond de la 'baie,
head of the bay) An arm of the Atlantic, sepa-
rating Nova Scotia from New Brunswick and
the State of Maine (Map Nova Scotia, D 4)
With an average breadth of 35 miles, it extends
180 miles in length from northeast to southwest
It forks, at its head, into two inlets, the north-
ern, called Chignecto Bay, and the southern,
Minas Channel, which are divided by narrow
necks of land from Cumberland Strait Along
its noithwest side it receives the St John, the
principal river of New Brunswick, and the St
Croix, which, through its entire course, forms
the international boundary The navigation is
rendered perilous by frequent summer fogs and
by the peculiarity of the tides, which have a
rise and fall of 53 feet at certain seasons, pro-
ducing dangerous bores in the upper reaches
The shores present a very bare appearance at
low tide, with long expanses of mud flats and
estuaries completely drained Consult W B
Dawson, The Currents at the Entrance of the
Bay of Fundy (Ottawa, 1905)
FTTNEN, fu'nen (Dan Fyen) The largest
of the Danish islands after Zealand, situated
between Zealand on one side and Jutland and
Schleswig on the other (Map Denmark, D 3)
It is about 50 miles long and over 40 miles in
its greatest width, with an area of 1133 square
miles Its surface is slightly elevated in the
south and west, where it rises to an altitude
of over 400 feet The larger part, especially in
the north and east, however, is* flat The soil
is extraoidmarily fuitile suid well wateied
Grain is produced and consideiable amountb are
exported Stock farming is also extensively
earned on Administratively the island forms,
together with the adjacent islands of Langeland
and ^Eio and a number of smallci islands, the
Piovince of Funcn, which is divided into the
two distiicts of Odense and Svendborg The
principal towns are Odense (qv), the capital,
JSvendboig, and Nyboig (qv ) Pop (district)
1901, 279,785, 1911, 203,179 Pop (island),
1901, 240,359, 1911, 252,288
PIKKTEBAL, THE, 01 GBIEF A-LA-MODE. A
comedy by Steel e, acted in 1701
PUNEHAL BITES. See MOETUAKY CUS-
TOMS
IFUNES, foo'nas, GEEGOEIO (1749-1830) An
Argentine historian He was rector of the Uni-
versity of Cordoba, and as such intioduced nu-
meious refoims He was highly distinguished
as a lectmer, and counted among his pupils
many men afterward famous He was also cele-
brated as an historian and pulpit orator, and in
the latter capacity was probably unexcelled in
las day in South Anaeiica liis qualifications
ultimately secured foi him an appointment to
the deanship of the cathedial of Cordoba His
chief publication is entitled Ensayo de la his-
tona cwil del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres y Tuou-
mdn (Buenos Aires, 1816, 2d ed , 1856). His
other works are Plan de estudws para la um-
rersidad de C6rdo~ba (COrdoba, 1832) and $$-
amen critioo de los diseursos sobre una consti-
tucidn religiosa, considerada como parte de la
ciml (Buenos Aires, 1825) Consult M. de
Vedia y Mitre, El Dean Funes en la histowa
argentina (2d ed , Barcelona, 1910)
iFtriOTKIRCHEN, funf'ke'rK-en, or P^cs,
pach The capital of the County of Baranya,
Hungary, and an important garrison town, 248
miles southeast of Vienna by rail (Map Hun-
gary, F 3) It is picturesquely situated on the
southern vine-clad slopes of the Meczek Moun-
tains It has been the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop since 1009 and has a handsome eleventh-
century Romanesque cathedral with four towers,
which has been restored since 1887 Two of
the five Turkish mosques from which the town
derives its German and Hungarian names are
in ruins, but two have been converted into the
Stadtkirche and the third Franciscan church
Other important buildings are the episcopal
palace, the town hall, and a fine synagogue Its
many institutions of learning include a Catholic
seminary, a priests' college, a gymnasium, a
teachers' institute, a trade school, a military
school, a museum, and a library It has a large
majolica factory There is a considerable trade
in the coal, marble, wine, fruit, tobacco, and
hogs of the adjacent territory, and it has im-
portant manufactures of leather, cloth, pottery,
champagne, and church organs Funfkirchen is
thought to be the Roman Colonia Serbmum It
was occupied by the Turks from 1543 to 1686
Pop, 1900, 42,252, 1910, 49,822
PTJITG See FTJNJ
FUNG-HUANG-, or FENG-HWANG, fung/-
hwang7 A fabulous Chinese bird which figures
largely in Chinese poetry, art, and folklore
Fung is the male and huang the female, and
as the two are inseparable they are considered
models of conjugal love The fung-huang is
the second of the four supernatural creatures
of Chinese mythology and has many symbol-
ical analogies to the Greek phoenix It is im-
FUNGI
350
FUNGI
mortal, lives in the highest an, and its appeal -
ance on earth presages the advent of a virtuous
monarch or is emblematic of a prosperous reign
It appeared several times in antiquity In
China it used to be the special emblem of the
Empress, in Japan (where it is called Ho-wo),
of the Mikado In art it is usually depicted
with the head of a pheasant, the beak of a
swallow, a long flexible neck; plumage of many
gorgeous colors, a flowing tail, and long claws
pointed backward as it flies Each of the five
colors of its plumage typifies one of the five
cardinal virtues The flowers usually associated
with it are sprays of the tree peony Consult
Mayers, Chinese Reader's Manual (Shanghai,
1875) , Griffis, The Mikado's Empire (New
York, 1900) , Macgowan, Chinese Folk Lore
Tales (London, 1910) , Griffis, Ch^na's Story m
Myth, Legend, Art, and Annals (New York,
1911)
FUNGI, fun'ji (Lat, mushrooms, connected
with Gk <r<t>6yyo$, sphongos, ariroyyos, spo/igos,
sponge) There are in use two applications of
the term "fungi." In general, fungi are re-
garded as including all thallophytes (qv )
without chlorophyll, i e , unable to manufacture
food In scientific usage fungi apply only to
that assemblage of dependent thallophytes which
has the characteristic vegetative body called a
mycelium A mycelium consists of colorless fila-
ments, usually more or less interwoven It may
be very open and delicate, like a spider web, or
it may be felt-like, or even form a compact
body (as in lichens) Since fungi are unable
to manufacture carbohydrate food, they are
either parasites, dependent upon living plants or
animals as hosts, or they are saprophytes, de-
pendent upon organic debris or products from
plants or animals These are not terms of
classification, for some fungi are able to live
either as parasites or saprophytes, and such are
called facultative forms, while those restricted
to either the parasitic or saprophytic habit are
obligate forms
Three groups of fungi are recognized Phyco-
mycetes (alga-like fungi), Ascomycetes (sac
fungi), and Basidiomyeetes (basidmm fungi)
In all of these groups the mycelium establishes
absorbing connections with its food supply (sub-
stratum), and when these connections are defi-
nite and more or less specialized, they aie called
haustoria (suckers) In the case of the para-
site the substratum is either the surface or the
internal tissues of the host, and in such cases
the haustoria are very definite structures Un-
der certain conditions the mycelium also pro-
duces vertical branches (sporophores) which in
a variety of ways give rise to spores In the case
of internal parasites the sporophore reaches the
surface of the host in a position favorable for
spore dispersal Fungi are notable for the vast
number of spores produced, and in most cases
their dispersal is aerial, so that mycelia are
multiplied with great rapidity and over wide
areas
Phyoomycetes — This comparatively small
group of fungi resembles the green algae in
many features, a fact which has suggested the
name The mycelium is peculiar among fungi
in being coenocytic, i e , in having no cross walls,
the whole body of the mycelium having one con-
tinuous cavity The striking resemblance to
algae, however, consists in the presence of con-
spicuous sex organs The two groups of Phveo-
mycetes are distinguished bv their sexual char-
acters the Oomyeetes, which are heterogamous,
i e , with distinct eggs and sperms , and the
Zygomycetes, which aie isogamous, i e , with
gametes similar
The Oomyeetes are regarded as more primi-
tive than the Zygomycetes, because they are
more closely related to the algse They are
mostly aquatic and produce zoospores, differing
in this feature fiom the Zygomycetes, in which
aerial, wind-dispersed spores aie produced The
watei molds (Sapiolegmales) are the best rep-
resentatives of the group The genus Sapiolegma
contains saprophytic species found on dead bod-
ies of crustaceans, water insects, etc , and also
parasitic species attacking fishes, frogs, etc
One species that attacics the eggs and young of
fishes is very destructive in fish hatcheries
Saprolegma is noted for the frequent and per-
haps usual occurrence of parthenogenesis, which
means that its eggs germinate without fertiliza-
tion The downy mildews (Peronospoiales)
constitute another group of Oomyeetes, which
merges into the Zygomycetes They are the one
assemblage of Oomyeetes with distinctly aerial
habit The downy mildews are internal para-
sites, many of them destroying valuable ciop
plants Among the conspicuous genera are Al-
bugo, \\hich is very common as white rust upon
members of the mustard family, Phytophthoi a,
which is the parasite pioducmg potato rot,
Plasmopara, one of whose species is the grape
mildew, a disease of American origin, Pero-
nospora, whose species are very common para-
sites on ordinary vegetables, as peas, beans,
spinach, etc
The Zygomycetes, distinguished by apparent
isogamy and by the elimination of swimming
spores, are best represented by the black molds
(Mucorales), whose characteristic cobwebby,
fleecy-white mycelia are very common on decay-
ing material, stale bread, fruit juices, etc An-
other very common order of Zygomycetes is the
Entomophthorales, a group of parasites fatal to
insects, the common house fly often being de-
stroyed by them
Ascomycetes — The sac fungi include the ma-
jonty of fungi, and in contrast with the Phyco-
mycetes the filaments of the mycelium have cross
walls and the sex organs are much reduced and
often suppressed The common character of this
great assemblage is the appearance of an ascus
(sac) in the life history, in which the asco-
spores are formed In the ma3onty of forms a
spore case is developed in connection with the
asci, more or less investing them with a pro-
tective jacket, and called the ascocarp The
group is so extensive and varied that only a few
illustrations from the eight usually recognized
orders can be given The order of the illustra-
tions used will indicate the present opinion as
to the relative rank of the forms
The yeasts ( Sacchai omycetes ) are very fa-
miliar forms, which represent the order Protoa-
scales, the name referring to the fact that yeasts
are regarded as the simplest or most primitive
of the Ascomycetes Then follow orders con-
taining parasites inducing such diseases as peach
curl, plum pocket, and witch brooms, and such
saprophytes as the well-known edible morel
(Morchella} , whose fleshy ascocarp is usually
spoken of as a mushroom One of the largest
orders, Pezizales (cup fungi), is characterized
by the open ascocarp, which takes the form of a
flat disk, bowl, cup, or funnel. The cups are
sometimes brie-htlv hnpd as in tho romo ^f +li<»
TYPES OF FUNG!
1. SPORE CASES OF A SLIME MOLD.
2. SPORANGIA OF BLACK MOLD.
3. DEVELOPMENT OF ZYGOSPORE OF BLACK
MOLD.
4. WATER MOLD, (a), growing, on .a fly; (b), Spor-
angia with Zoospores; and (c), Oogonia and eggs.
5. SPORE CASE OF CORDYCEPS Can insect para-
site).
6. MILDEW ON LILAC.
7. LILAC MILDEW, showing (a), Ascocarp, and (b),
Asci with spores.
8. GREEN MOLD WITH SPOROPHORES.
TYPES OF FUNGI
1 WHEAT RUST, Showing (a) breaking out on a stem;
(b), portion of stem enlarged; and (c), group of
Teleutospores.
2. NEST FUNGUS.
3. STINKHORN.
4. EARTH STAR
5. WHEAT SMUT,
6. CEDAR APPLE.
FTTITGI
351
FUH&I
common scarlet cup of the woods To this same
order also belong the fungi that produce lichens,
upon which the characteristic diskhke or cup-
like ascocaips are seen more commonly Other
orders contain the tiuffles, which are entirely
subterranean fungi whose ascocarps are tuber-
like, becoming fleshy and edible , and also the
common blue and green molds, such as appear
on bread, preserves, etc The largest order is
Pyrenomycetales, or fire fungi, the common name
referring to the fact that these fungi often form
black spots, knots, etc , resembling charred places
upon twigs and decaying wood The order con-
sists of two well-defined groups, the mildews
and the black fungi The mildews are super-
ficial parasites on the higher plants, the cobweb-
like mycelium especially running over leaves, as
in the case of the common lilac mildew The
black fungi constitute the fire fungi proper, and
the name suggests their appearance They in-
clude both parasites and saprophytes Two of
the best-known parasites among the black fungi
are the black knot (Plowrightia] , a destructive
disease that attacks the plum and cherry, and
the ergot fungus ( Claviceps ) , a common parasite
on the young ovaries of grasses, especially rye
At a certain stage of its life history the ergot
fungus forms a compact mass ot tissue from
which the astringent drug ergot is extracted
Basidiomycetes — This great group of fungi is
characterized by the occurrence of a basidmm in
the life history, which is a cell that gives rise
to slender branches, usually four in number, at
the tip of each one of which a spore is cut off
(basidiospoie) There are two great divisions
of Basidiomycetes, the first one being repre-
sented chiefly by the smuts and rusts, and the
other being characterized chiefly by the mush-
rooms and puffballs The smuts (see USTILAGI-
NALES) are more commonly called brand fungi
in Europe, and are destructive parasites that
attack various cereals, conspicuous among which
is the corn The rusts (see UBEDINALES) are
all destructive parasites, ranging widely among
seed plants, the best-known forms being the
wheat rusts The rusts are especially remark-
able for their polymorphism, in extreme cases
a single life history including two parasites
living upon entirely uni elated host plants and
producing at least five different kinds of spores
Associated with smuts and rusts in the first
group of Basidiomycetes are two other orders,
the best-known representative being the ear
fungi, which appear as gelatinous earlike
growths on bark, etc , a very common form oc-
curring on stems of elder
The second group of Basidiomycetes includes
10 orders, which are divided between two
groups Hymenomycetes, in which the basidia
are freely exposed, and Gasteromycetes, in
which they are inclosed by a characteristic
sporophore The most representative order of
Hymenomycetes is the Agancales, which is by
far the largest group of fleshy fungi, containing
most of the so-called mushrooms and toadstools
There are three conspicuous families of mush-
rooms, based upon the character of the special
surface upon which the spore-forming basidia
are exposed While the sporophore usually has
the ordinary mushroom (umbrella) form, with
its stipe and pileus, it develops also m various
bracket forms, and even as incrustations upon
the surface of logs, etc The tooth fungi (Hyd-
nacese) are those in which the basidmm layer
covers toothhke or spinehke processes. The pore
fungi (Polyporaceae) are those in which the
basidium layer lines tubes that terminate on
the surface in porehke openings The gill fungi
(Agaricacese) are the common mushrooms and
toadstools, whose basidium layers are exposed
upon the chaiactenstic bladelike plates which
are the gills
The Gasteromycetes are the most highly 01-
ganized of the fungi, whose sporophore is differ-
entiated into an outer zone (peridium) and an
inner mass of tissue (gleba), in which there
are numerous chambers lined by the basidium
layer In addition to the true puffballs, which
are the most representative of the group, theie
are the curious nest fungi and the stinkhorns
In addition to the true fungi considered
above, there are other groups of thallophytes
without chlorophyll which are commonly asso-
ciated with fungi m an elementary presentation
of thallophytes The two most conspicuous
groups of this kind are as follows
Myxomycetes — These are the slime molds or
slime fungi, which combine characters of plants
and animals in such a way that opinions differ
as to which they should be assigned Those that
incline to the view that they are animals use
the term Mycetozoa (fungus animals) for the
group In general they are common in forests
on rich soil, decaying wood, fallen leaves, etc ,
and one of the largest occurs on spent bark
(flowers of tan) The characteristic plant body
is called a plasmodium, which is a naked mass
of protoplasm with a creeping motion, putting
out and withdrawing regions of its body (pseu-
dopodia) like a gigantic amoeba The most un-
plant-like behavior of the plasmodium is its
habit of engulfing solid food instead of ad-
mitting it in solution Under certain condi-
tions the plasmodium passes into a spore-form-
ing stage, usually numerous stalked sporangia
being produced from a single plasmodium
These sporangia pioduce countless spores with
cellulose walls, which are very characteristic
reproductive cells of plants
Schizomycetes — These are the well-known
bacteria (qv ) The group has many characters
in common with the blue-green algae and is now
generally associated with them in the group
Schizophytes The chief characters in common
with the blue-green algae are the one-celled
body, which often forms filaments, a protoplast
of simple structure, the power of locomotion,
and reproduction only by vegetative multiplica-
tion, the cell divisions being in remarkably rapid
succession The immense economic importance
of bacteria has stimulated their investigation
to such an extent that bacteriology has become
a distinct field of research They are of great
interest to the botanist as representing a group
of plants in which there is extremely vaiied
physiological differentiation and very little mor-
phological differentiation This means that in
most cases a species is distinguished, not by
its appearance, but by its activities On the
basis of activities, four conspicuous groups of
bacteria are usually considered The sapro-
phytic bacteria are forms that attack the dead
bodies or the organic products of plants and
animals and bring about putrefaction and fer-
mentation The pathogenic bacteria are the
disease-producing forms, then activities being
connected with living organisms The nitrogen
bacteria are bacteria of the soil that are able
to utilize the free nitrogen of the air and are
the medium through which a steady supply of
FUNGI
352
EITHGI
nitrogen salts enters the soil Tlie nitrifying
bacteria are also soil forms that lay hold of the
simpler nitrogen compounds (as ammonia) and
oxidize them into the nitrites and nitrates which
aie the nitrogen compounds available for green
plants
Bibliography A De Ba-ry, Comparative
Morphology and Biology of Fungi, (Oxford,
1902 ) , A H R Buller, Researches on Fungi
(London, 1909) , George Massee, British Fungi
(ib, 1911) 3 Mcllvame and Macadam, One Thou-
sand American Fungi ( rev ed , Indianapolis,
1912), J Eriksson, Fungoid Diseases of Agri-
cultural Plants (London, 1912), F L Stevens,
Fungi Which Cause Plant Disease (ib , 1913),
W B Grove, British Rust Fungi (New York,
1913)
FUNGI, ECONOMIC Species of fungi that
may directly or indirectly affect man's welfare
Of those that affect man directly, the edible
and poisonous species and some parasites, such
as ringworm, barber's itch, etc, may be men-
tioned as examples (see FUNGI, EDIBLE AND
POISONOUS, MUSHROOM, TBUFFLE) , of those
fchat afiect him indirectly are plant diseases,
molds, some animal diseases, etc , whose func-
tional activity may result in monetary or some
other kind of loss A large majority of fungi
(saprophytes) are capable of living only on
decaying organic matter, and since they do not
ordinarily attack living plants, they do not pro-
duce plant diseases They are theiefoie of little
economic importance except as they occur on
fruits and other food stuffs, timber, clothing,
etc , when they may be considered harmful On
the other hand, many of these organisms are
more or less beneficial, since they act as scav-
engers in the destruction of organic matter
which would long cumber the earth, if dependent
upon the slow process of chemical oxidation
Under abnormal conditions of moisture, temper-
ature, etc, some saprophytic fungi (usually
called facultative parasites) are able to attack
and injure living plants The parasitic species
(another large group) occur normally upon liv-
ing plants and animals, from which they derive
their sustenance The plant or animal upon
which they live is called the host The rela-
tionship between host and parasite is more or
less intimate, and as the economic plants are
affected, the importance of the parasite is the
greater In some cases the fungi are of positive
benefit to man because they (entomogenous
fungi) destroy noxious insects, as locusts, grass-
hoppers, flies, scale insects, etc , others live at
the expense of fungi that are themselves m-
•junous to plants of value to man, as in the
case of Datluca filum, a parasite of the injurious
asparagus rust. The number of fungi that at-
tack living animals is large, and in some cases
the attack is very destructive Young fish m
hatcheries are subject to diseases due to fungi,
and higher animals often suffer similar attacks
A lung disease of hoises is caused by the
presence of the fungus Botriomyces, and the
various forms of ringworms, favus, barber's
itch, etc , are all due to fungi
When mention is made of fungus diseases the
term commonly refers to diseases of plants
caused by attacks of parasitic fungi The num-
ber of species of such parasitic fungi is very
large, and nearly every garden, orchard, and
greenhouse crop may be attacked by one or
many The various parts of the maize plant
are subject to the attack of at least 70 species
of fungi, the common tulip tree, or yellow
poplar, is repoited as the host of nearly 100
species, the oat plant has a dozen such enemies,
and so on The annual loss attntauted to the
attacks of fungi, to which the i educed yield
and inferior quality of the product are laigely
due, amounts to hundreds of millions of dollars
It has been estimated that the average loss
due to oat smut in the United States alone
amounts to more than $18,000,000 annually If
to this sum be added the similar losses of other
o-reat economic ciops, the total would be enor-
mous Cereal rusts in the United States are
believed to cause more loss than any other
source of injury, and often the loss amounts to
more than the damage done by all other enemies,
fungus and insect, added togethei In certain
localities the grape crops have been almost
wholly destroyed by parasitic fungi, and certain
truck crops have suffered similarly The great
famine in Ireland durmg 1846-47 has been
laigely attributed to the almost total destruc-
tion of the potato crop, through the attack of
the potato rot (Phytophthora infestans)
For the general classification of the fungi, see
aiticle FUNGI Fortunately many of the diseases
caused by these parasites may be prevented by
the adoption of certain precautionaiy measures,
by the application of a fungicide ( q v ) , and by
the e\eicise of propei methods of cultivation by
which the general vigor of the plant is improved
See DISEASES OF PLANTS; also diseases of spe-
cific ciopa, eg, APPLE, GKAPE; POTATO,
WHEAT, MAIZE, ETC
FUNGI, EDIBLE AND POISONOUS A general
name given to mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs,
etc , that may or may not be eaten with safety
by man
Edible Fungi. More than 700 species have
been found to be safe and many are considered
very nutritious (See MUSHROOM ) Perhaps
the principal reason that fungi are not more
generally eaten is not so much that their value
is unknown, as that people are afraid even
to touch the plants because certain species are
known to produce illness and even death In
the interests of safety, therefore, every writer
upon the subject of edible and poisonous fungi
iterates the warning to avoid eating any fungus
the edible qualities of which are not positively
known to the would-be consumer beyond the
slightest shadow of doubt. Since certain toad-
stools (especially Amcmita phalloides and Ama-
nita muscwia, described below) are mistaken by
the uninitiated for the common mushroom, all
fungi found in the woods or in shady places
(until they are proved to be wholesome) and all
that have white or yellow gills should be
avoided the common mushroom grows in the
open fields and has pink gills which gradually
turn to purplish brown or black A safe plan
for the novice to adopt, even on becoming fa-
miliar \vith the 12 edible species described and
illustrated, after being satisfied with their iden-
tification, is to eat only a small portion of a
fungus new to him, to note the results carefully,
and to allow several hours to elapse before in-
dulging more freely In no case should he be
guided by pleasant taste alone, because some of
the species considered unwholesome do not mani-
fest any disagreeable quality
U Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius), com-
mon in light woods and on high ground, grows
from 2 to 4 inches tall, expands from 2 to 3
inches, and has an irregular lolled orange or
tD!BLE FUNGI
1 CHANTERELLE - CANTHARELLUS ClBARtUS
2 COMMON FIELD MUSHROOM - AGARICUS GAMPESTRIS
3 EDIBLE PORE MUSHROOM - BOLETUS EDULIS
4 VARIABLE. MUSHROOM - RUSSULA H ET E ROPH YLLA
5 OYSTER MUSHROOM - AGARtCUS OSTREATUS
6 FAIRY RING MUSHROOM - MARASMJU5 OR EA D ES
7 MOREL- MORCHELLA E.SCULEMTA
Q CLAVARIA CINEREA
9 HORSE MUSHROOM - AGARICUS ARVENSIS
10 CORTINARIUS COERULESCEN5
11 HORSE-TAIL FUN.GUS - COPRfNUS COMATUS
\2 LtVER-fU NGUS - FISTULINA H£PATICA '
FUNGI
353
FUNGI
yellow cap, which when young is domelike, but
YMth age becomes expanded and depressed at the
centie The gills are thick, shoit, branching,
and wide apait The stem, at hrst white and
solid, later becomes hollow Since this species is
lather tough and dry, only cusp heavy speci-
mens should be selected for the table A closely
related poisonous species, CanthareHus aiuantia-
cus, found in rank or decaying giass, closely
resembles the above in coloir, but has thin,
crowded gills of deeper tint than the cap 2
The common field mushioom (Agawcus cantpes-
t'ris), which grows from 2 to 4 inches tall, is
piobably the commonest, best known, and most
easily distinguished of all It is the only one
that is cultivated to any extent (See MUSH-
ROOM ) The cap is fleshy, from 1% to 4 inches
broad, usually white, but sometimes tawny or
brownish above, and, when in prime condition,
pink below With age it changes to dark brown
Upon the stem is a collar, the remains of a veil,
which in the young mushioom joins the margin
of the cap to the stem Thib mushioom has nevei
been found growing in woods or shady places,
but always in open pastures, fields, and lawns
3 The edible pore mushroom (Boletus edulis) }
found most abundantly during the autumn in
pine, oak, and chestnut woods, has a brown
white-fleshed cap from 4 to 6 inches across,
with convex tubes at first white, but changing
to yellow and then greenish When in the pale-
yellow stage the plants are most tender and
edible The 2 to 6 inch stem becomes light
brown, with a network of pinkish veins near the
top 4 The variable mushioom (Russula io>ri-
ata) , a common species found in woods from
July to November, is usually some shade of
dingy green, never reddish 01 puiple The stem
is white, solid, and firm , the gills white, nan ow,
crowded, forked The fleshy cap when peeled
is white, of firm texture, and mild, sweet, nutty
flavor while young and fresh, wilted and old
specimens are not desirable even \vhen free
from grubs, which are especially fond of the
plant 5 Oyster mushroom (Plewotus os-
treatus ) , common on moist, decaying tree trunks
throughout the United States The cap is shell-
shaped, 3 to 5 inches broad, dark when young,
soon bleaching to brownish, and later yellow,
stem white, short, or wanting, thickened up-
ward, gills broad, rather distant, white 01
sometimes yellowish Flesh tender, except m
old specimens, of pleasant, but not pronounced,
flavor Especially good when dipped in egg
and fried slowly like an oyster 6 The fairy
ring (Marasmvus oreades) grows in short grass
of lawns, pastures, etc, but never in woods
Its common name is derived from its habit of
growing in nnglike patches, which increase in
diameter as the plants reach outward to new
feeding ground The mushrooms are small (1
to 2 inches broad and 2 to 3 inches tall),
reddish at first, pale afterward, solid, very
tough, with broad, distant, free gills, alternately
long and short They have a weak but agreeable
odor and mild, sweet, and nutty taste, which is
retained well when the mushrooms are dried by
exposure to air or sun — the simplest way to pie-
serve them It is one of the best and the most
easily digested The hairy-foot (Mar&svmus per-
sonatus) which grows in woods on dead leaves,
etc , must not be mistaken for the fairy ring,
since it is generally considered unwholesome
This species has darker and narrower gills, and
a hairy down at the base of the stem, 7.
Morel (Morchella esculenta) , common in spring
in old apple orchaids and in woods, especially
under butternut trees and on burned-over sui-
faces or places where wood ashes have been scat-
tered The pale yellow, buff, or tawny cap is
attached to the stout whitish hollow or stuffed
stem by its base, is ribbed and pitted like honey-
comb The morel is one of the most easily
lecogmzed and the choicest species of edible
fungi Its near relatives (genus Moic7ie!la)i
which inoie or less closely resemble it, aio all
edible 3 Ol&vana cmerea, a fungus without a
cap, which may be found m the woods fiom
June until fiost, grows fiom 1 to 3 inches
high, in tuftb 01 coionies, and has thin or thick
stems lighter than the numeious irregular,
wnnkled giay brandies It is considered the
best of the Clavaiias, but is said to be injurious
m laige quantities and to be digested with diffi-
culty by weak stomachs 9 Horse mushroom
( [(jancu^ CM i ens is) is considered by some
AMiteis to be a \aiietv of the common mushroom,
\ihicli grows in similai places, but is slightly
largei (2 to 5 inches tall, 3 to 5 inches 01 moio
bioad), has gills ^\hich tmn fiom whitish to
pink and then daik biown, and a stem which
is eithei hollo\v 01 stuffed with floccose pith
By some it in conauleied mfeiioi and by otheib
superior to the common mushioom 10 Got fanar
TIUS ccerutescetift, an almost odoiless species
found among mobs in \\oods, has a convex or
plane yellowish cap 2 to 3 inches across, slightly
rounded, thin, closely crowded, blue or purplish
gills, which change to a dull cinnamon with age,
and linn violet, pale, or whitish stems about
2 inches long, which rise from bulbs more than
an inch thick 11 Horsetail fungus (Coprwms
comatus) may be found after hard rams from
August until fiost, sometimes m spring, singly
or in elu&teis, in a great variety of places,
fiom nch soil to dumping giounds The cap is
fleshy, at first oblong and white, but later a
lagged bell shape and purplish black, the gills
aie uowded, bioad, fioe fiom the stem, at first
white, then pink, after \\hich the plant becomes
unfit foi food, since it turnb from purple to
black and dissolves into inklike drops The
stem is hollow, often 10 inches long, but mostly
hidden undei the cap It is not of high flavor,
but is of gieat delicacy when young 12 Livei
fungus (Fistuhna hepatica) is a ]uicy, red,
fibi ous-fleshed, nonrooting fungus, which may be
found upon decaying trees and stumps, espe-
cially on oak, beech, and chestnut, after rams
in summer and autumn Under the name of
beefsteak fungus it is highly esteemed every-
where for its rich, nutritious $esh of acid flavor
and agreeable odor
Poisonous Fungi The number of fungi foi-
merly considered poisonous was very large; in-
vestigation, however, has proved that many so
legarded are not merely innocuous, but are good
for food The results are that not a few old
beliefs have been upset and others are made to
totter Poisonous fungi may be divided into two
groups those that contain local irritant poi-
sons, which quickly act on the alimentary tract1,
and those that contain poisons which, after
the lapse of several hours, act on the nerve
centres. Members of the first group, though
exceedingly disagreeable in then effects, pro-
duce no serious disturbance, and unless eaten
in very large quantities or by persons m ill
health, need not be considered dangerous The
administration of an emetic, followed after ae-
PUJSTGI
354
FUNGI
tion by doses of sweet oil and whisky, or sweet
oil and vinegar, is recommended Unfortunately
members of the second group give no warning
of their haimfulness either by an unpleasant
taste or by local action on the digestive tract,
and toxic quantities of the poison are usually
absorbed before symptoms appear Should a
poisonous Amamta be eaten by mistake or
through carelessness, "take an emetic at once
and send for a physician, with instructions to
"bring hypodermic syringe and atropme sulphate
The dose is ^of a gram, and doses should be
continued heroically until the ^ of a grain is
administered, or until, in the physician's opin-
ion, a proper quantity has been injected Where
the patient is critically ill, •£$ of a grain may
be administered " The treatment is effective
only when the first symptoms manifest them-
selves, and not when late effects of the danger-
ous toadstool poisons are evident
The species illustrated and described herewith
have, until recently, been considered poisonous,
but some of them are either merely innocuous,
injurious to only certain individuals in the same
way that strawberries are, or are even more gen-
erally wholesome. Every one, even the fungus
expert, should consider himself a novice until he
has personally determined these two points
1 Fly amamta or fly mushroom (Amamta
muscana) , common in woods, especially of pine
and birch, has a cap 4 or more inches broad,
which, in its varieties, exhibits many colors —
blood red, bay brown, orange, lemon, white, and
the tint of cooked liver Usually the skin, which
is at first thick (sticky in damp weather),
checks more or less and peels in angular frag-
ments The flesh is yellow just beneath the
skin, otherwise white and rather loose The
stem, which is white, scaly, long, stout, but soon
hollow, is bulbous at the base and bears a veiy
soft torn frill or ring close to or even at its
summit The gills are white, sometimes yellow
This species is everywhere reported as poisonous,
but is said to be eaten by the Siberians to pro-
duce a sort of intoxication Its name, muscaria,
is derived from its property of killing flies. 2
Satan's mushroom (Boletus satanus) is a some-
what rare species which grows in woods Its
cap, 3 to 8 inches across, is usually brownish,
yellow, or whitish, and rather sticky tubes
yellow, with bright-red mouths, which later be-
come orange, stem 2 or 3 inches long, thick and
reticulated above Its flesh, which is whitish,
turning to reddish or bluish where injured, is
mild, reputed poisonous, but eaten without dis-
comfort by many Since its evil effects seem
to vary with the individual who partakes, it
should either be avoided or tested with extreme
oare. 3. The emetic mushroom (Russula erne-
tica) has a cap 3 to 4 inches broad, rosy, chang-
ing to blood red, then tawny, sometimes yellow
at first and later white Its shape changes
from bell form to flat, or with a depressed
centre, and a furrowed tubular margin The
gills are white, rather free, broad, and distant
Reputed to be emetic and poisonous, but eaten
with impunity by many 4 The woolly lactarms
(Lactanus tot minosus) is a rare species which '
glows in damp woods and swamps Its cap is
2 to 4 inches broad, at first convex, later con-
cave, usually shining yellowish red, gills nar-
row, sometimes forked, whitish, tinged with yel-
low or red , stem, 1 to 2 inches long, lighter than
the cap, flesh pinkish, extremely acrid, reputed
very poisonous, 5 Tiellise<J cjatljrus
cancellatus } , a reputed poisonous fungus of
beautiful red, white, or yellowish lattice-like
form and of very offensive odor The latticed
part rises from a white or fawn-colored cup 6
Fiery boletus (Boletus pip&ratus) , a common
but variable species in woods and open places,
is 1 to 3 inches in diameter, yellowish, light
brown, or reddish, convex or almost flat, on a
stem l1/^ to 3 inches tall, reddish or bright
yellow at its base The flesh, white or yellowish,
loses its acrid, peppery flavor when cooked
Though reputed poisonous, this species has been
eaten with enjoyment by many 7 Deadly
agaric, deadly amamta, death cup (Amamta
phalloides), a, common and very variable species
found m woods from June until frost, is one of
the most poisonous of mushrooms The cap is
3 to 4 inches across, shining white, lemon, gray-
ish brown, blackish brown, or grayish brown
with a black disk sometimes dotted, viscid m
damp weather, stem 3 to 5 inches long, some-
times much longer, white and lather smooth,
hollow above, larger, solid, and bulblike below,
rising from a sort of cup — hence the name
"death cup", and bearing near its summit a
reflexed, swollen, white, usually entire ring,
gills white, free This species is peihaps most
dangerous, because most often mistaken for the
common mushroom (Agancus campestris]
Since it grows in the woods, has white gills,
white spores, and a cuplike base, the collector
is to blame if he makes any mistake the com-
mon mushroom does not grow in the woods,
has pink gills, dark spoies, and no cup at its
base 8 Spung mushroom (Amamta vernus) ,
consideied to be a variety of the preceding,
which grows in similar places, but during spung
and summer 9 The verdigris mushroom (Stro-
pharia ceruginosa) , common from July to No-
vember in woods and meadows, has a cap about 3
inches in diameter, covered with a green or blue
slime, a long, scaly, hollow, bluish stem, and
brown or purplish gills It is reputed poisonous,
probably because of its disagreeable odoi, color,
and taste 10 The stmkhorn or fetid wood witch
(Phallus impudicus) grows during summer and
autumn in woods, fence corners, kitchen yards,
and under wooden steps Its cap expands but
little, is about 2 inches from edge to summit,
and is borne in a thick (1^4 -inch) stem, 6 to
8 inches tall, which rises fiom a white or pink-
ish cup 2 inches in diameter This toadstool
cannot be mistaken when full grown, because of
its exceedingly offensive odor, which attracts
blowflies and carrion beetles The young plants
are said to be very good when fued, but when
mature the odor is against the species, and it is
then considered unwholesome 11 Red- juice
mushroom (HygrophoYiis comcus) , found in
woods and open places from August to October,
has a thin, fragile, acutely or obtusely conical
yellow, bright-red, or scarlet cap % to 1 inch
across, with a lobed margin , rather close, broad,
yellow, free gills, and a hollow yellow stem, 3
to 6 inches long Formerly this species was con-
sidered poisonous, probably on account of its
color, it is now proved not to be merely harm-
less, but good for food
Consult Farlow, "Some Edible and Poisonous
Fungi," Bulletin 15 Division Vegetable Physi-
ology <md Pathology, United States Department
of Agriculture (Washington, 1898) , Marshall,
The Mushroom Book (New York, 1900) , Taylor,
Student's Handbook of Mushrooms m America
(Washington, 1£97~08), Gibson, Qur
POISONOUS FUNG!
1 FLY MUSHROOM - AMANITA MUSCARIA
2 SATAN'S MUSHROOM - BOLETUS SATANUS
3 EMETIC MUSHROOM - RU-SSULA EMETICA ,
•4- RUDDY- Ml UK MUSHROOM - LACTARIUS RUFUS
5 TF?ELHSED CLATHRUS - CLATH R US CAN CELLATU S
6 FIERY BOLETUS - BOLETUS PlPERATUS
T DEADLY AGARIC ' AMANITA PHALLOI.DES
8 SPRING MUSHROOM - AGARICUS (AMANITA) VERNUS
9 VERDIGRIS MUSHROOM - AGARICUS XERUGlNOSU-S
10 FETID WOOD-WITCH - PHALLUS IMPUDICUS
11 RED-JUICE MUSHROOM- HYOROPHORUS CONtCUS
355
FUNGICIDE
Toadstools and Mushrooms (New York, 1895),
Peck, Mushrooms and their Use (Cambridge,
Mass, 1897), id, "Report State Botanist on
Edible Fungi of New York," in Annual Report
New York State Museum, vol in, No 4 (Al-
bany, 1900) , Dumee, Nouvel atlas de poche des
champignons comestible et veneneus (Paris,
1905) , Hard, Mushrooms, Edible and Otherwise
(Columbus, Ohio, 1908), Mcllvame and Mac-
adam, One Thousand American Fungi ( rev ed ,
Indianapolis, 1912)
ETTNG-I, FISSION See SCHIZOMYCETES
FUDSTGKCBLES, fun'ji-b'lz In the civil law,
articles of personal property, sueli as food, fuel,
etc , loaned to another for the purpose of being
consumed, ie, such objects as cannot be used
without being given away or consumed, which
\\eie the subjects of the civil-law contract of
niutuum Objects of this nature, from the fact
that they were got rid of one for another (fun-
gantur] , were called fungibles See MTJTUUM
FUNGICIDE, fun'ji-sid (from Lat. fungus,
mushroom + c&dere, to kill) Any material
that will destroy fungi or prevent the germina-
tion of their spores Fortunately for agricul-
ture and horticulture there are a numbei of
substances which may be employed for this pur-
pose On account of their destructive influence,
copper salts, which form the basis of many fun-
gicides, are used in several of the most im-
portant A few of the commonest and best
fungicides are given herewith When used upon
foliage, the liquids must all be applied as a
mistlike spray, especially to the undersides of
the leaves, where many of the fungi gam en-
trance through the stomata, and only in suffi-
cient quantity to moisten the surfaces, with-
out standing on them or running off in drops
Neither should they trickle off dormant wood
Bordeau® mixture, accidentally discovered in
France about 1882, is the best general fungicide
known It consists of a solution of copper sul-
phate and lime The corrosive action of the
former upon many kinds of foliage is neutralized
by the lime, which also makes the mixture more
adhesive The following is considered the best
method of preparation In a wooden vessel dis-
solve copper sulphate at the rate of one pound
to a gallon of water by suspending the salt in a
coarse bag just below the surface of the water
It will dissolve more quickly if suspended than
if placed at the bottom In another vessel slake
fresh lime with just enough water to cover it
This lime should contain little or no magnesium.
When slaked, add water until the proportion is
one pound of lime to one gallon of water When
needed for use, these two stock solutions, as
they are called, are diluted with water and then
mixed with as much agitation or stirring as
possible The proportions in the final mixture
should be five pounds of copper sulphate, five
pounds of lime, 50 gallons of water, making
what is known as the 5-5-50 mixture for apply-
ing to dormant wood and strong foliage, such as
apples and currants, for young and for tender
foliage, such as peach and plum, an extra pound
of lime and 25 gallons more of water should
be added It has been found that a still more
dilute mixture can be successfully used without
the injurious effects to foliage and fruit that
follows the use of too strong mixtures. To test
the neutrality of the mixture, a drop of ferro-
cyanide of potassium is added to a little of the
compound, and if a brown color is observed,
more lime must be added, if none, then the
fungicide may be applied with safety The
stock solution of coppei sulphate may be kept
indefinitely, the lime for only a few days Since
the mixture deteriorates rapidly by the floccula-
tion of lime particles, it should be mixed fresh
for each application In oider to make the
fungicide more adhesive various substances may
be added to it Among those most commonly
used are iron sulphate, molasses, resin, casein,
gelatin, etc
Ammomacal copper- carbonate solution is al-
most as good as Bordeaux mixture, and since it
is clear, and therefore produces no stain, it is
better than Bordeaux mixture for spiaymg on
ornamentals and ripening fruits It is made by
dissolving one ounce of copper carbonate in one
pint of ammonia and adding 10 gallons of water
Burgundy mixture, or soda Bordeaux mixture,
is made by dissolving fo\o pounds of copper sul-
phate in 50 gallons of water, three pounds of
sodium carbonate (sal soda) in 50 gallons of
water, and mixing the two solutions This mix-
ture is without a sediment and may be used
when spotting of fruit is to be a\oicled
Eau celeste is an important fungicide, but in
inexperienced hands it may bum the foliage of
many plants It is made by dissolving one
pound of copper sulphate in two gallons of
water, adding one and a half pints of ammonia
when cooled and diluting with water to 25
gallons
Copper sulphate dissolved in watoi at the rate
of one pound to 10 gallons of water is of great
value as a spray for fungi, lichens, algae, etc.,
upon dormant trees and vines It should not
be used on foliage because of its coirosive action
The seed of oats, wheat, barley, etc , may be
soaked m this solution to destroy the spores of
smut (q v )
Lime-sulphur solution, which was first used
as an insecticide, especially for the control of San
Jose scale, has been found to be a valuable fungi-
cide, and is less coirosive to foliage than some
of the other fungicides It may he secured in
stock mixtures, or may be made by boiling fresh
lime and sulphur together, or by slaking the
fresh lirne in contact with sulphur, the heat
evolved being sufficient to dissolve the sulphur
This is the so-called self-boiled lime sulphui
With a few exceptions lime sulphur is as efficient
as Bordeaux mixture and at the same time is a
valuable insecticide
Sulphur has an important rank among fungi-
cides, especially as a remedy for powdery mil-
dews In outdoor use it is dusted upon the
foliage, but in greenhouses it is generally evapo-
rated Either the steam pipes are coated with
it or it is more rapidly volatilized by heating
it in a sand bath over an oil stove Extreme
care must be exercised to prevent ignition, since
the fumes of burning sulphur are fatal to plants,
as may be seen from their use in ridding green-
houses of plant growths and spores upon the
soil, benches, walks, etc Of course, when so
used, the houses are emptied of useful plants
Hot water may be applied when nearly boiling
to kill certain fungi and insects without injur-
ing the plants Its more valuable use, however,
is for the desti action of smuts of ceieals For
this purpose, also, solutions of formalin and of
corrosive sublimate may be successfully em-
ployed The methods of using these fungicides
will be described more fully in the article on
SMUTS
Methods of Application The apparatus
FUNG-OID PABASITE
356
needed to obtain the mi&tlike spiay lefcmd to
above are nozzles, hose, and a force pump J.ne
nozzles are the most important part of the ma-
chine Thobe of the Yermorel t^pc are con-
sidered the most satisfactory for short range,
and the McGowan or a noz/lc devised at the
Massachusetts Experiment Station for long
Most progressive orchardists use the former
upon the ends of long bamboo tubes, the
operators often being raised upon platforms
A common form of apparatus is the so-called
"knapsack" pump, a tank which is strapped
over the shoulders like a knapsack It contains
a very compact and poweiful pump, and is con-
venient foi small plots and for crops that have
grown too large to permit the entrance of a
wagon sprayer A sprayer that uses com-
pressed air for driving out the liquid is grow-
ing in favor for spraying on a small scale
Success in combating plant diseases depends
upon the thoroughness with which the fungicides
are applied No fixed rules can be given as to
times for spraying, but in general three or four
applications should be given at intervals of 10
days or two weeks If much rainy weather
intervenes, one or two additional sprayings may
be profitably given In spraying fruit trees and
vines of all kinds, the fiist application should
be given just as the buds begin to swell, but
before they show characteristic color No spray-
ing should be given \\hen the plants are in blos-
som, but one should follow the fall of the petals
Plant diseases are 'noise during some seasons
than during others, hot, moist weather favors
the rapid growth of manv fungi Perennial
plants should be sprayed eveiy season to keep
them in good condition, the increased yields of
better crops will more than pay for the trouble
and expense of spraying Spraying is preven-
tive, not remedial
Bibliography Lodeman, The Spraying of
Plants (New York, 1896) , Weed, Spraying
Crops (ib, 1895) , Prillieii, Maladies des plantes
agrwoles (Paris, 1895) , Hollrung, Ghemische
Mittel gegen Pflanzenlranlheiten, (Berlin,
1898) , Massee, Diseases of Cultivated Plants
and Tiees (New York, 1010) , Duggai, Fungous
Diseases of Plants (ib, 1909) , Stevens and
Hall, Diseases of Economic Plants (ib, 1910);
Truffaut, Les ennemtes des plantes cuHwees
(Paris, 1912) Consult also numeious bulletins
of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and of
the United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D G See also FUNGI; BACTERIA;
BASIDIOMYCETES , ASCOMYCETES, ETC
FUN'GOID PABASITE. A name occasion-
ally used for fungi which are parasitic upon,
plants or animals See FUNGI, ECONOMIC
FUN'GUS. A term in pathology, with sev-
eral different meanings Almost any growth
from the skin or mucous membranes which has
a cauliflower-like or excrescent character may be
referred to as a fungoid growth The term "fun-
gus" is also used in connection with certain
vegetable parasites which incite disease These
are treated in the article FTJXGI Bacteria and
their relation to disease will be found fully de-
scribed under BACTERIA and DISEASE, GEEK
THEORY OF, also found under their respective
titles Yeasts occur in the stomach m some
forms of indigestion and have been found in the
bladder in diabetes A few cases of skin diseases
have been reported In which the yeast fungus
was apparently the exciting agent The most
common molds which are met with in pathology
FUNGUS BEETLE
are (1) the TtycUophyton tonsurans, which is
the active agent in the disease known as tinea
sycosis, or ringworm (qv ) , (2) the Aohotion
Ncltoenlcimi, which is the paiasite of favus
(qv) , and (3) the Hicrosporon furfur, which
is the cause of pitvnasis versicolor, a skin
disease
FUNGUS BEETLE, 01 FIDDLE An extraor-
dinaiy carabid beetle (Hormolyce phyllodes) of
Java and the neighboimg mainland, very vari-
able in size, but
sometimes 3 inches
long, yet so flat as
to be able to creep
into surprisingly
thin crevices It is
brown, with black
legs and antennas,
and the elytra are
thin, soft, tianslu-
cent, and greatly
expanded, gn ing it
a very stiange
form * These beetles lemam in claik places,
under bark, etc, dm ing the day, and are par-
ticularly fond of hiding- behind the fungi gi ow-
ing on trees Within these their eggs are laid
and the larvae make then home, feeding, it is
believed, on the larvae of other insects This
insect is knoun to the English residents about
Penang as the fiddle beetle, in allusion to the
outline of its body
FUNGUS GNAT One of the little flies of
the family Mycetophilidae, so called fioin the
fact that many of them breed in fungi, includ-
ing edible mushrooms They are, as a rule,
delicate and rather slender, with clear wings,
but sometimes the wings are smoky or have
laige dark spots The larvae are slender, cylin-
diical maggots, moie or less wormhke in ap-
pearance The damage which they do in mush-
room beds is sometimes very great, and it be-
comes necessary at certain seasons of the year
to cover the growing mushrooms with gauze
FUNJ, funj, or FUNG. A mixed Hamite-
Negro people on the upper Nile They have not
the woollv hair nor the flat nose of the negro,
and the color varies much as that of the mulat-
toes in the United States Their language also
betrays tbeir Abyssinian ongin The Shilluks
and Dinkas are of the same stock The King-
dom of Sennar \\as founded by them in the
seventeenth century and lasted until overthrown
by Mehernet Ah in 1821 Consult Bruce, Travels
(Edinburgh, 1805)
FUNK, funk, FRANZ XAVEB VON ( 1840-1907 )
A Catholic theologian He was born at Abts-
Gmund, Wurttemberg, and was educated at Tu-
bingen, at the Seminary of Rottenburg, and in
Paris, where he studied economics In 1870 he
was appointed professor of theology at Tubingen
and in 1876 became an editor of the Tubingen
Theologische Qitartalsrhiift His principal pub-
lications are- Opeta Patrum Apostolicorum
(1878, 2d ed , 1901) , Lehrbuch der Kirohenge-
schtchte (1886, 4th ed , 1902), Die apostoli-
schen Konstttutionen (1891) — Funk thought
the apostolic constitutions were written as late
as the beginning of the fifth century, Kirchen-
ffesohichthche Abkandlungen und Untersuohun-
gen (1897-99)
FUNK, funk, ISAAC KAUFFMAN (1839-1912)
An American clergyman, editor, and publisher
He was born at Clifton, Ohio, and was educated
at Wittenberg College in his native State After
357
being pastor of St Matthew's English Lutheran
Church, in Brooklyn, 1ST Y , for seven years, he
made an extensive tour through Europe, north-
ern Africa, and Asia Minor (1872) In 1878
he entered into partnership with A W Wagnalls
as book publisheis They published many re-
prints of valuable English and continental
books Among the religious publications
founded by him after 1876 are the following.
Metropolitan Pulpit (now the Homiletic Re-
view] and the Missionary Review In 1889 the
Literary Digest was established In 1895 the
{Standard Dictionary was published, and in 1913
the New Standard Dictionary A monumental
undertaking was the Jewish Encyclopedia, (12
vols, 1901-06) Dr Punk was a Prohibitionist
and founded the Voice (1880), an organ of that
paity He interested himself in psychical ic-
search and published The Newt Step in Evolu-
tion (1902), The Widow's Mite and Other
Psychic Phenomena (1904), and The Psychic
Riddle (1907)
FUNK, PETER A name used of persons em-
ployed at auctions to offer bogus bids in order
to raise the price
FITlSnsrY BONE. A term used to designate
really not a bone, but the ulnar nerve, which is
so slightly protected in the groove where it
passes behind the internal condyle of the hu-
merus ( q v ) that it is often affected by blows
on that part (See ARM ) A peculiar electric
thrill passes along the arm to the fingers when-
ever the nerve is struck or pressed
FIDST'STOW, FREDERICK (1865-1917 ). An
American soldier, born at New Carlisle, Clark
Co , Ohio, the son of an artillery officer in the
Civil War He studied for two years at the
Kansas State University (Lawrence, Kans ) ,
was a member of the reportonal staff of the
Kansas City Journal, became connected with
the United States Department of Agriculture in
1891, accompanied the Death Valley expedition
to southern California as assistant botanist,
and in 1893-94 was in Alaska, where he made
for the department a collection of the local flora
and obtained material for the field repoit in-
cluded in F V Coville's Botany of YaJtutat Bay
(Washington, 1895) In 1896 he was appointed
deputy comptroller of the Atchison, Topeka, and
Santa Fe Railway In the same year he offered
his services to the Cuban Junta and later was
commissioned captain of artillery and distin-
guished himself as such at La Machuca He
was promoted successively to be major and
lieutenant colonel (for bravery at Las Tunas) ,
endeavored, because of wounds and illness, to
escape to the United States, was captured by
the Spanish and condemned to death, but was
finally set free At the outbreak of the Spanish-
American War he became colonel of the Twen-
tieth Kansas Volunteers From November,
1898, he served in the Philippine Islands, where,
for bravery at Calumpit, he was appointed brig-
adier general of volunteers in 1899, and on
March 23, 1901, captured Emilio Agumaldo, the
insurgent leader On March 30 he was com-
missioned brigadier general, USA In 1905 he
was placed in command of the Department of
California, with headquarters at San Francisco,
where lie aided in the preservation of order and
rendered valuable services to the civil authorities
after the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, and
m December, 1907-March, 1908, commanded
troops at Groldfield dunng the strike riots
After tlie occupation of vera Cruz ( q v ) by
American sailois and marines, Ftmston was sent
to take over the administi ation of tho city (Mav,
1914) The following November be was pro-
moted major general Consult Genei al Funston'^
Memories of Two Wars (New York, 1911)
FUR AND THE PUR TEADE (OF forre, fueiic
It fodero, case, sheath, from Goth fodi , AS
foddei, OHG fuotar, Ger Putter, sheath)
Many species of animals, especially those living
in cold climates, have a soft, silky covering
called fur, which in some animals is mixed with
a covering entirely different in texture, long
and straight, called the oveihair It is often
this oveihair which gives the distinctive pecu-
liarity and beauty to the fui The use of the
skins of beasts with the fur still on them, as
clothing, is of very ancient origin The Chinese
and Japanese used furs as articles of luxury at
least 2500 years ago Herodotus mentions their
use by other ancient peoples By the Romans
furs were much prized, especially during the
later days of the Empue The Saracens also
made great use of them, and fiom them the
Ciusadeis bi ought fuis into geneial favor in
Europe, where so much extiavagance was exhib-
ited in their use that in both France and Eng-
land sumptuary edicts weie issued againyt this
fashion But such laws, like most regulations
of the sort, had little effect, and the demand foi
fuis continued among all classes of people It
was to meet this demand that those pioneer ex-
plorers, the trappers and traders, penetrated
the northern forests of America and established
little trading stations which proved the van-
guards of civilization Albany and St Louis,
and many other flourishing American, cities, are
the outgrowth of these stations In the early
days the most valuable furs could be obtained
from the Indians in exchange for glass beads or
other trifles At one time this trade "ft as carried
on, especially in Canada, by coweurs des bois,
but the scandalous practices of these reckless
rangers brought the trade into such disrepute
that a licensing system was established
Beaver skins were used in New Amsterdam
and elsewhere in place of gold and silver for
currency, and the figiiie of a beaver is a con-
spicuous device on the escutcheon of the city of
New Yoik The search for furs was one of the
objects of the daring expeditions of the voyagers
of French Canada, as the search for gold was
the motive of the Spanish invasion of Mexico
and South America The famous Hudson's Bay
Company originated in 1670 and claimed the
entire country from the bay to the Pacific, and
from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean, ex-
cept such portions as were then occupied by
Frenchmen and Russians Towards the close of
the eighteenth century certain Canadian mer-
chants formed the Northwest Fur Company,
having their headquarters at Monti eal, their
operations being carried on m the districts
watered by rivers that flow to the Pacific This
organization soon became a formidable compeifel-
tor to the Hudson's Bay Company In 1821 the
two companies united In 1763 some merchants
of New Orleans established a lur-trading* post
where St Louis now stands, under the manage-
ment of the brothers Chouteau. For the first
half of the nineteenth century the St Louis
trade was from $200,000 to $300,000 a year
One of the most famous of early American fur
traders was John Jacob Astor, of New York,
who began by trading in a small way after his
arrival in the country m 1784. By 1810-12 his
FTJB
358
TUB,
trade, conducted under the name of the Ameri-
can Fur Company, was enormous An entirely
new field for American enterprise was opened
by the purchase of Alaska in 1867, which se-
cured complete control of an important seal
fishery In 1914 the furs shipped from Alaska
amounted m value to $701,511, this figure includ-
ing othei furs than seal The sealskin industry
had eaily hecome an important one and national
and international action was necessaiy to pre-
vent extinction of the herds See undei SEAL;
SEALING.
Seekers for furs must now go beyond the
extreme limits of civilization, especially in
America, and the Arctic regions are hunted over
to secure the pelts In more civilized regions the
hunter-trapper age is passing, and to meet the
increased demand for valuable fuis domestication
and breeding must be developed Already fur
farming is being undertaken on a large scale in
Canada, while the Karakule sheep, from which
are obtained Persian lamb and broad tails, have
been domesticated in Russia, and attempts have
been made in Germany and America to produce
by cross-breeding a sheep that will yield similar
fur Skunk farms are also in successful opera-
tion, and scientific biologists are being consulted
in order to provide for new and valuable furs
Each animal presents special pioblems in re-
gard to both domestication and breeding
Collectors and dealers in Canada and the
United States usually forward their furs to the
seaboard, chiefly to "New York, for sale there,
or for consignment principally to London and
Leipzig In 1913 the United States government
decided to send its sealskins and fox pelts from
Alaska to be cured and sold at public auction
at St Louis, and it was thought that this
might be the means of developing that city as
one of the important fur centres of the world.
Previously London had been recognized, even
in America, as the great fur-dressing centre and
market, and still remains the chief, and the
great auctions are held there. To London are
sent not only much of the produce of Asia and
Europe, but also the fine peltries of Chile and
Peru, the nutria from Buenos Aires, the fur
seal of Cape Horn and South Shetland, the
hair seal from Newfoundland, as well as the in-
ferior peltries of Africa
To prepare fur skins in a way to endure this
long transportation is a simple and easy matter
When stripped from the animal, the flesh and
fat are carefully removed, and the pelts hung
in a cool place to dry and harden, nothing- is
added to protect them Care is taken that they
do not heat after packing and that they are
occasionally beaten to destroy worms A marked
exception is the case of the fur seal, which is
best preserved by liberal salting and packing in
hogsheads All other raw furs are marketed in
bales
Few kinds of animals furnish a pelt of suit-
able weight and pliability, and all of them differ
widely in elegance of texture, delicacy of shade,
and fineness of overhair, and these differences
determine their place in the catalogue of mer-
chandise These few animals are not very pro-
lific, and many of them attain their greatest
beauty in wild and uncultivated regions, al-
though there are some notable exceptions Be-
ing thus few in kind and limited in quantity,
the extinction of the several choice varieties has
been threatened through the persistent energy
of trappers
The principal North American fui -bearing
animals are beaver, muskrat, hare, and squirrel,
the mink, sable, fisher, ermine, weasel, raccoon,
badger, and skunk, the lynx, northern and
southern, bears of several kinds, foxes of three
or foui varieties , two wolves , and, most valu-
able of all, musk ox, seal, and sea otter Of
foreign fur-bearing animals the most highly
prized are the chinchilla, coypu (nutria), and
various monkeys, marsupials (opossum, kanga-
roo, etc), and cats (See articles under then
names, also, FUB-BEAEING ANIMALS ) Many
of the animals, however, enumerated in the
Amencan list are also natives of northern Eu-
rope, whence their pelts come to market under
other names In fact, there is a wide diversity
of name between the trade designations of the
vaiious furs and the actual animals
For manufacturing purposes furs are classified
into felted and dressed Felted furs, such as
beaver, nutria, hare, and labbit, are used for
hats and other felted fabrics, in which the hairs
or filaments are made so to interlace or entangle
as to form a very strong and close plexus The
quality of the fur is better when the skin is
taken " from the animal in winter than in any
other season, giving rise to the distinction be-
tween "seasoned" and "unseasoned" skins The
removal of the fur from the pelt is a necessary
preliminary to the pieparation of fur for felting
purposes The long hairs are cut off by a kind
of shears, and the true fur is then removed by
the action of a knife, requiring much care in
its management In some sorts of skin the long
hairs are removed by pulling instead of shear-
ing, in others the greasiness of the pelt renders
necessary a cleansing process, with the aid of
soap and boiling water, before the shearing can
be conducted; and in others both pelt and fur
are so full of grease as to require many repe-
titions of cleansing
Furs have their felting property sometimes
increased by the process of carroting, in which
the action of heat is combined with that of sul-
phuric acid The chief employment of felted
furs is described under HAT, Manufacture See
also FELT
Dressed furs are those to which the art of the
furrier is applied for making muffs, boas, and
fur trimmings for garments The fur is not
separated from the pelt for these purposes, the
two are used together, and the pelt is converted
into a kind of leather to fit it for being so
employed
The process of dressing furs, while in its
general outlines the same, differs in its details
with the character of the fur The fur of the
seal is prepared as follows The salt used in
packing is first thoroughly washed out, and
every particle of flesh is carefully removed from
the inside of the hide, after which the skins are
stretched on frames and slowly dried The proc-
ess of thorough washing, this time in soapsuds,
is repeated, and while the skin is still moist the
long overhair is removed with a knife, leaving
only the short soft fur This process is a deli-
cate and tedious one The skin side of the pelts,
after being subjected to moist heat, is shaved
down until a smooth, even surface is obtained
When the skin is again dry, it is placed in a
tub filled with fine hardwood sawdust, which
absorbs any moisture remaining, and is softened
and rendered flexible by treading with the bare
feet It is now ready to be dyed The coloring
matter is applied with a brush to the tips of
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS
1. EUROPEAN WEASEL (Musteia erminea), in white
winter or Ermine dress.
2. WEASEL (Musteia erminea), in brown summer or
Stoat dress.
3. SABLE (Musteia zibellina).
4. WOLVERINE OR GLUTTON (Gulo luscus).
5. EUROPEAN FERRET OR POLECAT (Musteia
putorius).
6. SEA OTTER (Latax lutris).
7. AMERICAN PINE MARTEN (Musteia americana).
FUBAKTI
359
the fur and distributed by shaking the fur It
is then dried and brushed The process of dye-
ing, drying, and brushing is often repeated as
many as 12 times
Statistics. The Thirteenth United States
census in its report on manufactures, published
in 1913, deals separately with fur goods and
furs dressed Under the former classification
the manufacturers making various articles of
apparel such as fur sets, overgaiments, fur hats,
caps, and gloves, ^ere considered These firms
usually purchased their material in a dressed
condition, but occasionally certain establish-
ments dressed the furs themselves, so that the
two divisions in the trade may overlap The
largest part of the manufacturing is done in
New York City, it being the centre both of the
industry and of the fashions The production
in 1909 amounted to about $40,000,000 of furs,
or 71 per cent of the total for the United States,
and m 1912, of $17,000,000 worth of fur skins
imported into the United States, the metropolis
Ubed $15,000,000 In 1900 there were 1241 es-
tablishments m the United States engaged in
the manufacture of fur goods, with an average
numbei of 11,927 wage earners, who received
in wages $7,787,845 and produced a product
valued at $55,937,549. This may be contrasted
with the similar figure for 1889, when there
were 484 establishments employing 6547 wage
earners, who received in wages $3,477,148 and
produced a product valued at $20,526,988 In
addition, in 1909, products valued at $532,781
were reported by establishments engaged pn-
marily m the manufacture of gloves and men's
clothing Under the classification of "dressed"
furs where the pelts are scraped, curried, tanned,
and bleached, hatters' fur, dressed hair, and
brush manufacturers' supplies are also included
It was reported that in 1909 there were 93 es-
tablishments engaged in this industry, with a
total average number of 1241 wage earners and
a product valued at $2,390 959, which could be
compared with the annual product of 1004, which
was $2,215,701, and 1899, when it was $1,400,455
The foreign trade in furs fluctuates greatly
The imports of furs and fur skins into the United
States was m 1912 $17,399,000 and in 1914
but $8,840,000, and of furs dressed on the skins
in 1912 $5,346,000 and m 1914 $3,204,000 The
exports in 1913 were $18,390,000 and m 1914
$14,969,000 The value of raw seal skins ex-
ported in 1914 was but $37,199 The imports
are chiefly from Germany, England, and Canada,
the exports chiefly to England and Germany,
Consult Petersen, The Fur Traders and Fur-
Bearing Animals (Buffalo, 1913), and Werner,
Die Kurschner Kunst (Leipzig, 1914)
PUBAUI See FURS
FUR-BEARING ANIMALS. The group of
animals whose pelts are utilized as fur garments
or ornaments, forming the carnivorous family
Mustehdae This family, which includes, besides
its typical weasels (Mustelinae), the skunks
(Mephitmse), the badgers (Melmae), the otters
(Lutnnse), and the sea otters (Enhydrmae), the
honey badgers, ratels, etc, is world-wide in its
spread outside of Australia. It is in the North-
ern Hemisphere, however, that the family is now-
most numerous and well represented, and it is
in response to the demand of the cold winters of
the subarctic regions, to which the most valuable
of these animals are confined, that their coats
have become the warm pelts which mankind finds
so serviceable and attractive. All are small ani-
mals, the laigest (the \volverme) being only
about 3 feet long Their bodies are in most
cases slender, their legs ralher short, then heads
round, with very powerful jaws and teeth, and
their tails (except in the skunks) are rather
short Great strength, nimblene&s, and courage
characterize them, and many exhibit a blood
thirst beyond that of any other carnivore, never-
theless, they have been tamed Weasels have
always acted as mousers in the East and were
so used in ancient Gracco-Roman civih/ation
Ferrets still serve as vermin catchers, and otters
have been taught to fish, while badgers were
formerly used in cruel sport Most of them are
terrestricil and live in buriows of their own dig-
ging, but some are arboieal They feed upon
small mammals, birds, birds' eggs, fish, crusta-
ceans, and insects, and all possess in a greater
or less degree anal glands, from which they can
discharge at will (sometimes shooting it a long
distance) an acrid fluid, winch is intensely of-
fensive to the nostrils and mucous membiane of
other animals The chase of the leading mem-
bers of this family has long been and still is an
important industry on the frontiers of Europe
and North Ameiica, and thousands of pelts have
been gathered annually without exterminating
any of the race, though the habitats of many
species have been rpuch reduced Statistics of
the trade in furs in London show that during
the last century the receipts of pelts there of
Mustelidse alone, from North America exclu-
sively, amounted to about 3,250,000 sables,
1,500,000 otters, 100,000 wolveimes, 3,000,000
minks, 25,000 sea otters, 500,000 skunks, and
500,000 badgers, besides an unknown number of
ermines, fishers, etc "The scientific interest
with which the zoologist, as simply such, may
regard this family of animals, yields to those
practical considerations of everyday life which
render the history of the Mustehdte so impor-
tant" Consult authorities mentioned under
MAMMALIA, especially COUPS, Fur-Bearing Ani-
mals (Washington, 1877) See BADGER, ER-
MINE, FERRET, FISHER, FUR FARMING, MAR-
TEW, OTTER, POLECAT, SABLE, SEA OTTER,
SKUNK, WEASEL, WOLVERINE, and similar titles
FTtRBRINGER, fur'bring-er, MAX KARL
(1846-1920) A German anatomist and writer
on comparative morphologv, born at Wittenberg
and educated at Jena and Berlin In 1888 he
became professor at Jena, <ind in 1901 at Heidel-
berg His publications include valuable woiks
on the anatomical structure and development
of the Vertebrata, such as Die Knochen und
Muskeln der Extremitaten lei den schJangen-
ahnlicken Saurien (1870) , Zur vergleichenden
Anatomie der SchuUerwAishdn und des Brust-
schulterapparates (5 parts, 1872-1902) , Zur
Enticicklung der Amphibieni-tiere (1877) , Un-
tersuchungen zur MorpJiologie und Systematik
der Voqel (1888), Motpliologische Stieitfragen
(1902), Abstammiwg der Saugetiere (1904)
FTTR'CA ET PLAGEI/LITM (Lat gallows
and whip) In feudal lelations, the lowest of
servile tenures, in which the bondman was en-
tirely at the lord's mercy, both in life and limb
FtTRETIERE, fur'tyar', ANTOINE (1619-88)
A noted French, philologist, lexicographer, and
novelistic satirist He was born in Paris, was
trained for the law and the Church, but after-
ward gave his life to letteis. He published a
volume of verse (1655) and two satires, the
NouveUe allegorique, ou Eistwie des demurs
FUR
360
arrives au royaume d'eloquence (1658)
and Voyage de Mercvre (1659). These won him
an academic seat (1662) Already he had begun
the preparation of a dictionary which, as its
copyright "privilege" states, was to contain all
Fiench words, old as well as modern For 12
3 ears he labored on it, when in 1674 a royal
deciee was issued forbidding any one to publish
a dictionary till that of the Academy should ap-
pear After a remarkable contest against his
39 fellow Immoitals, Fureti&re was unjustly ex-
pelled from the Academy (1685), and his right
to print in France revoked He died two years
bcfoie his dictionaiy appeared at Rotterdam
(1690), under the title Dictionnaire uniietsel
cont&nant general em ent tons les mots frangais
tant meu® que moderns et les terwics des sci-
ences et des aits Among his novels is Le roman
bourgeois (1666), a realistic novel, portraying
seveial interesting types of the middle class, as
a reaction against the squeamish and sentimen-
tal characters of the aristocratic literatuie of
the day. Furetiere s dictionary was edited by
Basnage in 1701 and agaoi zevised in 1725 It
furnished the basis for the Dictionnatre de
Trtivoux that at length displaced it Consult
Gosse, ' The Romance of a Dictionary/' in the
Independent (New York, 1901), and H Chate-
lam, "Quelques remaiques sur Fmetiere et ses
predecessem s dans le rornan realiste du XVIIIe
siecle," in Revue TJmveisikawe (Paris, 1902)
FUR FABMrNTG- The commercial rearing
of fur-bearing animals for their pelts This in-
dustry was begun on account of the declining
yield "from the souices of supply in regions ex-
ploited by the historic fur-trading companies.
The efforts of the hunter and the trapper no
longer meet the increasing demand for furs,
especially of the more costly varieties Fur
farming includes the rearing of fox, beaver, mink,
muskrat, fisher, raccoon, sable, skunk, reindeer,
and the sheep that produce the fur called Per-
sian lamb The rearing of foxes, reindeer, and
of muskrat (in the New England States) has
proved successful, while that of other fur-bear-
ing animals is yet in the experimental stage and
in some cases has government aid For some
years blue Arctic, and more recently silver
black, foxes have been reared on islands off
the Alaskan coast leased for that purpose. (See
Fox, ALASKA ) In Prince Edward Island, Can-
ada, fox f aiming attained phenomenal growth
after 1900 and is regarded as firmly established
notwithstanding the speculative features of the
industry According to the report for 1913
of the Commissioner of Agriculture for that is-
land, there were in that year 277 ranches, with
over 2500 foxes, young and old, of which more
than half were silver black The value of these
ranches was estimated at $15,000,000— more
than twice the value of all the ordinary farm
live stock in the island, according to the census
of 1911. Although the pelts have sold well in
the London market, yet during 1909-14 the
sales were chiefly for breeding purposes, proved
breeders of quality fetching from $12,000 to
$15,000 a pair, and in rare eases up to $40,000
a pair. The influence of the London and other
fur markets promotes the stability of the in-
dustry by restricting- the production of skins
which can be imitated by dyeing Sales of
skins of the pure black variety fell off largely
on this account during 1913, while skins of the
silver black variety maintained their position
because they cannot be successfully imitated,
the best silver black pelts fetching from $1800
to $2500 each Such skins command these high
prices on account of their sheen, the beauty and
length of then overhairs, and the imeness of
their undeiwool These lare qualities distin-
o-uish the greater number of the Pnnce Edward
Island foxes The progeny of the silver black
foxes caught there yield the best fur Pure
black foxes were also imported from Newfound-
land, Labradoi, and Ontario The mdustiy has
spread to the other Canadian provinces, and in
1913 there were over 50 fox ranches in Nova
Scotia, and in 1912 there were 8 m New Bruns-
wick, 6 in Ontario, and 14 m other provinces.
Part of the Nova Scotia foxes are the progeny
of the blue Arctic variety, bred in the Alaskan
Inlands In 1912 a number of these were im-
poited into the Maritime Provinces and sold
for about $800 a pair There are about 50
mink ranches in Canada, principally in the
Province of Quebec, and there is an extensive
ranch in Nova Scotia for the production of Per-
sian lamb wool The lemdeei industry, which
is cultivated not only for the fur, but for the
milk and meat of tliat animal and also for
transportation purposes, prospers in Lapland
and Labrador Two hundred and fifty head
were sent to Labrador in 1907, and in 1911
they had increased to 1200 head In 1914 the
industry \%as further extended to Alberta, and
pieparations were made to establish it in the
Yukon Temtoiv The Ontario government pub-
lishes an offei to supply to fur farmers in that
province mink, marten, fisher, and beaver from
Algonquin Park Consult Reports of the Na-
tional Conservation Commission (Washington) ,
Reports of the Commissioner of Conservation
(Ottawa) , Reports of the Commissioner of Ag-
riculture (Pnnce Edward Island, Canada)
FTJRFOOZ (fur'foz') RACE From brachy-
cephalic skulls found at the Trou de Frontal,
Furfooz, Belgium, this type of mankind is sup-
posed to date from the end of the Quaternary
period, just at the commencement of the Neo-
lithic period (qv.). Consult Mortillet, Le Pre-
historique (Pans, 1900), and Sergi, The Medi-
terranean Race (London, 1901)
FTTRI AIN'T, foo'ri-ant A very hvely Bohe-
mian dance, characterized by strongly marked
accents and varying time In the works of
DvoHk it frequently takes the place of the
usual scherzo (qv )
FTJ'RIES See EUMENIDES
FTTRIOSO, foo'rs o'so, BOMBASTES See BOM-
BASTES FUKIQSO
FURIOSO, ORLANDO See OBLANDO FUBIQSO
FU'RITTS, MARCXJS FUBITJS BIBAOULXJS (c 103
BC-?) A Latin poet, born at Cremona He
wrote iambics, epigrams, and a poem on Cscsar's
Gallic wars "Jupiter hibernas cana nive con-
spmt Alpes," a line in the poem on Caesar, is
parodied by Horace (Sat , 11, 5, 41), who sub-
stitutes Funus for Jupiter, and conspuet for
conspuit, and speaks of the poet as pingui tentus
omasOj distended with fat tripe J It is probable
that Furius also wrote the poem ^thiopis, con-
taining an account of the killing of Memnon by
Achilles (qv ), and that the turgidus A,lpinw&
of Horace (Sat, i, 10, 36) is really Bibaculus
He is compared by Diomedes with Horace and
Catullus and is enumerated among the Koman
iambic poets by Quintihan (x, 1, 96) Consult-
Bahrens, Fragments Poetarum Romanorwrn
(Leipzig, 1886) , Weichert, Dissert vtio de Tw-
Alpmo S M F Bibaculo (Meissen, 1882),;
FITBLO PASS
361
Schanz, Geschichte der tomischen Litteratur,
vol i (3d ed, Munich 1907)
EUK/LO PASS See FOSSOMBEONE
FURLOUGH, fftr'lo (Dutch verlof, from
Dan forlov, leave, from /or, Eng for + -Jo/,
Dan Zoi>, Gei Laube, Eng £eai;e, permission)
A mihtaiy teim, applied to the leave of absence
granted enlisted men It does not apply to
commissioned officers of the United States army,
but does apply to English officers on foreign ser-
vice In the United States army furloughs in
the prescubed form for periods of thiee months
may be granted to enlisted men by commanding
officers of posts, and for periods of one month
by commanding officers of general hospitals, gen-
eral depots of supply, mine planters, or by regi-
mental commanders if the companies to which
the men belong are under their control Brig-
ade and district commanders may grant fur-
loughs for periods of three months to enlisted
men under their immediate control The num-
ber of men furloughed at any one time is not
to exceed 5 per cent of the enlisted strength
In England the furlough season is confined to
the winter months, generally from the 15th of
October to the 15th of March All soldiers with
over 12 months' service and qualified in conduct
and musketry ability are entitled to six weeks'
furlough In France and continental Europe
generally, soldiers in the active army who have
qualified in their duties and can read and write
may at the end of a prescribed period be sent on
furlough for an indefinite penod
The army reserve was established in the United
States army by Act of Congress dated Aug 24,
1912 Under this act a recruit enlists for a
period of seven years in active seivice and in
the army reserve At the end of three years
with the colors he is fuiloughed to the reserve
for four years, without pay, but is subject to be
recalled to the colors m case of war, in which
case he receives a money bonus.
FUBMAET, footman, RTCHABD (1755-1825)
An American Baptist clergyman, bom at Eso-
pus, N Y He was pastor of the First Baptist
Church of Charleston, S C, from 1787 until
1822 During this period he was also active as
a legislator and took part m the deliberations
on the first constitution of South Carolina* As
one of the foremost promoters of the Baptist
movement, he was elected in 1814 first president
of the Triennial Convention of Baptists Fur-
man University (Baptist) at Greenville, S C,
was named in his honor, and his son, James
Clement Furman (1809-91), was its president
Consult the memoir in Sommers's Memoir of
John Stanford (New York, 1835)
FUB'KTACE (from OF fornais, Fr fournaise,
It fornace, from Lat fornax, furnace, from for-
nus, oven, connected with Lat formm, Ok 0ep-
/*<$?, thermos, Skt gharma, hot, Eng warm) A
structure in which to make and maintain a fire,
the heat of which is used for heating, generating
steam, smelting ores, melting metals and glass,
baking pottery, and for a great variety of other
purposes in science and the arts Furnaces may
be divided into the following classes 1 Fur-
naces in which the fire and the material to be
heated are placed m contact To this class be-
long the open blacksmith fire (see FOB&E), blfcst
furnace, cupola or foundry furnace, etc (See
FOUNDING and IRON AND STEEL for descriptions
of blast furnaces and converters and foundry
furnaces ) 2 Furnaces in which the fuel is in
one compartment and the material to be heated
in another, the material being heated by the
flame and hot gases from the burning fuel The
most familiar form of this class of furnace is
the leverberatory, employed in heating and melt-
ing iron and steel (See IKON AND STEEL ) 3
Furnaces in which the material to be heated
is within a closed chamber or retort which is
heated externally by the fire or bv flame and
gases horn the lire Pot furnaces for making
glass (see GLASS) and crucible furnaces for
making ciucible steel (see IRON AND STEEL)
aie examples Furnaces may employ gas, pow-
deied coal, and oil as fuel The Siemens gas fur-
nace is used in steel manufacture (See IRON
AND STEEL ) Furnaces for generating steam
and those for heating form in a, measure classes
in themselves See BOILEB, FUEL, HEATING
AND VENTILATION, KILN
EUBJffEAITX, ifir-no', TOBIAS (1735-81)
An English navigator and discoverer, born at
Swilly, neai Plymouth He entered the navy
and seived in the Seven Years' War In 1766
he accompanied Wallis in the latter's voyage
around the woild Three years after his return
in 1768, he commanded the A.dLentute in Cap-
tain Cook's voyage, but twice became separated
from him, and continued his exploration in-
dependently along the co'i&t of Tasmania, nam-
ing the principal points on it Cook named a
group of the Low Aichipelago in his honor
FUKNTEATTX ISLANDS An Australasian
group in lat 40° S and long 148° E, lying
in Bass Strait between Australia and Tasmania
They were discoveied m 1773 by Tobias Fur-
neaux Flinders Island is the largest
FUB/NESS, CHRISTOPHER FUBNESS, BAROIST
OF GRANTLEY (1852-1912) An English ship-
builder The son of a provision merchant,
he entered that business in 1870 and made such
an immediate success that he was able to es-
tablish the Furness line of steamships (1877),
the shipbuilding concern of Furness, Withy &
Co (1891), and the South Durham Steel and
Iron Company (1898) Tn 1908 he set up a
system of profit sharing with his workmen, who
voted m 1910 to have it discontinued He was
knighted m 1895 and made a peer m 1910 He
was a Liberal member of Parliament m 1891-95
and 1900-10 and was reelected m 1910, only to
be unseated on petition.
FCTR'NESS, HORA.CE HOWAED (1833-1912).
An American Shakespeare scholar, born in Phil-
adelphia The son of William Henry Fuiness,
a Unitarian clergyman and author, he graduated
at Harvard in 1854 After a period m Europe,
during which lie received from Halle the degree
of Ph D , he returned home, studied law, and
was admitted to the bar m 1859 He contributed
to Tioubat and Haly's Practice on Ejectment,
etc , and was a member of the Seybert commis-
sion to investigate modern spiritualism, but his
Vwtorum Shakespeare is his especial work.
Romeo and Juliet (1871) was the first volume
to appear Then followed Macbeth (1873)j
Hamlet (2 vols, 1877), Lear (1880), Othello
(1886), Merchant of Venice (1888); As You
Like It (1890), Tempest (1892), Midsummer
Wight's Dream (1895), Winter* 8 Tale (1998).
Much, Ado About Nothing (1899), Twelfth
flight (1901) , Love's Labor Lost (1904), An-
thony and Cleopatra ( 1907 ) , and Oymbehne
(1913) Associated with him in his work was
his wife, herself author of a Concordance to
Shakespeare's poems, and lijs son, Horace
Howard Furness, Jr Everywhere the
FffRNESS
362
FURNITURE
edition lias been received as a monument of
scholarship, and the adoption, since 1886, of the
text of the First Folio as the basis of the work
will by many be thought a distinct gam Dr
Furness's services to learning were recognized
by Columbia, Harvard, and Yale in the bestow-
ment of honorary degrees, and he was made a
member of the American Academy of Arts and
Letters In the year of Dr Furness's death
appeared (privately printed) Appreciations of
Horace Howard Furness (Cleveland), which con-
tamed papers by Talcott Williams and Agnes
Reppher
FTJBNESS, HORACE HOWARD, JK (1865-
) . An American Shakespearean scholar, son
of Horace Howard Furness, and brother of
William Henry Fuiness, 3d He was born in
Philadelphia and graduated from Harvard Uni-
versity in 1888 From 1891 to 1901 he was an
instructor in physics at the Episcopal Academy
of his native city, and after that period he be-
came a co worker with his father, and his father's
successor, on the Vatiorum Shakespeare He
edited Macbeth (1903), Richard III (1908),
Julius Ccesar (1913)
FTTB'lSrESS, WILLIAM HENRY (1802-96). A
Unitarian clergyman He was born in Boston,
graduated from Harvard in 1820, studied the-
ology at Cambridge, and was minister of the
First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia from
1825 to 1875 He was prominent in the anti-
slavery movement Harvard gave him the
degree of D D in 1847 His writings include
translations from German verse and prose and
Remarks on the Four Gospels (1838) , History
of Jesus (1850) , The Unconscious Truth of the
Four Gospels (1868), The Power of Spirit
Manifested in Jesus of Nazareth (1877) , The
Story of the Resurrection Told Once More
(1885) Consult the sketch in Proceedings of
American Philosophical Society, Memorial Vol-
ume I (Philadelphia, 1900)
FURNESS, WILLIAM HENBY, 3D (1866-
). An American ethnologist, born at Wal-
lingford, Delaware Co , Pa , a son of Horace
Howard Furness He was educated at St
Paul's School, Concord, N H, at Harvard,
where he graduated in 1888, and at the medical
school of the University of Pennsylvania ( 1891 ) .
For scientific purposes he traveled much in South
America and wrote interestingly of his re-
searches there and elsewhere, in such books as
Folklore w Borneo (1899), Life in the Luchu
Islands (1899) , Home Life of the Borneo Head-
Hunters, its Festivals, and Folk-Lore (1902), and
Uap, the Island of Stone Money (1910) In
recognition of this and similar work he was
made a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society
and a member of other scientific associations
He was elected secretary and curator of the Free
Museum of Science and Arts, University of
Pennsylvania, in 1904
FURNI ISLANDS, foor'ne (Lat Corassiat
or Corseos) A group of small islands in the
Grecian Archipelago, m about lat 37° 35' N
and long. 26° 30' E, between Nikaria and
Samos, the largest of them is Furni It is
about 7y2 miles long and has an average width
of about 1 mile It is the only inhabited island
of the group The islanders are settled in a
small bay on the west coast They have very
little intercourse with the rest of the world
FUR'NISS, HAEEY (1854-1925) An Eng-
lish caricaturist, author, and lecturer He was
jborn at Wexford, Ireland, aad was entirely self-
taught in art At the age of 19 he went to Lon
don, contributed for many years to the Illus
trated London Neus and other magazines, and in
1880 joined the staff of Punch His Diary of
Toby, MP, illustrating the parliamentary sec-
tion, became especially popular His Royal
Academy Cfuy'd was another favorite contribu-
tion to Punch, and in 1890 he published a vol-
ume of stinging caricatures of leading artists
entitled Royal Academy Antics He withdrew
from Punch in 1894 and started the New Budget
and two other short-lived publications He
illustiated, among other works, Payn's Talk of
the Town, Carroll's Sylvie and Bruno, Gilbert
A'Beckett's Comic Blackstone, Happy Thoughts ,
Dickens's complete works (1910) , and Thack-
eray's complete works (1911) His original
publications include America in a Hutry
(1900), Confessions of a Caricaturist (1901),
Harry Furniss at Home (1904), Poverty Bay
(1905) , How to Dtaw in Pen and Ink (1905) ,
Harry Furmss's Christmas Annual (first issue,
1905) He lectured in the United States, Can-
ada, and Australia, and wrote, produced, and
acted many photoplays Furni&s is a brilliant
draftsman, possessing great vigor, versatility,
and facility of execution Consult Spielmann,
Magazine of Art, vol xxm (London, 1899)
FURITITTTRE (Fr meuUes, Ger Mobel9
It mobiglio) Decorative frames and boxes, such
as chairs, beds, tables, and chests, to sit on or
lie on, place things on or in, called movables
(see above) by the French, Germans, and
Italians, and usually made of wood ornamented
with carving, paint, gilding, lacquer, inlay,
veneer, or compo, often upholstered in leather,
haircloth, cane, tapestry, brocade, damask,
and other textiles From stools and chairs
were developed benches, settees, sofas, daven-
ports, from chests and tables were developed
cabinets, desks, bureaus, chiffoniers, sideboards,
and other case goods (as they are called by the
trade) Movable objects commonly classed with
furniture are mirrors and pictures, clocks,
pianos, lamps, and stoves In a still broader
sense furniture includes carpets and rugs, dra-
peries, wall hangings, bedding and tableware, as
well as lighting fixtures and interior woodwork
Very definitely is furniture a measure of
civilization Primitive peoples sit and lie on
the ground, sometimes carpeted with leaves,
rushes, hides, blankets, or rugs Nomadic
tribes do not trouble to construct chairs and
beds and tables that it would be difficult or im-
possible to transport from camp to camp Only
when men and women settle down in houses
with floors do they acquire the habit of support-
ing their bodies on raised seats and couches
Chairs are fundamental They mean that those
using them live, not on the floor, but from 15 to
20 inches above it They lead to the ultimate
development of other raised furniture to match
For analysis and description of the historical
styles as applied to furniture, see INTERIOR
DECORATION
Japanese As long as the Japanese sat on
the floor, their homes were bare of furniture
Bedsteads and raised couches they had none
Shelved closets took the place of bureaus, chif-
foniers, commodes, and wardrobes Their writ-
ing tables were only 5 or 6 inches high and 1
foot or 2 wide, convenient only for those seated
on the floor For the storage of gems and other
small objects, they had small lacquered cabinets
with numerous drawers and shelves.
FUBlSriTURE
363
OTRNITURE
Chinese The Chinese have for centuries
used chairs and other raised furniture Sir
William Chambers, the English architect, who
traveled extensively in China, wrote in 1757
"The movables of the Chinese saloon consist of
chairs, stools, and tables, made sometimes of
rosewood, ebony, or lacquered work, and some-
times of bamboo only, which is cheap, and
nevertheless very neat When the movables are
of wood, the seats are often of marble or porce-
lain The bedroom contains no other furniture
than the bed, and some varnished chests in which
they keep their apparel The beds are some-
times very magnificent, the bedsteads made
much like ours in Europe, of rosewood carved,
or lacquered work The movables of the study
consist of elbowchairs, couches, and tables,
there are several shelves filled with books, and
on a table near the window are placed, in good
order, pencils and other implements for writ-
ing " In the furniture illustrated by Sir Wil-
liam, straight lines and fretwork effects pre-
dominate, and the general appearance is like
that of the rosewood and teakwood and bamboo
tables and stands, stools and chairs and settees
imported from China to-day
Egyptian While it is possible to study an-
cient furniture from the illustrations that sur-
vive in the form of mural low reliefs and paint-
ings, one actual example is worth 100 pictures
Fortunately the dry climate of Egypt has pre-
served for us in graves and tombs a few such
examples, which, supplemented and interpreted
by the ancient illustrations showing chairs and
thrones, stools and couches, actually in use,
are gradually beginning to give us an exact
knowledge of the size, structure, and propor-
tions One such example is a child's chair in
the New York Metropolitan Museum, pictured
in the Bulletin of that museum for April, 1913,
on page 75 Now, a chair of similar size and
propoitions was used by Deini-uza, daughter of
the Egyptian officer Nen-waf, who sat with both
feet on the chair, her left leg doubled up under
her, her right leg drawn up before her, as is
illustrated in the limestone grave stela of the
family in the Metropolitan Museum The chair
belonging to the museum is of wood, came from
Thebes, and dates from about 1500 BO It is
23 inches high, with seat 17 inches wide, 18%
inches deep, and 7ys inches high The back is
filled with vertical wooden panels about % of
an inch apart Long angle braces cut out of
forked branches, thus utilizing the full natural
strength of the wood, reenforce the union of legs
with seat Angle braces also hold the back
firmly to the seat and introduce pleasing curves
into the outline The frame is held together
entirely with wooden dowels and pegs The seat
was originally upholstered m plaited linen
strings, fragments of which still remain in some
of the 60 holes that are equally divided among
the four rails This interwoven filling was the
nearest approach to springs with which the an-
cient world was acquainted Much superior in
construction and finer in finish are three arm-
chairs in the Museum of Cairo, Nos 51,111,
51,112, 51,113, all illustrated and described m
vol xhn of the G-eneral Catalogue of the museum
(Cairo, 1908) No 51,113, large enough for an
adult, is of redwood, with the inside of the false
back and the outside of the arms paneled in
wood that is elaborately ornamented with gilded
compo figures in low relief The false back
starts well forward on the seat and is sup-
VOL IX— 24
ported at the top by the real back, which is an
open frame of three vertical struts with rail
above In front of the arms and above the
fiont legs rise women's heads in the round3 with
wings in plain wood, but faces, crowns, and neck-
laces gilded A noticeable feature of these
Egyptian chairs is that the feet do not reach
the ground, but are supported on round spools,
or bases All of these chairs have front and
back lion's legs, carved with considerable fidelity
to nature Nos 51,108, 51,109, and 51,110 m
the Cairo Museum are wooden bedsteads with
footboard but no headboard, upholstered in
plaited string, with side rails curved so that
the head is higher than the foot and the middle
lowest of all The first of the three beds is of
wood painted black, with decoration in white
paint imitating ivory inlay, the other two have
footboards paneled on both sides, with compo
figures in low relief, and the plain surfaces of
both are veneered m dark wood All three beds
have lion's legs supported on bases like the
chairs The oldest piece of furniture in the
Metropolitan Museum is a very simple wooden
couch, only 1 foot high, but 26 inches wide by
63 long It dates from about 3400 B c and has
bull's legs with bases beneath Egyptian tables
were comparatively small and simple, often mere
stands Of chests, coffers, caskets, and boxes,
all sizes have been found — some pylon-shaped,
with sides sloping inwards towards the top, which
is crowned with a projecting cornice, others rec-
tangular, with or without feet, which, if present,
are usually a prolongation of the stiles The
lids, sometimes hinged, are flat, or unsymmetn-
cally rounded, or rarely gable-shaped
Babylonian and Assyrian Though the
country watered by the great rivers, the Tigris
and the Euphrates, has from remote antiquity
been the home of nations that early reached a
high degree of civilization, scarcely a tiace re-
mains of the actual furniture of the Baby-
lonians and Assyrians Almost all that we know
has been worked out with difficulty from statues
and bas-reliefs The only Babylonian example
is the stool (throne) that appears in the black-
basalt statue of King Gudea, dating from about
3000 B c and now preserved in the Louvre
The next example is Assyrian and over 2000
years later — a throne illustrated in the sculp-
tures from the palace of Nimrud, celebrating
the victories of King Assurnasirpal about 880
BC It has no back, the side rails of the seat
are prolonged into rams' heads , the legs are
heavy, with tapering turned bases, and are con-
nected by a low cross rail The bronze throne
of the same monarch — a portion of which is pre-
served in the British Museum, together with the
fragment of a footstool — is similar, but with
lion's feet facing away from each other The
furniture pictured on a slab in the British
Museum dating from 668 B c is most interest-
ing King Assurbanipal reclines on a couch, the
head of which is curved forward as an arm
rest The feet of the couch are the shape of
large inverted cones, and the square legs and
side rails are decorated with moldings and
scrolls, and figures of lions and men The Queen
sits opposite the King, on a chair with high
straight back and curved arms, resting her feet
on a footstool Between the royal pair is a
high stand or table bearing the materials for a
feast, and at one side is a lower table with the
Bang's sword, bow, and quiver The decoration
of chair and tables is similar to that of the
FTJRITITUBE
364
FTTUETITITRE
couch Cedar was probably the wood most fre-
quently used in the construction of furniture,
but into Assyria, as into Egypt, other woods,
such as ebony, teak, Indian walnut, and perhaps
rosewood, were imported Ebony and ivory in-
lays were common
Hebrew The Hebrews undoubtedly bor-
rowed freely both Egyptian and Assyrian forms
Beds of wood inlaid with ivory and gold are
mentioned as early as the thirteenth century
B c , and in the ninth century the piophet Amos
censures the rich for using them In the same
century the bedroom furnished for an honored
guest, the prophet Ehsha, contained a chair, a
table, a bed, and a lamp Solomon's bed (about
1000 B c ) was made of cedai of Lebanon, with
pillars of silver and base of gold Solomon's
throne had arms decorated with hons, and six
lions of gold or chryselephantine work stood on
each side of the steps before his throne In
early times the Jews seem to have sat at meals,
but later reclined, owing to Roman influence
Greek Compared with modern Fiench and
Germans, English and Americans, the Greeks and
Romans, as well as the Assyrians and Egyptians
who preceded them, used little furniture But
what furniture the Greeks and Romans did use
was splendidly constructed and exquisitely
fashioned and 'finished Unfortunately the cli-
mate of Greece and Italy ^\as less kind than
that of Egypt, and it is principally to the pic-
tures painted on vases and \\alls and to marble
and terra-cotta reliefs that we must turn for
our information The most impoitant piece of
furniture in the Greek household of the fifth
century BC was the couch or bed, that served
not only to sleep on at night, but also to recline
on by day while eating or reading or writing
Proportions and ornaments were much more
beautiful than those of Egyptian couches
Turned legs replaced carved animal ones, the
height was increased, often making necessary
a foot bench or stool, raised ends, or headboards
and footboards, and sometimes a back like that
of a modern sofa, were added Mattresses and
pillows increased the comfort Tables, being
used chiefly at meals and not for reading or
writing, were made low for the convenience of
those reclining on couches Otherwise they re-
sembled modern tables, being square or rectangu-
lar with four legs, or round with three con-
nected legs The legs of the tripods (three-
legged tables) were apt to be elaborately carved
in the form of legs of animals, while the legs of
the quadrangular tables were usually turned or
plain round or square Among chairs the tJironos
was chief, which m Homeric times had been
reserved for the King or the head of the family
or to honor a special guest In the fifth century
it was also occupied by judges, presiding olficeis,
umpires at games, and other officials It was
in form an armchair, with straight back and
legs, and usually stood so high that a footstool
was necessary In everyday life the chphros
uas more common It was a four -legged stool,
without back or arms, and with legs sometimes
crossed and sometimes upright Those with
crossed legs and flexible seats folded like our
modern camp stools The kltsmos was a chair
without arms, but with front legs curved for-
ward and rear legs backward, and a back curved
to fit the human body The top rail of the back
•was usually wide and flat and curved, and was
supported by two side posts, that were often
extensions of the legs. The shape was copied
in the modern Empire period and after For
storing clothes and household linen the Greeks
used cheats and boxes that were often beautifully
decorated with floral ornament or figure scenes
fiom history and mythology
Boman The Romans used tables with one,
thiee, or four legs, and rectangular, round, or
hexagonal tops These were made in manv
styles, and of many materials, such as wood,
ivory, marble, gold, silver, and bronze They were
often enriched with carving, inlay, engraving,
damascening, and veneer The three-legged
stands (tripods) weie higher, usually bronze,
and elaborately sculptured The legs included
terminal and other figures, sphinxes, lions' legs
crowned with lions' heads, architectural col-
umns, etc A splendid example, illustrated on
Plate 118 of Monaco's National Museum of
Naples (Naples, 1880), has attenuated lions'
legs standing on a tuangular base and sur-
mounted by squat sphinxes The deep rim of
the top is ornamented with festoons and bucrania
in relief Much less fuiniture has been found at
Pompeii than is ordinarily supposed The wood
of the beds, couches, chairs, and tables being
charred, crumbled away, leaving slight traces,
except the bionze and silver mountings and in-
lays In only one of the dining rooms weie suffi-
cient remains of a couch found to make possible
its restoration This is No 121 in Monaco s book
mentioned above It was 90 inches long, 48
inches \\ide, and 17% inches high The legs
were richly turned, and stood on molded cross
pieces at each end There was no footboard.
Inside the headboard fitted a double-curved
"bolster of wood, the end of which terminated in
bronze platea with low-relief foliage ornament
and sculptured figures* Of bronze lamps and can-
delabia Pompeii preserved many that are now
in the Naples Museum Some, about 20 inches
high, stood on tables, others, from 3 to 5 feet
high, stood on the floor, and others hung from
the ceiling or from wall brackets The feet of
the standards were usually modeled to represent
the claws or hoofs of animals The shaft was
often a slender fluted or plain column Some-
times it carried one lamp , sometimes it divided
into two or more branches, each of which carried
a small hanging lamp Some of the standards
were adjustable, the upper part sliding up and
dovin in the hollow shaft of the lower part
A seat of honor peculiar to the Romans was
the curule chair (sella curulis), several bronze
pairs of legs of which have been, unearthed at
Pompeii The curule chair was a folding stool,
with legs curved and crossed, dating from the
time of the Roman kings, whose special attribute
it was Afterward its use was permitted to the
numeioiis officials who inherited one or more of
the royal functions On the coins of famous
Roman families the curule chair is often pic-
tured in connection with the names of the in-
dividuals who held curule offices The example
illustrated on Monaco's plate No 119 is 18
inches high, with a seat 23 inches square The
wooden stools, side chairs, and armchairs of the
Romans resembled those already described under
the heading Greek, except that cushions were
more luxurious and were used more freely, and
sculpture was more elaborate Of marble arm-
chairs, as well as of marble round and rectangu-
lar tables, numeious ancient examples survive,
and have been widely copied by modern makers
m both wood and stone Especially interest-
ing is the temple throne in the Louvre, with
FURNITURE
365
seat supported by two sphinxes whose wings
form the arms Among1 marble tables from the
peristyles (inside gardens) of Pompeii is a round
one, with three massive legs carved to represent
lions' legs topped with lions' heads Ancient
pictures of Roman wooden armchairs in the
Metropolitan Museum are the two that appear
in color in the Boscoreale fiescoes, both with
occupants, and both with turned logs and flat
backs — one very clearly showing yellow geomet-
rical ornament painted on the reddish side posts,
top rail, and two cioss rails of the curved back.
Also clearly shown is a very comfortable loose
cushion Also in the Metropolitan Museum is
an ancient miniature bronze Roman chair with
solid arms, the throne upon which the goddess
sits m the piocessional lion-drawn wagon of
Cybele, presented to the museum by the late
Heniy G Marquand
Byzantine At the beginning of the fourth
century A D , when Constantinople superseded
Rome as the capital of the Roman Empire, it
also superseded Rome as the centre of civiliza-
tion and style Even the barbarian tubes who
overran western Europe in the fourth centurv,
wrecking Roman buildings and destroying Ro-
man furniture, looked longingly towards the
comforts and luxuries of the ancient Byzantium
Even Charlemagne, when setting up his own
Holy Roman Empire in the West, getting him-
self crowned Emperor by the Pope on Christmas
Day of the year 800 AD, used Byzantine furni-
ture and furnishings imported direct from Con-
stantinople or made by artisans from there In
moving fiom Rome to Constantinople furniture
lost much of its classic grace, becoming heavier
and more often architectural, and with flat sur-
faces of ivory and other rich inlay The old
custom of reclining at meals was discarded.
Famous examples of ancient Byzantine furniture
are the chair of St Peter at Rome, and that of
Maximian in the cathedral at Ravenna Of il-
lustrations there are many — the majority of
ivory or metal carvings on caskets and other
small objects, and especially on consular diptychs,
of which there are a number in the British
Museum
G-otliic. Decoratively, Gothic is the style of
the pointed arch Doors and windows and roofs
are all topped by lines that meet at an angle.
Copied from the architectural lines and from
the framework and tracery of stained-glass win-
dows are the lines of decorative carving on
Gothic furniture. Where columns and pilasters
and capitals are used, they are the slender Gothic
columns, often grouped in piers, crowned, not
by Doric or Ionic or Corinthian capitals, but
by capitals sculptured with domestic foliage
naturahstically carved Structurally, most
Gothic furniture is simple, made out of boards
and planks fitted together at right angles, but
ornamentally it is complex, with panels elabo-
rately carved in low relief or carved and pierced
Indeed, the Gothic centuries weie the paradise
of the wood carver, whose figure work, both in
low relief and in the round, was often employed
to beautify movable as well as fixed furniture
and woodwork The Gothic centuries were also
the paradise of the iron worker, whose large flat
hinges and locks and pulls on chests and cup-
boards he hammered into exquisite shapes
Most of the ancient Gothic furniture tLat has
been preserved dates from the fifteenth century,
and a large proportion of it is church furniture,
particularly choir stalls, of which there are
notable examples in the Hoentschel collection
at the Metropolitan Museum Previous to the
fifteenth century the mediaeval residences even
of kings and nobles were comparatively bare
and empty, and what furniture there was had
little rest, traveling with the family in wagons
when they moved fiom castle to castle or from
city to country Consequently it was so made
as to be tiansported easily and safely, and con-
sisted principally of benches and chests and
wardrobes, and tables on trestles, with perhaps
a throne chair and a four-poster bed for the
master Even the waidrobes and cupboards
were practically nothing but chests on benches,
01 chests on chests A typical late-Gothic bed
is the one in the Paris Musee des Arts Decora-
tifs from Chateau Villeneuve at Issoire The
most showy piece of furniture in tne homes of
fifteenth-century dignitaries was the sideboard
(dressoir), and the degree of dignity of the
family was supposed to be indicated by*the num-
ber of shelves "Madame de Charolais," wrote
a writer of the period, "only had four shelves
to her dressei, while her daughter the Duchess
had five " "I have heard it said,'3 he adds,
"that no puncess except the Queen of France
should have five shelves " A typical Gothic
chest in the Tours Museum has the principal
panel divided into rectangular spaces ornamented
with a lozenge molding, each lozenge containing
rose traceiy (Sometimes there is a series of
arcades, each containing a kneeling figure Often
the side panels are carved in the linen-fold
design, and often the front is a series of arcades
subdivided by curves and half curves copied
from architecture, the spaces between being filled
with carved tracery, florals, or figures Impor-
tant pieces of fifteenth-century Gothic furniture
on exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum are
the walnut chest, 27 inches high, 29 inches deep,
and 66 inches long, with front and ends divided
by pilasters into panels that are filled with
window tracery, the oak double chair or throne,
10 feet high by 5 feet 6 inches wide, with
paneled back, elaborately caived and pierced
canopy, paneled arms, and chest seat, the wal-
nut chair, 82 inches high by 29 wide and 19
deep, with the back, and the front of the seat,
each divided into two linen-fold panels
Renaissance Of the domestic furniture of
the Italian Renaissance, the most important piece
was the cassone, or ornamented chest, rich not
only with carving, but also with gesso and gold
and inlay and painted scenes As elsewhere in
Europe, so in Italy at this period, brides re-
ceived a chest filled with linen, often the prin-
cipal part of their dowry The only difference
was that in Italy the chests were larger and
more beautiful Sometimes they were low, often
they were raised high above the floor on a heavy
and elaborately molded base, or on massive feet
shaped like claws of honcels or other animals
The painted panels pictured stories from the
Bible and from classical mythology, or from the
lives of the saints and from mediaeval chivalry
The arms of the family were apt to be embla-
zoned on the front. The inlays were floral or
geometrical, or in the grotesque style resur-
rected from the long-buried decorative paintings
of ancient Rome The relief ornamentation in
the form of flowers and foliage was compara-
tively low, whether carved in the walnut or the
chestnut, or modeled in gesso But towards the
end of the sixteenth century, and occasionally
before, sculptural baroque influence began to
FTTBNITTJBE
366
FUBNITUBE
assert itself, and reliefs became high and bold,
and architectural effects complex and bombastic
These cdssoni were not only the most beautiful
pieces of furniture in many residences, they
were also the most useful In them were stored
the household linen and plate, draperies and
tapestries, and clothing At home they stood
around the room close against the wall and
served as settees or tables Abroad they served
as trunks Developed from the cassone was the
Florentine cassapanca, a bench with massive
sides and back set upon a massive platform, all
carved richly but appropriately Occasionally,
as on the throne of Gmliano dei Medici, the back
was tripled in height and crowned with a heavy
entablature that was supported at each end by
classic columns, while pilasters marked the seat
divisions A special cieation of the Italian
Renaissance, paralleled only in Switzerland, was
the credensone, a narrow cupboard with two
front doors, often with small drawers above
them, and with framing strongly ai chitectural
in character Two-story cupboards, like those
developed in the sixteenth century in France and
Germany, were seldom used in Italy Writing
desks, however, with a folding lid instead of the
upper set of doors, were much in vogue
Italian Renaissance beds we know only from
paintings and engravings The headboards were
high and elaborately ornamented, and the beds
often had a canopy above Of Italian Renais-
sance tables, many have survived — some long and
narrow rectangles, others round or hexagonal or
octagonal Most of the former are supported at
each end, like the marble garden tables of an-
cient Rome, by thick and elaborately carved flat
standards These standards a crosspiece con-
nects, either horizontal and at the base, or
decorated and vertical and halfway up The
round tables sometimes stand on a single turned
or vase-shaped standard, sometimes on three or
four wings richly carved, like the standards of
the long tables. Of Italian Renaissance stools,
with three or four legs and without back, few
remain, though many of similar design and later
date are still in use They are usually of cheap
construction and without ornamentation Most
of the stools supported on richly carved flat
front and back standards have also a back in
the same style Of folding stools of X shape
and of cliairs derived from them, there were
many. The upholstered armchair characteristic
of the period has square legs, sometimes con-
nected by plain stretchers close to the floor,
sometimes with a high flat carved front stretcher,
simpler back stretchers, and low side stretchers ,
sometimes with two flat shoes carved at the
ends carrying the side legs, and no, stretcher at
all The front legs run up to the flat arms, and
above the seat are not infrequently turned The
back legs extend vertically into high posts, often
with a slight backward slant, that terminate
m carved nnials The seat is upholstered in
leather or velvet or embroidery, often with a
valance that boxes it in. Round-headed gilt
nails and handsome fringes are freely employed.
The backs are covered with a band of upholstery
that sometimes leaves only 3 or 4 inches between
it and the seat, but usually stops short near the
arms
From Italian Renaissance furniture, that of
the French Renaissance was directly derived, aa
a result of the Italian campaigns of the1 French
kings towards the end of the fifteenth century,
the designs being either copied exactly or carried
out with less exuberance, greater delicacy, and
rather more in the round, as would be natural
in a country where Gothic wood and stone carv-
ing had flourished for centuries
Elizabethan and Jacobean During the
whole of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods
armchairs continued to be made with flat richly
carved backs, although the Gothic box below
was superseded by open-frame construction,
square or turned Architectural forms were
especially emphasized in chests, a splendid ex-
ample of which, 39 inches high by 28 deep and
78 long, is illustrated in MacQuoid's English
Furniture, vol i, p 65 (London, 1904), and in
massive four -poster bedsteads ornate with strap-
work and other carving, and with the huge
bulbous posts that continued in vogue thiough
the Jacobean period An important piece of
furniture in the main hall was the two-story
court cupboard in which were kept the wine, diy
food, and candles used by the master, the seiv-
ants3 supplies being stored in livery cupboarJs
By this time the ancient Gothic movable or
"tiestle" dining tables had disappeared, their
place being taken by tables with four massive
legs connected by foot rails, and with top in three
leaves, the lower two di awing out from beneath
the upper, to be supported on long sliding
brackets, thus doubling the size of the table
Jacobean furniture is distinctly severer and more
restrained than Elizabethan, and the architec-
tural ornament is much less fanciful and much
more faithful to classic precedents Fuiniture
frames — particularly of chairs, which were
lighter and flat, with squared members — began
to be succeeded by turned and twisted ones,
particularly in chairs Of Jacobean upholstered
furniture, the baronial mansion of Knole is a
treasure house. One of the most interesting
chairs, and one that is often copied more or
less correctly, is illustrated on page 133 of
MacQuoid The curved legs cross X fashion,
with loose cushion, upholstered seat, upholsteied
arms, and upholstered back A portrait of
James I seated in a chair like this hangs in one
of the rooms at Knole In the "King's bed-
room" there can be seen the magnificent bed
piepared at a cost of £8000 for the entertain-
ment of James I by Richard, third Earl of
Dorset Especially noteworthy by contrast is
the upholstery that takes the place of the
luxurious Elizabethan carving The posts are
plain and slight and lost in voluminous folds of
rich coral taffetas The curtains are in coial
taffetas richly embroidered, and the headboard
covered with embroidery in high relief, with
floral scrolls m gold and silver surmounted by a
royal crown Of the chests and cupboards and
wainscot chairs with flat carving often attributed
to the Elizabethan period in shops and some-
times in museums, a majority are Jacobean
Louis XIV Between French furniture of the
Renaissance and French furniture of the period
of Louis XIV, the difference is great The for-
mer shows clearly many marks of its Italian
origin The latter is absolutely and thoroughly
French, and not only French, but baroque, with
all the curves and wealth of sculptural orna-
mentation that characterized the seventeenth
century The flat and boxhke shapes of the
sixteenth century have been largely replaced by
framework in the round Architectural features
are minimized, chairs and tables and cabinets
and beds are constructed from the use point of
view, and as individual entities rather than as
FURNITURE— HISTORIC STYLES
ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
BAROQUE
BAROQUE
ROCOCO
LOUIS XV. (Regence)
LOUIS XVI.
CHIPPENDALE
SHERATON
CHIPPENDALE
TYPICAL CHAIRS
FURNITURE— HISTORIC STYLES
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
REPRESENTATIVE PIECES
367
FtTRNITTTBJB
an integral part of an architectural whole Of
Louis XIV makers of furniture, especially furni-
ture in marquetry, Andre Charles Boulle stands
first From him the so-called buhlwork gets its
name A pair of wardrobes (armoires) made
by him sold recently for over $60,000, and the
prices obtained for Boulle furniture at public
sales are constantly rising Boulle is noted for
his inlays of tortoise shell in elaborate scrolls
and arabesques, with ornaments of thin brass
and white metal elaborately engraved He also
used bronze mounts freely
The Hoentschel collection, presented by the
late J Pierpont Morgan to the Metropolitan
Museum, contains many characteristic pieces
In the style of Boulle, and perhaps by the master
himself, is a leather-covered flat desk, with
drawers framed in bronze moldings, and with,
bronze pulls, the middle one showing a human
mask At each end of the desk are lions* masks,
and on the cabriole legs acanthus mounts A
gilded table of the period, much more elabo-
rately carved, of the type used to display vases,
bionzes, and statuettes, has a top of richly
veined white marble A wardrobe exquisitelv
carved in low relief has pairs of doors above and
below the horizontal molding, separated by an
upright pilaster and flanked by pairs of pilas-
ters A faun mask crowns the round pedi-
ment at the top Characteristic chairs in the
collection have seats and backs upholstered —
some in woven tapestry, some in needle tapestry,
others in damask-figured velvet, cane, or leather
Xioms XV. In the reign of Louis XV the
variety of pieces of furniture was greatly in-
creased to meet real or fancied needs Beds and
canopies assumed the most varied shapes, and
multiplicity of shapes was accompanied by
variety of materials The use of gilded wood
continued, but the numerous varnishes (verms
Martin] developed in imitation, of Chinese
lacquer by Eobert Martin were freely employed
On cabinets and commodes and bureaus and
bookcases Martin painted Chinese landscapes
with mountains suspended in the distance, bril-
liant and capricious flowers and trees, and rustic
bridges Design and execution are exquisite,
but some critics object to the lack of relation
between ornament and spaces covered — to scenes
that are broken by the opening of a drawer, to
keyholes that place themselves at random on
the tree trunk or mountain.
Marquetry was also developed, by the sons of
Boulle and by Cressent, Oeben, Caffieri, Roent-
gen, and Riesener, into one of the most com-
plicated and exquisite of the arts Hare woods
in delicate tones were combined m patterns and
pictures marvelously intricate Among the
Louis XV pieces in the Hoentschel collection the
most characteristic is the gilded wooden candela-
brum in the form of a three-arm wall bracket,
of the type usually made in bronze or brass,
because these metals lend themselves better to
the asymmetrical convolutions of shape and the
extreme contrasts of light and shade The con-
sole in gilded wood with marble top, 25 inches
high by 24 wide and 10 deep, is interesting to
compare with similar models on Plate 93 of vol
11 of BlondePs Maasons de PlaAsance (Paris,
1738) Also typically rococo, like the designs
of Meissonier or Jacques Lajoue, are the
tapestry coverings of two Louis XV armchairs
with spirited fountains, vases, rocks, and frag-
ments of architecture.
Iiouis XVI. Especially was the style of
Louis XVI influenced by the excavations at
Pompeii and Herculaneum The mural decora-
tions and furnituie unearthed there 1700 years
after Vesuvius buried them, supplied models
and designs that were copied with almost slavish
fidelity Many books were published illustrat-
ing and describing Pompenan foirns and orna-
ment, and the popular phrase in decorative
circles was "in the antique style" Important
for students of the stvle of Louis XVI are the
Boscoreale frescoes in the Metropolitan Museum
These frescoes have brought to Ne\\ York what
Pompadour's decorators went to Italy in search
of — the exact truth about ancient interiors and
furniture There are none of the bold reliefs so
common m the days of Louis XIV In both
structure and ornament the straight line and
the right angle rule Parallelism of motifs is
frequent, and rectangular panels are apt to be
narrow Characteustic of Louis XVT furniture
panels is the bow of ribbon applied to the top,
with ends floating down on each side Fluting
is most often longitudinal, sometimes spiral,
and is common on chair legs that have the shape
of reversed columns, smallest at the base Fa-
mous makers of Louis XV furnituie, who also
became famous as makers of Louis XVI furni-
ture, were Riesener and Roentgen The former
was officially appointed "furniture maker to the
King," and the latter was generously patronized
by Marie Antoinette The Hoentsehel collection
contains a variety of Louis XVI chairs, and
many pieces of furniture with applied metal or-
naments by, or closely in the style of, Riesener,
Thomire, and Gouthiere The last named was
noted for the grace with which he chiseled
cupids intermingled with garlands of flowers
Perhaps the finest example of his work is the
clock in the Wallace collection signed by him
as Ciseleur et doreur du Roi
Empire. Empire furniture was solid and
heavy, of mahogany, rosewood, or ebony, adorned
with brass or bronze mounts Flat sui faces
were often veneered and often inlaid with ivory
or ebony Chairs were upholstered in damask,
velvets, and prints, and the front legs were
mostly straight, the rear legs curved in the
classic style The front legs were sometimes
fluted, as in the style of Louis XVI, but were
heavier Other legs were m the form of bundles
of arrows or fasces Beds were low and mas-
sive, usually with head and foot boards of the
same height Many were like four-posters with
the posts pollarded. In state beds the side rails
frequently had the shape of an animal or a
bird Bolster rolls were common The leading
cabinetmaker of the period was Jacob The
most important examples of Empire furniture in
the Metropolitan Museum are in the collection
presented by the parents of the late playwright
Clyde Fitch in memory of their son
Charles II, William and Mary, Queen
Anne. During the periods of the Commonwealth,
Charles II, James II, William and Mary, and
Queen Anne, the square and flat Elizabethan and
Jacobean furniture shapes were supplanted m
England by Dutch-Flemish twists and French
cabrioles During the reign of Charles II wal-
nut furniture came into common use in England
for the first time, walnut being more suitable
for the reversed curves that in oak on the cross
grain are likely to chip The frames and lin-
ings of cabinetwork continued to be of oak, but
outer surfaces were veneered with walnut Q^*
had applied moldings of walnut Caned bacKS
368
and seats also came into fashion for chairs and
settles About 1675 clocks and small tables
began to be ornamented with veneer marquetry
At first the designs were of Italian inspiration —
acanthus-leaved florals, and birds inlaid in brown
and buff woods, later, flowers and birds in the
more realistic Dutch style, and later still, in-
tricate series of fine scrolls The standard type
of small oak tables was the "gate-legged," few
examples of which date eailier than Charles
II Even in the larger sizes for dining-room
use it is comparatively light in appearance,
lacking the massiveness of Elizabethan and
Jacobean square and rectangular tables The
earlier chests of drawers were coznparatively
small, usually with raised panels or moldings
and with bracketed corneis or ball feet Later
the drawers were mounted on twisted or turned
legs fixed to a shallow plinth or joined near the
ground by shaped stretchers The uhigh boys,"
or "tall boys," that began to appear during the
reign of Queen Anne, were made in two sections,
upper and lower, for ease of construction and
convenience in moving
Georgian Just as in France during the
period of Louis XV rooms became smaller and
pieces of furniture more numerous, so it was in
England during the Georgian period Previously
stools and benches and chests had sufficed as
seats for the lesser members of the household
Now there began to be chairs for all, and in-
teriors not only looked less like Roman temples,
but felt less like them — \\hich helps to explain
why the Georgian penod was so distinctly the
age of chairs and afforded so brilliant an op-
portunity for Thomas Chippendale ( q v )
One fact to be emphasized is that the furni-
ture style of the Georgian period was a ma-
hogany style Shortly after the death of Queen
Anne mahogany superseded walnut and oak in
English furniture shops This had a profound
influence on design and construction, the tough-
ness and strength and hardness of mahogany
making lighter lines and more delicate carving
desirable and possible So that to mahogany,
as well as to Chippendale, must be given much
of the credit for the strong individuality that
marks the furniture of the Georgian period
But Chippendale was by no means the only one
who made good chairs in the style of Chippen-
dale, nor are the mahogany chairs to be despised
that were made before his influence began to be
felt Indeed, many of the so-called Hogarth
chairs (so called because illustrated in the car-
toons of the great caricaturist) are both com-
fortable and beautiful and are plainly ancestors
of Chippendale chairs, though usually without
the pierced work in the splat of the back, and
apt to look more squat because of the rounder
curves of legs and hack The early Georgian
chairs and other furniture designed by the
architect William Kent are heavily architectural
and impressively classic in form and construe- ,
tion The backs of Georgian chairs are dis-
tinctly lower than those of the Queen Anne
period and before
Adam. Even Chippendale, towards the end
of his career, bowed before the new classic in-
fluence It was his shop that executed the in-
laid furniture designed by Kobert Adam for
Osterly and Harewood MacQuoid publishes in
facsimile part of the bill rendered to Lord
Harewood/s ancestor. The commode described
in it, with its intricate inlays in delicate colors
and its classic ornaments, is not only charac-
teristically Adam in all its style details, it also
marks a new era in wood texture The age of
carved mahogany has passed, and the age of
inlaid satmwood has begun The surface of the
commode is of yellow satmwood veneer, with
inlaid swags and" wreaths of garrya husks, once
bright green but now faded to bright olive
The early inlays of the Adam penod were on a
large scale — classical heads, human figures, vases
and broken columns, with marquetry frames of
laurel wreaths or plain bands Later the inlays
became delicate, consisting principally of thin
honeysuckle ornament, foliated scrolls, and, above
all else, fan-leaved disks and ovals Of the
Adam chairs made by Chippendale foi Osterly,
six are illustrated by MacQuoid All have the
splat of the back running down into the frame of
the seat, a relic of the older style Without
exception the splats of Chippendale chairs meet
the seats, but in later Adam chairs, and in
Hepplewhite and Sheraton (qv) chairs, the
square, shield, and heart-shaped backs are
several inches above the seat, being supported
at the sides only Haircloth was a favoiite
upholstery Hepplewhite writes "Mahogany
chairs should have the seats of horsehair, plain,
stuped, chequered, etc, at pleasme" And also
'Tor chairs, a new and elegant fashion has
ansen within these few years of finishing them
•with painted 01 japanned work, which gives
ucli and splendid appeal anee to the minute parts
of the ornaments, which are generally thrown in
by the paintei s "
Colonial. Colonial furniture is even more
of a mixtuie than Georgian, including not only
all the English and Dutch styles imported and
copied by the American Colonies previous to the
American Revolution, but also the French styles
that were in vogue thereafter There were,
however, some interesting simplifications of
Georgian and of Adam, notable m the South and
in Massachusetts, and creditable furniture was
produced in the styles of Chippendale, Hepple-
white, and Sheraton Of late years the
plain, dark-oak "Mission" furniture has been
popular
Bibliography. The general history of furni-
ture is traceable in Racmet, Le oostume histo-
rique (Paris, 1888), and in Viollet-le-Duc's His-
toire de I'habitation humaine (ib, 1875) The
illustrated history of furniture by Frederick
LitchHeld (London, 1892) attempts to cover the
\\hole subject, but is, in the main, a compilation
It is valuable for reference For antiquity,
consult the plates of the works named in the
bibliography under ASSYRIA, EGYPT, and other
articles, also Perrot and Chipiez, ffistoire de
Part dans I'antiquitS (Paris, 1882 et seq.) For
Japan, consult Morse, Japanese Homes and
their Surroundings (Boston, 1886) ; for the
New East, Lane, An Account of the Manners
and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London,
1871) , also the numerous notes added to Sir
Richard Burton's Translation of the Thousand
and One Nights (ib, 1886-87), Chippendale,
Gentleman and Cabinetmaker's Director ( ib ,
1754) , Hepplewhite, Cabinetmaker and Uphol-
sterer's Guide (ib t 1788), Sheraton, Cabinet-
maker's and Upholsterer's Dt owing-Book (ib,
1793), Lessing, Italienisohe Motel des XVI
Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1893), Molmier, Les
meubles du moi/en age et de la renaissance
(Paris, 1897) , id, Le mobiher an, XVII et au
XVIII siecle (ib , 1898) , Lockwood, The Pendle-
ton Collection (Providence, 1904) , Ransom,
369
Couches and Bed*> oj the GveeLs, Etruscans,
and Romans (Chicago, 1905) , Robinson, English
Furniture (London, 1905) , Simon, English Fur-
niture Designers of the Eighteenth Centuty (ib ,
1905), Clouston, English Furniture and Fur-
niture Makers (ib , 1906), Pollen, Ancient and
Modern Furniture (revised by Lehfeldt, ib , 1908,
South Kensington Museum Handbook) , Bajot,
Encyclopedie du meuoles (Pans, 1909), Benn,
Style in Furniture (London, 1910), Cescinsky,
English Furniture of the Eighteenth Century
(ib, 1910), Foley, The Decorative Furniture
(ib, 1911), Schmidt, Motel (Berlin, 1913),
Lockwood, Colonial Fwrnitiire in America (New
York, 1913) See also BOULLE, CHIPPENDALE,
HEPPLEWHITE , SHERATON , ETC
FTJBNIVALL, fur'ni-val, FREDERICK JAMES
(1825-1910) An English philologist He was
born at Egham, Surrey, England, Feb 4, 1825,
and was educated at University College, London,
and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he was
graduated B A in 1846 and MA in 1848 He
was called to the bar in 1849 For 10 years he
•was associated in philanthiopic work with F
D Maurice, teaching in the Workingmen's Col-
lege Devoting himself to philology, he was in-
strumental in founding, for the publication of
texts, the Early English Text Society (1864),
the Chaucer Society (1868), the Ballad Society
(1868), the New Shakespeare Society (1874),
the Browning Society (1881), the Wichf So-
ciety (1882), and the Shelley Society (1885)
He was honorary secretary of the Philological
Society after 1854, and for some years edited
their great English dictionary He edited nu-
merous works, chiefly through the medium of
the above societies, one of the most notable being
A Sice-Text Print of Chaucer:s Canterbury Tales
(1868-75) This he followed with the publica-
tion of a seventh text and the manusciipts of
Chaucer's minor poems Under his supervision
were published 43 facsimiles of the quartos of
Shakespeare's plays His introduction to the
Leopold Shakespeare has been extensively circu-
lated In 1884 he was granted a Civil List pen-
sion of £150 On his sixtieth birthday the Uni-
versity of Berlin conferred on him the honorary
degree of Ph D , and on his seventy-fifth birth-
day he was elected member of the German
Shakespeare Society Consult Frederick J.
Furnivall, A Volume of Personal Record (Ox-
ford, 1911)
FUBNTVAI/S INN One of the ancient
inns of chancery, affiliated to the mo-re famous
Lincoln's Inn * It derives its name from Sir
William Furmval, whose family became extinct
in the reign of Richard II The inn stood in
Holborn and came into the possession of the
society in the first year of Edward VI (1547)
It had a long and honorable existence, but with
the other chancery inns fell into disuse and
went out of existence about the middle of the
eighteenth century For a description of the va-
rious inns or guilds of lawyers and their func-
tions, see INNS OF COURT Consult R K
Pearce, Guide to the Inns of Court and Chan-
cery, with Notices of their Ancient Discipline
Rules, and Customs (London, 1855), and Cecil
Headlam, The Inns of Court (New York, 1909)
FTJBBEB, fuller, JONAS (1805-61) A Swiss
statesman, horn at Wlnterthur and educated at
Zurich, Heidelberg, and Gottingen. In 1839, and
again in 1844, he was President of the Grand
Council, and in 1845 became President of the
Cantonal Diet One of the foremost advocates
of the new Fedcial Constitution, he was elected
President of the Swiss Confederation upon its
adoption, was three times reelected, and was a
member of the Fedeial Council until his death
A monument to him was unveiled in Winterthur
in 1895 He wrote Das Erbrecht det Stadt Win-
tertlmi (1832)
FUKJEUJCKABAD, fflr'rtSk-a-bad' See FA-
RUKUABAD
PUBS In heraldry (qv ), one of the thiee
classes of tinctures, the other two being metals
and colors
PUBS, foorz, FOBS, fdrz, or FTJBANI, foTn
ra'ne The Moslem negroes dominant in Daifm
(Fur Land), in eastern Sudan, between Kordo-
fan and Wadai They are tall (1730 milli-
meters, or 67 inches), very black and prog-
nathic, and have woolly hair Their language is
related to Nuba and they, with the Kubas and
Nubians, are placed with the Nigritians, or
negro race once dominant throughout Egyptian
Sudan The political history of "the Furs, their
dvnastic wais of the sixteenth eentmy, the pros-
perity of the monarchy under Solomon Solon at
the beginning of the seventeenth, the ascendancy
of Islam with the development of agnculture
and other industries, the conquest of the coun-
try by the slave dealer Zebehr Pasha in 1874,
and the Mahdist revolt, 1881-92, aie the promi-
nent events in their history duung the last 400
years
FUB SEAL See SEAL.
FTJBST, furst, JULIUS (1805-73) A distin-
guished German Orientalist, born of Jewish
parentage at Zerkow, Posen He was educated
for the rabbinical profession and displayed at
a verv early age a remarkable power of acquir-
ing knowledge He studied at a gymnasium in
Beihn and entered the university there, but soon
after returned to Posen, in 1825, to take a post
as teacher Gradually his convictions led him
away from the faith of orthodox Judaism, and
in 1829 he abandoned the idea of entering the
ministry and proceeded to Breslau, where he
continued his Oriental, theological, and anti-
quarian studies, which were completed at Halle,
under Gesenius, Wegschneidei, and Tholuck In
1833 he went to Leipzig, where he was first tutor
(1833), and from 1864 professor, in the univer-
sity His labois in the Oriental field now con-
tinued uninterruptedly until his death, in 1873
His chief works are the following Lehrgeoaude
der aramaischen Idiome (1835), Goncordantuz
Lilroi um Sacrorum Veteris Testamenti Helraicw
et Chaldaicce (1837-40), a painstaking revision
of Buxtorf s Concordance of the Old Testament;
Hebraischcs und chaldaisches ffandworterbuch
(1857) , and his Geschichte der libhschen Lit-
teratur und des judisch-hellenistischen Schnft-
tums (1867-70) He also wrote a Geschtchte
des Ravaertums (1862-63), compiled a Biblio-
theca Judaica (1849-63), and was editor (1840-
51) of Der Orient
FUBSTEUBEBG, fnr'sten-berK A media-
tized principality in southern Swabia, now di-
vided among Baden, Wiirttemberg, and Hohen-
zollern It gives its name to a noble family,
branches of which exist in Baden and Austria
The Austrian family consists of the princes of
Furstenberg, whose estates are In Bohemia,, and
of the landgraves of Fitrstenberg, who reside in
Lower Austria Other branches of the family
are the counts of Furstenberg, m Westphalia
and Rhenish Prussia Consult Furstenbergisches
37°
FXJB2E CHAT
Urlvunderibuch, ed by S Kiezler and F L Bau-
mann (2 vols , Tubingen, 1877-91), continued
by Baumann and Tumbult (2 vols, ib , 1899-
1902) , G Tumbult, Das Furstentum Fursten-
berg (Freiberg, 1908).
FUBSTENBUlSrD, fur'sten-bunt (Ger, league
of princes) , THE A league of German princes,
formed about 1780, under Prussian leadership,
to resist the encroachments of Austria Its
founding was almost the last important act of
Frederick the Great, and was premonitory of
the future strife between Austria and Prussia
for preeminence in Germany, but the impor-
tance of the union was lost sight of, for the time,
in the events of the French Revolution
, fur'sten-val'de A town
in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, situ-
ated on the right bank of the Spree, 30 miles
east-southeast of Berlin (Map Prussia, F 2)
It has a gymnasium, several fine churches, and
monuments to Emperors William I, Frederick
III, and Prince Bismarck There are manufac-
tures of woolens, electric lamps, wood alcohol,
machinery, bricks, and glass The Pintsch Gas
Company alone employs more than 1600 hands
Owing to its ownership of an adjoining forest,
19 square miles in extent, Fursten walde is
among the richest towns in Germany Pop ,
1900, 16,662; 1910, 22,626, chiefly Protestants.
It is one of the oldest cities of Brandenburg,
having obtained municipal rights in 1285
FUHTABO, foor-ta'do, FBANCISCO Jos£
(1818-70) A Brazilian statesman He was
born at Oeiras (Piauhy) and was educated at
the Academy of Law at Caxias, Province of
Maranhao, but from political reasons took his
degree at Sao Paulo A Liberal in politics, he
was elected to the Chamber of Representatives
m 1847, and again in 1861. At various times
he rendered excellent service as a local official
and as judge in municipal and commercial
courts- In 1856 he was made President of the
new Province of Anmzonas, which rapidly de-
veloped under his rule In 1864 he waa chosen
senator and made Minister of State, in which
office he performed efficient service in improving
financial conditions
FTJRTH, furt A town of Middle Franconia,
Bavaria, 980 feet above sea level, situated
at the confluence of the Rednitz with the
Pegnitz, 5 miles northwest of Nuremberg (Map
Germany, D 4) It has a modern Rathaus,
built in Italian style, with a tower 180 feet
high, and a seventeenth-century synagogue
In the church of St Michael there is an
excellent late-Gothic cibonum Furth forms
with Nuremberg practically one large manu-
facturing city Its growth in the last quarter
century has been very rapid Among its chief
manufactures are mirrors, toys, gold leaf,
bronzes, spectacles and optical instruments,
lead pencils, lamps, fine lithograph print-
ing, machinery, leather goods, shoes, sheet
metal, cabinetwork, furniture, and Venetian
blinds It has a gymnasium, a school for wood-
workers, an agricultural school, and a library
The trade in hops is very active Pop , 1890,
43,206, 1900, 54,822, 1910, 66,553. Although
mentioned as early as the beginning of the tenth
century, Furth did not obtain a municipal char-
ter until 18 IS It was burned by the Croats
in 1634 and passed from Prussia to Bavaria in
1806 At the Alte Veste, 3 miles southwest of
the city, Gustavus Adolphus was defeated by
Wallenstem in 1632 The nrst steam railway
in Germany was that between Nuiemberg and
Furth, opened in 1835
FURTHER INDIA. See FARTHER INDIA
FTTRTWAJiTG-LER, f urt'vgng-ler , ADO LI
(1853-1907) A German archaeologist He was
born at Freiburg and studied in his native city
and at Leipzig and Munich In 1878-79 he par-
ticipated in the archaeological excavations at
Olympia (qv ) He became protessor of archae-
ology at Berlin in 1884 and at Munich in 1894
In 1901 he conducted the excavations at ^Egma
(see ^EGINETAN SCULPTURES) and in 1903 at
Orchomenos He came to be recognized as an
eminent authority on ancient vases and gems
He was a pupil of H Biunn and used even
more effectually than Brunn had done the com-
parative method in the criticism of art He was
a dominant figure in archaeological cucles Be-
sides several valuable treatises on the excava-
tions at Olympia and JEgina, his publications
include Phmus und seine Quellen uber die bil-
denden Kunste (1877) , MeistenuetLe der gtte-
chischen Plastik (1893, Eng trans, 1894),
Ucbcr Statuenkopten im Altertum (1896), Die
ant^ken Gemmen (1900) , and with Reichhold,
Grriechische Vasenmalerei (1900-04) lie also
published important descriptive catalogues of
vase collections in various cities BescJireibung
der Glyptothek Konig Ludwig I &u Munchen-
(Munich, 1900) , Em hundert T&feln naoh der
Bildwerken der kgl Glyptothek zu Munchen
(ib, 1903) , and with Urlichs, in 1908, a small
edition of his Me^sterwerkeJ which has been
translated into English by Taylor (London,
1914)
FTJ'BiraCLE See BOIL
FURY AND HEC'LA STRAIT A narrow
channel in the Arctic regions which separates
Melville Peninsula on the south from Cockburn
Island on the north, and connects Fox Channel
on the east with the Gulf of Boothia on the
west (Map Canada, O 3). It received its name
from the vessels used by Captain Parry, its
discoverer, in 1822
FURZE, furz (AS fyrs, of unknown ongin),
T3lea> A genus of plants of the family Legumi-
nosse The common furze (Ulex europceus) , also
called whin and gorse, is a shrub about 2 or 3
feet high, extremely branched, the branches
green, striated, and terminating in spines, the
leaves few and lanceolate, the flowers numer-
ous, solitary, and yellow It is common in sandy
soils in many of the southern parts of Europe,
and in Great Britain, although there it often
suffers from the frost of severe Winters Furze
is sometimes planted for hedges, but is not well
suited for the purpose, occupying a great breadth
of ground and not readily acquiring sufficient
strength, besides it does not, when cut, tend to
acquire a denser habit It is useful as affording
winter food for sheep, and on this account is
burned down to the ground by sheep herders
when its stems become high and woody, so that
a supply of green succulent shoots may be se-
cured A double-flowering variety is common
in gardens A very beautiful variety, called
Iiish furze, is remarkable for its dense, com-
pact, and erect branches A dwarf furze (UlesK
nanus) occurs in some places, and is perhaps
only a mere variety Furze is sometimes planted
as a sand binder, and Ulex europceus is exten-
sively established along the eastern coast of the
United States from Nantucket to Virginia.
FURZE CHAT. See WHINCHAT.
FTJSAGASTJGA
371
FUSE
FUSAGASUGA, foo'-sa-ga-soo-ga' A town
in Colombia, in the Department of Cundma-
marca, 28 miles southwest of Bogota It is a
summer resort of the latter city and has an
important coffee industry It is 5800 feet above
sea level Pop , 1912, 13,443
FUSA3ST, foo'san', or PTISAN. The chief sea-
port of southeastern Chosen (Korea), 7 miles
from the mouth of Nak-tong River, in lat 35°
6' N , long 129 ° 3' E , and the southern terminus
of the railway from Seoul, which was opened
to that capital (286 miles) early in 1905 (Map
Koiea, N 4) The port was opened by tieaty
to Japanese trade in 1876 and to general trade
Nov 26, 1883 The native town (Old Fusan)
has about 600 houses and 5000 inhabitants,
while the Japanese have settled at New Fusan,
opposite Deer Island The city is now under
control of a prefect appointed by the G-overnor-
General of Chosen Since the annexation the
Japanese have far advanced the work of making
roads, installing electric lights, and constructing
large water works, and the place is very active
and prosperous A police system is maintained
on the European pattern In 1904 there were
9000 foreign residents, of whom a few were
Chinese and Europeans and the rest Japanese,
by October, 1906, the number of Japanese had
risen to 18,297 There are now over 20,000
Japanese, with 100 Chinese and a handful of
Europeans A Chinese consulate is maintained
The harbor is formed by several islands, the
largest of which is Deer Island, and the largest
vessels can come close to the landing places
The climate is very healthful, summer bringing
perfect sea bathing The neighboring fisheries
yield great supplies of herring and cod Lines
of small steamers connect Fusan with Nagasaki
and other Japanese ports, Shanghai, Chefoo,
Taku, Chemulpo, Port Arthur, and Vladivos-
tok The Japanese are now engaged in im-
proving the harbor, for which. 3,S24,060 yen
(about $1,900,000) is the estimated cost This
is urgent because, by the completion of the An-
tung-Mukden Railway, Fusan has become the
terminus of a world route A submarine cable
connects Fusan with Nagasaki The chief im-
ports are cotton goods, petroleum, and Japanese
manufactures , the chief exports are hides, beans,
dried fish, whale meat, and rice In exports
Fusan has exceeded those of Jinsen (Chemulpo)
since 1908, but Jinsen still leads in imports In
1911, exports amounted to 5,864,745 yen and
imports to 12,457,801 yen, & total of 18,322,546
yen, or 26 6 per cent of the entire Korean
trade
FTJSARO, foo-sa'rS, LAKE A lake, 3% miles
long, in the Province of Naples, Italy, % mile
west of Baja and 1% miles south of Cumse,
of which it was perhaps the harbor It has
always been famous for its oysters, and the
restaurant and gardens of the Ostricoltura and
the casino built on the lake by Ferdinand I
have many visitors in spring and autumn The
ancients called it Acherusia Palus Two canals
connect it with the sea, from which it is sepa-
rated by a line of sand dunes
ETJSBERTA, fooz-beVta The name of Ri-
naldo's sword in Anosto's Orlando Furioso
PTTSE, or FUZE (abbreviation of fusee, from
Fr fusil, gun, steel for striking fire, It, ML
focile, steel for striking fire). The name of a
variety of devices employed for firing explosives
in military shells and mines and m blasting
operations, etc. The simplest form is the one
patented by William Bickford, of Cornwall, m
1831 and known as safety fuse It consists of
a powder thread around which is spun jute yarn,
this is afterward waterproofed Single fuses
have but one layer, and double fuses two layers,
of waterproofed yarn Tape fuses are wound
with overlapping waterpioof tape In wet holes
either double fuse or tape fuse is used Fuses
are made to burn at a certain rate of speed, and
the time of explosion can therefore be regulated
definitely by varying the length The rate of
burning for good fuse is 1 foot in one-third to
one-half a minute In modern practice blasts
are most generally fired by electric fuses These
are of two general classes In both two naked
copper wires pass through a cork or plug of
some nonconducting material and project inside
a metal cylinder in the open end of which the
plug is inserted In high-tension fuses the ends
of the wires aie not connected, and in low-
tension fuses the ends of the large copper wires
are connected by a very fine wiie, commonly of
platinum The metal cylinder is filled with
some explosive compound, commonly fulminate
of mercury, which explodes with a detonation
The outer ends of the two copper wires are con-
nected with two wires which lead to the poles of
a battery or other electrical generator, often a
magnetic machine
In operation the metal cylinder with its ex-
ploding charge is inserted in the mine or blast
to be fiied, and the wires are connected with the
electric generator Upon completion of the cir-
cuit the current passes through the explosive
compound in the detonator, forming a spark in
the high-tension fuse and heating the fuse wire
in the low-tension fuse, and in either case caus-
ing the compound to explode and thus explode
the mine or blast Electric fuses are used for
firing submerged mines in warfare In many of
the large cities electric firing is now compulsory
on account of the greater safety It is also
much more effective in open cutwork and where
simultaneous explosion of a row of holes is
desired Consult H B Gillette, Rock Excava-
tion, Methods and Costs (New York, 1904)
See BLASTING
Fuses for igniting the bursting charges of pro-
jectiles are classified as time fuses, percussion
fuses, combination fuses A time fuse »begins
to burn at the instant of discharge and con-
tinues to burn for a prearranged number of
seconds and fifths of a second, at the end of
which period the fuse ignites the bursting or
detonating charge Percussion fuses do not
opeiate until the projectile strikes the ground or
target A combination fuse contains both a
time train and a percussion element It is used
in all shrapnel (qv ) To produce the maximum
effect with the 252 or more bullets contained in
a shrapnel case it is important to insure the
burst at a certain height above and distance in
front of the target For example, at a range of
3000 yards the 3-inch shrapnel should burst at
a height of 3 mils (9 yards) above the target
and 66 yards in front of it. To accomplish this
the time fuse must be set at about 7% seconds
The setting of the fuse is quickly and automati-
cally done by an instrument called a fuse setter,
attached to the caisson body There are two
general systems of arming a fuse — one by over-
coming, by the shock of discharge, the resistance
of a split ring on the plunger, the other by
releasing the firing pin by means of the centrif-
ugal force of rotation of the projectile Fuses
372
FUSE
depending on the latter principle are called
centrifugal fuses
The time fuse alone, i e , without percussion
element, is no longer used Percussion fuses
generally have a plunger held by a safety ring
or other device away from a cap of fulminate
until, by the shock of discharge, they are aimed,
and the plunger left free to run forward, when
the shell strikes its target, and stiike the cap
Percussion fuses may be inserted either at the
point or in the base of the projectile, and are
called,, according to location, base or point per-
cussion fuses Percussion fuses designed to det-
onate high-explosive shell are called detonating
fuses Time fuses are held safe, in old models,
by a pin which is taken out when inserted in the
gun, or in recent models by setting the time ring
at "safety", the discharge then drives the
plunger on to the cap at once, igniting a train
of powder (tune tram) which burns during
flight Communication of flame to charge can
be made only through the connecting vent, a
small hole set at a point corresponding to the
action the case is not ruptured upon the ex-
plosion of the bursting charge, but the head is
forced out, and the balls are shot out of the case
with an increase of velocity of fiom 250 to 300
feet per second In the meantime the head con-
tinues its flight, detonating on impact If the
fuse be set at "safety" or for a tune of flight
gieatei than the actual time of night, this
shrapnel may be used in lieu of high-explosive
shell Upon impact a high- explosive shrapnel is
detonated by means of the percussion element of
the combination fuse, the head being detonated
first, which detonation causes the sympathetic
detonation of the high-explosive matrix sur-
i ounding the balls
In the time fuses above described the interval
between discharge of shrapnel fiom the gun and
the hurst of the shrapnel near the target is
regulated by the burning of a compressed pow-
dei tram in the body of the fuse A different
principle is used m recent mechamcal fuses
v\luch in 1914 were under consideration with a
view to adoption In these the time element
21-SBCOND COMBINATION-FUSE MODEL OF 1907 M
ar body, bronze, a', stop pin, brass, b, closing cap, "brass, 6', vents in closing cap, c, upper tune-train ring, Tobin
bronze, c', washer for time-train ring, graduated, felt cloth, d, time-train ring, graduated, Tobin bronze, d', washer for
body, felt cloth., c?2, rotating pin, brass, e, concussion plunger, er, concussion resistance ring, brass, /, firing pm, brass,
0, vent leading to upper tune tram, A, compressed powder pellet, i, upper time train, compressed powder, 3, compressed
powde pellet, in \eni leading to lower time tram, /, compressed powder pellet m lower tram-time vent, k, lower time
tram, compressed powder, I, brass disk, crimped in place, m, compressed powder pellet in vent o, o, vent leading to
magazine, p, powder magazine, g, percussion plunger, r, percussion primer, &, vents leading from percussion primer to
magazine, u> bottom closing screw, brass, v, washer for closing screw, muslin, wt washer for closing screw, brass
time desired before explosion The percussion
principle is combined with this to insure ex-
plosion on impact if the time train should fail
to act, and the mechanism which is shown m the
illustration is situated at the base of the fuse
The combination fuse is screwed into the poi-nt
ot the projectile
The latest service high-explosive fuses in
the United States army are the F A and
the Ehrhardt combination (21 seconds), which,
in addition to the features described above in
the P A combination (1907 M), detonates the
high-explosive shrapnel on impact, or, if burst
in air, detonates the high-explosive head when
the latter strikes the ground The bursting charge
of this shrapnel is composed of a charge of loose
black poxvder (2% ounces), covered by a steel
diaphragm. The latter supports a steel central
tube which extends forward to the high-explosive
head. The shrapnel is filled with 285 balls
secured in a matrix of high explosive In time
was opeuitod bv a clockwork mechanism m lieu
of a burning powder train At the shock of
discharge the mechanism was set in motion and,
at a prearranged number of seconds, insured by
the particular setting of the time-ring scale,
leleased a pin which fired a primer which in turn
ignited the bursting charge This mechamcal
fuse was first practically developed by the
Kiupps of Germany
Safety Tuse A device used for conveying
ignition from a safe distance to a charge of
explosive and consisting of a flexible tube con-
taining a core of fine-grained gunpowder The
tube is frequently made from two layers of spun
\arn suriounded by tape which has been dipped
in a waterproofing composition so that the de-
vice may be used in damp mines and other wet
places There are many grades, but the exterior
diameters of all are sucli that they ftt neatly
into the cases of the commercial detonators
Safety fuse is sold m 50-foot lengths rolled into
FUSE
373
FUSE
coils, the fuse having previously been dusted
with white clay or like hody to prevent the
sticky surfaces adhering when the fuse is coiled
The standard rate of burning stipulated by the
United States government in its specifications
is one yard in 90 seconds, and fuse should be so
made that no portion of it vanes more than 10
per cent from this rate A uniform rate of
burning is essential in blasting because the
/««_™™
cracked, is dangerous Such gunpowder fuse as
is described has been called running fuse It is
now called burning fuse to distinguish it from
the recently invented detonating fuse, consisting
of a lead tube, of the diameter of burning fuse,
containing a core of compressed trinitrotoluene
It is fired by detonation and conveys detonation
to charges of high explosives It is styled cor-
deau-detonant and cor deau-Bick ford A piece of
FRANKFORD ARSENAL 21-SECOND COMBINATION FUSE FOB 3-INCH HIGH-EXPLOSIVE SHRAPNEL
I i i i i I
a, body, brass, 6, closing cap screw, braes, c, restraining disk, brass, d, primer cup, brass, e, primer disk, tin foil,
/, pnmer-closing screw, brass, 0, percussion plunger, brass, h, percussion-plunger bushing, brass, i, j, arming resistance
bolt and nut, brass, fc, arming resistance spring, steel, Z, firing-pin link, brass, m, firing pm, brass, n, rotating fin, brass
blaster in setting a charge cuts a piece of fuse
of such length as he believes is long enough to
reach from the charge to the face of the coal or
rock and sufficiently far beyond to give him
ample time, after the outer end of the fuse has
been set on fire, to reach a place of safety before
the flame of the powder train reaches the
detonator or charge Fuse which has been im-
perfectly made, or which has been squeezed so
as to displace the core, or become damp, or
cordeau-detonant extending through the longer
axis of a cartridge of explosive when detonated
greatly increases the power developed by the
explosive Brass tubes containing such a piece
of the cordeau-detonant and a, detonator are
styled renforts, or boosters
In spherical shell, now obsolete, a train of
powder pressed into a wooden tube was cut to
length proportionate to time of bursting Ig-
nited at the outer end by discharge, this tube
FUSEE
374
FITSILIEHS
conveyed the combustion to the charge For
ricochet fire over water a water cap of brass
with a zigzag channel prevented extinction by
immersion An improved fuse, chiefly used for
spherical shell, was the Bormann It was of
pewter and was punched on a time scale
Greater accuracy was obtained by more uniform
burning of the better time tram. Consult
Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery (New York,
1907), and Fuzes (Government Printing Office,
Washington, 1914) See AMMUNITION, PEO-
JECTILES, SHRAPNEL
FUSEE, fu-ze' (from OF fusee, thread, from
ML fusata, spmdleful, from Lat. fusus, spin-
dle) A spirally grooved cone tin a watch or
chronometer, connected at its base with a chain
\\hich is wound up on the pyramidal cone The
opposite end of this chain is attached to the box
containing the spring, which rotates by the force
of the uncoiling spiing The ob]ect of the pe-
culiar form of the fusee is, as the force of the
spring is weakened by uncoiling,, to give a longer
leverage at the other end of the chain (on the
fusee), and so to counteract the loss of power in
the spring, thereby maintaining as nearly as
possible a uniform rate of driving force With
the better skill and knowledge in the manu-
facture of steel and the material entering into
watch, springs, and the use of the stored energy
of the spring between narrower limits of its
complete resiliency, the need of the fusee has
disappeared from modem watchmaking See
WATCH
FUSEL (fu'zel) OIL, orFOTTSEIi OIL. (Ger,
Fusel, spirits of low grade, perhaps from Lat
fusihs, fluid, from f under e, to pour) A frequent
impurity m spirits distilled from fermented po-
tatoes, barley, rye, etc, to which it communi-
cates a peculiar and offensive odor and taste
and an unwholesome property (See ALCO-
HOL.) It is obtained from impure spirits m
the form of an oily liquid having a penetrating
odor, boiling at 131° to 132° C, and having A
specific gravity of about 0 811 at 19° C. It has
a much stronger intoxicating effect than ordi-
nary alcohol and is highly injurious to health
The substances found in fusel oil belong to three
classes of carbon compounds, viz , alcohols,
acids, and esters The alcohols of fusel oil in-
clude- methyl alcohol (wood spirit, CH3OH) ,
ethyl alcohol (spirits of wine, (XH5OH) , propyl
alcohol (C3H7OH) , isobutyl alcohol (CAOH) ,
arnyl alcohol (C5HnOH) , and hexyl alcohol
(CJET1SOE) The acids found, either free or
combined in fusel oil, include formic acid
(HCOJS) , acetic acid (CH3C02H), piopiomc
acid (C,H5C02H) butyric acid (C3H7CO,H) ,
valeriamc acid (C4H9CO_>H), cap roic acid (CsHn
COJEL) , oenanthyhc acid (C6H13CO2H) , capryhc
acid (C7Ha6C02H) , pelargonic acid (C8H17C02H) ,
and capric acid (CAaCOJEI) The principal con-
stituents of fusel oil are the amyl alcohols
The composition of fusel oil contained in differ-
ent spirits vanes with the source from which
the spirits are derived Fusel oil is generally
removed from ordinary alcohol by filtration
through charcoal, or by distillation, which is
more efficient, but best by a combination of the
two processes It must, however, be remem-
bered that the increasing demand for fusel oil it-
self has made it about six times as valuable as
ordinary alcohol Fusel oil is used in making the
widely used amyl acetate, in preparing artificial
fruit essences, and in the manufacture of alka-
loids See AMYL ALCOHOL, DISTILLED LIQTJO&S
FITSELI, foo'z0-le, HENBY See FUESSLI
FTJSHIKI, foo-she'ke, or FITSHIG-I A sea-
port town of Japan, situated on the west coast
of Nippon, 32 miles northeast of Kanazawa It
was made a free port m 1889 (Map Japan,
E 5) Pop, about 19,000
FTJSHIMI, foo-she'me A town of Japan,
situated on both banks of the river Ujigawa,
3% miles from Kyoto (Map Japan, D 6) It
is noted as the place where a battle occuired
between the Iinpeiiahsts and the adherents of
the Shogun in January, 1868 Pop, about
20,000
FUSIBLE 1CBTAL A term applied to cer-
tain metallic alloys characterized by the rela-
tively low temperatures at which they melt
Among the more impoitant of these alloys are
D'Arcet's metal, Rose's metal, Wood's metal, and
Lipowitz' metal D'Arcet's metal consists of
8 parts of bismuth, 8 parts of lead, and 3 parts
of tin, it melts at 79° C (1742° F ) Rose's
metal consists of 1 part of lead, 1 part of tin,
and 2 parts of bismuth, it melts at 94° C
(2012° F ) Wood's metal consists of 4 parts
of tin, 3 parts of cadmium, and 15 parts of bis-
muth, it melts at 60° C (140° F ) Lipoivitz'
metal consists of 8 parts of lead, 4 parts of tin,
3 paits of cadmium, and 15 parts of bismuth,
it melts at 65° G (149° F ) Of course, by
varying the relative composition of these alloys,
a variety of other fusible metals may be ob-
tained, and the melting points of these may be
made to answer the purposes for which they
are intended For example, the constituents of
D'Arcet's metal may be mixed in the proportion
of 5 parts of lead, 8 parts of bismuth, and 3
parts of tin, and then the melting point will be
945° C (2021° F). Many fusible metals,
especially D'Arcet's, have the property of ex-
panding as they cool, while still soft, and are
therefore used for taking proof impressions of
dies, each line being exactly reproduced in the
cast made of the alloy Fusible metals have
also been employed for making safety plugs for
boilers When the steam reaches a pressure
corresponding to the melting point of the alloy,
the plug gives way and the steam escapes Of
late yeais fusible metals have come into ex-
tended use for filling the nozzles, or in the
foim of links for the struts, of the automatic
fii e-sprmkler systems now installed in all large
manufacturing and commercial buildings The
alloy usually employed consists of bismuth 4
parts, lead 2, tin 1, and cadmium 1, and melts
at about 74° C (165° F ) Such a material was
said first to have been used in sprinkler heads by
Major Harrison Links of fusible metals, first
designed by Edward Atkinson, are used in con-
nection with self-operating doors, hatches, etc
See HEAT
FTJSILIEKS, fii'zil-erz' (Fr fusilier, from
fusil, musket, It , ML focnle, steel for striking
fire, from Lat foc-ws, hearth) Historic regi-
ments of the British army, deriving their title
from the fact that they originally carried a
lighter fusil or musket than the remainder of
the army In point of age the fusilier regi-
ments are next in seniority to the Coldstreams
and other guard regiments, and consequently
are more or less prominent in the military his-
tory of Great Britain In time of peace their
uniform differs from other infantiy regiments
only in the matter of headgear, which in their
case is a busby (qv ) similar, though smaller,
in shape to the one worn by the Foot Guards,
FUSING- POINT
375
FUSION
The fusilier regiments are the Royal Innis-
kilhngs, the Royal Lancashire, the Eoyal Scots,
the Royal Irish, the Royal Welsh
FUSING POINT See MELTING POINT
FU'SION See HEAT
FUSION (Lat fusio, fusion, from fundere, to
pour) A concept which has played a large
part in recent psychological discussion, but the
meaning of which cannot be said to be nnally
and precisely settled It denotes a connection
of sense elements of an extremely intimate kind
— a connection so close that the resultant com-
pound process seems rather to be a fusion or
weld than a mere association of elements The
best instance of a fusion is the sound of a musi-
cal note or clang, in which a number of tonal
elements are blended to give a single resultant
perception which, in certain cases, may countei-
feit the simplicity of sensation itself See
CLANG TINT
Fusion, as thus defined, might be nothing
more than a limiting form of simultaneous as-
sociation (qv). Wundt accordingly classifies
simultaneous associations as ( 1 ) fusions ( in-
tensive, e g , tones, and extensive, P g , eights
and touches) , (2) assimilations, including dis-
crimination and recognition, and (3) compli-
cations, connections of elements from different
sense departments (eg, of visual impressions
and the organic sensations accompanying bodily
movement) As thus understood, fusion does
not necessarily imply any change in the con-
nected sensations We may suppose that they
aie intimately associated, owing to their habit-
ual and constant concurrence some one of them
dominates the group, forcing the others into
obscurity, so that the whole is apprehended as
a whole and not as a sum, but still analysis is
possible, and when it takes place the obscure
components may turn out to be the same in all
respects as they would be if given in isolation
Fusion, in other words, might be merely a mod-
ern name for James Mill's indissoluble associa-
tion In point of fact, the question is moie
complicated N
1 We must, in the first place, take account
of Wundt's law of psychical resultants This
law declares that "every mental complex shows
attributes which may, indeed, be understood
from the attributes of its elements, when these
elements have been once presented, but which
are by no means to be regarded as the mere
sum of the attributes of these elements " Thus
the musical note or chord has attributes, on its
perceptual and affective sides, which do not
attach to the component simple tones So, too,
spatial and temporal arrangement — extension,
duration, order in space or time — is conditioned
upon a certain collocation of sense elements,
but neither space nor time is an intrinsic attri-
bute of any sensation It follows, then, that for
Wundt both the intensive and the extensive fu-
sions are, in reality, something more than in-
dissoluble associations, the fusion is not only a
whole, but a new whole, something that can be
understood but not predicted from the nature
of its elemental constituents The law of psy-
chical resultants has been much criticized, on
the ground that it involves a belief m "mental
chemistry" for which the facts give no warrant,
on the ground, more particularly, that it is im-
possible to derive space from the nonspatial and
time from the nontemporal Nevertheless many
psychologists of high standing accept the doc-
trine of secondary contents or secondary attri-
butes (see FORM OF COMBINATION) — the doctrine
that associated complexes contain piocesses or
show attributes which are set up by the associa-
tion as such, and are not discoverable when the
elements are separately examined, and this doc-
trine is but a variant of Wundi's law
2 The laws of tonal fusion have been worked
out in great detail by Stumpf Tins author is
very far fiom accepting a principle of mental
chemistry, but, at the same time, he differenti-
ates fusion from simple association According
to Stumpf there is in a collocation of tones,
after all other hindrances to analysis have been
lemoved, a tendency to fusion, or to a resultant
oneness of impression, due to the charactei of
the sense material itself When full allowance
is made for habitual association, for misdirec-
tion or distraction of attention, for lack of prac-
tice, and what not, this "sense phenomenon" of
being fused still remains It is not that a new
process or attribute is set up, it is simply that,
just as visual extents, owing to their intrinsic
nature, associate, so do tonal qualities, owing
to their natuie as tones, fuse or blend This
position has recently been disputed, but the evi-
dence for it is too strong to be lightly over-
thrown
We turn to a consideration of the laws of
tonal fusion 1 If we grant Stumpf's postu-
late, it is clear that we may speak of degrees of
fusion, according as the tendency to fusion, in-
herent in tonal material, is more or less com-
pletely realized The musical interval of the
octave may readily be confused, even by prac-
ticed observers, with a simple tone, the octave,
then, represents the highest degree of fusion
On the other hand, the intervals of the ma] or
and minor second and major and minor seventh
are rarely taken to be unitary, even by unprac-
ticed and unmusical hearers, these intervals,
then, represent the lowest degree of fusion Be-
tween the two extremes stand, in order from
better to worse fusion, the intervals of the
fifth, of the fourth, of the major and minor
thirds and sixths, and of the subminor or nat-
ural seventh and the tritone We have, in
other words, a scale of six fusion degrees within
the octave of the musical scale The facts are
summed up in the primary fusion law that "the
degree of fusion is a function of the vibration
ratio of the component tones " ( Stumpf ) In
general the consonances are the best fusions,
the dissonances are the worst, and the imperfect
consonances occupy an intermediate position
Certain other laws of fusion may be formu-
lated as follows 2 The dependence of intra-
octave fusion upon the vibration ratio of the
component tones persists over all regions ©f the
musical scale. Above and below the limits of
this scale the discrimination of degrees of fusion
becomes difficult or impossible 3 The degree
of fusion is independent of the intensity, abso-
lute and relative, of the component tones A
weak chord fuses as does a loud chord, and a
loud tone, accompanied by weak tones, gives the
same fusion degree as would be produced if the
same tones were all sounded at equal intensities
4 Stumpf asserts that the fusion degrees of
intervals wider than the octave are identical
with those of the corresponding mtraoctave in-
tervals Thus, the "ninths have the same fusion
as the seconds, the tenths as the thirds, the
double octave and triple octave as the octave"
This law is not generally accepted We must,
of course, not be misled by the fact that dis-
FUSION
376
crimination of the tones of the tenth, as com-
pared with those of the third, is facilitated by
the greater distance separating them upon the
tonal scale This has nothing to do with degiee
of fusion, our analysis may be made easier or
more difficult by the concurrence of extrinsic
conditions, while the degree of fusion remains
absolutely the same The question is When
analysis of the thud and of the tenth has been
performed, and the observer is able by effoit of
attention to single out the component tones in
both complexes, do the third tones "go together"
(blend) as well as 01 better than the tenth
tones ? Is the sense relationship, which we teim
fusion degree, the same or different in the two
cases ? The answer seems to be that the tenth,
though a better fusion than, eg, the tritone (a
member of the intraoctave group lying next be-
low the group of thirds and sixths), is still a
worse fusion than the third, to which it corie-
sponds 5 Except in certain specific cases, fall-
ing under the laws already formulated, clang
tint does not influence degree of fusion 6
Spatial separation of the tones, though it facili-
tates analysis, does not affect degree of fusion
7 If two tones are simultaneously ideated (re-
produced, as sounding together, in memory or
imagination), the resultant idea alwava evinces
the degree of fusion that the same tones would
show in perception 8 The pitch of a fusion
is never that of a tone lying midway between
the pitches of the component tones, but lather
the pitch of some one of these components "In
a continuously sounding compound clang," as
heard by a musical observer, "the whole appears
to possess the pitch of its deepest tone, even if
this be not the loudest " ( Sturnpf ) Unmusical
observers are apt to estimate the pitch of a sim-
ple clang as somewhat lower than that of a
compound clang baaed upon the same funda-
mental tone These laws, it should be remarked,
are regarded by certain other psychologists as
deriving from an "ideal" conception of fusion,
since, as they maintain, the impression of fusion
is altered in actual experience by such factors
as attention, expectation, practice, fatigue, etc
They argue further that, besides the acceptance
of the single unitary impression as the principal
criterion of fusion, we must also posit, as a sec-
ondary criterion, the relative difficulty with
which the experience may be analyzed into its
component parts Those who adopt this posi-
tion find, of course, that exceptions must be
taken in practice to many of Stumpfs laws
Other instances of fusion are to be found in
the complexes of organic sensation that form the
body of the feelings (see PEELING) , in the quali-
tative taste-smell mixtures (the "taste" of coffee
or lemonade) , in the perceptions (weight, resist-
ance) mediated both by external skin and by
the sense organs of muscle, tendon, and joint,
perhaps m all the impressions that we call col-
ors (mixtures of color proper and of light) ;
and, according to Kuelpe, in such affective for-
mations as emotion, impulse, and feeling It is,
however, doubtful whether the connections of
sensation and affection can be brought under the
same conceptual heading as the fusion connec-
tions of sensations.
Consult Stumpf, Tonpsychologie, vol 11
(Leipzig, 1890) ; Wundt, Outlines of Psychology
(lib, 1907, Eng trans), id, Grundzuge der
physwlogischen Psychology (ib, 1910), Kuelpe,
Outlmes of Psychology, trans by Titchener
(London, 19Q9) , Titchener, JUa^enmental Psy-
chology, I, u (New York, 1901), Kemp, "Zur
Lehre von der Tonverschmelzung," in Arehiv fur
die gesamte Psychologic, vol xxix (Leipzig,
1913)
FUSION DISK, or FUSING DISK Seo
METAL-WOKKING MACHINERY
FUSIYAMA, foo'sfc-ya'ma See FUJIYAMA..
FUST, foost, or FAUST, foust, JOHANN
(9-cl46G) A German piomoter of the inven-
tion of printing He was a well-to-do citizen of
Mainz and became Gutenberg s paitner in the
new business of printing He furnished the
capital and took a mortgage upon the business,
being shrewd enough to realize the value of
Gutenberg's discovery Gutenberg, on his part,
provided the necessary apparatus In 1455 Fust
prosecuted Gutenberg for money advanced, and
upon the latter's nonpayment seized enough of
the apparatus to cover the mortgage, and con-
tinued the business with his son-in-law, Peter
Schoffer In 1462, at the sack of Mainz, the
workmen were scattered and the secret of the
art of printing became common property By
1465 their shop v\as again active Copies of
the work of Fust and his partneis are still m
existence The best-known publication of him-
self and Gutenbeig is the Latin "Bible of 42
lines," or the Mazaiin Bible, of Fust and
Schoffer, a Psalter (1457), the first book pub-
lished with a complete date, and especially re-
inaikable foi the beauty of the initials, which
aie punted m red and blue fiom types made in
two pieces See GUTENBERG, FEINTING
FUSTEL DE COULANGES, fns'tSl' de koo'-
UNzh', NUMA DENIS (1830-89) A French his-
torian, born m Paris He studied at the Ecole
Normale Supe*iieure and in Athens After
teaching history m Amiens, Paris, and Strass-
burg, he leturned in 1871 to Pans, where he
became the successor of GefFroy at the Univer-
sity and in 1878 received a new chair of mediae-
val history In 1880 he became director of the
Ecole Normale His principal works, all sin-
cere but partly blemished by his theories, are-
Memoire sur 1'iVe de Ohio (1857) , Polybe, ou la
Grece conquise par les Remains (1858) , La cite
antique, Etude sur le culte, le dtoit, les institu-
tions de la Grece et de Rome (1864, 17th ed ,
1900), which greatly exaggerates the influence
of religion, Histoire des institutions politiques
de Vancienne France (1874-92), a revision of
the first volume of the last-named work, in three
volumes La Gaule romame, L'Invasion germu-
mque, and La monarcliie franque (1888-91),
awarded the Grand Prix Jean R-aynaud For
his biography, consult Guiraud (Paris, 1896),
and consult Langlois's sketch in La grande en-
cyclopedie (ib, 1885-1903)
FUSTIAN", fus'chan (from OF fustaine, from
ML fustianum, fustian, from Ar Fustdt, a sub-
urb of Cairo, from which the material first
came) A cotton corded fabric which has a
pile like velvet, but shorter, and which is manu-
factuied in nearly the same manner as velvet,
by leaving loops standing upon the face of the
fabric, and then cutting them through so as to
form upright threads, which are afterward
smoothed by shearing, singeing, and brushing.
The fabric is used in England for trouserings,
etc , and the name has been applied to the
lower, coarser grades of velveteens and cordmgs
See VELVET
The different names given to fustian cloths
depend upon their degree of fineness and the
manner m which they are woveh and finished.
FCTSTIAH
377
Tims, smooth kinds, oi a stiong twilled textuie,
are called moleskins when shorn befoie dyeing,
and beaverteen? when cropped after dvemg Cor-
duroy, 01 king's cord, is produced by a peculiar
disposition of the pile thieads in all fustians
there is a warp and filling, or woft thread, inde-
pendent of the additional filling thread forming
the pile, but in corduroys the pile tlnead is
only "thrown in1' where the corded poi turns are
and is absent in the narrow spaces between
them Foi a technical description of fustians,
velveteens, and corduioys, see Pos&elt, Tech-
nology of Textile Design (Philadelphia, 1895)
FITSTIA3ST See SYLVESTER DAGGFRWOOD
FTJS'TIC (from Fr fustoc, ultimately con-
nected with Lat fustis, stick) A name qiven
to two kinds of dyewood used foi pioducmg a
yellow coloi and, with chemical additions, other
colors, such as brown, olive, and gieen The
name in France (fustic) bcems to he connected
with fustet, name of the Venice sumac (Rhiis
cotinus) , a shrub found in the south of "Km ope,
and to have been transferred to a very different
plant (Chlorophora tinctona] , a tiee of the
family Moraccse, a native of the AVest Indies,
Mexico, and northern South America Fustic is
a large and handsome tree, with wood which
is sometimes used m mosaic cabinetwoik and
turning, but chiefly in dyeing, for which its
large content of yellow coloring matter specially
fits it Since the color is rather dull, it is more
used for producing other colors Old fustic, or
yellowwood, is employed for dyeing woolens and
also to impart to them, when mixed with indigo
and salts of iron, green and olive colors It
furnishes a yellow, coloring matter tcimcd rnori-
tanmc acid, which may be obtained in ciystals
by evaporating its watery solution The bichro-
mates of potash and of lead, as well as some of
the coal-tar products, have to a great degree
superseded the use of old fustic Young fustic,
the wood of RJius cotinus, contains a yellow col-
oring matter, to which the name "fustcnc" has
been given It is generally used in combination
with other dyes in order to strike some particu-
lar tint These terms, "old" and "young," be-
gan to be employed about the beginning of the
eighteenth century, from the mistaken notion
that the one, in small pieces, was the wood of
the young tree, and the other, m comparatively
large logs, of the same tree in a more mature
state The osage orange (Madura, pomifeia)
of North America is nearly allied to old fustic,
and its wood also affords a yellow dye. See
OSAGE ORANGE, SUMACH, CLADBASTIS, DYEING
FTJSTJXINA, fu'su-ll'na (Neo-Lat, fioro Lat
fusus, spindle) An important genus of fossil
perforate Foraminifera, characteristic of the
Upper Carboniferous and Permian limestones.
The shell, which varies in size from % to % of
an inch among the different species, is usually
fusiform in shape and is made up of a number
of spirally inrolled whorls, of which the cham-
bers are divided into many chamberlets by pri-
mary and secondary partitions The known
species, about 15 m number, are found in the
Upper Carboniferous limestones and often also
in those of the PermAin age, and in many places
are so abundant that they actually constitute
the mass of the rocks Such Fusu-lina lime-
stones, appearing as if inade up of grains of
wheat, are common in certain parts of Europe,
Asia, Japan,, and are also found in the Missis-
sippian and Southwestern States of the United
States and elsewhere in Horth America The
FUTTYGtJRH
limestone of Japan has a fmc dark*-
giay ground, with hi ighter-colored Fusuhna
giains scattered over the surface, and because of
its beauty has been extensively cut into vases
and other ornamental objects, in. which form it
may be seen in nearly every collection of Japan-
ese curios flchwagcnna, with shell of spheucal
form, is an allied genus of quite similar horizon
and distribution See FORAMINIFERA , CARBON
FERGUS SYSTEM
FU'SITS (Lat, spindle) A genus of large
gastropod mollusks, the spindle shells, allied to
the British whelks and American conchs, and
containing many well-known shells For par-
ticulars and illustiations, see ROARING BUCKIIL,
SPINDLE SHELL, WIIELK
FXJTA JALLCOT, foo'ta ja-16n' (Fr Fouta-
D jail on) A large, mountainous region of cen-
tial French Guinea, West Africa Its aiea is
about 42,500 square miles Owing mainly to
the elevation, which is about 4000 feet, and
at points exceeds 5000 feet, the climate is rather
favorable, and the fine forests lend beauty to
the legion The Senegal, Gambia, Niger, and
othei nvors head within its confine* Its fet-
tile valleys pioduce coiTee, rice, maize, and
cotton The country is well adapted for stock
raising, and the number of cattle is consider-
able. The territory is regarded as among the
best m that part of Africa, but it is as yet
little developed
Futa Jallon was divided into four administra-
tive circles by the French m 1902, each circle
is under a French administrator At the head
of the native government are the princes (called
almamys, i e , emirs ) of the two leading ancient
families Each prince rules for two years, and
his powers are subject to the action of an
assembly of nobles The crowning of the almamy
takes place amid great festivities in the sacred
town of Fugumba, in the oldest mosque in the
land The capital is Timbo, a village of 1500
inhabitants Tuba is the largest town Labe,
also, is important The population of Futa
Jallon is given as about 700,000, mostly Fulah
They came from Senegal in the sixteenth cen-
tury and subjugated the natives (See FULAH )
In 1881 the French, through a representative of
the French administration in Senegambia, first
concluded a treaty of peace with the almamy of
Futa Jallon It was not, however, until 1893
that a French protectorate was established, and
a iirrn footing secured in connection with the
government of French Guinea (qv ) Consult
Bolter, TJeber die Capverden nach dem Rio
Grande und Futa Dschallon (Leipzig, 1884) ,
Noirot, A. travers le Fouta-Dyallon et le Bam-
boue (Paris, 1885) , De Sanderval, La congu&te
du Fouta-Djallon (ib, 1899), Machat, Les
rivieres du sud et le Fouta-Djallon (ib, 1906),
treating the geography and geology of the
country
FTJTAK, HADIK VON See HADTK VON FUTAK.
FTJTA-TORO, or FOOTA-TORO, Wrd'. A
territory in West Africa, in the northern part
of French Senegal A portion of it was amnwd
by France in 1860 It is, for the most part^ a
level and fertile country, with extensive tama-
rind forests There is iron ore, and considerable
pig iron is produced The estimated population
is 150,000, chiefly Fulah (qv). A tribe of
mixed blood, locally known as Tucolettrs (Two
Colors ) , forms the j ernainder of tfofc population.
PUTTEHPTTB, fut'ttf-p^r',. See FATHIFOto.
FUTTYCHJRH, fut'ti-gur'. See FATEHGABH,
FUTURE ESTATE
378
FYED
FUTURE ESTATE An estate in lands
which, is limited to come into possession and en-
joyment at some time m the future By the
common law of England the number of such
estates was strictly limited, being confined to
reversions and remainders These had the com-
mon characteristic of fitting exactly upon some
precedent estate less than a fee simple and could
not take effect in derogation of a fee nor after
an interval of time during which the fee was
suspended or in abeyance Thus, a future gift
to B one year after A's death, or to C one year
from date, would, at common law, have been
simply void, as not coming within the description
of a remainder See REMAINDER, REVERSION
As a consequence of the ancient practice of
conveying land to one man to the use of an-
other, and as the result of the Statute of Uses,
passed in the twenty-seventh year of Henry
VIII (1535), and of the Statute of Wills, five
years thereafter, new classes of future estates
of a more flexible character became possible
These weie known as springing and shifting
uses and executory devises They consisted m
future limitations, not coming under the de-
scription of lemainders and reversions, but
taking effect in the future without a preceding
"particular" estate, or in derogation of a pre-
ceding estate in fee Thus, a gift of land to
the use of B, to take effect on the happening
of some future event, or to the use of A and
his heirs, and, in the event of B's returning
from abroad, to the use of B and his heirs,
would vest a future estate m B, the former
as a springing use (qv ) and the latter as a
shifting use (qv) Either of these estates,
if given by last will and testament, would take
effect as an executory devise (qv ) Though
these distinctions are still valid in England
and many of the United States, they have m
many jurisdictions been abolished by statute,
while in a few States, as in New York, all
future estates of real property have been put
on the same footing, even the fundamental dis-
tinction between remainders and the executory
limitations above described having been done
away with In general, therefore, future es-
tates of all kinds can now be directly created
by deed as well as by last will and testament
Strictly speaking, there can be no such thing
as an estate in personal property, and it was
formerly the law that the ownership of such
property was indivisible This meant that if
a chattel, as a jewel or a leasehold estate, was
given to one for life, it became his absolutely,
and no legal interest therein could be given over
to any one else But by a series of judicial
decisions of the last century in England and
America this narrow rule of the common law
has been changed, and it is now possible to
create legal future estates, or interests, in
personal property as well as in real Such
interests are not deemed to be remainders, how-
ever, even when they take effect, like legal re-
mainders of real property, upon the determina-
tion of a precedent interest therein, but are classi-
fied as future interests of the executory type,
like springing and shifting uses, and the like.
The foregoing enumeration exhausts the list
of the future estates generally recognized m
our legal system Other rights m land looking
to a future enjoyment thereof may, indeed,
exist, but they all fall short of being estates or
interests in the land, as those terms are under-
stood in law Of this character are rights of
entry for condition broken, rights of forfeiture
for waste or other cause, rights of escheat and
eminent domain, and the right remaining in
one who has conveyed away a qualified or limited
fee None of these reach the dignitv o± future
estates, though one of them, the right of entry
for breach of condition, has been rendered alien-
able by statute in England and a few of the
United States Of an intermediate character,
also, are the respective inteiests of husband
and wife in the estate of the other, while the
1 elation of coverture continues The "inchoate"
dower right of the wife and the curtesy k ini-
tiate" of the husband are not, strictly speak-
ing, future estates, but they approach closely
to that description See ESTATE
Future estates of all kinds are generally
alienable by deed or will and, if estates of in-
heritance, are transmissible by descent just like
present estates Though the propeity in which
the estate is claimed is for the time being in
the lawful possession of another, the futuie
estate is secure from loss or destruction It is
unaffected by any conveyance or other act of
absolute ownership which the present, or pai-
ticular, tenant may choose to exercise over it
In this respect it differs from a mere equitable
interest, present or future, in property, which
may be lost by conveyance of the property to an
innocent purchaser "But all future estates that
are contingent in character are subject to the
rule against perpetuities, which rendeis void
any future interest which is not to vest within
a lifetime and 21 years after the date of the
creation of the estate See PERPETUITY
FUTURISM See POST-IMPRESSIONISM
FUXUM See Foix
FUZE. See FUSE
FYFFE, fif, CHARLES ALAN (1845-92) An
English historian, born at Blackheath, Kent
and educated at Balhol College, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1868 He took his M A in 1870
and in 1871 was elected a fellow of University
College and later was appointed bursar, which
position he held for many years He acted as
war correspondent for the London Daily News
during the early months of the Franco-Prussian
War and in the same capacity was in Paris dur-
ing the Commune, narrowly escaping execution
as a spy. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn and
the Inner Temple in 1873-76, and m 1877 was
admitted to the bar, but never practiced Fyffe
was a Radical in politics, one of the founders
of the Free Land League, and an unsuccessful
candidate for Parliament from Oxford in 1885
In 1875 he published a small History of Greece,
in a series of History Primers His History of
Modem Europe, published in three volumes in
1880, 1886, and 1890, is a vigorous and careful
account of the political history of Europe from
the outbreak of the French Revolution to the
Treaty of Berlin in 1878
FYNE, fin, LOCH An arm of the sea run-
ning north and northeast from the Sound of
Bute, in the south of Argyllshire, Scotland, to
beyond Inverary, in the north, and bounded by
the District of Cowal on the east, and by those
of Argyll-Knap dale and part of Cantire on the
west (Map Scotland, 03) It is 43 miles long,
2 to 8 miles broad, and 40 to 70 fathoms deep,
and receives at its head the waters of the Fyne
River and a little farther south the Shira and
Aray It has important herring fisheries, and it
is much visited in the season by pleasure seekers
FYRD, ferd An old English term for
EYT
379
FYZABAD
Ha, i e , the men of a nation able to bear arms,
used during the Anglo-Saxon peiiod ab early
as the year 605 The individuals fanning the
fyrd weie usually employed foi local defense
only, and weie subject to seveie penalties, in-
cluding fine and foifeiture of land, in case they
failed Ho icpoit for duly See MILITIA
PYT, fit, JOHANNES (1611-61) A Flemish
animal and still-life painter and etcher He
was born m Antwerp, where he was a pupil
of Jan van Beich and Franz Snydeis In 1629
he became membei of the Guild of St Luke,
and m 1650 he was elected member of the Guild
of the Romanists, becoming dean in 1652 In
1631 he visited France and Italy, where he spent
some time studying in Rome, returning to
Antweip in 1641 His painting is charactei ized
by sunny effects, harmony of color, and remark-
able detail, especially in the painting of the fur
of animals and the plumage of birds His sub-
jects embrace animals hunting, nglitmg, and
dead, besides still-life pieces He has been
named the greatest animal painter of the Flem-
ish school after Snyders, who excels lum in line
but is his inferior m pictorial effects He was
associated with Willeborts, Schut, and others,
Willeborts painted the figures, while Fyt added
the animals He died m Antwerp in 1661 His
etchings include three series of animal subjects,
they show the same vigor and animation in style
as 'his paintings He is represented in nearly
all the museums of Europe Theie are four
paintings by him in the Louvre and three fine
uDead Game" pieces in the Metropolitan Mu-
seum, New Yoik, the "Bear Hunt" and the
"Boar Hunt," two of his mantelpieces, are m
Munich, and he is especially well repiesented in
Vienna
FYZABAD, or FAIZABAD, fl'za-bad' A
division of Oudb, United Provinces, British
India (qv ) (Map India, E 3) It is watered
by the Gogra and Gumti, and embiaces a region
nch in antiquities Agriculture is in an ad-
vanced state of development, rice, wheat, and
other grains are extensively cultivated, while
cotton, tobacco, opium, and indigo also are
produced Area, 12,113 squaie miles Pop,
1001, 6,855,991, 1911, 6,646,362 Capital,
F} zabad ( q v )
FYZABAD, or FAIZABAD. The capital of
a division of the same name, United Provinces,
India, neai the Gogra, 78 miles east of Lucknow
(Map India, E 3) With its ancient suburb,
Ayodhya, the Jeiusalem of the Hindus, which is
said fonnerly to have covered 96 square miles,
it contains 36 Hindu temples, 114 mosques, an
Imambaiah, and a vast number of ruins over-
grown by jungle The great fan of Ramnamni
i^> annually attended by half a million pilgrims
Its prospeiity, which had declined aftei the death
of Bahu Begam, in 1816, revived under British
nile, is again decreasing An important trade
m wheat and rice is carried on It has large
sugar refineries The city is the headquarters
of a British commissioner. Pop , including mili-
tary cantonment, 1901, 75,085, 1911, 54,655
G
GThe seventh letter and fifth con-
sonant in the Grseco-Eoman al-
phabet The greatest innovation
made by the Romans when they took
over the Greek alphabet was in the
development of G Up to the mid-
dle of the third century BC the letter C was
employed in Latin inscriptions for both G and g
The familial abbreviations C and CN for Gams
and Gnseus prove this fact beyond question
The inconvenience, however, of having only one
character to distinguish the two sounds made
necessary a slight differentiation, which finally
gave the form G for the sonant, 01 voiced,
guttural (g), and C for the surd, or voiceless,
guttural (c hatd) The new character first ap-
pears in the epitaph on Scipio Baibatus, which
Ritschl thinks cannot have been carved later than
234 BC This G took the seventh place in the
alphabet, which had been occupied by Z in the
old Italic alphabet. (See ALPHABET, LETTERS )
With reference to the name it may be added that
the Greek designation gamma has been usually
supposed to be an adaptation of the Semitic
garni or gvml, and to mean a 'camel.3 But in
fact giml and garni mean nothing as words, and
although either may be the Semitic trihteral
root meaning ripe,' theie is no word of any
such form from that root The modern lower-
case or small-letter g arose by gradual develop-
ment from the symbol S* which already ap-
peared in the semmncial style as early as the
sixth century of the Christian era Consult
Prou, Manuel de paleographie (Paris, 1910)
Phonetic Character In English, g has the
values ( 1 ) of a voiced guttural, or velar, plosive
made by voiced breath being checked between
the body of the tongue and the palate, as in
got, organ, glad} (2) of the so-called "soft" or
palatal g, consisting of a combination of the
voiced dental and the dental fricative (d -}- ^ ) >
as in generous, gentle (this sound is sometimes
aided orthographically by the addition of a d,
as in bridge, judge) , (3) in some words taken
from French it has the value of zh, the voiced
dental fricative, of which the phonetic symbol is
z, as in mirage, rouge, (4) it is sometimes
silent before n and m, as gnaw, sign, (5) in the
combination ng at the end of syllables it denotes
merely that the n is a guttural and not a dental
nasal (this sign is indicated TJ by phoneticians
and is called the voiced velar, or back, nasal) ,
(6) the combination gh has frequently the sound
of f, as slough^ laugh, or of w, as bough The
voiced plosive g comes chiefly from (1) Indo-
Ger gh, as m Eng goose, Ger Grans, AS gos,
380
Lat anser (orig *ghanser), Gk xt", Skt
hasaSy Eng guest, Ger Gast, AS giest, Goth
gasts, Lat Tio^tiSj Eng sty, go upward, Gei
steigcn, AS stigan, Goth steigan, Lat vestigium,
footprint, Gk ffrelxeiv, go, Skt steghndim , (2)
the g of words which have come into English
from other languages, as gtaw, Lat gianum
The following are some of the changes between g
and othei letteis acre, Gei AcKei, Lat ager,
Gk aypos, Skt ajra, 01 again Liiee, Lat qenttj
Kin, Lat genus, Gk yevos, Skt janas., yestcj
(day), Ger gestcrn, Lat hesternus There is
a constant tendency towaids palatalization of g,
as in the Old English participles in y (initial),
coi responding to Germanic ge A modem in-
stance of this tendency is seen in the pronuncia-
tion of Morgen as Mori/en in the so-called Berliner
Dialekt of Germany The Normans in England
could not sound the w and so substituted foi it
gu This gives doublets in English like guard
and ward, guarantee and warranty G some-
times disappears, as in Eng enough } Ger genug,,
and Eng master, Lat magister
As a Symbol G in music is the fifth tone
of the natural diatonic scale of C, and in the
treble clef is written on the second line, or in
the first space above In the bass clef it stands
in the first line, or m the fourth space As a
mediaeval Roman numeral it stands for 400, and
\\ith a line over it (G) for 400,000
GrAAL, gal, J6ZSEF (1811-60) An Hunga-
rian author He was born at Nagy K^roly in
1811, studied at the College of Buda and at the
University of Pest, and entered soon afterwaid
the administrative career, being attached to the
Hungarian Council of Lieutenancy He played
a somewhat important part in politics and took
part in the revolution of 1848 Gaal began
writing early and proved equally successful when
gossiping in the columns of Kossuth's famous
Pesti Hirlap, translating a masterpiece of Cer-
vantes, filling the periodicals with tales and
novels, or furnishing original works for the Na-
tional Theatre The sketches of country life as
it was, and as it still continues on the vast
plains of Hungary, ar<* nowhere more vividly and
more truly exhibited i an in Gafil's comedies and
tales The following e some of Gaal's original
compositions Szirmay Ilona, a novel in two vol-
umes (1836), Peleslzei Notarius (The Notary
of Peleske, 1838), a comedy in four acts, based
on a novel by the poet Gvadanyi, Szvatopluk,
a tragedy in five acts Tales Puwtai Kaland
(An Adventure on the Hungarian Prairies) ,
Tengen Kalandaz Alfoldon (Seafaring Adven-
tures in Lower Hungary) , Hortoldgyi fysisaka,
GABAKET 38
(A Night on the Heath of Hortobagy) During
the sojouin of the Hungarian Diet at Debrecmi
(1849), Gaal was editor of a -journal combating
exiiome ladical views As early as 1837 he Wc\b
m0de a member of the Hungarian Academy
Consult the edition of Gaal'q novels and tales by
Badics (Budapest, 1880-82)
G-ABARET, ga'ba'ra', JEAN DE (c 1620-97)
A French colonel goveinoi, boin on the island
of R<§, of a familv famous in French naval his-
tory, his father, Mathurm (died 1671), and his
brother Louis (who was killed at Tobago) being
brave sailors He was made a commodore m
1653 and lieutenant general of naval foices in
1689 At the siege of Tobago, West Indies, he
was the fust to enter the harbor (Feb 27,
1677) He fought m the battle of La Hogue
(May 29, 1602) and in 1693 was appointed
Governor of Maitmique, which he successfully
defended against the English He impioved the
"Black Code" and (m the interest of the slave
population of the island) submitted a leport
which outlined a method of gradual emancipa-
tion, recommended the deportation of the ne-
groes to the French possessions in South Amer-
ica, where they might piove valuable colonists,
and pointed out that white immigration to
Martinique would thus be encouraged
GABB, WILLIAM MORE (1839-78) An Amer-
ican paleontologist, born in Philadelphia, where
he attended the Academy of Natural Sciences
From 1862 to 1865 he was in charge of the
paleontological branch of the geological survey-
ing expedition in California under Josiah D
Whitney, and in 1868 and 1873 undertook geo-
logical ' surveys in Santo Domingo and Costa
Rica His principal publications, which refer
chiefly to these expeditions, include the first and
second volumes of the Geological Survey of Gah-
/otma, (1864) , "On the Topogiaphy and Geology
of Santo Domingo," in Transactions of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society (1873), "On the To-
pography of Costa Rica, with Map," in Peter-
mann's Mittheihingen, and "Ethnology of Costa
Kicd," in the Transactions of the American Philo-
sophical Society
GABBATHA, gab'a-tha (Gk Tapped) The
name of the place to which Pilate, after having
examined Jesus, brought him from the Proo-
torium, to pass judgment upon him before the
people (John xix 13) The Aramaic word, of
Vvhich the Greek is a transliteration and which
so far has not been found in any extant Aramaic
documents, is apparently derived from the radi-
cal gabhabh, whose primary meaning is 'curved*
or 'convex/ and might indicate that the place
itself was on a rounded eminence or under a
dome or arched balcony If this etymology be
correct, the term cannot be considered, as is
assumed in the New Testament passage, the
equivalent of the Greek term Ai060-Tpcuros,
Lithoskrotos, which implies a level tessellated
surface
The location of this place depends upon what
is to be undei stood by the "Prsetorium " If this
was Herod's palace, as m Acts xxiu 35, then the
"Pavement" would most probably be the inner
open court of the building, if it was the
Antonia, then it would be an open space, most
likely outside the building Kecent excavations
near the Ecce Homo Arch have uncovered an
extensive area of Roman pavement, from which
the ground sloped rapidly away on the east and
the west and which must have been immediately
adjoining, if not actually within, the Antonia.
I GABELE^TZ
Paits of the pavement were evidently used for
tiafhc, but most of it is smooth, as though
marked off from traffic and used for other
pui poses
G-ABO3RO (dialectic It, of obscure origin)
A ciystalline igneous rock of granitic textme,
compobed laigely of the minerals lime-soda feld-
spar and pyroxene,, but often containing also a
considerable quantity of olivme The average
chemical composition is silica, 49 per cent,
alumina, 20 per cent, iron sesquioxide, 3 pel-
cent, iron protoxide, 7 per cent, magnesia, 7
pei cent, lime, 9 per cent, soda, 3 per cent,
watei, 2 per cent The proportions of the con-
stituent feldspar and pyroxene m gabbros vary
widely, hence they giade towards peridotite
and pyroxemte ( qq v ) on the one hand by
i eduction of the propoition of feldspar, and
on the othei towards anorthosite (qv ) by
reduction of the propoition of pyioxene Gab-
bro which contains jhvine is distinguished as
olivme gabbro' The usual pyroxene of gabbro
is diallage, but when the place of this mmeial
is paitially or wholly taken by hypersthene the
rock is known us 'a hypersthene gabbro, or
nonte The processes known as weathering tend
to change both the olivme and pyroxene of
olivme gabbios into the hvdiated magnesium
silicate serpentine, hence olivme gabbros aie
veiy often iound to alter to serpentmous or ser-
pentine rovik (qv ) , the alteration is even more
common and complete in pcridotite (qv )
Gabbros have a very large development in the
Adirondacks and in the Lake Superior region
of America and in the Western Isles of Scotland
The word "gabbro" is derived from the Italian
and i& said to have been introduced into geo-
logical science by Von Buch in 1809
G-ABELENTZ, ga'be-lents, HANS CONON VOJST
DER (1807-74) A distinguished German philo-
logist, born at Altenburg He studied at the
universities of Leipzig and Gottmgen (1825-28)
and held various positions in the Government
of Saxe-Altenburg, rising in 1848 to the head
of the ministry He devoted himself to the
study of little-known languages, Asiatic, Afri-
can, and American, and stiove to lay a founda-
tion for the comparative study of all languages
In his woik Ueber das Passivum (1860) he drew
examples from 208 tongues Among his other
works are Elements de }Q> grammaire mandchoue
(1833) , Grund&uge der syrjamschen Orammatik
(1841) , a critical edition of the Gothic transla-
tion of the Bible by Ulftlas, with a Latin tians-
lation and a Gothic glossaiy and grammar (m
collaboration with J Lobe, 2 vols, 1843-46),
Ueber die melanesischen Spracken (2 vols , 1860
and 1873) He was one of the founders of the
Zeitschrvft fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes and
contributed to it and other periodicals many
papers upon little-known languages and general
philological science
GABEIiENTZ, ga'be-lents, HANS GEORG
CONON VON DEE, son of Hans Conon von der
Gabeleiitz (1840-93) A Geiman philologist,
born at Poschwitz, Saxe-Altenburg After study-
ing law in Jena and Leipzig and holding several
state positions, he was appointed in 1878 profea-
sor extraordinary of Oriental languages at the
University of Leipzig and to a similar chair in
the University of Berlin m 1889 Besides nu-
merous contributions to the philological journal
which his father had founded, he translated a
Chinese work on "The Absolute/' entitled Thai-
Ki-T'u, and published (1876) a grammar of the
382
Chinese classical language, dimes isrhc Gram-
matik (1881) , Die 8pv achwissenschaft (1891) ,
and Handbucfa znr Anfnahme pemder Sprachen
(1892)
GABELLE, ga'beF (Fr, probably from AS
gafol, tax, from the Celtic, cf Coin gavel, ten-
ure, Ir , Gael galhail, conquest, from gab, to
give, to take, connected with Goth gilan, Ger
geben, Eng give) A term originally used in
France to designate every kind of indirect tax,
but more especially the tax upon salt This
impost, fhst established in 1286, in the reign of
Philip IV, was only temporary, but was declared
perpetual by Charles V Salt \\as made a gov-
ernment monopoly, and every family in the king-
dom was obliged to buy a certain weekly amount
at a fixed price The price varied in the dif-
ferent provinces Those that were most heavily
taxed were called pays de grande gabelle, and
those that were least heavily taxed, pays de
petite gahelle Les provinces franches and les
pays redim.es were those provinces which had
purchased exemption The tax was unpopular
from the first, and attempts to collect it occa-
sioned frequent disturbances It was finally
suppressed in 1790 The name gabelous is, how-
ever, still given by the common people in France
to tax gatherers
Consult J J Claittageran, Eistoire de I'impdt
en France 1816 (Paris, 1876), and A Gasquet,
Precis des institutions pohtiques de Vancienne
France (2 vols , ib , 18S5)
GABELSBERGEB, ga'bels-berg-er, FBAISTZ
XAVEB (1789-1849) The founder of stenography
in Germany He was born and educated at
Munich and was long engaged as private secre-
tary in the Ministry of the Interior in that city
After publishing various textbooks and charts
for schools, he devoted himself exclusively to
stenography, repeatedly gave public exhibitions
of his proficiency, and ultimately received the
unqualified commendation of the Academy of
Sciences His method is based upon phonetics
The system has been widely adopted in Germany
and has been introduced also into about 25
European languages His principal works are
Anleitung zur deutschen Rede&eichenkunst
(1834, Eng trans, by Henry Richter, under the
title of Graphic Shorthand, 1899), which has
furnished the basis for all further investigations
of the kind in Germany and has passed through
numerous editions, Neue Veti'OULommnungen in
der deutschen RedeschreibeJcunst (2d ed , 1849) ,
Stenographische Lesebibhothek (1838) A mon-
ument was erected to his memory in Munich in
1890
G-AB'EBLTT^ZIE MAN1, THE A Scottish
ballad which belongs to the early sixteenth cen-
tury and lias been ascribed to James V It con-
cerns the fortunes of a wandering beggar
GABE-BTTD See I>IYALA
GABES, ga'bes, or CASES (anciently, Ta-
cape) An important seaport and capital of the
Tunisian Province of Arad, situated on the Gulf
of Gabes, on the eastern coast of Tunis (Map
Africa, F 1) The harbor is too shallow for
larger vessels, but the trade of the port is
nevertheless of considerable importance and con-
sists of dates, henna oil, hides, wool, and alfa
The site of the Roman Tacape, it consists of
several villages and contains an Arabic school,
a French garrison, and is the seat of the Gover-
nor of the province The population was 12,600
m 1896 and has increased to about 20,000.
GABES, GULF OF An open gulf of the
Mediteri anean, on the east coast of Tunis It
is about 70 miles in width and extends between
the islands of Kerkenna and Jerba (Map
Africa, F 1) The town of Gabes is at the head
of the gulf
GABH'KA, BATTLE OF A battle which the
tribe of Fionn waged, about 284 A D , against its
enemies, as recounted by the Irish-Gaelic legends
GABII, gd/bi-i An ancient city of Latium,
12 miles east of Rome It plays an important
part in Roman legend, in particular in the story
of its capture by Tarquinius Superbus (Livy, i,
53-54) After this it is seldom mentioned, and,
though it was latei a municipmm, it gradually
fell into complete decay It again became pros-
perous during the reign of Tiberius, when its
cold sulphur spimgs atti acted attention, and
after the time of Hadrian seems to have flour-
ished until the third century, when its name
disappears except as the seat of a line of bishops
until the ninth century The principal relic
of the ancient city is a ruined temple, prob-
ably dedicated to Juno, on a hill now crowned
by the ruins of the medieeval fortress of Cas-
tiglione Excavations on the site have yielded
many noteworthy works of art, among these are
the "" Artemis of Gabu," now in Munich, and
busts of Agrippa, Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Tra-
jan, and Hadrian Quarries of an excellent
building stone, peperino, which was largely used
by the Romans, existed in the neighborhood of
Gabn The Romans termed a peculiar method
of girding the toga cinctus Gabmus, Gabine
cincture It seems to have differed from the
ordinary method m that instead of the belt
a portion of the toga was itself the girdle, while
another part of the toga was drawn over the
head This mode of wearing the toga was used
on certain solemn occasions, such as the opening
of the Temple of Janus on a declaration of war
and at certain sacrifices , it has been interpreted
as proof of a period of warfare between Rome
and Gabn A treaty of peace between Tar-
quinius Superbus ( q v ) and Gabn, written on a
bull's hide, was said to be extant in the first
century B c
GABI3STE CltfCTTJEE, CINCTTJS GABI-
NTTS See GABII
GABIN'IAN LAW. See GABINIUS, AULUS
GABIEPITJS, AULUS ( '-c 47 B c ) A Roman
politician As tribune of the plebs, 66 B c , he
pioposed and carried the famous Gabmian law,
conferring upon Pompey the command of the
war against the pirates, and control not only of
the Mediterranean but over the adjacent coun-
tries for 50 miles inland Afterward he was
prsetor (61), and became consul in 58, when he
supported the banishment of Cicero At the end
of his consulship he went to Syria as proconsul
( 57 ) and, having invaded Egypt against a decree
of the Senate, restored Ptolemy Auletes to the
Egyptian throne (55) Since, during his ab-
sence in Egypt, Syria had been much disturbed
by robbers, to the financial loss of the equites
(see EQUESTBIATST OBDER), who farmed the reve-
nues there (see PUBLIC ANI ), on his return to
Rome (54) he was accused of treason and ex-
toition He was acquitted of treason, but,
though defended by Cicero, was condemned to
perpetual banishment for extortion He was
recalled by Csesar in 49, and in the next year
was sent to reenforce Q Cormficius in Illyncum,
where he died Consult Stocchi, Aulo G-abimo
e i suoi processi (Torino, 1892).
GA'BIOtf (OF , Fr, gallon, from It. gatowne,
GABIEOL 383
large basket, gabion, augmentative of gabfaa,
gagg^at cage, Fr , Eng cage, from Lat cavea,
hollow place, from cavus, hollow) A device for
strengthening earthworks, m field or temporary
fortifications It may be constructed of what-
ever materials the circumstances afford , but usu-
ally it is a hollow cylinder of basketwork, open
at both ends, m diameter about 24 inches, in
height 3 feet It has the advantage of being
readily portable and capable of many uses
It is used in the construction of revetments,
which are coverings or facings placed upon an
earth slope to enable it to stand at an inclina-
tion greater than its natural inclination The
advantages of the gabion revetment are very
GABOKIAir
GABION
great. It can be put in place without extra
labor and faster and with less exposure than
any other. It is self -supporting and gives cover
from view and partial cover from fire quicker
than, any other form The gabions are filled
with earth after they are placed in the revetment
and may be used in one, two, or three tiers
The gabion is usually woven with small brush
cut in the vicinity Three men. should make a
gabion in an hour See FOBTIFICATION
GABIROL, ga'Be-rol', SALOMON BEN See
AVICEBRON
GABL, ga'b'l, ALOYS (1845-93) An Aus-
trian genre painter, born at Wiesen, Tirol He
was a pupil at the Munich Academy of Schrau-
dolph, TUmberg, and finally of Piloty His
poverty, the result of a disease of the eye, drove
him to suicide at Munich His genre scenes
closely resemble in characterization and humor-
ous conception those of his famous countrymen
Defregger and Matthias Sehmid, hut surpass
them in striking light effects They include
"Recruiting in Tyrol" (1873), "His Excellency
as Umpire" (1876) , "A Munich Tavern3' (1880) ,
"The Story -Teller," "Vaccination Room in
Tyrol" (1885), the last in the New Pinakothek
at Munich, and one of the choice specimens in
that collection, and "Return of the Huntsman"
(1892)
GA'BLE (OF , Fr gaUe, from OHG galala,
gabal, Ger Gab el, fork, AS geafl, fork, from
Ir gabul, goftul, Welsh gafl, Bret gavl, gaol,
fork) The triangular upper part of a wall
which receives the end of a roof having two
slopes or pitches meeting in a ridge at the top
The form appears first in the pediments (qv )
Of Greek temples which, on account of their rich
sculptures, became so important a part of temple
architecture There was greater variety in the
Roman than in the Greek gables, and when,
after the fall of Rome, architecture began to
develop in more northern countries, where the
climate demands steeper roofs than in Italy, the
gable assumed a new importance and received a
\\holly new treatment in the chinches of the
Romanesque style, especially in France The
most notable change next to the steeper pitch
was the complete suppression of the horizontal
cornice of the classic pediment and with it of
figure sculpture In time the gable began to be
used as a termination for buttresses and an
ornament of pinnacles , and in the Gothic styles,
m which buttresses and pinnacles aie so im-
portant, these decorative gables and gaUets (as
the lesser gables are called) became established
ornament forms Gables were multiplied on
tabernacle hoods, spire dormers, and shrines , and
the openwoik or tracer led gable applied over
windows and doors wheie it had no significance
whatever except as pure ornament In the
mediaeval towns of northern and central Europe
the gabled fagades of houses on the street pro-
duce highly picturesque effects In the Gothic
and Renaissance periods the simple outline of
"the gable in Belgium, Holland, and Germany he-
came stepped and broken in the most fantastic
manner, especiallv in Geimany between 1550 and
1650 See COKBIE STEPS
Both 111 Roman and in Renaissance architec-
ture the pediment form of gable occurs fre-
quently aa a decorative adornment over doors,
windows, and niches, and tins has become a
recognized form of treatment for these features
in modern architecture, but the term "gable" is
not commonly applied to them In New York
the "gable walls" of houses built in a block are
the party walls and side walls which receive
the ends of the roof beams, though the loofs are
nearly flat, this is a local usage
GABLEETZ, ga'blents, LUDWIG KAEL Wn>
HELM, BABON (1814-74) An Austrian general
He was born at Jena, S axe-Weimar, entered the
Austrian service in 1833, and fought in Italy and
Hungary m 1848 In the \Vai of 1859 against
Italy he took a distinguished part in the battles
of Magenta and Solfermo, commanded the Aus-
trian army corps in the Austro-Prussian War
against Denmark in 1864 at Trautenau, and won
the only Austrian victory of the War of 1866
against Prussia After Sadowa he became a
member of the Austrian Upper House, was ap-
pointed commanding general in Hungary in 1869,
and retired in 1871 Financial difficulties drove
him to suicide
GABLOITZ, ga'bldnts (Bohemian Jablonee)
A busy manufacturing town of Bohemia, Aus-
tria, situated in a mountainous district about
1650 feet above sea level, on the Neisse, 7 miles
east-southeast of Reichenberg (Map Austria-
Hungary, D 1) It has a gymnasium, a pro-
fessional school for brazieis, and a trade school
Gablonz is one of the centres of the Bohemian
glass industry, which here employs more than
12,000 men Its specialties are glass beads,
buttons, and imitation gems, and glass painting
There are also manufactures of bronzes, cotton
and woolen goods, celluloid ware, machinery,
belts, and colored papers, and printing and
bookbinding establishments The expert firms
number over 100 Mineral baths are found in
the vicinity Pop , 1900, 21,086, 1910,29,605
GABOOH, ga-boon' See GAJSTW
GABOIfclATJ, ga'bd're'o', iBMJDuc (1835-73).
A French novelist who conspicuously made crime
GABRIEL 3
and its detection his subjects He was born at
Saujon, Nov 9, 1835 His first popular writings
were humoious sketches contributed to minor
Parisian journals With little grasp of char-
acter or grace of style, with no true literary
qualities indeed, he achieved a European reputa-
tion as a reviver of the romances of lascahty,
as an inaugurator of the detective story, and as
the creator of the prototype of the modern Sher-
lock Holmes, M Lecoq, m connection with which
he made a careful study of the Paris police sys-
tem of his day. The best of his numerous vol-
umes are L' Affaire Lerouge ( 1866 ) , Le dossier
ATo 113 (1867), Monsieur Lecoq (1869), La
corde au cou (1873), La degnngolade (1876).
Consult M Topm, Romanciers contemporains
(Paris, 1881)
GA'BBXEL (Heb, Man of God) In the
Jewish angelology, one of the seven archangels.
His function seems to be especially to reveal God's
\\ill and purposes He appears in the Book of
Daniel as the interpreter of the prophet's
vision regarding the ram and the he-goat
(vin 16) and as bringing the explanation of
the 70 weeks (ix 21) In the New Testament
he announces to Zacharias the birth of John the
Baptist (Luke i 19) and to Mary the birth of
Christ (Luke i 26) In postbiblical Jewish
literature Gabriel is frequently introduced The
Targum to 2 Chron xxxn 21*says that Gabriel
destioyed the host of Sennacherib. According to
the Talmud it was he who showed Joseph the
\\ay to his brothers (Gen xxxvii 15-17), and he
together with other angels buried the body of
Moses (Deut xxxiv 6) He is the prince of
fire, and the spirit who presides over the thunder
and the ripening of fruits It was he that pre-
vented Vashti from obeying the King (Esther i
12) and rewrote the record of Mordecai's service
in the history after it had been erased Gabriel
has also the reputation among the rabbis of
being a most distinguished linguist, having, e g ,
taught Joseph the 70 languages spoken at Babel
The Mohammedans also hold Gabriel in great
reverence According to the claim of Moham-
med in the Koran, it was he who revealed the
sacred book He is called the spirit of truth
and is regarded as the chief of the four most
favored angels who form the council of God — a
number corresponding to the system in the Book
of Enoch (xl 9)
GABRIEL, BROTHERS OF SAINT (Institut des
Freres de Saint-Gabriel) A religions congrega-
tion or brotherhood in the Roman Catholic
church, founded in 1705 by Blessed Grignon
de Montfort Its purpose is the Christian edu-
cation of the young, the care of institutions
for the deaf and blind and of orphan asylums
The mother house of the community was orig-
inally at Saint-Laurent-sur-Sevre in La Ven-
dee, but after the suppression of the teaching
orders in France in 1905 it was transferred
to Peruwelz in Belgium In 1906 the order
conducted 170 schools or colleges, 8 asylums
for the deaf and dumb, 4 for the blind, be-
sides several homes for orphans The order
was introduced into Canada by the Sulpician
Fathers in 1888, and it conducts establishments
in the dioceses of Montreal, Johette, St Hya-
cinthe, Three Rivers, and also in Burlington,
Vt. Number of professed brothers m Amei-
ica, 90, novices, 25 They take charge of 3 col-
leges, 1 asylum, and 15 elementary schools
GABBIELENO, ga'brg-el-a'nyo, or SA1ST
GABRIEL INDIANS A Shoshonean (qv )
$4 GABBILOVITCH
tribe, formerly occupying all the southern haM
of Los Angeles Co , Cal , and undei the in-
fluence of San Gabnel Mission There were
but 11 survivors 111 1910
GABKIEL HOU3STBS A supernatural pack,
which gives tongue at nxghfc, and thus gives
\\arnmg of approaching solrow A peculiarity
of the phenomenon is that the ciy always seems
to come from the sky instead of fiom the earth
The name is also applied to wild geese, whose
noise when flying suggests that of hounds
GABHIELI, ga'bre-a'le, ANDKEA (c 1510-86)
An Italian organist and composer, born in
Venice He was a pupil m composition of
Adrian YTillaert and became second oigamst of
St Mark's in 1566 In 1574 he \vioto the mu-
sic foi the reception of Heniy III of France,
t\\o cantatas for 8 and 12 voices, lespectively,
punted in 1587 He was famed foi his choial
\ioiks, masses, motets, and raadngals, and was
the first to write a fugue, a fomi hitheito not
attempted by the contrapuntists His best work
is P 'salmi Davidici qui Pcemtcni idles Nuncu-
pantur (1583) A numbei of his woiks were
printed with those of his nephew Giovanni,
such as some organ pieces, Intonasiom d'otqano
(1593, lib i) and Rioetcctfi per Vorgano (1595,
lib 11 and m)
GABBIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612) An
Italian composer, bom in Venice He was the
nephew and pupil of Andiea Gabrich and be-
came the first oigamst at St Maik's (1585)
Pie was the greatest representative of the con-
trapuntal school of the sixteenth centmy and
was considered the peer of Lasso and Pales-
trma, even sui passing the latter master m the
richness of his tone color He was noted as a
teacher and had many scholars from Germany,
wheie his compositions were eaily known arid
appreciated He was one of the first to de-
velop independent instrumental music in choral
works The eaily editions of his works aie
rare, but single pieces are to be found in many
of the sixteenth and seventeenth century col-
lections of music His works are a Benedictus
for 12 voices, Psalmi Pccn^tentiales 6 Vocum
(1583) , Madngah a 6 voct, o istiomenti (1585) ,
Madtigah e rice1) can a f/ voci (1587) , EcolG-
siasticce Cantwnes 4—6 Vocum (1589), Sacrce
Symphonies, for 6-16 voices or instruments
(1597), another book for 6-19 voices (1615),
Canzone e sonate a 3-32 voci (1615) Consult
Winterfeld, Johann Q-abywli und sein Zeitalter
(Berlin, 1834)
GABBIEL'S IWSTTBBECTIOlSr In Ameri-
can history, an insurrection of negro slaves in
the vicinity of Richmond, Va , in August, 1800,
organized by a young slave named Gabriel, for
the purpose of murdering the whites The plot
was discovered, Governor Monroe ordeied out
the militia, and many of the blacks were cap-
tured and executed
GABRILOVITCH, ga - bre'ld - vich, OSSIP
(1878- ) A Russian pianist and conductor.
He was born at St Peteisburg and when still
a child entered the conservatory there He be-
came one of Rubinstein's favorite pupils and,
after winning the Rubinstein prize in 1894,
continued his studies with Leschetizky in
Vienna Two years later he made his debut
at Berlin and thereafter gave concerts in Rus-
sia, England, Austria, Sweden, and the United
States His first appearance in the United States
was in 1900, and then, as upon his subsequent
visits, ae received an enthusiastic welcome. In
GABTJIsr
385
GADABA
1909 lie married Clara Clemens, the daughter
of Mark Twain He is an exceedingly virile
and sympathetic player
GrABUW, or GABOOK", ga-boon' A river, or
more pioperly an estuaiy, on the west coast
of French Equatorial Africa (qv ), just north
of the equator, about 40 miles long and about
10 miles wide (Map Congo Free State, A 2)
It admits of the entrance of deep-draft vessels
and formerly gave its name to the entire col-
ony of French Equatorial Africa It receives the
waters of the Como and some minor tributaries
GACHARD, ga'shar', Louis PROSPER (1800-
85) A Belgian archivist and historian. He
was born in Pans, removed to Belgium in 1830,
and became a Belgian subject in 1831 In the
same yeai he was made keeper of the public
records He was a member of the Belgian
Academy, secretaiy of tlie Royal Historical
Institution, and president of the Heraldic Bu-
reau Gachaid traveled extensively in search
of documents bearing on Belgian history and
published many authoritative works based on
his researches. His principal writings are
Coiretpondance de Ouillaume le Taciturne
(1847-58) , Correspondence de Philippe II sur
les affaires des Pays-Bos (1848-59), Retraite
et mort de Charles-Qmnt (1854), Relation des
troubles de Gand sous Charles-Quint (1856),
Don Carlos et Philippe II (1867) , Actes des
Etats-generauso des Pays-Has (1866) , Histoire
pohtique et diplomatique de Pierre-Paul Ru-
bens (1877).
GAD According to the biblical account, a
son of Jacob and his concubine Zilpah (Gen
xxx 11), the eponymous ancestor of the tribe
of Gad This tribe was promised land on the
eastern side of the Jordan on condition that
they should help the other tribes to conquer
the territory west of the river (Num xxxn)
This condition they fulfilled (Josh i. 12-18, iv
12) and then settled in their own territory
(Josh xn 1-9) It may be concluded from this
tradition that Gad was a warlike tribe (see
1 Chron xn 8) and secured its east-Jordamc
settlement through conquest. The territories
of the tribe are ill defined They lay between
the settlements of Reuben on the south and
those of Manasseh on the north, but there is
a confusion in the biblical accounts, making it
hard to determine the boundaries of the three
tribes east of the Jordan There is no litera-
ture preserved which originated in this region.
When the kingdom was divided in the days of
Rehoboam, Gad joined Jeroboam and the north-
ern kingdom (1 Kings xii 20) The tribe was
taken captive to Assyria by Tiglath-pileser IV
(734 BC ) and is heard of no more The name
"Gad," like that given to his brother Asher,
may have been originally the designation of a
deity of good fortune, worshiped in various
parts of Palestine The fact that a Hebrew clan
settled in the district which is embraced under
the term "Gilead" in the broader sense is con-
sidered as pointing to the cult of this deity as
the patron of the clan, whose connection with
the other Hebrew tribes was never very close.
The district contained, however, a number of
ancient sanctuaries, such as Penuel and Suc-
coth, which must at one time have been places
to which pilgrimages were made See ASHEK,
GILEAD
GADAMES, ga-da'mSs, GHADAMES, or
BHADA3VCES, ra-da'mes. An oasis and town
in the Italian Colony of Libya, North Africa*
the centie of divergent loutes to Tunis, Tupoh,
Ghat, and Tidikelt, on the northern border of
the Sahara, 310 miles southwest of Tripoli, and
near the Algerian frontier (Map Africa, E
2). Gadames is an important entrep6t for
manufactures and foreign goods fiom Tripoli
to the interior and for exports of ivory, bees-
wax, hides, ostrich feathers, gold, etc, from
the interior The oasis contains 63,000 date
palms, the produce of which is a source of
considerable wealth to the town Its gar-
dens produce barley, wheat, millet, etc, and
are watered by the hot spring (89° F ) from
which the town had its origin The climate
is dry and healthful, though very hot in sum-
mer. A wall surrounds the oasis "and town, and
the streets aie covered over for protection from
the rain and sand storms Gadames has six
mosques, seven schools, and two Roman Catho-
lic churches Pop , about 7500
The town is the modern i epresentative of the
ancient city of Cydamus, a stronghold of the
Gaiamantes, the cap tin e of which by L Corne-
lius Balbus gave the Romans a great part of the
wilderness. The toun constitutes an ethnic
menagerie The inhabitants, living in well-
guarded mclosures, include Berbers, Arabs, the
Atmya, or negro freedmen, and emancipated
half-castes, each group speaking its own lan-
guage and also Berber as a common medium of
intercourse. They are called "born traders "
Consult Keane, in Stanford's Africat vol i (Lon-
don, 1907), for list of explorers and political
history
GAD'ARA The modern Umm Keis, or Mkes,
once a prominent city of Palestine, now in ruins
It was on the western extremity of a ridge of
the Bashan plateau, 6% miles east of the Jor-
dan, and 6 miles southeast of the Sea of Gali-
lee The site, 1104 feet above sea level, com-
mands a magnificent view of the Jordan valley
At the foot of the ridge, 3 miles to the north,
Hows the Sheriat el-Menadireh, the ancient Jar-
mule, or Hieromax
Gadara is first mentioned in the history of
the Greek period Josephus' statement that it
was a Greek city implies that it was one of
the many places in Palestine occupied by
Greeks after Alexander's conquest (See DE-
CAPOLIS , PALESTINE ) Polybius states (v, 71 ,
xvi, 39) that it was twice taken by Antiochus
III of Syria, m 218 BC, and again in 198 BC,
in his wars with Egypt for the possession of
Palestine It remained nominally subject to
Syria until about 100 BC, when with other
Greek cities east of the Jordan it was taken,
after a 10 months' siege, lay the Jewish King,
Alexander Jannaeus, and partially destroyed
When Pompey reduced Syua to a Roman prov-
ince ( 65-63 B c ) , he rebuilt Gadara, as a favor
to his freedman Demetiius, a Gadarene The re-
stored city was thencef 01 ward the fast friend
of Rome On its coins it made use of the Pom-
peian era in commemoration of Pompey's kind-
ness Augustus, after the battle of Actium, gave
Gadara to Herod the Great, much against the
wishes of its citizens Foi its loyalty to Rome
it suffered greatly at the hands of the revolted
Jews in the war of 66-70 AD At the request
of its wealthy citizens Vespasian gave it a
body of troops for protection against the Jews
From notices in ecclesiastical history it appears
that it continued to flouush until the Moham-
medan conquest
The situation of Gadara was favorable for
GADDI
386
GADFLY
commerce, and it was a prosperous city, called
by Josephus the metropolis of Perea It was
one of the important members of the Decapohs
(qv ) and a centre of G-ieek culture Meleager
tne poet, Theodoius the orator, Philodemus the
Epicurean, Menippus the cynic, and others
prominent in postclassical literature were Gad-
arenes Its ruins are extensive and magnifi-
cent It had two theatres, and the remains of
the colonnade that once lined the main street
are among the most remarkable in Palestine.
Its water was supplied by an aqueduct fiom the
Batanean hills, over 40 miles distant The an-
cient cemetery east of the city is noted for the
construction of its tombs, each with several
separate chambers with doors swinging on stone
hinges The present inhabitants live in these
tombs In Roman times the city was famous
for its warm springs They are in the river
valley, mainly on the noith bank. About them
quite a suburb grew up, Amatha by name, and
extensive ruins of baths and other buildings
of the once famous resort are now found there.
The springs are still frequented by Bedouin, who
consider the place neutral ground Probably
Gadara has no connection with biblical history.
See GERASENES, COUNTRY OF THE
GADDI, gad'de A family of Florentine
painters The founder ^as GADDO GAPDI
(c.l260-c!333) He is supposed to have been
associated with Cimabue and learned mosaic
work from Andrea Tafi Modem authorities
attribute to him tlie mosaics in the poitico of
Santa Maria Maggiore, Home, illustrating the
legend of the foundation o± the church, which
so closely resemble the frescoes on the ceiling
nearest the portal in the Upper Church at As-
sisi that they are considered by Crowe and
Cavalcaselle to be by the same hand Vasari
attributes to him the mosaics of the "Corona-
tion of the Virgin" over the door of the cathe-
dral of Florence, the "Assumption" in the
cathedral of Pisa, and part of the mosaics in
the dome of the Florentine baptistery, but there
is no further basis for these attributions — His
son, TADDEO GADDI (c 1300-66), was a pupil of
his godfather, Giotto, to whom, it is said, he was
assistant for 24 years, and was preeminently
the most talented of his followers, but merely
developed Giotto's style, which he transmitted
to his son and followers His work is inferior
in character and expression to Giotto's, being
superficial in content, though animated, often
vehement, in action, and bright in color His
masterpiece is the "History of the Virgin,"
in a series of frescoes in the Baroncelli Chapel
at Santa Croce, Florence (1332-38) Signed
altarpieces by him are at Berlin (1334) and in
the Academy of Siena (1355), the latter painted
originally for the sacristy of San Pietro at
Megognano, near Poggibonsi The "History of
Christ** and that of St Francis, formerly on
the presses in the sacristy of Santa Croce, and
now divided between the Florence Academy and
the Berlin Gallery, and an altarpiece in the
Naples Museum dated 1336, are attributed to
him, as are also frescoes in the chapel of San
Fiancesco, Pisa, and the "Last Supper" in the
great refectory of Santa Croce In the Brook-
lyn Museum is a predella with scenes from the
Life of St Laurence. As an architect he is
reputed, mainly on Vasan's authority, to
have continued Giotto's work on the Cam-
panile at Florence and to have built the Ponte
Vecchio, The frescoes of the Cappella degh
Spagnuoh, in the cloisters of Santa Mana No-
vella, are also attributed to him by Vasari
Many of his numerous woiks have pen shed —
His son, AGNOLO GADDI (c 1333-96), who be-
came, after his father's death, the pupil of Gio-
vanni da Milano, continued the artistic tradi-
tions of the family. One of his best works was
the series of frescoes on the "Legend of the Vir-
gin's Girdle" in the cathedral of Prato, which
illustrate the lighter, more picturesque and
genre-like style which he affected, preparing the
way for Masohno (qv ) and other early Quatro-
centists His ability as a decorator and com-
poser is even better illustrated by the series of
the "Histoiy of the Finding of the Cross" in
the choir of Santa Croce at Florence, with nu-
merous realistic details, which are further im-
portant as having inspired Piero della Fran-
cesca in his Are/zo fiescoes. His flguies are
dignified, his color bright and clear, and the
decorative effect is good, but the design is poor
Consult Vasari, Lives of the Most Eminent
Pamteis, Sculptors, and Architects (10 vols,
New York, 1912), and Crowe and Cavalcaselle,
Histoiy of Painting in Italy, vol i (London,
1903)
GADE, ga'de, NIELS WILHELM (1817-90).
A distinguished Danish musician and composer,
and the foremost representative of the Roman-
ticists of the Scandinavian school of music He
was born at Copenhagen, the only child of a
cabinet and instrument maker, whose trade the
son was required to adopt Within a few
months, however, the boy abandoned it and
made known his determination of becoming a
musician A course of study under the leader
of the court orchestra, Wexschall, and the prac-
tice and expei lence gained by his membership
in the organization, enabled him at the age of
16 to make his debut as a concert violinist He
also studied theory under Berggreen, a well-
known organist, and became a devoted student
of the classics and a disciple of the new Eo-
mantic school of music In 1841 he won the
prize offered by the Copenhagen Musical Asso-
ciation, submitting to the arbitei s his first great
composition, Nachklange aus Ossian Aided by
the King, he was enabled m 1843 to go to Leip-
2ig to complete his studies and in 1844 under-
took, in the absence of Mendelssohn, the di-
rection of the Gewandhaus concerts, becoming
peimanent conductor upon the latter's death in
1847. In 1850 he settled in Copenhagen, where
he became organist, directoi of music, and mas-
ter of the Chapel Royal He was elected one
of the foreign members of the Berlin Academy
of Arts, in 1874, and in 1876 the Banish Folke-
thing voted life pensions of 3000 crowns to the
two most eminent musical composers, selecting
Gade as one In addition to his prize compo-
sitions, he composed eight symphonies, five
overtures, two suites, a quintet, an octet, and
several vocal pieces, with orchestra, among
them the well-known Erl King's DaugJiter, The
Springtide Phantasy, The (Jiusaders, and many
smaller compositions He died at Copenhagen
Consult D Gade, Niels W Gade (Basel,
1894)
GADES, ga'dez See CADIZ
GADFLY, or HORSE FLY. A fly of the
family Tabanidae, distinguished from other two-
winged flies by having the last segment of the
short antennae ringed and not terminating in a
bristle The proboscis js fleshy and envelops
pointed horny processes by means of which
387
tite skin is punctured The head is broad and
short and the eyes are huge About 1300 species
are named All are poueiful fliers, and the
females suck the blood of quadi upeds and man,
although they, like the nules, can also live on
the sweets of plants As an extreme adapta-
tion, the genus Pangonia of India and Nubia is
remarkable, for the proboscis of the female is
in some species three or foui times as long as
the body and is stiff and needle-like, so that it
can easily pierce tliick clothing The larvae of
the Tabamdse are some of them aquatic, otheis
live in the earth, others in decaying wood
Like the adults, they are predacious, sucking
the juices of insect larvse, of woims, and of
snails The pupa looks much like the chrysalis
of a butterfly
The common representatives of the Tabanidae
may be uniform black, with a bluish tinge, as
in the case of the large mourning horse fly
(Tabanus atratus) , or of medium size, with
green heads or golden eyes, the latter aie also
known as deer flies To protect horses driven
over infested roads — such as those passing
through pine woods — netting should be used
An application of fish, oil and caibolic acid to
points not easily reached by the tail is recom-
mended Consult, in addition to works men-
tioned under FLY Osten-Sacken, "Prodrome of
a Monograph of the Tabanidae of the United
States," in Memoirs of the Boston Society of
Natural History, vol 11 (Boston, 1875-78),
Wilhston, "Notes and Descriptions of the
North American Tabanidae/' in Transactions of
the Kansas Academy of Science, vol x (Law-
rence, 1888), id, Manual of 'North American
Diptera (3d ed , New Haven, 1908)
G-AD'ID JB ( Neo-Lat nom pi , f i oin Neo-Lat
gadus, cod, from Gk "ydSos, gados, sort of fish).
A family of soft-rayed fishes of north tempei-
ate and Arctic waters, including about 25 gen-
era and 140 species Except one genus (Lota),
all are marine, and among them, are many of
our most important food fishes, such as the
common cod, pollack, haddock, etc See COD,
FISHEBIES
GADOLrKT, ga'd6-len, JOEAKT (1760-1852).
A Swedish chemist He was professor of chem-
istry at the University of Abo, Finland His
writings include Einige Bemerhungen uber die
Natur des Phlogiston (1788) and Sy sterna Fos-
siliuni, Analysibus Chemicis Eccaminatorum
(1825) The mineral gadohnite was named af-
ter him
GAD'OLINITE ( so called in honor of J Ga-
dolin) An orthosilicate containing glucmum,
iron, yttrium, besides varying amounts of di-
dymium, lanthanum, and other oxides It crys-
tallizes in the monoclmic system, and is dark
green, brown, or black in color This mineral
occurs clnefly in coarse pegmatitic veins asso-
ciated with allanite It is found near Falun
and Ytterby, Sweden, and also on the island
of Hittero, Norway The principal locality in
the United States is Bluffton, Llano Co, Tex.
Special interest attaches to gadolimte, owing to
the rare metals which it contains Velvety
black, opaque gems have been cut from this
mineral, but for collectorfa' use only.
GADOLINIUM A metallic chemical ele-
ment, first detected by Marignac in 1880, but
distinctly recognized as a new element and
named gadolinium by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in
1889 In 1896 Demare.ay devised a method for
preparing gadolinium, or rather its oxide, in a
state of considerable puuty, and since then
gadolinium has been recognized as a well-defined
element In 1890 Lecoq de Boisbaudran showed
that, while gadolinium gives no phosphorescence
spectrum, it does give a beautiful spark spec-
tium Gadolinium (symbol, Gd, atomic weight,
1573) foims an oxide of the formula Gd2Oj>
readily soluble in acids and absorbing car-
bon dioxide from the air Among the salts
of gadolinium, all of which are colorless, de-
seive mention the chloride, GdCl3 6H20, the
sulphate, Gd>(S04),8H2Q, and the nitrate,
Gd(N03),6H,6 or Gd(NOs)i5HjO
GADOW, "ga'do, HANS FRIEDKICH (1855-
) A Gei man-English naturalist, born in
Pomerania. He studied at Berlin, Jena, and
Heidelberg, in the last place under Gegenbaur
From 1880 to 1882 he was m the Natural His-
tory Department of the British Museum, and
after 1884 he served as Strickland curator and
lecturer on zoology at Cambridge University,
England He published A Classification of Ver-
tebrates (1898) , "Aves," in Bronn's Classen und
Oidnungen, des Tlnet reichs f Amphibia and Rep-
tiles (1901), and Through Southern Mexico
(1908) , besides collaborating with Newton in
his Dictionary of Birds (1893-96), and contrib-
uting extensively to the literature of investi-
gation in zoology
GrADSBYS, THE STOEY OF THE A story by
Rudyard Kipling, published in London in
1890.
GKADS'DEIT. A city and the county seat of
Etowah Co, Ala, 56 miles by rail northeast
of Birmingham, on the Coosa River, and on the
Chattanooga Southern, the Louisville and
Nashville, the Southern, and the Nashville,
Chattanooga, and St Louis railroads (Map
Alabama, C 2) It is in a productive timber
and mineral region and has extensive trade m-
teiests, also a large steel mill, lumber mills,
blast fuinaces, fotmdiies and machine shops,
car works and mauf acton es of handles, sashes,
doors, and blinds, flour, wagons, etc The city
contains a marble post office and fine school
buildings. Settled about 1845, Gadsden was
incorporated in 1867. The government is admin-
istered by a mayor and a municipal council,
elected on a general ticket The water works are
owned by the city Pop, 1900, 4282, 1910, 10,-
557, 19H (U S est), 13,326, 1920, 14,737.
GADSDE3ST, CHKISIOPIIER (1724-1805). An
American patriot, born in Charleston, S C He
was sent to England by his father, a wealthy
mei chant, to be educated, and returned to
Charleston in 1741 For some time he? was em-
ployed in a counting house in Philadelphia,
where later he embarked in a business of his
own Returning to South Carolina, he was
repeatedly a member of the provincial legisla-
ture, and in 1762 his election was declared void
by Governor Boone — which turned him against
the crown. In 1765 he ^as elected a delegate
to the Intercolonial Convention held in New
York City to protest against the Stamp Act
He was a member of the first Continental Con-
gress (1774-76) and urged an immediate attack
on General Gage before he could be reenforced
After the outbreak of the Revolution, he became
colonel of the First South Carolina Regiment,
and took part in the campaigns in the South
and in the defense of Charleston m 1776, being
promoted brigadier general in tne fall of that
year In 1778 he was a member of the State
Constitutional Convention of South Carolina;
GADSDEN
388
GK3SA
and he quarreled and fought a duel (firing in
the air) with Gen Robert Howe, commanding
the patriot troops in South Carolina As
Lieutenant Governor of the State, he signed the
capitulation of Charleston when that city fell
into tlie hands of Sir Henry Clinton, in May,
1780 He himself was released on parole, but
a few weeks later was arrested by order of
Lord Cornwallis and conveyed to Fort Augus-
tine, where he remained a prisoner for 10
months, refusing to accept freedom on parole.
He was finally exchanged, before the close of
hostilities, in 1781 In 1782 he was elected
Governor of South Carolina, but refused to ac-
cept the office, pleading that he was too old.
In 1788 he was a member of the South Caro-
lina Convention which latified the Federal Con-
stitution, and in 1790 of that which drafted
the new State constitution Josiah Quincy hit
him off well, calling him "plain, blunt, hot, and
incorrect, though very sensible " He styled
himself "Don Quixote Secundus " Consult Ren-
ick in Publications of Southern History Asso-
ciation (July, 1898), and McCrady, South
Carolina, in the Revolution, passim (New York,
1899-1902)
OADSDKN", JAMES (1788-1858) An Ameri-
can soldier and diplomatist, born in Chaileston,
S C He graduated at Yale in 1806 and en-
tered the United States army soon afteiward
He served with marked efficiency in the War
of 1812, was appointed aid-de-eamp to General
Jackson m 1818, participated in the Semmole
War, was appointed military inspector of the
Southern Division in 1820, and conducted the
removal of the Semmole Indians to the south-
ern part of Florida. In 1S53-54 he was United
States Minister to Mexico and in December,
1853, concluded the treaty which provided for
the readjustment of the boundary between the
two countries, and the acquisition by the United
States of the tract of land subsequently known
as the Gadsden Purchase (qv )
GADSI>E:N- PTJRCHASE, THE. A tract of
land lying partly within the present New Mex-
ico and partly within the present Arizona, pur-
chased from Mexico by the United States in
1854 It embraces 45,535 square miles, is
bounded on the north by the Gila River, on the
east by the Rio Grande, and on the west by the
Colorado, and has an extreme breadth from
north, to south of 120 miles For this the
United States gave the sum of $10,000,000,
while Mexico, besides making the cession, agreed
(1) to the abrogation of the eleventh aiticle of
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (qv ), and
(2) to the abandonment of all damage claims
arising from Indian mcuisions between 1848
and 1853 The land was regarded as of little
use for agricultural purposes and was purchased
largely with a view to settling boundary dis-
putes in that quarter between the two gov-
ernments and to securing a desirable route for
the projected Southern Pacific Railroad The
treaty of sale was negotiated with Santa Anna
by James Gadsden ( q.v ) , then Minister to
Mexico, in December, 1853, and, after under-
going modifications in the United States Senate,
was finally ratified and proclaimed on June 30,
1854, Congress passing the necessary legisla-
tion on August 5 The sale met with much
opposition in Mexico and caused the banishment
of Santa Anna in 1855. For the text of the
treaty, consult Haswell, Treaties and Conven-
tions (Washington, 1889; See the map in the
article UNITED STATES, EXTENSION OF THE TEE-
LUTORY OF THE
GADS'HILL A hill, 256 feet high, in the
County of Kent, England, 2^ miles northwest
of Rochester, on the London Road, celebrated
by Chaucer, famous as the scene of Falstaff's
encounter with Prince Henry, and noted as the
home of Charles Dickens
GADSXI, gad'ske (TATJSCHEB), JOHANNA
(1871- ) A German dramatic sopiano, born
at Anclam, Prussia She was educated at Stet-
tin and made her operatic debut in Berlin in
1889 In 1895 she sang the principal Wag-
nenan rGles, alternating with Madame Klafsky,
in Mr Damrosch'a German company, and im-
mediately won great success In 1898 she be-
came a member of the Metropolitan Opera Com-
pany, New York, where she was thereafter one
of the chief attractions She also sang at Covent
Garden and Bayreuth In 1892 she married H.
Tauscher, an officer in the Austrian army Her
commanding presence, hei beautiful and pow-
erful voice, and hei dramatic intensity make
hei one of the gieatest mteipreteis of Wagner's
heroines.
GAD'WALL (of doubtful etymology, hardly
from gad, to lun about + uell, as the variant
spelling gadioell, influenced by popular etymol-
ogy, implies), or GRAY DUCK A fresh-water
duck (Chaulelasmus strepems) , not quite so
BILL OF GADWALL
large as the mallard, nor often seen in the east-
ern United States, but common in the interior
and in Florida It breeds from Kansas north-
ward and during the summer is cucumpolar in
its distribution In the winter it migrates as
far south as the Gulf of Mexico, southern Asia,
and the north of Africa Tn color the gadwall
is chiefly black and white, with some blown,
buff, and chestnut This duck breeds in maishes
and lays from seven to nine cream-white eggs
Except at the breeding season, it is usually
seen in small flocks, and an individual is some-
times to be found in a flock of other ducks
It is a favorite game duck and highly esteemed
for the table
GrJE'A (Lat, from Gk Tata, Qam), or GE
The earth, honored among the Greeks as a god
dess, though her personality is never very
sharply defined The theogonies of the mythol-
ogists, though differing in details, represent
her as the first-born of Chaos, and by Uranus
(qv ), the mother of the Titans (qv ), Cyclopes
(qv ), and the hundred-handed monsters (See
BEIAEEUS ) Angered at Uranus' treatment of
his children, she helped Cronus mutilate his
father When Cronus in his turn was deposed
by Zeus, Gaea, angry at the fate of her children,
the Titans, produced the Giants, who warred
against the gods, after their overthrow she
produced the monster Typbceus When he was
conquered by Zeus, Gsea became reconciled to
GAEDEUTZ
389
GAETA
the new dynasty In jix.coida.ncc with the vaiy-
ing points of view horn which the earth, was
regarded, we find Gaea icverenced not merely
as the universal mothei, but as a goddess of
death and the shades (within the earth was the
abode of the dead), and as an oracular divinity,
though JEgse in Achaea, seems to have been the
only place wheie an oracle of Ga^a existed in
historic times In art Gjea appears chiefly in
connection with the birth, of Eiichthomus (see
EBECHTHETJS) and the Gigantoinachia , in both
scenes she appears as rising out of the earth,
only the upper part of the body being visible
GAEDEUTZ, ged'erts, KARL THEODOB ( 1855-
1911) A German dialect poet and historian of
literature He was born at Lubeck, and was
educated at Leipzig and Beilm His extensive
knowledge of cameiahstics, law, philology, and
Germanic hteiatuie secured for him an ap-
pointment, m 1880, in the Royal Libraiy in
Berlin, and in 1903 he became chief librarian
at Greifswald His publications include a num-
ber of valuable monographs on Geiman poets,
especially Fritz Reuter ( q v ) , and on the his-
tory of the Low-German drama, among his best
productions in this field being the following
Ooethes Minchen (1887) , Aus Fnte Reuters
jungen und alien Tagen (1897-1901), Emanuel
0-eibel Em deutsches Divhterleben (1897),
Bismarck und Reuter (1898), Bei Goethe &u
ttaste (1900) , Silhouetten $u F Reut&rs
Stromfod (1903), Im Reiche Reuters (1905)
His original productions in Plattdeutsch com-
prise a, comedy, Etne Komodie (2d ed , 1881),
and a collection of poems, Julllapp f Leeder un
Lauwhcn (3d ed , 1899)
GAEKWAB See GAIKWAR
GAELIC (gcVlik) LANGUAGE AND LIT-
ERATURE. See BRETON LANGUAGE AND LIT-
ERATURE, CELTIC) LANGUAGES, IRISH GAELIC
LITERATURE, SCOTTISH GAELIC LITERATURE
GAELIC LEAGUE An oiganization de-
voted to the pieservation, cultivation, and ex-
tension of the Gaelic language, particulaily in
Ireland Fiona the time of the Statute of Kil-
kenny in 1367, when laws were enacted for-
bidding the use of the Irish language, dress, or
surnames within the limits of the Pale, on pen-
alty of death or confiscation, every effort had
been made by the English government to crush
out or discourage the native language, and on
the establishment of the so-called national
schools m 1833, the instruction in which was
m the English language, the Gaelic language,
even then spoken by a majority of the Irish
peasantiy, received its most decisive blow
Through the efforts of the Society for the Pres-
ervation of the Irish Language, about 23 years
ago, some partial concessions were obtained for
the language m the schools, but with little
practical result, owing to the indifference of
the local authorities Matters were apparently
at their lowest mark m all things national
when, in 1893, the Gaelic League was organ-
ized, chiefly through the effort of Douglass Hyde
(qv ) and Father O'Growney (qv), the two
most accomplished Gaelic scholars in Ireland
An active educational campaign was at once
begun throughout the country, resulting in the
establishment of branches of the league in
every important centre In 1898 the movement
spread to America Gaelic is now taught in a
laro-e number of national schools and in nearly
all the Catholic church parish schools in Ire-
land, the last report showing about 3500 stu-
dents of Gaelic in. Dublin alone Trinity Col-
lege, Dublin, and the Roman Catholic Seminary
of Maynooth maintain Gaelic chairs, and a re-
vival in Gaelic literature has since developed,
including a revival of Gaelic music and the
diama In the United States and Canada theie
were in 1902 about 40 branches of the league,
each of which conducted classes for the study
of the language, besides rendering efficient help
to the Irish organisation Gaelic or Celtic chaiis
are also established at Harvard Univeisitv, the
Catholic University of Ameiica, Washington,
and at Notie Dame University, Indiana. Sub-
stantial aid has been rendered by the Hibernian
Older, which endowed the Washington chair, and
has regularly contributed to the work in Ireland
A similar movement has been inauguiated for
Scotland and the Isle of Man by a Pan-Celtic
organization which includes Wales, Brittany,
and Cornwall m its scope of opeiations
GAETA? ga-3/ta (ancient Portus Caietae]
An episcopal city and seaport, and one of the
strongest fortresses in Italy, in the Piovmce of
Caserta, on the Gulf of Gaeta, 74 miles by a
winding railway northwest of Naples (Map
Italy, D 4) To the northwest is the subuib of
Elena The promontory of Gaeta, on which it
is situated, looks fiom the distance like a tu-
mulus and according to tradition was the tomb
of Caieta, the nurse of ./Eneas (consult
Vergil, Jfflneid, vn, 1 ff ) hence the ancient
name of the city, Portus Caietse The promon-
tory is crooned by the Tone d'Oilando, 01 tomb
of 'Munatms Plancus, the friend of Augustus
It is 160 feet in height and 160 feet in diameter
and resembles the much smaller tomb of Caeciha
Metella at Rome The tomb is now used as a
naval signal station and is inclosed within the
modern fortifications On the rocks below is the
town, in a beautiful setting of country houses
and orange groves, while the Toire Angiovma in
the citadel affords a splendid prospect of coast
and sea Objects of interest aie the campanile
of the twelfth -century cathedral of St Erasmus,
with a banner presented to Don John of Austria
by Pope Pius V, and the remains of a Roman
amphitheatre, a Roman theatre, and a column
inscribed with the names of the 12 winds Along
the coast, too, are many remains of Roman villas,
some of which were built well out into the sea
Gaeta is a centre of the coasting trade and
markets fish, oil, wine, and fruit, it also manu-
factures rope It is the seat of an archbishop
and has a seminary and a nautical institute
It was originally a Greek colony and in ancient
times had many magnificent public buildings
Like Amalfi and Naples, it resisted the barbarian
invaders and, becoming part of the Byzantine
Empire — and later independent — was also a
stronghold of civilization against the Lombards
and the Saracens In 1134, however, it fell be-
fore Roger II and was annexed to the Norman
Kingdom of Sicily During the centimes that
followed it was under various masters In 1806
it was defended for six months against Massena
by Prince Ludwig von Hessen-Philippsthal, who
is buried in the citadel It was the refuge of
Pius IX (qv) from 1848, when he fled from
Rome, until 1850 Prom November, I860, until
Feb 13, 1861, Fiancis II of Naples, the last of
the Bourbon kings, was besieged here by the
forces of Victor Emmanuel under Garibaldi, and
compelled to surrender Pop (commune), 1901
5528, 1911, 534:4 Consult Merores, G-cwta IOT
fruhen Mrttelalter (Gotha, 1911).
GAETA
GAETA, DUKE OF Sec CUXDINI, E
G-2ETTr'LIA (Lat, from Gk. TatrouXio
toulia) In ancient times, the name given to a
region in northern Africa lying south of Mauri-
tania and Numidia and embracing the western
part of the Desert of Sahara Its inhabitants
belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family
of north and northwestern Afiica They were
not in general black, though a portion of them
dwelling in the extreme south towards the Niger
had approximated to this color through inter -
mixtuie with the natives and through climatic
causes The Gsetuhans were savage and warlike,
and skilled in the raising of hoises They came
into collision with the Romans foi the fiist
time during the Jugurthine War, when they
served as light hoise in the army of the Numid-
lan King. Coinehus Cossus Lentulus led a
force against them and for his success received
a, triumph and the surname of Gsetuhcus
(6 AD). Later Gsetulians seived as auxiliary
troops of the Romans. They have been identi-
fied with the Tuaregs, the Gutzula of southern
Morocco, the Godola of the coast, the Ghedala
of northwestern Sudan, and the Gseshtulas in
Algeria
GAFF (from OF. gaffe, hook, from Ir gaf,
hook) A spar, to which the head, 01 upper
edge, of a fore and aft sail is bent The end
next the mast is called the jans,, to form them
two pieces of wood aie bolted to the end of the
gaff and the forward side of them cut out in the
form of a semicircle so as to fit against the
mast, to which it is held by a rope extending
around it from jaw to jaw The after end of
the gaff is called the peak, because it nsually
stands much higher than the jaws when the sail
is set On board sloops and schooners gaffs are
hoisted and lowered by ropes called halyards —
those near the peak being the peak halyat dsy and
those at the throat, near the jaws, being the
throat halyards In square-rigged ships the
spanker and trysail* are the only ones having
gaffs. These gaffs do not ordinarily hoist or
lower and instead of jaws have eyebolts holding
the forward end to the mast or to a traveler
working on a batten on the mast; the latter
method is best, as it permits the gaif to be
lowered when the sail is reefed In furling,
these sails are drawn in to the mast and up to
the gaff by ropes called brails.
GAFFAHEL, ga'fa'rel', PAUL (Louis
JACQUES) (1843- ) A French historian,
born at Moulms and educated at the Ecole Nor-
male Superieure He held the chair of history
at BesanQon and then that of history in the
faculty of letters at Dijon and at Marseilles
His contributions to colonial history are par-
ticularly valuable His more important works
include. Etude sur les rapports de I'Amerique
et de I'ancien continent avant Christophe Golomb
(1869) , Histoire de la Flonde frangaise (1875) ,
Histoire du Bresil frangais ( 1878 ) , Les colonies
foancaises (1880), L'Algerie histoire, conquSte
et colonisation (1882) ; Les explorations fran-
$aises de 1870 d 1881 ( 1882 ) , Les campagnes de
la premiere R&publique (1883) , La conqudte de
VAlgerie jusqu'a la prise de Gonstantine (1887) ,
Les Ftancais au dela des mets Les deoouvreurs
frangais dv XI"V&me au XVIeme sie,cley Ootes de
&uinee, du Bresil et de I'Amerique du Word
(1888) , Campagnes du Consulal et de V Empire
(1888) , Campagnes du premier Empire (1890) ,
Le Senegal et le Soudan frangais (1890) , His-
tovre de la decouverte de VAmenque (2 vols,
>0 GAGE
1892) , La pohtique colonials en France de 17S9
a 1830 (1908)
GAFEKY, gaf'ke, GEORG THEODOR AUGTJ&T
(1850- ) A German physician, born at
Hanover and educated at Berlin In 18SS he was
appointed professor of hygiene at the Univeisity
of G-eissen As a member of the Imperial Bu-
reau of Sanitation, m 1883-84 he accompanied
the expedition sent out, under the auspices of
Robert Koch, the celebrated bacteriologist, to
investigate the conditions attending the epidem-
ics of cholera in Egypt and India In this
capacity he was enabled to accumulate the val-
uable material embodied in the report subse-
quently published in three volumes in collabo-
latWwith Dr Koch (1887) He was adviser
to the Hamburg municipality during the cholera
epidemic of 1S92 and in 1897 headed a royal
commission to India to study the plague In
1904 he succeeded Koch as director of the Insti-
tute for Infectious Diseases at Berlin He pub-
lished Zur Aetiologie des Al>dominaltyphus
(2 vols, 1884), Die experiment ell e Hygiene
im Dienst der offenthchen Gesundheitspflege
(1895)
GAFF'ITEY. A city and the county seat of
Cherokee Co, S C, 115 miles noith-noithwest of
Columbia, on the Southern Railway (Map
South Carolina, C 1) It is in a cotton and
giam glowing region and has manufactuies of
vulcanised fibre, cotton goods, fertilizers, cotton-
-seed oil, ice, and lime. Tin and monazite are
mined in the vicinity Gaffney contains a female
college, a Carnegie library, and public parks
The water works and electric-light plant are
owned by the city Pop, 1900, 3937, 1910,
4767
GAFF-TOPSAIL CAT. A sea catfish (Fe-
lichthys felis), common along the eastern coast
of the United States and frequently ascending
streams It reaches a length of 30 inches, is
not valued as food, and takes its name from the
shape of its large doisal fin, frequently exposed
above the surface See Plate of CATTISH
GAFSA BUTTON. See BOIL
GAG (corrupted from the Spanish name
aguayi) A large giouper (Mycteropet ca mieio-
lepis) , of a variable bluish color, of the South
Atlantic and Gulf coast of the United States
It frequents reefs and banks It is an important
food fish See GKOUPER
GAGALI See PODOCARPUS.
GAGARIN", ga-ga'r£n A princely family of
Russia. Some of its most prominent membeis
were Matvei Petrovitch, Governor of Sibeiia,
who suffered death in 1721 by order of Peter the
Great on suspicion of aspiring to an independent
sovereignty Alexander Ivanovitch (died 1857)
was a distinguished soldier of the Crimean Wai
and was assassinated by the Prince of Suanethi,
whose province he was about to annex to Rus-
sia Pavel Pavlovitch (1789-1872) was a mem-
ber of the council of emancipation of the serfs
and in 1864 and 1865 President of the Council
of Ministers Ivan Sejgeyevitch (1814-82) was
Secretary to the Russian Embassy at Paris,
turned Catholic in 1843, and became a Jesuit
missionary He was the author of Les staro-
veres, l}eglise russe et le pape (1857), Les
hi/mnes de Veglise russe (1868), etc
GAGE (Pr gager, from ML vadium, a pawn
01 pledge) An old term of English law, signi-
fying a pledge or pawn of property as security
for the performance of a legal obligation It Is
now found in our legal system only in the com-
GAGE
391
GAGEB
bmation mortgage (mort gage, dead pledge)
Estates in gage were of two kinds — uivum va-
dium and mortuum vadium, the live pledge and
the dead pledge Vwum vadium was where an
estate in lands was given in security for a debt,
on condition that the estate should remain with
the lendei until he bad made good the sum lent
out of the profits of the land Moi tuum vadium
was a pledge of land or goods to be held by
the pledgee until the debt be paid or the obliga-
tion performed by the pledgoi. See MOKTGAGE,
PLEDGE
GAGE, FKANCES DANA BARKER (1808-84)
An American reformer and writei, the daughter
of Col Joseph Barker She was born in Mari-
etta, Ohio, man led James L Gage, a lawyer, in
1820, and lectured on total abstinence, woman's
rights, and slavery She removed to St Louis
in 1853, and her activity there in the anti-
slaveiy cause made her very unpopular Re-
turning to Ohio, she devoted herself largely to
editorial work During the Civil War she was
an agent of the Sanitary Commission and had
charge of a refuge for freedmen on Paris Island,
S C Under the pen name of "Aunt Fanny" she
became widely known as a writer of stories for
the young
GAGE, LYMAN JUDSOK (1836-1027) An
American financier He was born in De Ruyter,
Madison Co , N Y , and was educated at an
academy at Rome, N Y, where in 1859 he be-
came a clerk in a bank. In the following year
he removed to Chicago, where, after working for
three years in various capacities, he obtained a
clerkship in the Merchants' Loan and Trust
Company, of which in 1860 he became cashier
In 1868 he left this position to become assistant
cashier of the First National Bank, one of the
leading banks in the West In 1882 he was pro-
moted to the position of vice president and gen-
eral manager and in 1891 became its president.
In 1892 he first became a figure of national
prominence fiom his election as president of the
board of directors of the World's Columbian Ex-
position, the success of which was probably due
more to him than to any other one man He
had never taken an active part in politics nor
held political office, although he had been a dele-
gate to the Republican National Convention of
1880, and the chairman of its committee on
finance, but he actively supported Cleveland in
the campaign of 1884 In 1892 the Treasury
portfolio was offered him by President Cleve-
land, but declined In 1897 he was appointed
by President McKinley Secretary of the Treas-
ury, which office he continued to hold in Mc-
Kinley's second administration, and in that of
President Roosevelt up to January, 1902, when
he resigned and was succeeded by Leslie M
Shaw. Elected president of the United States
Trust Company, New York, in 1902, he contin-
ued m this office until his retirement from active
life in 1906 Consult Handy, "Lyman J Gage
A Character Sketch/' in the American Review
of Reviews (New York, 1897)
GAGE, SIMON HENEY (1851- ) An
American scientist He was born in Maryland,
Otsego Co , N Y , and graduated in 1877 at Cor-
nell University, where lie taught until 1908, after
1896 as professor of histology and embryology
In addition to many contributions to scientific
periodicals, his publications include The Micro*
scope and Histology (1881, llth ed, 1911),
Anatomical Technology (with Professor Wilder,
1882) , the vocabulary and definitions in animal
histology for Fostei 's Encyclopedic Medical Dic-
tionary, and several articles for Wood s Refer-
ence HandbooJo on the Medical Sciences
GAGE, THOMAS (1721-87) An English sol-
dier and Colonial governor (military) of Massa-
chusetts, born at Firle, Sussex, son of the first
Viscount Gage He received a lieutenant's com-
mission in the English aimy in 1741, partici-
pated in the battle of Culloden, seived as aid-
cle-camp to Lord Albemaile in Flandeis, and
in 1751 became lieutenant colonel of the Forty-
fourth Foot, with which in 1754 he came to
America under General Biaddock In the latter
part of the march against Foit Duquesne he
commanded the advance guard of Braddock's
aimy He was stationed for a time at Oswego,
raised a regiment of provincial troops in 1758,
and commanded it on Aberciomby's disastrous
expedition against Ticonderoga , and in 1759,
after the death of Colonel Pucleaux, was sent
as bugadier general to replace Sn William
Johnson at Niagara He then served in the last
campaign under Geneial Amlicist, who made
him Goveinor of Monti eal in 1760, was pro-
moted to be ma] or general in 1761, and was
commander in chief of the English forces in
America fiom 1763 to 1772, when he returned
to England In 1765 in New York he was called
upon by Goveinor Golden to enforce the Stamp
Act (qv), but refused on the giound that a
fire from the fort would be "the commencement
of a civil wai " In 1768 he was ordered to
Boston to assist the civil magistrates and reve-
nue officeis there in carrying out the measures of
the British Ministry, but could not get perma-
nent quaiters or supplies for his men in ac-
cordance with the Billeting Act Early in 1774
he succeeded Hutchinson as Governor of Massa-
chusetts, and again became commander m chief
of the British aimy in Ameiica He was
waimly welcomed on his arrival in Boston in
May, but soon antagonized the popular party
by his enf 01 cement of the ministerial measures,
especially of the Boston Poit Bill (qv) and
the regulation acts On June 30, 1774, he
issued a proclamation against the "solemn league
and covenant'1 — to purchase no articles imported
from Great Britain On September 1 he seized
the powder stored at Cambridge and soon after-
ward began to fortify Boston On the night of
April 18, 1775, he sent an expedition to Concord
to destroy the provincial stores there and to
capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock This
led to the battle of Lexington (qv ) He or-
dered the assault upon Bunker (Breed's) Hill
on June 17, and as soon as the news of the
action reached England was recalled, sailing
from Boston on Oct 10, 1775 In April, 1782,
he was promoted to the rank of general Some
of Gage's papers are in vol xxxiv, Collections,
Massachusetts Historical Society
GAGER, C(HABLBS) STUAKT (1872- )
An American botanist, born at Norwich, N Y
He graduated from Syiacuse University in
1895 and also studied at the New York State
Normal School, Harvard Summer School, and
Cornell University (PhD, 1902) He served as
vice principal of Ives Seminary (Antwerp, N Y ),
professor of biological science anfl physiog-
raphy at the New York State Normal College
(1897-1905), dnector of the laboratories of the
New Yoik Botanical Garden (1906-08), pro-
fessor of botany at the University of Missouri
(1908-10), and director of the Brooklyn Botani'
cal Garden after ID 10 He also taught in
392
GAG3STON
Rutgers College, Morris High School, New York,
and the Ooinell Summer School He is author
of Errors in Science Teaching (1901), Effects
of the Rays of Radium on Plants (1908), 'Non-
Technical Lectures (1913) , and translated from
the German of Be Vnes Intracvllular Pangensis
(1910)
Q-AGEBN, ga'gern, HANS CHBISTOPH ERNST,
BARON VON (1766-1852) A German statesman,,
born at Kleinmedesheim, near Worms, and edu-
cated at the universities of Leipzig and Gottin-
gen He became a member of the Imperial Diet
in 1791 and later represented the Punce of
Nassau- Weilburg at Paris until 1811 After
attempting to stir up an msuirection against
Napoleon m the Tirol, he joined the Piussian
army and became a member of the administra-
tive boaid of North Germany in 1813 Later
he seived as Prime Minister of the King of
the Netherlands and represented him at the
Congress of Vienna in 1815 In 1816-18 he
represented Luxemburg in the German Diet,
but retired in 1820 His writings include Die
Nationalgeschichte der Deutschen (2 vols , 1813-
26; 2d ed , 1825-26), an autobiography, Mem
Anteil an dor Politik (vols i-iv, Stuttgart,
1822-26, vols v, vi, Leipzig, 1845), Kritik des
Vulherrechts mit praktischer Anwendung auf
unsere Zeit (1840)
GAG-BUN, HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST,
BARON VON (1799-1880) A German statesman.
He was the second son of the well-known poli-
tician Hans Chnstoph Ernst Gagern (1766-
1852) and was born at Bayreuth, Aug 20, 179D
He T* as educated at the military school of Munich
(1812-14) and on Napoleon's ictuin from Elba
entered the army of Nassau, serving as lieuten-
ant at Waterloo He afterward devoted himself
to the study of law at the universities of Heidel-
berg, Gottingen, Jena, and Geneva While at
Heidelberg, he aided in founding the liberal
society of the Burschensehaf t ( q v ) On re-
turning home m 1821 he entered political life
and served as Minister of the Interior and
Justice in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. He was
elected a member of the Lower Chamber in
1832, m which position he vigorously opposed
the reactionary policy of the state governments
and of the federal Diet In 1836 he retned
to his father's estates, but reappeared 10 years
later and helped bring on the revolutionary
movement of 1848 in Germany In the National
Assembly which met at Frankfort on May 18,
1848 (see YOBPARLIAMENT), Gagern, as the
recognized leader of those who favored unity
and constitutionalism, was elected President and
for a long time succeeded, by the force of his en-
thusiasm and his magnificent personality, m
guiding the action of the Assembly In the
strife over the question of admitting Austria as
a Germanic power into the new Empire, Gagern
sided with those who opposed Austrian preten-
sions, and on Dee 18, 1848, as head of the Im-
perial Ministry, submitted his "programme" to
the Parliament providing for a federal state
without Austria The King of Prussia was
to be the hereditary ruler, but was to be re-
strained by a constitution. Though the plan
was accepted by the Parliament, it failed on
account of the lukewarmness of the Prussian
King, to whom all looked as the head of the
new state, and the general reaction which
followed in Germany during the early days of
1849 (See FREDERICK WILLIAM IV ) On May
20 Gagern withdrew from the Parliament, con-
vinced that the cause of Geiinan unity for the
time was a hopeless one lie still took an
active interest in politics, joining the party
whose aim it was to bring about German unity
under Prussian leadership, and in 1850-52
seived as a major in the army of the duchies
of Schleswig-Holstem (qv) On the conclusion
of the struggle he retired to his estate at Mon-
sheim, and only reappeared as the representative
of the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt at
Vienna from 1864 to 1872 It seems that after
1859 he turned completely away from Prussia
on account of her actions m the Italian War
in that year He espoused the cause of Austna
and had his children brought up in the Catholic
church, although he himself had been a Piotes-
tant He was granted a pension 111 1872 by
Hesse and took up his residence at Darmstadt,
where he died May 22, 1880 Besides seveial
pamphlets and speeches, he was the author of
a life of nis brother, Das Leiden des G-cnerals
Friednch von G-agern (1856-57) His younger
bi other Maximilian was prominent in the sei\ico
of the Duchy of Nassau and of Austria Con-
sult Heimenz, Heinrich von Gaqei n in semen po-
litischen G-rundanschauungen (Tubingen, 1899),
Biedermann, Deutsche G-eschichte, lSlfi-19 (Bie,s-
lau, 1883-89) , Von Sybel, The Founding of the
German Empire, tian&lated (JSTew York, 1890-
98)
GAG-3STOF, gan-yON', CHARLES ALPHONSE NA-
THAN AEL (1851- ) A Canadian author He
was born at Poit Job, Province of Quebec, and
was educated at the public schools He en-
gaged in journalism in Montreal, afterwaid in
Quebec, where he became a repoiter for the law
courts, and finally obtained a position in the Pro-
vincial Department of Public Works He wrote a
number of tales, sketches, and essays, including
Douleurs et joies (1876), an historical novel,
G-enevieve, St Jean, Port Joli (1876) , Quelques
considerations pour les temps actuels (1882) ,
Les tanques d'epargnes scolaires (1887) , Etudes
archceologiques et varietes (1894) , L'Amcnque
precolombienne j essai sur I'origine de sa civilisa-
tion (1908)
GAG-NON, EKNEST (1834-1915) A Cana-
dian musician and author He was boin in
Louiseville, Province of Quebec, and studied
music first at home and at Joliette College, and
subsequently in Europe He was organist of the
parish church, St John's suburbs, Quebec, in
1853-64, and in 1857 was appointed professor
of music in Laval Normal School He was
oigamst at the Homan Catholic Basilica, Quebec,
for 45 years (1864-1909). His career as oigan-
ist and musical composer was varied by visits
to Europe and by his position m the civil
service For more than 30 years (1876-1907)
he was Secretary of the Depaitment of Agri-
culture and Public Works In 1863 he founded
the Societe* de Colonisation de Quebec, and in
1869 the Acadenne de Musique de Quebec His
musical compositions are chiefly of a religious
character Among his writings are Chansons
populaires du Canada (1865, 5th ed , 1908),
Le palais legislatif de Quebec (1897) , Reponse
a la brochure de Monsieur Va'b'be H R Casgram
intituUe "Notes relatives aux inscriptions du
monument de Ghamplain" (1899) , Louis Joliet,
decouvreur du Mississippi et du pays des
Illinois , premier seigneur de Vtte d'Anticosti
(1902), Choses d'autrefois, feuilles eparses
(1905), Le fort et le chdteau Saint-Louis,
Qu&teo ( 1895 , 3d ed , 1908 ) . He also published .
395
GAIKWAK,
Lettres de voyage^ Au pays des
Le drapeau de Carillon , and Palmes d'or
GAGNOET, ga'nyoN', LUCIAN (?-1842)^ A
Canadian political agitator, born at Pomte-a-la-
Mule, Canada He was among the earliest to
take part in the struggle by the French Cana-
dians and their English sympathizers in Lower
Canada for responsible government He was a
member of the Assembly of the Confederate
Counties at St Charles, Oct 23, 1837, and sub-
sequently carried on a campaign of agitation
against British rule He was instrumental in
mustering a force of rebels, who were defeated
at Moore's Corner and compelled to take refuge
in the United States Another attempt at
insurrection also proved unsuccessful, and Ga-
gnon was arrested by United States troops on
the charge of having violated the neutrality
la\\s After the engagement at Odelltown, Nov
10, 1838, he gave up the struggle and settled in
the United States
GAGNON, N D VILLE-. See VILLE-GAGNON
GAGNON, PHILEAS (1854- ) A Cana-
dian bibliographer and archivist He was born
in Quebec and after receiving his early educa-
tion there engaged in commercial life, which
he relinquished for the study of Canadian bibli-
ography An extensive and varied collection of
Canadiana made by him, and said to be the
best in existence, he sold in 1910 to the city
of Montreal for a large sum He was appointed
archivist for Quebec District, contributed fre-
quently to the press on his favorite subject,
and for some time was active m municipal life,
having sat in the Quebec City Council and
served as piomayor In 1908 he was awarded
a diploma of honor by the Royal Society of
Canada for archaeological studies In 1895 he
published his well-known Essai de IMiographie
canadienne
GAG RULES. In American history, the
name applied to certain rules passed by the
national Congress m disregard of the First
Amendment to the Federal Constitution, foi the
abridgment of the right of petition with refer-
ence to the abolition or restriction of slavery
After the beginning of the earnest agitation of
the Northern Abolitionists against the institu-
tion of slavery ab'out 1831, petitions of various
kinds poured into the House and the Senate,
praying for the abolition or the restriction of
that institution These were generally pre-
sented by John Quincy Adams, who as a mem-
ber of Congress identified himself particularly
with the struggle against any congressional
abridgment of the right of petition In May,
1835, the House passed the so-called Pinckney
Resolutions, substantially renewed in January,
1837, which provided that all petitions relating
to slavery should virtually be disregarded,
should not be printed or referred, and should
be laid on the table without action The resolu-
tions also asserted that Congress should not in-
terfere with slavery in the District of Columbia,
and that that body had no power, according to
the Constitution, to take action with regard
to slavery in the individual States Adams's
attempts to introduce petitions m disregard of
these resolutions provoked animated debates,
in which, on some occasions considerable feeling
was aroused between Northern and Southern
members In December, 1837, the House passed
the so-called Patton Resolutions, introduced by
J. M Fatton, of Virginia, which declared
against the reading, referring, debating, or
printing of any petition praying for the inter-
ference of the national government with the
institution of slavery in any part of the United
States, including the Territories and the Dis-
trict of Columbia In December of the following
year the House passed the so-called Atheiton
Gag, covering much the same ground as the
Patton Resolutions, and in January, 1840,
passed the famous Twenty-first Rule to the same
general effect Adams continued to offer peti-
tions, however, and at the opening of each new
Congress endeavored to have the objectionable
rule omitted The majority against him pro-
gressively decreased, and in December, 1844,
the lule was rescinded Consult Adams's
Memoirs ( 12 vols , Philadelphia, 1874-77 ) , Ben-
ton's Abridgment of the Debates of Congress,
1789-1856 (16 vols , New York, 1857-61), id,
PMrty Years' View (2 vols, ib , 1854-56) , Wil-
son, Rise and Fall of tJie Slave Power in Amer-
ica, vol i (3 vols, Boston, 1872-77)
GAGTTIN, ga'gasr', ROBERT (c 1425-1501) A
French chronicler and diplomat, born at Ca-
lonne-sur-la-Lys He studied at the University
of Pans under Fichet and was made professor
of canon law there (1463) and dean of the
faculty Erasmus and Reuchlm weie his pupils.
He was intrusted with various diplomatic mis-
sions by Louis XI and Charles VIII, traveled
311 Germany, Italy, England, and Spain, and was
court librarian for both these kings His chron-
icle went through many editions under the title
Compendium de Ongine et Gestis Francorum
a Pharamundo usque ad Annum 1491 (1495),
and it was one of the sources of Fabyan's
chronicle He left some letters and discourses,
Epistolce et Orationes (1498) Consult Gaquoin,
DenTcschrift eum Jf.00 Todestage des Robertus
Gaguinus (Heidelberg, 1901)
GKA/HERIS The Orestes of Arthurian
legend He was the son of Arthur's sister,
Morganse
GAIDOZ, ga'dds', HENRI (1842- ) A
French Celtic scholar and anthropologist, born
in Paris He became professor of geography
and ethnography at the Ecole Libre des Sciences
Politiques in 1872 and in 1876 professor of
Celtic languages and literatures at the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes He published Esquisse
de la religion des Gaulois (1879-81), La reli-
gion gauloise et le gui de chene (1881), Les
religions de la 0-rande Bretagne ( 1885 ) , Le
tla&on populaire de la France (with Sebillot,
1884) , Etudes de la mythologie gauloise
(1886), Les Roumains en Eongne (1894)
He founded the Revue Celtique in 1870 and in
1877 with Eugene Rolland established La Melu-
sine for the study of folklore
GAIETY THEATRE, THE A London the-
atre situated on the Strand and opened in 1868
It is the original home in England of opera
boufle.
GArKWAR, grTswar (Marathi, herdsman).
The designation of the Mahratta ruler of Bar o da
(qv), one of the native states in India The
Gaikwar originally was an officer in the estab-
lishment of the rajahs of Satara, who were
nominally the supreme rulers of the Mahrattas
(qv). The Gaikwar finally became hereditary
second in command of the Mahratta armies
Pilaji, who became Gaikwar m 1721, by preda-
tory excursions gradually acquired authority
over Gujarat, and his son, Damaji, who suc-
ceeded in 1732, still further extended the bounds
of his ample dominions The latter threw off
GAIL
394
his allegiance to the Peshwa, but, being taken
prisoner by treachery, was compelled to yield
one-half of his dominions and do homage for
the other half Anand Rao, who ascended the
throne in 1800, was the first prince of the line
who had intercourse with the British The
throne of the Caikwar being contested by an
illegitimate brother, Anand Rao secured the
aid of the British government at Bombay and
agreed by treaty, March 15, 1802, to receive a
British subsidiary force Sayaji Rao, who be-
came Gaikwar in 1819, was frequently on
hostile terms with the British government, and
in 1838 his deposition was contemplated In
1839 he made his submission and, among other
concessions, abolished suttee His successor,
Malhar Rao, inherited the family vices and
m 1875 was deposed on account of his general
misrule Sayaji Rao, of the Khandesh line, a
boy of 13, was appointed his successor After
attaining his majority the young Prince ruled
admirably and brought his dominions to a high
state of prosperity In 1906 he visited the
United States He is honored with the heredi-
tary title of Maharaja Gaikwar of Baroda
GAIL, gal, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829) A
French Hellenist, born at Paris He became
professor of Greek at the College de Fiance in
1792 and keeper of the Greek manuscripts in
the Royal Library at Paris in IS 14 or 1815.
With infinite industry he wrote numerous works,
dealing especially with Lucian, Theocritus, Anac-
reon and the Greek anthology, Homer, Tlmcyd-
ides, and Herodotus Between 1814 and 1829
he edited Le Philologue, in 24 volumes, a collec-
tion of notes on Greek archaeology, grammar,
geography, etc Though of modest ability, he
did much to rescue Greek from neglect For
his many writings, consult Querard, La France
litteravre (Paris, 1829) See next article
GAIL, JEAN FEANQOIS (1795-1845). A
French Hellenist, son of Jean Baptiste Gail
(1755-1829). He was horn in Paris, and in 1829
became a professor at the Military Academy of
Saint-Cyr His chief works were Recherches
sur la nature du culte de Bacchus en Orece
(1821) ; and the 0-eographi Grceci If mores
(1826-31), containing, besides other extracts,
the Periplus of Hanno, that of Scylax, and
fragments of Scymnos
GAIL HAM/ILTOW See BODGE, MAKY A
GAILLARD, ga'yar', (CLAUDE) FEBDINAND
(1834-87) A French engraver, one of the most
prominent of the nineteenth century He was
born in Paris, studied under Le"on Cogniet, and
won the Prix de Rome for engraving in 1856
On his return from Rome he studied also under
Selher Much of his best work was done for
the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, and he particularly
excelled in interpreting the early Renaissance
masters. His power was first revealed in the
plate of the "Condottiere," after Antonello da
Messina (1865) Among his other celebrated
plates are "Gattemelata," after Donatello's
statue, "CEdipus," after Ingres, "The Man
with the Pink," after Van Eyck, "Virgin and
Child," after Botticelli, "St George/* after Ra-
phael, "Twilight," after Michelangelo's statue,
"The Pilgrims of Emmaus," after Rembrandt
Pie also engraved from his own designs portraits
of the Count de Chambord, PIUB IX, Leo XIII,
Monseigneur Pie, Sosur Rosalie, and Dom Gue-
ranger These especially show his particular fac-
ulty, an almost clairvoyant grasp of personality.
His technical method, which was original and
GAILOB
varied, consisted in first etching the plate,
which was1 then finished with the burin Many
of his proofs aie pieserved in the Cabinet des
Estampes, Paris Consult Henri Beraldi, Les
graveurs du diso-neumeme siecle, vol vi (Paris,
1885-92)
GAIL'LAUD, DAVID Du BOSE (1859-1913)
An American soldier and engineer, born in
Sumter Co , S C He graduated from the
United States Military Academy m 1884, served
on the International Boundary Commission of
the United States and Mexico (1891-94), had
charge of the Washington Aqueduct (1895-98),
was colonel of United States Volunteer en-
gineers during the Spanish-American War, and
subsequently (1909) was promoted lieutenant
colonel in the regular army After 1898 he
served on various stations until 1907, when he
became a member of the Isthmian Canal Com-
mission and director of the Panama Railroad
Company, he took chaige of dredging harbors
and building breakwaters in the same year, and
on July 1, 1908, became engmeei of the central
division of the canal from Gatun to Pedro
Miguel He published Wave Action in Delation
to Engineering Structures (1004)
GAILLAUD, EDWIN SAMUEL (1827-85)
An American physician He was bom in
Charleston District, S C , graduated at the
University of South Carolina in 1845, and at
the State Medical College in 1854 During the
Civil War he served in the Confederate aimy,
holding various positions in the medical depart-
ment He was professor of principles and prac-
tice of medicine in the Louisville Medical College
(1869-78) He was editor, successivelv, of the
Richmond and Louisville Medical Journal, the
American Medical Weekly, and Q-uillard's Medi-
cal Journal
GAILLAUD, ga'yar',, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-
1806) A French historian and academician
He was born at Ostel, near Soissons, took up
the study of law, but abandoned his legal pur-
suits for history, and published a large num-
ber of works, characterized more by elegance of
style than by strict adherence to facts Among
these are JSistoire de Maiie de Bourgogne
(1757) , Histoire de Francois I (1766-69) , His-
toire de la rwalit£ de la Prance et de V Angle-
terre (1771-77), Histowe de Charlemagne
(1782) Gaillard also wrote Eloges on Des-
cartes, Corneille, Moliere, Charles V, Henry IV,
and Ins intimate friend, Malesherbes
GAILLARDET, ga/yar'da', THEODORE FREDE-
EIC (1808-82) A French dramatist and author,
born at Auxerre. He achieved notoriety through
his duel with Alexandre Dumas, pere, and his
subsequent lawsuit over the rights to the play
La tour de Nesle, which Dumas had placed upon
the stage as his own (1832) He wrote two
other dramas, Struensee, ou le incdecin de la
reine (1832), and Georges, ou le criminel par
amour (183.3), and also Memoires du chevalier
d'Eon (1836, revised, 1866) He founded in
New York City (1827) the Courner des Etats-
Unis, which he directed until 1848
GAIL'OR, THOMAS FRANK (1856- )
An American Protestant Episcopal bishop He
was born at Jackson, Miss , and graduated from
Racine (Wis ) College in 1876 and from the
General Theological Seminary (New York) in
1879 In 1879-82 he was rector of the Church
of the Messiah at Pulaski, Tenn He served
as professor of ecclesiastical history in 1882-90,
chaplain in 1883-90, and vice chancellor in
0AI3STAS
395
GATKES'S MILL
1890-93 in the University of the South, where
he became chancellor and president of the
board of trustees in 1908 He was Coadjutor
Bishop from 1893 to 1898, when he became
Bishop of Tennessee His writings include
Manual of Devotion (1887) , The Apostohcal
Succession (1889) , Things New and Old (1891) ,
The Puritan Reaction (1897), The Master's
Word and Church's Act (1899) , The Episcopal
Church and Other Religious Communions
(1904), The Fruitfulness of Sacrifice (1907),
The Christian Church and Education (1910)
GAI3STAS, ga'nas (died 401) A Visigoth,
commander in chief of the Roman army He
was an Arian and caused the downfall and
execution of the eunuch Eutropius He used
his position for treasonable purposes, which he
cloaked successfully for some years At length
he became openly hostile and attempted to seize
Constantinople His attempt was foiled and
his army of Goths destroyed He fled, but was
captured by a chief of the Huns, called Uldm,
who sent his head to Constantinople Consult
Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, vol
i (London, 1889), and Cambridge Mediceval His-
tory, vol i (New York, 1911)
GAIISTE, gan A French, term (gaAne = a
sheath ) , adopted in English, to supply the lack
of any corresponding word to designate a sheath-
like pilaster such as was often employed in
the late Renaissance or baroque architecture of
Europe and the Elizabethan and Jacobean in
England. Derived from the classic terminus or
boundary mark — a head upon a square post
tapering downward — it was applied to gate-
posts, to all sorts of minor architectural ob-
jects, and in Germany and England even to
more important uses, in place of the regular
classic pilaster forms, sometimes with a hu-
man head at the top, oftener with a pilastei
cap of moldings
GAINES, EDMUND PENDLETOW (1777-1849)
An American soldier He was born in Culpeper
Co , Va , but was early taken by his father
to North Carolina He studied law for a time,
but in 1799 entered the United States army as
an ensign, and from 1801 to 1803 was employed
in the making of a topographical survey from
Nashville to Natchez for the location of a mili-
tary road In 1802 he became a first lieutenant,
and two years later military collector of cus-
toms for the district of Mobile, in which capac-
ity he arrested Aaron Burr (qv ) on Feb 19,
1807 In the War of 1812 he was a captain
in the battle of the Thames, participated in
the engagement at Chrystler's Field, was com-
mander at Fort Erie (qv) in August, 1814,
until wounded by the bursting of a shell, and
for his gallantry at Fort Erie received a
brevet of major general, the thanks of Congress,
and a gold medal He gradually rose to the
rank of brigadier general He was one of the
commissioners appointed in 1816 to treat with
the Creek Indians, was in command of the
Southern Military District at the outbreak of
the first Semrnole War in 1817, was retained as
brigadier general and placed in command of the
Western District when the army was reduced in
1821, took an active part in the second Semmole
War of 1837, being severely wounded at Ouitli-
lacoochie, and at the outbreak of the Mexican
War was in command of the Department of the
Southwest, with headquarters at New Orleans,
and was actively engaged m raising volunteers
He was court martialed, but released without
VOL. IX— 26
censure, for calling out militia at this time
without authorization
GAIOSTES, JOHN P (1795-1857) An Ameri-
can soldier and legislator, Territorial Governor
of Oregon He was bom at Augusta, Va
(now West Virginia), but when very young
removed to Boone Co , Ky He served as a
volunteer in the War of 1812, was a member
for several years of the Kentucky Legislature,
and in the Mexican War served first as a
major of Kentucky volunteers and afterward as
an aid to General Scott He was a Whig mem-
ber of Congress in 1847-49 and from 1850 to
1853 was Governor of the Territory of Oregon,
and came into serious conflict with the Terri-
torial Legislature, notably over the location of
the capital Consult H H Bancroft, History
of Oregon, vol 11 (San Francisco, 1888)
GAINES'S MILL, BATTLE OF A battle
fought on June 27, 1862, during the Civil War,
between a Federal force of about 30,000 under
Gen Fitz John Porter and a Confederate force
of about 65,000 under General Lee, on the left
or north bank of the Chickahommy River, 8
'miles northeast of Richmond, Va It was the
second of the famous Seven Days' Battles (qv )
which marked the close of McClellan's Penin-
sular campaign On the 27th of June General
Lee, having crossed the Chickaliominy with the
greater part of the Army of Northern Virginia,
attacked Porter's position at 2 p M , the Confed-
erate right, centre, and left being1 commanded by
Longstreet, A. P, Hill, and Jackson respectively
Porter, though inadequately reenforced by Mc-
Clellan, offered a magnificent resistance and
stubbornly held his position in face of repeated
assaults until 7 P M , when his left centre at
last gave way and compelled a re-formation at
some distance to the rear of the whole line,
under cover of two fresh brigades from the left
wing, commanded by French and Meagher The
main battle had been preceded by a sharp con-
test between the Confederate A P Hill, advanc-
ing from Mechanicsville, and the Ninth Massa-
chusetts Volunteers at Games's Mill, slightly in
advance of the main Federal position, and from
this the whole battle takes its name During
the night of the 27th Porter loined tlie left wing
south of the Chickahommy, and McClellan, com-
pelled to abandon his old base at White House
on the Pamunkey River, hastily made arrange-
ments to transfer his army to the James Dur-
ing the progress of the battle McClellan, with
the left wing, numbering fully 55,000 men, had
been held in check by 25,000 Confederates under
Magruder and had been deceived into believing
that a Confederate army, numbering over 100,-
000, lay between him and Richmond Had he
known the real state of affairs, it seems prob-
able that Ije could easily have overwhelmed Ma-
gruder and captured the city while Lee was
occupied north of the river On the othei hand,
Porter's stubborn resistance gave Lee an erro-
neous impression of the Federal strength at this
point The total Federal loss in the battle of
Gaines's Mill was 6387 men, besides 22 guns,
while the Confederate loss, though never accu-
rately determined, was probably as much as 1000
more Two years later the battle of Cold Harbor
(qv ) was fought in this vicinity Consult.
Official Records, vol xi (Washington, 1885) ,
Johnson and Buel, The Battles and Leaders of
the Civil War, vol 11 (New York, 1887) , Ropes,
The 8tory of the Ciwl War,vol n (ib , 1894r-98) ,
Webb, The Peninsula (ib., 188]), Nicolay and
GAINESVILLE
396
GAINSBOROUGH
Hay, AJbialiam Lincoln A History, \ol v (New
York, 1890), Alexander, Military Memows of a
Confederate (ib, 1907), Steele, Amencan Cam-
paigns (Washington, 1909)
GAINESVILLE A city and the county
seat of Alachua Co , Fla , 70 miles southwest of
Jacksonville, on the Seaboard Air Line, the At-
lantic Coast Line, and the Tampa and Jackson-
ville systems (Map Florida, D 2) It is a
popular winter resort and has the Florida State
University and a public libiary In the vicinity
are several points of natural interest, notably
Alachua Sink, which alternately is piairie and
lake, Warren's Ca\e, and the Devil's Mill
Hopper Gainesville has important wholesale
interests The principal industries are farming,
stock raising, lumbering, and phosphate mining,
and there are foundnes, ginneries, giistmills,
wagon works, planing mills, etc An electric-
light plant is owned by the city Pop , 1900,
3633, 1910, 6183
GAINESVILLE. A city and the county seat
of Hall Co , Ga , 53 miles northeast of Atlanta,
on the Southern, the Gainesville northwestcin,
and the Gainesville Midland lailroads (Map
Georgia, C 1) It is an attractive health re-
sort, having several mineral springs, an 1 is the
seat of Bienau College and Consunatoiy of
Music for young ladies, founded in 1878, and
the Rnerside Military Academv There is also
a public park The manuf actui os include cotton
goods, cotton yams, asbestos, foundry and ma-
chine-shop products, cottonseed oil, buggies,
wagons, brick, lime, tombstones, doois, sash,
blinds, and meal Gainesville \ias fiist settled
in 1821 and was first incorporated in 1870 It
is governed, under a revised chartei of 1885,
by a mayor, elected every two yeais, and a
council The city owns and operates the water
works Gen. James Longstreet and Gov Allen
D Candler lived and died in Gainesville Pop ,
1900, 4382, 1910, 5925
GAINESVILLE A city and the county seat
of Cooke Co , Tex , 65 miles north of Fort
Worth, at the head of the Elm Fork of the
Trinity Hiver, and on the Gulf, Coloiado, and
Santa Fe, and the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas
railroads (Map Texas, D 3) It is the centre
of an agricultural and stock-raising distuct,
and has an iron foundry and machine shops,
and manufactures cottonseed oil, flour and food-
stuffs, pressed brick, etc The city contains a,
fine post office and a city hall, Carnegie li-
brary, courthouse, city park, and fair grounds
Gainesville was incorporated in 1873 and is
governed, under a charter of 1879, by a mayor,
chosen biennially, and a municipal council The
water works are owned by the municipality.
Pop, 1900, 7874, 1910, 7624
GAINS'BOBOTJGH An ancient market town
and port on the right bank of the Trent, in
Lincolnshire, England, 16 miles northwest of
Lincoln (Map England, F 3) It is at the
junction of the Great Northern, Great East-
ern, and the Midland railways The town was
constituted a port in 1841, the canals con-
necting with the Trent making Gainsborough
the eastern outlet for the Midland counties
It has important manufactures of linseed oil,
ropes, malt, tobacco-, and machinery There are
also shipbuilding and iron works The town
consists mainly of one long street running par-
allel with the river, which is spanned by a fine
stone bridge The Old Hall, or Manor House,
built about 1480 and restored m 1884, a baronial
residence with a to^er 73 feet high, is said to
have been built by John of Gaunt and is now
used as a corn exchange, public library, and a
literary and scientific institute The John Rob-
inson (1575-1625) Memorial Church, inaugu-
rated in 1897, is dedicated to the pastor of the
Pilgrim Fathers at Leyden, a reputed native of
Gainsborough The town owns its water supply
and maintains markets Pop, 1901, 17,660,
1911, 20,587 Consult Stark, History of Gains-
lorough (London, 1843)
GAINSBOBOTTG-H, THOMAS (1727-88) One
of the greatest English portrait painters, also
a landscape painter of gieat importance He
was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, the youngest of
nine childien His father was a woolen-ciape
maker, his mother an amateur flower painter,
and the lad's bent to art was in every way
encouraged He sketched proficiently at 10,
and at 15 he was sent to London to study
painting, he stayed with a goldsmith who in-
troduced him to Gravelot, an engraver, from
whom he gained his chief instruction The
latter was a pupil of Watteau, whose influence
' may be seen in the dainty air of Gainsborough's
figures, their small hands and feet, and the
tufty foliage of his trees Later he was associ-
ated for some three years with Frank Hayman
the historical painter After an unsuccessful
attempt to establish a studio in London he" re-
turned to Sudbury in 1745 and continued his
landscape studies Soon after his leturn he
mairied Margaret Burr, a lady of great chaim,
whose placid influence was a source of great
happiness in his life She was an illegitimate
daughter of one of the exiled Stuarts or else of
the Duke of Bedford, and her annuity of £200
placed the young couple above want Six
months afterward he went to Ipswich, wheie
for 14 years he lived quietly and worked
earnestly In 1759 he sent 18 of his pictures
to the exhibition of the Society of Arts, in 1760
he removed to Bath, remaining until 1774, when
he returned to London In 1768 he was elected
one of the original members of the Royal
Academy His stay at Bath was marked by
success, and he painted many portraits of fash-
ionable beauties and the brightest spirits of
the day George III, on hearing of Gams-
borough's return to London, invited him to couit
and gave him orders for portraits of himself
and Queen This seemed a signal for the fashion-
able world, which resulted in prosperity which
lasted until Gainsborough's death. He died in
London, Aug 2, 1788, and was buried at his
request in Kew Churchyard, without name or
inscription on the stone that maiked his grave
Gainsborough's landscapes are no less original
than his portraits, and he has well been
called the father of naturalistic landscape in
England He treats by preference melancholy
scenes, in faint or evening light — mysterious
forest shades, or rough and broken countiy with
clouded skies He rarely succeeded in selling
a landscape, but, as he said, painted landscapes
for love Characteristic examples are "The
Watering Place," in the National Gallery, Lon-
don, and a landscape of a fine, rolling green
countiyside, in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York Especial mention should be made of his
admirable drawings, which belong to the best
produced by the British school His etchings
also are worthy of mention
Gainsbor ough's portraits are distinguished for
their noble and refined grace, they express al~
GAINSBOROUGH
'THE BLUE BOY," FROM THE ORIGINAL IN THE GROSVENOR GALLERY, LONDON
397
GAIUS
most invanably the moment of unconscious lest
They interpret the winning personality of the
individual rather than such intellectual qualities
as those suggested by Reynolds Often faulty
in drawing-, the artist charms us by his color,
which is cool, fresh, and transparent, the tones
seem to follow each other like the choids of an
instrument, without the slightest intimation of
sepaiation, fading away into a background of
dreamy atmosphere His canvas was thinly
painted with a smooth and swift technique
Of Gainsborough's 300 or more paintings, 220
are portraits, which are better represented in
private than in the public collections of Great
Britain Of his best works the National Galleiy
possesses "Orpen, the Parish Clerk," and "Mis
Siddons,'* a simple and dignified representa-
tion of the great actress, the Wallace collection,
London, has "Pcrdita Robinson" and "Mrs
Ilaverfleld" , the Eoyal Academy, a poitiait of
the artist, the National Gallery, Edmbuigh,
"Mrs Graham," one of his most refined and
beautiful creations Among the finest in Eng-
lish private collections are "The Morning
Walk" and "Mrs Sheridan," belonging to Lord
Rothschild in London, "The Three Ladies," Mr
Alfred Rothschild, London, and the "Blue Boy,"
in Grosvenor House Many of the best of Gains-
borough's poi traits have in recent years been
bought by Americans Thus, Heniy 0 Frick pos-
sesses "Honoiable Annie Duncan", E H Hunt-
ingdon, "Viscount Ligonier," "Countess Ligo-
nier," and f Lady Petne", and George J Gould,
the musician "Abel" — all in New York In the
J P Moigan collection (Metropolitan Museum,
New York) aie three fine examples "Lady
Gideon," "Mrs Tennant," and "Georgiana,
Duchess of Devonshire " The last-named picture,
also called "The Stolen Duchess," attracted
much attention by its theft fioni London and
remarkable leturn by the thieves from Chicago
because of their inability to dispose of so valu-
able a painting The Metropolitan Museum
furtheimore possesses four examples, the best of
which (besides the landscape mentioned above)
as a remarkable portrait of an unknown man,
formerly thought to be Gainsborough himself
Bibliography. The best work on Gains-
borough is Aimstrong, Gainsborough and his
Place in English Art (London, 1898), a model
monogiaph, with scholarly, critical text and
excellent illustrations Consult also the biog-
raphies by Colvin, in Portfolio (London, 1872) ,
Brock- Arnold (ib , 1901), Gower (ib, 1903),
Fletcher (New York, 1904), Fauh (Bielefeld,
1904), Boulton (London, 1905), Moier (Paris,
n d)
GAIBIXNER, JAMES (1828-1912) An Eng-
lish historical writer and editor He was born
and educated at Edinburgh and in 1846 was ap-
pointed a clerk m the Public Record Office As
his peculiar adaptability for the work became
evident, he was rapidly promoted, and he was
made assistant keeper of the public records in
1859 He edited Memorials of Henry VII
(Rolls Series, 1858) , Letters and Papers Illus-
trative of the Reigns of Richard III and Henry
VII (Rolls Series, 1861-63), Historical Col-
lections of a London Oiti&en (Camden Society
Publications, 1876), Letters and Papers of
Henry VIII (Rolls Series, vols v to xv, in con-
tinuation of the work of Professor Brewer,
1&80-96) , Three English Chronicles (1880),
The Paston Letters (Arber reprints, 3 vols ,
1872-75, new ed, 1904) In addition to con-
tributions to the Dictionary of National Biog*
tapliy, the Cambridge Modern History, and the
English Historical Review, he published The
Houses of Lancaster and York (1874) , Life and
Reign of Richard III (1878, revised, 1898),
Studies in English History, with Spedding
(1881) , Henry VII (1889) , The English Church
in the Sixteenth Century (1902) , and Lollatdy
and the Reformation in England (3 vols , 1908-
GAIBBISTEB, SIR WILLIAM TENNANT (1824-
1907) An English physician, boin and edu-
cated at Edinburgh From 1802 to 1900 he was
professor of medicine at the University of Glas-
gow m 1863-72, also serving as chief medical
officer of the city of Glasgow He took an
active interest in securing reforms in municipal
sanitation, and the enactment of the Glasgow
Improvement Act in 1867 was due chiefly to his
initiative His publications include On the
Pathology of Bionchitis, and the Diseases Con-
nected until Bronchial Obstruction (1850) ,
Clinical Medicine, Observations Recorded at
the Bedside, with Commentaiies (1S62), On
the Function of Articulate Speech) and its Con-
nection luith the Hand and the Bodily Organs
(1866) , The Physician as 'Naturalist (1889) ,
The Thtee Things that Abide (1903)
G-AISEKIC See GENSEBIO
aAIS'FQIlD, THOMAS (1779-1855) A dis-
tinguished English classical scholar, bom at
Ilford After studying at Christ Church, Ox-
ford, he was appointed regius professoi of
Greek at the university (1812) and dean of
Christ Church (1831-55). Frorn 1815 to 1847
he was rector of the parish of Westwell Be-
sides his elaborate edition of the Enchiridion of
Hephsestioii (1810), with which he first won
lecogmtion as a critic, his valuable publications
include an edition of the Poetce Grc&ci Mmores
(1814-20), of Stobseus (1822), of Herodotus
(1824), of Sophocles (1826), of the lexicon of
Suidas (Oxfoid, 1834), of the Parocmiographi
(-trceci (1836), of the flcriptores Latmi Rei
Metrical (1837), of the Etymologicum Magnum
(1844), and of Eusebms (1842-52) Consult
Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship, vol
111 (Cambridge, 1908)
GAISSIN, gl'sfn The capital of a district
in the Russian Government of Podolia, situated
on the Sobi, a tributary of the Bug, 180 miles
east of Kamenetz-Podolsk The chief occupa-
tion of the inhabitants is agriculture, the manu-
facturing industries of the town being insignifi-
cant Pop, 1897, 9393
GAITE, ga'ta', TH^ATEE DE LA (Fr, Gaiety
Theatre) One of the oldest theatres of Paris,
originating in marionette shows instituted by
Nicolet in 1753 A theatre was established in
1759 on the Boulevard du Temple, and in 1807,
when the number of Paris theaties was re-
stricted to eight by Napoleon, the Gaite was
among those letained, presenting vaudeville,
drama, and spectacular pieces On the destruc-
tion of part of the boulevard in 1862, a new
house was built in the Place des Arts et Metiers
and is the present home of the theatre Among
the many directors was Offenbach, under whom
the operetta came into special prominence, but
at the present time performances of all kinds
are given Consult L H Lecomte, Histoire des
theatres de Pans (2 vols, Pans, 1905), and G
Cam, Les theatres du Boulevard ( ib , 1906 )
GA'ITJS A Roman jurist of the age of •&*
Antomnes, and the chief source of our knowl*
GAITO
398
GALAGO
edge of Roman law prior to Justinian His
personal history is almost entirely unknown,
and almost every subject connected with him a
matter of controversy It us not known whether
he was a Roman citizen, a foreigner, or a f reed-
man As to the precise age of Gams, this
much is certain, that before the revision of the
Roman laws and the reform of legal education
by Justinian, the Institutes of Gams, as well as
four others of his treatises, were the received
textbooks of the schools of law His Institutes,
moreover, foimed the groundwork of the Insti-
tutes of Justinian From his being thus pre-
feired to Ulpian or Papmian, it is not to be
inferred that he lived after them, but only that
his work was more popular The latest jurist
whom he cites is Salvius Julianus, who lived
under Hadrian, and the latest Imperial edict
is one of Antoninus Pius, whence it may fairly
be concluded that he survived Antoninus and
orobably wrote under his successor
The works of Gams were largely used in the
compilation of the Digest of Justinian, which
contains no fewer than 535 extracts from his
writings The principal are The Edictum Pro-
vinciale, in 32 books, the Aurea, in seven, the
Edictum Urbicum, On Trusts, On Mortgages,
and, above all, the Institutes, in four books
The last-named work is that by which Gaius is
chiefly known, and it was piobably the earliest
complete and systematic textbook of Roman law
Although it was the basis of Justinian's Insti-
tutes, both as to its matter and its division, yet
it was completely superseded by that work and
after a time was entirely lost, the only knowl-
edge of it which remained being that which was
gathered from the detached extracts in the
Digest, and from the Breviary of Alanc (qv),
or code of the Visigoths, which was known to
be derived from it In 1816 Niebuhr, while on
his way to Rome, discovered, in a palimpsest
manuscript in the library of the Chapel of
Verona, portions of the work of some ancient
jurisconsult, which were soon afterward pro-
nounced by Savigny to be a part of the Insti-
tutes of Gaius On the publication of his report
the Berlin Academy of Sciences commissioned
two German scholars, Goschen and Hollweg, in
1817, to make a copy of the entire palimpsest,
which consists of 127 sheets Nine-tenths of
the entire work was recovered, and was pub-
lished in 1821 by Goschen, and again, after a
fresh collation of the manuscript, by Blume in
1824. A third and much-improved edition by
Lachmann appeared in 1842 A comparative
edition of the Institutes of Gaius and Justinian,
by Klenze and Booking, appealed at Berlin in
1829.
The first book was translated into German in
1824 by Von Brockdorff, and the entire work
has been translated into French three several
times — by Baulet in 1826, by Domenget in
1843, and by Pellat in 1844 In England it has
been translated, with notes, by Poste ( 4th ed ,
1905), and by Abdy and Walker (1886), the
latter work containing also the text and
translation of Ulpian's Fragments Consult
Huschke, "Zur Kritik und Interpretation von
Gaius Institutionen," in his Studien des romi-
schen Rechts (Breslau, 1830), also Maekeldey's
Handbook of the Roman Law, translation (Phil-
adelphia, 1883) , Ortolan, The History of the
Roman Law, tianslation (London, 1896) , Sa-
vigny, System des heutigen romischen Rechts
(Berlin, 1840-49), Stephenson, History of Ro-
man Law, with a Commentary on the Institutes
of ttaius and Justinian (Boston, 1912)
GAJ, gi, LJITDEVIT (1809-72) A Slavic
writer and agitator, born at Krapina, Croatia,
and educated at Vienna, Gratz, Leipzig, and
Pest, where he came under the influence of
Kollar (qv) In 1835 he founded the No vine
Htvatsle (Croatian News) — a title afterward
changed to Ilvrske Narodne N ovine (III yuan
National News), while a literary supplement
was separately issued as Danica IhrsLa (The
Illynan Day-Star) These rapidly became popu-
lar and were followed by similar publications
and by the establishment of patriotic societies
of every description The movement thus or-
ganized, which was largely instrumental in unit-
ing the Croats and Serbs in their antagonism
to the Magyars, excited considerable opposition
in Hungary, and m 1843 the word "Illynan"
was prohibited Nevertheless, tlnough the ef-
forts of Gaj, a literary bond had been estab-
lished among the southern Slavs of the Hun-
garian crown One of bis patriotic songs, en-
titled "Jos Hrvatska mj5 propala" (Cioatia is
not yet lost), was extremely popular in its day
He also reformed the Croatian orthogiaphy after
the analogy of the Czech Consult the chapter
on Gaj in Leger, Series, Croat es et Bulyares
(Paris, 1013)
GALABAT, ga'la-bat', or KALABAT A
small district in the north westein pait of Abys-
sinia, adjoining Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Area,
about 1540 square miles, pop, 20,000 It was
formerly an Egyptian province and is settled
by Tokiuris from Darfur Prior to the Italian-
Abyssinian War it was in the Italian sphere of
influence, but at present it forms an integral
part of Abyssinia Metarnneh (Matama), the
chief town, is situated close to the Egyptian
frontier and was commercially important prior
to the Mahdi uprising in 1883 The population
of the town is estimated at 8000
GALAC'TAGOGTTE. A medicine that in-
creases the lacteal secretion, The value of ga-
lactagogues in increasing the flow of milk from
the breast is somewhat doubtful The only drug
that approaches a true specific action is pilocar-
pus, and its action is very transient Anti-
galactagogues are drugs which have the opposite
action Belladonna and potassium iodide are
the most useful drugs given for this purpose
GALAC'TIC CIBCLE A great cncle of the
celestial sphere, passing appioximately through
the centre of the Galaxy, or Milky Way Ac-
cording to Herschel, the northern pole of this
circle lies in the constellation Coma Berenices,
its declination being -j-27° and its right ascen-
sion 12 hours, 47 minutes See GALAXY
GALAC'TODEN'imOiKr (Neo-Lat, from Gk
yd\a, gala, milk -f- devdpovj dendron, tree), or
Cow TREE A tree of the family Urticacese,
indigenous to tropical South America, variously
called Brosimum galactodendron, Galaotoden-
dton utile, and by the common names palo de
vaoa, and palo de leche When tapped, it yields
a milky juice which in its native countries is
used in tea and coffee, turns sour on exposure
to the air, and deposits a caseic substance It
is closely related to the breadfruit (Artooarpus
mcisa), the breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum) ,
and to the fig (Ficus canca)
GALAC'TOSE. See SUGARS
GALACZ, ga/lats See GALATZ
GALAGO, ga-la'gO A genus of lemurs,
locally known as Bush Babies, native to the
GALAHAB 3g
continent of Africa, where various species aie
scattered from Senegal (whence the name is
said to have come) to Natal, none, however,
being found in Madagascar, where other lemurs
abound They vary in size fiom the bigness of
a cat to that of a mouse and are some shade
of gray or brown in color They differ from the
other lemurs in dentition, and conspicuously in
the po\\er of folding lengthwise, and laying close
to the head, their unusually large and naked
ears, their tails aie long and bushy, and their
hind legs of gieat length proportionately, due
to the elongation of the bones of the ankle and
foot They are confined to forested regions,
dwell in the trees, about which they leap with
extraordinary agility, and where the smaller
species are said to make nests resembling those
of the mouse lemurs, but frequently go upon
the giound, wheie their customary attitude is
sitting upright on their haunches They feed
upon insects, buds' eggs, fruit, etc, searching
for these things mainly at night, and spending
the day culled up asleep in some tree ciotch or
within the clustered fronds of a palm They
thrive well in captivity and are active and inter-
esting when wakeful The species longest known
is that from Senegal (Q-alago senegalensis ) , one
of the smaller ones, also found throughout equa-
torial Africa, a closely allied species (Galago
mahoh) ranges from the lower Zambezi to Na-
tal The largest species are those of the west
coast (Gal ago crassicaudata and montein) ,
the least, DermdoiPs galago, is only 5 inches
long Consult Elliot, A Review of the Pnmates
(New Yoik, 1913)
GAI/AHAD, SIR The son of Launcelot and
Elaine, and the purest knight of the Round
Table, who alone was able to sit in the Siege
Perilous and to recover the Holy Grail He
saw and touched the Lord's body and died He
is the hero of Walter Map's Quest of the Holy
Grail Consult Morley, English Writers, vol
in (London, 1887-90) See GEAIL, THE HOLY
GA'LAM BUTTER TBEE See BUTTER
GAI/AJSTGALE (AS gallengar, from OF
gahngal, garmgal, from galange, galangue, galan-
gale, from ML galanga, from Ar khalanjan,
khdtinj&n, from Pers khulmjan, khavalinjan,
galangale, from Chin Ka-hang-1wang, mild gin-
ger of Ko, or Kao-chow-fu, m the Province of
Canton, from Zo, or Kao, name of a province
+ hang, mild + kwng, ginger), Alpmia A ge-
nus of plants embracing 30 or 40 species of the
family Zmgiberacese, with perennial stems, ter-
minal inflorescence, succulent fruit, and root-
stocks which when full-grown possess aromatic
stimulating properties similar to those of gin-
ger, for which it is much used in the East The
pure galangale is the product of Alpinia galanga
and Alpima officinarum, natives of and culti-
vated in, the Eastern Archipelago It has a
stem 6 or 7 feet high, broad leaves, and a
branched panicle of greenish-white flowers The
rootstoek, when young, yields a kind of arrow-
root and is used as an article of food The root-
stocks of Kcempferia galanga are used in a
similar manner and the roots of a common
British sedge, Oyperus longus, have similar
properties
GALAltf'THTJS A genus of spring-blooming
bulbs of the family Amaryllidaceae, popularly
known as snowdrops They are natives of Eu-
rope and western Asia, and about thzee species
axe known. The flowers, wfrick appear often be-
fore the snow has melted, aie normally solitary,
pendulous, on scapes a few inches long, and with
few exceptions volute and gieen The leaves,
which appear with the flowers, but develop more
slowly, are grasshke, and last usually until niid-
summei Due to their easy culture, cheapness,
extieme hardiness, and early blooming habit,
snowdrops are general favorites The bulbs are
planted a few inches deep in good soil, fre-
quently on the borders of lawns, in midautumn,
and allowed to shift for themselves, which they
often do to the great satisfaction of the giower
where conditions are specially congenial These
conditions are partial shade, cool soil, and
moistuie
GALAOH, grd'a-Or Son of Pehon, King- of
Gaul, and brother of Amadis of Gaul
GA'LAPA'GOS ISLANDS (fifp won ga-
la'pa-gos), (Sp, toitoise) A group of small
volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, crossed by
the equator and extending from about long 89°
to 92° W, about 600 miles west of Ecuador, to
which it belongs (Map America, South, A 2)
It consists of the larger islands of Albemarle,
Indefatigable, Chatham, James, and Charles, and
a number of smaller islands The total area of
the group is estimated at 2870 square miles, of
which Albemarle occupies over one-half The
islands are volcanic in origin and mountainous.
There are supposed to exist a number of moie or
less active volcanoes. The climate is less hot
than is usual in regions of that latitude, owing
to the cool Peruvian current, and the flora,
though not rich, is interesting, including species
peculiar to the group or even to separate islands
Turtles are very numerous and form the chief
product There is some sugar growing on the
island of Chatham, and cattle are xaised to some
extent The population is about 400 The group
was known in the sixteenth century and was
frequently visited by buccaneers, to whom the
islands are probably indebted for their English
names They were annexed to Ecuador in 1832
and explored by Darwin in 1858 In 1911 pro-
posals were made for the lease of the Galapagos
as a manoeuvre base for the United States navy,
but the project caused popular tumult in Ecua-
dor and was lelmquished
The Galapagos Islands are of extreme interest
to zoologists m view of the peculiarities of their
fauna and the bearing the facts have upon the
evolutionary history of animals It was the
observation of them, during the voyage of the
Beagle, which more than any other set of facts,
perhaps, led Darwin to his subsequent specu-
lations, and they figure largely in the reason-
ings of himself, Wallace, and all other evolu-
tionists While in general the fauna resembles
that of South America (see NEOTROPICAL RE-
GION), it is remarkable for having almost no
species m common with the continent, and a
great paucity of all forms of life except birds
The flora of the group is scanty, and more than
half of its species are found nowhere else, so
that it is natural to find that the land shells,
insects (mainly beetles), etc, are few and pe-
culiar Reptiles are represented by the famous
giant tortoises, two species of snakes and four of
lizards Of the last, two are of genera confined
to the islands One is a large burrowing igua-
nid, and the other "an aquatic modification" of
the same, living a semimanne life and subsisting
on seaweeds The giant tortoises, now greatly
decreased in numbers, were formerly extremely
numerous and tame and reached a huge size
GALAPAS
400
GALATTA
'{See TORTOISE ) The islands weie named after
shera, and there were several species, each in-
habiting a separate part of the archipelago The
only mammals were a mouse and a rat, which
there is much reason to believe escaped from
some earlv ship and had time to become modified
by the time they were discovered by naturalists
Birds abound and present many interesting
facts While their resemblance on the \vhole is
to the avifauna, of Central and South America,
some extiaordmary relationships to the Ha-
waiian fauna are appaient Foity-six geneia,
according to Ridgway (1896), are represented
on the islands, 28 of which are water birds
wandering throughout the American tropics One
rail (Ncsofeha)^ is peculiar, and a sandpipei is
known elsewhere only m the Sandwich Islands
Of the 13 genera of land buds, six are also
represented in South and Central Amenca, one
(the bobohnk) in North America, and four
genera aie peculiar, two of them are thrush-
like buds, and two are ground spairows These
genera include a large number of species not
knov\n outside of the archipelago A striking
feature in all branches of the local zoology is
the specific disparity between animals peculiar
to the different islands, each of which has its
own kind The various facts lead to the belief
that an immense period of time has elapsed since
the islands were colonized, that this must have
gone on veiy slowly and accidentally (except in
the case of most birds), and at long mteivals,
and that to a great extent theie has been no
intercommunication of animal life between the
\arious islands The aiclupelago is also a most
fruitful illustiation of insular influences on ani-
mal life and of the effects of isolation (qv)
Consult Darwin, A Natwalist's Voyage (Lon-
don, 1866) , Wallace, Geographical Distribution
of Animals (New York, 1876) , Salvin, Transac-
tions of the Zoological Society, vol ix (London,
1876) , Kidgway, "Birds of the Galapagos," m
Proceedings of the United States National Mu-
seum, vol xix (Washington, 1896), and its bib-
liography, Gifford, "Birds of the Galapagos," in
Proceedings California Academy of Sciences
(San Fiancisco, 1913).
GAX/APAS* A great giant, m Maloiy's
Morte d> Arthur, with whom King Arthur fights
GALASHIELS, gSl'a-sli&z' A municipal
burgh and manufacturing town in Selknkshire,
Scotland (Map Scotland, 3J1 4) It extends for
2 miles along the Gala Water, near its con-
fluence with, the Tweed; 33 miles south-southeast
of Edinburgh It has fine municipal buildings, a
corn exchange, and a library It is the chief
seat of the Scotch tweed, tartan, and leather
manufactures, also produces dyestuffs, hosiery,
iron and brass wai e, and machinery The annual
value of its products is over $5,000,000 The
LTnited States is represented by a con&ular
agent In 1599 Galashiels was created a burgh
of barony, and its woolen trade dates beyond
1778, when it possessed 30 looms and three
"waulk" or fulling mills Pop, 1901, 13,598;
1911, 14,917 Consult Craig-Brown, History of
Selkirkshire (Edinburgh, 1886), and Douglas,
History of the Border Counties (ib, 1899)
GAL AT A, ga-la'ta A suburb of Constanti-
nople ( q v ) The thirteenth region or ward of
Byzantine times It was largely settled by
Venetian and Genoese traders engaged in the
trade of the Levant The descendants of these
Italians constitute to-day the "Levantines" of
Constantinople, many of whom dwell in Galata
The commercial activity of the Tuikish capital
is centred laigely in this subuib at piesent
GAL' ATE' A (Lat, from Gk PaXareia, Qala-
teia] 1 In Greek mythology, a Nereid, loved
by Polyphemus She was surpiised bv the latter
in a grotto with her preferred lover Acis, -whom
Polyphemus in a fit of jealousy ciushed \\ith a
lock Acis was turned into a sticam In other
legends Galatea becomes by Polyphemus the
mothei of Galas The myth has been a favorite
subject for poets and sculptors of ancient and
modern times In English hteratuie it is used
in Gay's Acis and Galatea, Proctor's Death of
Acis, Buchanan's Polyphemus Passion, and Aus-
tin Dobbons Tale of Pohjpheme 2 A statue
miraculously endowed with life by Venus at the
prayer of the sculptor Pygmalion (qv ) 3 In
Vergil's Third Eclogue, a shepherdess ^lio
throws an apple to her lover, Damoetas, and flees
to the sheltei of the willows, taking caie, how-
ever, to be seen, hence a type of the coquette
GALATEA 1 A pastoral, in prose foim in-
terspersed ttith lyrics, wntten by Cervantes in
honor of his future wife, in 1583 2 A play
(originally spelled G&Uathea), produced before
Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, London, on Jan
1, 1582 The scene is laid in North Lincoln-
shire, but the piece is directly taken from Ovid's
Metamorphoses, book ix
GALATEA The challengei in the laces for
the America's cup in 1886, when she was twice
beaten by the Mayfoi^e^ She was a steel cutter,
built at Port Glasgow in 1885, from designs by
Beavor-Webb Her length was 102 feet, with a
displacement of 157 tons and a draft of 13%
feet
GALATEA, TRIUMPH OF A beautiful fresco
in the Villa Farnesma at Eome, designed and
executed by Kaphael in 1514 It repiesents the
sea nymph drawn in a shell by dolphins over a
calm sea and accompanied by nereids and cupids.
See RAPHAEL
GALATEE, ga'la'ti' 1 A pastoral romance
by Florian (1783), the most successful of his
works It is drawn largely from a pastoial of
Cervantes, which Florian supplemented with an
additional book 2 A two-act comic opera,
based on the story of Pygmalion and Galatea,
with music by Masse and words by Carre and
Barbier, presented at the Opera Comique in 1852
GALATIA, ga-Il'shl-a (Lat, from Gk TaXa-
rict) The ancient name of a portion of Asia
Minor, so called from the Gauls (Gk raXdrcu)
who settled there Early in the third century
BC Celtic aiimes appealed in the Balkan Penin-
sula, and, though driven fioni Greece by their
defeat at Delphi, about 278 B 0 , continued to
terrify Thrace (See BKENNUS, 2 ) About 277
B c the first bands entered Asia Mmoi on the
invitation of Nicomedes, King of Bithynia,
whose service they at first entered in his war
with his brother. They were from three tribes
— Tolistobogn, Tectosages, and Trocmi Of
these, the first invaded JEolia and Ionia, in the
neighborhood of Pessmus (q v ) , the Tectosages,
the interior, about Ancyra (see ANGORA) , and
the Trocmi, the coast lands of the Hellespont,
around Tavium Northern Phrygia and the
border regions of Cappadocia were latei con-
quered as a permanent home Eaeh of the
three tribes was divided into four teti archies,
and the 12 tetrarchs formed the supreme govern-
ment, with a council of 400 as advisers The
Gauls did not settle in the cities, where the
native population continued with but little
GKALATIANS
401
GALATIANS
change, but, serving as meieenanes in the aiinies
of the G-reek kings of the East, made the neigh-
boring territories pay tribute to escape then
ravages A succession of defeats at the hands
of Attalus I of Pergamum, about 235 EC, seems
to have checked their mcuisions and to have
confined them to their later boundaries between
Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the north, Pontus
on the east, Cappadocia and Lycaoma on the
south, and Phiygia on the west Having sided
with Antiochus against the Romans, the Gala-
tians weie severely punished by the consul Cn
Manhus Vulso, 189 B c They sided with Pom-
peiua against Mithndates, and the Romans gave
one of the tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the title of King
After the death of his successoi, Amyntas, Au-
gustus made the country a Roman piovmee,
divided undei Theodosius into G-alatia pnma,
with the capital Ancyra, and G-alatia vecunda,
with the capital Pessinus The majority of the
Gauls of Galatia retained then old Celtic lan-
guage as late as the time of Jerome (fourth
century), who says that they spoke the samo
dialect as the people about Treves, it is certain,
however, that the ruling classes, like the oiigi-
nal inhabitants, used Gieek Galaiia was twice
visited by the Apostle Paul (Acts xvi 6, xvm
23 ) Just what part of the province was visited
is not cleai In the latter passage what is
meant is evidently the Lycaonian part of the
Roman province Galatia, in which were the cities
Derbe, Lystra, and Iconmm, and also, piobably,
the Pisidian part, in which Antioch belonged
In xvi 6 the meaning is more uncertain, since
we do not know just where the missionaries
turned northward, but here also it is impossi-
ble that old Galatia proper is meant Probably
the churches of Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium,
Lystra, and Derbe, founded by Paul on his fiist
missionary tour (Acts xm-xiv), were among
the churches to which the Epistle to the Gala-
tians was addressed In so addiessmg his letter,
Paul evidently had in mind the relation of his
readers to the Empire, not their various ethnic
affinities
Bibliography Droysen, OeschicJite des Eel-
lenismus, vol in (Gotha, 1877) , Van Gelder,
Oalatarum Res in Q-razcia, et Asia 0-estcs (Am-
sterdam, 1888), Stahelm, Geschichte dei Jclein-
asiatischen 0-alater (Basel, 1897) , Holm, His-
tory of Q-reece, vol iv (London, 1898) , Perrot,
Exploration arch&ologique de la Galatie et de Id
Bithyme (Pans, 1863-72), Ramsay, Historical
Geography of Asia Mvnor (London, 1890) ,
Church, in The Roman Empire (ib , 1893),
Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire
(New York, 1887) , Humann und Puchstein,
Reisen in Kleinasien (Berlin, 1893), Texier,
Asie Mineure (Paris, 1835) , Anderson and
Crowfoot, Journal of Hellenic Studies (London,
1899), Ramsay, Historical Commentary on St
Paul's Epistle to the G-alatmns (ib, 1899),
the article "Galatia" in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-
Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumsiwssen-
sohaft, vol vn (Stuttgart, 1912)
GrALATIAIsTS, ga-la'shanz, EPISTLE OF PAUL
TO THE One of the four so-called Haupfbriefe
( i e , most important epistles ) of the Apostle
Paul The introductory paragraph (i 1-10) is
marked by unusual earnestness and self-assertion,
indicating how intense was the Apostle's emo-
tion when he wiote the letter The first main
division (i ll^n 21) is of a personal and apolo-
getic nature, being a vigorous defense of the
validity of Jhis apostolic status and of the genu-
ineness of the gospel he professed and pieached
The next mam division (111 l~v 12) is definitely
doctrinal in character and unfolds the real sig-
nificance of the gospel — salvation as being
through faith, not woiks The Apostle heie has
in niind a diffeient and contraiy view of the
gospel and his whole argument is flamed to
contiovrert the erroneous opinions to which the
Galatians were in danger of yielding The third
mam section (v 13-vi 10) is of a piactical
natme, containing advice as to the true marks
of the Christian life The conclusion (vi 11-17)
is a serious reiteration of the main contention
of the letter, penned apparently by Paul's own
hanci instead of being written by the aman-
uensis at Paul's dictation
The occasion of the letter is cleai ly revealed
by its contents Paul's Galatian converts, who
owed their Christian faith to his evangelistic
work among them, and who had given them-
selves most heartily and unreservedly to the
gospel he had pleached and to him as a true
Apostle of the Lord (cf 111 1-5 and iv 12-20),
\\eie being persuaded to accept a so-called gos-
pel of an entirely different type, in which cir-
cumcision and legal obseivances took the place
of faith in God's grace in Christ as the all-
sufficient ground of salvation In othei woids,
a Judaizing propaganda was being earned on in
one of Paul's own missionary fields, a propa-
ganda similar to that which made necessary the
Apostolic Council of which we read in Acts xv ,
and also probably in this Epistle (chap n 1-
10), which took place c49 AD That which dis-
turbed Paul so profoundly was that these propa-
gandists should have presumed to invade one of
his own mission fields and seek to undo his
work by insinuating (1) that he was no true
Apostle and (2) that his gospel was no true
gospel The issue thus raised was a vital one
Paul saw clearly how much was at stake For
if Christianity was only a mere appendage to
Judaism, then its distinctive character was gone
Paul championed the independence of Chris-
tianity and the Christian's hbwty (v 1) in
Christ and thus cheeked the Judamng reaction
which, had it been successful, would have put
an end to the triumph of Christianity m the
Gentile world
The "Churches of Galatia" to whom the letter
is addressed may have been the churches founded
by Paul and Barnabas on the first missionary
journey (Acts xm-xiv), le, at Antioeh. of
Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, all of which
were within the limits of the Roman Province
of Galatia This view, the so-called Soutn-
Galatian theory, has had the strong support of
many able scholars during the past few decades
Among British scholars its foremost champion
is Sir W M Ramsay, who has found a large
following Its chief attraction is that through
Acts xui-xiv we are able to know something
definite as to the origin and character of the
churches addressed
The older view, the so-called North-Galatian
theory, still held by a large number ot very
able scholars, holds that the churches addressed
weie m old Galatia proper and were founded
by Paul on his second missionary journey, of
which work we have an obscure hint in Acts
xvi 6, also a hint of a second visit in Acts
xvin 23, cf Gal iv 13 (where "the first time,"
Gk 7rp6repQv, may have its literal meaning of
"the former," i e , of two visits) The question
is a complicated one, and the arguments in
GbftXATINA
402
0AI.BA
favor of eithei one of the two theories are foo
nearly balanced by those in favor of the other
that a final decision of the problem seems
impossible The date of the Epistle is also a
matter of dispute On the North-Galatian theory
it must have been written after the visit of Acts
xvui 23 and probably after his arrival at
Ephesus (Acts xix 1), to which place he came
not long after having visited the region of Ga-
latia. How long it was, after leaving his
churches in a satisfactory condition, before Paul
received the surprising news that compelled him
to write the letter, is nowhere indicated (m
i 6 "so quickly," K V, refers simply to the
suddenness of the change of opinion) The view
that seems to have most in its favor is that the
letter was written soon after Paul left Ephesus
(Acts xx. 1 ff ) while en route to Corinth
Galatians, on this view, was written after 2
Corinthians, and not long before Komans, which
in many respects enlarges and develops the
argument of Galatians
On the South- Galatian theory, in case Trpcrt-pov
(iv 13) means simply "formerly," many dates,
including the one preferred above, are possible
But if rrporepov is taken m its strict compara-
tive sense, then the epistle cannot have been
written later than some time between the sec-
ond and third missionary journeys Many ad-
vocates of the South-Galatian theory consider
it the earliest of Paul's extant letters
The literature on Galatians is very extensive
and constantly increasing The older literature
is fully listed in J B Lightfoot's great com-
mentary (llth ed, 1892) The more recent
literature will be found adequately presented in
James Moffat's Introduction to the Literature
of the New Testament (New York, 1911) A
carefully balanced survey of the two rival the-
ories will be found in Encyclopedia, Bibhca,
art Galatia (4 vols, ib, 1899-1903) Con-
sult also Zahn, Introduction to the New Testa-
ment (Edinburgh, 1909) ; Kirsopp Lake, The
Earlier Epistles of Paul (London, 1911) , the
forthcoming commentary by E D Burton m
the International Critical Commentary , and for
exegesis the very suggestive study by Frederick
B Westcott, St Paul and Justification (Lon-
don, 1913)
GALATIiNA, ga'la-te'na A city in the
Province of Lecce, south Italy, 45 miles south-
east of Brmdisi, 14 miles south of Lecce The
fine Gothic church of Santa Caterma, dating
from 1384, contains the grave of Balzo Orsim,
Count of Lecce, and frescoes by Francesco
d' Arezzo ( 1435 ) . Galatma markets leather, oil,
wine, and cotton, and has a gymnasium and a
technical school Pop (commune), 1901, 14,000,
1911, 15,400.
(JALATZ, galats, or GALACZ (Rum. 6te-
lati] A city of Rumania, in Moldavia, situ-
ated on the left fcank of the Danube, between
the mouths of the Pruth and the Sereth (Map
Balkan Peninsula, F 2) It is divided into the
old and the new town The latter is well built
and is the seat of a bishop and of the European
commission for the control of navigation on the
Danube There are numerous extensive store-
houses, grain elevators, a shipyardj and a large
bazar Galatz is one of the leading ports on the
Danube The imports, for the most part, consist
of textiles and metal goods; the exports are
mainly cereals, cattle, and lumber The annual
shipping amounts to about 1,000,000 tons There
are numerous foreign consular agents Pop ,
1890, 59 143, 1899, 62,678, 1909, 66,000 Galatz
figuied prominently in the ^ars between Russia
and Turkey. It was a fiee port pievious to
1883
GALAUP, J F DE See LAP^ROUSE
GAI/AXY (from Lat galaxias, Gk ya\a&as,
galaxias, milky way, from 7<£Xa, gala, milk), or
MILKY WAY The luminous band, seen at night,
which forms a zone encircling the sphere almost
in a great circle This great zone has occupied
the same position in the heavens since the
earliest ages Its couise, as traced by the naked
eye, following the line of its gieatest brightness,
conforms nearly to that of a great circle, called
the "galactic circle," which is inclined at an
angle of about 62° 30' to the equator, and cuts it
in two points whose right ascensions are 6 h
47 m and 18 h 47 m , the former situated in
Monoeeros, the latter in Aquila In Centaurus
it opens up into two branches — one faint and
interrupted, the other bright and continuous —
which unite again in Cygnus after remaining
distinct for about 120° Throughout this space
the galactic circle is intermediate to the two
branches, lying nearer the brighter and more
continuous left branch The Galaxy is wanting
in regularity of outline Besides the two great
branches into which it divides, it has many
smaller ones which spring out from it One
such branch runs out towards Scorpio and en-
velops the bright star Antares In Argo the un-
divided stream diffuses itself very broadly and
opens out into a fanlike expanse of interlacing
branches nearly 20° in breadth In the same
region the branches terminate abruptly, and a
wide gap presents itself in the zone, on the op-
posite side of which it recommences its course
with a similar assemblage of branches At
other points its course is irregular, patchy, and
winding, while at more than one point, in the
midst of its brightest parts, broad dark spaces
occur One of these, known from early times
among navigators as the "coal sack," is a singu-
lar pear-shaped vacancy about 8° long and 5°
broad, occurring in the centre of a bright area
overlying portions of the constellations of the
Cross and Centaur The coal sack occupies
about half the breadth of this bright space and
presents only one star visible to the naked eye,
though it contains many telescopic stars Its
blackness, which attracts the most superficial
observer, is thus due to the contrast with the
brilliant ground by which it is surrounded
Other dark spaces are to he found in Cygnus
and Sagittarius The Galaxy was examined by
Sir William Herschel with his powerful tele-
scope and found to be composed mainly of stars,
with patches of nebulosity which even the best
modern instruments have been unable to resolve
Modern photographic researches have added but
little to HerschePs observations as to the struc-
ture of the Galaxy, but some of his conclusions
concerning the form of the sidereal universe are
no longer tenable See STAB
GAL'BA, SERVIUS SUIPICIUS 1. A Roman
feneral, notorious because, when praetor in
pain, in 151 BO, he murdered some Lusitam-
ans, with their wives and children, after they
had been induced to surrender to him by prom-
ises of grants of land In Cicero's opinion he
was the foremost orator of his time 2 (5sc-
69 A D ) Roman Emperor from June, 68 A D
to Jan 15, 69 Born of a noble and wealthy
family, he was raised to the consulship in 33,
and, in the administration of the Province of
403
GALE
Aqmtania under Tiberius, of Germany under
Caligula, of Africa under Claudius, and of His-
pania Tariaconensis under Nero, he distin-
guished himself for bravery, strictness, and jus-
tice His friends had urged him, on the death
of Caligula, to take possession of the throne,
but he continued faithful to Claudius and there-
foie stood high in his favor In 68 Julius Vm-
dex rose with the Gallic legions against Nero
and called on Galba to assume the Imperial dig-
nity and thus rid the earth of its oppressor
Galba, who had been informed that Nero was
contriving his death, came forward against him
at first as the legate of the Roman people, and
it was only when he heard of Nero's death that
he proceeded to Rome to take possession of the
throne offered him by the Pisetonans. Galba
was now upward of 70 years old, and it soon
appeared that his character had deteriorated,
as, indeed, had already been manifested in his
later administrations Indulgence to greedy
favorites, ill-timed severity — above all, avarice,
which led him to withhold the usual donatives
to the troops — made him unpopular The legions
in Upper Germany called on the Prsetorians to
choose another emperor, Galb'a thought to soothe
them by adopting L Calpurmus Piso Frugi
Licimanus as his coadjutor and successor, but
he thus offended Otho (qv ), who, as adminis-
trator of Lusitania, had supported Galba and
looked to be rewarded The Prsetorians, who
had received no donative on the occasion of
Piso's adoption, were easily excited to insurrec-
tion by Otho, and the Emperor, having gone out
to quell the rebellion, was cut down by the
soldiers as he crossed the Forum Consult the
lives by Plutarch and Suetonius, and Henderson,
Civil War and Rebellion in the Roman Empire
(London, 1908)
GAI/BANUM (Lat., from Gk xaXp&wi, chal-
bane, from Heb Lhebenah, galbanum, from kha-
lab, to be fat). A soft, ductile, white gum
resin used in medicine like asafoetida, principally
in cases of chronic catarrh, and, especially by
the Germans, in amenorrhoea and chronic
rheumatism. Though sometimes applied ex-
ternally in plasters as a mild stimulant in
indolent swellings, it is generally administered
in the form of the compound galbanum pill,
which contains galbanum, sagapenum, asafoetida,
myrrh, and soft soap It is brought from the
Levant in tears or in large masses, which be-
come yellowish with age, and which have a pe-
culiar balsamic odor and an acrid, bitter taste
Although it is mentioned in Ex xxx 34, the
plant from which it is derived has not been
definitely determined Since Polylophium ori-
entale, Ferula galbamflua, and Ferula rubri-
cauhs, all of the family Umbelhferse, have been
supposed to be the source of galbanum, it is
highly probable that it is the product of an
umbelliferous plant But the confidence with
which the species have been so represented has
perhaps prevented travelers from making that
inquiry into the subject which otherwise they
might have made Peucedanum galbanum, a
plant of this order found at the Cape of Good
Hope, yields a gum resin very similar to gal-
banum See GUMS
GALBBAITH, gaFbrath, JOHN (1846-1914)
A Canadian civil engineer and educator He
was born in Montreal and was educated at
Toronto University, where he graduated in 1868
at the head of his class After a course in en-
gineering and surveying he was employed at
various times as an engineer during the construc-
tion of the Intercolonial, Midland, and Canadian
Pacific railways In 1880 he organized a jour-
ney of exploration from Georgian Bay to Fort
Churchill on James Bay, and then easterly to
Lake Mistassim Upon the opening in Toronto
in 1878 of the School of Practical Science for
Ontario, he was appointed professor of civil en-
gineering therein, and in 1889 he became princi-
pal of the school Later he was also made dean
of the faculty of applied science and engineering
in Toronto University Galbraith was one of
the founders of the Canadian Society of Civil
Engineers, of which he was elected president in
1908 He was also elected an associate of the
Institute of Civil Engineers, England, and vice
president of the Canadian Institute, Toronto
After the collapse in 1907 of the great Inter-
colonial Railway bridge across the St Law-
rence Raver near Quebec, he was appointed a
member of the Royal Commission to investigate
and leport thereon
GALCHAS, gal'chaz The designation of a
number of tribes in the plateaus and valleys of
the Pamir and Hindu Kush, in Ferghana, the
basins of the Zerafshan, Amu Darya, etc, who
physically belong to the white race and linguis-
tically to the Aryan stock They are generally
thickset, brachycephalic, and in some other re-
spects-resemble what Ripley (1899) calls "the
ideal Alpine or Celtic European race" — a rela-
tionship recognized by Topinard in 1878, and
since then by Ujfalvy, etc They are thus one
of the farthest Aryan outliers in Central Asia
In religion they profess, mostly, Islam of the
Sunnite creed Since their residence in this
region their physical characteristics have been
somewhat modified by intermixture with other
peoples of the environment The anthropology
of the Galchas has been discussed by Ujfalvy in
the Revue d'Anthropologie (Paris, 1879), Bid-
dulph in Tribes of the Hindu-Kush (London,
1880), and the Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthro-
pologie de Paris for 1887, and more briefly by
Ripley in his Races of Europe (New York,
1899) and by Keane in Man Past and Present
(Cambridge, 1900)
GALD6S, gal-dds', BENITO PEBEZ- See
PETREZ-GALDtfS, BENITO
GALE (probably connected with Dan gal,
Icel gahnn, furious, from gala, to chant) A
strong wind varying in velocity (according to
the technical classification) from 40 to 65 miles
per hour. Gales are described as moderate,
fresh, and strong, or whole gales On sailing
ships, ordinarily, very little sail is carried in
strong gales; when they are very strong, only
close-reefed topsails, staysail and spanker If
running with the wind free, a close-reefed fore-
sail may also be set In fresh or moderate gales
more sail is carried See WIND, BEAOTOBT
SCALE
GALE, IN BOTANY See CANDLEBERBY.
GALE, HENBY GOBBON (1874- ) An
American physicist He was born at Aurora,
111 , and graduated in 1896 from the University
of Chicago (PhD , 1899), where he taught phys-
ics after 1899, becoming associate professor in
1911 and dean in the Senior College in 1908
In 1906 he was physicist of the Solar Observa-
tory, Mount Wilson, Cal, and in 1909-11 re-
search associate in the Carnegie Institution's
station at the same place Besides his articles
on optics in scientific periodicals, he is co-
author with. R A. Millikan of A First Course m
GALE
404
GALEN
Physios (1906) and A Laboratory Course in
Physics (1906), and with. Walter S Adam of
An Investigation of the Spectia of ft on and
Titanium under Moderate Pressures (1912)
GALE, KORMAN ROWLAND (1862- ) An
English, poet, born at Kew in Surrey, and edu-
cated at Exeter College, Oxford Between 1888
and 1891 he published privately at Rugby sev-
eral verse pamphlets In 1892 appeared A
Count? y Muse, which was followed later in the
same year by a new series under the same title.
These collections consist mainly of lyiics of love
and nature He later published Orchard Songs
(1893), A June Pastoral (1894), which is an
idyl m mixed prose and veise, Songs for Little
People (1896), Barty'8 Stai (1903), More
Cricket Songs (1905), Song in September
(1912).
GALE, S\MUEL (1783-1865) A Canadian
jurist He was born in St Augustine, Fla ,
and in his youth was taken by his father, an
English officer, to Quebec, where he was edu-
cated He studied law and was called to the
bar in 1808 Having been appointed a magis-
trate in the region then known as the Indian
Territories, he went to the northwest in 1815
with the fifth Earl of Selkirk (qv) During
the administration (1819-28) of the ninth
Earl of Dalhousie as Governor-General of the
British North American Provinces, widespread
complaints were made in Lower Canada as
to the arbitrary conduct of that official to-
wards the politically disaffected in the piovince,
and Gale went to England as a representa-
tive of the English-speaking inhabitants to
defend Dalhousie's course In 1829 he was
appointed chairman of quarter sessions, and
in 1831-49 was a judge of the Court of Queen's
Bench of Lower Canada. As a judge, he upheld
martial law as enforced in the rebellion of 1837-
38. Though strongly Conservative in his polit-
ical views, he was an uncompromising enemy of
slavery and eagerly supported the agitation in
1860 which was started to prevent the extradi-
tion of John Anderson, a runaway colored slave
from Missouri He published in the Montreal
Herald, over the signature of "Nerva," a series
of papers decidedly Conservative in tone, they
produced a deep impression He died in Mont-
real
GALE, THEOPHILTJS (1628-78) An English
Nonconformist divine. He was born at King-
steignton, Devonshire, and was educated at Mag-
dalen College, Oxford After preaching at Win-
chester Cathedral for five years, he was dis-
missed because of his Nonconformist views
(1662) and devoted himself to teaching Shortly
before his death he was appointed to the pas-
torate of an independent congregation in Hoi-
born His fame rests chiefly upon The Court
of the Gentiles^ or, A Discourse Touching the
Original of Humane Literature from the Scup-
tures and Jewish Churches (1669-78), in which
he expresses the view that all theology, philol-
ogy, and philosophy may be traced to Jewish
sources
GALE, THOMAS (c 1635-1702) An English
author He was born at Scruton, Yorkshire,
and was educated at Westminster School and at
Trinity College, Cambridge He was regius pro-
fessor of Greek at Cambridge from 1666 to
1672, high master of St Paul's School in 1672™
97, and afterward dean of York Widely cele-
brated for his scholarship, he published Opus-
cule* Mythologica, Ethica et Physica (10 parts,
1671) , UtstoncB Poetico? Scriptores Antiqui
(1675), Historice Bntanmcce, Saxonicce, Anglo-
Danicce Scriptores (1691), Rhetores Select*
Demetrius Phalereus, Tiberius Rheto?, Anony-
mus Sophista, Severus Aleocandrinus, Greece et
Latme (1676)
GALE, ZONA (1874- ) An American
writer She was born at Portage, Wis , and in
1895 graduated from the University of Wiscon-
sin (ML, 1899) Until 1901 she worked on
the stails of Milwaukee newspapers, and from
1901 to 1904 she was staff member of the New
Yoik World and wiote for other papers She
is author of Romance Island (1906) , The Loves
of Pelleas and Etarre (1907, new ed , 1913),
friendship Village (1908), Friendship Village
Love Stories (1909), Mothers to Men (1911),
Christmas (1912) , When I Was a Little Girl
(1913)
GALEAZZO, ga'la-at's6, GIAN See VISCONTI
GA'LEIST (Gk Ta\7iv6s, OaUnos),oT CLAUDIUS
GALENUS (130-?201) A celebrated physician,
born at Pergamus in Mysia He fhst studied
medicine at Pergamus, afterwaid at Smyrna,
Counth, and Alexandna He returned to his
native city in his twenty-ninth year and was at
once appointed physician to the school of gladi-
ators In his thirty-fourth yeai he went to
Rome, \\here he stayed about four yeais, and
vvas offered, but declined, the post of physician
to the Empeior He returned to his native coun-
try in his thirty-eighth year, but soon received
a summons from the emperors M Auichus and
L Veius to attend them on the northeastern
frontieis of Italy, whither they had gone to
make preparations for a war with the northern
tribes He joined the camp towards the end of
the year 169 , but, a pestilence breaking out, the
emperors and their court set off for Home,
whither Galen accompanied or followed them
The place and date of his death are not known
with certainty, but it is believed that he died
in Sicily
The works that are still extant under the
name of Galen consist of 83 treatises acknowl-
edged to be genuine, 19 whose genuineness has
been questioned, 45 undoubtedly spurious, 19
fragments, and 15 commentaries on different
works of Hippocrates Besides these, he wrote
a great number of works whose titles only are
pieserved, and altogether it is believed that the
number of his distinct treatises cannot have
been less than 500 WP may divide his works
into (1) those on anatomy and physiology,
(2) those on dietetics and hygiene, (*3) those
on pathology, (4) those on diagnosis and semei-
ology, (5) those on pharmacy and materia
medica, (6) those on therapeutics, including
surgery, (7) his commentaries on Hippocrates,
and (8) his philosophical and miscellaneous
works We have most of these works in Greek,
the language in which they were oiiginally
written, some are, however, preserved in Latin
translations, and a few only in Arabic His
most important anatomical and physiological
works are De Anatomicis Administratiombus
and De Usu Partium Oorporis Humam His
anatomical and physiological writings are by
far the most valuable of his works They con-
tain undoubted evidence of his familiarity with
practical anatomy, but whether he derived his
knowledge from dissections of human bodies or
those of the lower animals is uncertain The
latter is the most probable view, ( 1 ) because he
frequently lecommonds the dissection of apee,
GALE3ST
405
GALENA
bears, goats, etc, and (2) because be mentions,
as something extraoi dmary, that those physicians
who attended the Emperor M Aurelms in his
wars against the Germans had an opportunity
of dissecting the bodies of the barbarians His
pathology was very speculative and imperfect
In his diagnosis and prognosis he laid gieat
stress on the pulse, on which subject he may be
considered as the fiist and greatest authority,
for all subsequent writers adopted his system
without alteration He likewise placed great
confidence in the doctrine of critical days, which
he believed to be influenced by the moon In
matena medica his authority was not so high
as that of Dioscondes Numeious ingredients,
many of which were probably inert, enter into
most of his prescriptions, and he seems to place
a more implicit faith in amulets than in medi-
cine His practice is based on two fundamental
principles (1) that disease is something con-
trary to nature and is to be oveicome by that
which is contrary to the disease itself, and (2)
that nature is to be preserved by that which
has relation to nature Judged by modem
standards, his ideas and practice were of course
absurd
Befoie Galen's time the medical profession
was divided into several antagonistic sects, in-
cluding the Dogmatici, Empinci, Eclectici, Pneu-
matici, and Episynthetici After his time all
these sects merged into one, the Galenici The
subsequent Greek and Roman medical writers
weie meie compilers from his writings, and as
soon as his works were translated (in the
ninth century) into Arabic, they were at once
adopted throughout the East, to the exclusion
of all others The Greek text has been published
four times The first edition was the Aldme,
printed in 1525, in five folio volumes, the most
complete edition is that of Kuhn, in 20 octavo
volumes, the publication of which extended from
1821 to 1833 Galen's minor works weie edited
by Muller and Helmrich, and published in three
volumes at Leipzig (1884-93) Several of
Galen's works have been translated into French
or German Kidd, in the Tiansactions of the
Provincial Medical and Surgical Association,
vol vi (London, 1837), gives a good account of
Galen's anatomical and physiological knowledge
Consult Daremberg, Exposition des oonnaissances
de Galien &ur I'anatomie (Paris, 1841), an epit-
ome of which in English has been published,
from the pen of Coxe (Philadelphia, 1846)
Consult also Ilberg, "Die Schriftstellerei des
Klaudios Galenos/' in the Rhemsches Museum
fur PMologie for 1889, 1892, and 1896 See
EMPIBIC
GALEN, ga'len, CIIRISTOPII BEBNUASD VON
(1606-78) A German prelate and soldier He
was born in Bispink, Westphalia, and was edu-
cated at the universities of Cologne, Mainz,
Louvam, and Bordeaux After being canon
of Munster and commander ot a regiment on
the Rhine, he was made Prince Bishop of
Munster in 1650 He was exceedingly ambi-
tious and strove to increase his power, botli
by reducing his subjects to complete submission
and by extending his possessions without By
1661 he had made himself master of the city,
and he turned at once to foieign alliances to
carry out his designs In 1664 he led his forces
against the Turks With a well-trained army
he joined England against the Netherlands in
1665, but was forced to make peace in 1666.
He joined Louis XIV against the Dutch (1672)
and waged wai successfully against them and
then turned his arms against the Elector of
Biandenburg and the Emperor In 1675 he
lomed the Emperor against France, he next
helped the Danes against Sweden and secured
the Duchy of Verden and part of the Duchy of
Bremen, in 1677 he helped the Spaniards against
the French, in 1678 he invaded East Friesland
and extoited a laige wai indemnity He died
Sept 19, 1678, during the negotiations leading
to the Peace of Nymwegen In spite of his
militaiy activity he found time to introduce
many meritorious ecclesiastical reforms Con-
sult Minn, Die Le'bensbeschrei'bungen des OJiris-
toph <uon Galen (Munster, 1907), and Heers, Die
Wahl Ghnstoph t/on Galen zum Fursflischof
von Munster (ib, 1908)
GALEN, PHILIPP See LAITOE, ERNST, P K
GALENA. A city, port of entry, and the
county seat of Jo Daviess Co, 111, 17 miles
by rail southeast of Dubuque, Iowa, on the Ga-
lena River, which affords good water power, and
on the Illinois Central, the Chicago and yoith-
western, and the Burlington raihoads (Map
Illinois, D 1), It has a public hbiaiy, a fine
United States government customhouse, a public
hospital, an artesian watei sy&tem, and Grant
Park, in which is a statue of General Grant
Galena has extensive lead and zinc mines, two
large iron foundries, machinery-mamif actui ing
plants, iron-bridge works, furniture and cigar
factories, brickyards, marble, granite, and
cement works Under a charter of 1852 the
government is vested in a mayor, biennially
elected, and a city council The city contains a
laige electric-light plant, which furnishes light
and power to the mines and towns within a
ladms of 60 miles Pop, 1900, 5005, 1910,
4835 Galena (named from the abundance of
lead sulphide or galena ore in the vicinity) was
settled in 1827 and was incorporated as a city
in 1839 Gen U S Grant lr\ed here from Mav,
I860, until the opening of the Civil Wai, and
the Grant homestead still remains as one of
the features of the city
GALENA A city in Cherokee Co , Kans
7 miles west of Joplin, Mo , on the Missouri,
Kansas, and Texas and the St Louis and San
Francisco raihoads (Map Kansas, H 8) It is
engaged chiefly in mining, being the centre of an
impoitant lead and zinc region Among the
industnal establishments are lead smelters, a
large foundry, and a planing mill The govern-
ment is administered by a mayor, who holds
office for two years, and a unicameral council,
which elects the deputy marshals and police
The mayor nominates the collector, sexton, and
engineer , other officials are chosen by the people
Galena was settled and incorpoiated in 1877
The water works are owned by the city Pop ,
1890, 2496, 1900, 10,155, 1910, 6096
GALE2TA (Lat, from Gk yaXyvri, galene,
lead ore), or LEAD GLANCE A lead sulphide
that crystallizes in the isometric system, notably
in cubic or in octahedral cijstals It also
occurs in fibrous, granular, or cryptocrystalhne
massive forms, and has a puie lead-gray color
and a metallic lustre Galena is characterized
by a marked cubic cleavage and by its great
relative weight It occurs in beds and veins,
both in crystalline and amoiphous rocks, and is
one of the most widely distributed of the metal-
lic sulphides It is found in Freiberg, Saxony,
in Piibram, Bohemia, in Spain, in Cornwall,
Deibyshire, and Cumberland, England, in New
GALENIC
406
G-ALESBUBG
South Wales, Mexico, and at various other
localities throughout the world In the United
States it occurs in caves or gash veins in strati-
fied limestone, especially at various localities in
Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Wisconsin When
pure, it contains 86 6 per cent of metallic lead ,
but it is usually accompanied by other nietals,
such as antimony, bismuth, cadmium, zinc, and
especially silver It is an important ore of lead
and is often worked also for silver, especially in
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and other Rocky Moun-
tain States, and in British Columbia A coarse-
grained variety of galena is used to glaze potteiy
and is sometimes called potters' ore See LEAD
GALENIC, aA'LENIST. Words having
reference to the conti oversies of the period of
the revival of letters, when the authority of
Galen was stiongly asserted against all innova-
tions and particularly against the introduction
of chemical methods of tieatment into medicine
The Galenists adhered to the ancient formulas,
an which drugs were prescribed either in sub-
stance or in the form of tinctures and extracts,
etc , while the chemists professed to extract from
them the essences, or quintessences — i e , sub-
stances in small bulk, presumed to contain the
whole virtues of the original drugs in a state of
extreme concentration, or punned from all gross
and pernicious or superfluous matter Medicines
prepared by decoction or infusion, as distin-
guished from those prepaied by chemical proc-
esses, aie still termed galenic medicines
GALEOMYOMACHIA, gale-S-ml'd-m^ki-a
( Lat , from Gk *ya\eopvopaxta>, Battle of the Cats
and Mice) A Greek mock-heroic poem by
Theodorus Prodromus, a twelfth-century monk
In its general features it is only an imitation
of the Batrachomyomachia (qv )
GA'LEOPITHE'CITS See COBEGO
GALEOTTO, ga'ia-ot'td, PEINCIPE Another
title of Boccaccio's Decameron (qv), suggested
by the name of the book, to the reading of which
Dante makes Prancesca attribute her sin with
Paolo
GALEHIB DES GKLACES, g&le-rfc' d& glas
( Fr , Gallery of Miri ors ) . A famous gallery in
the Palace of Versailles, France, so called be-
cause of the range of huge plate-glass mirrors
which on one side of the room correspond to the
great windows on the other It is one of the
most magnificent rooms in the world, and forms
the chief feature of the new garden front or
wing first added by Mansart, under Louis XIV,
to the earlier palace of Louis XIII It is nearly
250 feet long, 40 feet wide, and over 20 feet high,
and is profusely adorned with paintings, etc , of
the time of Louis XIV It was designed for
balls and fe'tes and on particularly grand occa-
sions was also used as the throne room In it
William I was crowned German Emperor in
1871 during the siege of Paris
GAM/BIUS, VALERIUS MAXIMIANTTS (?-311
AD ) A Roman Emperor (305-311) He was
born, of humble parentage, near Serdica in
Dacia, entered the Imperial army, and rose
from one grade of military rank to another until
Diocletian conferred on him, along with Con-
stantms Chlorus, the title of Caesar (292) and
gave him his daughter in marriage and the
government of the Illyrian provinces On the
abdication of Diocletian (305), he and Constan-
tms became Augusts, or joint rulers, of the
Roman Empire On the death of Constant ms
at York (306), the troops in Britain and Gaul
immediately declared their allegiance to his
son Constantine (afterward Oonstantme the
Great, qv ), much to the chagrin of Galerius,
who expected the entire sovereignty of Rome to
fall into his hands He died in 311 Galerius
was a brave soldier and a skillful commandei,
but appears to possess no other claims to the
respect of posteiity He hated the Chnstians,
and it is believed that it was he who foiced
Diocletian to issue his famous edict against them,
which caused the last of the Impel lal peisecu-
tions It is highly probable that his treatment
of the adherents to the Christian faith was deter-
mined in great part by a politic opposition to
Constantius and his son, who tolerated, and
even respected, the new opinions and practices
GALES, JOSEPH (1786-1860) An American
•journalist, born m Eckmgton, Yorkshire, Eng-
land His father, Joseph Gales (1760-1841),
was a printer in Sheffield, who was compelled
to emigrate to America in 1793 because of his
republican principles The son was educated
at the University of North Carolina, followed
the trade of his father, and in 1807 settled in
Washington, where he became the assistant and
partner of Samuel Harrison Smith in the pub-
lication of the National Intelligencer In 1810
Gales became sole proprietor of the journal and
made it a triweekly publication, and m 1813, he
having previously formed a partnership with his
brother-in-law, William Winston Seaton, the
paper was issued daily and so continued until
1867, after the death of both publishers For
many years Gales and Seaton were the official
printers to Congress, and the files of the Na-
tional Intelligencer, containing a running ac-
count of the debates in both Houses, are one of
the most valuable sources of United States con-
gressional history for more than a quarter of a
century Under the title of Annals of Congress
Galea and Seaton published (1834-56, in 42
vols ) the debates in Congress from 1798 to 1824,
together with the more important documents and
laws, and under the title of Register of Debates
in Congress ( 29 vols ) , continued the publica-
tion in similar form to cover the years 1824-37
GALES'BTJBGK A city and the county seat
of Knox Co , 111 , 43 miles east by north of
Burlington, Iowa, on the Chicago, Burlington,
and Qumcy and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa
Fe railroads (Map Illinois, D 4). It is the
seat of Knox College (nonsectanan), founded in
1837, Lombard College (Universalist), estab-
lished in 1852, Corpus Christi Lyceum, St
Mary's School, and St Joseph's Academy (Ro-
man Catholic), It is the scene of a famous
Lincoln-Douglas debate of 1859 The city has
an attractive situation and is Widely known for
its educational facilities There are several fine
parks, two hospitals, and a public library Among
the industrial establishments are the Burlington
Railroad shops and stockyards, brickmaking
plants, boiler and engine works, iron foundries,
farming-implement works, cornice works, car-
riage and wagon factories, and overall, mitten,
and typewriter factories Galesburg also has
extensive wholesale and jobbing interests The
government is administered under a general
State law of 1872, by a mayor, elected every
two years, and a unicameral council The ma-
jority of subordinate administrative officials are
appointed by the executive, subject to the con-
sent of the council The city owns and operates
its water works and electric-light plant Pop.
1900, 18,607, 1910, 22,089, 1914 (U S est), 23,-
570, 1920,23,834 Galesburg was settled m 1837
407
0ALICIA
by a company from New York State and \vas
named in honor of the Rev George W Gale, who
had planned the town as a site for a theological
semmaiy and as a rallying place for 'fiee-soil-
ers," since the prosla\ery immigration \\as
then threatening to make Ilbnois & slave State
The city was chartered in 1857 Consult His-
tory of Know County (Chicago, 1878), and A
W Dunn, An Analysis of the Social Structure
of a Western Town (ib, 1896)
GALE'TON A borough in Potter Co , Pa ,
50 miles southeast of Bradford, on the Buffalo
and Susquehanna Railroad, and on Pine Cieek
(Map Pennsylvania, F 2) It has railway
shops, lumber and knitting nulls, a gasket fac-
tory, stave and heading mills, a hub factory,
brewery, a tannery, and a stone quany Pop ,
1900, 2415, 1910, 4027
GALI, gale FBA^ Cisco (1539-91) A Span-
ish navigator, born in Seville The Viceroy of
Mexico engaged him to find a harbor on the
western coast of America for Spanish vessels
returning from the East Indies, and he set out
from Acapulco with that object in view He
visited the Philippines and other neighboring
islands and Japan and on his way home (1584)
discovered the coast of California Lmschot
translated into Dutch Gall's account of his
expedition and included it in his work Track
Charts of the Indies (1596), and Wolf made an
English translation in 1598. From a French
version of the same narrative a Spanish transla-
tion was also made (1802), and there are in
the National Library of Mexico fragments of an
account of the expedition written by Gall, under
the title Viaye, descubnmientos y observaciones
de Acapulco 6 Fihpinas
GALIANT, ga-lya'ne\ FEEDINAWDO (1728-
87) An Italian savant, born m Chieti in the
Abruzzi Philosophy, archaeology, history, and
more especially the science of political economy,
were his favorite studies, but he first attracted
notice by a clever squib on the death of the
public executioner This consisted of a collec-
tion of essays eulogistic of the deceased, in
which the style of the president and leading
members of the Neapolitan Academy was admi-
rably imitated His next publication, Delia
Moneta, written when he was barely 20, evinced
his great learning and powers of reflection and
is a contribution to the science of political
economy In 1751 he visited the chief cities of
Italy and was everywhere honorably received
On his return to Naples he collected a rich as-
sortment of stones and volcanic matter of Vesu-
vius, which, accompanied by a thesis, he subse-
quently presented to the Pope On one of the
stone specimens he engraved the following sug-
gestive inscription "Beatissme pater, fac ut
lapides isti panes fiant," and received, by way of
answer, the rich prebend of Amalfi, for which he
had previously qualified himself by entering into
orders In 1759 he became Secretary to the
Neapolitan Embassy at Pans, from which period
dates a voluminous correspondence with political,
scientific, and literary personages of the day, an
edition of which has appeared by Percy and
Maugras (Paris, 1881) In 1767 he visited Eng-
land, whose social and political institutions lie
studied On his return to Paris he wrote an-
other treatise on political economy, entitled
Dialogic sul commercio del grano, in which
he argues against both the extreme protection-
ists and the pure free traders Being recalled
to Naples, he was successively appointed to
vaiious posts of trust and importance He
died at Naples in 1787, leaving behind him rare
collections of music manuscripts, cameos, etc
He was as remaikable for his gayety as for his
learning Consult Diodati Vita, dell' abate
Fmdmando G-aham ^Naples, 1S78) , Mattel, Oa-
ham ed i suoi tempi (ib , 1879) , Contes, Lettres
et pensees de Vabbe Gaham (Pans, 1866) ,
Du Bois-Reymond, Darwin versus Gaham (Ber-
lin, 1876), Brunetiere in Etudes critiques, vol
n (Paris, 1889)
GALICIA, ga-llsh'i-d (Ger Oah&en] The
laigest of the Austrian crownlands constituting
the northeastern part of the Empire, bounded
by Russia on the north and east, Bukowina on
the southeast, Hungaiy on the south and south
west, and Austrian and Prussian Silesia on the
west Its area is 30,311 square miles Sepa
rated from Hungary by the Carpathians, Gaheia
inclines towards the noith, the interior con-
sasting mostly of hills and elevated plateaus.
The northein part is a gently rolling plain.
Galicia is traversed by the Vistula and its
affluents, and also by the Dniester, which drains
the southern part of the crownland The latter
river flows southeast and is nat igable f i om Sam-
bor The Pruth also flo\\s through the southein
part of Galicia The Vistula is navigable at
Cracow and, flowing northeast, foims part of
the boundary of Russian Poland Among its
tributaries in Galicia are the San and Dunajec,
both navigable, and the Bug There are no lakes
of consequence, but mineral springs abound,
some of them of more than provincial repute
The climate, owing to the exposed northern posi-
tion of the crownland, is colder than that of
any other part of Austria-Hungary The winters
are generally long and severe, while the sum-
mers are hot At Lemberg the mean annual
temperature is 46 2°
Galicia is more purely agricultural than any
other of the crownlands of Austria, no less than
77 per cent of its population depending for a liv-
ing directly on the soil The soils with the ex-
ception of some sanely and marshy districts, is
fertile The production of cereals is generally
more than sufficient to meet the domestic de-
mand, considerable quantities being exported
Of the total area of approximately 7,850,000
hectares, arable land amounted in 1910 to about
3,802,000 hectares, gardens, 108,700, meadows,
pastures, etc, 1,646,200, woodland, 2,019,200,
lakes, marsh, etc, 21,000 , unproductive (un-
taxed), 252,000 In 1912 the arable land
amounted to 3,806,700 hectares The table below
shows the area in hectares and production in
metric quintals of the principal crops in 1911
and 1912, with the average production per
hectare in 1912
Hectares
Quintals
ha*
1911
1912
1911
1912
1912
Wheat
529,241
567,935
6,382,251
7,637,250
13.4
Rye
Barley
701,746
340,034
697,973
317,208
8,319,458
4,299,123
8,616,828
3,734,013
123
11.8
Oats
705,613
690,238
8,435,085
7,025,786
102
Corn
62,598
61,343
719,881
664,657
108
Buckwheat
61,347
61,007
612,951
463,506
76
Pulse
128,126
129,217
1,417,348
1,086,973
84
Hops
2,166
2,175
7,164
11^65
53
Potatoes
514,226
506,107
64,831,058
53,880,591
1065
Sugar Beets
Cabbage
6,233
16,697
6,448
17,073
1,376,715
2,230,794
1,474,982
2,837,830
2288
1662
Tobacco
1,938
It437
28,284
22,548
15,7
GALICIA
408
GALICIA
More than one-half of the horses of Au&tna are
in Gahcia, and more than one-fourth of the
cattle and the swine At the end of 1910
Gahcia had 905,807 horses, 2,505,012 cattle (of
which 1,591,548 cows), 1,835,935 swine, 358,959
sheep, and 19,284 goats The unequal distribu-
tion of the land is shown hy the fact that while
one-third of the cultivable area is in the hands
of large landholdeis owning estates of over 1400
acres each, about one-half consists of holdings
of less than 14 acres in extent This state of
affairs, together with the industrial backward-
ness of the country, is chiefly responsible for the
wi etched condition of the agricultuial clas&cs
Most of the peasants are unable to make a liv-
ing from their small farms, and consequently
large numbers are obliged to emigrate foi a part
of the year to Russia, Russian Poland, and Ger-
many, where they work for low wages, while
then families attend to the faims at home
The forests of Gahcia occupy about 25 7 per
cent of the total area of the country and yield
laige quantities of timber for expoit to foreign
countiies, chiefly to Germany The mineral
resources of Gahcia are not important, with the
exception of coal, salt, and petroleum Of
rock salt there are extensive deposits, those of
Wieliczka being famous Petroleum is obtained
in large quantities, and the refining mdustiy
is assuming very great importance. In 1912 the
coal output amounted to 1,910,532 metnc tons,
or a little less than one-eiglith of the total
output of Austria The value of the salt pro-
duction in 1911 was 18,046,000 kronen and in
1912 16,898,000 kronen Austrian petroleum
production is limited to Gahcia In 1900 the
combined output of petroleum and ozocerite was
3,492,167 metric quintals, valued at 22,699,354
kronen, in 1910, 17,681,885 quintals, 46,992,059
kronen, in 1911, 14,897,824 quintals (of which
14,878,421 quintals petroleum and 19,403 quin-
tals ozocerite), 49,608,865 kronen The manu-
factured articles of Gahcia are mainly the out-
put of house industries Weaving, brewing, and
distilling, and the production of small wooden
articles are the leading industries There is,
however, an improvement in some branches of
manufacture, notably in that of textiles The
trade is almost exclusively in the hands of the
Jews The leading exports are petroleum, salt,
ozocerite, lumber, giain, cattle, and linens In
1911 there were 2560 miles of railway
The constitution of Gahcia dates from 1861
The Diet is composed of 154 members, consist-
ing of the three archbishops, five bishops, two
rectors of universities, 44 representatives of the
landed aristocracy, 20 representatives of towns
and industrial centres, 3 from the chambeis
of commerce and industries, and 77 from the
rural communities In the Austrian Reichsrat
Gahcia is represented by 78 delegates, of whom
15 are elected by all voters, while, of the re-
maining 63, 20 are sent by the large landholders,
13 by the town, 3 by the chambers of commerce
and industry, and 27 by the rural communities
For the purpose of administration Gahcia is
divided into 82 administrative districts and the
two cities of Lemberg and Cracow
The population of Gahcia increased from*
6,607,816 in 1890 to 7,315,939 in 1900 and 8,025,-
675 in 1910 (census of December 31) The es-
timated population in 1912 was 8,160,783 The
1910 population was 28 089 per cent of the total
for Austria Pop , per square kilometer, 84 in
1890, 93 in 1900, and 102 in 1910 Males num-
bered 3,938,315 m 1910, and females 4,087,360,
there being 1038 females to each 1000 males
Foreigneis numbered 45,198 (about two-thirds
Russians) The vernacular of the remainder
(7,980,477) was almost limited to Polish and
Rutheman Polish, 4,672,500 (5855 pei cent),
Rutheman, 3,208,092 (4020), Geiman, 90,114
(113), Bohemian, Moiavian, Slovak, 8718
(0 11) Of the total population in 1910 Roman
Catholics numbered 3,731,861 (4650 per cent) ,
Greek Catholics, 3,379,616 (4211), Jews, 871,-
906 (1086) Population of the larger cities
and to\\ns accoiding to the 1910 census Lem-
berg, the capital, 206,113, Cracow, 154,141,
Przemysl, 54,078, Kolomea, 42,676, Tarnow, 36,-
731, Drohobycz, 34,665, Tainopol, 33,871,
Stam&lau, 33,328, Stivj, 30,895, Feusandez,
25,004, Jaroslau, 23,965, Rzeszow, 23,688, Pod-
goize, 22,322, Knihmin Wie&, 22,143, Sambor,
20,257, Brody, 18,055 Higher education is af-
foided by universities at Cracow and Lemberg,
and by a technical high school at Lemberg
The oiigmal Germanic population of what is
now Gahcia was replaced at the beginning of the
Middle Ages, at the time of the great migration
of nations, by the Slavic Polos and Ruthemans,
who settled to the west and the east respectively
of the nver San In the twelfth centuiy the
puncipahties of Hahcz (Gahcia) and Vladimir
(Lodomeria) lose to prominence fioni among a
host of petty states Gahcia in general acknowl-
edged the suzerainty of the dukes of Ciacow,
Tvhile Lodomona was under the control of the
ruler of Kiev The dissensions between the two
principalities affoided an opportunity for the
intei vention of the Hungarians, the Russians,
and the Poles, but such periods of foreign rule
were brief In 1198 Roman, Prince of Lodo-
meiia, succeeded m annexing Gahcia to his do-
minions and made himself virtually independent
of Poland and Hungary, the two duchies weie
separated in 1215, but were once more united
by Daniel Romanovitch (1222-66), who by his
skillful diplomacy in his relations with Hun-
gary and the Pope intrenched himself fi rmly in
power During his reign and those of his imme-
diate successors the country enjoyed remaikable
prosperity and attained to a high degree of civ-
ilization In 1340 the house of Roman died out,
and soon after Gahcia and Lodomeria came
under the sway of Casimir the Great of Poland,
and except for an interval of a decade and a half
(1370-86) formed a part of Poland till the
first partition of that country in 1772 In that
year the territory of Gahcia, under the title of
the Kingdom of Gahcia and Lodomeria, was an-
nexed by Austria, whose portion was increased
in 1795 by the addition of West or New Gahcia
Austria was foiced in 1809 to cede West Gahcia
and Cracow to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and
in 1810 a portion of East Gahcia to Russia, but
it recovered possession of the latter in 1814,
while the former remained in the hands of Rus-
sia, with the exception of a fragment which was
erected into the Republic of Cracow. In 1846
the Republic of Cracow, which had become the
centre of the Polish revolutionary movement,
was suppressed and handed over to Austria,
which incorporated it with the Ciownland of
Gaheia The period since 1848 has been marked
by a fierce struggle between the Polish and Ru-
theman nationalities, the former seeming to re-
tain their almost absolute ascendancy, and the
latter striving to win their share of political
rights and a voice in the government Gahcia
GAL1CIA
409
GALILEE
to-day shares more in the cential government
and has more local freedom than any of the
other Austrian piovinces This condition was
brought about first by the constitution of 1861
and then by successive steps of a similar nature
The province was the scene of extended opera-
tions bv the Russians in the European war of
1914 For details see WAR IN EUROPE Con-
sult Jandaurek, Das Komgreich GaUzien (Vi-
enna, 1884), and Lowell, Governments and
Parties in Continental Europe (New York, 1897)
GALXCIA, Sp pi on ga-le'the-a A politi-
cal division of Spain, bounded on the north by
the Bay of Biscay, on the east by the provinces
of Asturias and Leon, on the south by Portugal,
and on the west by the Atlantic (Map Spain,
A 1) Area, 11,256 square miles The surface
is geneially composed of numerous isolated
mountains and hills intermingled with valleys
and elevated plains, but there are few connected
mountain chains The chief river is the Minho
The climate is moist but not unhealthful, and
the annual rainfall heavy In the river valleys
the soil is fertile and well cultivated Agricul-
ture and stock raising are the leading industi ies,
lumber is pioduced Minerals and precious
stones are found in the mountains, there
are many mineral springs, and the waters
along the coasts abound in fish The un-
equal distribution of land and the density of
population are responsible for the impoverished
state of the masses Though many natives emi-
grate to Portugal and the more progressive parts
of Spain, as well as to North and South Amer-
ica, the population has continued to increase,
while modern improvements have not been in-
stalled Pop, 1900, 1,980,515, 1910, 2,108,914
The inhabitants are called Q-allegos and resemble
the Portuguese rather than the Spaniards, speak-
ing a distinct dialect Administratively Gahcia
is divided into the four provinces of Corunna,
Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra The seat of the
captain-general is Corunna
Gahcia was originally occupied by a tribe
known as the Callaici, or G-allaici, whence the
name of the region It was first subjugated by
the Romans in the time of Augustus Early in
the fifth century, when the torrent of Suevi and
Vandals swept across the Pyrenees, Gahcia,
which then included Old Castile, was occupied
by the former After remaining independent for
almost two centuries, it became part of the Visi-
gothic kingdom under Leogovild in the latter
part of the sixth century At the time of the
Saracen invasion great numbers of the Visi-
goths fled thither The Saracens were driven
out in 739 by Alfonso the Catholic of Asturias
Gahcia shared the fortunes of Asturias and of
Leon and finally became part of the Kingdom of
Castile On the death ot Ferdinand the Great
of Castile and Leon, in 1065, it formed for a
few years an independent kingdom under his
son Garcia Consult A M Meakin, G-alima,, the
Bwtiserland of Spain (New York 1909), and
W Wood, A Corner of Spam (ib , 1910)
GALIGJSTAJNT, ga'le-nya'ne A family of
European publishers, of whom the most promi-
nent were GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), a
distinguished linguist, and his sons JOHN AN-
THONY (1796-1873) and WILLIAM (1798-1882)
For a time the father, a native of Brescia, lived
in London, where his sons were born, but, re-
moving to Paris, founded there an English li-
brary and the periodical Repertory of English
Literature He began in 1814 the publication
of Gahgnam's Messenger This paper, contin-
ued by his sons, was later known as the Mes-
senger Its aim was to establish cordial rela-
tions between France and England It enjoyed
a high reputation In 1884 the Gahgnani family
disposed of their interest in it, and it appeared
as the Daily Messenger until discontinued in
1904 At Coibeil the brotheis set up a hospital
for needv Englishmen, and in 1889, at Nemlly,
the Gahgnani Home for distressed punters
GALILEE See PALESTINE
GALILEE The name applied in England to
a porch or chapel placed neai the entrance to a
mediaeval monastic church, beyond which women
\veie not permitted to pass In abbeys, eg, the
monks came to the Galilee to see their female
relatives The teim "Galilee Porch" was also
used The name is supposed to have been sug-
gested by Maik xvi 7 "He goeth bofoie you into
Galilee there shall ye see him " said to have
been quoted by the monks in usheiing into the
Galilee the women yiho thus visited the abbey
A portion of the nave was sometimes marked off
by a step, or, as at Durham, by a line of blue
rnaible, to mark the boundaiy within which
women were not permitted to pass Theie are
fine specimens of galilees at the cathedrals of
Salisbury, Wells, Lincoln, Ely, and Duihara, and
the name is also applied to the little libraiy in
the central arch of the west end of Peterboiough
Cathedral
GALILEE, SEA OF A body of water in
Palestine, thiough which flows the river Jordan
The old Hebiew name was Ohinnereth, or Chm-
neroth (see Num xxxiv 11, Josh xu 3, xni
27), also used of a city (Josh xix 35) and of
a district (1 Kings xv 20), both in the neigh-
borhood of the lake The designation, "Lake of
Gennesaret," or, more correctly, "Gennesar,"
from the "Land of Gennesaret," on the north-
west shore of the lake, was in use certainly as
early as the first centuiy BC (1 Mace xi 67)
This is the name used almost without exception
in Josephus The derivation and exact meaning
of both terms, Chmnereth and Gennesar, are not
certainly known The later name, Gennesar, is
not thought to have "been derived from Chin-
nereth It may be a compound from gan, 'gar-
den,3 and Nesar, peihaps an old name for the
region bordering on the northwest or west shore
of the lake, or even for Galilee in general In
the Gospels "Sea of Galilee" is the usual desig-
nation After Herod Antipas built the city of
Tiberias on its shore it became known as the
Sea of Tiberias, which is the basis of the modern
name, Bahr Tabanyeh The lake is 13 miles
long by 7 miles wide, irregularly oval in shape
widest' at the northern end It lies in a deep
basin in the great cleft which extends from the
Lebanon to the Red Sea The surface is 682
feet below the level of the Mediterranean Its
greatest depth is not over 200 feet It is com-
pletely encircled by a beach, the surrounding
hills in no case touching the water's edge
Along the eastern shore the beach is but a
narrow strip about % mile wide, beyond which
the hills rise abruptly to a height of nearly
2000 feet above the lake To the south is the
low, rapidly descending Jordan valley, as wide
as the lake itself From the exit of the Jordan
to Tiberias, on the west, a mile or so from the
watei, lies a black and barren ridge of the Gali-
lean hills, while north of this, extending nearly
to the entrance of the Jordan, is the broad and
exceedingly fertile plain of Gennesaret ( Consult
410
GALILEO
Jbsephus, Jewish War, bk in, chap, 10, § 8,
for a description of its marvellous productivity )
The water of the lake is sweet, except in the
neighborhood of the hot springs near Tiberias,
and somewhat warm The hot springs are evi-
dence that the volcanic activity, which in ages
past wrought such great changes in this locality,
has not entirely ceased The surface of the
plateau east of the lake is the overflow of vol-
canoes once active in the Hauran Shut in by
high hills except to the south, the lake is sub-
ject to sudden and severe winds, which, rushing
down the ravines, often lash the waters into
dangerous fury (cf Mark iv 37 , Luke vm 23).
The neighborhood of the lake once teemed with
population (cf Josephus, Jewish Wai, m 2).
Several of the great trade routes of southwestern
Asia converged here Communication with the
whole world was frequent and easy The waters
abounded in fish and were covered with sailing
craft, many of which were used in the extensive
fishing industry The fertile western shore
was highly cultivated and yielded its products
through all the months of the year Around
this small sheet of water were clustered some 9
or 10 nourishing cities, each, it is said, with not
less than 15,000 inhabitants Chorazm was on
the slopes west of the Jordan's entrance, Caper-
naum and Magdala were in tlie plain of Gennes-
aret, on the western shore was Tiberias with
its famous and popular baths, and, farther south,
Tarichsea with its great fish-curing industry,
whence the fish of Galilee were exported through-
out the Roman world, Hippos and Gamala were
on the eastern plateau, with Gadara a few miles
southeast, Bethsaida was at the entrance of the
Jordan, and Sinnabris at its exit, with Homonsea-
2 miles down the valley. At present all these,
except Tiberias, have passed away, the sites of
some cannot be identified, the soil is cultivated
in but few spots, and the hills are treeless and
deserted Quite recently, however, plans have
"been formed to revive the fishing industry
It was about the northern part of this sea
that Jesus passed the greater part of His public
ministry. Four of the first disciples were Gali-
lean fishermen {Matt iv. 18-22; Mark i 16-20),
and the miracles of the walking on the water
(Matt xiv 22-33), the miraculous draft of
fishes (Luke v. 4~7), the stilling of the tempest
(Matt, vm 23-27, (Mark iv 35-41, Luke vm
22-25), the feeding of the multitude (Matt xiv
13-21, xv 29-39, Mark vi 31-44, vm 4-9,
Luke ix 10-17, John vi 1-14), and many other
miracles and events in the life of Jesus are
closely associated with the lake Consult Mer-
rill, Galilee m the Time of Christ (New York,
1891), id, East of the Jordan (ib, 1881),
George Adam Smith, Historical Geography of
t~he Holy Land (London, 1894) ; F Buhl, Geo-
graphie des alten Palastma, (Leipzig, 1896) ,
Masterman, 8tud^es in Galilee (Chicago, 1909)
See also PALESTINE
GALILEI, ga-l£-l£'&, VIITCENZO (c.1533-
e 1600) An Italian musician and mathemati-
cian. He was born at Florence and was the
father of Galileo Galilei the astronomer As
a composer, lie is chiefly important for his songs
with lute accompaniment, which are generally
regarded as introducing the monody subse-
quently adopted by Peri, Gaccini, etc , the accred-
ited founders of the dramma per musica More
valuable are his writings, the most important
of which are a polemical discourse on the works
of Zarhno of Chioggia (1589), and the treatise II
flroviimo, dialogo sopra I'arte del bene intavolare
e retfwnente suonave la tnusica (1583) He was
an accomplished lute player and violinist, and a
prominent member of the historic coterie of
artists \\hose rendezvous was the house of Count
Bardi His death occmred at Florence.
GALILEO, gal'i-le'6, It pron, ga'le-la'o, or
GALILEO GALILEI, ga'le-la'6 ga'le-la'e
(1564-1612) An Italian physicist and astrono-
mer, one of the founders of modern experimen-
tal science He was born in Pisa, in February,
1564, of a Florentine family more ancient than
opulent By desire of his father, a mathema-
tician of considerable ability, he directed his
early studies to medicine and the prevailing
Aristotelian philosophy, the dogmas of which
he soon came to disbelieve Later, however,
while still at the University of Pisa, he devoted
himself to the study of mathematics and physi-
cal science At the age of 18 he made one of
his most important discoveries Happening on
one occasion to observe, in the cathedral of Pisa,
the oscillation of a lamp casually set in motion,
he was struck with the apparent measured regu-
larity of its vibrations, and having tested the
correctness of this observation by comparing
the beat of his own pulse with the action of the
pendulum, he concluded that by means of this
equality of oscillation a simple pendulum might
become an agent in the exact measurement of
time This discovery he subsequently utilized
by the successful application of the pendulum in
constructing a clock for astronomical purposes
His bias towards mechanical construction and
experimental science received a new impulse
from his intercourse with a friend of his father's,
Ostiho Eiccio, who consented to give him syste-
matic instruction in pure mathematics Such
was Galileo's absorption and delight in his new
studies that his father at length sanctioned his
abandonment of the art of medicine, in order
that he might concentrate his powers on his
chosen sciences The first fruit of his geomet-
rical investigations was the invention of a hy-
drostatic balance, by which the specific gravity
of solid bodies might be ascertained with great
accuracy In 1589, the fame of Galileo's ex-
traordinary learning having reached the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, he was appointed professor of
mathematics in the University of Pisa About
this period he turned his attention to the then
very imperfectly comprehended laws of bodies
in motion, and., in opposition to accepted notions,
he propounded the theorem that all falling
bodies, great or small, descend with equal veloc-
ity This soon led him to the discovery of the
law regulating the motion of falling bodies,
which was proved correct by experiments made
from the summit of the leaning tower of Pisa,
greatly to the chagrin of the Aristotelians, whose
enmity to Galileo had now grown more decided
In consequence he lehnquished his chair at Pisa
and retired to Padua, where, in 1592, he accepted
the invitation of the Venetian Senate to lecture
on mathematics in the university for the space
of six years. It is also said, however, that Gali-
leo lost his chair at Pisa from having ridiculed
the mechanical pretensions of Giovanni de' Med-
ici, son of Cosimo I Galileo's engagement at
Padua was eventually prolonged to the term of
18 years, but so urgent was his desire to return
to his birthplace that he sought a restoration to
his former post at Pisa and was gratified by an
assent being accorded by Cosimo II, with exemp-
tion from any but a voluntary exercise of the
GALILEO
411
duties of professorship During his sojouin at
Padua his course of lectuies enjoyed extiaoi-
dinary populaiity, crowds of pupils flocked to
hear him from all parts of Europe, and lie was
the nr&t to adapt the Italian idiom to philo-
sophical instiuction Among his various discov-
eries may be noticed a species of thei momeier,
a proportional compass 01 sectoi, and, more im-
portant than all, the constiuction of the refract-
ing telescope for astronomical investigation In
1609 he ofleied his first complete telescope to the
Doge of Venice, Leonardi Deodati, by whom it
was tested from the tower of St Maik In the
same year he constructed a micioscope, and then
commenced his astionomical reseaiches by means
of his own telescope He speedily concluded that
the moon, instead of being a self-luminous and
perfectly smooth sphere, owed her illumination
to reflection and presented an unequal suiface
deeply furrowed by valleys and mountains of
great extent The Milky Way he pronounced a
tract of countless separate stars, and these dis-
coveries were crowned by a still moie important
series of obseivations, which led to the discovery
of the four satellites of Jupiter on the night of
Jan 7, 1610 (though it was not till the 13th
of the same month that he came to the conclusion
that they were satellites and not fixed stars),
which he named the Medicean stars He also
was the fiist to note movable spots on the disk
of the sun, from which he inferred the rotation
of that orb He retuined to Tuscany in 1610,
where renewed quairels with the Aristotelians
disquieted and embitteied his existence In 1611
he visited Rome and was received with great dis-
tinction, being enrolled a member of the Lincei
Academy , but four years later, on a second visit,
his reception was widely different, as by that
time, in his work on the solar spots, he had
openly advocated the Copermcan system and
was in consequence denounced as a propounder
of heretical views He repaired again to Rome,
to demand an experimental inquiry into the
soundness of his vie^ s , but the Grand Duke, ap-
prehending inquisitorial dangers for his favorite,
summoned him back to Tuscany, at the same
time the Pope, through the famous Cardinal
Bellarmin (a sincere friend of Galileo's), com-
manded him to abstain from all future advocacy
of heretical doctunes Some time after, Galileo
wrote his most famous work in the form of a
dialogue between three fictitious interlocutors —
the one in favor of the Copermcan system, the
second an advocate of the Ptolemaic, and the
third a satirical personage who begins by agree-
ing with the Ptolemaic arguer, but usually ends
by being convinced by the Copermcan, and then
assists in belaboring poor Simplicio, the sup-
porter of Ptolemaic motion. In 1630 Galileo
contrived to obtain the papal imprimatur, which
was subsequently revoked, but, having got a
similar authorization at Florence, he published,
in 1632, this exposition of his opinions under
the title of Un aialogo dei due massimi sistemi
del mondo Hardly had the woik been issued,
when it was given OT er to the jurisdiction of the
Inquisition Pope Urban VIII, previously Car-
dinal Bafberim, and until now a friend and eulo-
gist of Galileo, was led to believe that Galileo
had satirized him in this work under the name
of Simplicio, as one who is careless about scien-
tific truth, and who timidly adheres to the saws
of antiquity On Sept 23, 1632, Galileo was
cited to appear for the second time before the
Inquisition During his protracted trial he was
VOL IX — 27
allowed to leside as a prisoner in the house of
the Tuscan Ambasbador His judges condemned
him to abjme his scientific theory This he did
That he \vas actually put to the torture is now
no longer a question open to dispute, though it
is true he was threatened with it His famous
whisper, E pur si muove (But nevertheless it
does move), is a fiction Galileo was sentenced
to an indefinite term of imprisonment by the
Inquisition This Mas soon commuted by Pope
Urban, at the request of Ferdinand of Tuscany,
into pei mission to leside at Siena and finally
at Florence He died on Jan 8, 1642, at the age
of 78, and was inteired by ducal ordeis in the
cathedial of Santa Cioce, where a majestic mon-
ument symbolizes Jus great achievements
Galileo's disposition was tiuly genial, he en-
loycd with keenness the social wit and banter of
his friends and the pleasures of the banquet, and
the readiness with which he offered or accepted
atonement modified a somewhat irascible disposi-
tion The great deficiencies in his character were
a want of tact to keep out of difficulties and a
want of moral courage to defend himself when
involved in them His biting, satirical tuin,
more than his scientific tenets, was the cause of
his misfortunes Galileo was of small stature,
but of a robust and healthy frame, his counte-
nance was attractive, and his conversation
cheerful He loved art and cultivated especially
music and poetry* His style is nervous, flowing,
and elegant
We may briefly recapitulate Galileo's most
important contributions to physical science
under the following heads (1) the relation be-
tween space and time in the case of falling
bodies, (2) the path of projectiles is a parabola,
(3) the isochronisni of the pendulum, (4) the
paitial discovery that suction is owing to the
pressure of the atmosphere , ( 5 ) the reinvention
of Anstotle's theoiy respecting sound, (6) the
invention of the telescope, (7) the discovery of
the satellites of Jupiter, phases of Venus, and
spots on the sun For the nature of these dis-
coveries, see PENDTJITJM, FALLING BODIES, PRO-
JECTILES, ETC
The best edition of Galileo's collected works is
that by Alberi (16 vols , Florence, 1842-56)
A new complete edition has been published
(20 vols, ib, 1890-1909) at the cost of the
Italian government Bibliographies of the liter-
ature relating to Galileo have been compiled by
Riccardi, Carh, and Favaro Consult Brewster,
The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo,
Tycho Brake, and Kepler (London, 1846) ;
Chasles, Galileo Galilei (Paris, 1862), Berti,
Copermco e il vicende del sistema Copernicano
and II processo otigmale di Galileo (Rome,
1876) , Scartazzim, II processo di Galileo Galilei
e la moderna oritica tedesca (Florence, 1878) ,
Favaro, Galileo Galilei e lo studio Padova (2
vols , ib , 1882 ) , Scartazzim, Galileo Galilei
(Milan, 1883) , Wegg-Prosser, Galileo and his
Judges (Eng trans, London, 1889), Gunther,
Geisteshelden, vol xxii (Berlin, 1896) , Paolo,
La scuola di Galilei nella storia delta filosofia
(Pisa, 1900) , Fahie, Galileo Sis Life and
Work (London, 1903), Muller, Galileo Galilei
und das Kopermhonisches Weltsystem (Frei-
buig, 1909)
aALIMBEUTI, ga'lSm-bar'tS, LTJIGI (1836-
96) A Roman Catholic ecclesiastic and diplo-
mat, born in Eome, where he was educated in
law and theology He taught theology in the
College of the Propaganda and at the University
GALIHG-ALE
412
GALXAIT
of Rome and in 1868 \vab appointed canon of the
Laterau Leo XIII made him secretary of the
congregation of extraordinary ecclesiastical af-
fairs, canon of St Petei s at Rome, and Arcli-
bishop of Nic£Ea He wab sent on various em-
bassies and \\as the autkoi of the aw aid which
the Pope as arbitrator made in favor of Spain,
in her contention with Geimany foi tluk sov-
ereignty ovei the Caroline Islands When, as a
result of the struggle of Bismarck against the
power of the Catholic chinch in Geimany (Kul-
turkampf), the relations between the papacy
and the Geiman Empire were bioken off, it was
Galimberti who was sent in 1880 on a mission
to Geimany, with the lesult that the oppiessi\e
"May Laws" of 1872 were ahiogated In 1887-
92 he represented the papacy at Vienna, and
there also he was fortunate in securing a satis-
factory settlement of long-standing differences
between the Vatican and Austria -Hungary In
1893 he letmned to Rome and was made a cai-
dinal and prefect of the papal ai chives
GAI/rWGALE (Vypetua longus) See Cr-
PERTTS
GAL'IOET A city in Cnwfoid Co , Ohio, 80
miles southwest of Cle\ eland on the ClexeLind,
Cincinnati, Chicago, and St Louis and the Ene
railroads (Map Ohio, E 4). Tt is primaiily a
manufacturing and railioad town, Tilth rail-
road shops, several carriage factories, buck and
tile plants, wheel, A\agon, and goai woiks., lum-
ber mills, ma nuf act ones of s*ra\o vaults, load
machine* y, pipe, and automobile ^eais, and a
foundry Gabon was lud out in. 1831 and was
chartered as a eitv m 1878 Tbeie is a Carnegie
library here. Its government is administei cd
by a mayor, elected biennially, and a unicaineral
council The city cvwns and opeiates the electric-
light plant Pop, 1900, 7282, 1910, 7214
G-ALITZ'IN See GoLixzm
GrA'LITJM: See BEDSTEAW
G-ALL. See GALLS
GALL, gal, FBAKZ JOSEPH (1758-1828). The
founder of phrenology, born at Tiefenbronn,
Baden He studied medicine at Strassburg and
Vienna and settled in the latter place as a
practicing physician He became kncrwn by the
publication of his Phtlosophtsch-mGcfaaMii&ohe
Untersuchungen u<ber Nalur und Kunst im
gesunden und kranlen Zustande des Mensdhen
(1791) But he acquired a much moie exten-
sive reputation by his lectuies on the structtue
and functions of the brain, which he began to
delrvei in 1796 His views were so subversive
of received doctrines on the subject of mind that
the lectures were prohibited in 1802 by the
Austrian government Along with his pupil,
Spurzheim, (qv), who became his associate in
1804, Gall quitted Vienna in 1805 and during
his travels through Germany, Holland, Sweden,
and Switzerland, expounded his views in many
of the universities and principal cities In 1807
he settled as a physician in Pans and there be-
gan lecturing and writing for the propagation
of his opinions. On March 14, 1808, he and
Spurzheim presented to the Institute of France
a memoir of their discoveries, on which a com-
mittee of the members of that body (including
Pmel, Portal, and Cuvier) drew up an unfa-
vorable report Gall and Spurssheim thereupon
published their memoir, with a reply to the
report, in a volume entitled Recherches sur le
systeme netveuae en general et (>ur celw du cer-
veau en pwttoulter (1809). This was followed
by their larger work, An&tomie et physwlogie
du systlme n&vewx, (1810-1*)), with an atlas
of 100 plates, but, the t\\o phienolo^ibts hav-
ing paited in 181 -J, the namo of Gall alone i«*
prefixed to \olumes in and rv, and it alont is
bome bv d ropiint of the physiological poition
of the uoik, entitled NH, Ics f auctions du cci
icau, et ?tti <?U<"* d< cfm( uv( do scs pwtic?
(1825) In ansNNoi to accusations of material-
ism and fatalism )n ought agamst his s\stem
Gall had oaily published a pait of the Avoik
under the title De? dispositions innecs de Vdme
et de resput (1812) Ho continued his ic-
st-aiches at Monti ouge till his death Con-
sult Mobms, F J Gall (Leipzig, 1905) See
PHRENOLOGY
GALL, LTJISE %ON Sec SCHTTCKIWG, LEVIN
GALL, SAINT See SAI^T GALL
GAL'LAGHEB, WILLIAM DAVIS (1808-94),
An American jouinahst and poet, bom in Phila-
delphia, Pa He was the son of an lush pa-
tnot implicated in the ichellion of 1708 About
1816 his family icinoved to Ohio, wheie he
leained the pnntei's tiaclc and contributed
to countiv newspapers In Cincinnati he
edited several journals, paiticularly the Mirror
(1831), the Western Litcra.ni Joinnal (1836),
and the Ucspetwn (1838) Much of the veise
and piose winch ippoared in these publications
v\as eontiibutcd by the best American writers
of the day, and lie constantly wrote for them
hirusolf He next became connected \\ith the
Cincinnati Gazette In 1850-53 he was con-
iidenlidl elcik to Thomas Corwin, Secretary of
the Treasury Upon Ins removal to Louisville,
Ky, in 1853, he bought a half share in the
Courier Dining1 the Civil Wai he was again in
the employ of the Treasury Department and in
1865 became a pension agent and later a farmer
m Kentucky Gallagher was most influential
in promoting literary interests in the West
His poetical works include Erato (3 vols , 1835-
37), containing 'The Wieck of the Hornet"
and Miami Woods (1881)
GALLAIT, ga'ia', Louis (1810-87) A Bel-
gian historical, genie, and poi trait painter He
was born at Toumai, studied there under the
classicist ITeniiequin and afteiward under Van
Bree at Antwcip "Chust Healing the Blind"
(1833) vi as pmclip&ed by subscription for the
cathedral of Toumai, and Gallait received a
pension fiom the state enabling him to study
in Paris Here he came under the influence of
Delaroche and produced many works, such as
"Montaigne Visiting Taaso in PiLSon" (1836)
for the Belgian King, the "Capture of Antioch
by Godfrey de Bouillon" (Versailles), and other
hiatoiical subjects for the French government,
and, finally, his ^Abdication of Charles V"
(1841, Biussels Museum) Exhibited in Gei-
many, where it proloundlv influenced native art,
and throughout Europe this last woik brought
lurn the highest honors He was called by the
government to Brussels, where he was the head
of an influential school of historical painting.
His work shows taste and judgment, but the
technique is eclectic and his presentation theat-
ncal and sentimental Otliei celebrated sub-
jects are "Last Honors to Egmont and Hoorne"
(1851, Tournai), "Last Moments of Egmont"
(1858, Berlin), and the "Plague at Tournai"
(1882, Brussels) His once famous portraits
and genre subjects are less important He is
represented in the Metropolitan Museum, Few
York, by the "Minstrel Boy/' "The Prisoner/'
and two aquarelles, and m the Walters Gal-
GALLAND
4*3
GALLATXN"
lery, Baltimore, by foui oil paintings and a
water color Consult Teichlm, GaUait und
die Maleiei in Deutschland (1853) , Henne, in
Annales de V academic de Belgique (Biussels,
1800), Dujardm, L'Ait flamand (ib, 1899),
Muthei, Die belgisohe Malerei im J9ten Jalii-
hundett (Beihn, 1904)
GALLAND, ga'laN', ANTOINB (1646-1715)
A Fiench Orientalist and numismatist, born at
Eollot, near Montduliei, in Picardy After fin-
ishing his course at the Lycee he studied Orien-
tal languages at the College de France In 1670
he accompanied the French Ambassador De
Nointel to Constantinople and made two sub-
sequent trips to the East in the inteiest of
science, collecting a large number of inscrip-
tions, etc In 1701 he was made a member of
the Academie des Inscriptions and in 1709 pro-
fessor of Arabic in the College de France The
greater part of Galland's wntings relate to
numismatics and the East, but what secuied
for him a lasting reputation was his transla-
tion of the Arabian Nights, in 12 volumes
(Mille et une nuits, contes arabes, 1704-17)
This was the first translation of these stories
ever made into any Euiopean language, and so
little was known about them in Europe that
Galland got the credit of being himself the au-
thor as well as the translator The translation
led not only to the popularity, but also to criti-
cal investigations, of the remarkable collection
(See ARABIAN NIGHTS ) Among his other
writings may be mentioned Paroles remarqua-
~b1es, bons mots, et maanmcs des Onentaux
(1694) and Les contes et fables indiennes de
Bidpai et de Lehman (1724) His numismatic
and archaeological writings will be found chiefly
m the Journal des Savants, and the Memoires of
the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
GALL A OX, or SUNGA See HUMPED CVTTLE.
GALLAKATE, galla-ra'tft. A city of Lom-
bardy, in the Province of Milan, north Italy,
2 miles northwest of Milan, with a technical
school and important cotton and textile fac-
tories It also produces machinery, cabinet-
work, buttons, and vehicles Six miles to the
west are the electric works of Vizzola, develop-
ing 23,000 horse power from the river Ticino.
Pop (commune), 1901, 12,000, 1011, 15,868
GAI/LAS, or OEOMA (Q-allas, Conquerors,
Ilm'-orma, Sons of the Brave) An Ethiopian
people in eastern Africa, south of the Abys-
sinian plateau, numbering 63000,000, and occu-
pying 400,000 square miles of territory They
represent the purest type of the Ethiopian
bianch of the Harm tic race, called Kushito-
Hamites Keane divides these Ethiopian peo-
ples into Somali Hamites, Galla Hamites, Afar
( Domakil ) Hamites, Abyssinian ( Agao ) Hamites?
Semitized and mixed Hamites, Himyaritic
(Abyssinian) Semites, Arab (nomad) Semites,
Negroes, and Bantus He pronounces the Gallas
to be the finest people in all Africa — tall,
shapely, with high, broad foreheads and hand-
some faces Their color is chocolate, the hair
black and kinky They are a pastoral and agri-
cultural people, but their common dangers and
mutual jealousies have made them warlike
They are divided into tribes and petty kingdoms,
having two social classes — the aristocratic
pvutnma (herdsmen) and the plebeian argatta,
or kutto (tillers) They are all more or less
subject to the Negus Negusti of Abyssinia In
religion they are pagans, Mohammedans, and
Sidamas, i.e, members of the Abyssinian Chris-
tian church Consult A LI K>ane, in Sfcan-
f oid's Africa, vol i (London, 1907), where all
the tribal subdivisions are given, with then
exact locations
GALL AS, gal'las, COUNT MATHIAS, DUKE 01
LUOERA (1584-164:7) A Geiman gonoial m
the Ihiity Yeais' War, born in Tient Aftci
solving as a mercenary in the armies of Spam
and Savoy, in 1618 he became colonel of an
infantry regiment in the army of the Catholic
League and afteiward became one of Wal-
lenstem's most trusted officers For his ser-
vices at the taking of Mantua (1630), m the
War of the Mantuan Succession, he was created
a Count of the Empire He commanded the
right wing of Wallenstem's army at the battles
of Nuremberg and Lutzen Fiom selfish mo-
tives he opposed Wallenstein, intrigued against
him at Vienna, and after his assassination suc-
ceeded to his command He won the decisive
battle of Nordhngen over Bernhard of Weimar
in 1634, but after varying successes and fail-
ures in the four following years he was suc-
ceeded as commandei in chief, in 1038, by the
Archduke Leopold After Leopold's defeat by
Toistenson and the Swedes at the becond battle
of Breitenfeld, in 1642, Gallas was again placed
m command, but was defeated in Hohtem and
again superseded He succeeded Hat?feld as
commander in chief after the latter's defeat at
Jankau in 1645, but soon fell ill and was com-
pelled to retue Gallas was called ffeerverder-
ber, 'army destroyer ' See THIRTY YEAKS' WAB,
and consult the article by HJallwich in Allgemeine
deutsche Biographic, vol vm (Leipzig, 1$78),
GrALOLATrN" A city and the county seat
of Daviess Co , Mo , 77 miles northeast of Kan-
sas City, on the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pa-
cific and the Wabash railroads and on the Grand
River (Map Missouri, C 2) It has a trade
in lumber, giain, live stock, and dairy prod-
ucts, and is the centre of an agricultural dis-
tuct, with valuable timbei lands. The city
contains the Grand River Academy and has
municipal water works and an elcctuc-light
plant Pop, 1900, 1780, 1910, 1825
GrALLATIW A town and the county seat
of Sumner Co , Tenn , 27 miles by rail northeast
of Nashville, on the Louisville and Nashville
Railroad (Map Tennessee, D 1) It is the seat
of the Howard Female College and a training
school. The town is in a fertile agricultural
region and has planing mills, and manufacto-
ries of flour and spokes Fine horses and cattle
are raised here The water works and eleetric-
hght plant are owned by the municipality
Pop, 1000 2409, 1910, 2399
GALLATrN", ALBERT (1761-1849). One of
the most distinguished of American public finan-
ciers He was born in Geneva, Switzerland,
Jan 29, 1761, and graduated at the Academy
of Geneva in 1779. In 1780 he a-nd a friend,
Henri Serre, came to the United States and
spent a year at Maehias, Me , in tiade pur-
suits, with little success Gallatin then moved
to Boston, where he supported himself by teach-
ing French, and m July, 1782, received per-
mission to give instruction at Harvard College.
In the following year he explored and invested
in lands on the western frontier, and in 1784
established a country store in Fayette Co , Pa ,
near the Virginia boundary He was in 1789
a delegate to the State Constitutional Conven-
tion, and in 1790, as also m the two following
years, he was sent to the Legislature by Fay-
GALLATIN
4*4
GALLAITDET
cite County, where he was conspicuously active
in opposition to the Federal excise law, and
where, also, the basis of his reputation was
made by his icport of the Committee of Ways
and Means in the session of 1790-91 In F<?b-
ruaiy, 1793, he was elected to the United States
Senate and took his seat on December 2, but
in the following Febiuary the Senate decided,
by a paity vote of 14 to 12, that he did not
possess the pioper qualifications as to citizen-
ship, it having been less than nine years, the
time prescribed by the Constitution, since he
had taken the oath of citizenship and allegiance
to the State of Virginia Gallatin was active
at the time of the Whisky Insunection (qv ),
and although he uigod &ubmibsion to law and the
refraining from all impioper and illegal acts,
nevertheless he went so far in his relations with
the insurrectionists as to give himself, both
then and later, considerable political embar-
rassment He was, at the end of the tiouble,
elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly and from
1795 to 1801 was a member of Congress, where
he allied himself with those Republicans who
under the leadership of Madison were opposing
the administration of the Federalists "In his
first teim," says his biographer, Stevens, f'he
asserted his point and took Ins place in the
councils of the party In his second, he became
its acknowledged chief In the third, he led its
forces to final victory "
He served on impoitant committees and stead-
fastly opposed the adinimstiation, especially in
the matter of the Jay Treaty, the increase of
the aimy and navy, and the relations with
France Particularly did he attack the admin-
istration o± the finances, a field with which his
pamphlets showed him to be familiar, and his
services and abilities in. this direction were
recognized by Jefferson, who in 1801 made him
Secretary of the Treasury, a post which he held
until 1813 During these years a marked le-
duction was effected in the national debt, the
practice as to appropriations was made more
systematic, the sinking-fund system was im-
proved, and the preparations were made which
rendered a war and an increase of the national
debt possible without a disorganization of the
public financial system. Gallatin also rendered
important service in the negotiations which
were concluded by the Treaty of Ghent (qv )
Of his services in this connection, one of his
biographers, Henry Adams, has said "Far more
than contemporaries ever supposed or than is
now imagined, the Treaty of Ghent was the es-
pecial work and the peculiar triumph of Mr
Gallatin " Thereafter, declining both a nomi-
nation to Congress and an opportunity to re-
sume charge of the Treasury Department, he
became Minister to France, filling the post from
1816 to 1823 Three years later he went to
London as Minister, remaining one year and
concluding two important conventions He had
been nominated for the vice presidency by the
Crawford Republicans in May, 1824, but with-
drew in October to make room for Clay, and
in 1843 he declined to enter Tyler's cabinet as
Secretary of the Treasury
After the conclusion of his diplomatic serv-
ice he removed to New York (in 1828), and
that city remained his permanent residence un-
til liis death. He was president of the National
Bank there for some years, but the duties were
light, and he had ample time for study and
public service He was much interested in the
problems of public education and of finance
and took an active part in the movement which
resulted in the founding of New York Univer-
sity, but his chief mteiest appears to have been
in the study of ethnology, especially of Ameri-
can ethnology He founded the American Eth-
nological Society m 1842, which for a brief
period was a veiy seiviceable agency foi the
promotion of such studies, and he wrote seveial
valuable essays and monographs on ethnological
subjects He did uot lose his mteiest in finance
and in history, howevei, and in every \\ay gave
an example of scholarship and of public spmt
rarely surpassed by any one in this country
He" was twice maiiied, first, in 1789, to Sophie
Allegre, who died within a few months and
then, in 1793, to Hannah Nicholson, daugh-
ter of Commodore James Nicholson, whose
death shoitly preceded his own He died Aug
12, 1849, at Astoria, L I He published in 1796
a Sketch of the Finances of the United States
and m 1843 memons on the American Rights
to the Northeastern Frontier, and many minor
essays on finance, history, and ethnology, his
Synopsis of the Indian Tribes uitJnn the United
State?, Hast of the JtocLy Mountains, and m
the British and Jtussian Possessions in Noi Ih
Ametica (1836), and Ins Notes on the Semi-
Cwihzed Nation? of Jtfeocico, Yucatan, and Cen-
tral America, mfh Conjectures on the Origin of
Semi-Civihzation m Amenca (1845), being es-
peciallv notewoi thy His Writings, winch are
of great value in the study of the political his-
tory of the United States in the first part of
the nineteenth century, have been edited by
Henry Adams (3 ^ols , Philadelphia, 1870).
Consult Adams, Life of Albert Gallatin (Phila-
delphia, 1879), and Stevens, Albert Gallatin
("American Statesmen Series/' Boston, 1884)
GALLATTDET, gal'la-det', EDWARD MINER
(1837-1917) An Aniencan educator of the deaf
and dumb, son of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet
He was born in Hartford, Conn , and in 1856
graduated at Tunity College there, and became
a teacher in the institution for the deaf and
dumb which his father had founded at Hart-
ford In 1857, at the instance of Amos Ken-
dall, he removed with his mother, Sophia Fowler
Gallaudet (who was herself deaf and had been
a pupil of T H Gallaudet ) , to Washington,
where they organized and took charge of an in-
stitution similar to that at Haitford, known as
the Columbia Institution foi the Deaf and
Dumb He became president of its two dis-
tinct departments, the Kendall School and the
National Deaf Mute College, which in 1893 was
named in his father's honoi Gallaudet College
In 1867-68 he made an extended torn of Eu-
rope, visiting the principal institutions for the
deaf and dumb, and publishing on his return
the lesults of his investigations in a full and ex-
tremely valuable leport In 1880 he was a dele-
gate to the international congress of instructors
of deaf-mutes, held in Milan, Italy, and in
1883 was president of the convention of Ameri-
can instructors of deaf-mutes at Jacksonville,
111 In 1886 he gave information on American
methods of teaching the blind, deaf, and dumb,
before a royal commission appointed to investi-
gate and reorganize the system in England His
publications include A Popular Manual of In-
ternational Law (1879) and Life of Thomas
Hopkins O-allaudet (1888), his father
GALLAITDET, THOMAS (1822-1902). ATI
American clergyman and educator of the deaf
GALLATJDET
415
GALLENGA
and dumb, a son of Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet
He was born in Hartford, Conn, and giaduated
at Trinity College (Hartford) m 1842 In 1843-
57 he taught in the New York Institution for
the Deaf and Dumb He supported the "com-
bined" system — partly oral, partly sign manual
— in teaching deaf-mutes Meanwhile he was
oidamed a deacon and priest in the Protestant
Episcopal church, and in 1852 he organized St
Ann's Episcopal Church in New York, where
theie weie services for deaf-mutes In 1872
he organized and became general manager of the
Church Mission for the Deaf and Dumb and in
1885 founded the Gallaudet Home for Deaf
Mutes at Wappinger's Falls, neai Poughkeepsie
He became rector emeritus of St Matthew's
Episcopal Church and vicar of St Ann's, which,
since 1897 has been associated with St Mat-
thew's parish and is exclusively a place of
worship for deaf-mutes
GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-
1851) An American educator of the deaf and
dumb, born in Philadelphia, Pa , of French
Huguenot ancestry He graduated at Yale in
1805, studied theology at Andover Theological
Seminary, and was licensed to preach in 1814.
Instead of preaching, however, he was sent
(by persons in Hartford) to Europe in 1815,
to study methods of caring for the deaf and
dumb, familiarizing himself with the systems
of the Abbe* Sicard in Paris, and of Braid-
wood and Watson in London. In 1817, with
Laurent Clerc, a deaf-mute, assistant of Si-
card, he opened a school of instruction at
Hartford, Conn , called the Connecticut ( and
later the American) Asylum, of which he con-
tinued to act as principal until 1830 In 1832-
33 he was professor of education in New York
University — the first American professorship of
education His sons, Thomas and Edward
Miner Gallaudet ( qq v ) , and his wife, were
also engaged in work for deaf-mutes He pub-
lished, in addition to numerous pamphlets
Sermons Preached to an English Congregation
in Paris (1818) , Plan of a Seminary for the
Education of Instructors of Youth (1825), the
germ of American normal schools, Bible Stories
for the Young (1838) , The Child's Book of the
Soul (1850) Seveial of his devotional works
were translated into other languages — modern
Greek and Siamese, for instance. Consult
Humphrey, Life (New York, 1858), and E M
Gallaudet (his son), Life (ib, 1888) See DEAF-
MUTE
GALL BLADDEB See LIVER.
GALLE, gal See POINT DE GALLE
GALLE, galle, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1812-
1910) A German astronomer, born at Pabst-
haus, near Grafenhainichen He studied the
mathematical sciences at Berlin, taught for a
time in a gymnasium, and was subsequently
made assistant observer in the Berlin Observa-
tory, of which Encke was then director He
discovered three unexpected comets and was
awarded the prize of the French Academy But
his principal achievement was the finding of the
planet Neptune It was to the Berlin Observa-
tory that Leverrier addressed his request that
a search be made for the hypothetical planet,
whose place in the sky he had computed from the
observed disturbances in the motion of Uranus
Galle made the search requested by Leverrier
and was the first to see the new planet, Sept
23, 1846 Galle was also perhaps the first as-
tronomer to advocate (1875) the use of planet-
oid observations foi the determination of the
solar parallax (see PAEALLAX) — a method now
consideied the best known His researches on
this subject weie published at Breslau, where
he had been made director of the obseivatory
and professoi of astronomy m 1851 Galle's
published works include Grundzuge d&t schlesi-
schen Khmatologie (Breslau, 1857), Ueber eine
Vet lessening der Planetenelemente (ib, 1858),
Uebei eine Bestimmung der Sonnenparallasce aus
hoi 1 espondiei enden Bcobachtungen der Flora
im October und November 1873 (ib , 1875),
Mitteilungen der Breslauer Sternwarte (ib,
1879) , Verzeichms der Element dm bisher be-
rechneten Kometenbahnen (Leipzig, 1894) His
original conti ibutions were published, for the
most pait, m scientific periodicals
GALLEGO, ga-lya'go, JUAN NICASIO (1777-
1853) A Spanish poet, born at Zarnoia Edu-
cated at Salamanca, he took orders in 1800 and
became a comt chaplain in 1805 On the up-
using of 1808 he \viote what is piobably his
best-known poem, El dos de mayo, a sturing
patriotic ode In 1810 he was a deputy in the
Cortes of Cadiz, holding liberal views This
political activity caused his imprisonment after
the restoration of Ferdinand VII, but he was
liberated by the revolution of 1820 Elected to
the Spanish Academy in 1830, he was made
perpetual secretary in 1839 His works are
few, but hold a high place in the literature of
his country on account of their excellent style
and intense patrioti&m The best collection of
his poems is in vol Ixvn of the Bibhoteca de
autores espaiioles (Madrid, 1875)
GALLEIN, glil'e-in See COAL-TAB COLOBS
GALLE1STGA, gal-leVga, ANTONIO (1810-95) ,
early pseudonym, Lujgi Manotti An Italian
historian and publicist, boin at Parnia He be-
gan the study of medicine at the University of
Painia, but abandoned it for a hteiaiy career
After playing a pait in the insuriection of 1831,
he went into exile and visited France and the
United States Returning to Italy, he became
prominent in the councils of Mazzmi's party
and was chosen as the agent to assassinate the
King of Sardinia, Charles Albert He could
not bring himself to do this and in 1838 with-
drew to London In 1843 he was given the
chair of Italian literature in University College
and three years later became a naturalized
British citizen He was in Italy at the up-
using of 1848, but left it when the fortunes
of the revolutionists sank, to return in 1854,
when he was elected a deputy to the Sardinian
Parliament The following year his History of
Piedmont was published in London and aroused
such dissensions in Mazzini's party by the
statement of facts as to the intended assassina-
tion of Charles Albert that he had to resign
his place in the Parliament He returned once
more to Italy in 1858, entered the Parliament at
Turin as a deputy, and in 1874 accompanied
King Victor Emmanuel to Berlin and Vienna
He was long a correspondent of the London
Times, both in Italy and in other countries, in-
cluding America, Denmark, and Spain Among
his works are Oltremonte ed olttemare, conti di
un pellegiino (1844) , Italy, Past and Present
(1846) , Scenes of Italian Life (1850) , Italy in
J8Jf8 (1851), Two Years of the Eastern Ques-
tion (1877), The Pope and the King (1878),
L'ltaha presente e futura (1886) His Practi-
cal Grammar of Italian for the use of English-
speaking students has passed through several
GALLEON
416
GALLEY
editions since 1851 He contributed many arti-
cles to English reviews His command of Eng-
lish as well as of Italian was remarkable, and
his influence counted for much in establishing
the friendly feeling of England foi his country
GAL'LEON (from Sp. galeon, It galeone,
augmentative of galea, galley) A name for-
merly applied to ships of war of three or four
gun decks, but subsequently transferred to the
large merchant vessels which every year brought
to Spain the gold, silver, and other wealth con-
tributed by its Mexican and South American
colonies They were armed, but, being heavy,
unmanageable vessels, and containing caigoes
of immense value, were eagerly sought after as
prizes whenevei a war broke out
GAL'LEOT. See GALLIOT
GALOLEBT (OF galJetie, galerie, J?i. galerie,
probably a special use of OF gallerie, galetie,
mirth, from gale, festivity, from AS gal, OHG ,
Gei qeil, wanton) A word with several ap-
plications in architecture (1) a long open
structure in the upper part of a building,
whether pro-jeetmg or not, inside or outside,
(2) a long passage, corridor, or hall connecting
or flanked by other apartments, (3) a laige,
well-lighted hall in a museum, especially one
for works of art, (4) a large stiuctuie, com-
prising one or moie streets or alloys roofed
with glass and flanked by shops Of class (1)
interesting examples are the famous outside
facade galleries on French Gothic cathedrals,
such as the galene des iois at Rlieims, Amiens,
and Pans, usually serving as a piactical
passageway , the interior galleries in so many
mediaeval churches, termed triforium galleries,
the projecting rood lofts, 01 singing galleues
extending across the inside fagade, and the pro-
jecting galleries in many modem chuiches,
theatres, opera houses, etc The arrangement of
galleries in tiers one over the other, now so
much used in churches, theatres, etc , is entirely
modern, dating from the seventeenth century.
Of class (2) early and most interesting in-
stances are the low and richly paneled galleiy
halls of the old chateaux and manor houses,
especially in English mansions of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, wheie family poi-
traits and collections of arms, arnioi, furniture,
and bric-a-brac weie kept, to it also belong
such galleues as that which connects the Samte
Chapelle and the Palais de Justice in Pans,
and the long gallery connecting the Pitti Palace
and the Palazzo Veechio at Floience. Class (3)
is related to the chateau gallery, being a hall for
public instead of private exhibition, and the
name is often applied to an entire building con-
taining several exhibition galleries We are fa-
miliar with the Uffizi, Borghese, Louvre, Na-
tional, and other such galleries Finally, to
class (4) belong the very modern and colossal
l^lass-roofed galleries at Naples and Milan and
those of the Palais Royal at Paris, of Brussels
and of some of the German cities, which are
in reality streets roofed with glass Some gal-
leries can hardly be classified, such as the fa-
mous Gallery of Mirrors at Versailles, See
GALERIE DES GLACES
GALLERY. In military fortifications, a
covered passage, cut through the earth or ma-
sonry in the defenses, whereby effective mus-
ketry fire can he directed through loopholes.
Galleries have been occasionally used in the
counterscarps of dry ditches enabling the de-
fenders to maintain a flanking fiie upon the
ditch They are also used in the construction
of militaiy mines and foim an important pait
of fortresses like Gibraltar, where there are
galleries of communication and connection In
mihtaiy mining underground communications
are classed according to their directions as gat-
lenes, which are horizontal or nearly so, and
shafts, which are vertical or nearly so Gal-
leries aie classed, according to their size, as
great 01 grand galleries, which are 6 feet high
by 7 feet wide, common galleries, 6 X 3% feet,
half gallei ie$, 4% X 3 feet, branches, 3% X 2%
feet, and small branches, 2% X 2 feet See
FOBTIFICATTON MlNES A3TD MINING, MlLITABY
GAI/LEY (OF galee, gahe, It galea, from
ML galea, galeia, MGk 7a\ea, galea, 7aXcua,
galaia, galley) The name generally applied to
vessels using sails and oars The ships of the
ancients were practically all of this character,
hence they are geneially spoken of as galleys A
bas-iehef at Thebes represents a naval victory
gamed by the Egyptians over the East Indians
about 1400 B c The vessels shown have oars
and sails, and the Egyptians had figuieheads of
metal in the shape of a lion's head Heiodotus
says that the Egyptian wai galleys had soldieis
on board as the fighting force, aicheis and sling
men being stationed on the raised platforms at
bow and stein, while pikes, speais, javelins,
bd,ttle-a\efe, falchions, s\voids, and other weap-
ons \\eie kept in convenient places for use in
boaidmg or repelling boarders The sail was
square and carried on a yaid on the single mast
The Egyptians never were such bold navigators
as the Phoenicians, and their vessels were prob-
ably inferior in seagoing qualities to the
Phoenician ships After having been for cen-
turies masters of the seas, the Phoenicians be-
came subject to Egypt, and in 610 B c , by order
of the Egyptian King, Necho, a Phoenician ex-
pedition is said to have circumnavigated Africa
The advantages possessed by a war vessel pro-
pelled by oars over one at the mercy of the
winds was early realized, and to attain the
greatest possible speed the number of banks of
oars was increased to two, three, four, and five
The increase beyond three seems to have re-
sulted in very little gain, and the trireme re-
mained foi many centuries the standard type
of war galley of the first class In merchant
galleys sails formed the pimcipal motive device,
and oars were auxiliary, in war galleys the re-
verse was the case
The moie modern galley appeared after sail
power had begun to assert its supremacy as
the propelling force of seagoing vessels Its de-
velopment reached its highest point at the end
of the sixteenth century, Lepanto being the last
great sea fight in which the galley appeared as
the most powerful type of war ship These ves-
sels carried firearms, guns, and small arms,
and had fairly good sail power as well as oars
During the Middle Ages the oars of galleys
were largely manned by infidel prisoners and
criminals, and in Prance convicts were used in
the large boats working about the arsenals
until recent times Row galleys, fitted as gun-
boats, were extensively used during the Napo-
leonic wars in operations and caused much
trouble to the British fleet Like all galleys de-
signed especially foi oar propulsion, they were
long and narrow, the length, being seven or
eight times the beam, and they were therefore
very fast In the British navy the term "galley"
is applied to the captain's boat, or gig, and
GALLEY SLAVE
417
G-AIiUCAN CHTJBCH
otlier similar boats built for speed under oaih
For further infoimation consult Rawhnson,
i.ncient Monarchies (3 vols, New York, 1900),
Parker, Fleets of the Wot U The Galley Period
(ib, 1877), Jal, Archeologie navale (Paris,
1840) , Bouet-Willaumez, BataiUes de terre et
dc mer (Paris, 1855) , Toir, Ancient 8hips
(Cambridge, 1895) , Holmes, Ancient and Mod-
ern Shtps (2 vols, London, 1906), Chatterton,
Ships and Ways of Other Days (Philadelphia,
1913) See SHIP
GALLEY SLAVE See BAGNES
GALLEY WOBM See CBKTIPLDE
GALL GNAT A minute fly of the family
Cecidomyiidae, which makes galls (qv) on
plants See GALL INSECTS
GAL'LI A name given to the eunuch pi jests
of Cybele ( q v ) See also ATTIS
GAL'LIA, 01 GALLIA TRANSALPIETA,
gal'i-a trans'al-pi'na The name given by the
Eomans to a part of western Europe which is
in the main identical with modern Fiance For
the district as a whole and for its vaiious di-
visions, Galha Belgica, Galha Biaccata, Gallia
Lugdunensis, Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia Piovm-
cia, see GAUL
GALLIA CISALPINA, gal'l-a sSs'al-pi'n&
See GAUL.
GALLIABD, g£'^ar' (Fr, rneiry) An old
French dance for two daneeis It was of a
stately character, wiitten in three-quarter time,
and was one of the precursors of the minuet
GALLIA TOGA'TA See GAUL
GALLIC ACID (from Lat galla, gallnut),
CaH2(OH)3COOH An organic acid that exists
ready-formed in small quantity in gallnuts, m
Chinese tea, in valonia (the acoin cup of Quet-
cus agilops) , in divi-divi (the pod of Cccsalpina
comana) , in sumac, and m othei vegetable piod-
ucts It is formed from tannin when the lattei
is boiled with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloiic
acid, or, much more slowly, when gallnuts, re-
duced to a thin paste with water, aie mixed
with a little yeast and exposed to the air until a
cover of mold is formed, the gallic acid sepa-
rates out in the free state and is purified by re-
crystallization from boiling water Gallic acid
has also been prepared aitificially by chemical
methods Pure gallic acid is a colorless sub-
stance, crystallizing in the form of silky needles
that are slightly soluble in cold watei, but re-
quire only three parts of hot water for their
solution, and are also freely soluble in alcohol
and in ether When heated to the temperature
of 220° C, gallic acid melts and decomposes
into pyrogallic and carbonic acids, the reaction
taking place according to the following chemi-
cal equation
CaH2 ( OH ) 3COOH = CaH3 ( OH ) , + C02
Gallic acid Pyrogalhc Carbonic
acid acid
Solutions of gallic acid have an acid reaction
and a sour, astringent taste, iron salts impart
to them a blue-black color, and therefore gallic
acid has been employed in the manufacture of
ink Further, as the acid possesses the prop-
erty of reducing the salts of gold, silver, and
platinum, it has been extensively employed in
developing photographs Gallic acid is also
sometimes used in medicine, and finally, since
solutions of its alkali salts rapidly absorb oxy-
gen, the acid may be usefully employed in the
chemical laboratory
QAI/LICA3ST CHURCH The national
chuich of France The term is frequently
however, not so much in its hivtoucal 01 geo-
graphical bcnse ab 111 the nairowei signification
attached to the word "Gallicanism" — a school of
thought which asseits ccitam punciples of more
01 less independent chuich government and pre-
logatives in administration claimed by the na-
tional church as opposed to certain rights of
the Pope The fact that France was the "eldest
claii«htei of the Church/3 one of the countries
m \vhich the Christian faith became widely dif-
fubed e\en in the lifetime of the Apostles, gave
the adheients of this view a powerful tradition
of Chuich privileges to which they might ap-
peal Christianity flouiished vcrv eaily among
the Greek colonies in the south of Gaul, as the
old tiadition of the visit of Lazarus to this
legion attests In the numerous and populous
towns along the Rhone and its tributaries, there
arose important congregations professing Chris-
tianity When pei secution came, the Gallic
Chnstians had then full share of haidships
They were closely in touch with those who
shai eel the same faith in othei paits of the
world, and one of the most touching monuments
of early riiu&tian litciatme is the letter of the
churches of Lyons and Vionnc to the brethien
in Asia concerning the martyis of these churches,
which Eusebius has preserved in his Ecclenas fo-
cal History The woiks of Iienaeus, Bishop of
Lyons (died c202), aie nnpoitant conti ibutions
to the history of Christian doctrine In the
next two centuries Suljiicius Severus, Hilary of
Poitiers, Hilary of Ailes, Vincent of L&nns,
Prosper, Victor, TCuchenus, Salvian, and Greg-
01 v of Touis continued a tradition of great
churchmen, of which Gaul was not without
reason proud The*hieiarchical organization of
the Chuich of Gaul was from the earliest times
the most complete and legular of all Western
Chnstendom As a result of this tradition of
/eal and faith, many privileges were gi anted to
it, and latei on, the kings of Fiance began to
make themselves felt more and more in ec-
clesiastical affairs This was an almost in-
evitable consequence of the close relations be-
tween the crown and the Church dignitaries,
most of whom held the temporalities of their
benefices by the oidmaiy feudal tenure, the
royal authoiitv soon came to assert a correla-
tive claim to certain privileges in ecclesiastical
matters There were not wanting ecclesiastics
who would compound with their consciences in
order to uphold the claims of their sovereign,
and for seveial centuries after the death of
Charlemagne kings and bishops at times played
into each other's hands
In order to secure subservient ecclesiastics,
monarchs insisted on the privilege of nominat-
ing to bishoprics The wealth of the more
prominent sees was very great, and lulers con-
trived at times to have their brothers, or even
illegitimate relatives, nominated to them
Where such unworthy prelates ruled their flocks
without due regard to Church principles, the
only resoit was an appeal to Home, and that
usually took a considerable time, during which
abuses seemed to acquire the force of right As
the result of these appeals and their not infre-
quent decision against the wish of the King,
there came a protest against having such causes
decided outside the realm More than one of
the French sovereigns engaged in a conflict with
the Roman see, and these conflicts naturally
called out a division of opinion among the roem-
GALLICA3ST CHTTBCH
418
GALLICAN CHUBCH
bera of the Church of France, one paity sup-
porting the papal claims, while the other main-
tamed the alleged prerogatives of the French
crown and privileges of the national church
The great contest between Philip the Fan and
Boniface VIII was a turning point in the con-
stitutional history of Europe — the beginning of
a reaction on the part of the laity against
ecclesiastical predominance, which, like most
reactions, went fmther in the opposite direction,
and the state succeeded in transferring to itself
the greater part of the external dominion en-
joyed previously by the hieraichy
Gradually the principles of what is known as
Gallicanism took definite shape, even thus early.
Throughout its long caieer, while recognizing in
theory the primacy by divine right of the Ro-
man pontiff over the whole Church, it yet as-
serted the independence of national churches,
and especially that of France in many details of
local government, and held the exercise of papal
prerogative to be limited by the canons and de-
crees of general councils It must be added that
while the Galilean theory to this extent claims
an exemption from dependence upon the author-
ity of the Pope, it acquiesces, on the other hand,
to an almost proportionate degree in the as-
sumption of ecclesiastical authority by the cml
government, indeed, in many of the details of
its later development it falls into the extremest
form of Erastianism, the doctrine of state su-
premacy in matteis spiritual as well as tem-
poral The conflicting claims of the nval popes
in the Western schism (see SCHISM, WESTERN)
tended to weaken the papal authority, especially
in France The expedient adopted of calling a
general council to pronounce upon the respective
claims of the rival popes ^ave prominence to-
what became one of the leading tenets of Galli-
camsm, the superiority in point of authority of
a general council to the Pope
Some of the disciplinary enactments of the
councils of Constance (1414-18) and Basel
(1431-45) were mainly directed towards the
limitation of the papal authority in the exer-
cise of Church patronage within the limits of
the national church These claims of privilege
culminated in the Pragmatic Sanction ( q v ) ,
passed at Bourges in 1438 by a national coun-
cil of the Fiench church in union with the King,
Charles VII This abolished papal reservations
and restricted appeals to Borne to causce
mavores. Though Louis XI attempted to repeal
it, it was maintained in spite of papal protests
until 1516, when it was superseded by the Con-
cordat of Bologna (see CONCORDAT) between Leo
X and Francis I The most conspicuous altera-
tion effected by the new compromise was the
transfer of the right of nomination to bishoprics
and other benefices consistorwua from the capit-
ular bodies to the crown, with a provision for
papal veto upon any choice which did not sat-
isfy canonical requirements It was substan-
tially a triumph of the absolutist principle, as
represented by the King and the Pope, over the
constitutional, as embodied in the "Gallican
liberties", the upholders of the latter quoted
it complacently as establishing them, whereas
it was the most formidable blow which had been
dealt at them
Soon, however, new and more far-reaching
complications arose with the introduction of the
principles of the Beformation into France The
first Protestant place of worship in Paris was
opened in 1555? at wjuch time the Adherents of
the Befoimation in the kingdom piobably num-
bered about a million and a half Beginning as
dissenters on spiritual giouncls, the Huguenots
were soon diiven by the foice of circumstances
into the position of a seditious faction \\hose
activity thieatened the peace and stability of
the state Their hi&tory cannot be propeily un-
derstood unless this fact is boine m mind The
story of the wars of religion is stiangely com-
plicated by its bearing upon then progress.
Thus, the League, which took its rise from the
strangely indulgent teims granted to the Hugue-
nots by the "Peace of Monsieur" in April, 1576,
four years after the Massaeie of St Baitholo-
mew (see BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF SAINT),
was founded upon peculiarly assorted principles,
politically it was democratic, while its religious
views were the most ultramontane At the time
of its predominance, after the "day of the bai-
rieades" (May 12, 1588), the Huguenots became
for a time the champions of order and consti-
tutional authority, but the situation changed
again with the conversion of Heniy IV That
sovereign, when he issued the Edict of Nantes
in 1398, was actuated not only by a general be-
lief in toleration, but by his knowledge that
French Protestantism was a struggle even moie
for political than for religious pi edominance,
and his desire to bring that conflict to an end, in
the interests of statesmanship, by depiiving his
Protestant subjects of any leasonable pretext
for disaffection
With the cessation of civil strife, a remaik-
able outburst of religious life manifested itself
There was need for it, three-fourths of the
parochial churches and a third of the episcopal
sees were without pastors, and miserable dis-
order was to be seen everywhere Now, in all
directions, new undertakings multiplied — col-
leges, schools, hospitals, congregations for the
systematic training of the cleigy, seminaries,
and new monastic oiders or reforms within the
old ones. The names of St Vincent de Paul, of
St Francis de Sales, and his devoted associate,
St Jane Frances de Chantal, of Cardinal de
Berulle, and M Oher, of La Trappe and Samt-
Maur and Port Boyal, speak eloquently of the
great wave of zeal which passed over the land
in the first half of the seventeenth centuiy
When, however, the death of Bicheheu removed
the great personality which had stood for order
and unity, this fair picture was marred by a
new ebullition of strife, which proved full of
peril and disaster, in the rise of Jansenism and
Quietism, (qqv ). Towards the close of the cen-
tury, moreover, with the attempt of Louis XIV
to enlarge the ecclesiastical prerogative of the
crown as he had increased its political authority,
the principles of Gallicanism assumed an impor-
tance which may fitly be treated here at length
Controversy arose over his attempt to enforce
the so-called droit de regale, based upon his
claim to leceive the revenues of bishoprics dur-
ing vacancies, and to appoint to all benefices in
the Bishop's patronage, not involving the cure
of souls, which might fall vacant during the
interval An effort to exercise this power
brought on a collision between the ciown and
certain bishops Their metropolitan decided
against them, and they appealed to Borne, where
Innocent XI upheld them, much to the dis-
pleasure of Louis and the courtier ecclesiastics
An assembly of the higher French clergy was
convened to find a way out of the difficulty At
jts opening Bossuet, just chosen Jfyshop of
GALL1CAH CHUBCH
410
QALLXCAJST
Meaux, dehveied ins celebiated discourse on
the unity of the Chmch It was cleai that his
intention was not to deny the headship of Rome
in any sense, but merely to lea&sert what were
considered prescriptive privileges, yet it is dii
ficult to understand how the prelate who pio-
nounced so eloquent a defense of the rights of
the Pope could, before the end of the assembly,
have signed the Galilean articles
These articles, four in number, aie considered
the charter of the Gallican church The first de-
clares that "the jurisdiction of St Peter and
his successors in the Roman see as vicars of
Christ on earth, although divinely bestowed, is
confined to things spiritual, and does not ex-
tend to civil or temporal affairs " The second
lenews the declaration of the Council of Con-
stance as to the superiority of a geneial council
to the Pope, and declares that the articles passed
in the third and fourth sessions of the council
are not to be restricted in their application to
a period of schism such as existed at the time
of the council The third asserts that the au-
thority of the Pope is to be restricted by the
canons of the universal Church, and that "the
laws, customs, and constitutions of the realm
and of the Gallican church remain in full force "
The fourth declares that "the Pope has the
principal share in the decision of questions of
faith, his decrees regard all the churches and
each church in particular, nevertheless, his
•judgment is not irreformable unless the consent
of the entire Church be added to it" It has
been pointed out that since the Vatican Coun-
cil, adherence to this last proposition would
amount, for Roman Catholics, to formal heresy.
The chief laws and customs referred to in the
thud article are that the national church of
France is not bound to receive all the decrees
of councils and of popes in matters of discipline,
and that only such decrees as are formally re-
ceived are in force in France, that the Gallican,
church holds itself free to receive or reject the
rules of the Roman chancery, that the Roman
pontiff cannot levy any impost upon the French
clergy without their consent, that he cannot
bestow of his own motion on a foreigner any
benefice properly belonging to the Gallican
church, that neither the Pope himself nor his
legates can hear French causes "in the first in-
stance," and that even in cases of appeal he
is bound to assign French judges to hear the
cause, even should the appellant be a metropoli-
tan or primate, finally, it is asserted that the
French bishops shall not be required to attend
any general council, unless with the permission
of the crown The last of these customs, as also
those which make the reception of the general
canons of discipline optional in France, and
which practically throw the decision into the
hands of the civil power, have been not unrea-
sonably called the "slaveries" rather than the
"liberties" of the Gallican church It was not
long before Bossuet declared that "the liberties
of the Church are constantly appealed to against
the Church and to her detriment " Fe*nelon
wrote "In practice the King of France is
now more the head of the Church than the
Pope Liberty towards the Pope, servitude
towards the King The King's power over the
Church has fallen into the hands of the civil
tribunal Laymen lord it over the bishops
Secular judges go so far as to examine even
those papal bulls which relate only to matters
of faith"
Louis was resolved, nevertheless, to enforce
the declaiations absolutely By royal edict he
commanded the acceptance of the four articles
and their incoipoiation into the acts of parlia-
ments and universities Professois were re-
quned to teach them and bishops to swear to
them The Sorbonne objected, but was com-
pelled to submit Outside of France, distinct
disapproval maiked the declaration, Pope Inno-
cent XI received it in silence, but refused to
raise to the episcopate any members of the as-
sembly who were subsequently nominated His
successor, Alexander VIII, condemned the
declaration in 1690 Two yeais later Louis
wrote to Innocent XII that his edict concerning
the Declaiation of Rights no longer held, and
that he wished all the world to recognize his
veneration for the Pope The declaration was
not, however, formally withdrawn and was sub-
sequently condemned by Clement XI in 1706, and
again by Pius VI in 1794
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes scarcely
belongs in strictness to an ecclesiastical survey,
since, like the original promulgation, it was
supposed to be an act of political wisdom The
Huguenots, as Lavalee remaiks, preserved to-
wards the government the attitude of children
in disgrace, and towards the Catholics that of
disdainful enemies, they persisted in their isola-
tion, they kept up a continual correspondence
with their friends in England and Holland, even
when those countries were hostile to their own.
"France," says Michelet, "found a Holland in
its own bosom which was rejoicing at the suc-
cess of the other." On the eve of the formation
of the League of Augsburg against Mm, Louis
XIV could hardly have been expected to leave
such a stronghold of anarchy within his king-
dom as the privileges of the Edict of Nantes
had come to constitute The act of revocation
was received with a chorus of enthusiastic ap-
plause from all sorts of people in France Bos-
suet burst forth into a joyful panegyric, Fene-
lon, who has been repiesented as the apostle of
toleration, laid it down clearly that "though no
sovereign may require interior belief in religious
matters from his subjects, he may prevent the
public exercise, or the profession, of opinions
or ceremonies which disturb the peace of the
commonwealth, by the diversity and multiplicity
of sects " The laity applauded the King not
less than the clergy, the great Chancellor, Le
Tellier, after a life of noble and high-minded
service to his country, died with the Nunc ditnit-
tis upon his lips, saying that he had nothing
left to wish for after this final act of his long
ministry The consequences to religion were
not, however, altogether happy, and the gentle
methods of pei suasion employed by the Lazar-
ists, Sulpicians, Doctrinaires, and Theatms,
•ttho went as missionaries among the Huguenots,
were probably far more efficacious in producing
leal conversions than were the dragonnades
The general tone of laxity which characterized
the eighteenth cenfcury did not fail to have its
effect upon the Church, infecting at least the
higher clergy with a spirit of worldlmess and
selfish devotion to ease and pleasure A terrible
punishment came upon them in the Revolution
The Constituent Assembly first laid hands upon
the property of the Church to meet its financial
needs, and then assumed to tamper with her
organic structure The "Civil Constitution of
the Clergy," decreed on July 12, 1790, was but
a natural outcome of Gallican principles, yet
O-ALMCAN* CHtTBCH
420
its arbitrary suppression of dioceses and estab-
lishment of others,, its provision foi the election
of bishops and cut es by the people and their pay-
ment by the state, whose stipendiaues they
were to become, raised the weightiei question
as to whether, after all, the civil powoi vias to
impose laws upon the spiutual without the con-
currence of its legitimate rulers From this
time Gallicamsm, as a system, has steaclilv de-
clined , and while it Is true that French bishops
in the nineteenth century vvere, as a rule,
less ultramontane than others, they seem to
have learned the necessity for the supremacy of
the head of their church in religious matters
The attempt of the Constituent Assembly to
separate the French church from Rome and to
make it a mere department of the newly oigan-
ized state, brought about a condition very like
a schism Those who submitted to take the
oath to support the new order — the Constitu-
tional eleigy, as they were called — were regarded
bv the sfricter Catholics as having forfeited
their rights, and in the more conservative prov-
inces, like Buttany, the people refused to at-
tend their ministrations On the other hand,
those who refused the oath were subjected to
increasingly heavv penalties by the revolutionary
government and either exiled as a last resort
to the pestilential swamps of Guiana or exe-
cuted. Their faithfulness, however, had its re-
ward, when religion once moie held up its head
after the excesses of the Teiror, the Constitu-
tional oiganization giaduallv disappeared, and
a modus v^vend^ was reached in the Concordat
of 1801 by Napoleon, ^ho was acute enough
to see the advantage to his newly founded
dynasty of the support of the Church This,
having proved not entirely satisfactory, was
reviewed after the Restoration, in 1817, but
the new instrument, which was in many par-
ticulars a return to that of 1516, was not ap-
proved by the Chambers, and the Church re-
mained for several years uneasily fluctuating
between two concordats, norther of which was
fully executed, until in 1822 an arrangement was
concluded by which 30 prelates were added to
the existing hierarchy, its total number being
thus fixed at eighty.
Among questions or movements of general
significance- which have agitated the French
church since that date must be mentioned the
stir caused about 1830 by the body of enthu-
siastic visionaries, of whom Lamennais, Lacor-
daire, and Montalembert are the best known,
starting from a pure devotion to the cause of
liberty and a conviction that the Church would
gain by its fullest exercise, but ending in dan-
gerous errors which received the condemnation
of the holy see In recent years the very serious
aggressions made upon the Church with increas-
ing bitterness by the government of the Third
Republic have created a new order of affairs
Though Pope Leo XIII repeatedly la;d down the
principle that there is no reason why, theoreti-
cally, a good Catholic should not be a good re-
publican, it is undeniable that the bulk of the
monarchist parties is composed of members of
the Church, and thus politics has become mixed
up in the treatment accorded the Church by the
government The antagonism finally led to the
suppression of the religious congregations in
France and the confiscation of their property,
a measure difficult to reconcile with the princi-
ples of democratic government This was fol-
lowed by the repeal of the Concordat, the agree-
GALXJENIJS
under which the papacy and the French
government have cairied on their lelations
since the time of Napoleon Thus, for the first
time in modem history, church and state are
absolutely separated in Fiance See FRANCE,
liistonj
Bibliography Jervis, The Chut oh of Fiance
(2 vols, London, 1872) and The Galhcan
Church and the Revolution (ib, 1882), by far
the best books ni English on the whole subject,
Pithou, Le$ hbettes de I'eghse Galheienne
(Paris, 1594), Qalha Christianas (13 vols, ib ,
1715-85, vols xiv-xvi, ib , 1856-65), Guettee,
Histovre de Veglise de France (12 vols, ib ,
1847-56) , Jager, Histoire de I'eghse cathohque
de France (19 vols., ib , 1862-73), Gevin, Re-
cherches histojiques sur VAssembUe de 1682 (ib ,
1869) , id , Lorn? XIV et le Saint Siege (2 vols ,
ib , 1890) , De Maistre, De I'eghse galhcane (ib ,
1821) , id, Du pape (Lyons, 1809) , Le Roy, Le
Galhcamsme au SVHI siccle (Paris, 1892) ,
Keller, La fin dw Gallicamsme et M Mai et, son
dermer t epre^entant (Alene.on, 1901) , Theiner,
Documents medits relatifs aiisc affaires leligi-
euses de France, 1190 a 1800 (Paris, 1857) , id,
Les deux Concordats (ib, 1860), D'Hausson-
ville, L'Eglise romame et le premier Empire (ib ,
1864-71) , Valois, La Fiance et le grand schisme
de I'occident (4 vols, ib , 1896-1902) , Denzigei,
Enchiridion Symboloium (Freiburg, 1908) ,
Sabatier, Fiance To-Day Jts Religious Otienta-
tion (New Yoik, 1913) See FRANCE, HUGUE-
NOTS
GALLICA3ST CONFESSION See GAIXICAN
CltUBCIJ
GALLICO, gal'le-ko, PAOLO (1868- ).
An American pianist, born at Trieste, Austria
He studied under Julius Epstein at the
Vienna (Jonsei \atoiy, where he graduated in
1886 after having won two first prizes for piano
playing The next few years he spent on concert
tours through Austria, Italy, Germany, Holland,
and Russia. In 1892 he came to the United
States and settled in New York as a teacher
He frequently appeared in recitals and as so-
loist with the larger orchestras, at the same
time being in great demand because of his fine
qualities as an ensemble player He published
some meritorious songs and pieces for piano
GALLIEKT, gaKLeii, JOHANNA See WYTTEN-
BACIT, DANIEL ALBERT
GAIiLIENI, gal'ye-ne', JOSEPH SIMON (1849-
1916) A French soldier and colonial adminis-
trator, born at Saint-Beat (Haute-Gaionne) He
graduated from the military school of Saint- Cyi
in 1870, fought in the war with Germany,
and m 1878 went as captain to Senegambia,
where he was active in extending the French in-
fluence In 1883-86 he served in Martinique,
in 1886 he became Governor of Upper Senegal,
and in 1893-95 he commanded a division in
Tongkmg, where he succeeded in extirpating the
prevailing brigandism In 1806-1905 he was
Governor-General of Madagascar and established
French control there He was created general
of division on his return to France, and fpr
several years was military governor of Lyons.
For his part in the war in 1914 see WAR IN JEu-
BOPE He wrote Mission $ exploration du
Hunt-Niger (1885) , Deuce campagnes au Sudan
franeais (1891) , Trois eolpnnes au Tonkin,
1894-95 (1889), Rapport d' ensemble sur la
Situation g&nerale de Madagascar (1899)^ Neuf
ans &Jtta$agascar (1908)
~>, gal'li-e'nus, ARCH OF. An
OAliLIBKTUS
421
arch on the Esquiline Hill at Rome, elected 111
honor of Galhenus and his wife Salonma One
span of the arch is still standing Consult
Plainer, The Topography and Monuments of An-
cient Rome (2d ed , Boston, 1911)
GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINITJS ( ?-2C8
AD) Roman Emperoi, 253-268 AD He ^as
made joint luler on the accession of his father,
Valerian (qv ), m August, 253 In 256 he took
the field f gainst the Alemanni, who weie mak-
ing incursions into the Roman provinces along
the Danube After several campaigns they weie
subdued m 258, but they lose again soon after
and forced their way into Italy, where Galhenus
gained a victory over them near Milan (See
ALEMANNI.) Meanwhile Valerian had been en-
gaged in wars with Shapur, or Sapor, the Pei-
sian King, by whom he was taken prisoner in
260 Galhenus now became sole Emperoi, but
only m name, for self-appointed lulers aiose in
all parts of the Empire, this penod being foi
that reason known in history as the "Reign of
the Thirty Tyrants" Gaul became practically
a separate kingdom under Postumus (258-267).
The reign of Galhenus was a penod of incessant
turmoil until, in an attack on Milan, where he
was besieging the usurper Aureolus, he was
killed in a plot formed by some of his own
officers
GALLIFPET, ga/l&'fa', GASTON" ALEXANDRE
AUGUSTE, MABQUIS BE (1830-1909) A French
soldier, born in Paris He entered the army in
1S48 and fought in the Crimean War Pie was
engaged in Mexico, was wounded at the battle of
Puebla, and in recognition of his bravery was
selected to deliver the captured Mexican battle
flags to Napoleon III During the Franco-
German War he led the memorable cavalry
charge of the chasseurs d'Afwque at the battle
of Sedan, and afterward he acted with ability
and severity in the suppression of the Com-
mune— indeed, his execution of the Communards
was the theme, his life through, of bitter politi-
cal attacks upon him In 1872-73 he was in
Algeria, where he suppressed the revolt among
the natives. In 1875 he became general of divi-
sion, avowed himself a loyal Republican, and
won the favor of Gambetta In 1879 he was
appointed commander of the Ninth Army Corps
He repeatedly conducted the French cavaliy
manoeuvres and was justly famed for his knowl-
edge of this branch of the service The reor-
ganization of the French cavalry in 1882 was
largely his work In June, 1899, he was ap-
pointed Minister of War, which position lie re-
signed in May, 1900, after having done much by
his rigorous discipline to carry the government
safely through the crisis of the Dreyfus agita-
tion
GALLFN-ffi (Lat nom. pi, hens), or GALLI-
FOEMES, or formerly RASOEES An order of birds,
containing at once the most important species
domesticated as poultry and those most sought
after as game The common domestic fowl may
be regarded as the type of the order Like it,
the Gallmse in general have a small head, a
rather short bill, with the upper mandible a
little arched, nostrils placed on the sides of the
bill, and usually in a soft membranous space at
its base, the figure bulky, the wings short, and
not governed by powerful muscles or adapted for
a long or rapid flight, the feet with three toes
before and one behind, adapted for walking on
the ground and for scraping, wjiich is much re-
sorted to, in, order to procure food and for other
puiposes, the digestive oigana complex, the
ciop laige, the gizzaid \eiy muscular, the in-
testine long, with two very laige c#ca The
sternum is deeply double-notched, theie are two
carotids, the oil gland is tufted, the plumage
lias aftershafts, and there are usually more than
12 tail feathers The head, at least of the males,
is often furnished with appendages, as a cicst,
comb, wattles, etc The legs of the males are also
often furnished with spurs, and at least during
the breeding season the males are very quariel-
fcome The males of many species (eg, pheas-
ants) are buds of splendid plumage, that of
the females is sobei, but females of very ad-
vanced age sometimes assume a plumage similai
to that of the males Some of the Gallmse aie
polygamous, some pair at the bleeding season,
the nest of all ot them is artless, and the males
take no part in mcubation, and only occasionally
aid m the rearing of the young The young are
piecocial, ie, they aie comparatively feathered
when hatched and aie immediately able to lun
about and pick up food for themselves, but aie
for some time tended and piotected by the
mother, and by her the proper food is sought for
them and pointed out to them or broken into
sufficiently small pieces and laid before them
The Galhnse have unmelodious voices Except
the curassows, they make then nests on the
ground Some of them aie found in almost all
parts of the world The order contains seven
families, Megapodndse (see BRUSH TUBKEY,
MOUND BIRD ) , Cracidae ( see CUEASSOW , GUAN ) ,
Tetraomdse (see GROUSE, PTARMIGAN), Phasi-
anidse (see PARTRIDGE, QUAIL, PHEASANT,
TRAGOPAN, JUNGLE FOWL, PEACOCK) , Numid-
idse (see GUINEA FOWL), Meleagridae (see
TURKEY) , Odontophondse (see QUAIL ? PAR-
TRIDGE).
GALXDSTE'TA (Sp, sandpiper) A remark-
able rail (Aramides ypecalia) of the La Plata
valley, South America, called "ypecaha" by the
native Indians, which is noted for its shrieking
cries, and for its gathering into companies which
join in dances, the performers becoming almost
frenzied with excitement, and with loud cries
and outstretched wings rushing from side to
side for several minutes These peiformances
are indulged in by jacanas, the Cayenne lap-
sing, and various birds in other parts of the
world For a detailed description and con-
sideration of this and other habits, consult Hud-
son, Naturalist on the La Plata (London, 1892)
GALODrKTGKEK, JACOB H(AROLD) (1837-
1918 ) An American physician and Republican
politician, born at Cornwall, Ontario, Canada
He became a printer in his teens, studied medi-
cine in Cincinnati, practiced medicine and sur-
gery at Concord, N H , from 1862 until his ap-
pearance in public life, and contributed much to
medical literature In 1879-80 he was surgeon-
general of New Hampshire, with, rank of brigadier
general He was a member of the New Hamp-
shire House of Representatives in 1872-73, of
the State Constitutional Convention of 1877, of
the State Senate in 1878, 1879, and 1880, and
again of the House m 1891. From 1882 until
his resignation in 1890 he was chairman of the
Republican State Committee and in 1898 and
1900 was reelected to the post He was chairman
of the New Hampshire delegation to the Repub-
lican National Convention of 1888, ill which he
seconded the nomination of Benjamin Harrison
for the presidency, and also chairman of the
delegation to the convention of 1900 In 1885
GALL INSE3TS
422
he entered the Forty-ninth Congress He
was reelected m the Fiftieth, declined lenonii-
nation foi the Fifty-first, took his seat in the
Senate in 1891, and was reelected in 1897, 1903,
and 1909 In December, 1912, he and Senator
Bacon of Georgia, were chosen alternating presi-
dents of the Senate He belonged to the con-
servative wmg of the Republican party, being a
Standpatter," particularly on the tariff ques-
tion
GALL INSECTS (from Lat gotta, gallnut)
Until about 200 years ago galls were supposed
to be purely of vegetable ongin, and the mag-
gots that grow within them were supposed to
arise by spontaneous generation in the organic
substances in the galls Pliny knew that a fly
came from galls and thought they grew like
fungi in the night Malpighi, in the second half
of the seventeenth century, ^as the first to
record the fact that the production of galls
followed puncture of vegetable tissue by insects,
and he came to the conclusion that the insects
inject a substance, which he called ichor, into
the plant tissue, and this substance produced a
swelling similar to that which the sting of a bee
causes in animal tissue E4aumur held the
theory that the gall is not the product of some
specific irritating fluid, but is due to the irrita-
tion caused by the prick, and to the piesence of
the egg and developing larvae in the tissue.
Some galls begin to develop as soon as the eggs
are laid, but, unfortunately for the universal
application of Reaumur's theory, others do not
begin to develop until after the eggs hatch, which
may be months after they are deposited in the
tissue
Galls occur on a great many kinds of plants
and are produced by a variety of insects, by
mites, and by certain species of nematode worms
Each species of insect confines its activities to
one or, at the very most, to a very limited num-
ber of species of plants The same kind of insect
will produce different kinds of galls on different
kinds of plants, and different kinds of insects
will produce different kinds of galls on the same
plant Each species of gall insect, however, in-
fests a particular part of the plant, such as the
leaf, flower, stem, or root, and that part alone,
and it produces there galls with such precise
qualities that it can be definitely stated, from
the appearance of the gall, what sort of insect
has caused its development. In rearing galls
one cannot be certain, from merely observing the
emerging insects, what species aie the producers
of the gall, for a number of different kinds of
insects may develop within the same gall — some
as guests, feeding on the tissue of the gall, and
others as parasites on the larvae of the true gall
insect
Nearly all the orders of insects have gaZl-
making representatives In addition there are
the galls of mites and nematodes The galls
made by mites, like those produced by plant lice,
have open mouths for the escape of the matured
mites An example of a gall produced by mites
is the pear-leaf blister made by Phytoptus yyn
ISTematodes of the genus Angwllula,, which is al-
lied to the vinegar worm., are the cause of smut
in growing grain, particularly in wheat The
larvse of these insects have the most extraordi-
nary capacity of withstanding desiccation The
egg is laid by the parent in the growing ear,
where the larvae develop and are set free by the
dying grain. They then live in the moist earth
until the young wheat begins to grow They
GALL INSECTS
creep up the stem of the wheat, and when once
lodged within the head they soon gain sexual
maturity In their wanderings in search of
new, growing grain the larvte undergo great
\ icissitudes They may be compelled by drought
to encyst a number of times, even on the very
stem of the plant, and await moisture before
they are able to reach their final destination
According to Spallanzam, they may retain their
\itahty for 20 years while awaiting their food
plant
The family Cympidae, of the older Hymen op-
tera, furnishes the greatest number of species of
gall-producing insects The majority of its spe-
cies (called gallflies) infest some part of the
oak, making closed galls They are the best
studied of all the galls, and a large amount of
information concerning their life history has
been gamed by the painstaking studies of Adler,
Riley, and others Adler kept oak saplings until
from four to six years old, and on these he iso-
lated certain insects and observed the resulting
galls. Some of the species that Adler bred were
so nearly alike that he could determine them
with certainty only by their galls Moreover,
certain species that had been given different spe-
cific or even generic names he found to be the
alternating generations of other described spe-
cies Some winged generations he found to be
composed entirely of females, and the next
geneiation of both males and females Thus,
the individuals of one generation do not resemble
their paients, but their grandpaients (See
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS ) Not only are
the insects of these two generations very dif-
ferent, but the galls that they produce are like-
wise different Other forms are believed to
reproduce entirely parthenogenetically without
males ever appearing Adler studied galls of
the bud, leaf, bark, and root, and found that all
of them are developed by abnormal activities
of the cambium ring The potentialities of the
tissue growth are always present at the spot
pricked and are merely called into activity by
the prick or by the larvae He found that some
of the galls are protected from attack by sweet
juices, which attract guarding ants, and it is
mteiesting to note that the honey-making ants
( q v ) of the southwestern United States gather
honey from oak galls Other galls are provided
with a sticky secretion on long hairs which en-
traps marauders, the spongy parenchyma of
some galls is so very thick that it acts as an
effectual barrier against intruders Other galls
have an inner stony layer for the protection of
the larvse, others, a, large, hollow chamber in
which it is difficult for the enemy from without
to locate the larvae The pine-cone-like arrange-
ment of scales in certain galls is a sufficient
protection to the larvae Other galls aie exempt
from attack by virtue of their bitter tannin or
by their protective coloration Insects, titmice,
pheasants, and squirrels aie the chief enemies of
gall insects, the birds and squirrels tearing them
open in winter to get the larvae within them
Three classes of hymenopterous insects may
be reared from one and the same gall 1
Psenids, or true gallflies, which lay their eggs
in the tissue of the plant, many of these species
cause those subsequent modifications in the de-
velopment of the plant tissue that we call galls
2 Inqmlmes, or guests, which lay their eggs
and develop in the galls caused by the true gall
makers 3 Parasites, which prey on the larvae
of the true gall makers or their guests Accord-
GALLINTJLE
423
G-ALLIO
ing to Adler, Riley, and others, the growth of
the gall probably depends upon the activity of
the larvse and is the result of some secretion or
excretion thrown out by the larvae
The rate of growth of the gall will depend on
that of the meiistem — those that are foimed
on catkins and joung leaves growing rapidly,
while those on roots and bark require perhaps
months to gain full size
Some of the gall larvse of the Diptera (espe-
cially the minute flies of the family Cecidomyi-
icUe) transform in the plant tissue and others in
the ground The larvae are maggot-like and
without anal opening The goldeniod gall, a
round ball produced m the stem of the plant by
a fly (Trypeta solidaginis) , and the pine-cone
galls on the heart-leaved willow (&ah& coidata]
aie formed by dipterous insects The Hessian
fly of wheat, which stings the base of the leaf,
and the wheat midge, which stings the flower,
are also classed as gall insects The Hermptera
have gall-producing representatives among the
plant lice (aphids) of the Coccidae and of Phyl-
loxera The galls produced by plant lice have
open mouths for the escape of the developed
lice Reproduction may take place within the
gall The cockscomb elm galls, on the upper
side of elm leaves, are produced by the plant
louse (Colopha ulmioola) The destructive
grapevine phylloxera makes galls on the under-
side of the grape leaf and on the roots of the
vine The elongated galls on the goldenrod
stems are produced by a tineid moth (Geleckia
gallcBsolidagims) In Australia several plants
are infested by gall-producing thrips, and galls
are also said to be caused by beetles
Consult Osten-Saeken, "On the Cynrpidse of
JSTorth American Oaks and their Galls," in Pro-
ceedings of the Entomological Society of Phila-
delphia, vol is pp 47-72, 241-259, vol 11,
pp 33-49, vol iv, pp. 331-380 (Philadelphia,
1861-64) , Cameron, Monograph of the British
Phytophagous Hymenoptera (London, 1882-93) ,
IRothama, "On the JEtiology and Life History of
Some Vegetal Galls," in Natural Science, vol
m (ib, 1893), Beutenmuller, "Catalogue of
Gall-Producing Insects Found within Fifty Miles
of New York," m Bulletin, of the American
Museum of Natural History, vol iv (New
York, 1892), id, The Insect-Galls of the
Vicinity of New York City," in American
Museum Journal, vol iv (ib, 1904). See
PHYLLOXERA, APHID, GALLS
GAI/LrN"tJLE (Lat galhnula, dim. of gal-
linar lien) A bird of one or other of the
genera Gtalhnula, lonorms, etc, of the family
HEAD AND FOOT OF GALLINTTLE
a, foot of purple gallmule (Jonomis martimcw') , Z>, profile
of head of the same, c, top of head of Florida gallmule
(Qalhnula gdleata), showing shape and extent of frontal shield
Ilalhdse, closely allied to the coots, and having
the upper mandible similarly extending up on
the forehead in a naked soft plate, but the toes
usually furnished with an undivided narrow
marginal membrane This membrane and the
great length of the toes enable the gallmules to
swim well, and all of them are aquatic The
species are about 30 in number, some of them
confined to tiopical legions Two occur in the
United States The Florida gallmule ( Galhnula
gale&ta) is brownish olive above, grayish black
beneath, and the bill is red It is a little more
than a foot in length and is found from New
Yoik State, Minnesota, and California south-
ward through central and northern South
America, though only a summer visitor in the
most of the United States Its nesting habits
are like those of the coot (qv) The purple
gallmule (lonorms martinicus) is a trifle
sinallei, and a handsome olive green above, the
head and underparts being a beautiful purplish
blue It is a South and Central American
species, common to the West Indies and the
South Atlantic states, where it is resident (See
Plate of RAILS, ETC ) All these birds are com-
monly known as mud hens, and are shot for
sport, but the flesh is not good
The common gallmule (Galhnula chloropus]
of "Europe is moie usually styled in Great Brit-
ain water lien, or moor hen It is widely dif-
fused in the Old World and abundant m suitable
situations, such as river marshes and the arti-
ficial ponds of parks, where these birds may
often be seen in considerable numbers, swimming
together, with a peculiar nodding motion of the
head. They seek their food both on the surface
of the water and by diving, partly also among
the grass of meadows and river banks A fre-
quent jerking of the tail is very characteiiatic
of them. When alarmed, they sometimes seek
safety by flight, but more frequently by hiding
among rushes or reeds They make their nests
near the water which they frequent, and usually
on the ground, and lay from 7 to 10 brown
and speckled eggs The flesh is well flavored.
See COOT, HAIL
GAI/LIO, Lucius JUNIUS A Roman rheto-
rician of the first century, a member of the sena-
tonal order, who gamed the ill will of Tiberius
by proposing that retned members of the Prae-
torian Guard should have seats with the eqwtes
in the first 14 rows of the theatre He was
banished fiom Rome, then recalled and kept
under surveillance, and finally put to death by
Neio His textbook on rhetoric has not sur-
vived He was a friend of Ovid and of the older
Seneca, the ihetoncian, whose oldest son, M
Annseus Novatus, he adopted Consult Schanz
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, vol 11 (3d
ed, Munich, 1911)
GALLIC, Lucius JUNIUS 'ANN/BUS The
name assumed by Marcus Annaeus Novatus from
that of Lucius Junius Gallic, the rhetorician, by
TV horn, as a friend of his father, Marcus Annssus
Seneca, he had been adopted He was born at
Cordova, but brought up at Rome Gallic was
an older brother of the famous philosopher and
statesman Lucius Annseus Seneca, and of the
geographei Lucius Annaeus Mela, father of the
poet Lucan He appears to have been a highly
cultured man, and to this fact, rather than, as
is generally asserted, to the influence of Seneca,
Ins appointment as proconsul of Achaia was due
The date of this appointment is now fixed be-
yond doubt by the recent discovery of an inscrip-
tion of Claudius at Delphi belonging to the
twelfth year of his reign (January, 52- January,
53 AD ), in which Galllo is mentioned as pro-
consul and the Emperor's friend. As the office
GALLIOT
424
held for only a year, Gallic was
proconsul either from spring of 51 to spring of
52 (or, as is much less probable, from spring of
52 to spring of 53) He was involved, though
not immediately, in the same fate as befell his
brother Seneca, who was disgraced by Nero in
65 A D and committed suicide Gallio's death
followed some months later. All that is known
of him indicates that he was a man of high
character with a lovable disposition
In the latter part of Paul's first visit to
leading members
to be a judge of
„_ Sosthenes, probably
of the accusing party, was taken by the [Greek]
bystanders, with whom the Jews were generally
unpopular, and beaten before the judgment seat,
Galho refrained from interposing, the narrative
stating that he cared foi none of these things
(Acts xvm 14-17). From this last statement
it has been inferred that Gallic was indifferent
to Christianity The words of his reply, how-
ever, while betraying an ignorance of the dis-
tinctive featuies of Chi istianitv, disclose simply
the usual attitude of Roman officials to the reli-
gions of the people of the provinces in accordance
with Roman law Its meaning is that Galho
\\as indifferent to the contioveisy, since it was
a puiely religious one, and considered this and
the beating of Sosthenes in particular as mat-
ters outside of his judicial concern Consult,
besides the usual lives of Paul and commen-
taries on Acts, Ramsay, St Paul the Traveler
and Roman Citizen (New York, 1896) ; Zahn,
Introduction to the New Testament, vol m (New
York, 1909), and especially Deissmann, Paulus
(Tubingen, 1911, Eng. trans, London, 1912)
See PAUL
GALIPOT (from OF. galiote, from ML.
galeota, diminutive of galea, galley) A galley
of medium size, having one mast and 16 to 20
oars, and very generally used in the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries as a cargo
vessel and gunboat by the maritime nations ot
Europe Also a Dutch or Flemish vessel with
very full lines, an easy bilge (qv ), and a flat
bottom It is rigged like a ketch with a high
mast stepped in the centre of the ship and a
much lower one farther aft The head stays
lead from the mam (or higher) mast, and the
head sails are large and numerous, both masts
are square-rigged Galliots are usually of 400
to 500 tons' measurement They were formerly
much used as bomb vessels, the absence of a
mast forward giving ample space for the opera-
tion of bombards, mortars, or howitzers
GALLIPOLI, gal-le'pd-lS (ancient Callipolis,
a Greek name meaning Beautiful City). An
episcopal city and seaport in the Province of
Lecce, south Italy, 55 miles south of Brmdisi
It is picturesquely situated in the Gulf of
Taranto, on a rocky island which a bridge
having 12 spans now connects with the suburb
of Lizza on the mainland (Map Italy, F 4).
It is protected by a castle which Charles I of
Anjou constructed The ancient Callipolis,
founded from Tarentum, is hardly mentioned in
ancient writers In the first century AD the
Romans called it Anxa Gallipoh has a ca-
thedral dating from 1629, a seminary, a gym-
nabium, and a technical school, also regular
long been famous for its oil cisterns cut in the
solid limestone It quarries stone and makes
hoops for wine casks Pop (commune), 1901,
13,552, 1911, 11,427
GALLIPOLI (ancient Callipolis) A seaport
of European Turkey, capital of a sanjak m the
Vilayet of Adrianople, situated on the east
coast of the peninsula of Gallipoh, at the north-
mostly of wood There are manu-
leather, silk, and cotton, but the
a Tufkish naval station, and the seat of a
captain pasha and a Greek bishop The popu-
lation, laigely Greek, is estimated at from
20,000 to 30,000 The town was of great com-
meicial importance dm ing the Middle Ages and
at one time had a population of 100,000 It
suffered teiribly at the hands of the Catalans
early in the fourteenth centmy and fell into the
hands of the Turks in 1354, being the first Turk-
ish possession m Em ope
GALLIPOLI, PENINSULA OF (the ancient
Thraeian Chersonesiis) A portion of the Vilayet
of Adrianople, European Turkey, separating the
S trait of Dardanelles on the east from the Gulf
of Saros on the west (Map Balkan Peninsula,
F 4) It extends 111 a southwest direction for
about 55 miles and varies from 4 to 13 miles in
breadth The principal town on the peninsula
is Gallipoh (qv) The land is exceedingly
feitile
GALLIPOLIS, gal'li-p6-les' A city and the
county seat of Gallia Co, Ohio, 116 miles south
of Columbus, on the Ohio River, and on the
Hocking Valley and the Kanawha and Michigan
railroads (Map Ohio, F 8) It is the seat of
the Ohio Hospital for Epileptics established
1893, and contains a Carnegie library, a public
park, and Gallia Academy The city is sm-
rounded by undeveloped coal fields and is a dis-
tributing centre of some importance There
are iron and wood-working industries, and manu-
factories of furniture, stoves, flour, ice, brooms,
lumber, leather, etc The government is ad-
mmisteied by a mayor, elected every two years
and a city council The water works are owned
and operated by the municipality Pop , 1900,
5432, 1910, 5560 Galhpohs, the third white
colony m Ohio, was first settled in 1790 under
the auspices of the Scioto Company, by a party
of 500 Frenchmen, who named it GallrpoLs (the
city of the Gauls) It was incorporated as a
village m 1842 and in 1865 was chartered as a
city Consult W G Sibley, The French Five
Hundred (Galhpohs, 1901)
GALLISSOIOTIEBE, ga'^'sS'iryar', AUGUS-
TIN FELIX ELISABETH BAEJBIN, COMTE DE LA
(1742-1828) A French soldier He was a
nephew of Roland Michel Barrin, Marquis de
la Galhssonniere, and was born at Anjou He
entered the navy while he was a boy and served
under his uncle m Canada , then he fought in
the Hanoverian campaigns In 1788 he was ap-
pointed field marshal and, just before the Revolu-
tion, was invested with the grand sword of
Anjou and was made president of the nobility
in the States-General When the Revolution
came, he was a deputy to the Constituent As-
425
GALLQ1ST
sembly and on its dissolution lefused to leave
the country, but later became an emigre and
fought under Conde But 111 1801 lie returned
to France and was elected deputy in 1809 After
the Restoration he was promoted to the lank of
lieutenant general, but soon retired Pie wiote
on many contempoianeous topics
GALLISSONNIERE, ROLAND MICHEL BAR-
BIN, MARQUIS DE LA (1693-1756) A French
naval officer and Governor-General of Canada
(1747-49) He was born at Rochefort and at
the age of 17 entered the royal navy In 1745,
although only a captain in rank, he was ap-
pointed Governor-General of Canada to succeed
Beauhainais He reached Quebec in 1747, and
during the two years he remained in Canada
displayed not only great energy, but broad
statesmanship He planned to advance the
Fiench possessions m America by building a
chain of forts in the Mississippi valley to con-
nect Louisiana and Canada, by settling 10,000
French peasants in the Ohio valley to check the
migration that was beginning to pour over the
Alleghanies from the English colonies, and by
winning the friendship and alliance of the
Iroquois tribes He succeeded in establishing
some forts and supported Abbe Piquet in his
mission to the Iroquois country, but his request
for new settlers remained unheeded In 1749
he was recalled to France to act on the com-
mission to fix the boundaries to be established
under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and was
succeeded by the Marquis de la JonquieTe On
his return to France he was made chief of the
naval Bureau of Charts and Plans, in which
position lie organized several important scientific
expeditions In May, 1756, he defeated the
English fleet under Admiral Byng off Minorca,
which led to the loss of Minorca by the English
and the court-martial and execution of Byng
Gallissonm&re died the same year
GAXiLITZIET. A borough in Cambria Co ,
12 miles northwest of Altoona, on the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad (Map Pennsylvania, D 6)
Coal is mined extensively here, and coke is
produced in considerable quantity The borough
was named after Prince Galhtzm ( q v ) , who
started a settlement at Loretto in 1835 It was
first incorporated in 1872 Pop, 1900, 2759,
1910, 3504
GALLITZIN, gal-let'se-n, DMITBI ATJGUSTIN,
PRINCE (1770-1841) An American Catholic
pnest, of a noble Russian family (See Groux-
ZIN ) Born at The Hague, where his father was
Russian Ambassador, he received a Spartan
training from his mother, who sent him to travel
in North America in 1792 His observations
led him to volunteer for missionary work in
America He studied at St Mary's, Baltimore,
became a priest in 1795, was settled at Port
Tobacco, Md, and then at Taneytown, Md , but
in 1799 he was transferred to Cambria Co , Pa.
He was dissatisfied with the American system
of trustee control and limitation of the priestly
power and founded the Catholic town of Loretto,
Cambria Co , Pa , from which colonies went out
to St Joseph, St Augustine, Pa, and Carroll-
town, Pa In his work Father Smith (as Gallit-
zm called himself until 1809, when, after his
father's dearth and his own disinheritance by
the Czar, he resumed his family name) spent
much effort and a large fortune He wrote
several panipnlets in controversies with Protes-
tants There is a monument to him in Loretto,
with a bronze statue given by Charles M.
Schwab, and Galht/in, Pa , is named for him
Consult Brownson, Li\ e of D 4 Galhtisin, Prince
and Pwest (New York, 1873), and Kittell,
Mvurenit of Lotetto Centenary (Cresson, Pa,
1899)
GAL'LIUM (Neo-Lat, from Lat Galha>
Gaul, Fiance) A metallic chemical element,
discovered by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875, by
means of the spectioscope and isolated by the
same investigator in the metallic state in 1876
Its properties had been pieviously (1870) de-
sciibed, fiom the periodic law (qv ), by the
Russian chemist Mendeleeft, who gave it the
provisional name of eka-alu minium It is found
m minute quantities in vanous zinc oies and
was onginally discovered in the sphalerite of
Pieirentte, from which it may be obtained by
dissolving the ore and decomposing the resulting
solution by metallic zinc The precipitate thus
obtained contains gallium as a hydrated oxide,
\\hich is then further purified by lepeated solu-
tion and precipitation, and the gallium finally
thiown down in its metallic state by 71110
Gallium ( symbol Ga , atomic weight, 699) is
a fairly hard giay metal that may be hammered
into thin plates which can be bent without
breaking It melts at 30 15° C (about 86° F ),
and has a specific gravity of 5 9 when solid
Once melted, the metal may for vears bo pre-
served in the liquid state at temperatures con-
siderably below its melting point, provi4ed no
trace of the solid metal is allowed to come into
contact with the undercooled liquid The metal
as soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids, but
best in aqua regia With caustic potash it
produces an evolution of hydrogen Its general
properties are similar to those of the metal
aluminium Gallium combines with oxygen,
forming a monoxide having the formula GaO,
and a sesquioxide having the formula Ga203,
and with chlorine to form a dichloride and a
trichloride
GAL'LIVATS, EAST INDIAN Large row-
boats, sometimes having as many as 50 oars,
formeily and still to some extent used in Eastern
waters They rarely exceed 70 tons, carry two
masts with high triangular sails, and are gen-
erally armed with a few small swivel guns,
fastened on the bulwarks The Malay pirates,
now nearly exterminated, employ these swift but
somewhat fragile vessels.
GAI/LIWASP (probably of West Indian ori-
gin) 1 A lizard of Jamaica and eastern Cen-
tial America (Diploglossus monotropis) , which
is greatly feared by the people, though perfectly
harmless 2. A small species of lizard fish
(Synodus -fastens] , common from South Carolina
to Brazil See Plate of LANTERN FISHES,
LIZABD FISH
GALL MITE See MITE
GAI/LOMT. A measure of capacity used in
the United States and Great Britain and its
colonies, but differing in value in the two coun-
tries, though its subdivision into four quarts 13
common In the United States a gallon is 231
cubic inches (378543 cubic centimeters), being
the old Bristol wine gallon dating from the
reign of Queen Anne (5 Anne e 27, § 17), a
standard (1707) of which is still extant in Eng-
land There were in use also in England the
corn gallon of Henry VII, amounting to 274%
cubic rnches, a standard of which dating from
1495 still is in existence, and an ale gallon of 282
cubic inches was recognized by Queen Elizabeth
in 1601 In 1824 these three gallons were abol~
GALLOTAITOIC ACID
426
GALLOWAY
ished in favor of the British Imperial gallon
(5 Geo IV, c 74), which is defined as the
volume of 10 pounds of fine distilled water at
62° F, corresponding to 277420 cubic inches
according to the best data now available, or
approximately 20 per cent larger than the Amer-
ican gallons The gallon is used now usually
for liquid measures, but the term was also ap-
plied to a dry measure, consisting also of four
quarts.
GALLOTAiKraiC ACID. See TANNIN
GAL'LOWAY. An ancient province in the
southwest of Scotland, now merged in the coun-
ties of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright The desig-
nation, though still in use, has no political
significance The district, about 70 miles long
by 40 miles broad, is famed for its mountain,,
lake, stream, and moorland scenery, and forms
the peninsula terminating in Scotland's southern-
most point, the Rlrynns of Galloway, projecting
into the Irish Sea It is purely a pastoial
country, remarkable for its mild climate Its
breeds of small horses and large, hornless black
cattle have been known for centuries.
The name "Galloway" is derived from Gall-
Gael — foreign Gaels, so called because, topo-
graphically separated from their northern breth-
ren, they preserved their identity as a distinct
race down to the twelfth century and their lan-
guage beyond the fifteenth Ptolemy styled the
inhabitants Novantae and Selgovae and described
their towns Lucophibia, Kengonmm, Uxellum,
Carbantorigum, etc, the sites of which have
been identified After the Roman evacuation
Galloway came under the power of the Anghans
and later of the Norsemen Under the Anghans
they acquired the name of the Picts of Galloway.
In the twelfth century they were conquered by
Malcolm Canmore, who made his son David Earl
of Galloway When David ascended the throne
of Scotland, Galloway was united to the king-
dom The lords of Galloway, however, fre-
quently revolted against Scottish rule, and the
periodical troubles did not cease until the Lord-
ship of Galloway was attached to the crown in
1455 Consult Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edin-
burgh, 1876), M'Kerlie, History of the Lands
and their Owners in Galloway (5 vols , Edin-
burgh, 1870-78), id, Galloway in Ancient and
Modern Time? (ib , 1891), Maxwell, A. History
of Dumfries and Galloway (ib , 1900) , Briggs
Angling and Art in Scotland (New York, 1908) ,
Newbiggmg, A Nook in Galloway (Gateshead,
1911)
GALLOWAY, BEVEELY THOMAS (1863-
) An American botanist He was born at
Millersburg, Mo , and was educated at the Uni-
versity of Missouri, where he was appointed
assistant in the department of horticulture in
1884. In 1887 he became assistant pathologist
in the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture, and in 1888 was
put in charge of the division of plant pathology
In 1901 he was appointed chief of the Bureau of
Plant Industry and in 1912 became Assistant
Secretary of Agriculture, in charge of the scien-
tific work of the department He is the author
of a number of works on botany, horticulture,
and plant pathology
GALLOWAY, CHABLES BETTS (1849-1909)
An American bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South He was born at Koscmsko,
Miss,, graduated at the University of Missis-
sippi, entered the ministry in 1868, and was
pastor of several churches in his native State.
An earne&t advocate of the piohibition of the
liquor traffic, he was long piesidcnt of the Pro-
hibition Executive Committee of Mississippi,
carried on a spirited contioversy with Jefferson
Davis on that subject, and wrote a Handbook
and Open Letters on Prohibition His publica-
tions include A Circuit of the Globe and Modern
Missions Their Evidential Value He was
piesident of the Board of Education of his
church and a trustee of the John F Slatei Fund
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803) An
American lawyer and Loyalist pamphleteer He
was born in Kent Co, Md , but early removed
to Philadelphia Almost continuously from 1757
to 1774 he was a member of the Pennsylvania
Assembly He married a daughter of Lawrence
Growdon, Speaker of the House, and for 12 years
•\\as himself Speakei In 1764 he was associ-
ated with Franklin in the contest with the
proprietary government, and, in opposition to
Dickinson, advocated the erection of Pennsyl-
vania into a royal province On the approach
of the Revolution he was a vigorous opponent
oi war and of independence In 1774 he was
sent by the Assembly to the fiist Continental
Congress, where he signed the Association, and
introduced (on September 28) his celebrated
"Plan of a piopo&ed Union" between Great
Biitain and her Colonies This plan piovided
for a federation under British supervision of
the American Colonies, each Colony to aietam
its present constitution and powers of regulat-
ing and governing its own internal police in all
cases whatsoever", for a President General, "to
be appointed by the King," and for a Grand
Council, "to be chosen by the repi esentatives of
the people of the several Colonies in their respec-
tive assemblies, once in every three years," and
to meet once a year or oftener if necessary — the
President General and Grand Council to consti-
tute "an inferior distinct branch of the British
Legislature, united and incorporated with it,"
for certain specific purposes This scheme was
supported in Congress by Edward Eutledge, John
Jay, and James Duane, and was rejected by a
vote of only six Colonies to five It is summed
up in A Candid Examination of the Mutual
Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies
(1775) In December, 1776, Galloway joined
the English army under Sir William Howe, and
received an immediate allowance of £200 a year
On the capture of Philadelphia he became super-
intendent of the port, of prohibited articles,
and of the police of the city and suburbs After
the evacuation of Philadelphia he accompanied
the British army to New York, and in 1778 went
to England, where he passed the rest of his life
Soon after his departure his life was attainted,
and his property, valued at about £40,000, was
confiscated by the Continental Congress He
was a member of the board (for Pennsylvania
and Delaware) on compensating claims of
Loyalists He was one of the ablest of tlie
Loyalist pamphleteers, and wrote Letters to a
Nobleman on the Conduct of the War in the
Middle Colonies (1779), accusing General Howe
of neglect of duty, Historical and Political Re-
flections on the Rise and Progress of the Ameri-
can Rebellion (1780) ; Cool Thoughts on the
Consequences to Great Britain of American In-
dependence (1780) , Letters from Cicero to
Catihne the Second, le, C J Fox (1781),
Political Reflections on the Late Colonial Gov-
ernments (1782), The Claim of the, American
Loyalists (1788) Galloway also wrote Brief
GALLOWAY
427
GALLS
Commentaries upon such Parts of tlie Revela-
tions and Other Prophecies as Immediately Refer
to the Present Times (1802), and The Prophetic
or Anticipated History of the Church of Rome,
Written and Published more than Six Hundred
Years before the Rise of that Church (1803)
Consult Balch ( ed ) , The Examination of
Joseph G-alloioay by a Committee of the House
of Commons (Philadelphia, 1855) , Tyler, Liter-
ary History of the American Revolution (New
York, 1897) , Baldwin, Galloway, the Loyalist
Politician (New Haven, 1903)
GALLOWAY, LORD OF See DOUGLAS,
FAMILY OF
GALLOWAY, MULL OF A rocky headland
teimmating the Rhynns of Galloway, in Wig-
townshire, the southernmost point of Scotland
(Map Scotland, D 5) It is 1% miles long, %
of a mile broad, rises to a height of 210 feet, and
is crowned by a lighthouse 325 feet above sea
level, visible 25 miles
GALLOWS HILL. The name given to a
hill in the neighborhood of Salem, Mass On it
during the witchcraft mania of 1692 a number
of victims were hanged as witches It is also
called Witch Hill.
GALLS In plants, modifications of an
organ or tissue due to the presence of another
organism Commonly the part affected is much
enlarged, either through the expansion of exist-
ing cells or the formation of new ones, or more
commonly through both combined The techni-
cal term "cecidium" has been proposed as a
substitute for "gall," with the purpose of using
it with prefixes to indicate origin, eg, myeo-
cecidiuin for a gall produced by fungi, diptero-
cecidmm for a gall due to flies, etc Organisms
producing galls are principally insects and
fungi, although with the former may be included
certain worms, and with the latter algae, bac-
teria, and slime molds ( Myxomycetes ) The
presence of the foreign organism, either acting
directly or through some substance secreted by
it, appears to render a portion of the cells of
the host more active and lead to the production
of an exaggerated amount of tissue near the
part infected It is thought that, while this
stimulus does not give the power of producing
entirely new structures, it often awakens dor-
mant characteristics and causes their expression
For example, galls upon perfectly smooth rose-
bushes are often covered with thorns Galls show
a great diversity of form Those caused by in-
sects may be arranged into series passing from
a slight depression of the epidermis of a leaf or
stem to deep closed pouches, and from a slight
swelling to masses of great size Some gall in-
sects injure the growing point and, checking
elongation, produce cone-shaped galls, as seen
on the willow and goldenrod An interesting
group of galls are the witches' brooms formed
on various trees by fungi Here many small
twigs spring from the part affected, giving the
appearance of a brush or broom
One of the most remarkable features of galls
is the development of nutritive layers rich in
food, Some of which is used by the parasite
Galls are also often rich in tannins, substances
of no apparent use to the gall former, although
occasionally utilized by man, as in the use of
oak galls Perhaps the greatest specialization
is seen in the cynipid galla (formed by insects
of the Cynipldse) occurring upon the leaves of
oaks and other plants In these, in addition
to the epidermis, three distinct concentric layers
VOL. IX— 28
of tissue are developed (Fig 1). Immediately
beneath the epidermis is a region of thin-walled
cells rich in tannin Ihen come thick -walled
cells termed the protective layer, although it
does not seem clear what this piotection is
FIG 1 Diagrammatic cross section of a eympid gall upon
a white-oak leaf A, tlie larval chamber, B, the nutritive
layer, (7, the protective zone, D, the tannin region, E, the
epidermis of the gall
against, and, finally, there are the tissues rich
in food, the nutritive layer, surrounding the
central larval chamber Here, as in many insect
galls inhabited by larvae, the parasite secretes a
ferment changing the stored starch into sugar,
and probably also stimulating increased cell
production
Galls produced by parasitic plants are usually
due to the presence of the organism, and since
these are immobile the initial cause must be
looked for in the excreta of the attacking plant
FlG 2 SHOOT OF JUNIPER ,
Enlarged and deformed by the presence of a fungus, Gyn>,<*
nosporangiwn claviaforme
Examples of galls produced by plants are the
wens and tumors of various sizes and forms
common upon leaves and stems infested, by para-
sitic fungi (Fig 2). They are not easily dis-
tinguished in form from similar galls produced
by insects. The club root (q.v ) of cabbage and
GALL STOITE
428
GALLUS
turnips, due to the attack of slime molds, and
the tubercles upon the roots of Leguminosse, due
to bacteria-like parasites, are examples of root
galls (Fig 3) See GALL INSECTS
FlG 3 ROOT TUBERCLES OF A LEGUMINOUS PLANT, THE PEA
Produced by the infection of the roots with Bacillus
jradicicola
Consult H Adler, Alternating Generations
A Biological Study of Oak Galls and Gall Flies
(Oxford, 1894), E Kuster, Die Gallen. der
Pflamsen (Leipzig, 1911), A Cosens, "Mor-
phology and Biology of Insect Galls/* Transac-
tions, Canadian Institute, vol ax (Toronto,
1912); E W Swanton, British Plant-Galls
(London, 1912)
GALL ST01TE. See CALCULUS.
GAL'LUP. A town and the county seat of
McKmley Co , N. Mex , 156 miles west of
Albuquerque, on the coast lines of the Atchison,
Topeka, and Santa Fe railway system and on
the Puerco River (Map- New Mexico,, A 3)
It is in a cattle and sheep raising region, has
extensive soft-coal mines and oil fields, and is
the trading centre for the Zuni and Navajo
Indian reservations Pop, 1900, 2946, 1910,
2204
GALLUPPI, gal-lo3p'p§, PASQUALE (1770-
1846). An Italian philosopher. He was born
in Calabria of a noble family, and educated in
the University of Naples For the greater part
of his life he had a position in the Finance De-
partment Though apart from academic in-
fluences, he pursued his favorite studies, and it
was not till he had reached the age of 60 and
had become widely known by his philosophical
writings that he was called to a chair in the
University of Naples, which he held till his
death Galluppi's first work was an essay on
analysis and synthesis (1807) This was fol-
lowed by the important Saggio filosofico sulla
oritica delta, conoscenza (6 vols, 1819-32)
Among his other works is to be mentioned Ele-
ment* di filosofia (1820-27) He founded his
system upon the "original fact of the ego, which
perceives something existing outside of itself,"
thus closely affiliating himself with the Scottish
school, by which he was greatly influenced But
in the spurt of Kant he failed to see how ex-
perience can give a knowledge of relations, be-
cause he regarded relations as the result of
conscious activity Consult Lastrucci, Pasquale
QaUuppi, studio critwo (Florence, 1890),
Pagano, Galuppi e la filosofia itahana (Naples,
1807), Gentile, Dal Genovesi al Galluppi
(Rome, 1903)
GAL'LUS A famous story of Roman life
by W A Becker (1838) The work is impor-
tant for its faithful leproductions of Roman cus-
toms unclei Augustus and for the great amount
of archaeological infoimation contained in it
GALLUS, GAIITS CORNELIUS (66-26 BO ) A
Roman poet, orator, and general, born of a hum-
ble family at Forum lulu (now Frejus) in
southeastern Gaul At an early age he went to
Rome for an education and attended the lec-
tures of the Epicuiean philosopher Syron He
studied also under Parthemos of Nicsea Vergil
and Yams weie his fellow pupils, and the three
became firm friends He had the fortune, also,
to gam the good will and friendship of Asinius
Pollio, one of the greatest Romans of the time,
and when Octavms (afterward Augustus) re-
tuined to Italy from the East after the assas-
sination of Julius Caesar, Gallus heartily joined
his party and received the important charge of
assigning lands m noith Italy to the veterans of
Octavius' ax my On this occasion he was able
materially to help his fuend Vergil, who was a
native of Mantua At the battle of Actium,
Gallus commanded a division of Octavius' forces,
and afterward was sent, as general, into Egypt,
\\liere he defeated the armies of Antonius and
captured Cleopatra, whom he kept as a prisoner
in liei palace Upon her death, in 30 B c ,
Egypt was turned into a Roman province, with
Gallus as its first Governor He ruled in Egypt
for four years, largely with success, but not with-
out making enemies, and an unfortunate remark
about Augustus was bi ought to the Emperor's
notice, with many other charges Gallus was
accordingly deprived of his rank and estates and
ordered into exile, but he preferred death and
committed suicide by falling upon his sword
Gallus was the author of four books of elegies
concerning Lyeons (a notorious actress, whose
leal name was Cytheris) , he imitated Euphorion
(qv ). Ovid claimed for him the first place
among the Roman elegiac poets, but none of his
writings has survived It was at the request of
Gallus that Vergil wrote his tenth Eclogue In
modern times he has been made the hero of a
well-known story, Gallus, by W A Becker
(qv ), which was translated into English by
Metcalf (London, 1844, 9th ed, 1888) Con-
sult Nicolas, De la vie et des ouvrages de C
Gallus (Paris, 1851) , Plessis, La Poesie Latine
(ib, 1909), Schanz, Gesohichte der romischen
Litteratw, vol 11 (3d ed , Munich, 1911),
Skutseh, Aus Vergils Fruh#eit (Leipzig, 1901)
and Aus V&rgils Fruhzeit II Gallus und Vergil
(1906) Skutsch ascribes to Gallus the poem
called Cms, a view accepted by Mackail, in
"Virgil and Viigihanism," in Lectures on
Poetry (London, 1911) On the other side con-
sult Smith, The Elegies of Albvus Tilullus (New
York, 1913)
GALLUS, G-AIUS SUUPICIUS- A Roman sol-
dier, orator, statesman, and scholar Under
JEmilius Paulus (qv ) he served aa military
tribune in Macedonia, against Perseus, and gained
gieat and lasting fame because, on the basis of
GALLUS
429
GALT
his studies m astronomy (cf Cicero, De Nencc-
tute} § 49, Pliny the Elder, n, 9), he predicted
the eclipse of the moon which occurred on the
night before the battle of Pydna, 168 B c The
Romans, forewarned of the eclipse, escaped the
panic which seized the enemy Gallus was con-
sul in 166 In 164 he was ambassador to Greece
and Asia Gallus was well versed in Greek as
well as in astronomy
GALLTJS, GAIUS VIBIUS TBEBOKIANUS (c 205-
c254) Roman Emperor from 251 to 254 Ho
served under Decius in the campaign against the
Goths in 251, and is said to have contributed by
his perfidy to the disastrous battle in which
Decius was killed Thereupon he was elected
Emperor, and shortly afterward purchased peace
with the Goths by permitting them to retain
their plunder and their captives and promising
them a fixed annual tribute In 253 the Empire
was again invaded by the Goths, but they were
defeated in Moesia by ^Emilianus, whose troops
proclaimed him Emperor Gallus inarched forth
to suppress the rebellion, but was killed by his
own soldiers before there had been any collision
between the opposing armies
GAL'LY, MEKRITT (1839-1916) An Amer-
ican inventor, born near Rochester, N Y He
learned the printing trade, graduated at the
University of Rochester in 1863, studied at
Auburn Theological Seminary, and in 1866 was
ordained to the ministry of the Presbyterian
church After three years of pastoral work,
however, he was compelled by the loss of his
voice to withdraw from the pulpit, and turned
his attention to mechanics He invented the
Universal printing press, built an establishment
for the manufacture of presses, and obtained
many patents on appliances connected with
printing machinery His experiments in regard
to automatic musical instruments resulted in the
invention of the "orchestrone" and of the so-
called counterpoise pneumatic system employed
in similar contrivances His patents, more than
four hundred in number, also include a machine
for the manufacture of printer's types from cold
metal by a process of swaging
GALOIS, gAlwa', EVARISTE (1811-32) A
French mathematician, born at Bourg-la-Reme,
near Paris, and killed In a duel at Paris at the
age of 20% years. While yet a pupil in the
Lyce*e Louis-le-Grand he published in Ger-
gonne's Annales, vol xix (1828), a memoir
entitled Demonstration d?un th^oreme sur les
fractions continues p&iocfoques. Entering the
Ecole Normale in 1830, he wrote in the next two
years six memoirs on the theory of equations
and the theory of numbers Galois may justly
be said to be the founder of the theory of groups
( see SUBSTITUTION ) , and, with Abel and Cauchy,
to have been one of the founders of the modern
theory of functions. A well-known theorem on
the solubility by radicals of irreducible equa-
tions of prime degree bears his name His works
attracted little attention when they first ap-
peared, but their value became recognized when
Liouville collected them m his Journal, vol 11
His works were published under the auspices of
the Socie'te Mathe"matique de France, With an
introduction by Plcard (Pans, 1897)
GALOP, ga'iy (Fr, gallop). A Very lively
German round dance in two-four time It was
introduced into France early in the nineteenth
century, but its popularity is now confined
chiefly to Germany It is similar to the waltz
(qv ) but is less graceful and more animated
GALSWOBTHY, galz'wur-Tiii, JOHN (1867-
) An English author His early fiction,
published undei the pen name "John Senjohn,"
Nas conventional and attracted little notice, it
included Ptom the Pout Winds (1897) , Jocelyn
•i Tale (1898), Tilla Rubem (1900, new ed ,
with other stones, 1909) , and A Man of Devon
(1901) — the author's home was at Manaton in
Devon His later novels and most of his plays
are more serious and more individual, dealing
with social problems Among the novels are
The Island Pharisees (1904, revised, 1908), an
attack on British conventions, The Man of
Property (1906), satirizing the modern capital-
ist, The Country House (1907), dealing with
the life of the English country gentry, Fra-
ternity (1909, in German, 1911), in large
measure a study of class feeling, The Patti-
cians (1911), and The Dark Flower (1913),
a well-written story with a morbid theme of
passion His social dramas are even more
serious, rnoie individual, and more powerful
The Silver Box (1906), with its theme of dif-
feient legal justice foi rich and poor, has been
compaied to Hauptmann's Biberpelz> and Strife
(1909), the story of a strike, to the same au-
thor's Die Weber These two plays, with Joy
(1907), a moie conventional comedy, were pub-
lished together in 1909 The Little Dteam
(1911) is a poetic fantasy with a touch of
the morality play, it is entirely unlike the
more characteristic "social dramas" — Justice
(1909), dealing with prison life, The Pigeon
(1912, and produced as a play in New York in
1913), a blend of comic and tragic that pro-
pounds a serious problem m poverty, and The
Mob (1914) Justice and The Pigeon were
published in 1912 with The Eldest Son, which
\vas first played in November of that year
Galsworthy also wrote prose sketches, A Com-
mentary (1908) and A Motley (1910), a volume
of verse, Moods, Songs, and Doggerels (1912) ,
and The Fugitive (1913) Consult A R Skemp,
"Plays of John Galsworthy" in Essays and
Studies by Members of the English Association,
vol iv (London, 1914)
GALT, gait A city in Waterloo Co, On-
tano, Canada, on both sides of the Grand Kivei,
about 55 miles from its entrance into Lake Eric,
and on the Grand Trunk and the Canadian
Pacific railroads (Map Ontario, D 7) It is
connected by electric railway with the towns of
Berlin, Paris, Waterloo, and Brantford The
eastern and western parts of the city are con-
nected with bridges There are four parks
There are also a collegiate institute and an ex-
tensive library and public reading room in con-
nection with a mechanics' institute The manu-
factured products include edged tools, under-
wear, agricultural implements, boilers, engines,
hats, leather, aerated waters, pumps, safes,
stoves, soap and oils, wheels, boots, boxes, brass
goods, etc According to census returns the
value of manufactured goods increased from
$2,225,343 in 1900 to $5,252,600 in 1910, a gam
of 136 04 per cent The city is principally
built of stone, and has gas, electric lighting, and
water works The United States is represented
by a consular agent The environs of the city
are noted for their beauty Pop, 1901, 7866,
1911, 10,299 The city was named after John
Gait, the Scottish author,
GALT, SIB ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-93),
A Canadian financier and statesman He was
born in Chelsea, London, was educated privately,
GALT
43<>
GALTOH
and in 1835 removed to Sherbrooke, Lower Can-
ada, where he had been appointed to a clerkship
m a colonization society. He remained in the
service of this company until 1856, and during
the latter half of the period was its manager
He began his public career as a Liberal member
of the Canadian Parliament in 1849, but op-
posed the Liberal government and resigned m
the same year During the deep commercial de-
pression of 1849 and the discouraging outlook, a
movement for annexation to the United States
was favored by eminent merchants and public
men of both political parties Gait was of those
who signed an annexation manifesto addressed
"to the People of Canada " He did not enter
Parliament again until 1853, after which he
served continuously until 1872 Such was the
reputation he had established for integrity of
character, and as an authority on trade and
financial questions, that on the fall of the Brown-
Dor ion cabinet in 1858 he was called upon to
form an administration, but declined Being
of independent and moderate views, he refused
to identify himself permanently with either po-
litical party and consequently he had a small
numerical following. Subsequently he joined
the Cartier-Macdonald cabinet as Inspector
General of the Finances During his term of
office he introduced a Tariff Act in 1859 which,
together with an act passed in the pievious year,
was the beginning of governmental adoption of
protection He went out of office with the fall
of the ministry in 1862 but held the Finance
portfolio in the Tache-Macdonald administra-
tion from 1864 to 1866 He was active m the
promotion of the plan for federation, was a
delegate at the Charlottetown and Quebec con-
ferences m 1864, and in 1865 was one of the
delegates to England to urge Imperial support
of the plan for union In 1866, during the last
session of the Canadian Parliament under the
Act of Union (1841), he procured passage of the
Currency Act, securing the issue of legal-tender
notes which form the basis of the present cui-
rency of the Dominion After the inauguration
of the Federal government in 1867, he became
first Finance Minister of the Dominion of
Canada. He resigned in the same year, and
afterward his public services were for the most
part of a diplomatic nature In 1877 he was ap-
pointed Canada's representative on the Halifax
Fishery Commission (see FISHING LAWS, Inter-
national Aspect)} and from 1880 to 1883 was
High Commissioner of the Dominion in England.
He was the author of a number of important
pamphlets of a political nature, including
Canada- 1849 to 1839 (1860) , Church and State
in Canada ( 1876 ) ; Gwil Liberty in Lower Can-
ada (1876) ; Futuie of the Dominion of Canada
(1881) , Relations of the Colonies to the Empire
Present and Future (1883).
GALT, JOHN (1779-1839). A Scottish novel-
ist He was born in Irvine, Ayrshire, May 2,
1779 The family removing to Greenock, Gait
was educated there and then placed in the
customhouse He wrote poems and contributed
to the newspapers In 1804 he migrated to
London As a commercial agent, he traveled
on the Continent, going as far east as Constan-
tinople On a part of the voyage he was as-
sociated with Lord Byron, whose life he after-
ward wrote (1830) As secretary of the Canada
Company, he was in Canada for three years
(1826-29) Returning to England and then to
Scotland, he devoted the rest of his life to mis-
cellaneous hteiary work He died at Greenock,
April 11, 1839 Gait's poetry, plays, and biog-
raphies have little interest But he holds a se-
cure place in the progress of English fiction by
his sketches of Scottish life, among which are
Ayrshire Legatees (1820, and a good later edi-
tion, ed by G S Gordon, Oxford, 1909), The
Annals of the Parish (1821) , Last of the Lairds
(1826; The Omen (1825) was praised by
Scott, and Lawrie Todd (1830) has especial m-
teiest, as it contains admirable sketches of
frontier life in America Gait undertook to
rival Scott in historical fiction, and failed
miserably Collected editions of his works were
published in London (in 4 vols in 1868 and in
8 vols in 1899) Consult his Autobiography
(London, 1833) His novels weie edited by
Meldrura (8 vols, London, 1895-96)
GALT, SIR THOMAS (1815-1901) A Cana-
dian jurist, son of John Gait (qv ), born in
London, England He was educated there and in
Scotland, but emigrated to Canada in 1832 He
found employment foi six years with the Canada
Land Company, of which his fathei was superin-
tendent, and later became chief cleik in the office
of the Attorney-General foi Upper Canada He
afterwaid studied law, began to practice in
Toronto in 1845, and in a few years took high
lank as a coiporation and criminal lawyer He
was made queen's counsel in 1858 In 1869 he
vi as appointed a puisne judge of the Court of
Common Pleas, and in 1887 became its chief
lustice He was knighted in 1888 and retired m
1894
GALTON, gal'ton, SIR DOUGLAS STRUTT
(1822-99) An English scientist and engineer,
born at Spring Hill, near Birmingham He was
educated chiefly at Rugby and the Royal Mili-
tary Academy (Woolwich), was appointed second
lieutenant of engineers in 1840, and rose to be
captain in 1855 In 1847 he was appointed
secretary to the Railway Commission, and in
1854 secretary to the Railway Department of the
Board of Trade, in which capacity he visited
the United States in 1856 to inspect railways
there He became a member of the commission
on sanitary conditions in military hospitals and
barracks in 1858, and in 1859 chairman of the
government committee for the investigation of
submarine cables From I860 to 1862 he was
assistant inspector general of fortifications, in
1862-70 Assistant Undersecretary of State for
War, and fiom 1869 until his retirement m 1875
Director of Public Works and Buildings in the
Office of Works He was general secretary of
the British Association for the Advancement of
Science from 1871 to 1895, and a member of
the council of the Institution of Electrical En-
gineers in 1888-90 He was best known for his
studies in connection with army sanitation, and
his improvements in the construction of hos-
pitals and barracks won for him a high reputa-
tion both in England and on the Continent A
ventilating grate for fireplaces, invented by him
and known under his name, was at one time
widely used. His publications include Sani-
tary Engineering (1877), The Construction of
Healthy Dwellings (1880, 2d ed, 1896), Venti-
lating, Warming, and Lighting (1884), Army
Sanitation (1887), Healthy Hospitals (1893)
GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822-1911) An
English man of science, born at Birmingham,
England, the third son of S. T Galton and
Violetta, eldest daughter of Erasmus Darwin.
He was educated at King Edward's School,
GALTON"
431
GALVANI
Birmingham, at the Bnmingham Geneial Hos-
pital, at King's College, London, and at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he was graduated
BA in 1844 During 1846-47 he traveled in
Egypt far beyond the temples and cataracts of
the Nile to the Sudan, at that time almost un-
explored As a result of the stimulus given by
this expedition he started in 1850 to explore in
South Africa In company with J C Anders-
son, he landed his expedition at Walfish Bay,
and fiom August, 1850, to January, 1852, he
was engaged in the exploration of Damaraland
(German Southwest Africa) In these travels
he discovered the Ovampo race, a partly civil-
ized, agricultural people As a result of this
exploration the whole country from Lake Ngami
to the seacoast, between 18° and 23° S latitude,
became known for the first time The scientific
results of the expedition were published in the
Royal G-eo graphical Society's Journal for 1852,
and in his book, Narrative of an Exploter in
Tropical South Africa Galton also published
Art of Travel, or Shifts and Contrivances in Wild
Countries (1855), which has gone through
several editions, has won well-merited apprecia-
tion, and exhibits Galton's characteristic in-
genuity. About this time Galton turned his
attention especially to meteorology, the result
being his Meteorographica, or Methods of Map-
ping the Weather (1863), which is the basis of
our present familiar weather maps The theory
of anticyclones, which is at the foundation of
our weather forecasts, was also proposed by him,
and various inventions relating to meteorologi-
cal and geographical affairs were given out bv
him from this period to 1881 This interest in
the statistical science of meteorology had an
importance in Galton's future work In 1869
was published his Hereditary Q-enius (reissue,
1914), and from that time on his anthropologi-
cal and biological interests, first awakened in
Africa, became uppermost In 1873 he first be-
gan to apply statistics to anthropology In
1874 appeared his English Hen of Science, and
in 1883 his Inquiries into Human Faculty. In
the latter volume he discussed various psycho-
logical topics, such as color blindness, the ca-
pacity for distinguishing high tones (for the
determination of which he invented a piece of
apparatus see PSYCHOLOGICAL APPARATUS,
Acoustics), criminality and insanity, gregarious
and slavish instincts, mental imagery, number
forms and colored hearing, composite portraiture
and the relative sensitiveness of blind and see-
ing, savage and civilized individuals In 1883 he
sought for quantitative data on inheritance, and
issued his blank Record of Family Faculties, of
which 150 were filled out and sent to him for
study. The results of these studies appeared m
his Natural Inheritance (1889), in which the
quantitative method of studying variation is de-
veloped. In 1892 was issued his Finger Prints,
and in 1895 his Index of Finger Prints He
was joint editor with E Schuster of Noteworthy
Families (1906), and in 1908 published Mem-
oirs of my Life For many years Galton Js
chief interest in the field of biology lay in the
problem of inheritance, his aim being to formu-
late it in quantitative terms This he suc-
ceeded m doing, first by his law of ancestral
inheritance, and secondly by the application of
the theory of probabilities to the measurement
of variations He thus laid the foundation for
the new "science" of eugenics (qv ) In 1905
he established a laboratory for eugenics at Uni-
versity College London, and in 1909 he pub-
lished a collection of addresses under the title
Essays in Eugenics He was also a consulting
editor of Biometiilia, from its establishment in
1902 until his death, which occurred Jan 17,
1911 He had been knighted in 1909 Galton
TV as one of the last of the great English series
of nonprofessionfil men of science
GALTON WHISTLE See PSYCHOLOGICAL
APPABATUS, Acoustics
GALTTPPI, ga-ltJop'pe, BALDASSARE (1706-
85) An Italian composer He was surnamed
IL BUKANELLQ, from the island of Burano, near
Venice, the place of his birth He was the
pupil of his father, a baiber, who was a good
Molmist Although the composer of more than
100 operas and smaller works, all are now for-
gotten except a sonata for the harpsichord,
\\hich is included in the Alte Klavieimusik of
Pauer His principal success was m comic
opera, by which lie gained the title of "father
of Italian comic opera " Apart from this, he
is of some importance historically, owing to his
connection with the growth of music in Russia
His principal appointments and tours weie
1741, torn to England, 1762-64, mastei of music
at San Marco, Venice, and directoi of the Con-
servatorio degh Incurabili, 1765-68, maestio to
Catharine II of Russia, and afteiward, up to
the end of his career, dnector again of the In-
curabili in Venice He died in Venice Consult
A Wotquenne, Baldassare Galuppi (Leipzig,
1902)
GALVAWT, gal-va'ne, LUIGI (1737-98). A
famous Italian physician and anatomist, and
the discoverer of current or "galvanic" elec-
tricity He was born at Bologna and at an
early age relinquished an intention of entering
the Church, to follow the profession of medicine,
devoting himself to the study of physiology and
comparative anatomy He married the daughter
of Galeazzi, a distinguished member of the medi-
cal faculty of Bologna, whom he succeeded in
1762 as professor of anatomy His writings,
though not numerous, contain valuable scientific
matter and are characterized by a rare precision
and minuteness of detail Two treatises which
added considerably to his reputation are* Con-
siderations on the Urinary Organs of Birds and
On the Organs of Hearing of Birds It is to a
purely casual discovery, however, that Galvani
owes the wide celebrity attached to his name
It is related that Galvani's wife happened one
day to notice the convulsive muscular move-
ments produced m a skinned frog when the
nerve of the leg was accidentally touched by a
scalpel which lay on the table and had become
charged by contact with an adjoining electric
machine She communicated the phenomenon
to her husband, who instituted a prolonged
series of expeiiments (1790) He came to the
conclusion that the source of electricity lay m
the nerve, and that the metals which are neces-
sary served merely as conductors (See ELEC-
TRICITY, ELECTRICITY, ANIMAL ) In conse-
quence of his refusal to take the oaths pre-
scribed in 1797 by the Cisalpine Republic, of
which Bologna formed a part, he was deprived
of his position and income, but was subsequently
restored A statue of Galvani was unveiled at
Bologna m 1879 His writings have been
chiefly published m the memoirs of the Bologna
Institute of Sciences, including the treat-
ise entitled De Virilus Electncitatis in Motu
Musoulari Commentaries (1792), whicla con-
GALVAWIC BATTERY
432
GALVANOMETER
tamed an account of his discovery and ex-
periments, and translated into German is to
be found in Ostwald'a Klassiker der Exakten
Wissenschaften, No. 52 (Leipzig, 1894) A com-
plete set of his works was published at Bologna
in 1841 See GALVANIC BATTERY, VOLTAIC CELL
OB BATTERY
GALVANIC BATTERY The names of
Galvani and Volta have both become insepara-
bly associated with, the earliest device to pro-
duce a continuous current ot electricity — a.
device now commonly known as a voltaic cell
In its simplest form it consisted of a strip of
yinc and one of coppei immersed in a solution,
of salt, or of an alkali
Galvani, in 1786, made the capital discovery
that freshly prepared frogs' legs, hung by a
copper wire on an iron balcony, twitched con-
vulsively whenever the flesh touched the iron
He rightly ascribed this effect to electricity, but
erroneously supposed that it proved the exist-
ence of animal electricity geneiated by nerves
and muscles Volta showed by experiment that
Galvani was wrong, but he made the equally
erroneous assumption that the electricity \\as
due to the contact of the two dissimilar metals
His experiments led, however, to the invention
of the celebrated "crown of cups'3 about 1800,
consisting of a number of simple elements or
cells joined in series, the copper strip of one
being connected "with the zinc of the next Such
cells and their less simple successors are there-
fore pioperly called voltaic cells, though the
word "galvanism" is still retained in medical
literature to denote the cuirent obtained from
them
When Davy, in 1801, substituted dilute acid
for Volta's salt or alkaline solution, it was
found that there was local action which caused
the zinc to waste away Kemp and Sturgeon
in 1830 drew attention to the fact that a diminu-
tion of this local action was brought about by
the amalgamation of the zinc plate The amal-
gamation consists m forming a mercury-zinc al-
loy on the surface of the zinc. This is best
done by first cleaning the zinc by rubbing it
\vith dilute sulphuric acid and then applying
a small quantity of mercury. The amalgamated
zinc plate acts like pure zinc, and wasteful local
action is largely prevented See VOLTAIC CELL
on BATTERY for a full discussion of primary
cells and batteries
GAI/VAIOSIM;. See ELECTRICITY
GAL'VANIZED IRON. Iron which has been
coated with zinc to prevent it from rusting
The iron is simply dipped or immersed in melted
zinc, not coated by any galvanic process, as its
name would imply The process of galvanizing
iron is now practiced on a. most extensive scale
The French chemist Dumas states that so long
ago as 1742 Malouin knew of a plan for coating
iron with zinc At all events, it is stated in
Bishop Watson's Ohemical Essays, issued in
1786, that a method (essentially the same as
that now in use for zincking iron) was then
practiced at Rouen for coating hammered iron
saucepans with zinc, and some details of the
operation are given The first English patent
for galvanizing iron was granted to H W Crau-
furd in 1837, and another for the zincking of
iron which had been previously tinned was taken
out by E Morewood in 1821 The process as
employed by Craufurd, which is still essentially
unchanged, was first to remove the rust and
scale from the iron by pickling, i e , immersing it
in dilute sulphmic 01 liydiochlouc acid, either
hot or cold, although the former state \vas pre-
ferred, and for this purpose the acid was kept
warm in a large leaden bath, sunk in the ground
for easier access Aftei the sheets 01 other arti-
cles of iron had been acted upon by the acid
for a few minutes, moic or less according to
their requirements, they were plunged into cold
water, to remove the acid, and afteiward scoured
with sand, and again washed clean with water
The iron being now ready to receive its coating
of zinc, it is plunged into a bath of that metal,
which, previous to its being melted, is coated
with a thick layer of diy sal ammoniac (chlo-
ride of ammonium) , this melts also, and forms
a viscid coating over the metal, which prevents
that rapid oxidation to which the molten metal
is otherwise liable
For inferior material the scouring with sand
is usually dispensed with The sheets of iron
aie then made to pass between two iron rollers
in the zinc bath and are thus more easily drawn
through and kept perfectly smooth Ships' bolts,
nails, screws, chains, etc , are dipped in, in
bundles, 01 in the case of nails, etc , in iron
strainers, when removed, the zinc makes them
adhere together, and to effect their separation,
they have to be placed in a crucible with pow-
dered charcoal, in which they aie heated to
ledness, and repeatedly shaken as they cool,
by this means they are easily separated
Galvanized iron is largely used in the form
of sheets, both plain and corrugated, foi roofs,
sheds, and cisterns, in the state of wire, besides
that used for telegraph or telephone conductors,
a large quantity is employed for wire ropes, net-
ting, and the like, and it has innumerable
minor applications, such as for water vessels
ship fittings, and many other articles formerly
made of wood, copper, brass, slate, etc For
most of these purposes the zinc coating on cast-
ings or forgings is much more lasting and less
tioublesome than the natural materials would
be, but still in certain situations, as where it
is exposed to the action of sulphurous com-
pounds in smoke, and where its surface is to be
abraded or bi ought directly into contact with
deleterious chemical substances, its use cannot
be recommended, and in these circumstances
other plans should be resorted to for the pro-
tection of the iron
The plan adopted for making the variety of
galvanized iron called galvamzed t^nware is as
follows- The sheets or other articles, after being
pickled and scoured and washed, as in the usual
process, are transferred to a large wooden bath
On the bottom of the bath is first placed a
layer of finely granulated zinc, then a sheet of
iron, then another layer of granulated zinc, and
so on as far as convenient, and the bath is
filled up with a diluted solution of chloride of
tin, so that by means of the galvanic action pro-
duced the tin becomes deposited thinly over the
sheets of iron The plates are then taken to the
zinc bath, prepared exactly as in the ordinary
process, where they are dipped or passed through
the rollers. By this process a very even deposit
of zinc is produced, and the material so made
is preferred for soone purposes to ordinary gal-
vanized iron, although its properties are much
the same,
GAI/VA3STO CAUTERY. See , CAXJTESY
GAI/VANOM'ETER (from galvanic + Gkt
ftATpov? metron, measure) AIJ instrument for
detecting the presence of an electric current and
433
measuring its magnitude Originally it con-
sisted of a coil of insulated wire surrounding a,
magnet, freely hung or pivoted so as to be easily
deflected by the passage of a current through the
coil The wire forming the coil is so wound
that each turn lies in a plane approximately
parallel to the axis of the needle or magnet
when at rest The current in passing through
the coil 01 bobbin of insulated wire pioduces a
magnetic field m the space in which the needle
hangs and tends to swing the needle aiound
until it hangs ciosswise in the coil The force
tending to deflect the needle is proportionate to
the strength of this field, or, what is the same
thing, the strength of the current producing it,
and to the length and strength of the needle,
while the magnetic force of the eaith acts to
keep the needle in the direction of the magnetic
meridian Under the influence of these two
forces the needle will come to rest in a position
where they are in equilibrium As the shape
and strength of the magnetic needle, speaking
bioadly, remain the same in a given galvanom-
eter, the instrument affords a means of measur-
ing the stiength of any current passed through
it, by the amount of motion imparted to the
needle
These conditions can be reversed and the coil
suspended and the magnetic field produced by a
permanently mounted magnet, as in the case of
the D'Arsonval galvanometer described below
Galvanometers are constructed in a great variety
of forms, specially suited to various uses, from
simple instruments for merely indicating the
presence of a current to extremely elaborate ap-
paratus for making measurements of great ac-
cuiacy The action of the galvanometer de-
pends upon the following principle discovered
by Oersted in 1820 When a magnetic needle is
placed under a straight wire, through which a
curient passes, it is deflected to a certain extent,
and when the wire is bent, so as also to pass
below the needle, it is deflected still more The
north pole of the needle is deflected to the left
if the current is flowing from south to north in
a conductor which is placed above the needle,
and vice versa when the conditions are leversed
The direction of the deflection can be remem-
bered by Ampere's rule which states that, sup-
posing a man swimming along the conductor in
the direction of the flow of the current and al-
ways facing the needle, the latter will be de-
flected towards his left hand The current in
the upper and the lower wire moves in opposite
directions, but, as they are on opposite sides
of the needle, the deflection caused by both wires
is in the same direction By thus doubling the
wire we double the deflecting force Schweigger
and Poggendorf soon ascertained that if the
wire, instead of making only one cucuit round
the needle, were to make two, the force would
be again double, and, if several, the foice (leav-
ing out of account the weakening of the current
caused by the additional wire) would be in-
creased m proportion If the circuits of the
wire are so multiplied as to form a coil, this
force would be enormously increased, and the
galvanometer rendered more sensitive These
early galvanometers were called multipliers and
have been much used The next improvement m
the instrument was due to Nobih, who employed
two needles, placed parallel to each other as
nearly as possible, with thewr poles turned oppo-
site ways and suspended by a thread without
twist. These needles have little tendency to
place themselves in the magnetic meridian, for
one tends to move in a contrary direction to
the other If they were exactly equivalent,
they would remain indifferently in any position,
ASTATIC NEEDLE AND COIL
but they cannot be so accurately paned as this,
foi they almost always take up a fixed position,
arising from the one being somewhat stronger
than the other Such a compound needle is
called astatic, as the magnetic influence of the
eaitli does not determine the direction 111 which
it will point If an astatic needle be placed
in a coil, so that the lower needle be within
the coil, and the
uppei one above
it, its deflections
will be greatei
than those of a
simple needle, for
two reasons In
the first place,
the power which
keeps the needle
in its fixed posi-
tion is ©mall, and
the needle is con-
sequently more
easily influenced,
in the second
place, the force
of the coil is ex-
erted in the same
direction on two
needles instead of one, foi the upper needle
being much nearei the upper part of the coil
than the lower, is deflected alone by it, and the
deflection is in the same direction as that of the
lower needle An astatic needle so placed in a
coil constitutes an astatic galvanometer The
coil is formed of fine copper wire, insulated
with silk, and wound on a frame or bobbin
The astatic needle is placed in this bobbin,
ASTATIC GALVANOMETER
THOMSON REFLECTING GALVANOMBTE'R
(SINGLE COIL)
which is provided with a vertical slit, to admit
the lower needle, and a lateral slit, to allow of
its oscillations, and is suspended by a cocoon
fibre fr^om, a hook supported by a brass frame
GALVANOMETER
434
GAXVANOMETEB
The upper needle moves over a graduated circle,
and the entire system hangs freely, without
touching the bobbin The instrument is inclosed
in a glass case and rests on a stand, supported
by three leveling screws When used, the bobbin
carrying the divided circle with it is turned until
the needle stands at the zero point of the scale,
and the wires thiough which the current is sent
are 3omed to the bending posts, which connect
with the terminals of the coil The number of
degrees that the needles are deflected under the
action of the current may then be read off, show-
ing the strength of the curient
For most kinds of testing and measurement
extremely sensitive galvanometers are required
Of these, the reflecting galvanometei, designed
by Sir William Thomson, is one of the standard
types One form is shown in the illustration
In this instrument a reading is made by the use
of a ray of light reflected upon a screen from a
mirror attached to the
needle so that even the
smallest motion is
shown The Thomson
galvanometer consists
of a pair of astatic
needles attached by
shellac or other ad-
hesive material to a
mirror made of veiy
thin microscope glass
This is suspended by a
single fibre of raw silk
in the centie of a coil
containing many thou-
sand turns of fine wire
The whole is suitably
protected from currents
of air by a glass case,
and the base is mounted
upon leveling screws,
BO that the hanging
needle may be adjusted
to swing freely in the
centre of the coil The
needle is caused to
point to zero of the
scale by a powerful magnet outside of the case,
which is ad~|ustable as to direction by a tangent
screw, and may be removed to any distance to
weaken its effect upon the needle or increase its
sensitiveness This galvanometer is much used
in all kinds of testing work and was oiiginally
employed for reading the delicate signals in
ocean telegraphy, where it still is used in test-
ing Increased sensitiveness may be obtained
by using two sets of coils and needles, while
there are Thomson galvanometers in which there
ate four such sets of coils
For experimental work and laboratory dem-
onstrations the tangent galvanometer is used.
This instrument is shown in the illustration
It consists essentially of a thick strip or wire
ot Copper bent into the form of a circle, from
1 to 2 feet in diameter, with a small magnetic
needle with pointers of thin glass fibres moving
on a graduated circle, at its centre, supplied
with a mirror When the needle is small com-
pared with the ring, it may be assumed that the
needle, in whatever direction it lies, holds the
same relative position to the disturbing power
of the ring This being the case, it is easy
to prove that the strengths of currents circu-
lating in the rings are proportional to the tan-
gents of the angles of deviation of the needles
THOMSON" DOUBLE COIL
GALVANQMETEB
Thus, if the deflection caused by one voltaic cell
was 45°, and of another 60°, the relative
strengths of the currents sent by each would
be as the tangent of 45° to the tangent of 60 c,
viz as 1 to 1 73 The needle can never be de-
flected 90°, foi, as the tangent of 90° is infinitely
MTRBOR TANGENT GALVANOMETER
large, the strength of the devntmg curient must
be infinitely gieat — a strength manifestly unat
tamable The tangent galvanometer can conse
quently be used to measure veiy strong GUI rents
A common or detector galvanometer is an in-
strument used in ordinary shop work, and for
outdoor testing where a portable instiument is
required, and the other forms aie too delicate
It contains a large magnetic needle or compass
swinging upon a pivot A small cavity formed
in an agate let into the centre of the needle is
usually employed to prevent friction in swing-
ing upon the pivot The coils of wire are placed
underneath the dial bearing the graduations
over which the needle swings, and the whole is
inclosed in a lound brass box, with a glass cover
over the needle For convenience, a circuit-clos-
ing key for admitting cuirent to the coil as often
built into the case
and permanently con-
nected with the coils
Such a galvanometer
is often used in con-
nection with a set of
resistances for making
measurements of re-
sistance by the Wheat-
stone bridge ( q r ) ,
and in that case the
apparatus is known
as a combination or
portable testing set
Tlie D'Arsonval
Galvanometer is
quite different in its
underlying principle
from the instruments
already described, for,
instead of having the
magnet suspended and deflected under the m*
fluence of the current in a sui rounding coil of
wire, the coil itself is suspended between the
poles of a compound korseshoe magnet. This
SIMPLE D'ABSONTAL
GALVA3STOMETEH
435
GALVESTON
coil is made of fine copper wire, wound on a rec-
tangular frame of thin copper, and suspended
by a fine wire of silver or copper, through which
the current flows to the coil The other end of
the coil is connected to a similar wire., which
leads to one of the binding posts, the supporting
wire being connected with the other The coil
can thus oscillate freely in the space between
the two magnets and is in a strong magnetic
field When a current flows through the coil,
an opposing field is set up, and the coil, being
free to move, is deflected The motion of
the coil can be determined either by a light
pointer or by means of a mirror and a reflected
beam, as in the case of the Thomson galva-
nometer The D'Arsonval galvanometer is, per-
haps, at the piesent time the most used of all
foims of galvanometer, since it is not affected
by any external magnetic influences and is
easily adjusted It is also aperiodic, or "dead
beat," the coil coming to rest almost instantly
and thus saving much time to the observer
For these and other reasons this galvanometer
is extensively used for making tests and meas-
urements, and certain modifications, such as the
substitution of jeweled bearings for the sus-
pension, have been introduced, so as to render
the apparatus portable, and appropriate shunt
and other resistances, so as to indicate current
and electromotive force directly by means of a
pointer and scale Such instruments form most
accurate ammeters and voltmeters
The Ballistic Galvanometer is intended to
measure currents of extremely brief duration,
such as those produced by the discharge of a
condenser or by induction, and a magnetic needle
of considerable mass is employed which has a
period of vibration amounting often to several
seconds Instead of coming to lest after its de-
flection by the current, the needle will continue
to oscillate, as there are no damping devices,
and as the needle itself has considerable mass
When used to measure a momentary current,
the deflection does not begin to move practically
until the current has passed, and then the
throw of the needle is noted This instrument
is used to determine the capacity of a condenser
and to measure self-induction.
Recent progress in the design and construc-
tion of galvanometers has been confined more to
the attainment of greater sensitiveness and the
adaptation of special types for the measure-
ments to be made than in any radical change of
operating principle or methods of control. The
recent marked improvement and more dependa-
ble accuracy of portable and commercial meas-
uimg instruments, such as ammeters and volt-
meters (qqv ), has led to their introduction on
a large scale in the physical laboratory, and the
consequent displacement by them of galvanom-
eters Several special types of the latter have,
however, found extended use in certain kinds of
testing For example, for the absolute measure
of resistance in which two-phase alternating cur-
rents are employed, a vibration galvanometer
has been successfully used, and by suitable ad-
justments it can be made sensitive only to the
fundamental wave of the alternating current,
or to such of the harmonics as it is deemed
necessary to include Another test in which
this type of galvanometer is used is in the
examination of steel for uae in transformers,
where it is also found highly satisfactory Al-
most all recent designs are patterned after the
type of instrument, which, it should
be noted is the principle of operation of a large
number of the commercial ammeters and volt-
meteis referred to above While the vibration
galvanometer is useful in alternating cm rent
testing for ordinary frequencies, say from 15 to
100 cycles per second, it is now very common to
employ a combined electrical and optical instru-
ment called an oscillograph ( q v )
Bibliography, Consult Kempe, Handbook of
Elect*) ioal Testing (7th ed , London, 1908), and
Thompson, Elementary Lessons in Electricity and
Magnet^sm (rev ed, Chicago, 1906), which,
contains a full elementary desciiption of gal-
vanometers and the theory of their action Con-
sult also the catalogues of the leading European
and American electucal instrument makers
GrAL'VANOTAX'IS See ELECTROTAXIS
GAX/VAITOT'JIQPISM See TROPISM
G-AL'VESTON A city, port of entry, and
the county seat of Galveston Co , Tex , on the
east end of Galveston Island, at the mouth of
Galveston Bay, 48 miles by rail southeast of
Houston, on the Galveston, Harrisburg, and San
Antonio, Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe, Inter-
national and Great Northern, Missouri, Kansas,
and Texas of Texas, Galveston, Houston, and
Henderson, and the Gulf and Interstate rail-
roads, and Galveston-Houston Electric Railway
(Map Texas, E 5) A regular steamship com-
munication is maintained with all important
European, Asiatic, Latin American, and Cuban
ports, and all important American ports by
coastwise steamship lines. Commercially Gal-
veston is the greatest cotton port in the world,
alternates with New Orleans as second greatest
port in value of exports and imports* in the
United States (next only to New York) As
a seaside and health resort Galveston holds first
place in the Southwest, this feature attracting
more than 1,000,000 visitors annually
The city of Galveston has a total area of
nearly 15 square miles It is built on the east
end of Galveston Island, covering the entire
width of the island westwaid to the city limits.
The wharves of the port are built on the north
shore of Galveston Island, the deep -water chan-
nel on which they abut being an arm of Galves-
ton Bay, lying between Galveston Island and
Pelican Island, the latter having been greatly
augmented by material dredged from the Gal-
veston Channel The south side of Galveston
Island is washed by the surf of the Gulf of
Mexico A hard level beach, 200 feet wide and
38 miles long, provides a natural automobile
speedway upon which automobile racing meets
are held during Galveston's annual summer
Cotton Carnival.
The United States government has expended
through various departments nearly $30,000,000
in Galveston A strategic point of great im-
portance in the Gulf of Mexico, here are located
the coast artillery posts of Fort Crockett, Fort
San Jacinto, and Fort Travis, guarding the
harbor with mortar batteries and 10-inch disap
pearing coast-defense rifles Here also are lo
cated a United States quarantine station
a United States immigrant station (through
which, during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1914, there entered 11,633 immigrant aliens,
bringing with them $619,884 in cash), the
oflS.ce of the United States Marine Hospital
Service, and the State branch of the United
States Weather Bureau
Galveston's educational institutions include
the State Medical College (tJhe department of
medicine of the University of Texas ) , St
Mary's University (Roman Catholic, opened in
1854), Ursulme Convent (Roman Catholic,
opened in 1848), nine public schools (six for
white and three for colored children), including
the Ball High School for white pupils and the
Central High School for colored pupils, St
Joseph's School, Cathedral School, Dominican
Convent, St Patrick's School, and the Sacred
Heart Academy (the last five being Roman
Catholic), and the Rosenberg Library, costing
$250,000 and endowed with $400,000 The city
possesses the Galveston Oiphans' Home, St
Mary's Oiphanage, the Lasker Home foi Home-
less Children, the Letitia Rosenbeig Home for
Aged Women, and two magnificently equipped
hospitals — St Mary's Infirmary and the John
Sealy Hospital, the latter operating in connec-
tion with State Medical College Fronting on
State Medical College campus are also the re-
cently completed Nurses' Home and the Women's
Hospital Other notable structures aie Gal-
veston County Court House, the United States
Custom House and Post Office, the City Hall
and Auditorium, the Union Depot and General
Office Building of the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa
Fe, the Young Men's Christian -Association
Building, the Masonic Temple, Scottish Rite
Cathedral, American National Insurance Build-
ing, Trust Building, Security Building, Hutch-
mgs-Sealy Bank Building, and numcious other
modern business buildings
Since the West Indian hurricane of 1900
Galveston has been insured against disaster by
storm through the completion of three tremen-
dous engineering enterprises — the sea wall, the
grade raising, and the causeway The sea wall
covers the entire frontage of the city facing the
Gulf of Mexico This is a concrete steel-reen-
forced battlement, 17 feet high, 16 feet wide at
base, 5 feet wide at crest, with a concave face,
its base protected by a riprap of huge Texas
granite blocks It cost $2,000,000 The cause-
way,, joining Galveston Island with the Texas
mainland at Virginia Point, is a 2-mile concrete
steel-reenforced structure, costing $2,000,000 and
spanning Galveston Bay Passage is peimitted
ocean-going steamships by a Scherzer type
roller lift bridge, the largest in the world
Three railroad tiacks give entry to six lines of
steam road and the Galveston-Houston Inter-
urban, an electric road In addition there is a
roadway for vehicles land pedestrians The
grade raising was an engineering feat literally
lifting the city to a maximum of 19 feet above
its former level, overlooking at the crest by 2
feet the erest of the sea wall Houses were
raised on stilts, street-car lines run as elevated
lines, elevated planks substituted for sidewalks,
while 20,000,000 cubic yards of sand was
dredged from the bed of the Gulf of Mexico and
pumped into the city at a cost of nearly $2,500,-
000, after which sidewalks, paved streets, and
car tracks were relaid, fences rebuilt, and all
vegetation replanted
.Equally great engineering feats were accom-
plished by the United States government in
bringing deep water to Galveston harbor, a total
of $15,000,000 having been spent in this im-
provement Granite jetties 12 miles long were
built to form a vestibule to the harbor, which
is now maintained at a minimum depth of
31 feet The jetties alone cost $8,000,000
Six miles of improved wharf frontage utiliz-
ing the "slip system" permit 104 ocean-going
j6 GALVEST03ST
freighters to dock in kev berths simultaneously
in position to take on and discharge cargoes
On these wharves and in the yards directly
abutting them aie neailv 75 miles of terminal
railioad track running dnect to shipside Foui
export gram elevators have a total storage
capacity of nearly 4,000,000 bushels Cotton
concentration plants, langing from open-au
sheds to modern concrete storage waiehouses,
can accommodate 1,000,000 bales of cotton for
stoiage, and in the course of a, season handle as
high as 4,000,000 bales A' dealing and condi-
tioning elevator, coal elevator, dry dock and
marine ways, marine works, creosoting plant,
iron and steel material warehouses, broom-corn
warehouses, and ^eneial storage waiehouses and
distubution headquarters are also located on
the water fiont These commercial interests
weie bi ought to the Galveston water front
through the admirable location of the port as
& stoiage and distributing point for the entire
Southwest, equipped with excellent rail and
Vvdter transportation facilities
Commei cially Galveston has steadily climbed
in importance fiom 1890, when her total ex-
ports and impoits -uere valued at $24,862,623 —
seventh port of the United States — to her record
year ending June 30, 1913, when expoits and
impoits were valued at $289,278,496— second
onh to Ne\v York For the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1014, imports and exports weie valued
at $268,003,129 A short Texas cotton crop was
the leason of the decrease from the record of
the pievious year
During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914,
Galveston's exports were valued at $255,767,608,
the impoits being valued at $12,245,062 Chief
among the exports were 3,040,675 bales of cot-
ton, valued at $234,249,290, wheat, 10,057,580
bushels, valued at $9,469,228, cottonseed cake
319,124,093 pounds, valued at $4,874,061, cot-
tonseed oil, 2,755,139 pounds, valued at $193,-
262, hnseed cake, 5,890,050 pounds, valued at
$89,678, flour, 343,791 barrels, valued at $1,762,-
994, lumber and lumber products, $2,567,915
Mill and mining machinery, agricultural imple-
ments, rice, scrap iron, lard, lard compounds
and substitutes, oils, etc , were also important
export factors Coffee, sugar, Mexican cattle,
Argentine corn, Geiman toys, and bananas were
impoitant items in the import list Export
and import trade between Galveston and Latin
America totaled $15,766,019 in value during the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, an increase of
$6,380,928 over the previous fiscal year In
spite of internal war in Mexico, Galveston's
exports and imports with Mexican ports totaled
$3,350,566, an inciease of $1,712,051 over the
business of the previous year Cattle, bananas
valuable woods from Mexico, gram from the
Argentine, sugar from Cuba, and bananas from
Central America formed the bulk of Galveston's
Latin American impoits Packing-house prod-
ucts (hams, bacon, lard), breadstuff's, lumber,
a,nd machinery formed the greater proportion
of Galveston's exports to Latin America Gal-
veston's manufacturing interests aie varied and
of considerable impoitance Beer, cement, pipe,
ice, iron, ship machinery, sashes, doors, blinds,
cottonseed oil, cottonseed cake, cottonseed flour
and meal are produced The greatest eottai-
seed-cake grinding plant in th& World is located
on the Garteston water front
Galveston gave the world the city commission
form of municipal government* Its city affairs
GALVEZ
437
G-ALVEZ
aie in the hands of a board of commissioneis,
consisting of a mayor president and commis-
sioners of streets and public property, nnance
and revenue, police and fire, and water works
and sewage This plan, first put in operation
in Galveston in 1901, has since been copied
widely throughout the United States and Europe
The mayor president and commissioners are
elected by direct vote of the people, the mayor
president miming for that office alone The
four candidates for city commissioner receiving
the highest number of votes form the commis-
sion. Upon taking office the commission by vote
of its four members assigns to each commis-
sioner the department which he shall supervise
during his two-year term of office The mayor
president is paid $2500 per year, and each com-
missioner $1200 per year All members of the
board are vested with equal power All the city
officers are appointed by the board and are
responsible thereto
G-alveston's history ranges back into the
kaleidoscopic days of romance and adventuie in
the Southwest The settlement was named
"Galvezton" after Count Bernardo de Galvez,
Spanish Viceroy of Mexico In 1816 the notori-
ous Baratarian pirate, Jean Lafitte, took pos-
session and made the town his headquarters
He was later driven out by the United States
government In 1836 Col Michael B Mcnarcl
organized the Galveston City Company and
purchased the site of modern Galveston for
$50,000 from the Republic of Texas In 1837
Audubon, the world-famous ornithologist, made
his home here That year Galveston. was made
a port of entry, Gail Borden, Jr , building
the first customhouse In 1838 President Sam
Houston, of the Kepublic of Texas, created
Galveston the seat of justice for Galveston
County The first wharf of the present $15,-
000,000 system was built by Col Amasa Taylor
in 1838 The port was blockaded by the Federal
fleet throughout the Civil War The battle of
Galveston was fought in the harbor and won by
the Confederate forces, Jan 1, 1863 In June,
1865, Federal troops occupied the city
Galveston was practically razed by a destruc-
tive fire m November, 1885 On Sept 8, 1900,
the gieatest disaster, resulting from purely
natural causes, in the history of the North
American continent took place A West Indian
hurricane drove a tidal wave across the city,
inundating Galveston to a depth of 4 to 16
feet Property worth $20,000,000 was destroyed
overnight, and approximately 8000 deaths re-
sulted Help was poured in from all parts of
the world, and out of the storm emerged a
wrecked city with a nucleus of 20,000 left from
a prosperous community of 38,000 Since the
storm the population has passed the 50,000
mark, a model municipal government has been
established, a wrecked community's credit re-
stored, and gigantic engineering projects carried
to a successful completion The city owns and
, operates the water works, sewage disposal, and
electric-light plant The street-railway svstem
comprises 38.72 miles of track Over 20 hotels
have been built to accommodate resort crowds,
one of these being a community hotel, Hotel
Galvez, -built from $1,000,000 raised by popular
subscription Pop, 1890, 29,084, 1900, 37,789,
1910, 86,981, 1914 (U S eat), 40,289, 1914
(City Directory figures ), 49,879 ; 1920, 44,255
GALVEZ, gal'vatk, PES^ARDO DE, COUNT DE
(1755-86), A Spanish administrator, Governor
of Louisiana and Viceroy of Mexico, He was
boin near Malaga, a member of a powerful
Spanish family, entered the army in 1771,
studied military science in Prance in 1772—75,
served under O'Reilly against the Algerians in
the latter year, rising to the rank of brigadier,
and in 1776 was sent to Louisiana as Lieuten-
ant Governor under Luis de Unzaga, whom he
succeeded Jan 1, 1777 During the Revolution-
ary War his sympathies weie largely with the
Amei icans, whom he assisted in various way&,
even before Spam's declaration of war against
England in June, 1779, after which he prose-
cuted hostilities with considerable energy against
the English possessions in this part of the coun-
try, and succeeded in capturing Fort Manchac,
Baton Rouge, and Fort Panmure de Natchez
(1779), Mobile (1780), and Pensacola (1781)
From 1781 to 1783 he was in command of the
aimy of opeiation against the English, m the
West Indies As a reward for his successes and
his administrative ability, he was raised in
1783 to the rank of Count and promoted to be
lieutenant general In 1784 he was appointed
Captain Geneial of Cuba, retaining the same
rank in Louisiana and the Hondas The next
year he succeeded his father, Matfas de Galvez,
as Viceroy of New Spam (Mexico), where he
and his wife, DoSa Fehcitas San Maxent, of a
French family of New Orleans, were well re-
ceived and became very popular Because of the
ostentation in his life, and hia construction of
the fortified palace at Chapultepec, be was ac-
cused of planning to create an independent
Mexican kingdom, with himself as king The
attitude of the home government towards the
pardon of three criminals brought on melan-
cholia, and he died when only 31 years old He
intioduced many important reforms, in both
Louisiana and Mexico, and has been regarded
as one of the ablest Spanish administrators sent
to America Consult G-ayarie, History of Lou-
isiana, vol 111 (last ed , New Orleans, 1885),
H H Bancroft, History of Mexico, 1516-1887
(San Francisco, 1883-88) , Zamacois, Histoma
de Mejico (Barcelona, 1878-88)
GALVEZ, gal'vath, JOSEPH (or JCHS$)? MAR-
DE LA SOWOBA (1729-87) A Spanish
statesman and Minister of the Indies, born at
Macharaviaya, near Malaga He studied law
at the University of Alcala, and after taking
his degree went to Madrid, where he proved his
ability in the defense of a nu*nbei of important
cases Of a literary turn of mind, and a lover
of the French language, he made friendships
among the French colony and was appointed
counselor to the French Embassy His efficient
services brought him to the notice of the Mar-
ques de Grimaldi, the Prime Minister, who
made the young lawyer his private secretary.
Later he was appointed a judge of the King's
Court In 1761 lie was sent to Mexico as
msitador general to investigate the abuses in
the colonial administration Possessing ample,
poweis, lie settled the dispute between the Vice?-
iof and the Audiencia over prerogative by
siding with the Viceroy, removed, the comjpjaints
of the miners by bettering the mming regula-
tions, and restored tranquillity among the dis-
contented colonists by promising reforans In
1764 his powers as wsitador were wade almost
unlimited, and, working in harmony with the
new Viceroy Marques de Croix:? he introduced
beneficial ref6rms in the ^nancial system and
visited inany parts of the vieeroyalty remedying
GALWAY
438
GrAMA
abuses In 1767 lie went to Sonora to settle
the Indian troubles, reform the Missions of
Lower Calif ornia, and provide for fuither
colonization in the northwest Under his direc-
tion the expeditions were fitted out, in 1769,
which made the first settlements in Upper Cali-
fornia Returning to Spain in 1774, he was re-
warded for his labors by the King, despite the
complaints lodged at the court by his enemies
He was made President of the Council of Indies
and in 1770 was chosen Minister of Indies Be-
cause of Ins knowledge of colonial affaiis he
was able to introduce many reforms in their ad-
ministration In 1778 he issued a decree ex-
tending greater freedom to commerce, opening
many ports in Spain and the Indies, and in
1782-86 he put in force the Ordenanva de In-
tendentes, which provided for a reorganization
of the colonial administration, abolishing the
alcaldes may ores and corregidores and their
abuses In 17 86 he was created Marques de la
Sonora He was one of the ablest ministers of
the enlightened despot Charles III (qv ), and
Spam's greatest colonial administrator The
Galvez family built a school and a church for
their native town, and the remains of Joseph
de Galvez lie in the burial vault under the
church His Informes as wsitador in Mexico
exist in manuscript in the Archrso de Indias
and in the Bancroft collection of the University
of California, the In forme general "vias published
in Mexico (1767) No life of Galvez has yet
been published
GALWAY, gal'wa A maritime county of
Connaught, Ireland, and, after Cork, the largest
of the Irish counties (Map Ireland, B and C
5) It is bounded on the east by the Shannon
and its affluent the Suck, and on the west by
the Atlantic Ocean Area, 2372 square miles,
of which bog and marsh make up about 15
per cent In the west is the mountain land,
including Joyce's Country, Jar Connaught, and
Coimeanara, one of the wildest and most moun-
tainous districts in Ireland, while most of the
east is plain extending to the banks of the
Shannon Between the two parts he Lough
Comb and Lough Mask The coast line is about
400 miles in length, and the shore, much broken,
is fringed with numerous islands Copper is
the only mineral of importance Agriculture
and fishing are the leading- pursuits , production
of kelp is large; and woolens, linens, fuezes,
and felt hats are manufactured Chief towns,
Galway, the capital, Balhnasloe, Loughrea, and
Tuam Fop, 1841, 440,700, 1851, 322,430, 1501,
192,549, 1911, 182,224
GrALWAY The capital of Galway Co, Ire-
land, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
seaport, and civic county at the mouth of the
Cor rib on the north shore of Galway Bay,
50 miles north-northwest of Limerick, and 130
miles west of Dublin (Map- Ireland, B 5) It
is built on both sides of the river, and on two
islands in its channel, its parts being united by
two bridges It is connected with Lough Cor-
rib by a canal and forms the terminus of the
Midland Great Western Railway Galway has
numerous flour and other mills, brush and bag
factories, and breweries, distilleries, foundries,
works for polishing marble, salmon and sea
fishing-, and a good harbor It exports agricul-
tural produce, wool, bacon, fish, kelp, and a fine
black marble, and imports grain, timber, petro-
leum, and manure The old town of Galwav is
poorly built and irregular, many of its older
houses have a Spanish appearance One, known
as Lynch's Castle, marked with a skull and cross-
bones, was the residence of James Lynch Fitz-
stephen, a mayor of Galway, who in 1493 con-
demned his son to death for murder and to pre-
vent lus rescue caused him to be hanged from
his own window The new town consists of
well-planned and spacious streets, built on ris-
ing- ground, which slopes gradually towards the
sea and the river Claddagh, a suburb, is in-
habited by fisheimen, who once excluded all
strangers fiom their society and maincd solely
within their own circle These fishermen spoke
the pure Irish language, and the Irish costume
was woin by the women They annually elected
a ffmayor," whose function was to administer
the laws of their fisheiy and to superintend all
inteinal regulations, but all such customs
slowly died, though vestiges still remain At-
tached to the Anglican diocese of Tuam, Galway
is also a Catholic episcopal see Chiefly inteiest-
ing is the parish church of St Nicholas, founded
in 1320 and built in the form of a cross Other
interesting buildings are St Augustine's Catho-
lic Chuich, three monasteries, and five nunneries,
the county couithouse, bai racks, and University
College The last named was founded as Queen's
College in 1845, but charter and name were
changed bv the Irish Universities Act in 1908
It has about 140 students The town returns
one membei to Parliament
Galwav was taken by Richard de Burgo in
12 3 2, and the ancestois of many of the leading
families resident in this quarter settled here
about that time It rose in commercial im-
poitance through its Spanish trade, from the
thirteenth to the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury During the latter century it suffered for
its adherence to the Royalists In 1632 it was
taken by Sir Charles Coot after a blockade of
several months, and in July, 1691, it was com-
pelled to surrender to General Ginkell Pop ,
1901, 13,426, 1911, 13,255 Consult Hardiman,
History of the Town and County of Galway
(Dublin, 1820)
GALWAY BAT An inlet of the Atlantic
Ocean, on the west coast of Ireland, between the
counties of Galway and Clare (Map Ireland, B
5) It is 30 miles long from west to east, with
an average breadth of about 10 miles The
islands of Aran form a natural breakwater at
its entrance between the north and south sounds
There are lighthouses on Imsheen, Mutton,
Eeragh, and Straw islands, and at the entrance
to Galway docks
GALYZIN", ga-let'sen See GOLITZIIT
GAMA, ga'm.1, DOMICIO DA (1862-1925) A
Bra/ilian diplomat, born at Ponta Negra, Rio de
Janeiro He began his caieer in newspaper woik,
serving as Pans correspondent of the G-azeta de
Noticias in 1887-88 He quickly won recogni-
tion as a writer, being a regular contributor to
Brazilian and foreign magazines In 1893 he
was secretary of the special commission on the
Argentine-Brazil boundary dispute, which was
arbitrated by President Cleveland Later he
was sent on special missions to Bern and Paris
and in 1900 was associated in the Brazil-Guiana
boundary question He was appointed charge"
d'affaires at Brussels in 1901, Minister to Peru
in 1907, Minister to Argentina in 1908, and
Minister to the United States in 1911 In 1914
he was a member of the ABC (Argentina,
Brazil, Chile) Mediation Conference between
the United States and Mexico.
GAMA
439
GAMALA
GAMA, ga'ma, Jos£ BASILIC DA (1740-95)
A Brazilian poet, born at Sao Jose (Mmas
Geraes) He became a novice in the Jesuit
College at Rio de Janeiro Upon the expulsion
of the order in 1759, he continued his studies
at the seminary of S2o Jose, and subsequently
went to Portugal and then to Rome, where in
1763 he was admitted as a member of the htei-
ary circle known as the Arcadia Having re-
turned by way of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro,
he was there denounced as a Jesuit and was sent
to Lisbon on a ship of war Here he openly
declared against the Jesuit Order, found a
patron in Pombal, the Portuguese statesman,
wrote an ode celebiatmg the dedication of an
equestrian statue of Jose I, was elevated to the
nobility in 1771, and in 1774 received an official
post in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs When
his protector was dismissed from office in 1777,
he proceeded to Rio de Janeiro, where he organ-
ized an Arcadia Ulti amarina, in imitation of
that at Rome This society having been dis-
solved in 1790 by the new Viceroy, the Count of
Rasende, who suspected plots, and its members
having been threatened with imprisonment, Da
Gama returned to Lisbon and there lived in re-
tirement until his death His chief work, which
enjoyed high popularity in Brazil, is the epic
0 Uruguay (1769), in which he endeavors to
show that the Jesuits of the Seven Missions
sought to found in Uruguay an independent the-
ocratic state He also wrote shorter poems
entitled Dedamacao tragica, Quitulna, and Can-
tico aos Campos Elysios
GAMA, Luiz FELIPE SALDANHA DA (1841-
95) A Brazilian naval officei and diplomat,
born in Rio de Janeiro After years of service in
the navy, he reached the rank of rear admiral
He fought in the war against Paraguay (1865-
70) and later was sent to China and Japan to
establish fuendly relations between those na-
tions and Brazil In 1889 he attended the In-
ternational Marine Conference at Washington
In 1893, while at the head of the naval school,
he joined the naval revolt against the govern- -
ment Upon the failure of the rebel cause he
escaped on board a Portuguese war vessel to
Buenos Aires (January, 1894) Later he joined
the revolt in Rio Grande do Sul, and after a
defeat of the rebel forces he took his own life
(June, 1895) ,
GAMA, ga'ma, VASCO DA (c 1460-1524). A
Portuguese navigator and the first European to
reach India, by the maritime route round Africa
He was descended from a noble family and was
born at Simes, a small seaport of Portugal
After some years at court he was chosen to com-
mand the expedition dispatched by King Em-
manuel to India by the all-sea route, the possi-
bility of which had been revealed by the round-
ing of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomeu
Bias in 1488, and confirmed by the explorations
of Covilhao, who had reached India by way of
the Red Sea and had crossed the Indian Ocean
from Goa to Sofala Vasco da Gama sailed from
Lisbon July 8, 1497, and, doubling the Cape of
Good Hope in November, reached in December
the Rio do Infante, the farthest point attained
by Bias There he had to suppress a mutiny of
his sailors, who shrank from facing the un-
known dangers that awaited them They
"breasted the strong Agulhas current and on
Christmas Day, 1497, sighted the coast, which
Da Gama, in honor of the day, named Natal
(ekes Natahs)* Past Del&goa Bay, Quillimane,
and Mozambique they sailed, until, on April 15,
they anchored off Malmdi, where they took on
boaid an Indian pilot, a native of Gujarat A
voyage of 23 days across the Indian Ocean
brought the vessels to the coast of Malabar,
winch was sighted on May 17, 1498 The ruler
of Calicut did not leceive the Poituguese very
favorably, and Da Gama was forced to fight his
way out of the harbor when he started home-
ward He rounded the Cape once more in
March, 1499, and on September 8 reached Lis-
bon A fleet was immediately dispatched for
India under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, whose ships
weie driven out of their course westward, the
discovery of Brazil being the result In 1502
Da Gama sailed again for India, planting Portu-
fuese colonies on the way at Mozambique and
ofala On reaching Calicut he bombarded the
place, destroyed the fleet of the Rajah and forced
him to conclude peace In December, 1503, he
was back in Poitugal with a fleet bearing rich
cargoes and was received with great honor and
given the titles of Count Vidigueira and Ad-
miral of the Indies Foi 20 years Da Gama
saw no active service In order to reform the
abuses m the adnunisti ation of Portuguese Asia,
the King appointed him. Viceroy in 1524, and
he was dispatched with a fleet to India, but
soon after his arrival he died at Cochin on
Christmas Day, 1524 The fame of Da Gama is
due, perhaps, less to the merit of his exploits
than to the place assigned him by CamSes in his
epic, Os Lusiadas Consult Correa, The Three
Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroy alty
(Hakluyt Society Publications, London, 1869) ,
Roteno da magem que em desco'brimento da
India pelo cabo de Boa EsperanQa fe& Dom
Vasco da Gama em 1497—1499 (trans by Raven-
stein, Hakluyt Society Publications, London,
1898) , Teixeira de Aragao, Vasco da Gama e a
Vidigueira (3d ed , Lisbon, 1898), Cordeiro
Os primeiros @amas (ib, 1898), Jayne, Vasco
da Gama and his Successors, 1460-1580 (Lon-
don, 1910)
GAMA (ga'ma) GBASS, or SESAME
(sea'a-me") GBASS (Tripsacum). A genus of
grasses indigenous to America, sometimes said
to be named from the Spanish gentleman who
first attempted its cultivation in Mexico Only
two or three species are known, of which the
gama grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) , occurring
from Connecticut to Mexico and southward, is
distinguished by usually having two or three
spikes together. It produces a large quantity
of coarse fodder, for which it is cultivated, not
only in Mexico, but in the United States and
to some extent in Europe In favorable cir-
cumstances it yields a very abundant crop and
attains a height of 9 or 10 feet, its root leaves
measuring 6 feet in length It possesses what
for some climates is an almost invaluable prop-
erty of enduring excessive drought without in-
jury, but suffers from frost It seems eminently
adapted to the climate of Australia Tripsacum
fasciculatum, a native of Mexico, attains a
height of 15 to 20 feet Consult W J Beal,
Grasses of North America ( 2 vols , New York,
1887-1900), and M E Francis, Book of Grasses
(ib, 1912)
GAM'ALA An ancient fortress of Palestine,
situated on the Lake of Tiberias and supposed
to be either the modern El-Hussu or Khan-el -ak-
"bah In the Jewish war of 66-70 Gamala, which
had been fortified by Josephus, was vainly be-
sieged by Agrippa, but wa/s finally taken by
GAHAIXEL
440
GAMBETTA
Vespasian, who slaughtered 9000 of Hie
defender s
GAMALIEL, ga-mali-el (Heb , 'God is a re-
ward3) 1 GAMALIEL I A noted Pliaiisee,
twice referred to in the Book of Acts ( 1 ) m v
34-39, where, as a member of the Sanhedrm, he
counseled, from the point of caution, moderate
measures regarding Peter and the other Apos-
tles, and (2) in xxii 3, where Paul speaks of
him as his instructor 111 the la\\ Jewish tradi-
tion identifies him with the famous Rabbi Ga-
maliel, the elder, the son of Simon and the
giandson of Hillel, the founder of the moie
hbeial of the two Pharisaic schools This Ga-
maliel was the first of the seven Jewish doctors
who received the honored title of Rabban, as
piesident of the highest religious council of the
Jews, and was held in such reputation that
when he died, according to Mishna (Sota ix.
15), "reverence for the law ceased, and purity
and piety died away" At the same time, m
Gamaliel's day, instruction m the law was much
more in sympathy with the spirit of practical
life than was the case in the time of the later
law schools of Palestine and Babylon In fact,
Gamaliel himself at several points modified the
restrictive customs of Jewish exclusivism and
Jewish Sabbatism, while he protected the in-
terests of wives in the niattei of divorce and
the interests of fatherless children in the matter
of inheritance. He was even hbeial enough to
be a student of Greek literature, which was held
in abhorrence by narrow -onmded rabbis In
view of these facts it is not difficult to under-
stand his tolerant position in the Sanhedrm
council of Acts v, though it is to be doubted
whether any appreciation of Christianity en-
tered into his motives, the legend of his subse-
quent conversion to the Christian faith being
worthless It is also not difficult to understand
the attraction to him of Saul of Tarsus, and
the fact that Saul afterward became a perbe-
cutor should not be made a ground for denying
the historicity of the narrative in Acts v or the
actuality of any relations between him and
Saul Gamaliel died evidently some time before
70, since his son Simon was then in public life,
while he himself seems to have been forgotten
Many traditions are ascribed to him which be-
long to his grandson, Gamaliel II, with whom he
is constantly confused
2 GAMALIEL II Grandson of the preceding,
and the leading personality among the Jews
of Palestine from c 80-1 10 AD He labored
hard to unify the Palestinian Jews after the
terrible struggle with Rome He succeeded
Johanan ben Zakkai as head of the learned coun-
cil of Jabneh, which had replaced the old San-
hedrm of Jerusalem He was a strong, just,
and determined man, yet of a remarkably liberal
spirit towards Gentile culture For both of
these men, consult W Bacher's article in the
Jewish Encyclopcedtia, vol v (New York, 1901-
06) ; Schurer, G-esch-ioMe des jtidisehen Volkes,
vol. 11 (Leipzig, 1907), H Strack, Einlei,tung
in den Talmud (ib , 1908).
G-AMABBA, ga-mar'ra, AGUSTIN (1785-
1841) A Peruvian soldier and politician, born
at Cuzco He was educated at the College San
Buenaventura Entering the Spanish army, he
attained the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1821
he joined the revolutionary cause, and became
general and then grand marshal In 1829, after
the deposition of General Lamar, he was in-
augurated as President of Peru In 1834, after
the close of his lathci unsuccessful administra-
tion, lie led an insunection against his suc-
cessor, Orbegoso, afteiwaid escaping to Bolivia
Subsequently he fought under Santa Ciuz (q v )
and Salaverry, and in 1835 was banished by
the latter to Costa Hica foi an attempt to
incite revolt When wai was declared between
Chile and the Peru-Bolivian Confederation
foimed by Santa Cruz, he commanded the re-
seive of the Chilean army sent to invade Peru,
and after the defeat of the troops of the Con-
federation in 1839, near Yungay, was declared
piovisional Piesident He was elected constitu-
tional President by Congress with the title of
"Restorer," and obtained the abolition of the
liberal constitution of 1834 In 1841 he de-
claied war against Bolivia, commanded the army
of invasion, and was killed at the defeat of
Yngavi (November 20) Despite frequent ty-
rannical acts, he sought the progress of his
country and dictated many beneficial decrees
In 1849 a mausoleum was erected in his honor
in the Pantheon of Lima
GAMBA, gam'ba, BAKTOLOMMEO (1776-1841).
An Italian bibliogiapher, born at Bassano, who
gave himself entirely to the study of the htera-
tuie of Italy For many years he was vice
hbianan of St Mark's, Venice He was a mcm-
bei of many academies His most impoitant
woik is the 8ene dei testi di Ungua (1805,
4th enlarged ed, 1839), which contains the bib-
liography of the authors mentioned in the dic-
tionary of the Academy of Crusca and that of
the best editions of other authors from the fif-
teenth century to the beginning of the nine-
teenth Other works are Gallewa dei letterati
ed artisti delle provincie venete nel secolo XV III
(1824), Vita d^ Dante (1825), Catalogo delle
pid importanti edtewni delta Dimna Commedia
(1832), and BMiografia delle novelle itahane
in prosa, (1833) He also made an excellent
translation of Don Quixote
GAMBABELLI, gam'ba-rel'lg The family
name of five brothers, who were architects and
sculptors in Rome during the early Renaissance
The two foremost, Antonio and Bernardo, are
best known by their surname, Rossellino ( q v ) .
GAM/BEIJj See ST LAWRENCE ISLAND,
ALASKA
GrAM'BESOiN", or WAMBAIS (AS womb, from
OF gambeson, ^vam*ba^SQn9 from ML. gamleso,
wamliasium, from OHG, Goth wamba, stomach,
Eng womb) In mediaeval armor, a protection
for the body, composed of layers o£ cloth, tow,
or similar material, quilted on a lining canvas
or leather It was worn by the infantry as
their only defense and by knights under their
mail shirts It is the most ancient of all ar-
mor and was used by the ancient Egyptians,
Consult Ashdome, Arms and Armour (New
York, 1909), and Deinmin, Arms and Armour
(London, 1877)
GAMBET'TA, Fr pron gaN'ba'ta', L^ON
(1838-82). A French statesman He was born
April 3, 1838, at Cahors, of a family which had
come originally from Genoa, and which is said
to have been of Jewish origin In 1854 an
accident caused the loss and removal of his
left eye In 1859 lie began the practice of la-W
at Pans His first great success, however, did
not come until 1868, when he attacked the coup
d'etat of 1851 while defending a journalist who
had come under the ban of the Empire He was
returned to the Chamber of Deputies from Paris
and Marseilles in the elections of 1869, and om
GAMBETTA
44*
G-AMBIEB
May 5, 1870, he dehveied a, speech containing a
panegyric of the lepublican form of govei mnent,
\\hich attracted gieat attention Aftei the dis-
aster of Sedan and the fall of the Empire, he
became Mimstei of the Intenoi m the provi-
sional government and remained foi some time
in Paris aftei it was invested by the Germans
It was he who announced the fall of the Emperoi
and the establishment of the Republic In oidei
to arouse the provinces he escaped from the
city in a balloon (October 7), pioceedcd to
Tours, and established a virtual dictatorship
He urged his countrymen to fight to the bittei
end and denounced the capitulation of Metz
as an act of tieason on the part of Maishal
Bazaine He left France and went to Spain as
a protest against the tieaty signed \Aith Cer-
many When a National Assembly was resolved
upon in 1871j Gambetta sought to gi\e it an
exclusively republican chaiacter by a decree
directing that no official of the Second Empire
should take part in the election The decree
was canceled at the instigation of Prince Bis-
raaick, and Gambetta resigned office, Feb 6, 1871
He subsequently entered the Assembly as a mem-
ber for Pans and became the leader of the Ex-
treme Left, violently attacking the monarchical
parties After the retirement of M. Thieis his
political action became more model ate The Ke-
publicans owed to his leadership their success in
the elections of 1877, and their defeat of the at-
tempts of the Conservatives to deprive them of
its results In the same yeai he was twice
prosecuted for violence of speech and once con-
demned to imprisonment He strongly attacked
the clerical party, who wanted to restore the
temporal power of the Pope On the election of
Jules Grevy to the presidency of the Republic in
1879, Gambetta became President of the Chambei
of Deputies (January 31)
Upon the fall of the Ferry mmistiy in Novem-
ber, 1881, Gambetta was asked to form a new
cabinet Prevented by LSon Say and others
from bringing the various factions of the Re-
public together by giving the representatives of
each a place in the ministry, he startled the
nation by a selection which it could not but re-
gaid with apprehension and alarm The Roman
Catholics were dnectly insulted by the choice
of Paul Bert, an open skeptic, as Minister of
Public Worship The Conservatives, agitated by
his proposed curtailment of the powers of the
Senate, joined with the Church m opposing his
policy The Extreme Left also had reasons for
opposition At an early date Gambetta remtro-
duced his favorite schemes of scrutin de Uste
(qv ) and senatorial abridgment. The Lower
Chamber was to share in the election of sen-
ators, and the vote of the latter upon financial
measures was to be taken away The scrutin
de liste was defeated in the Senate, and Gam-
betta immediately resigned (Jan 14, 1882) Al-
though his influence over national affairs wap
still felt through his newspaper, the R6pubhgue
Ji'rwiQatte (established 1871), he seldom ap-
peared in. public after his resignation The Re-
publicans, who had not wholly trusted him
while in power, were thrown into confusion by
the news of his death, as it deprived them of
the one man whose strong opposition the Royal-
ist and Bonapartist factions especially feared
A pistol wound m the hand aggravated a
malady from which he had long suffered^ and lie
I)ec 31, 1882 Gam^etta's, Devours et
s have been edited m 11 volumes by
Reinach (Pa us, 1881-85) Consult Reinach,
Leon Gambetta (Paris, 1884), Hamson, Leon
Gambetta, a Posvtimst (London, 1892) , Couber-
tm, Tlie Evolution of Fiance undo the Third
Republic (tians by Hapgood, New York, 1897)
Tournour, Gambetta en 1809 (Pans, 1904),
Ghensi, (ramletta Life and LeHeis (London,
1010) See FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
G-AM'BIA A Biitish colony m West Africa
at the mouth of the nver of the same name
(Map Africa, C 3) Its area is only 69 squaie
miles, but tenitoiy under British protection ex-
tends some 250 miles up the river, and the
total area is stated at 4600 square miles with a
population in 1911 of 138,400 Since 1002 all of
the Gambia except St. Mary's Island has been
undei the protectorate system of administra-
tion, the island comprises about 2500 acres,
with 8807 inhabitants The population of the
Gambia is chiefly negro and Mohammedan The
capital and principal town is Bathurst (qv),
on St Mary's Island Imports and exports (in-
cluding bullion and specie) amounted to £303,-
615 and £248,140 respectively in 1902, in 1912,
£7*56,85,') and Jb73">,172 (bullion and specie,
£285,223 and £106,570) The only rmpoitant
export of meiehandise is giound nuts, amount-
ing in 1011 to £437,472 and in 1912 to £502,069
Gambia was included in the Butish \Ve^t Afri-
can settlements from 1866 until it \\as consti-
tuted a separate colony in 1888 Consult F. B
Archer, The Gambia Colony and Protectorate
(London, 1906), and H F Reeve, The Gambia
Jts History, Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern (ib,
1912)
GAMBIA (African Sa-diman, Fourei,) A
rivei of West Africa, rising in the mountains
of Futa Jallon, Senegal, and flowing through the
Biitish Colony of Gambia (qv ) (Map Africa,
C 3) It falls into the Atlantic at Bathurst
by a wide estuary There is a bar a short dis-
tance fiom its mouth, which obstructs naviga-
tion at low tide The river uses 150 miles
from the sea, but follows so sinuous a couise
that its length is about 700 miles The lower
pait of the river flows through mangrove
swamps Seagoing steamers ascend as far as
Fort George, about 170 miles, while lighter
vessels leach the Barraconda Rapids, about 220
miles from its mouth The river incloses a
number of islets
GAM'BIEB. A village in Knox Co , Ohio,
50 miles northeast of Columbus, on the Cleveland,
Akion, and Columbus Railroad (Map Ohio, F
5) It is the seat of Kenyon College (qv ), Har-
court Place Schoc-1, for girls, and Bexley JTheo-
logical Seminary Pop , 1900, 751 , 1910, 537
GAMBIER See GAMBIB
GAMBIER, JAMES, LORD (1756-3833). An
English admiral He was born at New Provi-
dence, Bahamas, Oct 13, 1756, while his fathei
was Lieutenant Governor of the islands He
entered the navy in 1767, was post captain in
1778, and in 1780 took part in the capture of
Charleston, S C He commanded the Defence
in the battle off Ushant, June 1, 1794, and was
the first to break through the French line He
received a gold medal for his services and was
made colonel of the marines The following
year he became rear admiral and Ixxcd of the
Admiralty In 1799 he was made vice admiral
In 1802 he was appointed Governor of New-
foundland and commander in cfeief of the naval
station In , 1804 he returned to tlie Admir-
alty, and m 1805 attained the rank of ad-
GAHBIER ARCHIPELAGO
442
miral For his share in the bomhaidment of
Copenhagen and the captuie of the Danish navy
in 1807 he was raised to the peeiage as Lord
Gainbier In command of the Channel fleet he
blockaded the French fleet in Aix Roads, but
did not support Cochrane, Lord Dundonald,
whom the Admiralty had deputed to destroy it.
When Cochrane complained, Gambler demanded
a trial and received a qualified acquittal by a
friendly court-martial As a chief commis-
sioner, he took part in the peace negotiations
of the United States at Ghent m 1814 and for
this service was honored with the G C B In
1830 he was promoted to be admiral of the fleet
He died April 19, 1833
GAMBIER ARCHIPELAGO. An unim-
portant group of 10 islets in the south Pacific,
lat 23° 8' S, long 134° 55' W, discovered by
Wilson in 1797 They rest upon the south end
of the extrusion mass which constitutes the
Tuamotu and are of moderate elevation, on
Mangareva the two peaks of Mokoto and Man-
gareva measuring about 1300 feet in altitude
The four largest islands are Mangareva, Aokena,
Taravai, and Akarcnaru, and these are the only
spots inhabited The area of the land suiface
of the group is about 10 square miles A cen-
sus in December, 1911, records the population at
529, vital statistics coveiing the 15 preceding
years show 245 births and 286 deaths In re-
cent years Mangareva has received a consider-
able colony from Easter Island The popula-
tion is a mixture of the elder and the junior
branches of the Polynesian race and finds its
closest affinity with the people of the Tuamotu,
it is singular as being the only Polynesian
people which has lost the art of canoe craft
The rich soil affords abundance of coconuts
and other fruits, coffee has been planted with
satisfactory success, several banks of pearl
shell are known to exist in the lagoons The
Gambler Archipelago is a part of the French
possessions and is administered from Papeete
The chief village is Rikitea. Consult Churchill,
Easter Island, the Rtvpanui Speech,, and the
Peopling of Southeast Polynesia (Washington,
1912)
GAM'BIH, or GAMBIER (Malay), Terra
yapomca A crystalline plant extract similar
to catechu ( q v ) Like catechu, it is largely
used in tanning and dyeing, for the production
of "catechu brown" on cotton "khaki," fast to
light and washing. It is occasionally used in
medicine as an astringent It can be obtained
from the leaves and young twigs of Uncana gam-
far, which is extensively cultivated at Singapore.
To prepare it, the leaves and twigs are ex-
tracted in boiling water, the solution is strained
and evaporated to a thick sirup, cast into small
cubes, and allowed to harden
GAM/BIT See CHESS
GAM'BLE, FBANCIS CLARKE (1848- ).
A Canadian civil engineer He was born in
Toronto and was educated privately and at
Upper Canada College He began work as a
civil engineer in 1869 in connection with the
Intercolonial Railway, became assistant en-
gineer of the Great Western Railway in 1872,
and was assistant engineer of the Intercolonial
and Canadian Pacific railways during construc-
tion In 1881 he became assistant engineer for
the Department of Public works of British Co-
lumbia, and m 1887-97 he was resident engineer
and agent, in 1898-1911 public-works engineer
and inspector of dikes, and after 1911 chief
GAMBLING
engineer and inspecting engineer of railways.
He was elected a member of the Canadian So-
ciety of Civil Engineers in 1887, and in 1891
of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, Eng-
land, and of the Ameiican Society of Civil En-
gineers
GAM'BLE, HAMILTON ROWAN (1798-1864)
An American statesman, <kWar" Governor of
Missouri He was born at Winchester, Va ,
studied at Hamp den- Sidney College, was ad-
mitted to the Virginia bai, and in 1818 removed
to Missouri, where in 1823 he was elected Sec-
letary of State He acquired an extensive legal
practice at St Louis and became presiding judge
of the State Supreme Court He was elected in
1861 to the Missouri Constitutional Convention,
and when on July 31 that body established a
provisional government, he was appointed Gover-
nor to replace Claiborne F Jackson, who had
joined the Secessionists In 1862 he issued an
order commanding the enrollment of the total
fighting population, and giving authority to
General Sehofield to place in active service a
force adequate to the maintenance of peace
This order occasioned an upiising among the
partisans of the South, who looked upon it as a
draft measure and believed that m having given
oath not to take up arms against the State or
Federal government they had become noncom-
batants On June 15, 1863, at his summons, a
convention assembled which adopted an ordi-
nance providing for a method of gradual emanci-
pation of slaves This did not satisfy the
ultra-Republicans, who demanded an immediate
emancipation, and thereby gained the election of
November, 1864 He died in office
GAM/BUNG, or GA'MING (fiom AS,
gameman, gamen, gomen, game, sport, joy)
The art or practice of playing a game of hazard,
or one depending partly on skill and partly on
hazard, with a view to pecuniary gain Games
of this nature were forbidden by the Romans,
both under the Republic and the Empire The
ground on which this was done was the tend-
ency of such practices to lender the Roman
people effeminate and unmanly It devolved
upon the sediles to protect the public interest by
punishing violations of the gaming laws Dur-
ing the Saturnalia, which was a period of
general license, games of chance were permitted,
and a like indulgence was extended to old men
at all times both among the Greeks and the
Romans This vice has not been confined to
civilized nations, either m the ancient or the
modern world; Tacitus mentions its existence
among the ancient Germans, and it is known
to prevail among many half-civilized and even
savage tribes at the present day.
It is remarkable that in England, as in Rome,
the ground on which gambling was first pro-
hibited was not its demoralizing, but its effemi-
nating, influence on the community The Act 33
Hemy VIII, c 9 (1541), had in view the double
object of "maintaining artillery and debarring
unlawful games " At a much later period and
on broader grounds of public policy were enacted
the statutes 16 Chas II, c 7, and 9 Anne, c 14,
the latter of which declared that all bonds or
other securities given for money won at play,
or money lent at the time to play with, should
be utterly void, and all mortgages or mcum-
brances of lands made on the same consideration
should be made over to the use of the mortgagor
Such continued to be the law till 1845, when
there was passed the Act 8 and 9 Viet., c 109,
GAMBLING
443
GAMBOGE
which, though it repealed the obsolete provisions
of 33 Ferny VIII and 16 Chas II and 9 Anne,
reenactcd the foimer prohibitions against caid
plaj ing and other games of chance, and was fol-
lowed up (in 1853 and 1854) by the acts for
suppiessing betting houses (16 and 17 Viet, c
119) and gaming houses (17 and 18 Viet, c
38). By 8 and 9 Viet, c 109, the common law
of England was alteied, arid wagers, which with
some exceptions had hitherto been considered
legal contracts, were declared to be no longer
enfoiceable in a court of law This prohibition
does not affect contributing to prizes for lawful
games In Scotland an opposite rule had been
followed, the judges having held, irrespective of
the chaiactei of the game, or of any statutory
prohibition regarding it, that fktheir proper func-
tions were to enforce the rights of parties aris-
ing out of serious transactions, and not to pay
regard to sponsiones ludicras" But partial as-
similation has now been effected in this respect
between the laws of the two countries by a
statute which also provides that cheating at play
shall be punished as obtaining money undei false
pretenses The mode of enforcing the Act 8 and
9 Viet , c 109, was defective, and the Act 17 and
18 Viet, c 38, put heavy penalties on those
who obstructed the police by putting chains or
bolts against the doors of gaming houses or
otheiwise delaying the entry into such houses,
and any appaiatus or arrangement for giving
alarm to the persons inside was declared to be
evidence that the house was a gaming house
The Summary Junsdiction Acts of 1879 and
1884 have provided effective remedies against
the violators of gaming laws The Betting-
Houses Act (16 and 17 Viet, c 119) was passed
to put down another kind of gaming, viz , in
houses where money is received as or for the
consideration foi any undertaking to pay money
in the event of any hoise race, or other race,
fight, game, sport, or exercise All such betting
houses are declared to be gaming houses within
the Statute 8 and 9 Viet, c 109, and similar
powers of search may be resorted to But
nothing in the act extends to a person holding
stakes to be paid to the winner of any race or
lawful sport, game, or exercise Besides these
statutes, the Intoxicating Liquors Licensing Act
of 1872 puts a penalty on the keeper of any
house for the sale of liquors allowing any
gaming for money or money's worth on the
premises By the vagrant acts all persons are
liable to penalties for playing at games on a
public highway or public place These enact-
ments do not interfere with gaming in private
houses
In most of the states of G-ermany gaming was
allowed, and the extent to which it was practiced
at the German watering places is well known
The princes of the petty states often derived a
large portion of their revenue from the tenants
of their gaming establishments, whose exclusive
privileges they guaranteed Recently these Ger-
man gaming tables have all been closed Monaco
has now the chief public gaming tables of Europe.
In the United States, as in England, one who
keeps a gaming house is indictable at common
law for maintaining a nuisance; and one who
wins another's fcnoney with, false dice, or the
likey is punishable as a eommbn-law cheat
Legislation in our States against gambling has
taken a course similar to that above described
in Britain. The tendency 'has ,been towards
greater precision in defining' the offenses of
VOL. IX.— 29
gambling and of keeping gambling houses and
implements, tow aids moie summary methods of
dealing with the violators of these statutes, and
towaids seveiei punishment of violatoi s Such
legislation is so divci&e in matteis of detail as
to render even an outline of it impracticable
Tlieie has been diiiiculty an arriving at a correct
definition of gambling It cannot be said that
a mere contest of skill or strength, however
great rnay be the prize, is indictable at common
LEfw, for in England and the United States such
contests have at all times been sanctioned by
public policy and protected by the courts Of
course there may be contests not objectionable
upon this giound which may be prohibited for
other reasons, as, e g , cocknghting, which is prop-
erly regaidod as a ciuel and \vanton sport, but it
is ugammg" ±01 peisons to stake money on chance
The chance must be the controlling factor in the
game It is not enough that chance should
enter into a contest to make it gambling, for it
cannot be denied that theie is a certain element
of foitune in almost any contest 01 undertaking
But this does not make such contest gambling
All competitive examinations aie allected some-
what by chance, yet no competitive examination
is gambling So in games of skill, as chess and
billiards In such games chance may have very
little part If so, playing these games, even for
a prize or reward, is not gambling It is other-
wise when the game depends more laigely on
chance than on skill , so that it may be said that
gambling as a penal offense may be defined as a
staking on chance- Consult. Encyclopce&ia, of
the Laios of England (London, 1897-98) ,
Bishop, On Statutory Orwnes (3d ed, Chicago,
1901), Rowntree, Betting and Gambling (New
York, 1905), Coldridge and Hawksford, TJie
Laio of Gambling, Civil and Criminal (London,
1913)
GKA.MBOA, PEDRO SABMIENTO DE See SAE-
MIENTO
GrAMBOG-E, gam-bo/ or -boo/, or GAM-
BOGE (from Qamboya, Cambodia, Skt Kam-
boya, where the tree abounds) A gum resin
brought from the East Indies and believed to be
the produce chiefly of Garcinia cambogia, also
known as Oarcmia cambogwides, a tree of the
natural order Guttiferae, a native of Ceylon,
Siam, Cambodia, etc The gamboge tree attains
a height of 40 feet, has smooth oval leaves,
small polygamous flowers, and clustered succu-
lent fruit When the bark of a tree is wounded,
gamboge exudes as a thick, viscid, yellow juice,
which hardens by exposure to the air The
finest gamboge comes from Siam American
gamboge, which is very similar and used for the
same purposes, is obtained from Vismia gmanen-
sis (natural order Hypericmese), a native of
Mexico and Surinam Gamboge occurs in com-
merce in three forms (1) in rolls or solid
cylinders, (2) in pipes or hollow cylinders, and
(3) in cakes or amorphous masses The first
two kinds are the purest Good gamboge eon-
tains about 70 per cent of resm and 20 per cent
of gum, the remainder being made up of woody
fibre, fecula, and moisture The resin of gam-
boge, known as ganibogic acid, is a bright yellow
substance soluble in alcohol and in ether. Its
composition as represented by the formula
C^HasO It is mtsch used by painters to pro-
duce a beautiful yellow color It ig also em-
ployed for staining wood and for masking a gold-
colored lacquer for brass. It has a shelly frac-
ture, is destitute of smell', and has an acrid
GAMBBINCTS
444
GAME LAWS
taste If taken internally, it acts as a cathar-
tic, producing a large amount of secretion
It is but raiely used in medicine, and never
alone, as it causes griping and irritation of the
alimentary canal See MANGOSTEEN, GUMS
GAMBUF^SrtrS. A mythical king of Flan-
ders, to whom is ascribed the invention of beer
His figure is familiar in German beer cellars
and elsewhere, seated astride a cask with a
tankard in his hand The name is said to have
arisen out of that of Jan Primus, Duke of Bra-
bant (1251-94) He obtained the presidency of
the Brussels guild of bi ewers, and his portrait,
with a foaming glass of beer in his hand, was
hung up in the hall of the guild The name
may perhaps have been converted into German,
the prince of the story made a king, and the
invention of beer ascribed to him But this
explanation may itself have been a fiction
GAME See HUNTING
GAME FOWL. See FOWL, COGKFIGIITING
GAME LAWS Statutes enacted either for
the purpose of protecting persons in the enjoy-
ment of certain sporting rights or of protecting
game from improper destruction
Previous to the Norman Conquest of England
there were no restrictions against the hunting
of game, except a general law prohibiting the
hunting of game on Sundays , so far as is known
this was the earliest game law A subsequent
law prohibited monks hunting in the woods with
dogs All othei classes of society were at liberty
to hunt over the country at laige, except that
the King's hunting was not to be inteifered
with , i e , whei ever the King elected to hunt, all
others had to vacate until the King and his fol-
lowers had passed With the advent of the Nor-
mans in 1066, hunting became the sole privilege
of the nobles, and the common people were pro-
hibited, under severe penalties, from the hunting
of game Stringent game laws were enacted,
which became known as the Forest Laws, and
which frequently drove the Saxons, and com-
mon people generally, into rebellion. Many of
them, as in the case of the historic Robin Hood,
became outlaws. During the Middle Ages the
game laws of England were framed so as to se-
cure to the landed aristocracy the exclusive right
of taking game Under their provisions, accoid-
ing to Blackstone, ' All peisons of what property
or distinction soever, that kill game out of their
own territories, or even upon their own estates,
without the King's license expressed by grant
or franchise, are guilty of the offense of en-
croaching on the royal prerogative And those
indigent persons who do so without having such
rank or fortune, as is generally called a quali-
fication, are guilty not only of this offense, but
of the aggravations also created by the statutes
for preserving game " One of the "qualifica-
tions" for killing game in Blaekstone's time was
the ownership of a freehold estate of £100 per
annum, "there being fifty times the property
required to enable a man to kill a partridge,"
remarks the great commentator, "as to vote for
a Knight of the Shire " Early in the last cen-
tury all the old statutes on the subject were
repealed, and the Night Poaching Act, 1828 (9
Geo. IV, c 69), and the Game Act, 1831 (2
Win. IV, c 32), were substituted for these
In the United States game laws have been
framed on different lines from those of England
Their primary object has been the protection of
game itself, not the grant of exclusive rights to
persons possessed of large property qualifica-
tions In 1623 Plymouth Colony declared fowl-
ing, fishing, and hunting to be ficc, except on
certain private property Class legislation is
dead, all wild game and fishes aie the piopeity
of him that reduces them to possession by killing
or catching, with due regard to the law of
trespass on private pi operty, be it land or water ,
wild game and fishes must not be molested dur-
ing the season of reproduction, and they must
be allowed free and unobstructed passage to
their breeding grounds or wateis
The rule governing the acquisition of pi operty
in game in the United States differs in some
respects from that in England There, if a hun-
ter captures game upon the land of anothei, it
belongs to the landowner, while heie it belongs
to the captor, although he may be liable to an
action for trespass, and in some States to a
criminal prosecution, for entering upon the prem-
ises of another without permission 33y the
common law the right of fishing in the sea and
in tidewaters generally is public and common to
every person , but the owners of lands on the
banks of fresh-water rivers above the tide line
have the exclusive right of fishing to the middle
of the stream If the same peison owns lands
on both sides of the nvoi, he has the sole right
of fishing in the river as far as his lands ex-
tend So the sole right of fishing in ponds 01
lakes belongs to him who owns the fee of the soil
beneath the water Moieovei, a person ughl-
fully navigating a river becomes a trespasser
when he shoots at or kills wild ducks thereon, in
case the bed of the river is the pi operty of
adjacent landowneis
This right of fishery, however, is not an abso-
lute or unqualified right of property It is sub-
ject to the police power of the State Peisons
may be prohibited by legislation from fishing or
hunting even upon their own lands, during cer-
tain seasons, and their sale of game which has
been killed during the open season may be regu-
lated. This rule rests upon the doctrine that
the wild game within a State belongs to the
people in their collective sovereign capacity It
is the subject of private ownership only so far
as the people may elect to make it so, and they
may absolutely prohibit the taking of it, or
the traffic and commeice in it, if tins is deemed
necessary for the piotection or presentation of
the public good. Hence State laws prohibiting
the citizens of other States from planting oystei s
within the tidewaters of the enacting State are
constitutional So are laws regulating the
catching of fish within the bays of the enacting
State, or prohibiting the catching of fish or the
killing of game foi the purpose of canying the
same beyond the limits of the State All State
laws having for their object the piotection of
game from unnecessary slaughter, and the
piopagation of game, have been tieated with
favor by both State and Federal courts and have
received a liberal construction Indeed, the Su-
preme Court of the United States has not hesi-
tated to declare that it is the duty of the Legis-
lature to enact such laws as will best preserve
game of every kind and secuie it as a valuable
food supply for the future use of the people
of the State Even the sale of fish propagated
in private ponds may lawfully be restricted
during the close season In short, the right to
take game is a boon or privilege rather than a
vested legal right
Modern game laws do not stop with prohibi-
tions against killing game out of season, The$
GAME LAWS
445
GAME OF CHESS
extend lo the sale of such game, and even to its
possession, dm ing the period of piolnbition
They have become more stungent and minute in
their restuctions The machinery foi the en-
forcement of this provision is fai more effective
than formerly, and civil suits foi heavy fines are
more fiequenlly resorted to than criminal prose-
cutions under indictments
The lack of unifoimity of the various State
laws dictating the seasons dm ing which birds
and animals shall be protected frequently defeats
the very purpose foi which the laws weie
framed, and, moreover, makes compliance with
the provisions of the Federal law difficult for
both shippers and game dealers, who have to
consider the open seasons in the State in which
the game was killed, and that to which it is
their purpose to ship it Still moie confusion
is caused by the geneial diversity in defining
the seasons In some States the open seasons
aie given, and m others the closed, while in all
then statements is to be found eveiy possible
vanety of inclusion and exclusion of the dates
named In some States the regulai killing sea-
son is checked by the prohibition of shooting or
killing on certain days of the week
Shipment of Game This also is an impor-
tant subject of game legislation, for one of the
greatest factors in the rapid destruction of game
in recent years has undoubtedly been the illegal
shipment of game from one State to another It
has also been an exceedingly difficult problem to
cope with, largely because interstate commerce is
out&ide the jurisdiction of the several States
There was passed by Congiess on May 25, 1900,
an act, popularly termed the Lacey Act, which
gave to the Secretary of Agriculture all duties
and responsibilities connected with the preserva-
tion of game and at the same time prohibited
interstate commerce in game killed in violation
of local laws The Lacey Act is based, to a
degree, on State laws, so that its proper enforce-
ment requires a knowledge of ceitain local pio-
visions which are subject to periodical change
Section 4 of this act ordains that every package
containing game animals or birds, when shipped
by interstate commerce, must be clearly marked,
so as to show the name and address of the ship-
per as well as the nature of the contents In
addition to this the laws of Colorado, Connecti-
cut, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana,
Nebraska, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Wiscon-
sin, New Brunswick, and Ontario require pack-
ages of fish or game to bear a statement clearly
indicating the nature of the contents, which
must cover the kind of game and the amount m
the package The majority of the States pro-
hibiting exports place no restuctions on ship-
ments within the State, but a few States impose
restrictions on the shipment of certain kinds of
game, and Kansas prohibits the shipment of all
protected game within the State An important
event in the development of modern State laws
was the establishing by the Supreme Court of
the constitutionality of the Connecticut statute
prohibiting export of certain game (Geer v
Connecticut, 11 U S 519 ) As a result, non-
export laws have been adopted throughout all
the States, every State prohibiting the export of
Certain kinds of game In some States the
sportsmen may carry a limited amount of game
out of the State, Tbut only under special restric-
tions In most of the States the sale of all or
certain kinds of game is prohibited at all sea-
sons, and most States prohibit sale of all game
during the close season The most geneial pro-
hibition among game buds i& that against the
export of quail, which, with two exceptions,
Wyoming and Maryland, is in force in every
State of the Union
The Dominion of Canada has a geneial law,
covering and prohibiting the cxpoit of wild
tin keys, paitridge, prairie fowl, quail, woodcock,
and deer, except in the ease of deer raised on
private reserves, and an exception which pro-
vides that nonresident sportsmen may export
two deei each in a calendar year at certain
ports of export within 15 days after the close of
the open season
Licenses for Hunting- and Shipping- Game.
In Arkan&as nonresidents are denied the privi-
lege of hunting Throughout Canada and m 36
States of the Union nonresidents must secure
licenses befoic it is lawful for them to hunt
certain kinds of game In 16 States and four
Canadian Piovmces a similar restriction is im-
posed on lesidents, but the fee is usually
nominal, and in all cases consideiably less than
that imposed on nonresidents
With regard to fishing, both for food and game
fishes, all that has boon said on the subject of
hunting also applies Most of the States have
their own laws regulating the fishing for food
and game fish — the open soasons varying accord-
ing to the State and the species of fish In some
States it is illegal to take fish under a ceitam
size or weight, while in most it is forbidden to
take trout, bass, and otner fish by netting or
spearing, or by any method other than with
hook and line The laws apply to fishing" in
private waters as well as in those that belong to
the State
Trespassing, The same laws govern trespass
in fishing as in hunting, although some States
have made special laws on the subject As a
rule, however, the general law throughout the
States on this subject decides that if the bottom
of a lake or stieam is subject to private owner-
ship, the owner has the sole right of fishing,
even though the water is deep enough to float a
boat and is sublet to public use as a highway
In public waters the right belongs to the State,
and consequently is usually free to the public,
although there are instances when the State
grants it to particular persons
Consult the Game Laws of the United States
and of the separate States See FEK.SE NATURE ,
FISHING LAWS
GAMELY3ST, ganrVlin The hero of an Eng-
lish verse tale of the same name written in the
fourteenth century It was formerly ascribed to
Chaucer, for the reason that all extant copies of
the poem are found in the manuscripts of the
Canterbury Tales It is interesting as furnish-
ing Thomas Lodge with an outline for the first
part of Rosalind, upon which Shakespeare after-
ward based As You L^ke It Consult the ap-
pendix to the Variorum edition of Shakespeare's
play by Furness (3d ed , Philadelphia, 1908),
and The Tale of Gamelyn, ed by W W. Skeat
(Oxford, 1894)
GAME OF CHESS, A A political comedy
by Thomas Middleton, satirizing Spain and Ro-
man Catholicism, produced at the Globe Theatre
in August, 1624, and published in quarto the
same year It was suggested by the notorious
Spanish Match and drew much of its abundant
detail from contemporaiy tracts which dealt
with that fiasco The Spanish Minister imnicdi*
ately protested to King James concerning it, and
GAME PBESEUVE
446
GAME FBESEBVE
the author -was temporarily imprisoned The
vogue which the play enjoyed at the time was
remarkable, its nine performances netting £1500
Consult Doran, English Stage (3 vols , Edin-
burgh, 1887)
GrAME PRESERVE. A park stocked with
game, or a tract of country, sometimes enclosed,
and set apart for the protection of game At
the beginning of the Middle Ages the rulers of
Europe maintained their own hunting grounds
or f 01 eats, a practice which was soon followed by
the landed nobility, and out of winch giew the
present system, by which the right of hunting
and the ownership of game is vested in the
ownership of the land (See GAME LAWS )
Austi la-Hungary and Geiniany contain many
hunting estates, as also did Fiance before the
Revolution Under such conditions, however,
the preservation of game is essentially a private
undei taking In the British Isles game preseiv-
mg has attained a high degree of development,
but, as on continental Europe, this is due to
the individual landownei rather than to the
government, and the impelling motive is a
selfish rather than a public-spirited one Scot-
land possesses the largest single areas set apart
for shooting and hunting in the United King-
dom, and the preserve of the Duke of Suther-
land ranks as one of the largest in the world
The setting apart of vast tracts of aiabJe or
grazing land for these pui poses has become a
veiy real grievance \wtli the Scottish people
African Preserves. The greatest game pie-
serves are those which have been established in
Africa by the British Government Only the
most impoitant of these can be mentioned here
In Butish East Africa are the gieat Athi
Plains Preserve, between the Uganda Railway
and the northeastern boundary of German East
Africa, roughly pear-shaped, about 200 miles
long, northwest by southeast, by about 40 miles
wide, and the Jubaland Preserve, which lies
about 50 miles north of Mount Kema, which is
roughly rectangular, and about 170 miles long,
northeast by southwest, by about 130 miles
wide Here also are seven other smaller reserva-
tions for the protection of certain mammals,
such as the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the
eland, and the roan antelope Another great pre-
serve— with undefined boundaries — lies in the
Egyptian Sudan, between the Nile, the Blue
Nile, and Abyssinia It is about 215 miles long
north and south by about 125 miles wide In
the Transvaal aie the Sabi-Singwitza Preserve,
lying along the noitheastern boundary of the
colony, about 200 miles long by about 50 miles
wide, the Rustenberg Preserve, comprising
about 3500 square miles north and south of the
headwaters of the Limpopo River, and the
smaller Pretoria Preserve Other important
African game sanctuaries are as follows in
Central Angoniland (British Nyassaland) a pre-
serve— especially for elephants — about 50 miles
wide, lying chiefly along the west shore and ex-
tending about 200 miles south of Lake Nyassa;
in iSomahland, the Hargeis and Mirso reserves,
of about 1800 and 300 square miles respectively;
in Uganda, the Bondo Reserve, lying along the
eastern shore of Lake Albert Nyanza, and the
Toro Reserve, situated between that lake and
Lake Albert Edward Nyanza
Canadian Preserves. In Canada there are
seveial extensive and many smaller game pre-
serves, most of which were established by the
governments of the provinces m which they are
situated In Ontano is the great Algonquin
National Park, with an area of 1930 square
miles, well stocked with moose, caribou, white-
tailed deer, black bear, and beavci In Albeita
are the following national paiks Rocky Moun-
tains, near Banff, 4320 square miles, Yoho and
Glacier, 2812 and 2304 square miles respec-
tively, Buffalo, near Wainwnght, 600 acres, for
American bison, Elk Island, near Foit Sas-
katchewan, 62 square miles, for bison, elk, and
moose, Jasper, on the Athabasca Rivei, near
Stiathcona, 5450 squaie miles, and Wateitown
Lakes, in the southeastern corner of the prov-
ince, 54 squaie miles, chiefly for mountain sheep
In British Columbia are the Elk River Game
Preserve, of about 450 squaie miles, in the East
Kootenai District, the Fra&cr River Preseive, of
about 2250 square miles, between the North and
South Porks of the Fraser River, and the Ya~
lakom Preserve, of about 215 square miles, on
the north side of the Bridge River, a tributary
of the Fraser
In Manitoba aie four preserves — the Duck
Mountain, of 324 squaie miles, the Riding
Mountain, of 360 square miles, the Spruce
Woods, of 64 square miles , and the Turtle Moun-
tain, of 100 square miles — the maintenance of
which is exceedingly impoitant to the United
States, since within them lie the systems of
lakes and maishlands which are among the most
impoitant breeding places for North American
waterfowl The Province of Quebec has two
very large pieserves — the Laurentides National
Park, of 3565 square miles, in the region
bounded by Lake St John, the Saguenay, the
St Lawrence, and the St Maurice rivers, and
the Gaspesian Forest, Fish and Game Preseive,
of 2500 square miles, in the eastern part of the
province
United States Preserves In 1914 there
were ten national parks in the United States
which served as game refuges, as follows Yel-
lowstone, Wyo (established, 1872), 2,142,720
acres, National Zoological Park, D C (1889),
167 acres, Rock Creek, D C (1890), 1606
acres, Sequoia, Cal (1890), 161,597 acres
Yosemite, Cal (1890), 719,622 acres, General
Grant, Cal (1890), 2536 acres, Mount Rainier,
Wash (1899), 207,360 acres, Crater Lake,
Greg (1902), 159,360 acres, Wind Cave, S D
(1903), 10,522 acres, and Glacier, Mont, 915r
000 acres, total 4,320,490 acres, or about 6,719
square miles Most of these paiks shelter more
or less big game, the presence of which adds
greatly to their educational value Yellow-
stone Park lias much the largest faunal popu-
lation, which included in 1914 about 500 ante-
lope, 210 mountain sheep, 50 wild buffalo, 162
buffalo in the fenced herd, 33,000 elk— the larg-
est herd on the contmeni>-~and many bear, deer,
moose, and beaver
In addition to the national parks just men-
tioned, there were in the United States in
1914 nine national game preserves and other
refuges for wild life, as follows- the Wichita,
(Gkla ) Game Preserve, chiefly for American
bison and elk (1905), 57,120 acres , Grand Can-
yon (Ariz ) Game Preserve (1906), 1,402,928
acres, the Muir Woods (Cal ) National Monu-
ment (1908), 295 acres, the Montana National
Bison Range (1908), 18,521 acres, the Mpbrara
(Neb ) Reservation, about 1200 acres; Mount
Olympus (Wash) National Monument (1909),
608,640 acres; Billy Meadows Pasture,,
2560 acres, Munkunyuweap (Utah)
GAME PRESERVE
447
GAMESTER
Monument (1909), 15,840 acres, and the Colo-
rado National Monument (1911), 13,883 acres
The national bird reservations in the United
States are altogether too numoioub to mention
in this connection They numbered moie than
65 m 1914, and are established by executive
order, chiefly for the purpose ot pioteeting large
breeding colonies of water birds (many of them
game species), or of affording refuges for migra-
tory species in their northwaid or southward
flights, or in winter Generally they are small,
rocky islands or tracts of marshland, or areas
kd]oimng reclamation pio]ect<3 in the West
Some, however aie of considerable extent, as,
e g , the Yukon Delta Reservation, and the
Hawaiian Islands Reservation Besides the
leseivations just referred to, there are a few
refuges for aquatic mammals and birds, and for
fish, some of which are maintained in connec-
tion with lighthouse or naval stations The
largest of these are the Afognak Forest and
Fish Culture Reserve, of 800 square miles, north
of Kodiak Island, Alaska, and the Aleutian
Island Reservation, Alaska (also a bud reser-
vation )
Several States have set aside considerable
tracts of woodland for the preservation of game
The most considerable of these reserves is the
famous Adirondack State Park, New York. It
includes about 2030 square miles of splendid
forest land, with scores of beautiful lakes and
streams, and many fine mountain peaks which
command superb views Many of the lakes and
sti earns are kept stocked with trout and bass
by the State, and there is still good deer hunt-
ing in much of the forest The park was estab-
lished in 1892, and is maintained and policed
under the direction of the State Conservation
Commission Pennsylvania has adopted the
policy of establishing game preserves within
state forest reserves, and five of these reserva-
tions (of about 3200 acres each) had been set
aside in 1913 In 1911 Montana established the
important Snow Creek Game Pieseivc, of 96
square miles, m Dawson County, while Wyo-
ming has five large refuges, including the Teton
State Preserve (1905), of about 900 square
miles, adjoining Yellowstone Park, and the Big
Horn Game Preserve (1909) m the mountain
range of that name
There are in the United States a very large
number of game preserves which aie owned by
individuals or associations Probably the first
extensive undertaking of this kind was the pre-
serve of about 200 acres established about 1859,
near Ottawa, 111 , by John Dean Caton, author of
The Deer and Antelope of America An impor-
tant preserve is that which was founded in 1885
near Newport, N" H , by Austin Corbin This is
still maintained by Mr Corbm's son and others
It is known as the Blue Mountain Forest Park,
contains a large herd of bison (from which have
been recruited several other herds), and includes
about 27,000 acres of fine forest land In the
Adirondacks there are many large private pre-
serves, some of which are maintained under
conditions which have caused much resentment
among the natives and have lesulted in two
homicides On St Vmqent Island, ne&r Apala-
chicola, Fla^ Dr Ilay V Pierce established a
preserve of about twenty square miles i& 1909,
and here muoh effective work has been done in
the protection, of waterfowl In 1912 Mrs Rus-
sell gage (q,v.) bought Mars> Island, off the
coast of ^Louisiana, as a refuge especially for
waterfowl, and this, with the neighboring Loui-
siana State Game Preserve of 13,000 aeies, near
Marsh Island, and the Ward-Mellhenny Wild
Fowl Preserve of about 11,000 acres adjoining,
constitutes one of the most important bird ref-
uges on the southern coast In 1914 George
Vanderbilt offered to the United States Govern-
ment the major part of his great estate, Bilt-
more, N C , and the offer was accepted
For an interesting account of the great game
pieserves m Africa and on this continent,
consult Hornaday, Our VanisJimg Wild Life
(New York, 1913) Stevenson -Hamilton's Ani-
mal Life %% Africa (London, 1912) contains maps
which show with some precision the location of
the Afucan preserves Foi readable descnp-
tions of these latter regions, consult Dugmore,
Camera Adventures ^n African Wilds (New
Yoik, 1910), and Roosevelt, African Game Trail?
(ib, 1910) The various reservations in the
United States are enumeiated and described by
Dr T S Palmer, in National Reservations for
the Protection of Wild Life, Circular No 87,
issued by the United States Department of
Agriculture, Buieau of Biological Suivey
(Washington, 1912) See FISHING, HUNTING,
WILD LIFE, CONSERVATION OF.
GAMES, ANCIENT The public games of
Greece and Home were athletic contests and
spectacles of various kinds, generally connected
with religious observances It is hard to over-
estimate the influence of the public contests of
Greece in developing the extraordinary apprecia-
tion of physical beauty among the Greeks, and
its reflection in art and literature They also
exercised a powerful influence m promoting a
feeling of national unity in opposition to the
many rivalries which tended to disrupt the
Grecian world As the contests came to take
on more and more of the professional character,
the admiration for the athletes decreased, and
tbe games lost much of their early chaiacter
In the Homeiic poems we find games a part of
the funeral of a great chief,, but with the fall
of the nobility they become associated with some
special sanctuary or religious festival. The Ro-
mans called their public games ludi The ludi
were performed first in payment of vows, usually
in connection with war, later they became
annual celebrations They were under the care
of state magistrates, usually the sediles, lees
often the praetor A sum of money was granted
for the luAi by the state, but to this ever-increas-
ing amounts were added by the magistrates
themselves The luck were known as ludi amphi-
theatrales, ludi cwcenses, or ludi tJieatrales, ac-
cording to the kind of spectacle that formed the
chief attraction Some of the ludi lasted 16
days The Romans preferred to play the part
of spectators, and their showa were often gladia-
torial and bloody — things entirely foieign to
the feeling of free Greece Consult Becq de
Pcrnqtueres, Les }eux des ancwns (Pana, 1869),
and E N. Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports cmd
Festivals (London, 1910) See ATHLETICS,
GREEK FESTIVALS, ROMAN FESTIVALS, OLYMPIC
GAMES, PYTHIAN GAMES, NEMKA; ISTHMUS,
PAN ATHENA A, ClBOUS, AMPHITHEATRE , GLADI-
ATOR, LAMPADBPHOKIA , MEGALESIA, NAXJMA-
OIIIA, PENTATHLON, SECULAR GAMES, THEATEE
For the ludi Apollmares, see APOLLO. For pri-
vate games, see such titles as COTTABUS, GAM-
BLING
Q-AMES, SEOULAB. See SECULAR GAMES
GAICE'STER, THE. 1. A -comedy by Shirley
GAMETANGIUM:
448
(1633) It is founded on a novel by Ceho
Malespini, and m its turn suggested Johnson's
The Wife's Rehef (1711) , Garrick's The Game-
sters (1758) , and Poole's The Wife's Stratagem
(1827) diaries I approved it highly, and is
said to have even assisted in the construction
of its plot 2 A comedy by Mrs Centhvre
( 1705 ) It was taken from Regnard's Le joueur
(1696), and suggested Destouche's Le Dissipa-
teur (1736) 3 A bourgeois tragedy in prose
by Edward Moore, produced with, success at
Drury Lane, Feb. 7, 1753. Garrick wrote
the scene between Lewson and Stukely in the
fourth act, and played the principal part
CrAlME'ETA^GITrM (Neo-Lat, from Gk
yafterv), gamete, wife -f- dyyeiov, angeion, vessel)
The organ of plants in which the sexual cells
(gametes) are developed In its narrow sense,
the name is used only in connection with the lower
algae and fungi, in which the gametes are alike
in appearance In the higher plants the gametes
are very dissimilar (eggs and sperms), and the
organs which produce eggs are called oogoma or
archegoma, and those which produce sperms an-
theridia
GrAlMLETE, ga-met' or garnet (Gk. japer?],
gamete, wife, from yd^os, gamos, marriage, from
jafj^Lv, gamem, to marry). The sexual cell
which fuse., with another in the process of fer-
tilization In the lowest plants gametes are
similar in appearance, and there is no apparent
distinction of sex In most plants, howevei, the
pairing gametes are strikingly diflerent One
of them is a small and usually ciliated body
called the sperm, while the other is a compara-
tively large and passive body called the egg
In every case the gamete is a naked cell The
organ in which the gametes are formed is called
a gametangmm; and when the gametes are dif-
ferentiated, the gametangium which produces
the sperms is called an antlieridium, while that
which produces the egg is called the oogonium
in the algae and fungi (thallophytes) and arche-
gonmni in the higher groups See FERTILIZATION.
GAM'ETOPHYTE (from Gk ja^rr), gamete,
wife + 0uroz>, phyton, plant). That phase in
alternation of generations of plants which bears
the sex organs For example, in mosses the
ordinary leafy moss plant is the gametophyte,
while in ferns the prothallium is the gameto-
phyte The alternating asexual phase is called
the sporophyte. See ALTERNATION OF GENEBA-
TIONS, PBOTHALTJTJM
GAME'WELL, FRANCIS DUNLAP (1857-
). An American Methodist missionary,
born at Camden, S C He studied civil engineer-
ing at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and at
Cornell University, and graduated from Dickin-
so-n College in 1881 He was engaged in educa-
tional work at Peking, China, in 1881-84, super-
intended the West China Mission m 1884r-87, and
was professor of chemistry at Peking University
from 1889 to 1900 In 1900 he was chief of
staff of the Europeans and Americans who de-
fended themselves in the British Legation at
the time of the siege of Peking during the
Boxer uprising From 1901 to 1908 he served
as field secretary and executive secretary of the
Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist
Episcopal church, was superintendent of educa-
tion for China for the Methodist Episcopal
church in 1909-12, and m 1912 became general
secretary of the Educational Association of
China He also became editor of the
GAMUT
GAM'GEE, ARTHUR (1841-1909) An Eng-
lish physiologist, born m Florence, Italy, edu-
cated at Edinburgh University, and was there
assistant in medical junsprudence from 1863
to 1869, in 1873 was appointed the first
Brackenbury professor of physiology in Owens
College, Manchester He was also professor of
physiology at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain from 1882 to 1885, and in 1S87 became
lectuier on materia medica in St George's
Hospital, London Aftei his retirement from
Owens College as professor emeritus, he prac-
ticed medicine and conducted pnvate investiga-
tions He became known for his researches in
physiology and physiological chemistry In
1903-05 he pursued studies m the physiology of
nutrition for the Carnegie Institution at Wash-
ington His writings include a translation and
edition of Hermann's Qrundmss der Physiologic
(Beilm, 1863), and a Text-Book of the Physio-
logical Chemistry of the Animal Body (1880-93)
GAMICZER, WEIXZEL. See JAMNITZEB
GAMING-. See GAMBLING
GAM'MA BAYS Eadiations from radium
and other radioactive substances They cannot
be deviated by an electric 01 magnetic field, and
are considered to be a "hard" type of Iloentgcn
i ays ( q v )
GAM'MEB GtTK'TOiN'S HEEDLE The
title of an English comedy, performed at Cam-
bridge in 1566, and printed in 1575 It has
been ascribed on insufficient grounds to John
Still (?1543-1607), Bishop of Bath and Wells
In order of time it is the second of the English
comedies founded on Latin models, the first
being Ralph Roister Doister, by Nicholas Udall,
printed in 1566. The theme of the play is the
loss of a needle by Gammer Gurton, a village
housewife, while she is mending her husband's
breeches, and the consequent disturbance m the
household and the village The wit is coarse,
homely, and boisterous The play contains the
oldest and one of the most famous drinking
songs in the English language — "Back and side
go bare, go baie" Consult Dodsley, Old Plays,
ed by W C Hazhtt, vol 111 (London, 1874-76)
GAM'OPET'ALJE Another name for the
Sympetalse, one of the divisions of the dicoty-
ledons (qv )
GAMP, MBS SAIBEY A professional nurse
in Dickens's Martin Cfauvzlewit) husky, tearful,
and given to stimulants during her night watch-
ing She constantly refers to her mythical
friend Mrs Harris in confirmation of her own
views, and is noted for her plethoric umbrella,
which has given the name "gamp" to others of
similar shape
GAMTOOS (gam'tds) RIVER A river of
Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, which nses in
the plateau of the Great Karoo in a number of
wady-like streams. At the east end of the Zwarte
Berge it becomes a permanent watercourse, flow-
ing southeasterly to the Indian Ocean, which
it enters through St Francis Bay about 50
miles (coastwise) west of Port Elizabeth A
number of tributaries are received by the main
stream from both the east and the west, the
Konga River from the latter being the chief one
GAIHJT The name given to a system of
musical notation invented by Guido Arezzo ( q v ) ,
a Benedictine monk of the tenth century He
called the lowest tone of the musical system
gamma (Greek letter g)> and then, taking the
syllables from an old Latin hymn, called the
notes of the hexachord ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la.
GANAUCIAL SYSTEM
449
GAltfELOlff
The scale thus formed, with the later addition
of si foi the seventh, acquned the name gamut
(gamma-ut), 01 French gamme
GANAWCIAL (ga-nan'shal) SYSTEM (from
Sp gornancia, gain, profit). The Spanish, law
governing the title and disposition of property
acquired by husband and wife during the ex-
istence of the marriage relation It is almost
identical with the community system of the
French law and many of om Western States,
the chief point of difference being that undei
the Spanish rule the conjugal community of
ownership cannot be renounced 01 modified by
any stipulation or agreement of the parties ex-
cept in case of a judicial separation, whereas
under the other system they ar<j pei milted to
regulate the owneiship of then separate or
jointly acquiied property by contract.
Sevcial of the States acquiied by the United
States f i om Spain have retained this system
without material modification, and it exists in
mobt of the Spanish-American countries In
Spam it is icguUtcd by the Civil Code The
term is not generally employed m the United
States. See COMMUNITY OF PROPERTY, HUSBAND
ANO TV IFB
GAN"D, gaN See GHENT
GAETDA, BAGANDA, Tt>a~gan'da. Names
applied to the Uganda Piotectorate and the
native population
GANDAK, giin'duk', or SALIGBAMX, salS-
gra'm£ A snow- fed iiver of the Northwestern
Provinces and Behar, India, a northern tributary
of the Ganges It rises in the Nepal Himalayas
and ]oins the Ganges opposite Patna, after a
southeasterly course of about 400 miles Only
a small portion of its course is navigable below
Bhclun]i, but rafts of timber are floated down
from Nepal It drains an area of about 40,000
square miles
GANDAMAK, or GTHSTDAMirE:, giin'da-
muk' A village in the eastern part of Afghan-
istan, 28 miles west of Jelalabad On the fatal
letreat from Kabul m 1842 a body of about 100
British soldiers and 300 camp followois were
massacred here Only one man escaped In
1879 a trea-ty was concluded at Gandamak be-
tween the British and Yakub Khan
GANDARA, gkn'da»ra A town of Samar,
Philippines, situated on the left bank of the
Bac-hao Ban#ah6n, 17 miles north of Catbalo-
gan In 1000 it was neaily destioyed during a
battle with insurgents Pop, 1<)03, 12,014
GANDHI, MOHANDAS KABAMCHAJSTD (1869-
) Indian nationalist, bom at Poibandar,
India, and went to London to study law m 1883
After careful study and observation of Chris-
tianity and Western civilization, he letuined to
India in 1893, but soon went to South Africa
to practice law He was hjutally mistreated by
the white men in South Africa, but ho bore his
burden by developing a philosophy of passive
resistance Before and during the Great War
he had been a strong supporter of the British
Empire, but after it was over he became the
nationalist leader He "was sentenced to imprison-
ment in 1922 For his policy of civil disobedi-
ence, etc , see INDIA, HISTORY
GANDlA, gan-de^a A town in the Province
of Valencia, Spain, 47 miles by rail south-south-
east of the city of Valencia, on the Klo Seipis,
or Alcoy, about 2 miles from the se,a (Map
Spam, E 3). The river valley is Kere very rich
and fertile Gandia's anci&nt walls are still
standing, it has a hospital, a modern Jesuit
consent, a town hall, the palace of the dukes of
Osuna, the Colegio de Escuela Pia, founded by St
Fiancis of Borgia, who was born in Gandla, and
the collegiate church, a Gothic structure with
fine paintings and sculptures There are plazas
and promenades The town is situated in an ex-
tremely fertile valley which produces grain, rice,
oranges, raisins, wine, oil, and silk Through
the poit at the mouth of the river Gandfa carries
on a considerable coastwise and foreign trade,
its principal industrial establishments include
silk mills, ribbon and velvet manufactories, and
tanneries Flour, timber, guano, and coal are
the principal articles of trade Pop , 1900, 9924,
1910, 11,659 Consult A F Calvert, Valencia
and Murcia (New York, 1911).
GA3STDIER, gaN'der', AUTBED (1861- )
A Canadian clergyman and educator He was
bom m Hastings Co , Ontario, and was educated
at Queen's University, Kingston, where he grad
uated with high honors in 1884 His theological
studies weie pursued at Edinburgh University
Oi clamed to the Presbyterian ministry in 1889,
he filled pastorates at Brampton, Ontario (1889-
93), Halifax, Nova Scotia (Fort Massey Church,
1893-1901), and Toionto (St James's Square,
1901-08) He was lecturer on apologetics at
Knox College in 1902-08 and in 1908 became
principal of that institution
GAHBO, gan'dd, or GANDTJ, gan'doo A
foimer subordinate sultanate of the Sokoto Em-
pire, now merged (since a treaty between France
and England in 1898) in the colonies of Nigeria
and in Dahomey and Upper Senegal and Niger,
i caching along both sides of the Niger from
Gomba up to Birni (Map Africa, E 3) Sokoto
is on the east, the region of the Mossi on the
west, and the District of Ilorin on the south
Gando is embraced among the Hausa states,
being inhabited by the Hausas, Fulbes, and
Suihais The Sultanate of Gando was founded
in 1817, and titular sovereigns still remain,
the last Emir being appointed by the Brit-
ish in 1903, he has, however, little or no
authoiity, as most of Gando is governed as an
integral part of Nigeria Total population
of the sultanate, about 5,500,000 The former
capital, Gando, is situated halfway between
Sokoto and Gomba, with a population of about
12,000
GANDOLFO, gftn-dfll'fO See CASTEL-GAN-
DOLFO
GA3SPD03ST, JAMES (1743-1823). An English
aichitect, born m London, of Huguenot descent
He began the study of drawing as a boy, became
a pupil of Sir William Chambers, and was the
first to receive a gold medal for architecture
from the Royal Academy (1769) Two years
later he went to Ireland and followed his pro-
fession there until his death, with a break of
two years spent m London Some of the most
prominent buildings m Dublin were planned by
him, such as the House of Commons (1786), the
customhouse (1791), Carlisle Bridge (1791-94),
and the Four Courts (1802).
GANDtr, gan'do^ See GANDO.
GANELON, ga'ne-lon One of Charlemagne's
paladins, who plays an important part in the
Oarolmgian cycle of romance It is said that his
castle was built on the Blocksberg, the loftiest
peak of the Harz Mountains Ganelon was ]eal-
otis of Roland, and in order to destroy his rival
he treacherously planned with Marsillus, the
Moorish King, the attack of Koncesvalles. He is
represented a& a man of more than ordinary
GANESA
450
GANGES
build, fierce in Ins demeanoi3 and a lover of soli-
tude. His name became a synonym of tieason
He is mentioned in Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale
and in Dante's Inferno
GANESA, ga-na/sha, or GANESH, ga-nesh'
( Skt , lord of the host, from gana, host + *&&»
lord) One of the most popular Hindu minor
divinities, the god of wisdom and remover of
obstacles His temples, shrines, 01 images are
to be seen even in the smallest villages in India ,
and his grotesque figuie, with an elephant's
head, four arms, and a huge piotruding belly,
usually painted red, is not only familial by the
wayside, but is employed as a sign over the
doors of shops, to bring luck in business As a
remover of difficulties, he is invoked at the be-
ginning of Sanskrit literary works, with the foi-
mula Namo Gane^aya (Homage to Ganesa) , and
he is likewise prayed to for success in all soits
of enterprises and undertakings In Hindu
mythology Ganesa is the son of Siva and Parvati
(qv), or of Siva alone, and variors legendary
accounts are given to explain the presence of
his elephantine head with its single tusk His
name, which is found also in the form (tana-pati,
means lord or leader of the company of minor
divinities that attend upon Siva He is often
represented as riding upon a rat, a ci eatui e sym-
bolic of the god's familiarity with out-of-the-way
places and dark or obscuie matters Consult
Wilson, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900) ,
Dowson, Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythol-
ogy and Religion (5th ed , ib , 1913), Band-
liarkar, Yaisnavism, Saitism (Strassburg,
1913) See Plate of HINDU DEITIES in article
GAN'GA (Catalan, grouse) A local name
for three birds (1) any sand grouse, especially
the pin-tailed species (Pteiooletes alohata) com-
mon in southwestern. Asia and in winter in
northern India; (2) a South American carrion
hawk, or earacara, of the genus Ibycter, (3) the
helmeted cockatoo (Callocephalon galeatum) of
southeastern Australia and Tasmania — it is pre-
vailingly gray, with a head and crest of flaming
red and the feet nearly black
GAN'GA SAGOS' See SATJGOR.
GANGES, gan'jez (Skt Gangd, stream) An
important river of north India, rising in Garh-
wal, In lat. 30° 56' 4" N and long 76° 6' 40" E
It drains the southein ranges of the Himalayas
and aftei a southern and eastern course of 1557
miles flows into the northern section of the Bay
of Bengal through a multi -channeled delta 283
miles long (Map India, D 3). Its basin, lying
between the Himalaya and Vindhya ranges, one
of the finest and most fertile portions of the
world, covers an area of over 390,000 square
miles, and this basin is one of the densest pop-
ulated areas of the globe The Ganges has its
main source in a snow field embedded between
three Himalayan mountains over 22,000 feet
high It issues as the Bhagirathi from an ice
cave, 10,300 feet above sea level, and with a fall
of 350 feet in a mile descends 10 miles to Gan-
gotn, the first temple upon its banks, and a fa-
vorite pilgrim resort Seven miles below Gan-
gotri it is joined from the right by the Jahnavi,
and at Deoprayag (qv ), 133 miles from its
source, the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda, the
united streams being from this point called the
Ganges The Ganges leaves the Himalayas at
Sukhi and reaches the border of the great plain
of Hindustan at Hardwar, 157 miles from its
source and 1024 feet above the sea, after a de-
scent of 9276 feet, or nearly 60 foot in a mile
From Hardwar it flows past Atiauli and Faruk-
habad, near which it receives the Eamganga,
and continues past Kanauj and CaAvnpore to
Allahabad after a winding comse of 488 miles,
beset by shoals and rapids, and with an average
fall of 22 inches per mile The stream is navi-
gable for liver craft to Hardwai, for small-draft
steamers to within 100 miles of the mountains,
and for loaded baiges to Cawnpore, 140 miles
northwest of Allahabad At Allahabad the Gan-
ges is pined by the Jumna from the southwest,
and thence the increasing river liows east to
Mirzapur, Benares, Ghazipur, Patna, Monghyr,
and Bhagalpur, receiving from the right the
Son and from the left the Gumti, Gioga,
Gandak, and Kusi This section, which has
a fall of about 5 inches a mile, vanes in
breadth and in depth according to the season of
the year, but, notwithstanding many shoals, is
navigable even m the dry season for vessels
drawing 18 inches of water Around the Raj-
mahal Hills, at the head of its delta, 563 miles
fiom Allahabad, the Ganges bends southward
and commences a descent of 283 miles to the
Bay of Bengal Neai Pakaur (assuming the
eaily name of the river) the Bhagirathi, and 70
miles lov^er down the Jalangi, branch off and,
aftei individual courses of 120 miles each, unite
to form the Hugh, the westernmost and pnnci-
pal channel of navigation, on which Calcutta
( q v ) stands The main branch, throwing out
various minor offsets, continues as the Padna,
or Padda, to Goalundo, where it unites with the
Jamuna, the main branch of the Brahmaputra,
and finally flows through the wide estuary of
the Megna into the Bay of Bengal, between this
estuary and the west channel of the Hugh lie
the numerous mouths of the deltaic channels
The delta, which in the northern part is fertile
and well cultivated, in the south bordering the
bea is a dismal network of swamp land, known
as the Sundarbans (qv ), infested by crocodiles,
tigers, and other wild animals Three distinct
species of crocodiles are found in the Ganges —
the fresh-water long-snouted gavial, the man-
eating koomiah, and the muggar
The Ganges, as a whole, cannot be accurately
described From year to year it exchanges old
channels for new ones, more particularly in the
alluvial basin of its lower sections Even as
high as Fathipur, above Allahabad, this char-
acteristic is marked In this part the river bed
has an average width of 4 miles, within the
limits of which it changes its course annually, in
the lapse of four or five years shifting from the
one limit to the other Between seasons the
fluctuations in some places are more conspicu-
ous, at Benares the stream ranges, according to
the time of the year, from 1400 feet to 3000 feet
in breadth and from 35 feet to 78 feet in depth.
Lower down these vicissitudes produce more
striking results. Towards the end of July a pro-
portion of the delta is inundated over an area
of more than 100 miles in diameter, presenting
to the eye nothing but villages and trees and
craft of every sort To mitigate this evil, ex-
pensive dams have been constructed with a col-
lective length of over 1000 miles The influence
of the tides extends, at the dry season, a distance
of 240 miles from the sea The minimum out-
flow of water per second has been, estimated at
36,000 cubic feet, and its maximum at 494,00(1
feet Like all rivers subject to Hoods, the
b,oHs in sujspensipn a large, , admixture
GANGES CANAL
451
of mud and band, depositing in the sea annually
millions of tons of solid matter
The Ganges — 01, as it is called, the Gan^a
(feminine) — occupies an important position in
Hindu mythology of the classical and the Pu-
ranic periods a,nd is the subject of numerous
tiaditions and legends In the religion of all
classes of Hindus it is held in particular vener-
ation as the holiest of rivers, the cleansei of
sins, and the entiance to Paradise, when death
and sepultuie occui upon its banks Temples
and shinies with ghats 01 flights of steps, giving
easy access to its wateis, stud its banks almost
from its souice, the most conspicuous examples
aie the temples and ghats of holy Benaies The
most famous cities of India ha've developed at
critical points on the banks of the Ganges, as,
e g , the confluence of a tubutary, and these have
become sanctified spots, that of the Jumna at
Allahabad is considered the most sacred and is
the most fiequented place of ablution, annually
visited by thousands of pious pilgrims, who also
convey the water to all parts of India for use in
their religious rites
GANGES CANAL, UPPEE AND LOWER A
navigable channel of India, which obviates the
difficulties in the navigation of the Ganges above
Allahabad, and with numerous branches irrigates
the Doab, or country lying between this river
and the Jumna The Upper Canal, commenced
in 1848 and opened in 1854, extends on the right
bank of the Ganges from Hardwar to Cawnpore
and Etawah and migates an area of 978,000
acres The Lower Canal, opened in 1878, con-
tinues to Allahabad The total length of the
main channel is 700 miles, and its imgating
branches amount to nearly 3000 miles> covering
830,000 acres A magnificent aqueduct of 15
aiches which crosses the Solam, and the weir
wall at Narora, 3800 feet long, with 42 sluices,
are monumental works upon its course. The
entire work cost about $25,000,000 Consult
P T Cantlcy, The Ganges Canal (London,
1864) See CANAL
GANGHOFEB, gang'hd-fer, LTOWIG (1855-
1020) A German novelist and playwright, the
son of August Garighofer, a celebrated Bavarian
forester Tie was born at Kaufbeuren and stud-
ied at the universities of Wurzburg, Munich,
Berlin, and Leipzig In 1879 he published his
first book, a volume of poetry entitled Von
Stamme Asra,. In 1880 his first play (in collab-
oration with Hans Neuert), Der Herrgott-
sclimtver von Ammergau (10th ed , 1904),
achieved success at Munich Two other dramatic
successes, Wege des Her&<$ns and Der Anfang
vom Ende (1881), weie followed by his appoint-
ment as dramatic author to the Eingtheater at
Vienna, for which he wrote a number of come-
dies, mostly imitations of Anzengruber (qv)
From 1886 to 1892 he was one of the editors
of the Vienna Tageblatt Besides his plays and
some volumes of verse, he published the follow-
in^ stories and novels, rather better than
his plays Der Jager von Fall (1882, drama-
tized as Der fiweite Schwte) , Bergluft (1883) ,
Aus Ueimat und Fremde (1884), Dw Sunden
der Vale* (1886) , Melwewkomg (1886) j Ober-
land (1887), Der Unfned (1888), Der Be&o^
dere (1890), Die Faok&jiwgfrw (1901), Der
Kto8t#r)&g*r (1892) , Dw MartmsklaMse (1894) »
Der Uufende Berg (1897); Dm ttotteslehen
(1899) , Das 8ohwe*g6» w, Wald& (1899) , Der
DorfapoM (1900), #0* *»*** W^en (1902),
Der faohe Setww (1905)^ $w^#0r vm
(1905) , also the pla>s Der Jieihge Rat (1912) ,
Die leteicn Binge (1912) , Der Wille mm Lelen
(1913)
QAHGI, gan'je A city m the Province of
Palermo, Sicily, 2800 feet above sea level, on
the slopo of a steep mountain, 65 miles south-
east of Palermo (Map Italy, E 6) A great
ancient foi tress towers above it Keai by is
the convent of San Benedetto, built on the
imns of the old town that was destroyed in 1290
by Fiedeiick II Some scholais have identified
Carigi \\ith ancient Engmon or Engyon, En-
^umm, \Ahose celebiated temple of the Great
Mothei was, according to Cicero, despoiled by
Veires (qv) There is no leal evidence, how-
over, for the identification Pop (commune),
1001, 11,376, 1911, 10,393
GANGLION, grm'gli-on (Lat, horn Ck 7^7-
7X10^, tunioi ) In suigery, a teim applied to
small, tenbe, rounded swellings containing fluid
that develop m the covuse of tendon sheaths and
aie mobt often biiuatod on the dor&um of the
hand and wn&t In Anatomy, small masses of
neive tissue, l;y which communication is estab-
lished between vanoub nei^Te tinnks See NEB-
VOUS ^YSTEAf
GANGOTBI, gun-gf/tie (Hind, Descent of
the Ganges) A temple cic»ctod on the highest
accessible spot on tin1 Ganges (qv), about
10,000 feet above sea> level, on the right bank
of the river (here called the Bhagirathi), some
10 miles from its souice. Immediately in front
the stream expands into a small bay, which is
subdivided into pools, taking* th&ir name^ re-
spectively from Brahma, Vishnu, and other gods
Though the water is specially bacied, and ablu-
tion peculiarly efficacious, yet, from various
causes, the pilgrims arc by no means numerous
Besides the length and ruggedness of the journey;
and the difficulty of piocuiing subsistence Iby the
way, there is no accommodation for visitors, the
only dwelling house in the locality being occu-
pied by the officiating Brahmans However,
flasks of the- holy element, sealed by the attend-
ant priests, arc exported
GAWGBA, gai/gra, COUNCIL OF A council
held at Gangaa, in Paphlagonia, dated variously
from 320 to 370 AD, against Eustathius of Se-
baste, who was the first preacher of the ascetic
life in the countries around Pontus, where his
disciples became numerous He taught that it is
unlawful to marry and to eat certain meats,
separated several married persons, and advised
those who- disliked the public offices* of the Church
to communicate at home He wore, and imposed
on hia disciples, a distinctive dress, compelled
women to cut off their hair, and directed his fol-
lowers to shun, as profanation, the communion
and benediction of a married priest In oppo-
sition to these and similar views the council
published 20 canons condemning those who pro-
nounced marriage unlawful, who forbade the
eating of meat, refused to receive the communion
at the hands of a married priest, wore a peculiar
dress as a mark of unusual strictness, forsook
their husbands through a false horror of mar-
riage, and deserted their children or their par-
ents under pretext of leading an ascetic life
Consult Hefele, History of the Oo<mcils (Bng
translations by Olaik, Oxenham, and Buch, Ed-
mburgh, 1876-96)
GA^G-BrENE, gan'gren (01$ gangrene, from
Lat gmgrcena, from Ok 7<&77/><*w*, gmgravna,
eating sore, from ypalvew, grg/me^ to devour*
Ski gar, to swallow). The loss of vitality in ^
GAltfGS
452
OAHKET
part of the hvmg body, whethei exteiual 01
internal, the part becoming often, in the first
instance, inoie or less red, hot, and painful, then
livid, and finally dark and discolored, black, or
olive green, according to circumstances, and later
putrescent, after which a separation takes place
gradually between the living and dead parts,
and if the patient suivive, the disorganized tis-
sue sloughs off, and the part heals by the for-
mation of a cicatrix (See CICATRIZATION )
Gangrene is classified into two mam varieties,
moist and dry, according to the condition found
in the part Examples of moist gangiene are
inflammatory and traumatic gangiene, hospital
gangrene cancrum oris or noma (qv), bed-
sores, carbuncles, and diabetic gangrene Vari-
eties of dry gangrene are Raynaud's disease,
senile gangrene, severe frostbite, and that aris-
ing from hgation of large arteries and from
embolism The first variety is usually charac-
terized by rapid, the second by slow, develop-
ment Gangrene may be brought about by local
agencies, such as pressure, extreme heat or cold,
chemicals, or disease or injury of the blood ves-
sels, or it may be due to constitutional dis-
turbances such as accompany certain mental and
nervous affections, cardiac disease, fevers, ex-
hausting diseases, nephritis, and diabetes mel-
htus, or follow the administration of certain
drugs, as ergot The treatment requires that
the strength of the patient be maintained by a
nourishing and stimulating diet, to counter-
act constitutional causes, and that amputation
be done or natural separation favored by the
surgeon, according to his judgment In gan-
grene from frostbite or in senile gangrene, to
await natural separation is the rule.
GAWGS, AGRICULTURAL, A name applied to
groups of women, girls, and boys brought to-
gether for labor in the fen districts of England,
or the low tracts south of the Wash in the coun-
ties of Lincoln, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, and
Rutland. Not long ago this part of the country
was & marsh, but since dikes and canals have
been constructed to drain it, it has become one
of the most fertile districts of England In-
stead of erecting houses on this land to be used
as homes by farming tenants, the landlords es-
caped the exactions of the poor laws by em-
ploying laborers from, the villages on the high-
lands near by As women, girls, and boys
worked more cheaply than men,, they were ex-
clusively employed Near the close of the ses-
sion of 1866—67 an Act was passed regulating
agricultural gangs. It provided that no woman
or child should be employed in the same gang
with men or boys, and that no woman or girl
was to be employed under a male gangmaster,
unless a woman licensed to act as superintendent
was also present with the gang The effect of
this act was most salutary A commission was
appointed in 1867 to inquire mto the employ-
ment of women and children in agriculture, to
investigate how far the principles of the factory
acts could be applied to agriculture, with the
special view of securing tie better education of
the children On Aug 5, 1873, was passed the
Agricultural Children Bill, which provided that
no child should be employed under the age
of 8, none between the ages of 8 and 10 who
had not a certificate showing 250 days3 at-
tendance at school the previous year, and
none between the ages of 10 and 13 who could
not produce a certificate showing 150
attendance
G-AjNTGTJE, gang (Fr, from Ger Gang, vein),
A term applied to the useless mineials occurring
in ore Quartz is the most common gangue
mineral, but calcite, barytes, fluor spai, and
other minerals, even of metallic charactei, aie
not uncommon Poitions of the gangue are
sometimes worked and submitted to metallurgic
processes, since they may contain enough metal-
lic material to be classed as low-grade oie
OAJSTGr'WAY A passageway or thorough-
faie in a ship, now generally applied to the
opening in the ship's rail leading to the gangway
ladder, or gangplank, and to the part of the
deck in this vicinity which as forward of the
quarter deck In old-type ships the term is ap-
plied to the passages or parts of the upper deck
between the quarter-deck and forecastle In the
days when the quarter-deck was only a partial
deck, the gangway was a raised platform con-
necting it with the forecastle When a ship is
not lying at a wharf, the gangway is reached by
means of an accommodatwn ladder, which is a
portable flight of steps bolted to a gangway
platform (sometimes called the uppei grating)
at the uppei end and reaching down nearly to
the watei At the lower end it is supported by
an iron span and ropes from above 01 lests on
a lower platfoim or grating When at sea, the
platforms and ladder are unshipped and placed
on deck, the side may then be climbed by means
of iion brackets or wooden cleats secured to the
side of the ship, forming a fixed sea ladder
Portable sea ladders are made of rope with flat
wooden steps about 18 inches long and 3 or 4
inches wide These are hung over the side at
any places wheie they may be needed
GANGWAY, IN GEOLOGY See LEVEL.
GAN-HWTJY, gon hwoo'3 See NGAN-HWEI
GAN'ISTEH A hard, siliceous variety of
clay, occurring in different formations Owing
to its refractoiy character, it is used as a lining
for furnaces, particularly in iion smelting See
PIKE CLAY
aAOTSTAL, ga'nal', JEAN NICOLAS (1791-
1852) A French chemist He invented the
elastic rollers used in printing and made impor
tant improvements in the manufacture of boia^
and the preparation of tallow He also discov-
ered the method of preseivmg anatomical piepa-
rations and of embalming bodies by means of
solutions of aluminium salts, etc He wrote
JTistoire des embauinements €t dc la preparation
des pi&ces d'anatomiG no1} male (1837)
GAETNAT, ga'na' The capital of an arron-
dissement in the Department of Alhei, France,
pleasantly situated on the Andelot, a tributary
of the Alher, amid hills coveied with vines and
timber trees, 34 miles south-southwest of Mou-
hns (Map France, S, H 2) In former times
it was fortified by walls and ditches, the ruined
castle is utilized as a prison The chuich of
Samte-Croix presents interesting architectural
features of the eleventh to the fourteenth cen-
turies Gannat has mineral springs, breweries,
tanneries, manufactures of cutlery, and a trade
in corn, wine, and cattle Pop, 1901, 5324,
1911, 4931
GAN'NET (AS ganot, ganet, OHG ganazzo,
MHGr ganze, gander, connected ultimately with
Lat ans&r, Gk x^> chen, Skt hainsa, goose)
A large gregaiious sea bird, closely allied to the
pelicans Gannets frequent the coasts of most
parts of the world offering rocky cliffs upon
which they may breed in fair security, and nine
species are known, constituting the genus Sula
GANNETT
453
GA3STOBONTA
and family Suhdae Most of the species inhabit
the tiopics and the Southern Hemisphere and
aie called boobies (see BOOBY) by sailois
The typical and best-known member of the
family is the gannct of the north Atlantic (8ula
bassana) , which derives its specific name from
its fiequency on Baas Rock in the English Chan-
nel, it is also called solan (le, Solent) goose
for the same reason It is scattered in summer
at suitable places all around the British and
Scandinavian coasts, about the islands of the
north Atlantic, and fiom southern Gieenland
down to the Gulf of St Lawrence Nevertheless
their colonies are scattered and steadily dimin-
ishing This gannet has a body much like
that of a goose, but weighs less , its total length
is about 3 feet, much of which belongs to the
neck and long, strong, conical beak Its geneial
eoloi when adult is white, with the head and
neck buff, and the primaries of the long wings
black and very conspicuous as they lie crossed
above the tail when folded Young specimens
are mottled brown until three or foui years old
In winter the gannets migrate to the northwest
coasts and islands of Africa, or to the Gulf of
Mexico , but early in the season they go noith
again, appearing at their breeding haunts m
April, where by May they are collected m thou-
sands about the sea-fronting cliffs The gan-
nets of Bass Rock were estimated in 1831 at
20,000, and in 1869 at 12,000, and at present
number about 6500 The decrease there and in
the Hebrides is due to the excessive gathering
of their eggs and downy young The latest esti-
mate of all the gannets in the Northern Hemi-
sphere places the number at 101,000 On the
American coast they nest along the shore of
Labrador, and at Feres' Rock and Bonaventure
Island, off the Gaspe" peninsula, and on Bud
Rock, an outlier of the Magdalen group, m com-
pany with murres, kittrwakes, etc , but even in
these almost inaccessible places they are gi owing
less in numbers, although somewhat protected
"Upon the summits and ledges, wherever a square
yard of room may be found, a gannet places its
shallow nest of seaweed and lays and incubates
its single chalky-white egg The sitting females
crowded along the ledges make them look some-
times aa if covered with snow, while the neigh-
borhood will be full of their mates, roosting,
•flying about, or darting down into the sea They
sail about at a considerable height, their eyes
searching the surface for fish, and when one is
seen they turn downward, shut the wings, and
seem to drop upon it with amazing velocity,
rarely missing a capture. They also make long
excursions seaward, and towards the close of
the breeding season are of service to the fisher-
man by finding and disclosing to him shoals of
herrings and the like, which they follow and
prey upon in great numbers For the gannets
in the Gulf of St Lawrence, consult the follow-
ing richly illustrated books Chapman, Bird
Studies with a Camera (New York, 1900) , Job,
Among the Waterfowl (ib , 1902) , and especially
the admirable monograph on this bird by J H.
Gurney, The Gannet (London, 1913)
GANNETT, EZEA STILES (1801-71) An
American Unitarian clergyman, son of Rev.
Caleb Gannett, and grandson of Ezra Stiles,
president of Tale College 3e wa& born in Cam-
bridge, Mass , and was educated at Harvard In
1824 he became assistant to Chanmng in the
federal Street Church and in 1842 succeeded
tei as pastou His incessant toil as the first
secretary of the American Unitarian Associa-
tion, one of the prime movcis in the foirnation of
the Benevolent Fraternity of Chuiches, founder
and editor of the Scriptural Interpreter, and in
many other interests, icsulted in his bieaking
down in 1836, and soon after he was crippled
by a paralytic stroke But his mental activity
was not abated. He edited the Monthly Miscel-
lany of Religion and Letters and the Christian
Examiner, besides attending alone to his large
parish He was an overseer of Haivard College
fiom 1835 to 1858 and received its degree of
D D in 1843 He retired from pastoral work in
1869 and was killed in a lailroad accident He
was a Unitarian of the more conseivative type,
an excellent preacher, and an ardent reformer
Consult the memoir by his son, William Clian-
ning Gannett (Boston, 1875)
GANNETT, HENRY (184<M9H) An Amer-
ican geographer He was born in Bath, Me,
giaduated at Harvard m 1869 and at the
Hooper Mining School in 1870, was an assist-
ant in the Harvard College Obseivatoiy in
1870-71, in 1872-70 was topogiaphei to the
Hayclen Survey, and in 1882 became chief ge-
ographer of the United States Geological Sur-
vey He was geographer for the tenth, eleventh,
and twelfth censuses of the United States and
assistant director of the eensus of the Philip-
pines (1902) and of Cuba (1007-08) From
1897 to 1909 he was a vice president of the
American Statistical Association, and he be-
came president of the Hational Geographic
Society He contributed much geographical
matter to the NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLO-
PAEDIA His publications include A Manual of
Topographic Methods (1893) , Dictionary of
Altitudes (3d ed , 1899) , The Building of a Na-
tion (1895), Gazetteer of Cuba (1002), Gazet-
teer of Texas (1902), Origin of Certain Place
Names in the United States (1902).
GANNETT, WILLIAM CHANGING (1840-
) An American Unitarian clergyman, born
in Boston, Mass , the son of Ezra Stiles Gannett
Graduating from Harvard College in 1860 (AM,
1863) and from Harvard Divinity School in
1868, he at once entered the Unitarian minis-
try, and was pastor at Milwaukee, Wis (until
1870), East Lexington, Mass (1871-72), St.
Paul, Minn (1877-83), and Hmsdale, 111
(1887-89) His last charge, the First Unita-
rian Church of Rochester, N" Y , he held for 19
years, until 1908, when he became pastor emeri-
tus Harvard University conferred upon him
the degree of D D m 1908 Dr Gannett came to
be known, not only as a leader in his denomi-
nation, but as a writer of unusual culture and
insight Besides helping to found Unity (1878)
and serving as one of the editors of Unity
Hymns and Chorals (1880, rev, 1911), he pub-
lished a biography, Ezra Stiles Gannett (1875) ,
A Year of Miracle (1881) The Childhood of
Jesus (1884), The Thought of God in Hymns
and Poems, with F L Hosmer (1885, 1904),
The Faith that Makes Faithful, with J L Jones
(1886) , Of Making One's Self Beautiful (1899) ,
A Wicket Gate to the Bible (1907)
G-AW'ODON'TA An order of Tertiary mam-
mals, allied to the Edentata (qv), and ap-
parently representing the ancestral fdrms from
which they, or some of them, were derived
The oldest type (Hemiganus] is found in the
earliest Eocene strata of North America and is
highly generalized, combining in its skeleton
characters now marking the armadillos and
OANOIDEI
454
GA3STTEAUME
ground sloths It had a, full complement of
teeth and povciful jaus rlhe next representa-
tive is PsittacotJicnum (Uppei Puereo beds)
and IR noticeable foi its i educed dentition and
the fact that incisors (only one pair in each
•jaw) have enamel only upon their anterior
faces The foot is decidedly edentate Gala-
modon is larger and shows progress towards
the modern edentate type, and <t still later
form, Stylwodon, advances this progress A
review of the series shows "a gradual diminu-
tion of the incisors, a gradual lobs of enamel on
the teeth generally, and the pioduction of hypsel-
odont teeth gi owing from peisistent pulps, all
of winch are features of the later edentates"
(Beddard ) The oider, however, includes an-
other family, Conoiyctidee, including the genera
Qonoryctes and Onyohodectes, whose position
with reference to the Edentata is more doubt-
ful Consult Wortman, "The Ganodonta," etc ,
in Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
Histoty, vol ix (New York, 1897), Beddard,
Mammalia (London, 1902) , Scott, The History
of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere
(New York, 1913).
GAETOI'DEI (Neo-Lat nom. pi, fiom Gk
7<iws, ganos, brightness + eldos, eidos, appear-
ance), or GANOIDEA One of the four oiders of
fishes in the classification of Agassiz They are
characterized by ganoid scales, horny plates cov-
ered with enamel, and angulai (rhomboidal 01
polygonal) shiny scales The small number of
ganoid fish, living at the piesent time do not
form a natuial group, for they have been found
to be members of the three orders Crossopterygn,
Chondrostn, and Holostn, examples of which
are, respectively, the bichir (Polyp tei us), the
sturgeon (Acipenser) , and the gar pike (Lepi-
dosteus) In Paleozoic and eaily Mesozoic
times ganoid fish were the prominent types of
Teleostornes, and their remains are found in
abundance in the Carboniferous, Permian, Tnas-
sic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous rocks of Europe
and North America With the close of Creta-
ceous time the ganoid types began to disappear
and to give way to the teleost fishes, which are
the predominating types at present Thus, the
ganoid structure is seen to represent an ancient,
more pumitive stage in the evolution of teleost
fishes Some well-known fossil ganoids are*
Holoptychius, of the Upper Devonian; Macro-
poma, of the Chalk, Palceomseus, of the Per-
mian Platysomus, of the Permian, Catopterus,
of the Triassic shales of Massachusetts, Con-
necticut, and New Jersey, and Chondrosteus,
Lepidotus, ffugnathus, and Mesturus See
BICHIB, GAB, STUBGEON, and the generic names
mentioned above
aAKOlflTGr, ga-nong', WILLIAM FKANCTS (1864-
) An American botanist, born at St. John,
New Brunswick, Canada He graduated from
the University of New Brunswick in 1884, from
Harvard University in 1887 and received his
Ph D from the University of Munich m 1894
He taught botany at Harvard from 1887 to 1893
and in 1894 became professor of botany and
director of the Botanical Garden at Smith Col-
lege He served as secretary of the Society of
Plant Morphology and Physiology from 1897 to
1905, and as president of the Botanical Society
of America in 1908 He wrote The Teachmg
Botanist (1899, 2d ed , 1910), Laboratonj
Course in Plant Physiology (1901, 2d ed.,
1&08), and The Livwg Plant (1913) , and trans-
lated and edited Denys's Natural History of
Acadia (1908) and J eCleiq s New Re^on of
(hnpesia (1910)
GANS, gans, EDUCED (1798-1839) A Ger-
man jurist, son of a Jewish bankei bom m
Beilm, and educated there, at Gottingen, and
at Heidelberg After his conversion to Chris-
tianity (1825), he was appointed professor at
Berlin (1826) He was a philosopher lather
than a jiuist, a strong Hegelian, and one of
the foremost opponents of the historical method
in jurisprudence, as represented by Hugo and
Savigny The philosophic theoiy of jurispru-
dence is presented by him m Ueoer roimsches
Obligation? echt (1819), Das Etlreoht m iielt-
geschtcthcher EntwicUung (1824-35), System
des tomisohen Cwibeclits (1827), and in his
edition of Hegel's Grundlimen der Philosophy
des Rechts (3d ed , 1854) The Prussian gov-
einnient prohibited his lectures on contempo-
rary history, later published as Vorlesungen
uber die Geschichte der letzten funfzig Jahre,"
in the Histonsohes Tasehenbuoh (1833-34)
His other works include Vermischte Schnften
(1834), the personal RuckbUcke (1836), de-
scribing his travels in England and France,
and the periodicals Beitrage zw Revision det
preusvutchen Gesetsffebung (1830-32) and the
Berlin JaJwlucher fur loissenschafthche Kritik
(1827), on which Von Ense and Hegel assisted
him Hegel, just before his death, quarreled
with Gans
GAIN'S, G H. See PUTLITZ
G-ANSEVOOBT, gansVoort, PETER (1749-
1812) An American soldier, born in Albany,
N Y On the outbreak of the Revolutionary
War he joined the patriot army, and in 1775
was appointed major of the Second New York
Regiment He accompanied Montgomery on his
expedition against Canada, was made lieuten-
ant colonel in March, 1776, was placed in com-
mand of Fort George, on Lake George, in July,
became a colonel m November; and from Aug
2 to Aug 22, 1777, defended Fort Schuyler
(formerly Fort Stanwix) against St Leger un-
til the arrival of reenforcements under Arnold
(See FOET STANWIX ) He was a brigadier gen-
eral in the militia of New York State from
March, 1781, until the close of the war, and
in 1809 received the same rank m the regular
army
GAHSFOBT. See WESSEL, JOHANNES
G-AUTANG- (gan'tung) PASS A desolate
mountain pass leading eastward from Kunawar,
a district of Bashahr, in the Punjab, India, into
Tibet Its height is 18,295 feet above the sea,
and it is overhung by a peak of its own name
about 3000 feet loftier
GrAITTEATTME, gaNytom/, HONOR£ JOSEPH
ANTOINE, COUNT (1755-1818) A French naval
officer, born at La Ciotat He entered the navy
in 1771 and saw service during the American
Revolution In 1794 he attained the rank of
captain, in 1798-99 participated in the expedi-
tion to Egypt, and, with the rank of rear ad-
miral, commanded the naval forces at the sieges
of Jaffa and Acre In 1799 he received the title
of Councilor of State In 1800 with seven ships
he got out of Brest harbor, past tJie English
bloekaders, and did some damage by capturing
an occasional man-of-war His fleet entered
the Mediterranean early in 1801, but met with
no success m repeatep! efforts to aid the army
m Egypt In 1804 he became vice admiral, in
1808 commander of the Mediterranean squad
and ia 1810 a member of , the Council of tlae
GANTT
455
miralty He supported the Bourbonb and was
elevated to the peerage by Louis XVIII
GAWTT, HENRY LAUKENCE (1861- ) An
American mechanical engmeei, bom in Calvert
Co , Md He graduated fiom Johns Hopkins
Umveisity (AB) in 1880 and from Stevens
Institute of Technology (ME) in 1884, be-
tween these dates having taught in the Mc-
Donogh School In engineering piactice after
1884, he became known as an expert in the in-
stallation of the most improved manufacturing
methods He was chosen a vice president of the
Ameiican Society of Mechanical Engmecis His
Wo? A:, Wages, and Profits (1910, 2d ed , revised
and enlarged, 1913) is well known
GAWTMEDE (Lat, from Gk Tavv^dtjs)
According to the lUad, the son of Tros, or, ac-
001 ding to othei authorities, of Laomedon, Ilus,
01 Erichthomus The most beautiful of mor-
tals, he was carried to heaven or to Olympus
to become a cupbearei of Zeus, he was thus a
masculine counterpart to Hebe (qv ) The
legend gradually developed, and it was the com-
mon belief that he had been borne away by the
eagle of Zeus, or by Zeus himself in the form
of an eagle The rape of Ganymede by the eagle
was often portrayed m ancient art, notably m
a bionze group by Leochares Ganymede was
also identified with the divinity who presided
over the sources of the Nile3 he was thus cup-
bearei in heaven and giver of water on earth
The Greek astronomers likewise placed him
among the stars, under the name of Aquarius
(the water bearer)
GA3STZ, RUDOLF (1877- ) A Swiss
pianist and composer, born in Zurich In his
native town he began to study the piano under
R Freund and the violoncello under T Hegar,
appearing first as a cellist when only 10 yeais
of age In 1893-96 he studied piano with Carl
Eschmann-Dumur and composition with Charles
Blanchet He then went to Strassburg, contin-
uing his piano study under Fritz Blumer, and
m 1899 he was a pupil of Busoni (piano) and
H Urban (composition) m Berlin Having
made his de*but as pianist in Berlin in 1899,
he came to the United States, where he lived
till 1912 From 1900 to 1905 he was head of
the piano department of the Chicago Musical
College In 1905 he resigned and devoted him-
self exclusively to the concert stage, playing
with great success m recitals and with all the
large symphony orchestras of the United States
and Canada After he had thus established his
reputation in America he toured the principal
countiies of Europe, meeting everywhere with
signal success He is especially fond of placing
upon his programmes works seldom performed
and new works of merit His compositions in-
clude a symphony in E, op 1, a Konzertstuck
for piano and orchestra in B, op 4, variations
on a theme of Brahms, op 21, male choruses,
a number of pieces for piano, and about 150
songs
GAP, gap The capital of the Department
of Hautes-Alpes, France, pleasantly situated
on the right bank of the Luye, 84% miles
from Grenoble by rail (Map France, S, L 4).
The chief public buildings are the hand-
some Renaissance cathedral, dating from the
seventeenth century, but entirely rebuilt be-
tween 1866 and 1905, the bishop's palace, the
prefecture building, containing a museum and
the marble mausoleum of the Constable de Les-
sj a lyceum, a seminary, a library, and
GAFOIT
a theatre The city has been the seat of a
bishop since the fifth century, and for 300 years
its bishops ruled as counts palatine over the
surrounding district It has a couit of assize
and a commercial tribunal It manufactures
hats, cement, leather, etc Pop, 1901, 11,01&,
1911, 10,647 Gap (the ancient Vapimcum)
was formerly capital of a district of Dauphine to
which it gave the name of Gapenc,ais Its decay
dates from 1692, when it was sacked and almost
wholly reduced to ashes by Victor Amadeus of
Savoy
GAPAltf, ga-pan' A town of the Province
of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippines It is in a
level region 4 miles east of San Isidro The
surrounding country produces gold and tobacco
Pop, 1903, 11,278
GAPEB, gap'er The soft clam (My a ttun-
cata) of Great Britain, highly esteemed as food
See CLAM
GAPES, gaps (from gape, Icel gapa, a yawn)
A disease of poultiy, due to the presence of
a round gapeworm (fSiiwcjamiis tracJieahs) of
nearly universal distribution, in the trachea of
gallinaceous bnds Many experiments seem to
show that the eaithworm is a host of the gape-
worm, which gains entrance to the fowls when
earthworms parasitized by gapeworms aie eaten
On the other hand, the eggs may develop and
grow to adult worms within the trachea of the
same fowl A favorite remedy is turpentine
applied with a feather inside the windpipe The
most effective and convenient method is to make
the fowls breathe the dust of air-slaked lime
This irritates the mucous membrane of the res-
piratory passages and produces violent cough-
ing, during which the gapeworms, already af-
fected by the lime, are thrown out Duung the
operation the fowls should be in a box or coop
Infested soil should be treated with air-slaked
hine and spaded, or with a 1 per cent solution
of sulphuric acid before the fowls are allowed
to run upon it The feed troughs and water
dishes should be scalded and the houses and
coops disinfected Potassium permanganate
should be used in the drinking water in suffi-
cient strength to give the water a rather deep
wine color Consult V Shaw, Encyclopedia* of
the Poultry Yard (New York, 1913)
GAPCKN", gd-pftn', GBQBGE (c 1870-1906) A
Russian revolutionist He was born at Biliki in
the Government of Poltava, was educated for
the priesthood, and began mission work among
the factory population of the capital In 1903,
according to his own account, he won the con-
sent of the secret police to his plans for or-
ganizing labor unions In April, 1904, the St
Petersburg Industrial Workers' Association was
formally opened, and branches were rapidly or-
ganized throughout the city In December, 1904,
influenced by the more prominent members of
the newly formed labor organization, Gapon
became convinced that the reform movement set
on foot by the Zemstovs should be backed up by
a labor strike, and began systematic propaganda
with this end in view His following grew v^ery
rapidly, and on Jan 15, 1905, the 12,000 Puti-
IOT employees stopped work, For succeeding
events, including the massacre of January 22,
see RUSSIA Gapon, miraculously saved by his
friends from the slaughter at the $arva Gate,
was helped to cross the Russian frontier suc-
cessfully and finally reached London, where he
published an account of hi^ life In the Strand
Magazine Mystery BUI rounds the re&t of his
GAB,
456
0ARAT
career On April 11, 1906, the police found
in a Finnish villa not far from St Petersburg
the body of a man who had either been hanged
or had committed suicide, and who was identi-
fied as the revolutionary priest On May 2 the
St Petersburg newspapers received a letter
from Berlin signed "The Secret Tribunal/' stat-
ing that Gapon had returned to St Petersburg
in December and that he had entered into an
agreement with the government and the police
to reveal the secrets of the revolutionaries For
this he had been condemned to death, and sen-
tence had been duly executed Consult Gapon,
Tlie Stoiy of my Life (London, 1905)
GAB (from AS gar, spear) The name of
two different sorts of fishes hating an exteinal
similarity, viz 1 The gars of the family Esoci-
dee These are round, slender fishes, sometimes
5 feet long, having the jaws prolonged into a
stout bill, and studded with sharp teeth, they
are found in all waim seas, and are classified
in four genera with about 50 species They are
voracious carnivorous fishes and powerful sur-
face swimmers, often leaping high out of the
water in their eagerness to sei?e the flying fish
The best-known species is the Old World gaifish
(Belone vulgaris) , or greenbone, congeners of
which dwell in the south Pacific and along the
Asiatic coast, a prominent Oriental species is
the great Belone gigantea, illustrated on the
Colored Plate of PHILIPPINE FISHES This
genus is charactei ized by the presence of gill
rakers On the tropical American coasts occur
many species of the genus Tyloswus, popularly
known as needlefishes, spearfishes, long jaws,
agujones, houndfishes, etc One of these (Tylo-
swus marmiis) is common as far north as Cape
Cod See AGUJA, and Plate of NEEDLEFISH
2 The fresh-water gars, billfishes, bony
pikes, or pikes, which form a family of ganoid
fishes (Lepidosteidse), the only living represent-
atives of the order Rhomboganoidea (See
GANOIBEH ) They have an elongated, nearly
cylindrical body, covered with a bony case of
rhomb oidal scales. The head, whose external
bones are very hard and rugose, terminates in a
long beakhke snout, with nostrils near the end
of the upper jaw., and the jaws are set with
several series of sharp recurved teeth The
doisal fin is set well back, above the anal fin
There is a single genus, Leptdosteus, comprising
five species, inhabiting the lakes and rivers of
North America and China The most familiar
species is the common billfish or gar pike of
the United States (Lepidosteus osseus) , which
under favorable conditions becomes 5 feet long
and is numerously found in lakes and rivers
from Vermont to Texas. It lives by preying
upon other fishes and is not itself good for food
It is nocturnal in its activities, and in early
summer seeks shallow places in which to lay
its eggs, which are glutinous and adhere to the
fiist object they come in contact with When
the fry hatches from the egg, it has a row of
suckers above a very large mouth with which
it clings to submerged stones. The short-nosed
gar (Lepidosteus platostomus) is smaller and
has a shorter bill, it has a northerly range
The great or alligator gar, or manjuari (Lepi-
dosteus tristcBGhus), belongs to the Southern
States, Cuba, and Mexico, and sometimes
reaches 16 feet in length. A fourth, species in-
habits the west-coast streams of Central Amer-
ica, and a fifth is found in China Cf BiCHra
gar'a-man'te*z. An ancient
people of Garania (Jerma), noithwest of Mur-
zuk, in the oasis of Fezzan (Phazama), Tripoli,
north Africa This was the southein limit of
the Roman Conquest At the end of the seventh
century the Arab Mohammedans swept away
the vestiges of the Roman power With per-
haps a stiain of negro blood, there are mixed
in the veins of the present inhabitants that of
Hamite, Mediterranean, and Semite They are
akin closely with the native population of
Ghadames, in common with whom they weie
conquered by the quaestor Cornelius Balbus in
the reign of Augustus
GAR'ARCrNlS (Fr garance, Lat gwantia,
madder) A led dvestufi winch may be derived
from madder, and which was formerly much
used on an industrial scale It was onginally
obtained by Robiquet and Colm in 1827, who
treated the ground madder with an equal weight
of concentrated sulphuiic acid One hundied
parts of madder yielded 30 to 40 parts of gar-
ancine, "flinch possessed four or five times the
dveing powei of niaddei and therefore dyed
moie leadily, yielding bulliant reds and p^nks
with yellow* tone and lilacs with a giay shade
GAUASHAHIftr, ga'ra-sha'nen, ILIYA (1812-
74) A Servian statesman, born at Gaiasha
He studied at the normal school of Semlin,
entered the civil service, was exiled in 1839 for
a plot against the Obrenovitch house, but le-
tuined in 1842, woiked for the election of Alex-
andei Karageoigeviteh, and in 1844 became
Minister of the Interior From 1852 to 1854
he was President of the Council and in 1857-
58 again Minister of the Interior In 1862 he
was again at the head of the cabinet, Deing
Minister of Foreign Affairs until 1867 As Min-
ister of the Interior, he mauguiated many re-
forms, particularly in connection with the sys-
tem of public education and the administration
of justice His policy was strongly anti-Russian
&ARAT, ga'ra', DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1749-
1833) A French statesman and man of letters
He was boin at Bayonne and as a youth came
to Paris, wheie he soon became kno\\n as a
writer of eloges and editor of the Journal de
Paris Aftei 1786 he enjoyed immen&e vogue
as a lectuier on history at the Lycee lie wab
elected a deputy to the States-General in 1780
Going over to the paitisans of the Revolution,
lie became a slavish adulator of Danton, whom
he succeeded as Minister of Justice in 1792,
becoming Ministei of the Interior the following
year He proved himself to be incapable of
holding eithei one of these positions He was
imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, but
was freed after the fall of Kobespierie and be-
came Minister of Public Instruction He was
Ambassador to Naples in 1798 and member of
the Ancients in 1709 Made a senator and
Count by Napoleon, he remained faithful to him
after the first Restoration and was consequently
ousted by Louis XVIII from the Institute of
France, to which he had been elected in 1795
After 1830 he became a member of the newly
established Academy of Moral and Political
Science Garat's character, like his brilliant
liteiary style, was inherently weak, resting on
no steadfast principles He wrote, among other
things, Mtimoires sw le Revolution ou eooposa
de ma condMite (1795).
GABAT, JEAN PIERKE (1764-1823) A
French singer, born at Ustanz. He began to
study law and went to Paris to finish his
course; but his great talent for music was al-
GARAY
457
GARBAGE AND REFUSE
most immediately lecogmzed, and he was pat-
ronized by the Count d'Artois, who introduced
him to Marie Antoinette He gave her lessons
in singing and became a court favorite Duiing
the Revolution he went to Germany with Rode
the violinist, where his success was astonishing
He returned to France in 1794 and sang in the
concerts at the Theatre Feydeau (1795) He
then went abroad again and sang throughout the
Continent with equal success About 1706 he
was made professor at the Conservatoiy and was
a popular teacher He is said to have been the
most wonderful singer France ever pioduced
His voice langed from tenor to barytone and
suited all styles of music
GARAY, gdr'oi, JANOS (1812-53) An Hun-
garian poet, born at Szegszard lie was an ar-
dent patriot, and all his poems deal with na-
tional subjects, although they arc formed on
German models He held a chair in the Uni-
versity of Pesth for a year (1848) and was li-
brarian theie from 1850 until his death His
works include Csatdr (1834), an epic, which
made him widely known, and the tiagedies
Arbocz (1837), Orszagh Ilona (1837), Bdtow
Ei8&€l)et (1840), and historical ballads (Arpd-
dok, etc) There is an excellent edition of his
complete works by Ferenczy (1888), who also
wrote his life (Budapest, 1883) Garay's pro-
pensity for bombastic declamation has now
turned against him the tide of popular favor
His lyric poems, however, are not void of gen-
uine feeling His poems were tianslated into
German by Kertbeny (Vienna, 1856)
GARAY, ga-ri', JUAN DE (1541-84). A
Spanish soldier, born in Biscay He went to
Paraguay about 1565, was appointed secretary
to the Governor, made a voyage up the Parana,
Kivei, and in 1573 founded the city of Santa
F6 de Vera Cruz In 1575 he was made Ade-
lantado, and the next year he assumed the gov-
ern men t of Paraguay He carried on success-
ful wars against the natives, performing many
heroic exploits In 1580 he founded the present
city of Buenos Aires, on the site of the earlier
settlement of Mcndoza While returning to
Asunci6n, he was massacred by hostile natives.
In his dealings with the Indians he was hu-
mane and beneficent His domgs are celebrated
by Barco Centenera in the poem La Argentina
(Lisbon, 1602)
GARB, or GARBE (OF garbe, jarbe, Fr.
gerbe, from OHG. garba, Ger Q-arbe, sheaf, ulti-
mately connected with Lith grapti, Skt grabh,
to grasp) In heraldry, a sheaf of any kind of
grain If it is blazoned simply "garb/3 wheat
is understood, if any other kind of grain is
intended, the kind must be mentioned, as a
"garb of oats," etc See HEBALDRY
GARBAGE AND REFUSE, DISPOSAL OF
(ME garbage, entrails of fowls, probably from
OF garbage, tribute paid in sheaves, from garbe,
sheaf) Garbage is a term used in the United
States to designate kitchen wastes of animal
and vegetable origin, incident to the preparation
and serving of food Associated with it there
is likely to be more or less inorganic matter,
some of which, such as tin cans and bottles,
have been in contact with food materials It
is not uncommon to place all household wastes,
other than sewage, in the garbage can or box,
including ashes. In England all the wastes
named are classed under the general head of
refuse and are placed in a common receptacle,
or dustbin Aside from household wastes there
are various classes of trade and manufacturing
refuse, such as paper, rags, and shavings, also
green stuff from vegetable markets, and the
odds and ends from butcher shops, such as
bones, scraps of meat, giease, and offal.
Much of the organic matter named, when
fresh, is similar to, and generally quite as in-
offensive as, the food supplies from which it
was reacted, but its unstable character len-
ders it liable to offensive decomposition Hence
it must be removed promptly from dwellings
and other buildings, and so transformed or
otherwise disposed of as to give rise to no of-
fense The most pumitive means of disposal
are dumping on land 01 in water A slight im-
provement on these processes is the burning of
a portion of the wastes in the open air, but thib
rarely affects more than certain light combus-
tibles, like paper and shavings, that have been
mixed with the garbage proper As the popu-
lation of a city and its suburbs mci eases, land
disposal becomes intolerable except by burial
and finally impracticable by that means The
dumping of garbage and refuse at sea is ex-
pensive at best, besides being likely to cause
the fouling of beaches and harbors
By keeping organic and inorganic wastes in
separate receptacles their final disposal is gieatlv
simplified, but the difficulties incident to their
storage and prompt removal ftom the premises
of householders is thereby mci eased Ashes, as
they come from stoves and furnaces, are com-
posed of inert inorganic matter, with no harm-
ful or objectionable qualities save those due to
dust and dirt In America town ashes seem
to be of little use for any purpose except filling,
for which they are most excellent, but, with the
growing adoption of modern high-temperature
lefuse destructors, some portion at least of the
ashes will probably be taken to the destructor
for the sake of the fuel value of the unburned
coal Paper, like many other classes of light,
dry household and industrial wastes, is not
necessarily offensive, but its unsightlmess and
possible association with organic wastes make
its speedy and complete disposal highly desir-
able Occasionally wastes of this nature are
made to yield a revenue sufficient to pay a part
of the cost of their collection and disposal
Considering the vast quantities of material
and laige number of cities and towns con-
cerned, the problem of the final scientific dis-
posal of city wastes is still m its infancy Then
collection, however, is on a far better basis, al-
though leaving much to be desired Only c\
relatively small number of the cities and towns
of the world have adopted thoroughly modern
sanitary methods of garbage and refuse dis-
posal, and many of the cities falling within this
class have made but a beginning as yet Great
Britain and the United States seem to be far
in the lead in matters of final disposal. Outside
of some of the larger American cities, nearly
all the improved processes of disposal employ
burning in specially designed furnaces In Eu-
rope the practice is to make the refuse consume
itself without extra fuel In America large
quantities of extra fuel were almost always re-
quired in the older types of furnaces In Great
Britain for many years and now throughout
the world in the case of the later installations
the destructors are fitted with boilers, which
generate steam for use about the plant or for
electric lighting, electric poiver, pumping sew-
age, or pumping water, Besidea utilizing the
GARBAGE AND BEFtJSE
458
GARBAGE AlsTD REPITSE
heat, the clinkers from the English furnaces are
often put to a variety of uses, "being ground up
and mixed with cement for making slabs or tiles
for sidewalks, or being used for the foundations
of pavements In the United States but little
steam or clinkei from destruetois had been
utilized up to 1914, although means to that end
were commonly being provided in new plants.
In contrast with the rest of the world, the larger
cities of the United States have separated their
garbage from other refuse and treated it by
reduction processes so as to extract grease and
to make the tankage, left after separating the
grease and water, into a fertilizer base
Great Butain took the lead in the installation
of garbage furnaces, both in point of time and
in superior results attained From 1870 to
1876 several crude furnaces were tiled In the
latter year tlie city of Manchester put in opera-
tion the prototype of the more recent and more
successful furnaces, thus antedating by many
years the first furnace built for a city in the
United States, which was erected at Des Homes,
Iowa, in 1887 The practice in America has
been, and to a large extent still is, to exclude
ashes, tin cans, bottles, old or broken crockery
and the like, from garbage. This was paitly
due to the American practice of feeding gar-
bage or swill to hogs and, in the earlier days,
even to cows. Farmers fiom the surrounding
country would gather the swill for their stock,
but would refuse that containing foreign mat-
ter These food wastes were, and are yet, some-
times gathered by the municipality or by a
general contractor" and delivered to farmers at
the outskirts of the city Originally house-
holders may have received a small sum for their
swill, but latterly they have been fortunate if
they could get it taken away without expense.
At present, collections by or for American farm-
ers are generally restricted to small towns or
to the hotels and restaurants of the largei
places, but from about 1910 on the practice
of feeding garbage to hogs seemed to be on the
increase, as did also disposal by dumping and
covering with earth, but in both cases for the
middle class and smaller rather than the larger
cities Properly supervised, either means of dis-
posal may be harmless and without serious nui-
sance In most cases the garbage should prob-
ably be boiled before it is fed to hogs, and it
may often be wise to sprinkle it with some
chemical agent to keep down flies and odors
where garbage is dumped The recovery of
salable materials from miscellaneous city wastes
(other than garbage and ashes) is on the in-
crease in the United States
Collection Before describing garbage fur-
naces and reduction plants a few words regard-
ing the collection of city wastes may be said
Garbage proper should be collected in carts or
boxes provided with water-tight, nonabsorbent
boxes or tanks, with closely fitting covers Steel
is now considered to be the best material for
such tanks Ashes and other dry wastes should
be gathered in tight carts, well covered to pre-
vent scattering by jolting or wind. The best
material for the ash-wagon boxes, or tanks, is
also steel, but this matters comparatively little
from a sanitary standpoint, so long as the con-
ditions named are fulfilled The frequency of
collection should vary with the character of the
wastes and the population Market wastes,
the 'garbage of hotels and restaurants, and of
houses in crowded districts, often require daily
collection, particulaily in the sunimei Do-
mestic garbage, undei ordmaiy conditions, re-
quires collection fiom two to three times a week
in warm, and once or twice a week in cool or
cold weather Ashes, paper, and all other inor-
ganic wastes, so long as not mixed with garbage,
may be collected to suit the convenience of the
householders and the municipality, the tendency
being to mciease the frequency with the density
of population and consequent lack of room for
storage Cleansing or disinfection of garbage
cans and wagon boxes or tanks is practiced in
the most progressive communities Whether
garbage and refuse collection and disposal should
be performed by contract or dnectly by the
municipality is a question for each community
to settle for itself Many sanitarians favoi di-
rect municipal performance, as giving better san-
itaiy lesults An efficient city government can
secure good work under eithei plan, but per-
haps complaints of pool service may icceive
more prompt attention when the woik is clone
by the municipality In many American cities
the collection, and in still moie the final dis-
posal, of garbage and refuse is left entirely to
private scavengers, under little or no municipal
control The results are that the people having
most need of good service get none whatever,
being unwilling or unable to pay foi it, while
the work as a whole is generally poorly done
The final disposal, under this plan, is almost
always a makeshift Whatever may be done as
to ashes and inorganic wastes, good sanitation
demands that the collection and disposal of
garbage, offal, and dead animals should be at-
tended to by the municipality, either under the
contract or day-labor system As a matter of
economy, it is probable that all the wastes con-
sidered in this article should, be handled by or
under the direction of the city or town,
Garbage Furnaces, or Refuse Destructors,
as they are called in Great Butain, consist of
one or more grates upon which the garbage
is burned, ash pits, flues, and chimneys, to-
gether with the necessary feeding holes for the
garbage, and stoking holes or doors In the
best plants a boiler for steam raising is gen-
erally used, and it is becoming more and more
common to use eithei steam jets or blowing
fans to produce a forced diaft To cany heat
utilization to the highest possible degree the
water feeding the boilers and the an used for
forced draft are heated by the gases of combustion
before they pass to the chimneys The destructor
furnaces are usually composed of small units,
or cells, of uniform size, each having a grate
surface of 25 ^square feet Any desired capacity
is secured by increasing the number of cells,
which are commonly placed back to back, with
a central flue Some form of dust an ester is
often used in the later furnaces to hold back
the fine ashes which might otherwise pass up
through the chimney and cause a nuisance in
the surrounding territory. These are chambers
or passages designed to bring the dust to rest
and to retain it for future removal The tem-
perature of a garbage furnace should be in the
vicinity of 2000° F., in ordei to insure complete
combustion and to prevent odors from the chim-
ney gases Boiler® for utilizing heat from gar-
bage furnaces should not be placed directly
over the fire, since the water in the boiler will
lower the temperature rn the furnaces To
avoid this, the boilers are plaped between tlie
furnaces and the chimney, or between two
GABBAGE AND REFUSE
459
GABBAGE AND BEETTSE
furnaces This causes a loss of heat foi steam-
mg, but sanitary considerations should conic
first
The value of refuse for st cam-raising pur-
poses appears to run from 5 to 15 pei cent
that of coal, assuming a coal that will evaporate
10 pounds of watei from and at 212° F per
one pound of coal This is omitting extremes
Probably 10 per cent is the maximum safe fig-
ure upon which to base estimates for contin-
uous work, and even that may be too high
The combined refuse dcstiuctor and electiic-
lightmg plant at Shoreditch, England (a pait
of the administrative county of London), at-
ti acted so much attention at the time it was
installed that it may be desciibed hoie as origi-
nally built The destmctoi was opened on June
28, 1897 There aie 12 furnaces, or cells, each
having a grate area of 25 squai e feet , six water-
tube boilers, with 1300 squai e feet of heating
siuface, and a thermal stoiage tank, 8 feet
in diameter and 35 feet long, designed to stoic
water heated by the steam at times of small
demand for electric lighting The thermal stor-
age tank does not seem to have been tried at
any other garbage furnace and is of question-
able value, even if still used at Shoreditch A
forced draft, rated at 8000 cubic feet per min-
ute, is supplied by three fans, driven by electric
motors The chimney is 150 feet high, with a
dust an ester at its base Each fuinace has a
capacity of 8 to 12 tons of refuse in 24 hours,
or 96 to 144 tons in all The aggregate horse
power of the connected boilers is about 1200
American garbage furnaces have not been so
fully developed as English, such superiority as
can be claimed for Amencan sanitary engineers
in treating garbage being for the reduction
rather than the burning of refuse Just how
large a part of the difference between the two
countries is due to variations in the character
of their respective wastes it is hard to say,
since there are few thoroughly satisfactory data
on this point, and the English refuse is almost
invanably mixed, while in the United States
various degrees of separation of garbage, ashes,
and other refuse are practiced It is believed
that American garbage, even when mixed with
ashes, contains more organic matter than does
British and that its percentage of moisture is
far higher in the summer The moisture must
be evaporated before the combustible matter
can be burned. A great drawback to the de-
velopment of American garbage furnaces (and
reduction plants as well) is the practice of
awarding short-term contracts for disposal, 01
changing the methods in vogue with each change
of city administration Another drawback, hap-
pily now losing its force, is the common failure
of cities to put their garbage-disposal problems
in the hands of competent engineers, or any en-
gineers at all Under all these circumstances
it is not strange that American garbage fur-
naces have not been brought to a higher state
of perfection, nor that it is hardly known what
they might accomplish in long service under
favorable conditions The most successful fur-
naces in America follow English practice very
closely or are actually of the British type
Passing with bare mention early plants built
after British models at Montreal and San
Francisco, Cal, the latter of a rated capacity
of 600 tons per day, it may be noted that in the
early p«irt of 19^6 a combined refuse destructor
and electnc^liglii frtant "w&s put in operation
VOL IX,— 30
at Westmount, Province of Quebec, a town oi
some 12,000 inhabitants The destructor is of
the Meldrum type and was imported from Man-
chester, England Garbage, ashes, and other ref-
use are collected together by the town, hauled
to tlie disposal plant, and dumped from the
carts into a storage hopper, made from steel
plates From the base of this hopper the ref-
Ube is moved forward a short distance and
dropped through top feed holes on a flat drying
hearth at the lear of the flat giates of the de-
stiuctor The refuse may be pushed forwaid
onto the grates from doors at the rear or pulled
f 01 ward from the stoking doors at the front of
the clestructoi At intervals of two or thiee
houis the clinker formed from the refuse is
raked oub at the fiont and dropped through
tiap doois for lemoval from below after cooling
A relatively small amount of ashes drops
thiough the grates to the ash pits The gases of
combustion pass to a 200-horse-powei boiler,
ptovided with no othei heat, and those are
utilized to raise steam foi the electiic-h^ht
plant Two coal fued boileis are available for
use when the steam raised by the destiuctoi
heat is insufficient to run the lighting plant
The destructor is equipped with foi cod diaft to
aid the combustion of the refuse and pioduce
a high temperature, and til&o with a legeneiator
and an economizer to utilize to the utmost such
heat as passes the destructor boiler The re-
generator heats air for the forced draft, and
the economi7er heats the feed water for the de-
structor boiler An 8 ^ -hour test of the de-
stiuctor on May 3, 1906, showed an average
evaporation of 1 12 pounds of water per pound
of refuse bmned, equivalent to 1 36 pounds of
water evapoiated at and from 212° 3? During
the 8 horns and 32 minutes covered by the test
SECTION OF FRYER REFUSE DESTRUCTOR, THE EARLIEST
BRITISH TYPE
the destructor burned 38,090 pounds of mixed
refuse, of which about 65 per cent was ashes,
cinders, and unburned coal, only 15 per cent
was garbage, and the balance was of a mis-
cellaneous character The clinker taken from
the destructor after the test was 42 per cent,
by weight, of the original refuse The three
grates together burned the refuse at the aver-
age rate of 4402 pounds per hour Each of the
three grates has an area of 25 square feet, so
the combustion was at the rate of 58 7 pounds
per square^ foot of grate surface per hour. See
fflngmeenng News (New York) for May 24,
1906
The first peimanent English furnaces, built at
G-ARBAGKE AND BEETJSE
460
GARBAGE AND KEETJSE
Manchester, England, were designed by Alfred
Fryer Since then many other styles have been
put in use, including the Warner, Horsfall, Mel-
drum, Heenan and Fronde, and Sterling The
first American garbage furnace, opened at Des
Homes, Iowa, about September, 1887, was de-
signed by Andrew Engle In December of the
same year a Rider furnace was fired up at Pitts-
burgh, Pa The Engle furnace was widely built
throughout the United States and subsequently
had the Dixon furnace as chief of many 11-
vals Later the Morse-Boulger and the Decane
furnaces came to the front The successful in-
troduction of the British type of fmnace at
Westmount, already described, was soon followed
by the same and other typos of British fur-
naces in Richmond Borough, New Yoik City,
Seattle, Milwaukee, and other cities of the
United States, and in various Canadian cities
The new Milwaukee furnace displaced a furnace
of the American type, an improved Engle, built
SECTION THROUGH HEENAN REFUSE DESTETJCTOR AT MONT-
GOMERY, ALA
only a few yeais earlier (See Engineering
News, Jan 23, 1902, and July 21, 1910, for il-
lustrated descriptions of these two Milwaukee
plants* The earlier article reviews the varied
history of garbage disposal at Milwaukee up to
that date ) Contracts for British types of de-
structors for two large American cities were
completed in 1914 at San Francisco and At-
lanta, Ga
Hefuse Sorting and Utilization Plants.
Boston has the distinction of being the first
city in the United States to install a well-
equipped refuse-sorting plant Light refuse
from a part of the city was brought to this
station, dumped, shoveled onto an inclined con-
veyor, from which men and boys sorted out
various grades of paper, rags, and all other
merchantable refuse as the particular kinds
passed the person to whom the task of remov-
ing it was assigned The residue was dumped
automatically into a furnace and readily burned,
producing more than enough steam to run the
he paper and like salable material were
baled ready for shipment At Buffalo a similar
refuse-disposal plant was subsequently built and
equipped with a boiler to raise steam to pump
a portion of the sewage of the city A few
other American cities have refuse-soiting plants
A 100-ton installation built for a refuse-disposal
contractor at Pittsburgh, Pa , was desciibed soon
aftei completion in Engineering ^ens of April
30, 1914 It is similai in general object and
method to the Boston plant It is housed in a
four-story building, about 50 X 200 feet in plan
The lefuse wagons diive onto the fourth floor,
the plant being on a steep hillside, and dump
into hoppers which extend down to the picking
belt in the story below From the belt the sorted
material is thiown into bins, and fiom these
it is taken foi baling and packing on the floor
below The unsalable material continues up-
ward on the conveyor and is dumped into two
lugh-tempei ature destructors and burned The
heat from these destructors laises steam to gen-
erate electric cunent for woiks pui poses It
\\as expected in 1914 that the suiplus current
would be sold
Garbage Eeduction aims to recover grease
and feitihzmg mateiial from animal and vege-
table household and market wastes, while at
the same time affording a sanitary means of
final disposal The process requiies, foi its
greatest success, a rigid exclusion of all othei
wastes fiom those named, both to reduce the
bulk of meit and unpiofitable refuse and to
prevent damage to the plant The first step is
the extraction of grease This is effected by
melting with steam heat, combined with pies-
sure, or by means of such solvents as naphtha
and benzine Sulphuric acid has been tried and
found unsatisfactory. In most of the plants,
and for the greater part of the garbage now
being treated, steam is used Where a solvent
is employed, naphtha is more often chosen than
benzine, but the general process is much the
same m either case
In the steam plants the grease is extracted in
rendering tanks, after which the lesidue, or
tankage, is pressed and then dried to free it
from moisture Where naphtha is employed,
the drying generally takes place befoie the
solvent is applied The rendering tanks, or di-
gesters, aie cylindrical, some 5 feet in diametei
and 15 feet high, with tightly fitting covers for
the charging holes and a horizontal valve at the
toot of the conical bottom, to empty the chaige
Pipe connections are provided for admitting
steam or chemicals, as the case may be, and
pipes or other channels for leading away the va-
nous liquids after the garbage has been treated
for a sufficient length of time, generally a num-
ber of hours The tankage is sometimes pressed
by steam in the rendering tank and sometimes in
presses of either the cheese-cake or i oiler type
The driers are generally steam- jacketed horizon-
tal cylinders, fitted with revolving stirring arms,
mounted on a longitudinal axis Grinding mills
are sometimes provided for such of the tailings
from the screens as are of value, chiefly bones
The dried and scieened tankage is generally sold
to fertilizer manufacturers, but at a few plants
pho&phates and other rich fertilizers are mixed
with it, so as to produce a finished or commer-
cial fertilizer The grease and water are sep-
arated by gravity, in tanks, the grease rising
to the top and being skimmed off In some
cases the grease is refined at the reduction
works, but usually there is little attempt to do
GABBAGE AOT) BEFUSE
461
GABBOBG
much refining It may be shipped to buyers in
tank cars or in bairels Wheie naphtha is used
it is recovered by distillation The Welter fiom
the digesteis is sometimes discharged directly
into a sewer, stream, or lake In othei cases
it is evaporated to "stick," and mixed with the
dried tankage, increasing the value of the lat-
ter, and at the same time not polluting any
body of water In the best plants all objection-
able vapors are condensed, and the gases are
purified by scrubbing, or else conveyed to and
burned in the boiler furnaces Reduction plants
require an extensive equipment of boileis, en-
gines, pumps, tanks, driers, and other appara-
tus, the capital charges on which, together with
the expenses for fuel and other supplies, and
for labor, make up a large total On the othei
hand, there is a considerable revenue from the
sale of grease and tankage. Until 1905 all of
the many garbage-i eduction plants in the
United States were owned by private companies,
and information regarding their operating re-
sults could not be obtained In 1905 the city
of Cleveland, Ohio, bought the reduction plant
which had served that city for a number of
years, and on July 20, 1910, Columbus, Ohio,
put in operation the first reduction plant ever
built by a city Each of these Ohio cities prints
yearly reports on the financial and other opera-
tions of its reduction works which contain much
valuable information The reports show that
the returns from, grease and fertilizer are in ex-
cess of operating and capital charges, taking
the garbage after it is delivered to the plant
(For illustrated description of the Columbus
plant, see Engineering Neivs, Nov 17, 1910 )
Possibly because of the publicity given to
the success of the municipal garbage-reduction
plants at Cleveland and Columbus, Ohio, sev-
eral cities let garbage-reduction contracts in
1913, under which they were to receive a reve-
nue from the garbage instead of paying the
contractor for the disposal service. Beginning
in 1914, New York is paid for garbage delivered
by it at the water front, as follows first year,
$62,500, second year, $87,500, third year, and
also fourth and fifth years, if the contract is
renewed at the option of the city, $112,500 a
year This is an average of $97,500 a year, as
compared with $50,000 a year being paid under
the old contract and $130,000 a year bid by the
old contractor The saving in five years, under
the new contract, would be $1,137,500 In 1913
the city of Los Angeles let a contract under
which it was to receive 51 cents a ton for gar-
bage delivered by it to a private reduction
plant. This plant was under construction m
1914 Springfield, Mass., is also getting a free
garbage-reduction service.
The first reduction plant in the United States
was put in use at Buffalo, N Y, in or about
the year 1888, under United States patents
granted in 1886 to Joseph Merz, of Bruen, Mora-
via The Merz system was afterward modified
by Charles W. Preston and F G Wiselogel
Merz patents were taken out in Europe as early
as 1882 The patents covered the extraction of
grease by use of the lighter hydrocarbons Later
the Arnold process was extensively used, and
still later the Holthaus, Edson, and other proc-
esses As a rule, all recent plants extract the
grease by means of steam heat instead of by
naphtha, which was used in the Merz process.
Consult Goodrich, The Economic Disposal of
Town's Refuse (New York, 1901) , id, Refuse
Disposal and Pouer Production (ib, 1904) , id,,
Modern Destnictor Practice (Philadelphia,
1912), Maxwell, The Removal and Disposal of
Town Refuse (London, 1898), Waring, Street
Cleaning and the Disposal of a City's Wastes
(New Yoik, 1897), Baker, Notes on British
Refuse Destructors (1905), Parsons, The Dis-
posal of Municipal Refuse (New York, 1906) ,
Venable, Garbage Crematories in America (ib,
1906) , Morse, The Collection and Disposal of
Municipal Waste (ib , 1908)
GABBE, gar'be, RICIIAED KABL (1857- )
A German Orientalist, born at Bredow, Pom-
erania He studied at Tubingen, became in 1880
professor at Konigsberg, and m 1895 at Tubin-
gen In 1885-87 the Prussian government de-
fiayed his expenses for travel and residence in
India Indische Reiseskizsen (1880) chronicles
some of his impressions at that time His fui-
ther publications include an edition (1878) and
translation (1878) of the Vaitdna Sutra, The
Ciauta Sutra of Apastamba (1882-85), The
Samkhya Sutra Vritti (1888, Eng trans 1892),
Die Sdmkhya-Philosophie (Leipzig, 1894) , Phi-
losophy of \n-cient India (1897) Beitrage zur
indischen Kulturgeschichte (1903) , a transla-
tion of the BhagavadgHa (1905) , an edition of
Bohtlmgk's Sansknt-Chtestomathie (1909) , and
Kaiser Alcbar von Indien, ein Le~bens- und
Kulturbild aus dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert
(1909)
GAB'BEB, DAKJEL (1880- ). An Amer-
ican landscape painter He was born at North
Manchester, Ind., and studied under Nowottny
at the Cincinnati Art Academy and under
Thomas Anschutz at the Pennsylvania Academy,
Philadelphia. A trip to Europe did much
towards overcoming a somewhat dry quality m
his earlier work and gave him French ideas of
the painting of sunlight — afterward his main in-
teiest Among his numerous awards were the
first Hallgarten prize of the National Academy
(1909), the Lippmcott prize, Pennsylvania
Academy (1911), and the Palmer prize and gold
medal, Art Institute, Chicago He was elected
an Associate of the National Academy He is
repiesented in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Wash-
ington, the Cincinnati Museum, the Chicago Art
Institute, and the Metropolitan Museum, New
York In 1909 he became an instructor at the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.
GABBO, gar'bo", RAFFAELINO DEL. See RAJ-
FAELINO DEL GARBO
GABBOBG, gar'bdrg, ABNE (1851- ) A
Norwegian novelist and publicist, born in the
parish of Time, in the District of Jsederen In
1877 he founded the Fedraheimen, a journal in
the Landsmaal, or popular idiom, and his nov-
els and dramas are written in the same lan-
guage. Among these, nearly all translated into
Danish, Swedish, German, French, Finnish, etc ,
are the following: A Free Thin'ker (1881),
Students from the Country (1883) , Stories and
Traditions (1884), Men (1886), The Irrecon
cilalles (1888); Kolbotn-Letters (1890), With
Mother (1890), Tired Men (1891), Peace
(1892), The Hill-O-oUins (1895), Jonas Lie
(1893), The Lost Father (1899), The Teacher
(1896), In Helheim (1901), Mountain-Air
(1903), Knudahei-Letters (1904), Jesus Mes-
sias (1906), Son Returned Home (1908). He
also wrote The New "Norwegian L wigwag e and
the "National Movement (1877)j Free Discus-
sion (1888) , Our Struggle for Independence
(1894), Our Language Evolution (1897). Col-
GARQAO
462
GARCIA ffiTOTEZ
lected Works appeared (1909 et seq.) — His
wife, HULDA GAKBORG (1862- ), wrote the
dramas Mothers (1897), Rational Dairy Prac-
tice (1897), and also The Woman Created of
the Man (1904) In 1902 she visited the Faroe
Islands, and in 1913 traveled through the United
States lecturing
GABQAO, gar-souN', PEDBO ANTONIO COBKEA
(1724-72) A Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon.
He was educated at a Jesuit college in Lisbon
and the University of Coimbra He aided in
the founding of the celebrated "Arcadia" of
Lisbon and endeavored to create a better taste
in hteratuie by means of his poetiy The Can-
tata de Dido, and his satire on the life of Lisbon,
the play entitled Assembled, are splendid exam-
ples of eighteenth-century Portuguese verse. He
is called 4(the Portuguese Horace '* His Olras
poeticas have gone thiough several editions, the
best, that of Azevedo Castio (Borne, 1888),
contains an excellent biography
GABCfA, gar-se'a, DIEGO (1471-1529) A
Portuguese navigator, born at Lisbon After
the discovery of the Straits of Magellan, three
ships were fitted out at La CoiuGa, for explor-
ing South America and were placed undei the
command of Garcia Sailing in 1526, he arrived
at SHo Vincente, Brazil, on Jan. 11, 1527 By
exploring the Uruguay and Paranl rivers he
gained a knowledge of the Indian tribes of this
region He aided the expedition of Sebastian
Cabot, which was besieged by natives on the
lower Parana, and in 152S returned to Spam
The account of this voyage is given in the Me-
mono, de Diego Garcia sobre el maje que hi80 en
1526 y 27, published in the Remsta de la Biblio-
teca pittlica de Buenos Aires, vol i (Buenos
Aires, 1879) The island of Diego Garcia, in
the Indian Ocean, is said to be named from
him
GABCfA, gar-the'a, MANUEL (1805-1906)
A famous singing teacher, born in Madrid,
March 17, 1805 He studied singing with his
father, Manuel del P6polo (qv ), and composi-
tion with Fetis. His voice, however, was not
remarkable, and after a few years he definitely
retired from the stage (1829) and settled in
Paris, devoting his entire attention to teaching
and original scientific investigation of the
mechanism of the voice In 1855 he invented
the laryngoscope (qv), which made him fa-
mous and induced the University of Konigsberg
to confer upon him the degree of MD In 1840
he submitted to the French Academy his Me-
moire sur la* voix humaine, a work that attracted
considerable attention, so that in 1847 a pro-
fessorship of singing at the Paris Conservatory
was offered to him He then wrote his famous
Traite eomplet du chant, which appeared in
1847, and in the same year also in a German
translation. In 1850 he accepted the profes-
sorship of singing at the Royal Academy of
Music in London. For almost half a century
he retained this post, and when he resigned in
1895, still m the full possession of all his fac-
ulties, he yet continued teaching privately un-
til his very death, which occurred on July 1,
1906, in London. Among has pupils were Jenny
Lind, Henrietta Nissen, and the great German
singing master Stockhausen Consult S, Mack-
inlay, Garcia the Oentenanan and his Time
(London, 1908)
OABCIA, MANUEL DEL )?6PQLO VICENTE
(1775—1832). A famous Spanish tenor singer
and teacher of singing, born at Seville At
six years of age he was a chorister in the cathe-
dral there His teacheis were Papa and Aknar-
cha, whose thorough tiaming, combined with his
own great talent, brought him distinction when
but 17 in the triple rdles of singer, composer,
and conductoi After winning an established
reputation as a singer in Cadiz and Madrid,
he went to Pans (1808) and achieved instan-
taneous success at the Italian opera In 1811 he
pioceeded to Italy, meeting with great popular
manifestations of public favor The next n\e
years were spent in study, and on his return to
Paris, m 1816, disagreement with Catalani, the
manageress of the Theatre Italien, ended in his
going to London (1817), where he was enthusi-
astically received He visited England, South
America, the United States, and Mexico, meet-
ing eveiy where with unqualified success His
compositions included 43 operas, written either
in Spanish, French, or Italian His fame as
a teacher is enduring, his theories, proven by
successful results, foinung the groundwork of
the best modern teaching Among his pupils
the most famous were his own children — a son,
Manuel ( q v ) , and two daughters, Marie Mali-
bran ( q v ) and Pauline Viardot ( q v )
GAUCf A, PAULINE VIABDOT See VIABDOT
G \KCIA
GABCIA DE LA HTJERTA, VICENTE. See
HUERTA, V G BE LA
GABCiA-OTJTIEIlBEZ, gar-the'a-goo-tya'-
rath, ANTONIO (1813-84) A Spanish drama-
tist, born at Chiclana As a youth, he studied
medicine at Cadiz, but his bent was always
towards literature In 1833 he went to Madrid,
where he wrote several plays, but all were
failures In 1837 his play El trovador was pro-
duced and achieved a brilliant success Verdi
afterward took this drama as a subject for his
opera II trovatore His other works were not so
well received, although several of them were
finer, especially Juan Lorenzo (1865). He was
made a member of the Spanish Academy in 1862
His poetry was published under the title Lu2 y
timeblas (2 vols , 1842, 1861) This volume
also includes some pretty comedies His plays
were published by himself, as Obras escogidas
(Madrid, 1856)
GARCIA tfiXGTTEZ, gar-se'a e'nye-g&s,
CALIXTO (1836-98). A Cuban patriot and
soldier, born at Holgum, Santiago Province He
began the practice of law, but in 1868 became
associated with Donate Marmol as a leader in
the Ten Years' War, and soon attained the rank
of brigadier general Subsequently, upon the
removal of Gen Maximo G6mez by the provi-
sional government, he was appointed commander
in chief of the revolutionary forces in Oriente
At San Antonio, with a band of 20, he was sui-
rounded by 500 Spaniards, and to avoid capture
shot himself through the face, but, having re-
covered, was deported to Spain and there im-
prisoned In 1880 he fought with Jose" Maceo
in the six months5 rebellion known as the "Little
War," again was captured, and for 15 years was
held in Spain under police surveillance Upon
the outbreak of the final insurrection against
Spam he escaped in 1895 to Paris and thence
went to the United States, where he was active
as a filibuster, An expedition fitted out under
his direction, and embarked on the / 1$ Hcw>
Mns, failed through the wreck of the vessel^ and
$£00,000 worth of arms and ammunition
MORENO
463
GAUDAIA
lost Afterward lie succeeded in reaching Cuba
on the Bermuda, with six field guns and other
supplies During the insuirection, as coin-
mandei of the troops in Camaguey and the
Oriente, he won seveial brilliant victones, and
in the Spanish- American War led a Cuban foice
of 4000 at El Caney (July I, 1898) He died
while in Washington as the head of a commis-
sion sent by the Assembly of the provisional
government to discuss Cuban affairs with Presi-
dent McKmley
GABCiA MOBENO, gar-se'a rno-rn'no, GA-
BRIEL (1821-75) A politician of Ecuador, born
at Guayaquil He was educated at the Univer-
sity of Quito and became a piofessor of chemis-
try Exiled in 1854, he went to Europe, where
he studied political conditions Eeturnmg to
Ecuador m 1856, he was made mayor and rector
of the University of Quito In 1860 he was
chosen head of the provisional government, and
in 1861 President Though his administra-
tion was marked by cruelty and concessions to
the ecclesiastical power, yet he organized the
finances, regulated abuses, and supplanted
militarism with a civil regime In 1865 he de-
clared himself Dictator In 1869, and again in
1875, he was reelected President, but previ-
ous to his inauguration in the latter year was
assassinated Consult Adolf von Berlichmgen,
S J , Don Gabriel Garcia Moreno, Prasident tier
ftepubhk Ecuador (Essen-Ruhr, s a.) , A Z de
Cancio, Vida del Eaemo Sr D G-alriel G-arcia
Moreno (Madrid, 1889)
0ABCILASO BE LA VEGA (EL UsTCA).
See LASO DE LA VEGA (EL INCA), GAKCI
GAUCTSr DE TASSY, gar'sfiN' de ta'sS',
JOSEPH H&LIODOKE SAGESSE VEETTJ (1794-
1878) A noted French Orientalist He was
born in Marseilles, studied Oriental languages
in Paris as a pupil of the distinguished Silvestre
de Sacy, and in 1828 was appointed to the chair
of Hindustani especially founded for him at the
Ecole des Langues Onentales, which he occupied
until his death In 1838 he was elected to suc-
ceed Talleyrand in the Academic des Inscriptions
et Belles-Lettres Subsequently he beea<me presi-
dent of the Society Asiatique and an adminis-
trator of the Eeole Originally known as a stu-
dent of Mohammedanism and a translator from
the Arabic, he was later recognized as the fore-
most European savant in the undeveloped and
difficult field of the Hindustani language and
literature His annual review, La langue et la
literature hmdoustames (1872-77), was au-
thoritative, not only throughout Europe, but as
well among native Indian scholars Among
his publications, winch include many transla-
tions, are the following Les oiseauoc et les fleurs
(1821), Arabic text, with translation; Relation
de la prise de Constantinople, translated
from Turkish. (1826), Les aventures 'de Kam-
rup, Hindustani text (1834), Les ceuvres de
WaU, with text, translation, and notes (1836) ,
La potisie philosopfoique et religwuse che% les
Persans (1857), his chief work, a Histovre de
la langue et de la literature hmdoues et hm-
doustames (2d ed, 3 vols , 1871), Rhetorique
et Prosoche d&s lawgwes de I'Or^nt mus^lman
(2d ed,, 1873),, ti'Islawnsme selon le Coran
(1874) He also prepared a French edition
(1846) of Sir William Jones's Grammar of the
Persian Language (1771)
GARCIITOA See MANOOB^EEK
OABD, gUr A department of France, m
Languedoc, bounded on the east by £h^ riyer
Rhone, and reaching into the Mediterranean, m
a headland having a coast line of 10 miles
(Map France, S, J 4) Area, 2270 squaie
miles Pop, 1901, 420,836, 1911, 413,458 A
considerable pait of the sin face is occupied by
forests, plantations, and \meyaicls On the
coast there aie extensive <ind unhealthful
maibhes It is wateied mainly by the Rhone
and its tributaries — the Gard, the ancient Vaido
(from which the department has its name), and
the Ceze The northwest ife occupied by a
branch of the CeVennes Mountains, the remain-
dei slopes towaids the Rhone and the Mediter-
ranean The soil is m general dry, the best
lands occurring in the river valleys Coal, iron,
lead, and zinc are found in seveial places, and
salt is manufactured in the south The vine,
the olive, and the mulberry are extensively culti-
vated The silk industry is important and the
department produces moie silkworms than any
other in France Lignite is worked in the north-
eastern part of the department Wine is largely
exported The depaitment is divided into the
foui auondissemcnts of Nimes, Alais, Uzes, and
Le Vigan Capital, Nimes
GARDA, gcii'dci (Lat Lacus Benacus], The
largest lake in Italy, 2 1C feet above sea level
It is 34 miles long, from 3 to 11 miles bioad,
189 square miles in aiea, and its gieatest known
depth, is 1916 feet (Map Italy, 02) Its
northern extremity is in Tirol, and Peschiera, at
its southern extremity, is 16 miles west of Ve-
rona and 77 miles east of Milan There is a com-
munication by steamboat once or twice daily
between different points on the lake The prin-
cipal fish are salmon trout, trout, pike, and eels
The water is often rough, especially when there
is a storm from the north (Consult Vergil,
Georgics, 11, 160 ) The southern shores are
low and flat, but, as the lake narrows towards
the noith, the spurs of the Alps rise boldly
from the water's edge The chief tributary is
the Sarca from the glaciers of Adamello, and the
only outlet is the Mincio, which descends fiom
Peschiera to Mantua and discharges into the Po
The most fashionable resort is G-ardone-Ri-
viera, but dearest to the poet and to the anti-
quarian is Sirmione, a narrow promontory that
extends 2% miles out mto the lake The view
from it is magnificent, and there are the rums
of Roman baths and of a building said to be the
villa of the poet Catullus, Said, a small town
with terraces of lemon groves, has a clmrcli con-
taming several interesting paintings; Maderno
has a basilica of the eighth century Malcesine
is the place where Goethe was ai rested by the
Venetian officials To the beautiful little village
of Grarda the lake owes its name Riva, at the
north end of the lake, in Austrian territory, is
popular with tourists, on account of its hotels,
ruins, and climate in summer It is the start-
ing point for numerous excursions over the
mountains Consult K Bagot, The Lakes of
Northern Italy (New York, 1907), W D
McCraekan, The Spell of the Italian Lakes
(Boston, 1913).
GABDAIA, gar-di'a, or GHABDAYA (lo-
cally, Faghardeit) An important trading point
of the Sahara, and the chief town of the^Mzab
District in Algeria, situated on ^ liiE in the
basis of G-ardaia, amid rocky mountains, 312
miles m a direct line south-southeast of Algiers
(Map Africa, E 1) It is fortified by a wall
Surmounted with towers and pierced by gates;
possesses several mosques, on*e remarkable for
GABDAISTE
464
GARDEN CITY
its size, and has a flemishing caravan trade
with Tunis, Algiers, Fez, Morocco, Sudan, and
Timbuktu, in slaves, barley, dates, pottery, pro-
visions, oil, \\ool, cotton/ indigo, leather, gold
dust, ivoiy, and all the vaned raw products of
cential and northern Africa Its trade is for
the most part in the hands of Jews, who inhabit
a separate quarter The population consists
chiefly of the Bern Mzab, who speak a Berber
dialect modified by Arabic Gardaia is sur-
rounded by date-palm orchards containing over
64,000 trees and is irrigated by artesian wells
In the vicinity are the ruins of a Roman towei
and the foundations of a temple dedicated to
Isis were uncovered m 1910 The Mzab Con-
federation, foimerly independent, has acknowl-
edged the sovereignty of France since 1850 In
1857 Gardaia, its capital, TV as &ui rendered to the
French and was made a military station Pop ,
1901, 9315, 1911, 8551 , of the oasis about
36,000
GARBAGE, gar'dan', CLAUDE MATTHIEU,
COUNT (1766-1818). A French general and
diplomat He became a captain in 1793, a brig-
adier general in 1799, and aid-de-camp to Napo-
leon in 1805 In 1807 he was sent by the
Empeior on a diplomatic mission to Persia
to stiengthen a Franco-Persian alliance \utli
the view of a future invasion of India Return-
ing to France m 1809, he was cieated Count of
the Empire and was sent to join Massena's
army in Portugal, where he came into disfavor
as a result of his conduct during the letreat
from Santarem to Almeida Consult PAL
de Dnault, La pohtique onentale de Napoleon'
SGlastiani et Gardane (Paris, 1904)
GARD'AISTT, Fr. pron gar'daN' (Fr, gazing,
pres p of powder, to look) In heraldry (qv),
a term used of an animal in fess and repre-
sented full-faced
GARDE, gar'de, THOMAS WILLIAM (1859-
) A Danish naval officer, distinguished
for his explorations in Greenland With Holm
(qv ) he thoroughly explored the coast of south-
east Greenland in 1883-85, by boat journeys
from Cape Farewell Garde explored Lindenows
Fiord, 62° 15' N, where have been found the
Scandinavian ruins on the east coast Win-
tering at Nanortalik, he discovered between that
place and Cape Farewell 200 live glaciers, of
which 70 had a sea face more than a mile wide
During his surveys of the Julianahaab district,
southwest of Greenland, in 1893, he made a
long journey over the Greenland ice cap, which
proved to be of unsuspected height In his trip
of 13 days he traveled 180 miles across the ice
and reached an elevation of more than 8000
feet He was awarded the Roquette medal by
the SocietS de Ge'ographie of Paris He became
a commander in the Koyal navy, chief of staff,
and from 1908 to 1911 was Assistant to the
Minister of the Navy Garde's narratives of his
explorations appeared in Meddelelser om Gwfn-
land, ix, xvi
OAR'DEN, ALEXANDEB (1730-91). An
American physician and naturalist, born in
Charleston, S C , and educated in Scotland He
was a professor m King's College (now Colum-
bia University) in 1754 and in 1755 settled
as a physician in Charleston At the time of
the Revolutionary War he sided with Great
Britain and in 1783 emigrated to London, where
he lived until his death He wrote a number of
papers on zoological and botanical subjects The
genus Q-ardenia was named in his honor
GARDEN, ALEXANDER (1757-1829) Art
Ameiican soldier and writer, boin in Charles-
ton, S C , and educated at Westminstei and at
Glasgow, Scotland On the outbreak of the
Revolutionary War he joined the patriot party,
and he seived in Lee's Legion, and was volunteer
aid-de-camp to General Greene He received
the confiscated estates of his father, the botanist
and Loyalist (see preceding title) He is known
chiefly as the authoi of Anecdotes of the Revolu-
tionary War, with Sketches of the Character of
Persons Most Distinguished in the Southern
States for Civil and Military Services (1822-28,
la&t ed, 3 vols , 1868)
GARDEN, MABY (1877- ) An Ameri-
can dramatic soprano She was born at Aboi-
deen, Scotland, but at a very early age went
vntli her parents to Chicago Her love foi
music found its eailiest expression through the
violin, which she began to study in her sixth
year At the age of 12 she took up the piano
In 1S93 she placed herself under the instruction
of Mis Duff, of Bangor, Me, with the intention
of becoming a singer After two years of eai-
nest work she went to Paris, where she continued
her vocal studies under Trabadello and Fugere
Hei debut was made, m 1900, at the Pans Opera
Comique in Charp en tier's ''Louise " She im-
mediately became a gieat favorite with the
French public, and in 1902 was chosen to create
the part of Melisande m Debussy's opera From
the time of hei fiist appearance in the United
States (1908) at the Manhattan Opera House
she was a prime favoiite with American opera
goers Fiom 1910 to May, 1914, she was a
member of the Chicago Opera Company Al-
though her lepertoire is rather limited, being
restricted almost exclusively to modern French
operas, she is an artist of compelling power
Her vocalism may not be above criticism, but
for subtle delineation, plastic pose, spontaneity,
and minutest attention to detail she is unsur-
GARDE RATIONALE, gard na'&yo'nal'
See NATIONAL GUARD
GARDEN CITY A popular name for Chi-
cago, from its numerous parks and gardens
GARDEN CITY. A city and the county
seat of Finney Co , Kans , 50 miles west by north
of Dodge City, on the Atchison, Topeka, and
Santa Fe Railroad (Map Kansas, B 7) It
contains a public libiary, and has municipal
water works and electric-light plant The city
is in an agricultural and stock-raising region
It has extensive irrigating woiks, being the
centre of the irrigation system of southwestern
Kansas and of a, beet-sugar industry A trade
is also carried on in alfalfa and dairy products
The commission form of government became
opeiative in Garden City m 1914 Pop, 1900,
1590, 1910, 3171
GARDEN CITY. A village in Nassau Co ,
N Y , 20 miles from New York, on the Long
Island Railroad (Map New York, B 2) It
was projected by A T Stewart as a model
suburban village, and is the seat of the Protes-
tant Episcopal Bishop of Long Island, with the
cathedral schools of St Paul's and St Mary's
The Cathedral of the Incarnation is a fine speci-
men of Gothic architecture, erected by Mrs
Stewart m honor of her husband. It has a
magnificent organ, one of the largest in tjie
world, costing $100^00 A large publishing
house is the chief industrial establisliment
Pop, 1914 (local est.), 1000
"THE GARDEN OF THE GODS"
CATHEDRAL' SPIRES (UPPER)
THE SEAL AND BEAR (LOWER)
GABDENEB
GABDENEB, LION See GARDINER
GABDENEB BIBD See BOWER BIRD
GABDE'NIA ( ISTeo-Lat , from Alexander
(Garden) A genus ot trees and shrubs of the
family Rubiaceae, natives of tropical and sub-
ti opical countries, many of which are now f avoi -
ites in greenhouses and hothouses, on account of
their beautiful and fragrant floweis Some of
them are hardy enough to enduie the open air
in summer The corolla is funnel-shaped, or
approaching to salver-shaped, the tube much
longer than the calyx, the fruit, a beny,
ciowned with the calyx The name Cape jas-
mine is given to Gatdema jasminoides, now
known as G-ardema flonda, a Chinese species
well known in America The fruit, which is
about the size of a pigeon's egg and orange
colored, is sold in the shops of China and Japan
for dyeing silks yellow A beautiful yellow
resin exudes fiom wounds in the bark of Gar-
denia gummifera, an East Indian species The
wood of Gardenia, thunbergii and Gatdema roth-
mannia is very hard, and is used foi agricul-
tural implements, wheel axles, etc , at the Cape
of Good Hope Both of these species are grown
in American hothouses See JASMINE
GAB'DE:NT:KrG See HORTICULTURE
GABDEN ISLAND An island of Western
Australia, measuring 6 miles by 1, and situated
near the mouth of Swan River, in lat 30° 10'
S and long 115° 40' E It shelters from the
open ocean the deep and spacious anchorage of
Cockburn Sound, thus contributing to make
Fremantle the most important port of western
Australia
GABDEN OF ENGLAND Worcestei shu e
so named because of its fertility
GABDEN OF ETTBOPE A frequent desig-
nation for Italy, from its fertility, climate, and
scenery
GABDEN OF FBANCE A name sometimes
used of the ancient Province of Touraine
GABDEN OF ITALY A populai designa-
tion of Sicily, because of its fertility and scenery
GABDEN OF THE GODS The name grven
to a region in Colorado, neai Colorado Springs,
covering about 500 acres and remarkable for the
strange forms of the rocks with which it is cov-
ei ed The red and white sandstone here assumes
grotesque shapes to which various names have
been given The Gateway is formed by two huge
masses of rock, of a bright red color, and 330
feet high, between which the road passes
GABDEN OF THE HESPEBIDES. See
HESPERIDBS
GABDEN SNAIL. The British name of the
large, brightly colored land snail (Helisc as-
persa) , common and sometimes troublesome in
gardens throughout Europe It is edible when
well cooked, but not so often eaten as another
species (Helioo pomatia), known and cultivated
as the " edible" snail Some interesting folklore
attaches to this species in the rural districts of
England and Scotland See SNAIL, with accom-
panying Colored Plate of NORTH AMERICAN
SNAILS
GABDENS OF ADONIS See ADONIS
GABDENS OF C-ffiSAB. See OESAR, GAR-
DENS or
GABDENS OF LUCTTE/LTTS. See LTJOUL-
LTIS, GARDENS OF
GABDENS OF maCE'NAS. See M^OBNAS,
CrAKDENS OF
GABDENS OF SALtiTOT. See SALLTJST,
GARDENS Otf
465
GABDINEB
GABDEN VEGETABLES See VEGETABLES,
and separate articles on individual crops, e g ,
BEAN, CABBAGE, LETTUCE, PEA, ETC
GABDEN "WABBLEB An English name
of a small brownish warbler (Sylvia borw, or
Jiortensis) of Southern Euiope, called in England
"greatei pettvchaps," familiar about gardens,
and noted foi its sweet and varied song, whence
the Germans call it "false nightingale." It is
often caged under the French name fauvette,
but does not endure captivity well This is the
bud known to the Italians as beccafico (qv ),
because it punctures the ripening figs, as il-
lustrated in the article FIG
GABDE SUISSE, gard swes See Swiss
GUARD
GABDIE, gar'de', MAGNUS GABRIEL DE LA
(1622-86) A Swedish statesman, born in
Keval He studied at the University of Upsala,
was a gieat favonte of Christina, in 1646 was
special Ambassador to France, and subsequently
commanded the Swedish army in Livonia Dur-
ing the minority of Charles XI he was Lord
Chancellor, a member of the council of regency,
and leader of the war party and the subsidy
policy which made Sweden an ally of France
In 1682 he retired after the unfavorable repoit
of a special commission on the conduct of the
regency He founded (1667) the Upsala Col-
lege of Antiquities and gave to the University
of Upsala the famous Codex Argenteus (See
ULFILAS ) His collection of manuscripts was
acquned in 1848 by the library of the Uni-
versity of Lund
GABDINEB, gard'ner A city m Kennebec
Co , Me , 6 miles south of Augusta, on the
Kennebec Kiver, on the Maine Central railroad,
and on the line of the Eastern Steamship
Company (Map Maine, C 4) Naturally en-
dowed with excellent watei power, it has saw,
paper, and pulp mills, a sash and blind factory,
foundries and machine shops, shoe factories,
and manufactures of electric-railroad supplies
Lumber and ice are largely exported There is
a public library Settled in 1760, Gardiner was
part of Pittston until 1803, when it was in-
corporated as a town It was chartered as a
city m 1849 Gardiner adopted the commission
form of government, which became operative in
1912 The city owns its water works Pop.,
1900, 5501, 1910, 5311 Consult Hanson, His-
tory of Gardner, Pittston, and West 0-ardiner
(Gardiner, 1882).
GABDINEB, FREDERIC (1822-89) An
American Episcopalian scholar He was born at
Gardmei, Me, Sept 11, 1822, graduated at
Bowdom College, 1842, entered the Protestant
Episcopal ministry, was professor in the Berke-
ley Divinity School at Midclletown, Conn , from
1868 to his death, July 17, 1889 He was one of
the best Bible students of his day, and his
publications include commentaries upon Leviti-
cus, 2 Samuel, Ezekiel, and Jude, a harmony
of the Gospels in Greek and m English (1871) ,
The Principles of Textual Criticism (1876) ,
The Old and New Testaments m their Mutual
Relation ( 1885 ) , Aids to Scripture &tw$y
(1890)
GABDI3STEB, HAEBY NORMAN (1855- ).
An American professor of philosophy. He was
born at Norwich, England, went to the United
States in 1874, graduated from Amherst Col-
lege in 1878; and also studied at Union Theo-
logical Seminary, Gottingen, Leipzig, and Hei-
delberg He taught at Glens Balls (N Y.)
GABDIHEB,
466
Academy in 1878-79, was instructor in psychol-
ogy at Amherst in 1891-92, and seived as in-
&tiuctor at Smith College fiom 1884 to 1888,
when he became professor of philosophy In
1907 he was president of the American Philo-
sophical Association He published Outlines of
Modern Philosophy (1892), and edited Jonathan
Edwards — A Retrospect (1901) and Selected
Sermons of Jonathan Edwcwds (1904)
GABDXKTEK,, JAMES (1688-1745) A dar-
ing Scottish soldier, famous for his remarkable
religious experience He was born at Carriden
Lmhthgowshire, Scotland When only 14 he
obtained a commission in a Scottish regiment in
the Dutch service In 1702 he entered the Eng-
lish army, and fought with distinction in the
campaigns of Mailborough He was promoted
to the rank of major in 1718 Up to this time
his life had been extiemely dissolute But in
1719, while bent upon pleasure, he happened to
take up a religious book, and while reading it
saw what he considered a vision, of Jesus Christ
He was immediately converted and thenceforth
lived a pious and excellent Christian life He
became colonel in 1743, and two years later was
mortally wounded in the battle of Prestonpans.
Consult Doddridge, Some Remarkable Passages
in the Life of Gol J Gardiner (London, 1747,
many later editions), and Cailyle, Autobiog-
raphy > edited by Burton (Edmbuigh, I860)
GKABDI3STEB, JOHN (1731-93) An Ameri-
can lawyer, the son of I)r Sylvester Gaidinei
He was born in Boston, studied law, and piac-
toced his profession for a time in London and in
Wales A friend of John Wilkes, he appeared as
junior counsel of the lattei in 1764 In the
Massachusetts Legislature he procured the aboli-
tion of the law of primogeniture in Massa-
chusetts and the prohibition of special pleading,
and worked for the repeal of the antitheatrical
laws He was one of the leaders of the original
Unitarian movement in Boston
GABDOTER, JOHN STANLEY (1872- ).
An. English zoologist, born in Belfast He was
educated at Marlborough College and at Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge, of which he be-
came fellow in 1898 and was dean in 1903-09
He was university lecturer on zoology and pro-
fessor of zoology and comparative anatomy He
took part in several scientific expeditions — to
Funafuti (1896), Maldives and Laccadives
(1899-1901), Indian Ocean (1905), and Sey-
chelles (1908) , wrote on the Indian Ocean and
the Seychelles for different reviews, especially
the Geographical Journal, and edited Fauna
and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive
Archipelagoes (1902-06)
GABDINEB, or GABDENEB, LION (1599-
1663) An English settler in America He was
a military engineer, and saw service in the
Netherlands under the Pnnce of Orange In
1635 he arrived at Boston under contract to
serve for four years a company which had the
patent of a tract of land at the mouth of the
Connecticut River. There he built a fort which
he called Saybrook, and remained in command
until 1639, when he bought from the Indians
the island called by him the Isle of Wight, now
known as Gardiner's Island, the first English
settlement within the present limits of the State
of New York To his little domain of 9 miles
in length by 1% miles in width he gained
proprietary rights as lord of the manor Iri,
1653 he removed to Eaathamptom, Long Island,
with others who had bought 30,000 acres there
G-ABDIWEB
m 1649 His Relation of the Pequot Warres,
wiitlen in 1660, was edited by Cailton (Hart-
ford, 1901) with valuable notes Consult also
C C Gardiner, Papas and Biography of Lion
Gardmei (St Louis, 1883), and the same
author's Lion Gaidincv and his Descendants
(ib, 1890)
GABDIHEB,, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902)
An English historian He was a descendant of
Cionroell and Ireton, was born at liopley, neai
Alresford in Hampshire, Maich 4, 1829, and
was educated at Winchester and at Christ
Church, Oxfoid, where he was awarded a nist
class in hterce humaniores In 1884 he was
elected a research fellow of All Souls, and in
1892 he was awarded a similar fellowship at
Merton From 1877 to 1885 he was professor
of modern histoiy at King's College, London,
and was examiner in history at Oxford Univer-
sity, 1886-89 On the death of Froude, in
1894, he was offered, but declined, the regms
professorship of modern history at Oxford On
Aug 16, 1882, he was granted a Civil List
pension of £150 He was the recipient of several
honoiary degrees — LL D (1881) from Edin-
burgh, DCL (1895) fiom Oxford, and Litt D
(1899) from Cambudge Gardiner's fust im-
portant work was his History of England from
the Accession of James I to the Disgrace of Chief
Justice Coke, 1603-1616 (2 vols , 1863) Sub-
sequent installments appeared at vanous inter-
vals until 1881, when they were reissued in a
revised collective edition, the earlier volumes
much altered, under the title History of England
from the Accession of James I to the Outbreak
of the Great Civil War, 1608-1642 (10 vols,
1883-84) The History of the Great Civil War
appeared in 3 vols (1886-91), and was reissued
in a slightly revised form for the collective edi-
tion in 4 vols (1893) The third and last in-
stallment of the great combined woik, under the
title History of the Commonwealth and Pro-
tectorate, of which three volumes, including the
year 1656, appeared m 1894-1901, was arrested
by Mr Gardiner's death, which occuired Feb 23,
1902 He was the first English writer to treat
this controversial period in detail from a non-
partisan standpoint His work rests upon the
most labonous and exhaustive study of all the
sources of the period which has been attempted
In this his efforts were lightened for the earlier
part of the work by the various Calendars of
State Papers still in process of publication He
was also greatly favored by numerous dis-
coveries of new material, among which the most
important are that of the great collection known
as the Clarke manuscripts in the library of
Worcester College, Oxford, the Verney manu-
scripts, the "Paston Letters" of the seventeenth
century, the "Nicholas Papers," the "Hamilton
Papers," and the secret correspondence of the
papal agent Rossetti in England with Cardinal
Barberini In the history of the Long Parlia-
ment Mr Gardiner explains adequately for the
first time the rise of the Cavalier party, and the
division, growing into the Civil War, which
arose from differences of opinion in matters of
religion Besides his great work, Mr. Gardiner
edited numerous volumes for the Camden So-
ciety, and contributed many articles and reviews
to the English Historical Review, of which he
was editor from 1891 to 1901 He summarized
the results of his labors in the following recent
works' Cromwell's Place in History (1897),
Olwer Cromwell, a biography first published IB
GARDINER
467
GARDNER
an elaborately illustrated volume (1899) and
afterward in a cheaper form without the illus-
trations (1901). Other works are Constitu-
tional Documents of the Putitan devolution
(1889, 2d ed, 1899), What the Gunpowder
Plot Was (1897), The Thitty Teats' War,
1618-1648 (1874) , The First Two Stuai ts, and
the Puritan Revolution, 1603-1660 (1876) The
following aie textbooks A. Student's History
of England (3 vols , 1890-92) , with Mulhngei,
Introduction to the Study of English History
(1881, 3d ed, 1894) Consult Shaw, Brthog-
taphy of the Historical Works of Dr Creighton,
Dr Stul>1)8, Dr 8 R Gat diner (London, 1903)
GARDINER, STEPHEN (?U83-1555) An
English prelate and statesman, bom between
1483 and 1493 He was the son of John Gar-
diner, a prospeious cloth worker at Bury St,
Edmunds,, and studied at Trinity Hall, Cam-
bridge, where he distinguished himself in clas-
sics In 1520 he became doctor of civil law,
next year of canon law, and in both branches
speedily attained eminence In 1524 he was
appointed Rede lecturer in the university, and
the same year became tutor to a son of the
Duke of Norfolk That nobleman introduced
him to Cardinal Wolsey, who made him his
secretary In this capacity he gained the con-
fidence of Henry VIII, and in 1527 he and Sir
Thomas More weie the English commissioners
for negotiating with the French ambassadors
regarding the maintenance of an army in Italy
to oppose the Emperor The year following he
was sent with Edward Pox to negotiate with
the Pope for the King's divorce from Catharine
of Aragon His arguments were unavailing, but
on his return ho was appointed the King's
secretary In 1531 he was appointed Arch-
deacon of Leicester, and the same year was in-
stalled Bishop of Winchester, vacant by Wol-
sey's death, A determined opponent of the
Reformation and a stanch Catholic, he neverthe-
less wrote De Vera Ob edientia (1535) m support
of the King'a supremacy Various embassies to
France and Germany were now intrusted to him,
and after the execution of Thomas Cromwell,
Earl of Essex, whose downfall was due mainly
to him, he acquired great power The tale of
his impeachment of Catharine Parr and subse-
quent disgrace by Henry VIII is doubtful, but
on the accession of Edward VI he was imprisoned
for his opposition to the Reformation and de-
prived of his bishopric When Mary came to
the throne m 1553 she restored him to his see,
and made him Lord Chancellor and Prime
Minister He officiated at the Queen's corona-
tion, and at her nuptials with Philip of Spam.
How far he was responsible for the persecution
of Protestants during her reign is a debated
question He was a man of great erudition, and
a friend of learning in every form His writings
consist of a number of tracts on theological and
literary subjects, and include his interesting
letters to Sir John Cheke against the Anglicizing
of Greek pronunciation Although a worldly-
minded ecclesiast, he was a devoted and zealous
worker, and conspicuous for religious consist-
ency He died ISTov 12, 1555 Consult Cassan,
Iwes of the Bishops of Ww&hester, 2 vols. (Lon-
don, 1827) ; Cooper, Athence Oantaftrigiemis,
vol 11 (Cambridge, 1858), for his writings,
(Mrdner, betters and Papers . of the Reign
of Henry VIII (15 vols, London, 1862-96),
Brewer, Rmgw of Ewy VU1 (2 vols , London,
1884) j Maittad, Unsays on the Reformation in
England (London, 1849) , Dixon, History of the
Church of England (4 vols, London, 1878-91) ;
Froude, History of England ( 12 vols , New
\ork, 1870)
GAB/DUSTER, SYLVESTER (1707-80). An
American physician He was born in South
Kingston, R I , studied medicine in Paris and
London, and began practice in Boston He was
instrumental in colonizing that part of the
"Plymouth Purchase" lying along the Kennebec
JRrver, and in settling the town of Pittston, Me,
fiom which the present city of Gai diner, named
in his honor, was subsequently set off He
established a church and library there, and was
a leading member of King's Chapel, in Boston
On the outbreak of the Revolutionaiy War he
"joined the Loyalist element in Boston, and in
1776 lemoved to Halifax, N S, whence lie sub-
sequently removed to England, his name having
meanwhile been included in the proscription and
banishment act of 1778 In 1785 he returned to
this country, and settled at Newport, where he
died
GARDINER'S ISLAND A portion of Suf-
folk Co , N Y , lying 5 miles off Long Island on
the south side of the east entrance of Long
Island Sound, in the bay formed by the two
arms of Long Island (Map New York, C 2)
It has an area of 3300 acies It has been the
property of the Gardmor family since it was
bought from the Indians by Lion Gardiner in
1639 It was on this island that the noted
pirate ( or privateei ) Captain Kidd secreted
some of his treasure, which was afterward dis-
covered and appropriated
GABD'HEB A town in Worcester Co ,
Mass (Map Massachusetts, D 2), including the
villages of Gardner Centre, South Gardner, and
West Gardner, 27 miles northwest of Worcester,
on the Boston and Maine Railroad It has the
Henry Heywood Memorial Library and Museum,
the Heniy Heywood Memorial Hospital, a State
colony for the insane, an almshouse, and a home
for the aged, and Dunn and Crystal Lake parks
It is the seat of an extensive chair-manuf aetui -
ing mdustiy and has also manufactories of go-
carts, oil stoves, silverware, furniture, harness,
steam heaters, machinery, concrete blocks and
bricks, tinware, time recorders, etc The govern-
ment is administered by town meetings, con-
vened whenever necessary Gardner was in-
corporated as a town in 1785, its population
then being about 375 The water works are owned
by the municipality Pop, 1900, 10,813; 1910,
14,609, 1014 (U S est), 16,353, 1920, 16,971.
GABD3STEB, EDMUND GABBATT (1869- )
An English writer on Italian literature He was
born in London, was educated at Gonville and
Cams College, Cambridge, and studied medicine,
but devoted himself to the study of Dante,
Italian history and literature, and mysticism
He wrote Dante's Ten Heavens (1898) , A
Dante Primer (1900), The Story of Florence
(1900) , TJie Btory of Siena and San Gimignano
(1902), Dukes and Poets m Perrara (1904),
The Kmg of Court Poets (1906) , St Catherine
of Siena (1907) , The Painters of the School of
Werrara (1911) , Dante and the Mystics (1913)
GARDNER? ELIZABETH JANE (Maoc W A
BOUGUEREAIT) (1842- ) An American fig-
ure painter, born at Exeter, 1ST H She studied
in Paris under Merle, Lef ebvre, and finally under
Bouguereau, whom she afterward married, and
whose manner she adopted so successfully that
some of her work might toe mistaken for hxs.
G-ABDNEIt
468
GABETH
Like him she excels m graceful draftsmanship
and tender sentiment, but is deficient in color,
truthfulness, and vitality Among the best of
her works are "Cinderella," "Cornelia and Her
Jewels," "Connne," "Fortune Teller," "Maud
Mullet," "Daphne and Chloe," "Ruth and
Naomi/' "The Farmer's Daughter," "The Breton
Wedding," and some portraits
GARDNER, BENEST ARTHUR (1862- ).
An English classical archaeologist, born in
London He was educated at the City of
London School, and at Gonville and Cams Col-
lege, Cambridge, of which he was fellow 1885-
94 After 1884 he devoted himself to archaeo-
logical work, and was director of the British
School of Archaeology at Athens (1887-95) He
became Yates professor of archaeology in Uni-
versity College, London, and public orator of the
University of London (1910) He conducted the
excavations at Naucratis m Egypt (1885-86),
and earned on explorations in Cypius, in Samos,
at Megalopolis, and on many other sites in
Greece His publications include Catalogue of
Vases in the Fitzwilham Museum (1897) , An-
cient Ath&ns (1902) , Introduction to Greek
Epigraphy, with E S Roberts (1905), Six
Greek Sculptors (1910) He was a fiequent
contributor to archaeological journals, and in
1897 became coeditor of the Joui nal of Hellenic
Studies
GARDNER, GEORGE (1812-49) A Scottish
botanist, born in Glasgow He studied at the
University of Glasgow, qualified as a surgeon,
turned his attention from medicine to botany,
and, assisted by subscriptions obtained in great
part through the influence of his instructor, Sir
W J Hooker, explored Brazil from May, 1S36,
to the close of 1840 Duung his absence he
forwarded to England 60,000 specimens divided
among 3000 different species His total number
of specimens represented more than 6000 differ-
ent species In 1842 he was elected a member of
the Lmnsean Society of London, m 1844 was ap-
pointed superintendent of the botanical garden
of Ceylon, and m 1845 visited India for botaniz-
ing purposes, and became an associate editor of
the Calcutta Journal of Natural History He
aided H B Fielding in the writing of Bertum
Plantarum (1844), published Traiels in the In-
terior of Brawl (1846), and many papers in the
London Journal of Botany and other periodicals
ChARIOTER, HENBf BRAYTON (1863- ).
An American political economist and educator,
born in Providence, R I He graduated in 1884
at Brown University, studied at Johns Hopkins
University, and in 1898 was appointed professor
of political economy at Brown In 1897-98 lie
was vice president of the American Economic
Association, and in 1912 became a vice president
of the American Statistical Association His
publications include Statistics of Municipal Fi-
nance (1889, in new series, No 2, of the Ameri-
can Statistical Association's publications), and
a second monograph under the same title m new-
series, No 2 (1899), of the publications of the
American Economic Association
GARDNER, PEUCY (1846- ), An Eng-
lish classical archseologist, born at Hackney and
educated at the City of London School and at
Christ's College-, Cambridge He was professor of
archaeology at Cambridge (1880-87) ; and there-
after professor of classical archaeology at Oxford
Professor Gardner is best known for his publica-
tions on ancient numismatics. Among his works
are: Types of Greek Coins (1883) > with Imhof-
Blurner, "A Numismatic Commentary on Pau-
sanias/J in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vi-viu
(1885-87), ~New Chapters in Greek nistoiy
(1892), with Jevons, a Manual of Gteek An
tiquities (1895, 2d ed , 1898), Sculptured
Tombs of Hellas (1896), An Historic View of
the Neio Testament (1901), A Grammar of
Greek Art (1905), Growth of Christianity
(1907) , The Principles of Greek Art (1914)
GABDBTEK. G-UN A machine gun consist-
ing of one, two, 01 five simple breech -loading n fle
ban els, placed parallel, about 14 inches apart,
in a case or compartment The ban els are
loaded, fired, and relieved of shells by one i evolu-
tion of the hand crank These guns, of 45-inch
calibre, are no longer used m the United States
service, but have been leplaced by the automatic
Machine rifle, calibre 30, a smgle-bairel, poi ta-
ble gun, capable of great rapidity of fire Tlu
inventor of the Gardner gun \\as Captain Gaid-
ner of the United States army See MACHINE
GUN
aARDOJtfE-RIVIEUA, gai-do'na re've-fi'ia
A winter re&oit consisting of eight villages on
the west shore of Lake Garda (qv ), in noith
Ital} It is shelteiod by the mountains from all
law winds, and, in wmtei, has little lam, much
sunshine, and an even tempeiatuie Beautiful
villas have been built along its lake promenades
and mountain gorges since 1885, when it became
popular with Austnans and Geimans It is now
visited by invalids and tourists fiom all parts
of the world Pop (commune), 1901, 1987,
1911, 2230
G-ARDTHAUSEN", gardt-hou'zen, VICTOB
(EMIL) (1843- ) A German histouan and
paleographer He was born in Copenhagen, was
educated at the universities of Kiel and Bonn,
and at the University of Leipzig was librarian
for many yeais (down to 1907) and, after 1877,
professor of ancient history He published Col-
leetanea, Amm^anea (1869), Z)*e geographische
Quellen Ammians (1873), and an edition of
Ammianus Marcellmus (1875), standard woiks
on this author until the publication of Clark's
edition (1910), the important Augustus und
seine Zeit (2 vols, 1891-1904) , and a valuable
GneeMsclie Palaogi aphie ( 1879 3 2d ed , 1911-13 )
OAREFOWL, 01 GAIBEQWL, gar'foul'
(Icel #e^/w#Z, Swed gaifogel, Dan geirfugly
Eng gerfalcon ,, connected with OHG glr, Ger
Geier, vulture, OHG ger, giri, greedy + fugl,
AS fugol, Ger Vogel, fowl) The great auk
(Plautus impenms) once frequently seen in the
Hebrides, but now extmct It was the largest
of its race, standing about 29 inches high, and
resembling a big razorbill It was black above
and white beneath in winter, the head changing
to snuff brown in summer Its small wings were
useless for .flying, and it waddled about with
gieat difficulty on land Its defenselessness and
stupidity made it easy to kill, even with clubs,
and at first it was slaughtered and its rookeries
robbed of eggs for food or amusement Later
the demand for its feathers caused its rapid
destruction, and the last bird was killed about
1844 See AUK
OA/RETH, SIB The youngest son of King
Lot and Morgame in the Arthurian legends He
entered the court of his uncle, King Arthur,
concealing his identity at the request of his
mother, and received from Sir Kay the nickname
Beaurnams At the expiration of a year he
received knighthood and, at the request of Lmet,
liberated her sister Liones, who was imprisoned
GARFIELD
469
GABJTIELD
in Castle Perilous, and whom he afterward
wedded Tennyson's "Gareth and Lynette" has
some variations
GAB'FIELD A borough in Bergen Co,
N J , 10 miles northwest of New York City, on
the Ene Railroad and on the Passaic River, op-
posite Passaic It has woolen nulls, knitting
mills, embroidery works, stone works, a machine
shop, and manufactuies of clothing, wax paper,
pei fumes, chemicals, rubber goods, cigars, jew-
elry cases, paper boxes, etc Incorporated in
1898, it is governed by a mayor and a um-
cameral council The water woiks are owned
by the borough Pop, 1900, 3504, 1910, 10,213;
1014 (TT S eat), 13,071, 1020, 10381
GABEIELB, HARRY AUGUSTUS (1803-1917 ).
An American college president, son of James A.
Garfield He was born at Hn am, Portage Co ,
Ohio. Graduating from Williams College in
1885, he taught at Concord, N H, in 1885-86,
practiced law at Cleveland, Ohio, from 1888 to
1903, was professor of contracts at the Western
Reserve University Law School in 1891-97, and
served as professor of politics at Princeton Uni-
versity from 1903 to 1908. In the lattei year
he was chosen president of Williams In 1896
he organized and later he was president of the
Cleveland Municipal Association, and he was
also president of the Cleveland Chamber of
Commerce in 1898-99
GAB/FIELD, JAMES ABEAM (1831-81).
Twentieth President of the United States. He
was born in a log cabin at Orange, Cuyahoga
Co, Ohio, Nov 19, 1831, was left fatherless
when two years of age, and his youth was spent
an alternate periods of study at 'school and hard
manual work for his own support He worked
on a faim until his seventeenth year, when he
left home and was engaged to drive horses and
mules on the towpath of the Ohio Canal, later
he was engaged as a deck hand Returning
home, he entered the Geauga Seminary at Ches-
ter, Ohio, m his eighteenth year, and began the
study of Latin, Greek, and algebra In 1851 he
entered the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute
(now Hirarn College) at Hiram, Ohio, and in
1854 entered Williams College, Mass, where he
graduated with high honor in 1856 The same
year he became teacher of Latin and Greek in
the institute at Hiram, Ohio, and a year later
he was elected president of that institution
Before entering college, he had united with the
Disciples Church, in which he had been brought
up, and, according to the usage of that de-
nomination, though never formally ordained to
the ministry, he often preached In 1858 he
entered his name as a student with a law firm
in Cleveland, Ohio, and, though his study was
carried on by himself at Hiram, he was admitted
to the bar in 1861 Having taken some part as
a Republican in the campaign of 1856, he was
in 1859 elected to represent the counties of Por-
tage and Summit in the State Senate In Au-
gust, 1861, he was appointed lieutenant colonel
of volunteers, and in September colonel. In
December he reported for duty to General Buell
at Louisville, Ky , and was ordered in command
ol a brigade of four regiments of infantry, to
repel the Confederates under General Marshall
from the valley of tfce Big Sandy River. He
accomplished the task in January, 1862, de-
feating Marshall in the battle of Middle Creek,
and forcing him to retreat from tke State He
was commissioned brigadier general, was placed
in coawmand of tli© TwemtiefcE Brigade, and was
ordcied to ]Oin General Buell He reached,
with his brigade, the field of Shiloh on the second
day of the battle, and aided in the final repulse
of the enemy, and next day, at the front with
Sherman, took part in the attack on the enemy's
lear guard He participated in the siege of
Corinth, and, after its evacuation, was detailed
to rebuild the railroad to Decatur In October,
1862, he served on a court of inquiry, and in
November on the court-martial which tried
General Fitz John Porter In February, 1863,
he joined the Army of the Cumberland under
Rosecrans, -just after the battle of Stone River,
and was appointed chief of staff In the dis-
cussion \uth regard to a forward movement,
Gaifiehl, as chief of staff, collated the written
opinions of the seventeen corps, division, and
ca\ahy generals, and summarized their sub-
stance with cogent arguments of his own This
icpoit induced Rosecrans to move forward, con-
tiaiy to the opinions of most of his generals, in
the 'Tullalioma campaign, opening the way for
the advance on Chattanooga In the battle of
Chicka manga, Scptembei 10 and 20, Gai field
issued the oideis, as chief of staff, and after
the retreat of the light of the army rode under
file across country and took word to Thomas,
commanding the left wing, of the necessi-
ties of the situation, and, under Thomas, as-
sisted in retrieving the disaster Garfield was
sent to Washington with dispatches, and was
promoted to the rank of major general for his
heroism and splendid services in the battle
Having been elected a Eepresentative in Con-
gress, he yielded to the solicitation of Lincoln,
lesigned his commission Dec 53 1863, and
took his seat in the House of Representatives,
where he joined the radical wing of the Republi-
can party and served as member of the Military
Committee until the close of the war Largely
through his efforts and arguments, the commu-
tation clause of the Enrollment Act was re-
pealed, and the draft enforced at a time when
otherwise the aimy would have been fatally de-
pleted He was in New York studying the
subject of finance when the news of Lincoln's
assassination was received, and he stilled an ex-
cited and angry crowd in Wall Street with the
memorable words "Fellow Citizens, God reigns,
and the government at Washington still lives'"
On March 16, 1866, as a member of the Com-
mittee of Ways and Means, he made an elabo-
rate speech on the public debt and specie pay-
ments In 1867-68, as also later, he took strong
ground against the improper inflation of the
currency In December, 1867, he returned to
the Military Committee as chairman, and held
that place during the discussions on the recon-
struction of the Southern States, delivering a
speech Jan 17, 1868, on the power of Con-
gress in this relation, in which he severely criti-
cized the action of the President, and the course
of Major General Hancock m his celebrated
"Order No 40 " He also sustained the motion to
impeach the President Later he was chairman
of the Committee on Banking and Currency, and
of a special committee to investigate the cause
of the gold panic in September, 1869, which cul-
minated in the crisis of "Black Friday" He
also drafted a bill for the taking of the
census of 1870, which was rejected by Congress,
but was made the basis of the law passed ten
years later for the census of 1880 In 1871-75
he served as chairman of the Committee on
Appropriations, and in this capacity introduced
GABFIELD
470
GARGAUO
many important reforms In 1873 charges of
corruption \vere made against him in relation to
the Credit Mobiher (qv ) These attracted at-
tention throughout the country, and especially
in his own congressional district After earnest
discussion he was renommated by the three-
fourths vote of the convention, and was reelected
by a large majority. The charges were renewed
two years later, but were met with greater
strength In 1876 there was no opposition in
the convention, and in 1878 he was reelected by
a large majority In the Forty-fourth Congress
(1875-77) the Democratic party was in the
majority G-arfield became a member of the
Committee of Ways and Means He was a fre-
quent and careful speaker on important meas-
uies, and was recognised as one of the leaders of
the minority After the presidential election of
1876, he was one of the prominent Republicans
lequested to witness the counting of votes in
Louisiana, and one of two Republican members
appointed by the House of Representatives tt> sit
in the Electoral Commission ( q v ) In Decem-
ber, 1876, he was nominated bj his party for
Speaker of the House of Representatives, and re-
ceived the same nomination on two subsequent
occasions In the Forty-fifth Congress ( 1877-79 )
he earnestly advocated the resumption of specie
payments, and spoke against the Bland Silver
Bill In January, 1880, he was elected by the
Ohio Legislatuie to the United States Senate
In the Republican National Convention at Chi-
cago, June, 1880, he was an eainest advocate of
the nomination of John Sherman of Ohio The
convention was divided between the advocates of
General Grant and the opposition favoiing
James G- Blame, John Sherman, and others.
Grarfield was not at first considered a candidate,
but after more than thirty ballots without a
choice, and earnest discussion in which, as well
as in the advocacy of his favorite candidate, he
wan the admiration of delegates from all sec-
tions, lie received the nomination In November
he received 214 electoral votes as against 155
for his opponent on the Democratic ticket, G-en
Winfield S Hancock, and was inaugurated on
March 4, 1881 With the single exception of
Robert T Lincoln, Secretary of War, his cabi-
net, headed by James G Blame, as Secretary of
State, was drawn from that wing of the Repub-
lican party of which Garfield himself was a
member, and which antagonized the so-called
''Stalwarts" (q v ), among whom the Vice Presi-
dent, Arthur, ranked himself* Both in public
and in private, however, Garfield had signified
his earnest desire to unite all factions in sup-
port of his administration, and the people in gen-
eral were disposed to trust in his promises On
March 23 the President sent in the name of
William H Robertson as his appointee to the
office of collector of the port of New York As
Mr Robertson was known to be a political enemy
of Senator Conklmg, the leading spirit among
the "Stalwarts/* Conklmg looked upon the nomi-
nation as an affront to himself, and when he
found that he could not prevent the Senate from
confirming it, he and his colleague, Thomas
C Platt, resigned their offices (May 16)
and returned to New York to seek vindication
by reelection The New York Legislature, how-
ever, refused to reelect either one, and after a
long and tedious struggle Messrs Lap ham and
Warner Miller were chosen in their stead
Meanwhile the President's nomination had been
confirmed in the Senate, and the breach between
the Stalwarts and the ad ministration wa&i hope-
lessly widened On July 2 Chailes J Guiteau, a
man whose vanity had been offended bv the
refusal of an office", and whose unbalanced brain
had been excited by the dissensions m the Re-
publican party, shot Garfield in the railway
station at Washington The crime excited the
horror and execration of all parties alike, and
foreign nations joined in the universal soriow
and indignation For eighty days Garfield
lingered between life and death Towards the
end of August his medical attendants felt that
his last chance of recovery depended on his
removal from the malarious climate of Wash-
ington, and on September 6 he was taken by
tram to Elberon, N J, where he died thirteen
days later, on the 10th The assassin Guiteau
was convicted after a protracted trial in which
the only defense offered was that of insanity,
and was hanged in the jail at Washington on
June 30, 1882
There is no satisfactory biography of Garfield
His writings were collected and edited by B A.
Hinsdale (Boston, 1882) There are numerous
accounts of his life which weie written for cam-
paign purposes or immediately after his death,
among them Conwell, Life, Speeches, and Public
Services of Gen James A G-arfield (Boston,
1880), Grieen, A Royal Life, or the Eventful
Eistory of James A Q-w field (Chicago, 1882) ,
Lossmg, A Biography of James A Garfield
(New York, 1882) , Ridpath, The Life and Work
of James A G-arfield (Cincinnati, 1882) Con-
sult also Pedder, Garfield's Place in Eistot/y
(New York, 1882) , Hinsdale, President Gar-
field and Education (Boston, 1882) , Stoddard,
Hayes Gf-arfield and Arthur (New
York, 1889) Dodge, Biography of James G
Blame (New York, 1895), is valuable for its
Garfield-Blame correspondence.
aABPIELt), JAMES RUDOLPH (1865- ).
An American lawyer and government official,
the son of President Garfield He was born at
Hiram, Ohio, graduated at Williams College in
1885, and after studying law at the Columbia
Law School was admitted to the bar in 1888
He served in the Upper House of the Ohio Legis-
lature in 1896-99, and in 1903 became Commis-
sioner of the Bureau of Corporations in the
Federal Department of Commerce and Labor,
During 1905 and 1906 he investigated the
methods of the western beef packers and of the
Standard Oil Company President Roosevelt ap-
pointed him. Secretary of the Interior in 1907,
and before his retirement in 1909 he had com-
pletely reorganized the department He wa&
especially active in the land-office reforms He
took a prominent part in the organization of
the Progressive party in 1912
aARMELD MONUMENT A monument
at Cleveland, Ohio., in memory of the martyred
President, dedicated May 30, 1890 Its cost,
$135,000, was defrayed by popular subscription
The monument is a round tower, 50 feet in diam-
eter and 148 feet high, containing a marble statue
of G-arfield
GABFISH. See GAB
GAK/Gb&JtfET. A European teal duck (Quer-
quddMla wrwa or Anas querquedula) resembling
the American blue-winded teal (see TEAL),
which never ranges far> north of central Europe,
but is known eastward to China It is also
called "summer teal "
GAUGANO, gar-ga'nS (Lat &®rffanus). A
peninsula on the easi coast of south. Italy ex-
tending into the Adriatic, containing both Monte
Gargano and Monte Sant' Angelo (Map Italy,
02), separated from the lest o± the Apennines,
by the broad \alley of the Candelaio Al-
though now quite treeless, it was lenowned foi
its oaks during Roman times It is 54 miles
long, 27 miles broad, and in Mount Calvo uses
to the height of 3465 feet
GAUGA^'TITA, Fr pron gar'gaN'tu'a' A
leading chaiacter in Rabelais' s satire, The Grand
and Inestimable Ohromcles of the G-rand and
Enormous Giant Gargantua (1531) He ap-
pears also in another Gargantua, (1535), the
first pait of the work now known as Qargantua
and Pantagruel (1532-64) See RABELAIS
GABGA'PHIA The name of a valley near
Platsea in Greece, the place where Actceon ( q v )
\\as toin to pieces by his own hounds (Ovid,
Met, in, 156)
GAK/GAHA, or GAB/GABTTS See IDA
GAK/GERY, JOE A simple, open-hearted
blacksmith, in Dickens's Great Eapectatiom
GARGET, gar'get See MAMMITIS
GARGET ROOT. See PIIYTOLACCA
GARGLE, or GAR'GARISM (OF gargowlle,
throat, from Lat gurguho, gullet) One of a
group of medicines intended to be ejected from
the mouth after having been churned about in
the back part of the mouth and throat, to
cleanse paits affected with discharges from
ulcers, or to act as astringents ( q v ) or stimu-
lants (qv ) in sore throat The best gargles
aie composed of boric acid solution, or alcohol
and water, of chlorine water or solution of
peimanganate of potash, in putrescent cases, of
alum or capsicum, when a stimulating effect
is required, of tannin or oak-bark decoction
with alum or borax, in case a pure astringent is
needed Gargles should never contain any drug
that would act as a poison if swallowed, nor
substances that would injure the teeth
GAR'GOYLE (OF gargoille, gargomlle, Fi
gargomlle, throat, connected with Lat gurguho,
throat). A projecting spout, discharging the
GARGOYLES
Decorating the sacristy bf the cathedral of Notre Dame
at Pans
water from the roof gutters, of buildings Gar-
goyles of various forms have been used in almost
all styles of architecture Early examples are
found in the temples of Edfu and Denderah in
The name is sometimes applied to the
1 OARIBALDI
gutter outlets of Gieek and Etruscan temples
carved in marble or teira cotta into the form of
lions* or other heads or grotesque faces But
it is more commonly understood to designate
the long and grotesquely caived spouts charac-
teristic of Gothic architectuie, with heads of
men, beasts, or bucis in pieposterous combina-
tions with bodies, wings, and paws of monsters
Some of them aic famous, notably those ot
Notie Dame in Paris In late castellated build-
ings they fiequently assume the form of small
cannons projecting from the parapet In mod-
ern times the use of metal pipes to convey the
water from loofs has almost entirely superseded
the use of gargoyles
GAKIBALDI (so called from its color, red
having been \\oin by adherents of Garibaldi)
A name in California for the red peich (Uypsy-
pops rufocunda)
GABIBALBI, ga'rS-bal'dfc, GIUSEPPE (1807-
82) An Italian patriot and hberatoi, born at
Nice, July 4, 1807 He \tas a sailoi's son and
adopted the sea as his ovin calling and as early
as 1830 was in command of a bug It was
about this time that he became inteiested in the
Italian national movement, ^Inch afteiwaicl be-
came the great passion of his life He made the
acquaintance of Mazzmi and othei leaders of
Young Italy in 1833 and became imbued with
an unquenchable hatred of despotism Ho was
compromised by his participation in the futile
outbreak at Genoa in 1834 and fled to French
territory, while his condemnation to death was
published in Italy He resumed his seafanng
life and sailed to South Amenca, where he took
an active part in the stmggle of the new Re-
public of Uruguay, against the Argentine Dic-
tator, Manuel Rosas He distinguished himself
as an intrepid partisan leader on sea and land
and contracted a romantic marriage with Anita,
the remarkable woman who for several years
shared his campaigns Upon receiving news of
the rising of northern Italy against Austria in
1848, Garibaldi hastened to Europe to share in
the struggles of his count* ymen He bore an
effective part in the whole of the Sardinian cam-
paign as the commander ot a volunteer corps
He then joined the revolutionary government at
Home and distinguished himself by his defense
of the city against the French foices under
Oudmot in June and July, 1849 After a retreat
of unparalleled difficulty through districts occu-
pied by Austrian forces, Garibaldi, accompanied
by his heroic wife, set sail in a small fishing
craft towards Venice, but being pursued by
Austrian vessels, they were compelled to land
where they could, and, not far from the shore,
his wife, exhausted by the dangers and terrible
exertions of their flight, expired in the arms of
her husband Garibaldi at length reached Genoa
in safety and thence embarked for Tunis He
afterward lived on Staten Island, N Y, sup-
porting himself by making candles in a factory,
revisited South America, and commanded an
American trading-vessel on the Pacific coast
Returning to Europe in 1854, Garibaldi ac-
cepted the Sardinian monarchy as the hope
of Italy, m the years preceding the War of
1859 As the head of an irregular auxiliary
force of the Piedmontese aimy on the com-
mencement of hostilities in 1859, his services
were brilliant and effective, notwithstanding the
limited scope assigned for his operations In
1860 he landeitook the most momentous enter-
prise of his career After the disappointing
472
GAUIBALJDI
Peace of Villafranea had defeated the hope of
liberation from the Austrian yoke just when it
seemed to be appi caching realization, the Italian
people resumed the revolutionaiy operations
which had been temporarily suspended in the
hope that Italian unity would be accomplished
through the efforts of Saidmia In Sicily, early
in I860, disturbances broke out, and Francesco
Crispi (qv) obtained from Garibaldi a promise
of assistance In fulfill ment of this promise
Garibaldi assembled at Genoa a volunteer force
of 1070 patriots, and on May 5 set sail for the
island of Sicily On the llth his two small
transport steamers reached Marsala in safety,
and the landing of his followeis was success-
fully effected in sight and partially under the
fire of the Neapolitan fleet On the 15th, in the
battle of Calatafimi, 3600 Neapolitan troops
were routed by Garibaldi's small force, and this
opening victory cleared the way to Paleimo
On the 27th. of the same month Garibaldi and
his little army occupied the heights which com-
manded Palermo, and after a desperate conflict
with the Royalist troops fought their way into
the city, which for several subsequent days had
to sustain a ruthless bombardment from the
united fire of the Neapolitan garrison and fleet
The intervention of the British fleet, however,
and the isolated and destitute condition of the
garrison shut up in the forts, induced the Nea-
politan general to capitulate (June 6), and on
his departure \uth his troops Garibaldi le-
mained in undisputed possession of the city and
strongholds of Palermo He issued a proclama-
tion as Dictator in the name of Italy and Victor
Emmanuel, armed the citizens, and on July 20,
at the head of 2500 men, he gave battle at
Milazzo to 7000 Neapolitans, who were com-
pletely defeated and compelled to evacuate that
fortress On the 25th the Neapolitans were
driven back into Messina, into which Q-aribaldi
made his triumphal entry on the 27th
On August 19 Garibaldi crossed over into
Calabria and was immediately joined by large
bodies of volunteers from all directions, by
whom he was accompanied on his memorable
and eventful march to Naples On September 5
his army, which then amounted to 25,000 or
30,000 men, occupied Salerno on the withdiawal
of the Royalists, and on the 7th, amid the
frenzied enthusiasm of the inhabitants, Gari-
baldi entered Naples, with only one or two
friends, to prove to Europe that his advent was
that of a welcome liberator and not of a con-
queror On the previous day the capital had
sullenly witnessed the withdrawal of the King,
Francis II, to the fortress of Gaeta On the
1st of October the Royalist troops, numbering
15,000 men, advanced from Capua and attacked
the whole line of Ganbaldians spread along the
Volturno Finally the Royalists were driven
back to Capua in disorder Victor Emmanuel,
at the head of the Sardinian army, now crossed
the papal frontier, routed the troops under
LamonciSre, and passed on into the Kingdom
of Naples, where Garibaldi relinquished into his
sovereign's hands the unconditional disposal of
his army and absolute sway over the Neapolitan
provinces Francis II was now besieged by the
Sardinian forces in his stronghold of Gaeta,
where on Feb 13, 1861, he was compelled to
surrender to Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi re-
tired to Caprera, but in June, 1862, he razsed
a force of volunteers at Palermo, invaded Cala-
bria, and marched upon Borne, which he be-
lieved must be wiested from the Pope before
the unity of Italy could be accomplished Victor
Emmanuel, feaung that Garibaldi's attempt on
Rome would bring about foieign intervention
with disastrous consequences to Italy, dis-
patched an aimy to check his pi ogress Gari-
baldi was defeated by the Italian troops at
Aspromonte (August 29) and taken prisoner,
but was pardoned in October
During the campaign of 1866 Garibaldi took
the field and was engaged in operations against
the Austiians in the Tirol The year 1867 was
disastrous for him Impatient of the long de-
lays in completing the unification of Italy and
bitteily opposed to the papal powei, he organ-
ized an open invasion of the Papal States, which
the Italian government could not countenance.
France came to the aid of the Pope, the Gari-
baldians weie defeated at Mentana (November
3), and their leader was made a prisoner, but
was afteiwaid allowed to leturn to Caprera, m
the neighborhood of which a man-of-war was
stationed to prevent his escape He left Caprera
to fight for the French Republic in 1S70 and
was nominated to the command of the irregular
foices in the region of Burgundy In 1871 he
Mas returned a deputy to the French National
Assembly \\hich met at Bordeaux, but encoun-
tered such bitter cuticism of his conduct duung
the war that he returned to Capieia He en-
tered the Italian Parliament in 1874 Aftei
much hesitation he accepted from the Parlia-
ment an annual pension of 10,000 lire In 1860
Garibaldi was inveigled into an unhappy mar-
riage with the Countess Raimondi, which was
annulled in 1879, when he mairied Francesca, a
peasant, who had been m his family's house-
hold for many years He died at Caprera, June
2, 18S2 Ganbaldi's novels, delta and Cantom
^l volontano, have little literary value Of his
two sons by his first wife the elder one, Menotti
(1845-1903), fought with credit by his father's
side, the younger, Ricciotti (1847- ), was
for some time deputy
Bibliography The first work in importance
is naturally Garibaldi's own Memoirs, trans-
lated into English by Werner, and published
under the title, Autobiography of Giuseppe Gari-
laldi (London, 1889) This authorized edition
contains a supplement by Jessie White Mano
and embodies all that Garibaldi wished to have
published Much is omitted which Garibaldi
preferred not to discuss, and there are many
minor eriors, as the memoiis were written en-
tirely from memory, without verification of dates
and other facts The volumes are, nevertheless,
of great value Dwight, Life of G-eneral Gari-
baldi, Translated from Ms Private Papers (New
York, new ed , 1903 ) , is also autobiographical
Consult also Bent, The Life of Giuseppe Gari-
baldi (London, 1881), G Guerzoni, Garibaldi
(2 vols, Florence, 1882) , Marriott, The Makers
of Modern Italy (New York, 1889), which in-
cludes an Oxford lecture on Garibaldi, Stiavelli,
Garibaldi neHa letteratura italiana (Rome,
1901) , F Bidischini, Garibaldi nella vita intima
(ib, 1907) , R Tliurston, Garibaldi and Ms
Friends (New York, 1907), Trevelyan, Gari-
baldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (ib,
1907) , H N Gay, Lincoln's Offer of a Command
to Garibaldi (ib , 1907), R S Holland, Build-
ers of Modern Italy (ib, 1908)? Trevelyan,
Garibaldi and the Thousand (ib , 1909) , A V
Vecchi, La vita e le geste ck G Garibaldi
(Bologna, 1910), Trevelyan, Ganbald* and
GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI
RIVER
473
GABXJC
the MaUng of Italy (New Yoik, 1911). See
ITALY
GABIEP' BIVEB See ORANGE RIVER
GABIGLIANO, ga're-lya'no (Lat Lms, eai-
lier Clams) A river of south Italy, 92 miles
long, which rises in the Abruzzi as the Liri It
receives the waters of the Sacco3 the Melsa (at
this point changing its name to G-angliano ) ,
and the Rapido, and then flows sluggishly
through maishes, past the imns of Mmturnse,
into the Gulf of Gaeta, 10 miles east of Gaeta
In the marshy swamps near the river Marius
found concealment when puisued by Sulla On
its banks m 1503 the Spaniards, under Cordova,
won a famous victory over the French On ISTov
3, I860, the Neapolitan troops north of the river
were defeated by the Sardinians, and as a result
the investiture of Gaeta began
GABIGTJE, ga're-g7. (Fr, uncultivated land,
Cat gatriga, from garrig, oak) A term applied
to the barren and rocky desert-like areas of the
Mediterranean region, where neithei shrubs nor
trees give tone to the landscape
GAB'LAITO, AUGUSTUS HILL (1832-99) An
American politician He was born in Tipton
Co , Tenn , but when less than a year old was
taken by his parents to Arkansas He was edu-
cated at St Mary's College, Lebanon, Ky , and
at St Joseph's College, Bardstown, Ky, stud-
ied law, and was admitted to the Arkansas bar
in 1853 He was a Whig, and opposed secession
in the State Convention of 1861, but finally
went with his State He was elected to the
provisional Congress of the Confederate States
in 1861; was elected to the House of the Con-
federate Congress in 1862, and afterward was
a member of the Confederate Senate until the
close of the war He then practiced law 111
Little Kock and carried to the Fedeial Supreme
Court a case in which he got a decision against
the "ironclad" oath that prevented those who
had been in the service of the Confederacy from
practicing in United States courts In 1866 he
was elected to the United States Senate, but
was not seated In the Brooks-Baxter "war"
for the governorship of Arkansas, Garland aided
Baxter In 1874-77 he was Governor of Ar-
kansas under the new constitution He was a
member of the United States Senate from 1877
to 1885 and in 1885-89 was Attorney- General of
the United States in the cabinet of President
Cleveland From 1889 to 1899 he practiced law
in Washington, D C , and was stricken suddenly
while pleading before the Supreme Court
G-ABLAISTD, HAMLIN" (1860- ). An
American poet and story writer, born at La
Crosse, Wis His youth was passed in various
Western towns He completed his school edu-
cation at Cedar Valley Seminary, Osage, Iowa,
in 1881, farmed and taught m Illinois and Da-
kota, went to Boston in 1884, and devoted him-
self to literature there till 1891, since when he
has lived chiefly in the West His first book
was Mam-Traveled Roads (1890), frankly realis-
tic fiction Somewhat similai in character are
A Spoil of Office (1892) , Prairie Folks (1893) ,
A Little Norsk (1891) , Rose of Butcher's Coolly
(1895) Other novels are Jason Edwards
(1891), A Member of the Third House (1892) ,
Wayside Courtships ( 1897 ) , Her Mountain
Lover (1901) He has also written a volume
of criticism entitled Grumbling Idols (1894) 3
Prairw Sonffs (1894), a volume of verse, Ulys-
ses Orant* Sis Life and Character (1898) , The
Eagle's ft&art (1900) ; The Qaptaw of the
Horse Troop (1902) , Hester (1903) ; The
of the Star (1904), The Tyranny of the Dark
(1905) , Victor Olnee's Discipline (1911) , Forest-
er's Daughter ( 1914) He became known for real-
istic work chiefly interesting for its local color
GABLAWD, LANDON CABELL (1810-95) An
American educator, born in Nelson Co, Va
He graduated in 1829 at Hampden-Sidney Col-
lege (Va ) , m 1834 accepted the chair of physics
in Randolph-Macon College (Va ), and from 1835
to 1847 was president of that institution In
1847-53 he was professor of mathematics and
astronomy in the University of Alabama, of
which he was president from 1855 to 1866, after
serving for two years as president of the North-
eastern Southwestern Railroad, from 1866 to
1875 he was professor of physics and astronomy
in the University of Mississippi, and in 1875 lie
became chancellor and professor of physics in
Vanderbilt University He resigned from the
chancellorship m 1893 He published Trigo-
nometry, Plane and Spherical (1841), one of a
projected series of textbooks, the remaining
manuscupts of which were destroyed by fire
GAR'LIC (AS garleac, from gar, spear -f-
UaOf leek, so called from the shape of the
leaves), Allium satwum A bulbous-rooted
plant, native of the Bast, cultivated from the
earliest ages The stem rises to the height of
about 2 feet, is unbranched, and bears at the top
an umbel of a few whitish flowers, mixed with
many small bulbs The leaves are grasshke,
obscurely keeled, and not fistulous like those of
the onion The bulb, which is the part eaten,
consists of about 12 to 15 ovate-oblong cloves 01
subordinate bulbs It has a penetrating and
powerful onion-like odor and taste It is in
geneial use as a condiment with other articles
of food in southern Europe, but has only a
limited use m the United States Garlic, or its
fiesh juice, is also used m medicine It owes
its properties chiefly to oil of gar lie The culti-
vation of garlic is extremely easy , it is generally
propagated by its cloves Many species of the
genus AlUum are popularly called garlic, with
some distinctive addition Allium oleraceum is
sometimes called wild garlic in England, and its
young and tender leaves are used as a potherb
Its leaves are semicylindrical, and grooved on
the upper side, and its stamens are all simple
In America wild garlic is Allium vmeale, a
perennial also known as field garlic and wild
onion This is a serious weed pest in pastures,
hay and grain fields of the eastern United States
from New York to South Carolina When eaten
by cattle, it imparts a very disagreeable odor
and flavor to the milk, butter, cheese, and other
dairy products The species has hollow, thread^
like leaves surrounding a slender scape, which
bears an umbel of greenish -white or rose-colored
flowers in midsummer, wliich are followed in
early autumn by either seeds or bulblets The
easiest way to eradicate it in fields is to alter-
nate heavy cropping with clean cultivation See
ALLIXJM, ALLIACEOUS PLANT, Plate of OITCONS,
ETC
GARLIC, OIL OF When cloves of garlic are
distilled with water, about 0 2 per cent of a
brown heavy oil, with an acrid taste and a
strong disagreeable smell, passes over By care-
ful rectification from a salt-water1 bath, about
two-thirds of the oil may be obtained in the
form of a yellow liquid, which, 'is lighter than
water, and which, when treated with fused cal-
cium chloride (in order to dry it), and subse-
474
quently distilled fiom fiaginents of potassium,
passes over puie and colorless as allyl sulphide,
an 01 game compound of very considerable inter-
est, whose formula is (03HB)2S The crude oil
also contains a compound of allyl still richer in
sulphur than the sulphide Sulphide of allyl
exists not only in oil of garlic, but also in the
oils of onions, leeks, ciess, alliaria, ladishes,
asafostida, etc. It is a light, clear, pale-yellow
oil, with a penetrating odor of garlic, it boils
at 140° C and dissolves readily in alcohol and
ether
GAK'MAH, SAMUEL (1846- ) An
Amencan zoologist, born in Indiana Co , Pa He
graduated in 1870 at the Illinois State Normal
University, was principal of the Mississippi
State Normal School m 1870-71, was a pupil
of Louis Agassiz in special work in natural his-
tory (1872-73), and received appointment as
assistant in the departments of herpetology and
ichthyology at the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Cambridge His writings include
Fishes and Reptiles from Lake Titicaca (Bulle-
tin of the Museum, vol. m, 1871-76, No 11);
(joint author) Exploration of Lalce Titicaca
(ib, vol in, 1871-76, Nos 11, 12, 15, and 16),
On Certain Species of Ohelonioidce (ib, \ol vi,
1879-&0, No 6) , New Specimens of Selachians
in the Museum Collection (ib , vol vi, 1879-80,
No 11) , The Reptiles and Batrachians of Noith
Ameiica (Memoirs of the Museum, vol vin,
1883, No 3), Reptiles and Batratfuans of the
West Indies (1887, printed m the Bulletin of
the Essex: Institute and in monograph form) ,
Deep Sea Fishes (1899)
GARNEAIT, gar'no', ALFRED (1836-1904).
A Canadian poet He was born in Quebec and
was educated at the Quebec Seminary, after
which he engaged in journalism. He later stud-
ied law and was called to the Lower Canada
T>ar in I860, but entered the civil service m
1861 and in 1873 was appointed chief Fiench
translator to the Dominion Senate. He wrote
poems and sonnets distinguished "by beauty of
form and delicate feeling, they were collected
and published in a volume two years after his
death at Montreal In 1882 he published a
fourth edition of the Histoire du Canada, by his
fathei, Francois Xavier Garneau (qv) He
also published Les seigneurs de Frontenao
(1866) He thrice declined election to the
Royal Society of Canada — His son, HECTOR
GARNEAU (1872- ), born in Ottawa, studied
law and was admitted to the bar, but left the
legal profession for liteiature and journalism,
contributed weekly chroniques to Le Monde, lit-
erary criticisms to Les N olivettes, and published
Potsies d* Alfred G-arneau (1906), the collected
poems and sonnets of his father
G-AKNEATJ, FRANCOIS XAVIEE (1809-66)
A Canadian historian, born in Quebec He was
educated at the Quebec Seminary and was ad-
mitted in 1830 as a notary In 1831 he visited
France and England, and while in London the
brilliant literary society into which he was ad-
mitted strongly influenced his aspirations to
authorship. In 1833 he returned to Lower
Canada, was appointed translator to the Legis-
lative Assembly of that province, and from 1844
to 1864. was secretary of the city of Quebec
He published an Histoire du Canada? depuis sa
dfoouverte (1845-48; 2d ed , revised and cor-
rected, 1S52, 3d ed, 1859), of which an unsat-
isfactory English translation by A Bell ap-
peared at Montreal m 1860 (2d ed., 1862). He
also wrote Voyage en Anglclerte et en Fiance
(printed in the Journal de Quebec m 1855) and
contributed to peuodicaJs numeious poems, col-
lected in part m Huston's Recueil do litterature
canadienne ( Monti eal, 1848) Garneau's his-
toiy contains an account of all the French col-
onies of North America from their ongm to the
Tieaty of 1763, and from the latter date the
nairative is confined to Canada propei Not-
withstanding the fact that Garneau had in part
a contioversial aim, his histoiy remains a
standard work In Octobei, 1912, a monument
to Garneau, by the Fiench sculptor Chevre, wa&
unveiled in Quebec Consult Casgiain, Biogra-
phie de P X Garneav, (Montreal, 1886) See
CANADIAN LITERATURE
GAIfNER, JAMES WDUFOBD (1871- )
An American piofessor of political science, born
in Pike Co , Miss He graduated from the Mis-
sissippi Agiicultural and Mechanical College in
1892 and studied at the Univeisity of Chicago
(PhM, 1900) and at Columbia University
(PhD, 1902), where he was a lecturer in his-
toiy 111 1902-03 He was an mstiuctor in politi-
cal science at the Univeisity of Pennsylvania in
1903-04 and afterwaid professoi of the same
subject at the University of lllmois He served
as collaborator for the "French Revue Politique
et Parlemetitatrc, contributed to the NEW IN-
TERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, and was eclitoi in
chief of the American Journal of Criminal La/w
and Criminology m 1910-11 He is author of
Reconstruction in Mississippi (1901) , The His-
tory of the United States, with Henry Cabot
Lodge (4 vols> 1906) , Introduction to Political
Science (1910) , Government in the United
States, National, State, and Local (1911, 3d
ed, 1914)
GrAR'lTET (MB. garnet, grenat, from OF
gtenat, It granato, from ML granatus, garnet,
either on account of its crimson color, from ML.
granata, cochineal insect, supposed to be a seed
or berry, or from Lat. granatum, pomegranate,
as resembling in shape and color pomegranate
seeds, in either case from Lat granum, gram).
An orthosilicate of vaiying composition that
crystallizes in the isoonetric system Some va-
rieties of garnet are not quite so hard as quartz,
others are considerably harder When crystal-
lized, garnets have a vitreous to resinous lustre
They oceui in schists and slates, and in gneiss,
granite, and limestone, and sometimes in lava
and serpentine, being usually of secondary ori-
gin Garnets are divided by Dana into three
groups , viz , aluminium garnets, iron garnets,
and calcium-chromium garnets
The first group includes grossularite, or cal-
cium-alummium garnet, pyrope, or magneaium-
aluminmm garnet; almandite, or iron-aluminium
garnet, and spessartite, or manganese-aluminium
garnet Grossularite, sometimes called essomte,
or hessomte, or cinnamon stone, varies in color
from white to different shades of yellow and
brown, and from pale green to emerald green
Gem varieties of the green grossularite are ob-
tained in Siberia, and the brown-colored ones, or
cinnamon stones, are found in Ceylon, where
they are sometimes miscalled hyacinth. In the
United States green varieties have been found at
Brewster, N" Y, and red and yellow varieties
in Phippslbuig, Me , and Warren, N1 H , also at
various places along the Alleghany Range A
rose-red .variety of grossularite, called rose gar-
n&t, from Xalosto<v Mexico, is used as an orna-
mental material when cut and polished. Pyjrope,
GAB3STET
47S
GANNETT
\ihich ib called piecious or Oriental gwnet, is of
a deep-red to black coloi The be&t-known va-
rieties are found at a numbei of places in Bo-
hemia, excellent specimens aie also obtained at
the Kmiberley mmeb in South Africa In the
United Stateb the finest pyrope gainets come
from Anzona, southern Colorado, and Now Mex-
ico, where they aie often called Arizona rubies,
while the varieties fiom South Afuca aie known
as Cape rubies Almandite, which is the com-
mon garnet, vanes in coloi from deep led to
black The tianspaicnt scarlet and ciimoon va-
neties, when cut, are called carbuncles , these
weie highly puzed iby the ancients Accoidmg
to the Talmud, the only light that Noah had in
the Aik was furnished by carbuncles The
finest almandite gainets aie from Smam, In did ,
fiom Buike, Calcic ell, and Catawba counties,
N C , and from Idaho The specimens found in
the United States, although mfeiior to those
fiom India, are generally o! good enough quality
to be used as watch jewels
Spossartite is of a dark hyacinth-red to
brownish-red color, it is found in the Ural
Mountains and in Amelia Co, Ya
The second group com puses the g-ainets winch
have the general name of andradtte They
lange in color fiom light yellow through various
shades of green to red, brown, and black, and
according to their colors they have special names,
among which are demantoid for the green va-
nety and melamte for the black variety They
aie found vaiiously throughout the world, chiefly
along mountain langes
The last group is foimed by uv&rovite, or
calcium-chromium garnet, which is of an emer-
ald-giecn color, and is found in Sibena as well
as at vaiious localities in Canada
According to their transparency and richness
of coloi, gainets are cut and used for gem pui-
poacs Among the ancients garnets—especially
the precious varieties — were cut and polished
into various ornaments Pliny describes a vessel
formed from carbuncles, having the capacity of
a pint A number of fine ancient specimens of
engraving on garnets are to be found in the
larger collections The common garnet is fre-
quently ground and used for polishing and cut-
ting other stonea and also for the manufacture
of sandpaper About 4000 tons of garnets for
abrasive pui posts— chiefly in the shoe industry
— are pioduccd annually in the United States
from mines principally situated in New York
Garnets of the gem variety have been made arti-
ficially m Paris by the fusion of their constitu-
ents See G-BMS, LETJCITE
GAUHET, or G-ABNETT, HEHBY (1555-
1606) An English Jesuit, educated at Win-
chester and m London He joined the Society
of Jesus in 1575 and became a superior of the
order In England in 1587 He is chiefly remem-
bered for his connection with the Gunpowder
Plot His participation in that conspiracy con-
sisted of his concealment of knowledge of the
intended crime, gained in the confessional — an
offense punishable by life imprisonment and for-
feiture of property He was, however, convicted
on the charge of high treason instead of mia-
pri&ion of treason and was executed Consider-
able controversy resulted between Boman Catho-
lic and Protestant writers, and disputes arose
among Jesuits themselves' as to Garnet's justi-
fication or blame in concealing the plot tha£
had become known to him through the religious
rite of the confession.
VOL- IX.— 31
GAK/HSTET, HENKY HIGHLAND (1815-82;.
An Afio-Ameiiean cleigyman and orator, born
a slave in New l\iaik(4, Md He Tvas^a puie-
blooded acgio of the Mendigo tube When he
was 10 yeais old, his parents escaped from
slavery and settled in New York City He was
educated at Canaan Academy, New Hampshire,
and giaduated at Oneida Institute, near Utiea,
"IN" Y, in 1840 He studied theology, and in
J842 became pastor of a Presbytenan church in
Tioy A leader of the Abolition movement, he
published the Clation, a weekly paper devoted
to the cause and in 1850-53 lectuied in Gicat
Britain on blaveiy He was a delegate to the
Peace Congiess at Frankfoit in 1851 and in
1853-55 was a nnssionaiy of the United Presby-
terian Church of Scotland m Jamaica He was
pastoi of the Shiloh Presbytei mil Chuich in
New York City m 1855-81, except that in 1865-
6D lie had a charge in Washington, D C
President Garficld appointed him Minister "Resi-
dent and Consul Geneial foi the United States
in Libcua, but Garnet died a few months after
taking chaise of Ins new post
GAB/NETT A city and the county scat of
Andeison Co, Kan a , 85 miles boutlnvest of
Kansas City, Mo, on the Missouii Pacific and
the Atcluson, Topeka, and Santa Fc iailioads
(Map Kansas, G G) It is in the g-is and oil
region, has considciable trade in ayiiuilluial
products, and manufactures furniture, (lorn, lum-
ber, etc Garnett adopted the commission foim
of government m 1913 The water works are
owned by bhe city Pop, 1900, 2078, 1910,
2334
GA.B3STETT, JAMES MERGES (1840-10301
An Am ei ican educator, born afc Aldie, \ra He
graduated at the University of Virginia m 1859,
served in the Confederate army and lose to be
captain of artillery, and in 1867 was appointed
professor of Greek in the Louisiana State Uni-
versity Subsequently he was instructor in an-
cient languages and mathematics at the Episco-
pal High School (near Alexandria, Va ) From
1870 to 1880 he was president of St John's
College (Annapolis, Md ), and from 1882 to 1896
professoi of English hteiature m the Univeisifcy
of Virginia He was elected president in 1890
of the American Dialect Society and in 1803
of the American Philological Association He
edited ftclectwns ^n English Ptose (1891) and
published a Translation of Beounilf (1882, 6th
ed, 1900), a literal version in metre resembling
the original, Elene and Other Anglo-Saxon
Poems (1889-1900) , and a History of the Uni-
versity of V^rg^ma (1001)
GAUNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906) An Eng-
lish librarian and author, born in Lichfield He
entered the Service of the British Museum under
Panizzi when he was 16 years old, became super-
intendent of the reading room in 1875, and from
1890 to 1899, when he retired, was keepei of
printed books From 1881 until 1890 Dr Gar-
nett had charge of the prepaiation and printing
of the great catalogue of authors of the museum
He acted as piesident of the Library Associa-
tion of the United Kingdom a-nd of the Biblio-
graphical Society In his professional fi^ld he
edited the series of manuals entitled tli© "Li-
brary Series," to which lie contributed Assays
in LibrwnwsTwp and Brthograpfay (189f9) He
published several volumes of verse, including
Prwvula (1858), lo in Egypt (1859), Col-
lected Poerns (1893) , and The Qmen <md Other
Poems (1901) To the "&rea* Writers Series"
GABNETT
476
he contributed lives of Carlyle (1887), Emwwn
(1888), and Milton (1890) Among Ins othei
works are Relics of Shelley (1862) , Tine Tui-
light of the Q-ods and Othet Tales (1888) , A~ge
of Driven (1895) , A History of Italian Litera-
ture (1898) , Essays of an cat-Lib* ww,n (1901) ,
William Shakespeare, Pedagogue and Poacher
(1904) He was editor of the International
Library of Famous Literature, and contributed
to the Dictionary of National Biography and
the Encyclopedia Bntanmca With Edmund
Gosse he published m 1903-04 an English Liter-
ature, elaboiately illustrated
GABHETT, ROBERT SELDEN (1819-61) An
American soldier, bom in Essex Co , Va Pie
graduated at West Point in 1841, in 1841-42
was on. duty on the noithein frontiei dm ing the
Canadian border tioubles, was instructor in
infantry tactics at West Point (1843-44), took
part in the militaiy occupation of Texas (1845-
46), and fought through the Mexican War
From 1846 to 1849 he was aid-de-caraip to Major
Geneial Taylor and in 1847 was bievetted major
for gallant and meritorious conduct at Buena
Vista In 1852-54 he was commandant at West
Point, m 1855 he became major, and in 1861,
resigning from the United States airny, he was
appointed a brigadiei general in the Aimy of
the Confederate States In command of the
forces in western Virginia, he fell back befoie
the supenor numbers undei Major General
McClellan, was piiisuecl and overtaken at Cai-
rick's Foid (qv ), and was killed in the ensuing
combat (July 13, 1861)
GkARK'HAM, DR See GArjsrnAar
G-ABISTIEB, gai'nya/, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-
82) A French economist He was born at
Beuil (Alpes Mantimes), studied at the Ecole
du Commerce, and was appointed professor of
mathematics and political economy in that in-
stitution In 1842 he assisted in founding the
French Society of Political Economy and in
1846 the French Free-Trade Association. From
1845 to 1855 and from 1866 until his death
he was editor of the Journal des Economises
He wrote a number of works which did much
to popularize economic science in France, and
which include an Introduction a Vetude de
Veconomie pohtique (1843) , Richard Cobden,
les ligueurs et la hgue (1846) , Etude sur les
profits et les salaires (1848) , Trait e des finances
(1862)
GABOTEB, (MARIE JOSEPH) FRANCOIS
(1839-73), usually called Fiancis Gamier A
French officer and explorer, born at Samt-
Etienne He served under Admiral Charner
in the war with China (1860-62), and remained
in Cochin-China as a civil officer In 1866 he
accompanied Captain Doudart de LagreVs ex-
ploring expedition from the coast of Cambodia
through Yunnan to Shanghai On the death of
the commander Gamier successfully brought
the expedition along the Yang-tse-kiang to the
coast A remarkable account of the expedition
is given in his Voyage d? exploration en> Indo-
Ghine (1873) After taking part in the defense
of Paris in 1870-71, which he described in his
journal Le siege de Pans (1871), he again
went to the East Further explorations were
followed by a commission from the Governor
of Cochin-China to negotiate a treaty with the
Viceroy of Tongkmg The Viceroy, however,
refused to negotiate, and Ganuer, with 120 men,
took Hanoi, the capital, and won further suc-
cesses, but reenforcements were delayed, the
party fell into an ambuscade, *ind Gamier \\a<*
killed Consult Yule Ocean Uighuavs (1874),
and Petit, Fiancis Gamier (Pans, 1885)
GABJSTIEB, JE\N JACQUES (1729-1805) A
French historian, bom at Gonon (Mayenne)
Having anived at Pans on foot, he entered the
Minonte Order and in 1760 became adjunct pro-
fossoi of Hebrew m the College de Fiance, and
in 1768 inspector there In 1761 his Traite de
rowgvne du, gowvemement fran^ais was ci owned
by the Academy of Inscriptions, to which he
was elected as associate He succeeded Claude
Villaiet as liistonographei, and wrote a con-
tinuation (1765-85) of the Histoire de France
of Velly and Villaret, an interesting woik on
L'H onune de letftes (1704), and a treatise, De
I- 'education civile (1765)
GABNIEB, JEAN Louis CHAELES (1825-
98) A French aichitect, boin in Paris He
studied undei Le"veil and Lebas at the Ecole
des Beaux-Arts, and won the Prix de Rome for
architecture in 1848 Afterward he traveled
extensively m Greece, Turkey, and Italy In
1859 he won the competitive prize foi plans for
the new Opeia House in Paris, which was in
piocess of building from 1861 to 1875 Al-
though somewhat ovei ornate in detail, this is a
design of lemaikable merit and has exercised
a notable influence on Fiench monumental
facade composition Its stancase is especially
magnificent, and its fover (see FOYER) the
largest and most sumptuous in the world Gar-
niei also built the Conservatory at Nice, the
Casino at Monte Cailo, designed the tombs of
Offenbach, Bizet, and Victor Mass6 in Paris, and,
with Debaeq, built the De Luynes Mortuary
Chapel at Dampierre He wrote Rcstauration
des tombeaux des rois Angevms en Italie (with
54 plates m folio) , A tracers les arts (1869) ,
Etude sur le theatre (1871), Le nouvel Opera
de Parts (1875-81) , Monographie de Vobserva-
t&ire de Nice (1892), Histoire dc ^habitation
humaine (1894), with Ammann He was a
membei of eveiy ai chitectural society of im-
portance in France and abioad, and in 1889
was made commander of the Legion of Honor
GABNIEB, ROBJSKT (c,1534~c 90). A French
diamatie poet, born at La Fort6-Bei nai d He
studied law at Toulouse and held vanous posi-
tions undei the state before he gave himself
entirely to the writing of drama His plays
have little leal action, and that little is clogged
by the long speeches and interminable dialogues
of the characters Nevertheless, in his later
woiks, when he was less under the influence of
Seneca, theie is a freshness and vigor that sug-
gests Coinoille, and lie is the greatest French
dramatic author of his century His works in-
clude Poicie epouse de Brutus (1568), a tragi-
comedy, and Scdewe, ou les Juwes (1583) He
wrote a volume of poems, Les plamtes amou-
reuses (1565), which is now lost His collected
works weie published in four volumes by Foer-
ster at Heilbronn in 1882-83 Consult Bernage,
Eltude sur Robert Garnier (Paris, 1880) , My-
smg, Robert Gtarnier und die antike Tragodie
(Leipzig, 1891) , Faguet, La tragedie pangoAse
au TVIe siecle (Pans, 1883)
G-ARNIEB-iPAaiES, gar'nyS/ pa/zheV,
ETIEOTE JOSEPH Lotns (1801-41), A French
politician, born in Marseilles He was admitted
to the bar, took part in the revolution of 1830,
in 1831 became member for Isere in the Chamber
of Deputies, and in 1832 was one of the Liberals
associated with Odilon Barrot m the prepara-
477
GABOPALO
tion of the famous Oompte rendu, in protest
against the attitude of the Conseivative Minis-
tiy He was not reelected in 1834, but was
leturned in 1835 and 1839
GARNIER-PAG&S, Louis ANTOINE (1803-
78) A French statesman, bom in Marseilles
He fought in the July revolution of 1830,
was chosen to the Chamber of Deputies in 1841
to succeed his stepbrother, Etienne Joseph Louis,
and took high rank as leader of the opposition
and a promoter of reform agitation Tn Feb-
ruary, 1848, he became a member of the provi-
sional government and mayor of Paris, and in
Maich, Minister of Finance Circumstances
forced him to extreme measures, of which the
most unpopular was the celebrated tax of "45
centimes " In May he was one of the executive
committee of five appointed by the Assembly.
In 1864 he was a membei of the Corps Legis-
latif, devoting himself as such especially to
imancial matters, and until the fall of the Em-
pire had a part in the most important acts of
the Republican opposition Having been re-
elected in 18 09, he vigorously opposed war with
Piussia, but, though a member of the Govern-
ment of National Defense, lie played an unim-
portant r61e, and retired to private life in 1871
He published Histoire de la Revolution de J848
(8 vols 3 1860-62), Histowe de la commission
executive (1869-72), U Opposition et I9 empire
(1872).
GARNISHMENT (from garnish, from OF
gainir, gwwmr, warm*, Fr garnir, from OHG-
warnon, Gei Women, AS ivearman, Eng
ivarn) A process by which chattels, rights, or
credits belonging to the defendant in an action,
but which are in the possession of a thud per-
son, are seized and applied to the plaintiff's
claim The pecuhaiity of the piocess is indi-
cated by the etymology of the term , garnishment
meaning a warning or notice given to the third
person not to pay money or turn over property
to the defendant It has been called an equi-
table attachment of the claims or a&sets of a
defendant m the hands of a third person It
is not a common-law process and is regulated
by statute in the States where it exists Such
statutes are, as a rule, strictly construed, and
their requirements must be fully and fairly
complied with by a plaintiff who would take
advantage of them It is held that only such
property in the hands of the third party — the
garnishee — is liable to this process as is not
mcu'mbeied with trusts, and such as may be
handed over or paid by the officer executing
the process, under the order of the court and free
from incumbrances, which can be properly deter-
mined and adjusted only by equity tribunals
Garnishment proceedings reach only such debts
as are owing to the defendant at the time the
process is served A judgment obtained in a
Federal court cannot be garnishecd m an action
in a State court Such garnishment would op-
erate to oust the Federal court of its proper con-
trol over its own judgments Debts owing by
a public corporation to the defendant are not
garnishable If they were, municipal authorities
might be compelled to occupy their time
over contests in which the public had no in-
terest. It may be laid down as a general rule
that a person deriving his authority from the
law to receive and hold property cannot be
garmsheed tor the same while holding it in that
capacity.
As fcoon as the process of garnishment is duly
sezved, the garmsiieo holds the pioperty as &
stakeholdei or tiustee Accordingly garnish-
ment is known in some States as ' tiustee proc-
ess " Consult Rood, Garnishment ( St Paul,
1S96), and the authorities referred to under
ATTACHMENT
GAUN'SEY, ELMER ELLSWOBTTI (1862-
) An American muial paintei He was
born at Holindel, Monmouth Co , N J , and
studied at Cooper Union in New Yoik and under
Maynard and Francis Lathi op lie made an
impoitant part of his woik the ananging of
color schemes for impoitant mural decorations
Among the buildings to which he has thus con-
tributed are the Library of Congress, the pub-
lic hbraiies of Boston and St Louis, and the
library of Columbia Umveisity, Memorial Hall,
Yale University, the State capitola at St Paul,
Minn , DCS Homes, Iowa, and Madison, Wis ,
and the Custom House, New York He was
elected a member of the Society of Mural
Painters and of the Amencan Institute of
Aichitccts and leceivcd awaids from the World's
Fan, Chicago (1893),, and the Paris Exposition
(1900)
GABO (go/ro) or GAKUOW HILLS,
Mountains overhanging the valley of the Brah-
maputra, which give then name to a western
distuct of the Hill Division of Assam (qv),
3350 square miles m area, and reach their high-
est altitude at 4650 feet The region has deep
and extensive valleys, well watered and very
fertile Dense forests containing valuable sal
trees cover the hills, and coal is found in large
quantities Pop (district), 1901, 138,300, 1910,
153,936 See GAKOS
GAROFALO, ga-ro'fa-16, properly BENVE-
NUTO TISIO, or TISI (c 1481-1559) A Ferrarese
painter of the Renaissance He was born at
Garofalo, near Eerrara, studied under Panetta at
Feriara and under Boccaccino at Cremona, and
in 1490 went to Rome, where he became the
pupil of Giovanni Baldini Af fcci this he painted
with Lorenzo Costa at Mantua From 1509 to
1515 he was in Feirara with Dos so Dossi and
then returned to Rome Here he was an ardent
admirer of Raphael He was then recalled to
Ferraia, where he executed for the Duke Al-
phonso I some of his best paintings and was
active until 1550, especially in fresco work,
which has since been destroyed For the last
nine years of his life he was blind His art is
especially well represented at Ferrara In the
Museum are his "Massacre of the Innocents,"
"Resurrection of Lazarus" (1534), u Adoration
of the Magi" (1544), and many other works, in
the cathedral his "Virgin Enthroned" (1524)
and fine frescoes of Saints Peter and Paul, and
in San Francesco the "Kiss of Judas," with two
fine portraits of donors His works are also nu-
merous at Rome in several of the palaces (in
eluding Borghese and the Vatican) and in the
museum of the Capitol, at Naples, and in the
Breia (Milan) Outside of Italy the largest
collection of his works is at Dresden, which pos-
sesses seven examples, including a Bacchanal©,
he is also represented in the galleries of Berlin,
London, St Petersburg, and in the Metropolitan
Museum, New York His finest works were ex-
ecuted in the manner of the 'Ferrarese school, to
which he afterward added a certain suavity,
gained probably from his admiration of Raphael
His coloring is peculiarly vrnd and attractive,
often showing Venetian influence, ajid his pic-
tures are most harmoniously composed.
GABOFALO
478
GABBETT
GAUOFALO, RAFF ABLE, BARON (1852-
) An Italian -jurist and cimirnologist,
bom at Naples and educated in the university
of that city He served as president of the Civil
Court of Ferrara, as justice of the Court of Ap-
peals of Naples, azid as piofessor of law and
criminal procedure at the University of Naples
In 1892 he had charge of the preparatory work
of editing a new code of penal procedure Be-
sides seiving as a collaborator on the Flegrea,
he is. author of Criwiinologta studio sul delitto
e sulla teotia della repre&sione (1885, 2d ed ,
1891, Eng trans by Robert Wyness Millar,
1914) and Riforma della proceduta penale ^n
Itaha (1880)
GABON BUSH See DAPHNE
aABONNE, ga'iim' (Lat Garumna). The
principal rivei in the southwestern part of
Prance, rising within the Spanish frontier an the
Val d'Aran, at the base of Mount Maladetta, in
the Pyrenees (Map Fiance, S , F 5) About 26
miles from its source it enters France in the
Department of Haute-Garonne, flows in a gen-
erally northeasterly course to Toulouse, then
bends to the northwest and enters the Bay of
Biscay at ?omt de Grave It forms an estuaiy
after uniting with the Dordogne, 20 miles below
Bordeaux, which is called the Gironde Ocean
steamers ascend to Bordeaux, and the nvei is
navigable beyond Toulouse, which is connected
with the Mediterranean by the Canal du Midi
(qv) Total length, nearly 400 miles With
its 32 tributaries the Garonne drains an area
of about 38,000 square miles and forms a system
of navigable waterways of over 1400 miles,
which is greater than that of any other French
river The Gaionne is subject to destructive
overflows During the inundation of 1875 moie
than 7000 houses were destroyed Consult L
Barron, Les fleuves de France La Garonne
(Paris, 1901)
GAROOTTE, HA.UTE See HAUTE-GARONNE
GAUOS, ga'roz A people inhabiting the re-
gion of the Garo Hills in western Assam, India.
They are said to be related, physically and lin-
guistically, to the Thai (Burmese, Siamese, etc )
stock, but have a considerable Aryan admixture,
particularly in language They have many in-
teresting social customs, among them eouitship
by the woman, bridegroom capture, etc Besides
the article by Godwin- Austen on "The Garo Hill
Tribes," in the Journal of the Anthropological
Institute (London), for 1871, reference may be
made to Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Ben-
gal (Calcutta, 1872) A Bengali-Garo Diction-
ary was published by Kamkhe (Tuva, Assam,
1887) Consult Crooke, Natives of India (Lon-
don, 1907)
GAB PIKE See GAB
GABBARD, gar'ard, JAMES (1749-1822)
One of the early governors of Kentucky, born in
Stafford Co., Va He was a militia officer in the
Revolutionary War and a member of the Virginia
Legislature In 1783 he removed with the eaily
settlers to Kentucky, settling near the present
Paris , for a time he was a Baptist minister and
afterward a Unitarian. In 1791 he drew up a
petition for a constitutional amendment forbid-
ding slavery in Kentucky He was a member of
the convention which framed the first constitu-
tion for Kentucky and from 179C until 1804 was
Governor of the State In 1798, in his message
to the Legislature (November 7), he attacked
the Alien Law in terms very like Jefferson's in
the Kentucky Resolutions A county in Ken-
tucky formed in 17% bcaib his name Consult
Des Cognets, Cfoionor Gait aid His Descend-
ants (Lexington, Ky, 18()8)
GAKRABD, KENNEE (1828-79) An Amer-
ican soldier, boin in Cincinnati, Ohio He grad-
uated at West Point in 1851, -was on fiontier
duty and topographical duty for the most part
until 1861, was captured in Apnl, 1861, by Texan
troops, and was exchanged in August, 1862 In
1861-62, while on parole, he was commandant at
West Point He became a colonel of volunteers
in September, 1862 , served in the Rappahannock
campaign and the Pennsylvania campaign, at
Fiedeiicksburg, Chancellois\ille, and Gettys-
burg, was piomoted biigadier general of volun-
teers in July, 1863, and major in the regulai
(cavalry) seivice in November, seived 111 the
Rapidan campaign fiom October to December
1863, and was in charge of the Cavalry Bureau
at Washington In 1864 he commanded the Sec-
ond Cavahy Division of the Army of the Cum-
berland in the various operations about Chatta-
nooga and in the invasion of Geoi^ia, and from
December, 1864, to July, 1865, the Second Di-
vision of the Sixteenth Army Coips in the battle
of Nashville, the captuie of Blakely, and tl o
movement upon Montgomeiy In December,
1864, he was brevetted major geneial of vohin-
teeis and brigadier general in the regular aim},
and on March 13, 1865, leceived the brevet of
major general, USA He commanded the
District of Mobile from August to Septembei,
1865, was mustered out of the volunteer service
in August, 1865, and acted as assistant inspector
general of the Department of the Missomi from
March to November, 1866, when he resigned from
the service He was a member of the Cincinnati
Plotting Commission (1871-79) and of the City
Sewage Commission (1875-79) He wrote
Molaris System for Training Cavalry Horses
(1862)
GAB'BAWAY'S COFFEEHOtJSE A fa-
mous London coffeehouse, in Exchange Alley,
Cornhill, which existed for over 200 years It
was originally kept by one Garway, a dealer in
coffee and tobacco It is the scene of the fiist
tea sales in London, also of the meetings of the
shareholders of the South Sea Scheme
GAB'BETSOlsr, AUSTIN BRUCE (1850- )
An American laboi -union official He was born
at Winterset, Iowa, and was educated m the
Oseeola (Iowa) high school He served as a
conductor on vanous railroads until 1889, when
he became vice president of the Order of Railway
Conductors, in 1906 he was elected president of
the order He also became president of the mu-
tual-benefit department of the order, editoi in
chief of the Railway Conductor, and a member
of the executive committee of the National
Civic Federation In 1912 he was a member of
the Federal Commission on Industrial Relations
He was one of the leaders in the threatened i ail-
road strike of 1913, which was successfully
GARBETSCOT, FEEEBORIST (1752-1827) An
American pioneer Methodist, born in Maryland
In 1775 he became an itinerant preacher for the
Methodist denomination and m 1784 was elected
presiding elder He also served four years as a
volunteer missionary in Nova Scotia; and with
12 young ministers he organized the evangelical
work in western New England and in eastern
New York
GAB'BETT. A city in pekalb Co, Ind ,
18 miles north of Fort Wayne, on the Baltimore
GAKRETT
479
GAUEICK
and Ohio Railroad (Map Indiana, G 2) It is
a i ail way division point and has machine shops,
car shops, and a roundhouse The city contains
also a Carnegie hbiaiy and the Sacred Heart
Hospital Under a charter of 1892 it is gov-
erned by a mayor and a unicameral council
The water works and electuc-light and heating
plants are owned by the municipality Pop ,
1900, 3910, 1910, 4149
G-ABRETT, ALEXANDER CIIAKLES (1832-
]'^24) An Amencan Piotestant Episcopal
bishop, born in Ii eland He graduated at Trin-
ity College, Dublin, in 1855, was curate of Kast
Worldhcun, Hampshire (1856-59), and until
I860 soived as a missionary in British Columbia
In 1870 he became rector of Si James's Church,
San Piancisco, and 111 1872 dean of Tunity Ca-
thedral, Omaha In 1874 he was appointed Mis-
sionaiy Bishop of noithern Texas and ictamcd
the bishapiie after the formation of the diocese
of Dallas He wrote A Charge to the Clergy
and Laity of North Texas (1875), Historical
Continuity (1875), and the Baldwin Lectures
on the Philosophy of the Incarnation
GARRETT, JOAS DE ALMEIDA See ALMEIDA-
GAKBETT
GrARRETT, Jomsr WOEK (1820-84) An
American lailroad president, born in Baltimore.
After pursuing a course of study in Lafayette
College he entered, at the age of 19, upon busi-
ness life in a firm with his father and brother —
Robert Garrett and Sons He became identified
uith the Baltimore and Ohio Kailioad as a direc-
tor in 1857, and as piesident in 1858, and during
the lemainder of his life devoted his energies
to the development of this system Undei his
administration the line became one of the most
important means of communication between the
seaboard and the interior During the Civil
War the road, which followed the Potomac Ilrvei
along a great distance of its way, was crossed
and recrossed by the contending armies and was
frequently broken by the Confederate forces
But the repairs were quickly made, and the road
continued to be of the greatest service to the
United States government in the transportation
of troops and materials Mr Garrett was closely
associated with Johns Hopkins (founder of the
university and the hospital which bear his
name) He was one of the original trustees of
the Johns Hopkins Hospital and University and
a liberal contributor to the Young Men's Chris-
tian Association, the Maryland Institute, and
the Association for the Improvement of the Con-
dition of the Poor His son Robert succeeded to
the presidency of the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road m 1884 Consult Scharfs History of Balti-
more City and County (Philadelphia, 1881)
GKARRETT, THOMAS (1789-1871) An
American merchant, distinguished as a philan-
thropist and reformer He was born in Upper
Darby, Pa , of Quaker parentage , learned the
trade of a cutler and scythe maker, and in 1820
removed to Wilmington, Del , where he became
an iron and hardware merchant Here, also, he
avowed his antislavery opinions without reserve
and became widely known as the friend of the
slaves and of negroes generally His name was
familial to the slaves of Delaware, Maryland,
and Virginia, and during a period of 40 years
there was a constant procession of fugitives seek-
ing his protection and aid It is said that not
less than 3000 of them were indebted to him
for their freedom* He was compelled to resort
to many ingenious devices in hx& work, but he
made no secret of the fact that he >\as engaged
in it, and such was his reputation for success
that few slaveholder thought ib worth while to
puisne then mnaways any faither aftei learn-
ing that they had fallen into his hands In 1848
he was piosecuted by James Bayard befoie
Judge Taney (qv ), was finally convicted on
what appeal's to have been insufficient evidence
of having abducted two slave childien, a/nd -was
fined so heavily as to lendei him penniless His
business would have been utteily broken up at
this time if his fellow citizens of Wilmington
had not volunteeied to furnish him all the
capital he needed
GkAB'BICK, DA-VID (1717-79) A celebrated
English actor, long manager of Diuiy Lane
Theatie, and the author of numoious comedies
Descended on his father's side from a family of
Huguenot refugees named De la Gamque, he
was bom at Hereford, Feb 19, 1717, and educated
at Lichiield, the homo of his mothei's family
During his youth he went to live with an uncle,
who was a wine moi chant in Lisbon, but he soon
rctmned to England and became a pupil of the
famous Di Jolmhon A few months later, in
1736, mastei and pupil left Lichfiold togethei in
the hope of improving their fortunes in London
Garnek attempted the study of la^ , then foi a
time he engaged in the wine business, his uncle
having left him £1000, but the dramatic m-
stmcts which he had shown even a& a school-
boy proved too strong, and after some amateur
acting and falling in love with the famous Peg
Wellington, he made, under an assumed name,
his de"but on the stage at Ipswich (1741) in a
play called Oroonoko He succeeded so well
that on October 19 of the same year he appeared
in London in the character of Richard III Aftei
being engaged for the following season at Diuiy
Lane, Ganick went in the summer of 1742 to
Dublin, -whore he excited the Hibeiman enthu-
siasm to an evfciaordmary degree His success
in London, howevei, was not without unpleasant
incident, foi a quarrel aiose between him and
his fnend Macklm, which was taken up by their
partisans, and on one occasion Garnck's pci-
formance had to be given up In 1747 lie be-
came one of the patentees of Diury Lane Two
years later he married Mademoiselle Violette,
an excellent danseuse from Vienna This seems
to have alienated some of his company, especially
of the feminine members, who went over to the
opposition house, and in 1750 occurred the fa-
mous rivalry, when Druiy Lane and Covent Gar-
den were each playing Romeo and Juliet, Garnek
and Mrs Bellamy at the former and Spr anger
Barry { q v ) and Mrs Gibber at the latter, till
after a dozen nights the town was tired and
Covent Garden gave up the field In 1703 Gar
rick visited the Continent and made the ac-
quaintance of Diderot and othei noted people
He conducted in 1769 the memorable jubilee at
Stratford-on-Avon in honor of Shakespeare To
Garnck seems to belong much of the credit of
bringing back to the stage Shakespeare's plays
in then original form, in place of the altered
versions which had commonly been in use since
the Restoration During his management also
at Drury Lane he made an end of the old, custom
of admitting spectators upon the stage and in
troduccd other improvement^ His own last ap
pearance was on June 10, 177(5, in The Wonder,
when at the close of the play he made an affect-
ing speech of farewell His* Jwaltft was failing,
and he died less than three yws later, m Lou-
GABRICK CLTJB
480
GABBISOKT
don, Jan 20, 1779 He was buried beneath the
Shakespeare monument in Westminster Abbey
Garrick is regarded as the greatest of English
actors He exhibited a Shakespearean universal-
ity in the representation of character and was
equally at home in the highest flights of tragedy
and the lowest depths of farce But the natural-
ness which so distinguished him upon the stage
often forsook him in real life He was extremely
sensitive to ridicule and had a curious fashion
of forestalling the malice of the critics by bring-
ing out, on occasion, pamphlets of bantering at-
tack upon himself In his financial affans he
was considered close, though his geneiosities
were many He left a fortune of about £100,000
He was on terms of intimate friendship with
Johnson, Goldsmith, Burke, and other men of
letters, and was a member with them of the
famous Literary Club As an author, he does
not rank very high, though some of his farces,
like The Lying Valet, have been repeatedly pub-
lished, and his prologues were often extremely
ingenious A collected (partial) edition of his
dramatic works was brought out in London in
1768 and again in 1798. Many of his letters are
preserved m the Forster collection at the South
Kensington Museum On his life, consult
Knight (London, 1894) ; Fitzgerald (ib, 1868),
Murphy (Dublin, 1801) , Davies (London, 1780) ,
"Memoires de Garrick," in Bibhotheque de me-
moir es relatifs a rhistoire de France pendant le
XVIII siecle, vol vi (Paris, 1878) , and Boaden
(ed ), The Private Correspondence of David Gat-
riclc, with a biographical memoir (London,
1832) ; Paisons, Gat rick and his Circle (Boston,
1907).
G-AJtBICK CLUB. A famous club m Lon-
don, named in honor of the great actor David
Garrick It was founded in 1831 for the pro-
motion of letters and especially of the drama
and in 1864 took up its present headquarters in
Garrick Street. It possesses an important and
valuable collection of portraits of celebrated
English actors, which are shown to members'
visitors on every Wednesday. Here occurred the
controversy between Thackeray and Edmund
Yates which brought about the estrangement be-
tween the former and Dickens
GABOEtlSOCT, LINDLEY MILLER ( 1864- )
An American lawyer and cabinet officer, born at
Camden, N" J He was educated at the Protes-
tant Episcopal Academy (Philadelphia), Phillips
(Exeter) Academy, and Harvard University,
and he studied law in Philadelphia He was
admitted to the Pennsylvania bar in 1886 and
to the New Jersey bar in 1888, practicing in
Philadelphia and in Camden, N J , and, as a
member of the law firm of Garrison, McManus,
and Ennght, in Jersey City, N J , from 1899 to
1904 He served as vice chancellor of ISTew Jer-
sey from 1904= to 1913 and then became Secre-
tary of War m President Wilson's cabinet
GABBISON, WENUELL PHIIXTPS (1840-
1907) An American editor and author, born
at Cambndgeport, Mass , a son of William Lloyd
Garrison He graduated at Harvard in 1861
and was literary editor of the Nation, of New
York, fiom 1865 to 1906, having assisted E L.
Godkin (qv) in founding that paper Henry
Villard, who joined the Nation and the Evening
Post, was Garrison's brother-in-law Garrison
contributed to periodicals, compiled Bedside
Poetry A Parents' Assistant (1887), and wrote*
What Mr Darwin Saw on his Voyage arotmd the
World (1879) 3 with his brother, F J Garrison^
a life of their father, William Lloyd Cfarnson
(4 vols, 1885-89), Parables for School and
Home (1897), The New Gulliver (1898), a
satire on Calvinism, and Memoirs (1904) of
Henry Villard Consult Letters and Memorials
of W. P Garrison (Cambridge, Mass, 1908),
containing poems, editorials, and essays, and
The 'New G-ulliver
GAROaiSON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-79)
The leader of the radical Abolitionists in the
antislavery struggle in the United States He
was born at Newburyport, Mass , Dec 10, 1805
As an apprentice in the Newburyport He? aid
office (1818-25) he became an expert prmtei,
and, while yet a boy, foreman, and contributor
to that and othei newspapers, and m 1826 was
editor of the Newburyport Free Press Soon
afterward, as a journeyman in Boston, he met
and was deeply influenced by Benjamin Lundy
( q v ) , a pioneer Abolitionist After a year
spent in editing the National Philanthropist, a
Boston temperance paper, and the Journal of
the Times, at Bennmgton, Vt , he joined Lundy
at Baltimore, in September, 1829, in conducting
the Genius of Universal Emancipation The
views of the two associates differed widely, for
Lundy favored gradual abolition and colom/a-
tion, which Garrison opposed This phase of
activity was short-lived, for editorials uiging
immediate emancipation presently repelled sub-
scribers The public mind, however, long in-
different to the evils of slavery, began to be
aroused, though the agitation found foes more
readily than friends In April, 1830, Garrison
was convicted of libel After seven weeks in
j'ail his fine was paid by Arthur Tappan, of
New Yoik, and the reformer turned to lectur-
ing in Northern cities with a vehemence and
fire not previously brought to this task. Fiona
this time dates the birth of a public senti-
ment which was to make slow headway against
difficulties and opposition and finally to triumph
through a civil war
In January, 1831, appeared in Boston the
Liberator, a small sheet, soon to be enlarged and
conducted weekly by Garrison till the end of
1865 The first number gave its keynote "I
will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromis-
ing as justice. On this subject I do not wish to
think or speak 01 write with moderation " Such
a tone compelled attention, and the editor was
widely denounced as a "wild enthusiast," as a
"fanatic," and as a '"public enemy" Apathy
gave place to excitement, m the North as well
as in the South. Hundreds of letters threatened
Garrison's life, in December, 1831, Georgia of-
fered $5000 for his arrest and prosecution, and
on Oct 21, 1835, a mob, led or incited by
reputable Bostonians, broke up one of his meet-
ings and dragged him through the streets un-
til he was rescued with difficulty by the police,
who placed him in jail to insure his safety. In
January, 1832, Garrison, with 11 associates,
founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society,
the parent of similar organizations In this
year he published Thoughts on African Ooloni-
%ation, denouncing that futile scheme of the
moderate opponents of slavery, In 1833 he
went to England to- confer with the British
emancipators, and on his return supplied a
platform for the American Anti- Slavery So-
ciety, founded irj December of that year in
Philadelphia.. Of this he wa$ president from
1843 to 1865. He visited England several tijjnes
subsequently to J833 on antislavepy .missions.
481
GABSHIET
Meanwhile the American Abolitionists divided
The moderate \ving, which favoied political
action and objected to participation of women
in their meetings, paited fiom tlieir foimei
comiades m 1840 and contributed to foun the
Libeity and Free-Soil parties The exti emiats,
who obtained or soon gained contiol of the
societies, were moie logical in disregaiding the
distinction of sex no lesb than that of coloi and
more "thoiough" in disowning a goveinment
which acknowledged and piotected "the sm" of
human bondage In 1840 G-amson denounced
the United States Constitution, to the hoiioi
of most, as "a covenant with death and an
agreement with hell" In 1854 he binned the
Constitution at an open air celebiation of the
Abolitionists in Frammgham, Mass Tie hailed
the secession of South Caiolina and the guns
fired on Foit Sumter as the end of "the pio-
slavery Union " Many wrought with him in
urging the President to recognise the situation
as it was With the Pi oclamation ol Eman-
cipation their tnumph came, and with the end
of the war their leader's occupation was gone
With other eminent guests of the government
he saw the flag replaced over Sumtei No
longer a lonely piotagonist, his age was pro-
vided foi in 1868 by a "national testimonial,"
through admirers of his altruistic labors, and
his laat years were spent in less arduous jour-
nalistic and reforming services, with honor
at home and abroad He died in New York,
May 24, 1879 Of his Sonnets and Other Poems
(1843), some had been penciled on the walls of
his Baltimore cell in 1830 Selections fiom his
writings and speeches appeared m 1852, and
The Words of Garrison, 1805-1905, in 1905
Consult the biography by his sons, W P and
F J Garrison, William Lloyd Gatnson, J.S05-
7,9 The Story of his Life Told fry his Children
(4 vols, New York, 1885-89), Goldwm Smith,
The Moral Crusader, William Lloyd G-auison
(ib, 1892), Crosby, W L Garrison, Non-Re-
sistant md Abolitionist (Chicago, 1905) , and
biographies by L Swift (Philadelphia, 1911)
and J J Chapman (Now York, 1913)
GABROD, gar'rod, SIR ALFRED BARING (1819-
1907) An English physician, born at Ipswich
He studied at University College and the Uni-
versity of London, was appointed assistant phy-
sician at University College Hospital m 1847
and in 1851 physician and professor of thera-
peutics and clinical medicine Tn 1863 he was
appointed physician, in 1874 consulting physi-
cian, to King's College Hospital, and in the
former year also became a professor m the
college He was elected a fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians in 1856 and its vice presi-
dent in 1888 In 1858 he became a fellow of
the Royal Society of Great Britain and in 1896
physician extraordinary to Queen Victoria His
researches have been connected principally with
the pathology of gout and rheumatic gout, or
rheumatoid arthritis, on whose nature and
treatment he published in 1860 a valuable work
He introduced lithia as a remedy for gout He
wrote also The Essentials of Materia Medico-
and Therapeutics (1885; many subsequent edi-
tions), which became authoritative on the sub-
ject and has been much used for textbook
purposes
GABROD, AIRBED BtoKY (1846-79) An
English zoologist and physician, born in London,
and educated there at University and King's
Colleges In 1871 he was elected prosector to
the Zoological Society of London and in 1873 a
fellow of St John's, Cambridge From 1874
until his death he was piofessor of comparative
anatomy at King's College, London, in 1875 was
appointed piofessoi of physiology at the Royal
Institution of Great Butain, and in 1876 was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society His
/oological studies weie of high value, in particu-
l<u those connected with the anatomy of birds,
m winch department be was a lecognized au-
thonty His publications include an edition
(1879) of a monogiaph by Johannes von Mullei
(qv ), the physiologist of Beilm, on the vocal
oigans ot passerine buds, and numerous papers
collected and edited by W H Foibes (1881)
GAB/BOO? The golden-eye duck (see GOL-
DK.N-KYE) , <i Fionch name used in English
books Consult Newton, Dictionary of Birds
(London, 18<)3-9b)
GARKOTE, gar-rot' (Sp , stick) A mode of
execution practiced m Spam arid Portugal
Oi igmally it consibted in simply placing a cord
lound the neck of a eiiminal, who was seated
on a cluui fixed to a post, and then twisting
the corcl bv meaiib of a stick insoited between
the lope and the hack ot tlie neck till htiangula-
tion was piodiicecl Latei an non colUi was
used, worked by a. sciev* To such condemned
pei sons as recanted the Inqmsitoib gi anted as
a favor this mode of strangulation befoic they
were binned Tf the executionei was unskillful,
however, the pain was sometimes very great
Garrotmg is also the name given to a species
of lobbeiv in which the highwaymen suddenly
came behind their victim and, throwing a cord,
01 handkerchief, or something of the sort round
his neck, pioduced temporary sti angulation till
their puipose was effected This form of crime
became common m England in the early six-
ties, but was checked by a Law of 1863 which
added Hogging to the usual penalty for one
convicted *"of this crime Consult William An-
drews, B \i gone Punishments (London, 1899)
GAB/ROW HILLS See GARO HILLS.
GAUBTJCCI., gai -roo'cM, RAFFAELE (1812-
85) An Italian archaeologist He was born
Jan 23, 1812, became a Jesuit (1826), and after
De Rossi was the gieateat explorer of the cata-
combs of Rome He died at Rome, May 5, 1885.
Of his numeious writings the masterpiece is
Storia dell3 art& oristiana nei pnmi otto seook
d&lla chi&va (1872-81) His life was published
by Di Montescaglioso (Naples, 1885)
GAUHTT'PA. A fish See GROUPER
GARSHIN, gai/sh&n, VSYEVOLOD MIKHAILO-
VITCII (1855-88) A Russian author, born in
the Government of Yekatennoslav From his
earliest childhood he was a voracious reader
At the age of nine he entered a St Petersburg
gymnasium On graduation in 1874 he entered
the School for Mining Engineers, but left it
to enroll as a volunteer in the army sent to
Tuikey in 1877, where he distinguished himself
in attacks upon the enemy until he was wounded
and sent back to Russia He based his power-
ful story Four Days on an incident that occurred
after the first skirmish The story itsrelf, and
the Turgenev like mastery of detail and narra-
tion, all combined to produce a sensation
A series of stories of about 25 to 50 pages fal-
lowed, each increasing his popularity and fame,
but in 1880 the mental malady which had al-
ready attacked him broke out anew, and nearly
two year's were spent in sanitariums and out-of-
the-way villages to recuperate, In 1883 GS-arshin
G-AHSTA3STG- 4
again lesximed lus literary woik, was appointed
secretaiy to the Railioad Congress, and mairied
a physician His frail constitution needed all
the care she bestowed on him His health im-
proved, but in 1888 he killed himself in a fit
of insanity In all his sketches there is a
noticeable lack of the epic element, the out-
ward description of his peisonages is utteily
neglected in the exposition of the labyrinth of
conflicting emotions and feelings But, as psy-
chological studies, his sketches, dealing mostly
with moral and social questions in the manner
of Tolstoy, are the neaiest appioach to the
latier's mastery Besides the sketch mentioned,
The Journal of Private Tvanov and The Red
Flower aie notable examples of his peculiar ait
The latest edition of lus woiks is that of 1910
Most of his woik has been translated into
French and Geiman, and some of it into English.
GrAR'STA3TG, JOHN (1876- ) An Eng-
lish archaeologist, born in Blackburn, the son
of Walter Garstang, a physician and specialist
on fishenes He was educated at Jesus College,
Oxford, and became reader in Egyptian aichse-
ology at the University of Liverpool in 1002
and professor of archaeology there in 1907 He
was engaged in excavations in Roman Biitam,
in Nubia, in northern Syna and Asia Minor
(1907, 1008, 1911), and in Egypt, especially at
Meroe (1909-14) He wiote El Ardbeh ( 1902)
and A Shoit History of Ancient Egypt (1904),
both with P E Newbeiry, The Land of the
Eittites (1910), J/e??ot# (1911), On Lucian's
De Deo, Syna (1913)
GAB/STGN A town and port of Lancashire,
England, on the Meisey estuaiy, 5% miles
southeast of Liveipool (Map England, D 3)
It has a laige coal-shipping trade, its two
docks belonging to the London and North
Western Railway Company The town main-
tains parks, recreation grounds, an isolation hos-
pital, and has technical schools and a fiee
library Coal is the chief article of export
Pop, 1901, 17,300, 1911, 23,852
GAH/TEB, ORDER OF THE. The highest order
of chivalry in Great Britain The Order of the
Garter was instituted by King Edward III and
though not the most ancient is one of the most
famous of the ehivahous orders of Europe The
original number of the knights of the Garter
was 25, the Sovereign himself making the
twenty-sixth The stoiy goes that the Count-
ess of Salisbury let fall her garter while danc-
ing with the King and that the King- stooped
quickly to pick it up This occasioned some
indelicate jokes which caused the Countess to
withdiaw The King exclaimed angnly, Horn
sort qui mal y pense (Shame to him who evil
thinks), and added that he would make this
blue ribbon so glorious that all the coui tiers
would desire it This story has absolutely no
foundation in fact. Edward had formed the
plan for the order in 1344 and instituted it on
April 23, 1349 Its patrons were Holy Trinity,
the Virgin Mary, St Edward the Confessor,
and St George, but the last, who had become
the tutelary saint of England, was considered
its special patron,, and for this reason it has
borne the title of "The Order of St George" as
well as of *kthe Garter " A list of the original
knights or knights founders is given by Sir
Harris Nicolas The order was reorganized in
1831, when the number of kmght companions
was left at 25, but the membership extended to
include the Prince of Wales and such descend-
GAUTEB SHAKE
of Geoigc I and foioign soveieigiib as might
be chosen Tne emblem of the older is a dark
blue ribbon edged with gold, bearing the motto
Horn soit qui mal y pense in gold letteis It
is woin on the left leg below the knee The
Grand Master i& always the monarch of Eng-
land The number of membeis in 1900 was 55
The officers aie the prelate (the Bishop ot Win-
chester),' tho chancellor (the Bishop of Oxfoid),
the registrar (the dean of Wmdsoi), the liciald
(the Gartei Kmg-at-Arms) (qv ), and the Gen-
tleman Usher of the Black Rod Consult Nico-
las, Histo'nj of British Ordeis of Knighthood
(London, 1841-42), Ashrnole, Order of the
Gar Ley (ib, 3672), Belt/;, Memorials of the
Order of the Gaiter (ib, 1841), Galhvey, ILi-
tory of the George Worn on the Scaffold 6<y
King Ohailes 1 (New York, 1908) See Plate
II of OBDEES
GABTER KOSTG-AT-AKMS. An officer of
the Order of the Gaiter (qv ) and the chiot
heraldic authority in England The office was
instituted by Henry V, in 1417, with the aclnce
and consent of the knight companions fl he
duties of the Gaitei are to attend upon the
knights at their solemnities, to inform those
chosen to the order of their election and to
summon them to the installation, to marshal
funeral processions, to assign louls to then
places in Paihament, and to be the executive
officer of the King for the older The Gai tor-
is also the principal kmg-at-ai ms, taking pie-
cedcnce over the othei two kings-at-aims in
England, He is a member of the aHei aids' Col-
lege," or "College of Arms/3 of which the Eail
Marshal is the head The Gaiter giants and
confirms arms under the authonty of the Earl
Marshal, but as Garter King-at-Arms he is in-
dependent of him See HERALDS' COLLEGE
OABTEB SNAKE (so called iiom its color
stripes) An elastic name given in Nojfch
America to any of various small snakes, but
properly applied to striped species of the genus
Eutcema, which includes those most often seen
of all our serpents The genus is widespieacl
and contains, according to Cope, 24 species
north of the Isthmus of Panama Other authois
recognize from 12 to ovei 50 Several of these*
are very slender, mainly gieen with lighten
stripes, and aie popularly distinguished as
ribbon snakes (qv ) One Oregon species is
black, and some semitiopical species have the
stripes broken so as to form series of spots or
crossbars The best-known species is the oicli-
nary garter snake (EutcBnia sirtahs) , which has
the widest range of all species of the genin,
being distributed over the whole of the United
States, southern Canada, and Mexico Through-
out this large area it presents a wide series of
variations which have been distinguished by
Cope, Annual Report of the United States Na-
tional Museum (Washington, 1898), as 11 sub-
species One recent author has reduced thw
number to five
The length of the garter snake when fairly
grown is about 3 feet, of which from one-fourth
to one-fifth belongs to the tail As a species,
it is the most widely distributed and most
numerous in individuals of all our serpents,
except in the Western arid regions This is
due to its extreme fecundity, to its agility and
ingenuity in pursuit of food or in escape from
danger, and to its willingness to fight off as-
sailants It is to be found in all sorts of situa-
tions, but is partial to grassy meadows and to
GABTH 4!
the boiders of streams, where the frogs, toad?,
fish, mice, and shrews upon which it mainly
feeds are numeious, and it takes to water will-
ingly and swims well Some other species of
the genus are almost habitually water snakes
All gaiter snakes are able to climb well, wrig-
gling easily up a rough tree trunk, a wall of
buck or of rough boards, and they search the
bushes for eggs and young birds in the spring,
but lately climb high They are bold in coming
about gardens and village streets, but enter
cellars, dairies, and chicken houses less often
than do some larger serpents, &uch as the milk
snake All garter snakes retain the eggs m
the oviduct of the mother until they hatch and
ihe embryos have i cached a length of 5% to 7
mchcs, when they are extiuded, from 25 to 75
being pioduced (late in summer) by a single
female, but when so many arc boin some will
be small or even confined within the egg covei-
ing when pressed from the vent These young
are able at once to take care of themselves and
will stiuggle vigoiously for earthworms, etc
They remain together and are watched and
protected by the mother, who will biave formi-
dable perils in her anxiety for their welfare It
has been asserted repeatedly by credible wit-
nesses that she receives them into her mouth
and throat for temporary refuge from clanger,
whence they emerge as soon as possible The
courage and pugnacity of this snake are famil-
iar facts, it is the only one of our eommon
snakes that will ever come towards a man with
threatening demeanor when attacked Its bite
is quite harmless so far as poison is concerned,
but its strength and weasel-like courage make
it a successful antagonist of many animals whose
size would seem to give them immunity It is
itself, howevei, the favorite prey of the black
snake, copperhead, and of many reptile-hunting
birds and mammals On the approach of cold
weathei these snakes seek some opening in the
ground, creep as far in as practicable, and be-
come dormant, emerging, however, rather earlier
in the spring than most other serpents In
the West the burrows of ground squiriels,
badgers, etc , ai e favorite hibernacula , and in
these retreats great numbers of the snakes often
gather and entangle themselves into a ball of
sleeping serpents — a practice induced probably
by sexual impulses as well as by a desire for
mutual comfort
In addition to the common and variable gar-
ter snake (Eutcsma sirtaUs) there occurs nu-
merously in the eastern United States the rib-
bon snake (qv.) Florida has a local species
(Eutcenia, sackewi) , and the Mississippi valley
and plains region possess a local species (Eutce-
ma i edits), which is peculiar in its fondness for
water and a fish diet In the central region and
on the Pacific coast is found another species
(Eutcenw elegans), which exhibits many varia-
tions of color and has habits similar to the
eastern form Finally, many species belong to
Mexico and Central America See SKA.KE, and
Plate of SNAKES, AMERICAN HARMLESS
GARTH, SIB SAMUEL (1661-1719) An Eng-
lish physician and poet He was born at Bow-
land Forest, Yorkshire, in 1661, was educated
at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and studied medicine
at Leyden Obtaining the degree of M D from
Cambridge in 1691, he settled in London, where
he was elected a fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians (1693) and was soon recognized aa
a wit and convetsationalist He was knighted
13 GARTNER
in 1714 and appointod physician in ordinary to
George I and physician ^eneial to the army
He died Jan 18, 1710 Gaith gamed deserved
fame in his own time foi a satmcal poem en-
titled "The Dispensaiy" (1699), in which he
ridiculed those physicians \vlio opposed his plan
foi establishing a fiee dispensary for poor
people He also published "Claiemont" (1715),
a descuptive poem in imitation of Denham's
'Coopers Hill," and two yeais later contributed
to a translation of Ovid's Hetamoiphoses He
was much admired by Pope and others His
verse is smooth but monotonous Consult the
sketch of Garth in Johnson's Lues of the Poets
(London, 1854), and Cliahneis, Works of the
Etighsh Poels, vol ix (ib, 1810)
GARTNER, geifner, FRIEDRICH VON (1792-
1847) A distinguished German architect, born
at Coblenz The son of an architect, he studied
first undei his father at Munich, then in Paris
undei Percier (1812), and finally in Italy
(1814-18) Two jeais latoi he was called to
the chair of aichitectuio in the Academy of
Munich and began at the same tnno the piactice
of his ait He designed the Ludwigskuehe, the
Felclherrn Halle, the Libiarv, University, and
Wittelsbachci Palaco (all in Munich), the
royal palace at Athens, and other important
buildings In spite of the strongly classical
bent of his early training moat of his own work
in Germany repi events a consistent effort to
revive mediaeval Romanesque foims, and lie was
wisely intrusted with the lestoration of the
minsters of Speyer, Regensburg (Ratisbon),
and Bamberg He was made head inspector of
buildings, and director of the Academy at
Munich In 1819 he published Ansichten der
an meisten ei h<enen Monumonte Sicthens
CAHTNEB, HBINBIOH (1828-1910) A Ger-
mai landscape paintei, born at Neustrelitz He
was a pupil of Ru&cheweyh, of F W Schirmer
in Buhn, and of Ludwig Iticutei in Diesden,
whence he went to Rome to study the old mas-
teis, and theie was plso much influenced by
Cornelius He became fa\oiably known after
his retmn to Geimany through several decora-
tive cycles axccuted m private houses and
villas and was commissioned to paint some of
the mural decoiations in the new Court Theatre
at Dresden, and after that the encaustic paint-
ings in the Hall of Sculptures in the Leipzig
Museum (1879) Three great landscape com-
positions by him (1883-55) adorn the staircase
of the Agricultural Museum in Berlin Of his
oil paintings there is a "Landscape with the
Return ol the Prodigal Son" in the Leipzig
Museum, and one with "Adam, Eve, Cain, and
Abel" m the Dresden Gallery
GAUTDTEB, JOSEPH (1732-01) A German
botanist He was born at Kalw (Wurttem-
beig), studied at Tubingen and Gottingen, and
after extensive travel was, in 1761, appointed
professor of anatomy at the former university.
From 1768 to 1770 he was professor of natural
history and director of the botanical garden
and the natural-lustoiy collection at tlie Uni-
versity of St Petersburg His most important
work is De FruoMus et Seminifius Pl<m>t&rwm
(1788-91), which, by its minutely accurate de-
scriptions, comprising a thousand and more
species, mtioducecl a new era in plant mor-
phology, The scientific value of the book was
much inci eased by the addition of 180 copper •
plate engravings
GABTSHEBBIE
484
GAS
GABTSHEB^BIE A coal-mining distiict
in Lanarksluie, Scotland, neai Coatbridge
(qv) A coal-cutting machine first used m
the Baird pits here is known as the Garlsnerne
coal-cutting machine
GABTJH'NA See GABOOTE
GABVE, gar've, CHRISTIAN (l/42-9h) A
Geiman philosopher He was bom at Bre&lau,
studied at the universities of Frankfoit-on-the-
Oder and Halle, in 1769 succeeded Gelleit as
professor of philosophy at Leipzig, but in 1772
\\as obliged by ill health to retire His writings
did much towaids the popularization of philos-
ophy in Geimany His woik was highly valued
by Kant and by Fiederick II, who bestowed
upon linn a pension of 200 thaleis and requested
him to prepare a translation (1783, 6th ed ,
1810) of Ciceio's De Offices Garve eulogized
the King in the Fragmcnte zur Schilderung des
Cf-eistes, Chaiakters und der Regierung Fiicd, ic/is
II (1798) Among his further publications are
a collection of essays, Ueber vcrschiedene Gegen-
stande aus der Moral, der Litteratui und dem
gesellschafthchen Leben (1792-1802), and trans-
lations (1798-1801, 1799-1802) of the '"ROueA
and IIo\tri/cd of Aristotle.
GAB/VTB, ALFRED ERNEST (1861- ) A
British Congregational theologian, born in Zy-
rardow, Russian Poland, the son of a Scottish
flax merchant He was educated at Geoige
Watson's College, Edinburgh, at the University
of Glasgow, and at Oxford For a few ye<us he
was in business in Glasgow, but aftei leaving
Oxford m 1893 became minister of the Macduif
Congregational Church and in 1895 of Montrose
Congiegational Church In 1903-07 he was
professor at Hackney and New colleges and then
became principal of New College In 1902 he
was president of the Congiegational Union of
Scotland He wrote Ethics of Temperance
(1895), Ritschkan Theology (1899), The Gospel
for To-Day (1904), Rehgious Education (1906),
Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus (1908), Hand-
book of Christian Apologetics (1913), and com-
mentaries on Romans and St Luke, and edited
The Westminster New Testament
GARY, ga'ri. A city in Lake Co , Ind , 29
miles southeast of Chicago, on the Indiana,
Baltimore, and Ohio, the Chicago, Indiana, and
Southern, the Elgin, Joliet, and Eastern, the
Indiana Harbor Belt, and several other rail-
roads (Map Indiana, C 1) It is situated at
the head of Lake Michigan, midway between the
vast Iron-ore beds of the noith and the great
coal region of the south, and this, togethei with
its excellent railroad and water facilities, caused
it to be chosen as the site for the main plant of
the United States Steel Corporation, in Apul,
1906 Since then the growth of Gary has been
rapid The city is now the greatest steel-pro-
ducing place in the world Brides the Indiana
Steel Company, its industrial establishments
include the American Budge \Voiks, sheet and
tin-plate works, a cement plant, locomotive
works, a coke by-products factory, tube works,
car and foundry norks, <*tc Gaiy contains a
Carnegie libraiy, a fine city hall, two fine hos-
pitals, and public parks It vms named for F. H
Gary (4 v ) Pop , 1910, 16,802, 1920, 55,378
aARY? ELBEKT HENRY (184fi-1927) An
American corporation official, born at Wbeaton,
111 Educated at Wheaton College and at the
University of Chicago (LL B, 1867), he was ad-
mitted to the Illinois bar in 1867 and to the
bar of the Supreme Comt of the United States
in 1878 He was ma> 01 of Wheaton for two
teiras, and county judge of Dupage County foi
t\A o terms For 25 >eais lie piacticed law in
Chicago, serving as railroad and coiporation
counsel for vaiious companies He helped to
oigamze, and became president of, the l<edcial
Steel Company, and he was connected with the
organization of the United States Steel Cor-
poiation, of whose board of directors and finance
committee he later became chairman A& such,
he was prominently in the public eye dumig the
government prosecution of the Steel Coipoiation
as a monopolistic trust He was chosen a di-
rector in several Chicago and New York banks
and other corporations See GABY, I^D
GABY PLAN See SCHOOTS
GAS See GASES, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
GAS, ILLUMINATING AND FUEL Gas for
illuminating or heating purposes may consist of
(1) a puie compound, such as acetvlene, pio-
duced from calcium carbide, (2) air charged
with volatile hydrocarbon vapor, such as naphtha
and various mixtures of hydrogen, (3) hvtlio
carbon gases occuirmg as natuial pioducta and
widely known as natural gas, (4) similar mix-
tures, with the addition of caibon monoxide,
produced by the destructive distillation of
bituminous coal, heavy hydrocarbon oils, and
wood, also (5) a zmxtuie of hydrogen and car-
bon monoxide produced by the decomposition of
watei in piesence of incandescent carbon, en-
riched with oil gas, the whole popularly known
as water gas Of the above mentioned, coal gas
water gas, and natuial gas are the most im-
portant and are handled on a large scale The
others are of service in isolated localities or on
moving vehicles
COAL GAS
Coal gas is the gas produced by the destructive
distillation of bituminous coal
History. The existence of inflammable gases
issuing from the earth has been known from
FlG 1. COAL-GAS RETORT, WITH DIRECT-FIRE FURNACE
very edrly times In 1659 Thomas Shirley com-
municated to the Koyal Society a paper describ-
ing eXT>m merits on a gas issuing from a well
neu Wi</an in Lancashire and resulting, in his
485
GAS
opinion, from the decomposition of coal Dr
John Clayton, in a paper presented to the same
society in 1739, described the production of a
2 CROSS SECTION OB1 HYDUATTLIC MAIN
similar gas from coal heated in a closed vessel
It was not, however3 until 1792 that the practical
value of coal gas as an illummant was demon-
strated by William Murdock, a Scotchman, who
in the Soho foundry The experiment proved
highly successful, and the plant was soon en-
larged so as to give light to the principal shops
in the vicinity Tn 1805 Murdock mtioduced
gas in the cotton mills 11? Manchester Mean-
while Lebon had used coal gas in ins home in
Pans in 1799, and his experiments atti acted the
attention of Wmsor, the " fathei oi modern gas
lighting," who, on his return to .England soon
after, urged the use of coal gas for general
illumination In consequence of hi& agitation
various buildings in London wore lighted by this
means, but it was'not until 1810 that he secured
the mcoiporation of the Gas Light and Coke
Company, and even then the royal charter wai&
not gi anted until 1812 Wostmmstei Bridge in
London was first lighted by gas in 1813, and in
1815 Guildhall was similarly illuminated As
a street illummant, gas was first introduced in
St Margaret's parish in London Paris was
lighted in 1820, and thei eafter the use of gas
lor street illumination -was giadually extended
throughout the Continent In the United States
the USG of illuminating gas was agitated as
early aw 1812, it was successfully introduced m
Baltimoic in 1821, in Boston 111 1822, in New
York gradually between 1823 and 1827
The Coal A good gas coal should contain
only a small peicentage of ash and sulphm and
should yield, upon distillation, a compai atn ely
large percentage of volatile matter of good illu-
minating value, and a good coke amounting to
from 60 to 65 per cent of the original weight of
3. 0AS PLANT WITH INCUIOID BBTORTS
constructed apparatus by which he lighted his
home and office in Redruth, Cornwall In 1798
he moved to Soho and introduced the illummant
the coal A gas coal showing the following
analysis by weight may W edi&icl&recl! as the
standard for the United €t»tofcc Volatile matter
GAS
486
GAS
S3 to 35 per cent, fixed carbon, 55 to 60 per
cent, ash, 4 to 6 per cent, sulplmi, 0 4 to 0 6
per cent A pound of such coal "will yield, upon
distillation, about 5 cubic feet of gas, possessing
an illuminating value of from 15 to 17 candle
power when burned in an Argand burner
Good gas coals of practically the above com-
position are found in Pennsylvania, in the Pitts-
burgh fields, in the West Virginia and Kanawha
fields, and also in Tennessee, Indian Territory,
and Colorado , while others not so good are found
IB Alabama, Kansas, and Washington In Eu-
rope the coal fields of England furnish the best
gas coals, these English coals being of very
nearly the composition given above, except that
they contain less ash, but more sulphur
Appaiatus The distillation of the coal is
carried on in closed letorts, heated by suitable
furnaces Originally made of cast iron and cir-
cular in cross section, these retorts are now made
of fire clay, are oval or D-shaped, and set hori-
zontally or inclined Vertical retorts are square
in section, with rounded corners, and larger at
the bottom than at the top Horizontal retorts
(see Fig 1) are of varying dimensions, a very
common size for the United States being 16
inches X 26 inches X 0 feet inside, and are set
In groups of from three to nine The furnaces
by which these groups are heated are of two
kinds — direct fire and geneiator In the former
the carbon of the fuel is burned directly to
carbon dioxide, while in the latter the com-
bustion of the carbon is perfoimed m two stages,
the first taking place in the furnace proper and
forming carbon monoxide, which is burned in
the second stage to carbon dioxide, this sec-
ondary combustion taking place between the
retorts The use of generator furnaces results
in greater economy of fuel and the attaining of
a higher temperature in the letorts than is
possible with direct-fire furnaces These ad-
vantages are secured to a still greater degree by
the use of recuperators, in which the heat of the
outgoing products of combustion is transferred
to the incoming air The retorts are either set
horizontally or at an angle of about 30° to the
horizontal (see Fig 3) The object of this in-
clination is to permit the charging of the coal
into, and the discharging of the coke from, the
retorts to be performed by gravity instead of
by manual labor or by machinery, as is neces-
sary when they are set horizontally In large
gas works coal and coke handling machinery is
employed, sometimes to such an extent that the
coal is unloaded from the cars or vessels in
which it is brought to the gas works, transported
to the retort house, and charged into the re-
torts, and the coke drawn, carried to the yard,
and stacked or loaded for sale without heing
touched by hand Retorts of the size mentioned
will take charges of from 250 to 350 pounds of
coal, according to the degree to which they are
heated
To the open end of each of the retorts is
bolted a cast-iron mouthpiece, of the same cross
section as the retort, and from 14 to 16 inches
deep On the outer end of the mouthpiece is
hinged, so that it can be readily opened and
closed, a cast-iron or steel lid, which, when
closed, makes a gas-tight joint with the face
of the mouthpiece At the mouthpiece a bell is
provided, into which is inserted the lower end
of the standpipe, or pipe through which the gas
passes away from the retort On the top of the
standpipe is a bridge or arch pipe, from which
hangs a dip pipe, which is bolted to the hy-
draulic main (a large pipe generally U-shaped
and made of steel, see Fig 2), and passing down
into this mam dips below the surface of the
ainmoniacal liquor, with which the main is
paitly filled, and by being thus tiapped pie-
vents the return oi any gas to the letort when
it is open for drawing and charging
Vertical retoits aie of two types, intermittent
and continuous, both of larger capacity than
older forms, since they run fiom 1500 to 2000
pounds of coal per charge They aie moie
economical of operation and are rapidly replac-
Coa/ hopper 24-hQars
storage capacity
Inter from
coa/ hopper
FlG 4 VEETICAL KETOKT.
ing the other types Fig 4 shows a- vertical
section of one of the latest forms
It is significant that the gas produced during
the coke-oven operation has at last come into
use as a public illummant, particularly in Ger-
many and England
From the hydraulic main the gas passes to the
exhauster, a rotary pump employed to relieve
the retorts of the pressure of the gas generated
from the heated coal The rotary pump also
pushes the gas into a tar extractor, in which
the gas is subjected to friction for the removal
of such of the heavy tar as has not been con-
densed out in the hydraulic main After the
removal of the tar, which should be effected at
a temperature not lower than 100° F,, the gas
passes to the condensers and is cooled to a tem-
perature of about 50° to 60° F, These con-
GAS
48*
GAS
denser s may be either atmospheric condenseis or aiound the top and bottom of the cylinder, and
water condensers The atmospheric condensers in the case of telescopic holdeis at the top and
employ air, and have concentric steel shells bottom of each of the sections working against
foimmg an annular gas space exposed to air on rails or channel irons fastened to the inside of
both the inner and outer circumferences They the tank wall and of the columns All large
are used to perform the first pait of the cooling, gas holders are telescopic, i e , are made with
which is completed by the watei condensers, one or more outer sections, which are merely
these being somewhat similar in construction to rings, in addition to the inner section closed on
a tubular boiler, the water passing through the top At the bottom of each of the sections,
tubes in one direction, while the gas passes except the lowest, is a "cup* (see Fig 0) Gas
outside of them in the opposite direction
is admitted to and drawn from the holder by
tfas Inlet
After cooling, the gas passes to the washers pipes passing down on the outside of the tank
and scrubbers for the removal of the ammonia under and through its foundation, and up on
which it still contains In the washer and the inside to a point above the water level
scrubber the gas is caused to pass in thin When gas is admitted, it enters the space be-
feti earns over wetted sui faces, the object being to tween the closed top, or crown, and the watei
expose the gas to intimate contact with water, in the tank As it continues to entei, the pres-
flcrubbers are of t\\o general types — tower suie increases until it is sufficient to oveicome
scrubbcis, vertical cylinders filled with bundles the weight of the holder, which then begins to
of thin boards which aie
wet by water caused to flow
over them by the force of
gravity, and rotary scrub-
bers, fitted with bundles of
•wooden rods mounted on a
horizontal shaft and kept
wet by being rotated through
the water or aramoniacal
liquor with which the lower
part of the scrubber is filled
Fiona the sciubber the
gas passes to the punfieis
These are usually four in
number, and the gas passes
through three of them con-
secutively, while the fourth
is cut out for cleaning and
refilling They are cast-iron
boxes with open tops, which
are closed by means of re-
movable covers made of
light steel plates ' When in
place over the boxes, the
mfflmw//////,
Sides of these covers are FIG. 5 SECTION AND ELEVATION OP ROTARY GAS SCRUBBER
sealed in water contained in
"cups" cast on the sides of the boxes, and the rise and continues to do so as long as gas is
The purifiers entering faster than it is passing out When
escape of gas is thus prevented -.«~ r — 0 -
are filled with one or more layers of slaked lime the inner section is completely filled with gas,
•- - -• - •- • tho cup filled with water engages the grip of the
next section and, as gas continues to flow into
the holder, raises this section, the water in the
or oxide of iron, the latter being the most
commonly used in the United States
From the purifiers the gas passes to the ......
station meter, wheie it is measured by means of cup forming a seal which prevents the escape of
a drum divided into either three or four com- any gas When the holder descends, the outci
partments The meter is partly filled with section lands on the bottom of the tank, and,
water, and the inlets and outlets to the different the inner section continuing to go down, the
compartments are so arranged m connection cup and grip separate The columns, by which
with this water that gas cannot simultaneously the holder is guided and prevented from tilting
11 — as it rises above the tank, are built up of
structural steel and are connected together at
enter and leave a compartment The pressure
of the gas causes the drum, which is mounted
on a shaft, to revolve so that each compart- the top and intermediate points by girders, and
ment is alternately filled and emptied, and since also by diagonal ties, so that the whole of the
each is filled with a definite volume of gas, the guide framing is bound together into what is
volume of gas passing through the meter is practically a rigid cylinder Originally built in
accurately measured and is recorded by suitable veiy small sizes and with only a single lift, gaa
mechanism
After pass:
through the station meter the
holdeis have been made larger and with more
lifts, one at the East Greenwich Works in Lon-
gas is conveyed to the" gas holder, a cylindrical don consists of six lifts and contains, when full,
ve&sel open at the bottom, but closed on top, 12,000,000 cubic feet of gas The largest holder
made of steel sheets The lower edge of the built in the United States, at the Astoria Works,
gas holder is always kept sealed m water con- New York City, has lifts 300 feet in diameter
tamed in a masonry or steel tank, in which and 245 feet high, capacity 15,000,000 cubic feet
the holder is free to rise and fall, being guided In some cases, usually those of comparatively
in the tank and by columns rising above the small holders, the guide framing has been com
tank to prevent tilting The guiding is per- pletely done away with, the guiding being per-
formed by wheels attached at equal distances formed by means of spiral guides fastened to
GAS
488
GAS
the inside of the tank wall and to the inner
surfaces of the sections of the holder
Process of Manufacture When the coal is
placed in the retort, the volatile mattei is driven
oft by heat, rapidly at first and then more and
more slowly The reactions taking place in the
retorts aie complex In general they consist of
the decomposition of the coal into coke and heavy
hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of the latter
into lighter hydrocai bons, with the setting free
of hydrogen and maish gas and, when, the break-
ing down is carried too far, of solid carbon,
which is deposited on the interior of the retort
Reactions also occur between some of the nitro-
gen and hydrogen, the hydrogen and sulphur,
and the carbon and nitrogen by which compara-
tively small amounts of ammonia, hydrogen sul-
phide, and cyanogen are formed The coke which
is left in the retort is composed almost entirely
of carbon, with a percentage of ash. dependent
this time In England the length of charge is
usually five to six hours
The gas leaving the retoit is a mixture of
peimanent gases, principally liydiogen, marsh
gas, and carbon monoxide, with some caibon
dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia,
and cyanogen Hydiocarbon vapors aie the
most important light-giving constituents The
problem to be solved in the cooling of the gas
is to leave in it a sufficient quantity of the
lighter vapois to saturate it fully at the mini-
mum tempeiature and maximum pressure to
which it is to be subjected in the future After
the gas has been cooled, it is necessary to remove
the ammonia and hydrogen sulphide, and in some
cases the carbon dioxide and cyanogen are also
taken out
The heaviest of the vapors condense in the
hydraulic main, forming tar, which must not be
allowed to rise to the level of the lower edges
Guide Frame
FlG 6 SECTION- TtBTBOTTGH GAS HOLDEB
upon the amount of ash in the coal The extent
to which the hydrocarbons are broken down in-
creases with the temperature at which the le-
torts are maintained, the volume of the gas pro-
duced increases, and its illuminating value de-
ci eases The product of illuminating value and
quantity depends, therefore, upon the heat, and
the retorts are usually heated to a temperature
of about 2000° F The gas produced is deterio-
rated in illuminating value if exposed to pro-
longed contact with the hot walls of the retort,
and to reduce the extent of this contact to a
minimum the volume of the charge of coal
should be as large as possible in pioportion to
the size of the retort The existence of a pres-
sure 111 the retort also increases the contact be-
tween the gas and the walls, and it is to avoid
this, as well as leakage of gas through minute
cracks in the clay, that the piessure is taken
off the retort by means of the exhauster In
the United States the length of charge or time
the coal is left in the retorts is usually four
hours, the heat arid the weight of charge being
so proportioned that the gas is all driven off in
of the dip pipes, since if brought into intimate
contact with the gas it will absorb the lighter
hydrocarbon vapors For this reason it is also
necessary that the heavy tar that is not de-
posited m the hydraulic mam should be removed
Irom the gas before it is cooled, and this is done
by the friction tar extractor The lighter tar is
then condensed by the cooling effected in the
condensers This cooling should be done very
gradually to avoid the condensation of vapors
that should be retained in the gas As the gas
cools, some of the water vapor with which it is
satin ated condenses and absorbs a portion of the
ammonia, forming ammomacal liquor. The tar
and ammoniacal liquor thus formed in the hy-
draulic mam and the condensers are run off
through suitable drains into wells The portion
of the ammonia that still remains m the gas
when it leaves the condensers is removed m the
washer and scrubber By using weak ammoni-
acal liquor as the washing liquid in the first
stages of the scrubbing^ the ammonia is made
to combine with carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide, the resulting liquor being an aqueous
GAS
489
0AS
solution of caibonate, sulphide, and vanous
other salts of ammonia
The gas leaving the scrubbers contains as im-
purities caibon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide,
as well as small quantities of other sulplmi
compounds and cyanogen It is necessaiy to
remove the hydrogen sulphide and i educe the
sulphur compounds to an amount not to exceed
30 giams of sulphur per 100 cubic feet of gas,
since these substances produce sulphurous oxide
when burned, and thus give rise to disagieeable
fumes it present in any quantity The carbon
dioxide is sometimes removed also, although,
being harmless except as it affects the illumi-
nating value, it is usual in the United States to
allow it to remain in the gas For its removal
it is necessaiy to employ, in the punfieis, cal-
cium hydroxide, which combines with it, forming
carbonate of lime. Lime will also combine with
hydrogen sulphide and was formeily the sole
substance employed for its removal, which can,
however, be effected much more economically by
the use of hydrated sesquioxide of iron, eithei
prepared artificially or in the shape of a natural
bog ore, and this has largely supeiseded lime
The i cacti on between the oxide of iron and the
hydrogen sulphide results in the formation of
sulphide of iron, which is again changed to oxide
when the fouled material is exposed to the air.
The material can thus be used over and over
lene, a volatile hydrocarbon which, when chilled,
condenses at once to the solid form in light
flakes, and at times causes much trouble by stop-
ping the small pipes of the distribution system
It will be seen that in addition to the gas
there are pioducecl in the manufacture of coal
gas coke, tar, and ammoniacal liquoi, all of
which are valuable — the coke as a fuel, the tai
as a raw matenal for the manufacture of paving
and roofing pitch, artificial dyestuffs, various
drugs, etc (see COAL TAR), and the ammoniacal
liquor as a raw material for the manufacture of
,tfa
/ during The "blow"
** foseddunnlft
r1
Tafo-offfo
Wash Box
FlG 7 DOUBLE STJPBBHEATBK LOWE CARBX7BETED-GAS APPARATUS
again until it becomes so charged with the sul-
phur, deposited at each revivification, as to be
rendered inactive The oxide of iron also ab-
sorbs some of the cyanogen, and when spent is
of value for the manufacture of cyanides After
passing the purifiers the gas is ready for distri-
bution by means of the gas holders
The scheme of condensation and purification
outlined is the one usually employed, but it is
becoming customary to scrub the gas with a
solution of ferrous sulphate to remove the cy-
anogen completely and in a more merchantable
form than i& done in the purifiers Scrubbing
with tar oils is also used to remove naphtha-
ammonia in various forms The products from
2000 pounds of gas coal will be, about, 1200
pounds of coke, 10,000 cubic feet of gas, 13 gal-
lons of tar, 20 pounds ammonium sulphate, and
3 5 pounds potassium fer,rocyamde.
CABBUBBTED WATEB GAS
Carbureted water gas is made by decomposing
steam in the presence of incandescent carbon so
that the hydrogen, is set free, ana the oxygen
unites with the carbon giving carbon monoxide
These two gases, with small amounts of methane,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, form what is
GAS
490
GAS
called "water gas," which, while combustible,
burns with a nonlummous flame The gas is
made luminous by mixing with gas made fiom
oil
History Although it was shown by Eontana,
in 1780, that a combustible gas could be foimed
by the leaction between steam and incandescent
caibon at high temperatures, which is the basis
of all watei-gas manufacture, and between 1823
and 1858 many patents were taken out aiming
to take advantage of this reaction, the commei-
cial development of the manufacture of water
gas and caiburetcd water gas is of compara-
tively recent date This development \\as made
almost entnely m the United States, where
both anthiacite coal, a desnable souice of car-
bon, and petroleum, for the manufactme of oil
gas, weie plentiful and cheap In the eaiber
forms of appaiatus the vtater gas was made
from anthracite coal raised to incandescence in
externally heated retorts, similar to coal-gas
retorts, and the amount of fuel requned proved
too gieat for the success of the piocess In 1871
Tessie du Motay erected in New Yoik City an
apparatus for the manufacture of "oxygen" gas,
which, although it proved unsuccessful for this
purpose, was later successfully developed into
the generator -retort form of carbureted water™
gas apparatus, and m 1873 Lowe elected, in
Phoemxville, Pa , the first appaiatus of the gen-
erator-superheated type, covered by his patent
taken out in 1872 In 1875 Lowe took out, as
a result of his experience in eonstiuction, an-
othei patent, the basic patent for appaiatus of
this class
Apparatus and Process of Manufacture.
In the geneiator-retort, or Tessie du Motay,
process, water gas is made in a generator, a steel
shell lined with fiie brick The generator is
filled with anthracite coal, which after kin-
dling is brought to incandescence by means of a.
forced blast of air. When the proper tempera-
ture is reached, the blast is shut off, the outlet
for the escape of the products of combustion
closed, and steam is admitted to the fire and is
decomposed, forming water gas The water gas
is led from the generator into a small gas holder,
called a lelief holder This is necessary, because
the action of the generator is intermittent, and
the production of water gas rapidly cools the
fire below the gas-making temperature. The
temperature must be brought back by again put-
ting on the blast, while the gas must pass
through the rest of the apparatus continuously
and at a uniform rate From the holder it is led
above a series of steam-heated shelves, on which
naphtha is vaporized, and the mixture of gas
and vapor then passes through externally heated
retorts, the vapor being converted "by the heat
into permanent gases The crude caiburcted
water gas so formed is drawn from the retorts
by an exhauster and condensed and purified,
without being scrubbed, in the manner described
under the heading Coal G-as
In the generator-superheater, or Lowe, type
of appaiatus (see Fig 7) the water gas is made
and carbureted in one* operation In its most
common form it consists of three brick-lined
steel cylindrical vessels connected and called the
generator, the carburetor, and the superheater
The generator contains the coal, and the carbu-
retor and superheater are filled with fire brick
piled in a checkerwork This checker brick is
heated by the combustion of the producer gas
formed in the generator while the coal is being
brought to incandescence by a forced blast.
When the proper teinpeiatuic has been reached
in all the vessels, the blast is shut off, the stack
valve on top of the supei heatei, thiough which
the products of combustion escape dining the
heatmg-up period, 01 "blow," is closed, and steam
is turned into the genezatoi As soon as the
pi eduction of water gas begins, oil is admitted
at the top of the caibmetor, is vapoiized by the
heat of the checker brick, and is taken up by
the water gas and earned thiough the choekei-
work in the carburetor and supei heater, being
converted into a mixtuie of permanent cases b\
the exposure to heat to which it is thus sub-
jected After leaving the supei heater the gas
passes thiough a water seal and is then cooled
by the condenser and inn into a iclict lioldei
An exhauster draws the gas fiom this holdci and
forces it thiough the puiifiers and station metei
into the storage holder The genei atoi -supei -
heater type is the one that is goneially employed
at present, having replaced all the eailier instal-
lations ot the generatoi -i etort type
Car bnieted water gas is a imxtme of essen-
tially the same gases as are found in coal gas,
though in different piopoitions, the following
being representative analyses of each gas atter
puiificafcion by oxide of iion
Coal gas
C uburetod
Tvater gas
Per cent
Per cent
Carbon dioxide
12
38
Ethylene and benzene
32
114
Oxygen
4
2
Carbon monoxide
91
310
Methane
302
150
Hydrogen
485
329
Nitrogen
74
57
In the case of carbureted water gas, however,
the crude gas*contains no ammonia or cyanogen,
and smaller amounts of sulphur eted hydrogen
and sulphur compounds than are found in ciude
coal gas It is estimated thai from 70 to 75
per cent of the total amount of illuminating gas
sold in the United States is carbuieted witei
gas, while English gas works at present send
out 14 per cent of carbureted watei gas
DISTRIBUTION' OF GAS
From the gas holder the gas is conveyed to
the consumers by means of main pipes, laid
under the surface of the streets, from which
branch or seimce pipes are led to the houses
The piessuie on the mains, which varies in or-
dinary practice from 1% to 4 inches of water
( 3*8 to -J- pound per square inch), is furnished
by the weight of the gas holder and is regulated
to meet the variation in the demand for gas by
men at the valves, or by a governor on the
holder outlet This governor consists of a valve
fastened to an inverted bell sealed in water,
the weight of the valve and bell being supported
by the pressure of the gas in the mains If this
falls, the bell falls, opening the valve, and so;
by allowing more gas to pass, brings the pres-
sure back to the proper point The amount of
pressure can be varied by the use of removable
weights to vaiy the total weight to be suppoited
The main pipes vary in internal diameter from
3 to 72 inches They are usually cast-iron bell
and spigot pipes, made m lengths 12 feet long,
which are connected together with lead or cement
GAS
491
GAS
joints, but wrought-iron pipe with, screwed joints
is sometimes used foi the smaller sizes The
services aie always made of wi ought-iron pipe
(See PIPES ) The mains must be laid so as to
drain to ceitam points, at which provision 113
made by means of "drips" for removing the
water and such hydiocaibon, vapors as condense
from the gas, and the service pipes should diam
into the mains
In iccent years the use of high piessure (]0
to 20 pounds per square inch) has been advocated
foi the distribution of gas in localities having a
scatteied population, and seveial distribution
systems using tins piessure have been installed
and aie now being opeiated In such systems
wrought-non pipe is used exclusively
3SIeteis. The amount of gas supplied to each
consumer is measmed by means of consumers'
meteis, which aie now of the diy type only A
dry meter consists of a rcctangulai box, made
of tin plate, divided into two main compartments
by a horizontal paitition The lowei of these
compai tments is also divided into two equal
parts by a vertical paitition The measuimg
apparatus consists of two bellows, one in. each
of the divisions of the lower compartment,, each
formed by a circular metal disk, to the circum-
f ei ence of which is fastened one edge of a leather
diaphragm having its other edge fastened to the
central partition, the whole forming a gas-tight
space Ihe alternate opening and closing of
these bellows by the pressure of the gas as it Is
admitted, first into the spaces inside and then
into the spaces outside of them, furnishes mo-
tion TV Inch by suitable mechanism is made to
opeiate valves controlling the flow of gas into
and out of the bellows and outer spaces in such
a way that gas cannot pass simultaneously into
and out of any given space, and also to woik
the train of gears which lecords the amount
of gas passed through the meter The mecha-
nism also controls the extent to which the bellows
can open and close, so that a fixed and definite
volume of gas passes into and out of the meter
each time one is rilled and emptied The house
pipes, which aie usually wrought iron, should
dram to the meter, where any condensation can
be rim off if necessaiy. A tolerance of 1 or 2
per cent fast or slow at time of the installation
of a meter is usually considered sufficiently ac-
curate, as the meter can be adjusted within 1
per cent of correct without difficulty. If the
meter, after having been m service for several
yeais, is accurate within 2 or 3 per cent, the
loss to either customer or company is considered
negligible Tests or retests are required by
public-service authorities m many States, and
the percentage of accuracy is being increased
Burners The principal forms of gas burners
used for the development of light from the gas
are the flat name, the Argand, and the incandes-
cent The flat-flame burners are either "bats-
wing," in which the gas issues from a narrow
slit cut through the rounded top of the tip, or
"fishtail/' in which the gas issues from two cir-
cular holes in a flat tip, inclined in such a way
that the jets of gas strike against each other and
are spread out in a sheet of flame The tips
are usually made either of steatite or of a spe-
cies of enamel Although an their early forms
these two types produced flames of different
shapes, whence their names, as now made they
produce flames that are practically identical.
The Argand burner is circular in form and
consists of a hollow steatite or metal ring, the
VOL IX — 32
top of which is pierced \\ith small holes, through
which, the gas issues Air, drawn in by the
diaft produced by a glass chimney, is supplied
to both the innei and outer circumfeienoes of
the flame In the incandescent bu^nei the gas
is burned in an atmospheiic burner giving a
nonltunmous flame, the heat of \\luch is used
to raise to incandescence a hood 01 mantle com-
posed of oxides of i aie eaitha, which aie very
refractory The mantles most commonly em-
ployed are composed of approximately *)9 pel
ccsnt of thona and 1 per cent of cena This
combination has been found to field the greatest
amount of light, and the use of such mantles m-
ci eases the amount of light obtainable from a
foot of gas to four or five times what it can
be made to yield in flat-flame or Aigand buiners
As the amount of light that may be obtained
from gas when buined in incandescent burneis
depends largely upon the caloiific v«ilne, and but
slightly upon the illuminating value, as shown
by the legal method of testing (for which see
PHOTOMETRY), the mci easing iiso of these bum-
el ,s has given rise to a discoU-feion of the advisa-
bilitv of changing from the old ilium ma ting-value
standaids by which the quality has been judged
to a caloiine-vahie standaid In some cities in
Europe, whore it is possible to make a £>as ot
good calorific but low illuminating ^aluc much
more cheaply than a gas with a lughei illumi-
nating value, the legal illuminating value has
been reduced to 10 candles In London the legal
standard of the gas companies has been reduced
to 14 candles
Use of Illuminating- Gas for Puel Pur-
poses During recent years there has been a
large development of the use of gas for cooking,
for such heating as is not required to be con-
tinuous, and for industrial pm poses where it is
impoitant to have a high and easily controllable
tempei atui e A great number of gas companies
have been very active in seeking for bubiness
along these lines, until m some cases the output
of gas for fuel pm poses is gieatei than that foi
illuminating purposes This development of the
sale of gas for fuel also affords an argument in
favoi of the adoption of a calorific-value stand-
ard, as mentioned above
In 1912 the Mineral Resources of the United
States Geological Survey reported that there
had been sold for illuminating and fuel pur-
poses 212,391,168,000 cubic feet, a figure which
included a considerable decrease in the amount
of gas used for illumination, but a great gain, in
its use for fuel
The total quantity of gas reported as sold in
the United States for lighting and heating dur-
ing the year 1910 according to the thirteenth
census, was 156,900,000,000 cubic feet, as com-
pared -with 08,265,000,000 repoited for 1900, an
increase of 130 per cent Of the amount sold in
1909, about 15,791,220,000 was a by-product
fiom the nianuf actui e of coke and was sold to
distributing companies for resale to consumers,
the balance of the output was made by 1296 gas
works, which number may be compared with
877 reported in 1899, 742 reported in 1889, and
only 30 in 1850 The capital invested in the
gas industry, according to the reports, increased
from $6,674,000 in 1850 to $2(58,771,745 m 1889
$567,000,506 in 1899, and $915,536,762 in 190^
The total receipts for gas sold in 1909 were
$138,615,309, or $0 92 per thousand cubic feet,
which latter figure may be compared with $1 03
peir thousand m 1899 and $1 42 per thousand in
GAS
492
GAS
1889 By-products sold in 1909, including tar,
coke, and ammoniacal liquor (not sepaiately re-
poited), amounted to about $21,155,672, which,
with $7,043,390 from rents and sales of appli-
ances, brought the total revenues of the gas
works up to $166,814,371 The total output of
English gas works in 1910 was about 206,510,-
000,000 cubic feet
Sanitary Aspects. Towards the close of the
nineteenth century the attention both of sani-
tarians and of those interested in gas manu-
facture was directed to the samtaiy aspects of
the use of illuminating gas The nnpoitance of
this phase of the subject had recently been in-
creased by the frequent substitution of water
gas for coal gas In water gas the most poison-
ous agent — carbon monoxide — is increased, as
compared with coal gas, from 6 or 7 per cent to
about 30 per cent This change, however, was
not necessary to make illuminating gas an ac-
tive poison to breathe The danger in the use
of illuminating gas arises fiom two sources
(1) from unburned gas which escapes into the
atmosphere through defective pipes or fixtures,
or through burners accidentally open, and (2)
from, vitiation of the atmosphere through the
products of burning gas
The National Board of Fue Undeiwuters has
published a table of gas losses compiled from
data furnished by 15 companies, which shows
that over 14 per cent of the total product of
gas plants leaks into the streets and houses of
the cities supplied The danger to houses from
escaping gas is much greater in the wintei
time, when the street surface is frozen, and
when houses, on account of then higher tem-
perature, act as chimneys to diaw in the ground
air, and with it the gas which has leaked into
the soil Gas thus escaping may follow water
or sewer pipes and enter even those houses
which have no gas connections
In order to remove the constant menace to life
and property, through explosion and asphyxia-
tion, which is afforded by leaky gas mains, the
whole matter should be under the strictest sur-
veillance and control by the public The intro-
duction in our large cities of subways for un-
derground pipes and wires would remedy the
evil by rendering gas mains easily accessible
for constant inspection In this way the slight-
est leak would be detected The danger of de-
tenoiation of the mams through rust and of
their breaking through settlement of the soil
would also be removed
While the consumption of gas does vitiate
the atmosphere of a room to a certain extent,
an ideal system of ventilation is possible, m
which burning gas is not a hindrance, but an
essential part An example of such a system
is the British Houses of Parliament, in which, by
means of flues placed over the jets, the heat
or surplus energy of the gas flame assists in
producing a pure atmosphere A similar system
of ventilation could be carried on in an ordinary
room with a 13-foot ceiling, m conjunction
with the chimney in, the room, and the combus-
tion of one cubic foot of gas could be made, by
a suitable flue, to change the atmosphere of a
room 15 X 15 X 11 feet once per hour In this
event the three feet pei houi consumed by an
incandescent burner could be made abundantly
to light and ventilate that space
For cases of isolated lighting, air gas, oil
gas, and acetylene are chiefly used Among
these the oldest method is air gas, popularly
known as "Naphtha Gas," which consists of
air chaiged with naphtha or gasoline vapor, a
petroleum distillate consisting mainly of pen-
tanc, hexane, and heptane If the product is
to be used exclusively for house lighting and
heating, caie must be taken that the mixture
contains eithei lesb than 2 or moie than 5 per
cent of the hydrocaibon vapor, as it is between
these figuies that the mixture is explosive and
only fit foi use in the gasoline engine Manv
kinds of appaiatus have been used for pioduc-
ing mixtures of the first type They consist
essentially of a system for feeding measuied
quantities of an under slight piessuie to a
caibuietor, 01 chambei, where the necessaiv
amount of hydiocarbon is introduced in the
form of a fine spiay and regulated by a float
operating a needle valve These carburetois are
familiar in connection with the "gasoline en-
gine " It is essential that the air used be at
constant tempeiature and the vaporization be
icgular, otheiwise the absorption of heat by
too lapid evaporation yields a pioduct lo\v in
illuminating and heating powei With the use
of gas mantles this difficulty has been partly
obviated Wheie the mixtme consists of more
than 5 pei cent vapoi, it must be mixed with
an befoie combustion Such mixtuies aie now
used almost exclusively foi heating purposes
and are familial in the paintei's or brazier's
toich and plumber's furnace Eithei piece of
appaiatus consists of a &tiong hi ass cylinder
provided with an an pump or heating coil and
a buiner tube filled with fibrous material, the
outer end of which tei inmates in a needle valve
for controlling the supply of heated gas, and
an air-mixing chamber Of the few types of
apparatus of this order still used foi house
lighting, the simplest consist of a revolving
air drum driven by weights and capable of forc-
ing warm house air through a pipe to an un-
derground tank, situated some distance from
the building This pipe enters the top of the
tank, bends at a light angle, and continues
nearly to the bottom Another pipe for con-
veying the vapor-laden air leaves the top of
the tank and returns to the building A sup-
ply pipe for gasoline extends just above the
giound line and is closed except when the tank
requnes filling It is obvious that the house
air, impelled by the drum, bubbles through the
gasoline and becomes saturated with vapoi
Special burneis, filled with fibre and provided
with an air-niixing device, aie necessary Many
forms of air-gas machines are now operated
by gasoline-engine power, the exhaust from
which lieata the air used in the operation, thus
obtaining more constant results A simple foim
of apparatus of the prcssui e type is quite largely
used in small household stoves and differs not
materially from the plumber's fuinace, except
that the air pump is absent, and vaporization of
pure hydrocarbon is maintained by heat, con-
ducted back into the reservoir by the burner
tube or a copper rod A small reservoir is pro-
vided under the biirner By filling this with
gasoline or alcohol and igniting", sufficient heat
is generated in the reservoir by the time it has
burned out to partly vaporize the hydrocarbon
and produce enough pressure to cause a flow of
hot vapor On opening the needle valve this
vapor mixes with air and is burned at the tip of
the burner The burner tube maintains suffi-
cient heat in the reservoir as long as the flame
is alight Kerosene may be burned in this
GAS
493
OAS
type of apparatus, which is familiarly known
as the blue-flame stove The vapor of de-
natured alcohol is utilized in similar apparatus,
but the piactice has not found much favor in
the United States Wheie light only is le-
quired, a mantle burnei is employed
Oil G-as Illuminating mixtures made by the
destructive distillation of oil or fats antedate
coal gas, but failed from high cost of the orig-
inal matenal With the pioduction of cheap
liquid hydrocarbons fiom \aiious souices, the
project levived and is now extensively employed
either for ennclung water gas 01 to be sold in a
compressed form for isolated lighting — lailway
cars, boats, buoys, isolated dwellings, and stieet
lamps
This gas is best known as "Pmtsch gas "
The piocesa of manufacture is conducted in iron
retorts and is similar to the coal-gas piocess,
except that the maximum temperature larely
passes 900° F In the Young pioeess the gas is
washed by the oil flowing into the retort, and
all condensible vapor lemoved
Oil gas has the following composition
CONSTITUENTS
Per cent
Ungaturated hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons
Hydrogen
Carbon, monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Oxygen.
Nitrogen
33 16
4515
1965
50
50
60
44
Oil gas is compressed in steel cylinders at
90-100 pounds3 pressure and when used must
be attached to a special governor for reducing
the pressuie to 1-2 inches of watei Special
flat-flame or ordinary mantle burners aie used
Blau Gas, invented by Hermann Blau, of
Augsburg, is a special foim of oil gas consist-
ing of propane, butane, and pentanes with hy-
drogen and methane in solution under pressure
It has a higher illuminating and heating power
than ordinary oil gas and is particularly recom-
mended on account of its safety for use in
dwellings, lighthouses, etc Very high tem-
peratures are obtained by burning the gas in
combination with oxygen In this manner it
is used in burning steel beams in the demolition
of buildings, ships, and similar structures
Acetylene, 02H2» is produced by adding water
to calcium carbide, or vice versa The gas is
pure, requiring no further treatment, and the
operation of making may be stopped at will
As the gas is generated under pressure, a strong
well-made apparatus is necessary, and there is
always the element of danger from excessive
pressure This form of lighting has been very
popular, especially on a small scale, as in bicycle
and automobile lamps, etc The danger factor
has led to the manufacture of the gas and stor-
age under pressure in strong steel tanks filled
with fibre and containing acetone, which dis-
solves the gas under pressure and releases it on
removal The high coat of this system limits
its application for general use Acetylene and
oxygen, both under pressure, are extensively
used in producing high temperatures for metal
work, acetylene welding, &nd brazing It is
claimed that acetylene penetrates fog or mist
better than the electric light, hence should re-
cjeive the preference for buoys, ships, and rail-
way signals Acetylene burns best in the
Y-shaped burner. The apertures are on the
inside of the Y arms near the top The two
opposing streams of gas impinging spread out in
fdn-shape flame Acetylene is less poisonous
than any other illuminating gas and if it es-
capes in any quantity may be lecogmzed by its
characters tic odor See ACETYLENE
Hafcnral Gas issues fiom the eaith in many
localities and lias been known fiom a very early
date As far back as history goes the "eternal
flies of Baku" on the Caspian Sea aie men-
tioned, and it is quite likely that a gas well
existed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus No
application was made of this valuable product
until lecent times Wheiever soft coal or oil
oecuis, the deposits are moie or less accom-
panied by gas This fact has led to the belief
that "natural gas" is one of the by-pi oducts in
the formation of coal With the exploitation of
peti oleum in the United States vast supplies
of gas were accidentally tapped and many hun-
dred million feet wasted before the excessive
pressuie of the wells could be brought under
control When means weie devised for accom-
plishing this end, the product was piped many
miles m some cases and utih/ed foi heating
and lighting on a laige scale
Natural gas consists laigely of hydiogen and
methane, consequently has low illuminating and
high heating capacity Tt is, moieovei, fre-
quently highly charged with impurities such as
hydi ogen sulphide, etc , and requires purifica-
tion before it is suitable for house use As
there is no absolute certainty of the duration
of the supply, any but the simplest means of
handling and purification are usually out of
the question Natural gas is still very largely
used for metallm gical purposes and street light-
ing See GAS, NATURAL
Bibliography Journals devoted to the sub-
ject of the manufacture and distribution of gas
appeal in all the leading languages, and of
theae the Jownal of Gas Lighting (London)
was first issued in 1849 Other -journals of im-
portance are the Amencan Gaslight Journal
(New York) and tlie Gas Age (ib ) For a full
description of the subject of gas lighting, con-
sult Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Ohemistry
(London, 1912) , Newbogging, Handbook for
Gas Engineers (ib, 1904), Lewes, Carbonisation
of Goal (ib, 1912) , O'Connor, Gas Manufacture
and Lighting (ib , 1910), Bertelsmann, "Das
Leuchtgas m den Stadten," in Weyl's Handluoh
der Hygiene (Leipzig, 1913) , Strache, Q-a§
Seleuchtung imd Gasindustrie (Brunswick,
1913), Legal Specifications for Illuminating Gas,
United States Bureau of Standards, Technologic
Papers No 14 (Government Printing Office,
Washington, 1913) , Hunt, Hisioiy of the Intro-
duction of G-as Lighting (London, 1907) , But-
terfiold, The Chemistry of G-as Manufacture (ilo ,
1907), id, Lectures on Chemistry in Gas
Worls (ib, 1913)
See PUBLIC UramELS loi discussion of organi-
zation and control of gas companies
GAS, LAUGHING See ANESTHETIC ; Ni-
GAS, NATURAL A gaseous member of the
paraffin series (see HYDBOCAKBONS ) , petroleum
(q.v ) being a liquid member and asphalt (qv )
a solid one
Composition Natural gas is made up chiefly
of marsh gas, or methane (OH*), which usually
forms over 90 per cent of the, entire gas, the
extremes of a number of analyses of United
States samples being 9830 (Ala) and 14.33
GAS
494
GAS
(Dexter, Kans). In this same series carbon
dioxide ranges from 005 to 3040 per cent,
nitrogen from 82 70 to 0 60 per cent, and oxy-
gen from a trace to 9 per cent Other hydro-
carbons are usually present in small amounts,
but range from a few tenths per cent up to 20
or 30 per cent in exceptional cases The rare
element neon as well as helium has been found
in Kansas gas The accompanying analyses give
the composition of natural gas from different
American localities
ai range themselves according to their specific
gravities, the gas and oil being found at and near
the crest, respectively, while on either flank
there is often an abundance of water At times
little or no oil may be present
This theory of gas accumulation is known as
the "anticlinal theory" and was developed by
Profs E Orton and I C White The structure
of the rocks at the surface is not necessarily the
same as that of the oil-bearing formation, since
the two series may not be conformable It has
NATURAL GASES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Methane (CH4)
9620
1485
6293
7381
9261
8094
8648
Ethane (C2Hs)
78
41
1460
765
Olefine (CaHO
00
30
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
00
00
50
81
26
Carbon monoxide (CO)
11
00
tr
50
40
50
Oxygen (O)
tr
20
70
346
34
20
30
Nitrogen (JST)
246
8270
2430
2192
361
346
487
Hydrogen (H)
IS
tr
1151
2 18
tr
Helium (He)
27
1 84
undet
undet
undet
undet
undet
Hydrogen sulphide (HaS)
00
20
1 Buffalo, Kans , 2 Dexter, Kans , 3 Stockton, Cal , 4 Pittsfield, 111 , 5 Fmdlay, Ohio, 6 Big Injun Sand, ShmnstoD,
W Va , 7 Fifty Foot Sand, same locality
Natural gas has a specific gravity of 06 to
065, it weighs from 47 to 49 pounds per 1000
cubic feet and has a calonfie power langmg fiom
about 920,000 to 1,250,000 B T U pei 1000
cubic feet
Mode of Occurrence Gas, as a lule, is
found only in sedimentary formations, unbroken
by faults and but little folded or otherwise dis-
turbed. Exception to this is the occurrence
of gas with salt domes in Louisiana and with
faulted beds in California The conditions fa-
vorable for accumulation are a poious rock to
seive as a reservoir, a cap rock to hold it, and
the proper structure to encourage concentration.
The reservoir rock is generally sandstone, but
sand, limestone, dolomite, and more rarely shale,
may serve the same function Natural gas is
found in rocks of all geological ages and is
often more or less closely associated with petro-
leum The following classification, suggested
by Clapp, indicates the types of structure with
which gas may be associated
I Wheie anticlinal stiucture exists
(ffl) Stiong anticlines standing alone
(&) Well-defined anticlines alternating
with synchnes
(c) Structural tei races
(d) Accumulations on monoclines due to
thinning- out or change in texture of
the sand as it rises towards the nearest
anticline
(e) Broad geantichnal folds
II Quaquaversal structures
(a) Anticlinal bulges
(5) Stratigraphie domes
(c) Saline domes.
III Contact of sedimentary and crystalline
rocks
IV In joint cracks
V Where there is no particular gas struc-
ture, but the gas is associated with ad-
jacent oil pools
While all these types of occurrence are known
in the United States, the most common one is
the association of the gas with some sort of
anticlinal structure Where this is true, and
oil and saline water are associated with the
gas, there will be a tendency for the three to
been noticed in many gas fields that when the
reservon is tapped the gas usually rushes out
as though under great piessure, this being
spoken of as lock pressure Prof E Orton be-
lieved that this pressuie was hydrostatic and
due to the head of water in the rocks ovei lying
the gas, the amount of pressure m the Ohio field
being equal to a column of water whose height
was equal to the elevation of Lake Erie above
the gas-bearing stratum While this theory may
hold in some cases, still I C White has pointed
out that in others the rock pressure is much
greater than the artesian pressure in the same
region, and furthermore that the exhaustion of
the gas is not always followed by a flow of
water In such cases the rock pressure must
be due to the expansive force of the gas The
original rock pressure varies in different fields
and is not infrequently as high as 300 or 400
pounds per square inch at the mouth of the
well and in some wells may exceed 1000 pounds
per squaie inch Several of the newer wells in
West Virginia having a depth of from 2700 to
3200 feet showed a rock piessure ranging from
1000 pounds to 1300 pounds per squ<ue inch A
decrease in pressure is always likely to follow
with time, as in the case of the fiist well oponod
at Fmdlay, Ohio, where the pressure fell from
450 pounds in 1886 to 170 pounds in 1890 In
the early days of gas-well drilling the supply
appeared so inexhaustible that the newly drilled
wells were often allowed to blow off gas for
several days or weeks before attempts were made
to cap them
Origin. Many theories have been advanced
to explain the origin of natural gas, but they all
fall into one of two groups, the inoiganic and
the oiganic Those belonging to the former
class usually assume that surface water has
penetrated to the earth's interior, where it has
acted chemically on carbide of iron at high
temperature, producing hydrocarbons, or in
other cases the natural gas is supposed to be
a volcanic exhalation The organic theories
agree in believing the gas to have originated by
the decomposition of organic matter buried m
the rocks, but the points of difference shown by
the advocates of this theory are whether the
GAS
495
GAS
gas has originated m situ or migrated fiom
other formations, and whether it has been
derived from animal or vegetable matter
Distribution. The natural gas fields of the
United States, together with their estimated
areas, are as follows
Sq mi
Sq mi
Pennsylvania
2730
Arkansas
100
Indiana
2460
Colorado
80
West Virginia
1000
South Dakota
80
New York
550
Missouri
70
Oklahoma
1000
Washington
70
California
310
Illinois
50
Kentucky
Ohio
290
275
Michigan
Montana
40
40
Kansas
550
Utah
40
Texas
130
Alabama
40
Wyoming
120
Oregon
20
Louisiana
110
10,155
The areas of gas production and oil produc-
tion correspond more or less geologically and
geographically, but there are compaiatively few
important gas-producing regions These are
(1) Appalachian region, including the fields of
New York, Pennsylvania, southeastern Ohio, West
Virginia, Kentucky, and Alabama, (2) Trenton
rock region, or Ohio-Indiana field 2 (3) Clinton
sand region, or central Ohio field, (4) Mid- Con-
tinent or Kansas-Oklahoma field; (5) Caddo
field of northwestern Louisiana
In the Appalachian field, which extends from
New York to Alabama, the gas occurs in for-
mations ranging from the Ordovician to Carbon-
iferous, but m the central part the wells do not
penetrate deeper than the Devonian No less
than 30 gas sands are known in the Devonian
and Carboniferous, and m West Vugmia some
producing wells reach a depth of 4000 feet The
Trenton rock region extends from northwestern
Ohio into Indiana and is associated with a broad
dome known as the Cincinnati anticline This
field is decreasing in output The Clinton sand
field extends from western Ontano southward
nearly to the Ohio Hiver, the large gas fields
being found in the highest portion of the Clin-
ton (Silurian) sand.
In the Kansas-Oklahoma field the gas is all
obtained from carboniferous sandstones except
an area in southern Oklahoma which yields
Cretaceous gas The structure is of the anti-
clinal type or a modification of it The Caddo
field of northwestern Louisiana is associated
with the Sabme uplift, which is a broad anti-
cline, carrying gas m the Cretaceous and Ter-
tiary sandstones
Mining and ITses. The methods used for
drilling gas wells are the same as those em-
ployed for sinking oil wells When the gas is
first struck, the pressure has m rare cases been
sufficiently great to blow out the string of drill-
ing tools weighing over 1000 pounds As soon
as practicable the well is capped, and the sup-
ply is piped to the site of consumption or to
storage tanks. As the gas is often required for
use at some distance from the well, the con-
struction of pipe lines has become an important
feature of the natural-gas industry With high
rock pressure the gas may reach the market
unaided, but with low pressure it is necessary
to locate pumping stations at different points
along the pipe The pipes used vary m diam-
eter from 2 inches to 3 feet and are made of
wrought iron, or steel One of the first lines was
that laid m 18S2 from Wilcox to Colegrove, Pa ,
a distance of 20 miles Later, with the depletion
of the gas fields around Pittsburgh, it became
necessary to pipe the gas foi that city fiom
gi eater distances, and at the present time some
of it is being piped fiom Doddridge Co, W.
Va, a distance of ovei 100 miles The pipe
lines from Wetzel Co , W Va , to Akron and
Canton, Ohio, are over 150 miles long
When first used, the pi ice of natural gas was
low and no attempt "was made to measuie it, as
it appealed to be widely distubuted and to exist
in inexhaustible quantities, but the giving out
of some of the districts and the rapid fall 111
rock piessuie led to the use of meters and a
rise in the value of the gas On account of its
cleanliness and excellent calorific power, natural
gas lias become an important souice of light,
heat, and power in many States, so that in
1012 it was supplied in 23 States to a total of
15,036 manufacturing establishments, including
non mills, steelwoiks, glass factories, brick fac-
toiies, and lead and zinc smelteis In addition
to this it was used in many hundred private
houses for heating 01 illumination
There has been considei able agitation in le-
cent yeais against a reckless waste of natural
gas The causes of this waste aie (1) fiee
escape from natural-gas wells that have not
been closed, (2) free escape of gas fiom oil
wells, (3) abuse of gas by the use of its pres-
sure to drive engines, (4) jetting of gas into
oil wells for purpose of gas lift instead of air
lift, (5) wasteful installation of gas burners
and lights in oil-well drilling, (6) waste by
selling at a flat rate, (7) waste from inefficient
furnaces
The consumption of natural gas in the United
States in 1912 was 562,203,452,000 cubic feet,
valued at $84,563,957, an aveiage price of 15 04
cents per thousand cubic feet There were 30,-
779 producing wells at the end of 1012
An interesting recent development is the
separation of the more volatile grades of gaso-
line from natuial gas issuing from oil wells,
the gas fiom vanous regions yielding from 0
to 8 or 10 gallons of gasoline per thousand feet,
with an average of 3 gallons The total quan-
tity of gasoline so produced in 1912 was 12,081,-
179 gallons, valued at $1,157,476
History The use of natural gas in China
and Persia is said to date back to a very remote
period In the United States General Wash-
ington is said to have visited a burning spring
on the Great Kanawha River, near the present
site of Charleston, W Va , but the first recorded
use of natural gas in this country was in 1821
at Fredonia, N Y , where it was piped from a
well for illuminating purposes In 1841 it was
used in the Great Kanawha valley for heating
salt furnaces, but its extensive use did not be-
gin until 1872, at Fairview, Pa In 1875 it was
first used for iron smelting at Etna Borough,
near Pittsburgh, and in 1886 was brought to
Pittsburgh from the Haymaker well near Mur-
raysville, 19 miles distant Since then its use
has steadily increased
Bibliography For statistics of production,
see volumes of Mineral Resources issued by the
United States Geological Survey (Washington,
annually) , Orton, "The Trenton Limestone as
a Source of Petroleum and Inflammable Gas in
Ohio and Indiana," Eighth lAnnw&l Report
United States Geological Sw^ey (Washington,
1888), id, "Origin of the Kock Pressure of
QAS CITY
496
&ASCONY
Natural Gas in the Trenton Limestones of Ohio
and Indiana," Annual Repot t Smithsonian In-
stitution (Washington, 1891) , Watts, "The
Gas and Peti oleum Yielding Formations of
the Central Valley of Calif 01 ma," California
Mining Bureau, Bulletin 3 (San Francisco,
1894) , Bishop, "Oil and Gas in Southwestern
New Yoik," 'New York State Museum, 33d An-
nual Repot t (Albany, 1901), Haworth, Kansas
Geological Bwvey, ix (Lawience, 1908),
Adams, "Oil and Gas Fields of the Westein In-
terior and Northern Texas Coal Measures, and
of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of the
Western Gulf Coast," United States Geological
Bwvey, Bulletin 181}. (Washington, 1901), Or-
ton, "Oil and Gas in New York,3' New York
State Museum, Bulletin 30 (Albany, 1898) ,
Harris, Louisiana Geological Survey, Bulletin
8 (1909), for Caddo field, Ries, Economic Geol-
ogy (3d ed, New York, 1910), Clapp, "Geol-
ogy of Natural Gas in United States," Eco-
nomic Geology , viii, p. 517 (Lancaster, Pa,
1913) , Hutchison, Oklahoma* Q-eological Sur-
vey, Bulletin 2 (Oklahoma City, 1911), West-
cott, Hand Book of Natural Gas (Erie, 1913)
GAS CITY A city in Grant Co, Ind , 45
miles southeast of Logansport, on the Pitts-
burgh, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St Louis "Rail-
road (Map- Indiana, F 4) The city contains
a Carnegie hbiary It is in an agucultural
region and has tin-plate woiks and glass fac-
tories, bottling works, and inanufactones of
paper bo\es, rubber goods, gloves, and lumbei
Under a chartei of 189G its government consists
of a mayor and a umcameial council The water
works and electric-light plant aie owned by the
city Pop, 1900, 3662, 1910, 3224
GASCOIG3STE, gas-kom^ GEORGE (c 1535-77)
An. English, poet He was born about 1535, the
son of Sir John Gascoigne, of Cardmgton, Bed-
fordshire, and was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, but left without a degree, entering,
it is said, the Middle Temple before 1548 In
1555 lie became a student of Gray's Inn, in
1557-59 he was member of Parliament; about
1566 he married and settled at Walthamstow.
To escape his numerous creditors he went to
Holland in 1572, where he served with distinc-
tion under William, Prince of Orange, but was
captuied by the Spaniards under the walls of
Leyden and sent back to England after an im-
prisonment of four months His Posies of G-.
G-ascoigne appeared in 1575 In the same year
he accompanied Queen Elizabeth on her memo-
rable visit to Kemlworth, and was commissioned
by Leicester to write verses and masques for her
entertainment These appeared in The Prmcelye
Pleasures (1576) Gaseoigne is best known by
his lyrics, such as "The Arraignment of a Lover"
and "A Strange Passion of a Lover " But much
of his other work is of very great historical in-
terest The Supposes, acted at Gray's Inn in
1566, an adaptation of Ariosto's Gli suppositi,
is the earliest extant comedy in English prose
Aided by Francis Kinwelmersh, he wrote Jocasta
(1575), a free rendering of Euripides' Phcenis-
sce This is the second earliest English tragedy
in blank verse The Steel Q-las (1576), written
in blank verse, is our earliest regular verse
satire Gertayne Notes of Instruction Concern-
ing the Making of Verse or Byrne in English
(1575) is the earliest English critical essay
An edition of Gascoigne's Works was published
by Jeffes (London, 1587) His Complete Poems
were edited by W C Hazlitt, Roxburghe Li-
biary (London, 1S68-69) His principal poems
were edited by Arbei (London, 1868), and his
Complete TT/orAs, ed by John W Cunlifle, ap-
peaied in the Cambridge English Classics (New
York, 1907-10) Consult F E Schellmg, Life
and Wtitmgs of G-eoi ge Gascoigne (Philadelphia,
1893), and Sidney Lee's aiticle m Dictionary of
National Biography (London, 1889)
GASCOIGHE, SIR WILLIAM (c 1350-1419)
An English judge during the reign of Hemy
IV and the first English judge of whom we
have any peisonal anecdotes He was made a
sergeant at law in 1397 and m 1400 became
Chief Justice of the King's Bench In this high
office he distinguished himself both by his in-
tegrity and ability In July, 1403, he was joined
with the Eail of Westmoreland in a commission
foi levying forces against the insurrection of
Henry ("Hotspur") Percy In popular, though
unauthenticated, story he is chiefly celebrated
for the feailessness with which he defended the
immunities of his judicial office from interfer-
ence by the court On one occasion, the legend
luns, when one of the dissolute companions of
young Pi nice Henry, afterward Henry V, was
airaigned before Gascoigne for felony, the
Prince demanded his release and, on being or-
dered out of the couit room, rushed upon the
judge and stiuck him Gascoigne immediately
committed the Prince to prison, and Henry, so
the story goes, conscience-stricken, submitted
The King, on being informed of the occunenee,
is said to have thanked God for having given him
"both a judge who knew how to administer the
laws and a son who respected their authority "
Shakespeare, m Henry IV, Part II, represents
the young Henry V as bidding Gascoigne retain,
under a new king, the office whose honor he
knew so well how to defend Historically this
is untrue, as Gascoigne seems to have resigned
immediately after Henry V's accession Con-
sult Foss, Bwgraphia Jumdtca (Boston, 1870) ;
Campbell, Lives of the Chief Justices (London,
1874) 3 Oman, History of England from Acces-
sion of Richard II to Death of Richard III9
1311-US5 (ib, 1906)
GAS'CCOT A fish See SAUEKL
GASCON, ga'skta', GASCOCTNTADE, ga'skd'-
nad/ Terms employed to denote respectively a
boastei or biaggart and any extravagant boast
or vaunting The inhabitants of the district
once known as Gascony have long been, and are
still, legarded as notorious biaggarts
GASCONADE (gas'kon-ad') BIVEB A
right tiibutary of the Missouri, rising in the
Ozark Mountains, in Wright Co , Mo ( Map •
Missouri, E 3) It flows north-northeast and
empties into the Missouri at Gasconade after
a, course of about 300 miles Its principal tribu-
taries aie the Prairie Fork, Osage Fork, Robi-
doux Creek, and Big and Little Piney The
stream is navigable for vessels of light draft
to Arlington, 107 miles above its mouth, and
is an important medium of commerce and trans-
portation throughout this distance
GAS'COHY (Fr Q-ascogne, Lat Vascoma,
from Vascones, the Basques) An ancient duchy
in the southwest of France Its boundaries were
normally the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne,
and the western Pyrenees The modern depart-
ments of Landes, Gers, BasSes-Pyre'nees, Hautes-
Pyrenees, and the southern portions of Haute-
Garonne, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Lot-et-Garonne
are embraced within its ancient boundaries It
derived its name from the Basques, or
GASCOY1TE-CECIL
497
0-AS EHGIHE
who, driven by the Visigoths fiom their own ter-
ntoiies on the south em slope of the westein
Pyrenees, crossed to the noithern side of that
mountain range m the middle of the sixth cen-
tury and settled in the fornioi Roman Distiict
of Aquitama Teitia, or Novcmpopulan£i Tn
602, after an obstinate resistance, the Basques
were forced to submit to the Fianks They
passed under the soveieignty of the dukes of
Aquitama, who for a time weie independent of
the crown, but were afterward conquered by
Pepin and latei by Chailes the G-reat Sub-
sequently the clistuct became mcoipoiatecl with
Aquitama (qv ) Consult Monlezun, Uistoire
de la G-ascoigne (6 vols , Audi, 1846-50) , Jaur-
gam, La Vascome, etude histonque et witique
(2 vols, Paris, 1898-1902), Lot, Etudes sur 1e
regne de Hugues Capet (ib , 1903) , Marsh, Eng-
lish Rule in Gascony, 1199-1259 (Ann Aibor,
1912)
GASCOYNE-CECIL See SALISBURY, third
MARQUIS OF
GAS EBTG-IWE A form of pnme mover
which renders available the energy released in
the form of heat when a combustion takes place
under the following conditions (1) when such
combustion takes place within the motor cyl-
inder itself, (2) when the fuel elements enter
the cylinder in the form of gas The pressure
developed by heating the air supplied for proper
combustion and the products of such combustion
in a confined space is exerted directly to drive
the piston A better and moie inclusive term
to meet requirement (1) is the title internal-
combustion engine (qv ), because the combus-
tion is mteinal to the cylinder, instead of ex-
ternal as in the hot-air engine (qv ) or in the
steam engine (qv ), which has a steam boiler
externally heated, and in many cases the opera-
tion and functioning of the motor will be identi-
cal if the fuel is supplied under the second
requirement mentioned above, in liquid form,
and made into a fog or mist or a true vapor by
an atomizing process Such fuel fog behaves ex-
actly like a gas when the division is fine enough
A true gas is supplied to an internal-combustion
motor only in very large installations, where it
will pay to make the gas in a producer or gas-
making plant, and near the iron-making blast
furnace, where a fuel gas is a by-product of the
plant and process, or in districts where natural
gas is available (See FUEL ) The construc-
tion, functioning, and uses of the internal-com-
bustion motor, whether using gas or an atomized
liquid fuel, will be discussed under INTERNAL-
COMBUSTION ENGINE
Historical Development In 1678 the Abbe*
d'Hautefeuille invented an engine for employing
the explosive power of gunpowder to drive a
piston working in a cylinder. This was the
prototype of the modern gas engine In 1680
the eminent Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens,
devised a similar gunpowder engine The next
development of the internal-combustion engine
was in 1791, when John Barber, an Englishman,
specified in a patent the use of a mixture of a
hydrocarbon gas and air and its explosion in a
vessel, which he called an exploder Some years
later John Street, also an Englishman, took out
a patent for the production of an explosive vapor
by means of a liquid and air, ignited by a flame,
in a suitable cylinder so as to drive machinery
In 1799 Philip Lefoon, a Frenchman, took out a
patent describing the construction and principle
of operation of an engine using coal gas as the
luel, and two yeais later he secured a second
patent on an impioved form of the same engine.
Several othei inventors followed Lebon, but
nothing practical was devised until 1860
In 1860 Lenoir, a Frenchman, invented the
fiist piactical gas engine. This engine resem-
bled in exteinal appearance a single-cylinder,
horizontal steam engine and was double acting
Gas vvas drawn into the cylinder during the first
half of the forwaid stroke and exploded by an
electric spaik from a Ruhmkorff coil when the
piston was commencing the second half of the
f 01 ward stroke The burnt gases were forced out
during the return stroke, at which time an ex-
plosion was taking place on the other side of
the piston The cylinder was water- jacketed
and the engine ran smoothly and regularly, thus
raising high hopes that a successful substitute
for the steam engine had been found As the
charge was exploded without its being com-
pressed, the engine was very wasteful in its con-
sumption of gas Because of this and other de-
fects, it soon went out of use
The principal good accomplished by Lenoir's
woik was to attract attention to the gas engine
As a result of this, in 1862, M Beau de Rochas
took out a patent for the working principles of
an internal-combustion motor which were set
forth as follows During the foiward stioke
of the piston the explosive mixture was to be
drawn into the cylinder, and during the le-
turn stroke this volume of gas was to be com-
pressed, at the beginning of the second for-
ward stroke the combustion was to take place,
driving the piston forward, the burnt gases to
be expelled during the second return stroke As
will be observed, the invention called for an en-
gine with a cycle of four distinct operations for
each impulse No engine was built by Beau de
Rochas, and for 16 years the existence of
his invention remained practically unnoticed
Meanwhile, m 1867, two Germans, Otto and
Lan^en, patented an engine in which the ex-
plosion of gases in the cylinder served to impel
a free piston so that the volume behind it at the
end of its travel se \\as not filled by the volume
of the gases at atmospheric pressure Hence
there was a paitial vacuum under the piston,
which was therefore forced down by the atmos-
pheric pressure above it Although very crude
mechanically, this engine consumed only about
one-half the gas consumed by the Lenoir en-
gine and was the first atmospheric engine to
attain commercial importance
In 1878 Dr Otto brought out his gas engine,
in which he lemvented the Beau de Rochas
cycle and applied it m the construction of an
actual engine In this engine the cylinder was
continued back beyond the stroke of the piston
to form a compression chamber, and the mix-
ture, or charge, was compressed to a pressure
of from 45 to 60 pounds per square inch The
ignition was effected by a flame being brought
into contact with the compressed mixture, and
this produced a piessure of about 150 pounds
per square inch, with a temperature of about
1500° Centigrade The cycle was identical with
that of Beau de Rochas, but, fy> inotsttse the
efficiency and to simplify practical Corking,
Otto permitted the dilution of %e freak charge
by a portion of the burnt, gas^s £r« the pre-
vious stroke This mad& the gaeeH'^turn more
slowly and caused a less violent explosion As
the piston received an impufee only once in
every four strokes, or feverf two revolutions^
GAS EKGIHE 4
regularity of motion had to be secured by heavy
fly wheels Overheating of the cylinder was
prevented by a watei jacket Otto's engine con-
sumed only about 915 hteis of gas per horse
powei per hour as compared with 1380 liters
consumed by the Otto and Langen engine and
2700 liters by the Lenoir engine
Many mventois tried to make a gas engine
which gave an impulse eveiy two strokes, or
once in each revolution, and among them Dugald-
Clerk was the first to be successful He built an
engine having two cylinders of equal diameter
placed side by side, of which one was the power
cylmdei in which the explosion took place, the
other being used to draw in and to compress
the charge and also to furnish a blast of fresh
air to clear out the power cylinder after the
explosion This engine could be run with lighter
flywheels than the Otto, because of the impulse
at every i evolution, but owing to high dilution
with burnt gases from a previous stroke, it
was less efficient Engines of the Clerk princi-
ple are called "two-cycle," or more properly
"two-stroke cycle," engines and will be discussed
under INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINE
suction producer The lattei ha? the advantages
that the draft, being dependent 011 the engine,
automatically controls the fiie, and, the gas
pressuie being below atmosplienc, theie is no
tendency for it to leak out This is impoitant
because the gas is poisonous On account of the
large saving in the cost of powei, producei -gas
engines are being used extensively A light foim
of pioducer has been usod with a gas engine to
propel a vessel, but the majority of boats driven
bv internal combustion niotois use liquid fuel,
either as gasoline, or, in the case of the larger
vessels, the heavier oils, such as ciude petioloum
01 distillate See INTERNAL- COMBUSTION EN-
GINE, where bibliography is given
GAS'ES, ANALYSIS OF See ANALYSIS, CITEM-
ICAI
GASES, GENERAL PROPERTIES OF The study
of the natuie and piopeities of gases has yielded
many of the most important lesults of modern
science Practically the entne structure of
modern chemistry lests on our knowledge of
gases The birth of the science, as already ex-
plained in the article CHEMISTRY, followed al-
most immediately the disco veiy of the common
W////////M%^^
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF OTJO-CE08SLEY GAS ENGINE
Gas engines using illuminating gas from the
mains of cities and towns will usually be very
small on account of the cost of fuel so distrib-
uted, but in certain high-pressme pumping sta-
tions, as in Philadelphia, they have been found
veiy seivieeable for file purposes, being avail-
able instantly and responding at once, so that
the independent file mains may be put under
pressure Of course here with infrequent use
cost is a secondary consideiation, even for a
large station.
Producer Gas Engines. The greatest recent
advance in true gas engine practice has been the
development of engines using producer gas
( See FUEL ) By this method it is comparatively
easy to get a hoise-power hour per pound of
anthracite coal, and during tests some of these
engines have pioduced a horse-power hour on
about tin ee -quarters of a pound of anthracite
roal Another decided advantage is that the
small sizes of anthracite coal, which are the
cheapest, can be used in a gas producer The
pioducer may be operated on either of two
systems In one a blower is used to furnish
a draft for the fire, thus putting the gas under
pressure, this is called a pressure producer
In the other system the suction of the engine
furnishes the draft, the pressure of the gas being
consequently less than atmospheric, this is a
gases The fiuitful theories of modem organic
chemistry are based entu ely on the genei al prop-
erties of gases, and in the latter pait of the
nineteenth centuiy geneial theoretical chemistry
received a poweiful impulse by the extension
of the laws of gases to dilute solutions (See
SOLUTION ) On the other hand, the physicist
has been led, by the study of gases, to a clear
and simple explanation of the phenomena of
heat and of many other general phenomena
forming important chapters in modern physics
And, of course, thiough chemistry and physics
the applied and natural sciences, too, owe a
great deal to our knowledge of gases All this
importance of gases is due to the comparative
simplicity of the. laws followed by them The
simplicity of the laws is, in turn, readily ex-
plained from the standpoint of the molecular
conception Molecules are minute particles of
matter When they are very near to one
another, there must natmally come into play
between them forces whose effects are practically
nothing when the molecules are widely sepa-
rated Under ordinary pressures a substance
occupies a much greater volume in the gaseous
than in the liquid or solid state Thus, an
amount of water occupying, at Op d, or>e cubic
centimeter if liquid, would, if vaporized at the
same tempera tuie and under ordinary
GAS-ENGINES
1. WESTINGHOUSE SINGLE CRANK HORIZONTAL DOUBLE-ACTING GAS-ENGINE.
2. OTTO GAS-ENGINE.
3. WESTINGHOUSE 3-CYLINDER VERTICAL GAS-ENGINE Operating Direct Current Engine Type Generator.
GASES
499
GASES
pheric pressure, occupy over 773 cubic centi-
meteis Evidently the molecules of a gaseous
substance must be veiy far apart, and their
mutual influence very slight In othei wordy,
the number of causes determining the properties
of gases mu&t be smaller,, and hence the piopcitaes
themselves must be less complex, than those of
liquids or solids Of course, as the volume withm
which, a gas is compressed is made smallci
and smaller, the relative simplicity of pioper-
ties giadually disappeais (See MOLECULES —
MOLECULAR WEIGHTS ) Under certain condi-
tions of pic&sme and temper atuie the piopei-
ties of a substance in the gaseous and liquid
states even become identical (See CRITICAL
POINT ) This shows that simplicity of pioper-
ties, while generally found in the gaseous state,
is not sti icily characteristic of it Other cliai-
actenstics may be found mentioned under AG-
GREGATION, STATES OF
It is explained in the aiticles on HYDROSTATICS
and HYDRODYNAMICS how liquids and gases have
ceitain properties in common, viz , all those
which depend upon fluid pressure, which is de-
fined as the force per unit area It is shown
in those articles
1. The pressure at any point in a gas is the
same in all directions, and its value is pgh -}- P,
where p is the average density of the gas above
the point, g is the acceleration due to gravity of
a fieelv falling body, h is the vertical distance
from the point to the top of the gas (if it is
inclosed in a reservoir), and P is a pressme uni-
foim throughout the gas, due to the reaction of
the walls of the leservoir against the outward
expansive force of the gas In all ordinal y cases
of gases h is not laige, and so pgh may be neg-
lected, because p is extremely small, and P is
the principal term In the case of the atmos-
phere, however, P is zero and h laige
2 The pressure of the gas against the con-
taining walls or against any solid immersed in
it is perpendicular to the solid, if the gas is
not flowing
3 Archrrmdes3 principle applies to gases, viz ,
if a solid or a drop of liquid is immersed in the
gas, it is buoyed up with a force equal to the
weight of the displaced gas
4 If a gas escapes from a reservoir through
a small opening in a thm wall, its velocity of
"efflux" is given by the formula v — <i/~, where p
is the difference in pressure of the gas inside the
reservoir and outside (This is not the total
pressuie, but the partial pressure due to this
particular gas See Dalton's Late?, below )
5. If a gas is flowing steadily but slowly
through a tube of irregular cross section, the
pressure is greatest where the velocity is least,
and vice veisa. This is the principle of the
"atomizer," the "miector" for steam boilers, etc
The densities of gases at 0° 0 and standard
pressure are as follows air3 0001293, carbon
dioxide, 0001974, hydrogen, 00000896, oxygen,
0 001430 The special properties of gases have
been stated in the form of laws.
Balton's Law If several gases are contained
m the same reservoir, they are distributed uni-
formly through it, so that the mixture is every-
where the same, and the total pressure on the
walls is the sum of the partial pressures, by
"partial" pressure is meant that pressure which
each gas by itself would exert on the walls if
the Other gases were rwovecL This law of
pressures has been shown recently to be not per-
fectly exact
Boyle's La~w If the temper atme of a gas is
kept constant, and its volume changes, the re-
sulting pressuie and density are such that one
is piopoitional to the otiier In symbols,
p = 7cp , or writing — /o? p, pv = 7cm, where
m is the mass and v is the volume This law,
too, is only approximate, for as the piessuie 011
the gas is increased, the pioduct pv does not
i emam a constant quantity, but first deci eases
and then increases (For hvdiogen gas the piod-
uct pv increases without any prelimmaiy de-
ciease ) This means that at high pressures
gases are less compressible than they would be
if Boyle's law weie obeyed exactly This law,
pv = constant at constant temperatures, was
fast stated by Hobeit Boyle in 1G62 as the le-
&ult of caietul experiments on an, 14 years
afterward it was published by Manotte
It is a consequence of Boyle s law that the
elasticity of a gas at constant temperature mi-
mencally equals the pressure If a gas is com-
pressed rapidlv,, its temperature uses, and so
the pressure is mci eased, the elasticity for a sud-
den compression or rarefaction equals yp, where y
is the latio of the two specific heats for the gas
and for ordinary gases has the value 1 4 (See
ELASTICITY ) An instrument foi measuung
high pressuies in a fluid is made, called a closed
"manometer," the principle of which depends
upon Boyle's law It consists of a device to trap
a definite mass of gas in a closed tube by means
of some liquid, such as mercury, and to have
the column of mercury compress the gas as the
pressuie to be measured is increased, the vol-
ume of the gas vanes inversely as the pressure
on it
If a gas is allowed to expand freely, doing no
external work — e g , take two reservoirs connected
by a tube with a stopcock, compress the gas in
one and rarefy it in the other, then let the stop-
cock be opened — it is observed that there is prac-
tically no energy required to produce the expan-
sion ' This shows that any forces of attraction
between the molecules must be extremely small
(See HEAT ) It is found by experiment that if
the pressuie on a gas is kept constant, but the
temperature changed, the volume changes at the
rate given by the formula
v = i?0(l + fit),
where v is the volume at t° C , vQ3 that at 0°; £
is a constant, the same for all gases approxr-
roately Simrlarly, if the volume 3$ kept con-
stant, and the temperature changed, the pressure
•will change according to the law
p=po(l + /3#),
where p is the pressure at t° C , p0, that at 0° jS
rs a constant, the same for all gases and the
same as in the above -formula for the change of
volume The value of this "coefficient of expan-
sion" rs almost exactly ^ or 0 003662 This
law for the change in pressure or volume of a
gas as the temperature is altered, viz, that p
is the same for all gases, was discovered almost
simultaneously by Charles, Daltor^ and 0-ay-
Lussac
Another law, known as the "law of combin-
ing volumes," may be found explained under
CHEMISTRY
The experimental laws for gases may be de-
duced theoretrcally for a mechanical system of
perfectly elastic spheres thrown at random rnto
GASES
500
GASOUNE
a space bounded "by rigid walls If the number
of spheres is great enough to allow the appli-
cation of the principle of statistics, it can be
shown that the pressure on the walls owing to
the impact of the spheres is p = % mmt?, where
m is the mass of each spheie, n is^the number of
spheres per cubic centimeter, it? is the mean
value of the squared velocities of the spheies
The density is then mn, and the formula may
be written, p = Jptt2
It may also be shown that the mean kinetic
eneigy ot translation of the spheres — 1 mat2—
has piopeities identical with those of the tem-
peratuie of a gas, consequently the above value
of the piessure satisfies Boyle's law The law
for the expansion with tempei ature may also be
derived, viz that j8 is the same for all gases
Again, if theie are several sets of spheres in-
closed in the same space,
p = | (mtfWi2 4- mnM? + etc ),
which is Dalton's law And if there is equi-
librium of temperature,
f miUi2 = \ raiw1 = etc ,
and therefore
p == f mini* (tn + n* + etc ),
which states that for a given value of i m^u-c
(le, temperature) the pressure depends simply
on the number of the spheres pei cubic centi-
meter, not on their masses. This is equivalent
to Avogadro's rule ( q v ) , anothei of the general
principles concerning gases Looked at in a dif-
ferent way If there are two sets of splieies m
different reseivoirs at the same pressuie, m^n^
~ <m2n.>u22, if, further, their values of mu* are
the same (le, their temperatures), m^2 =
rn^Uz Hence % = n^ or they have the same
number of spheres per cubic centimeter The
densities of the two are p± == WJ.-MI, p2 = m^n* , so,
if the pressures and "temperatures" are the same,
wi __ PI
m% P^
which is the formula used in determining the
"molecular weights" of gases See MOLECULES
— MoLEctJLAB WEIGHTS
It can be shown, further, that the greatest
possible value of y, the ratio of the specific heats,
is 167, but if the molecules are complex, so that
there is internal energy in them, y must be loss
It is interesting to note that for helium, argon,
and meicury vapoi 7 = 1 67, as found by dnect
experiment
The properties of the pressure due to the at-
mosphere around the eaith are discussed in the
article ATMOSPHERE Only a few points need be
mentioned here The pieasuie is measured by a
barometer (qv ) and is found nearly to equal
that of 76 centimeters of mercury at sea level
and at 45° latitude, i e , 76X13 6X980, or 1,013,-
300 dynes per squaie centimeter The baiometer
was invented by Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo,
and the first instrument was made and used by
Viviani m 1643 Pascal in 1648 showed that the
height of the barometer varied with different
heights above the earth and proved that the
pressure of the atmosphere obeyed the laws of
liquid pressure Von G-uencke invented the air
pump (qv) in 1650 and without knowing of
Torricelh's work discovered the properties of
atmospheric pressure He did not publish an
account of his work, howevei, until 1672 Boyle
published in 1660 an account of his experiments
with an air pump illustrating the pioperties of
the pressure due to the air
The action of lift pumps, siplionsj etc ? depends
upon atmospheric pressuie Air pumps are in-
struments designed to exhaust the gas fiom a
closed space, such as a sflass bulb
Consult Kimball, Physical Properties of
Oases (Boston, 1890), Barus, Laws of Oases,
"Scientific Memoir Seiies/' vol v (New York,
1899) , "Randall, Expansion of Gases, "Scientific
Memon Senes," vol xv (New Yoik, 1901) , Tait,
Properties of Matter (Edinburgh, 1885) , Meyei,
The Kinetic Theoty of Gases (London, 1899),
Travers, Experimental Study of Gases (New
Yoik, 1901) , Coste, The Calorific Power of Gas
(Philadelphia, 1912) See DIFFUSION, EFFU-
SION, MATTER, THEORIES OF, CHEMISTRY, etc
GASES, LIQUFFACTIOX OF See CRITICAL
POINT , LIQUEFACTION OF GASES , REFRIGERATION
GASES, POISON See CHEMICAL WARFARE,
and SURGERY, MILITARY
GAS/3SOBLL, MRS ELIZABETH CIEGIIORX
(1810-65) An English novelist, bom in Chel-
sea, Sept 20, 1810, the daughter of William
Stevenson When she was only a few -weeks old,
her mothei died, and she was bi ought up by hei
aunt at Knutsford in Cheshne — the village af-
tei \vaid descnbed in Cianford She was sent to
school at Sti atf ord-on-Avon, where she learned
Latin, Prench, and Italian In 1832 she married
Rev William Caskell, a Unitarian minister of
Manchester Her first novel, Maiy Bat ton, ap-
peaied anonymously in 1848 It was followed
by Ruth (1853), Cranford (1853), Noith and
South (1835), Liffsne Leigh (1855), Sylvta's
Lovets (18 03) Cousin Phillis (1865) , Wives and
Daughters (1865) , and many short tales Mrs
Gaskell's usual aim was to combine instruction
with pieasuie Her first novel and several others
depict the habits, thoughts, privations, and
struggles of the industrial poor, as she herself
had observed them in Manchester Her classic,
however, is the delightfully and delicately hu-
morous Crawford, with its inimitable sketches of
a quaint town and its spinsters Mrs Qaskell
wrote an admirable biography, The Life of
Charlotte 3ronte (1857) The Knutsford edi-
tion (8 vols , London, 1906) of her works, with
its full and excellent introductions, is the most
satisfactory edition Consult C K Shorter,
Mrs. Gaskell (London, 1904), and E A Chad-
wick, Mrs G a shell Haunts, Homes, and Stories
(New York, 1911)
GASXRLIi, WALTER HOLBEOOK (1847-1914).
An English physiologist He was born at Na-
ples, Italy, was educated at Tnnity College,
Cambridge, studied medicine at University Hos-
pital and Leipzig University, and in 1883 was
appointed university lectuaer in physiology at
Cambridge In 1889 lie became fellow of Trinity
Hall and m the same year received the gold
medal of the Royal Society for his investigations
zegarding the sympathetic nervous system His
name is identified with the theory that the cen-
tial neivous svstem in vertebiates has resulted
from the coalescence of the alimentary canal
and the ccntial nervous system of some crusta-
cean-like ancestral form In 1896 he was elected
president of the physiological section of the
British Association for the Advancement of
Science and in 1905 honorable fellow of the
Medico-Chjrurgical Society.
GAS'OLINE A distillate from petroleum
( q v ) used extensively as a fuel for internal-
combustion engines (qv), especially those o-f
motor vehicles (qv ) It is chiefly produced by
the fractional distillation of "refinably crude"
petroleum^ conta.uung' a large proportion of
GASOLINE
501
GASQTTET
paraffin hydrocarbons, but is also obtained by the
so-called "cracking" process, by the condensation
of natural gas, and from oil-bearing shales
Strictly speaking, gasoline is the fraction inter-
mediate between petroleum ether and naphtha,
but the name is applied to various mixtures of
the lighter distillates, so that its specific gravity
may range from 80° BaumS to 62° Baume" and its
boiling point from 90'° F to 200° F The commer-
cial term "gasoline" includes naphthas and the
lighter petroleum products In the "straight"
distilling process the benzine distillate, or light
or crude naphtha, is the nrst product, and this
when iedistilled yields m the older named cymo-
gene, ihigoleiie, gasoline, C naphtha (benzine),
B naphtha, and A naphtha (peti oleum naphtha)
From 100 barrels (42 gallons each) of crude
oil five to seven barrels of commercial gasoline
are yielded by this process The moie efficient
"cracking" process involves destructive distilla-
tion where the heavier vapors, becoming con-
densed, are superheated and decomposed, as they
fall back upon the hot oil in the still, sceunng a
more complete separation of the fractions The
Burton "cracking" process of the Standard Oil
Company in 1916 produced more than 3,000,000
barrels of gasoline from certain low-grade petro-
leum distillate, or the equivalent of the ordinary
recovery of gasoline from 18,000,000 barrels of
crude oil containing 17 per cent of gasoline Up
to 1916 this process had not been used for kero-
sene, heavy residuum oils, and asphaltic crude
oils On the other hand, m the process developed
in the United States Bureau of Mines by W F
Kittman in 1915, gasoline can be produced from
crude oil, kerosene, or any low-grade distillate in
increased yield by control of the temperatures
and pressures of the decompositions
Gasoline also may be extracted from natural
gas by compression With over 3,000,000 motor
vehicles in the United States m 1917 the question
of gasoline is a vital one A production of 6,680,-
000 barrels m 1899 had increased to 41,600,000
barrels in 1915, of which 6,500,000 barrels were
exported The price of gasoline, which increased
from 13 cents a gallon to 21 cents between Jan 1,
1915, and Jan 1, 1916, varies with the price of
crude oil, but not always proportionately
GASOLINE-ELECTRIC CABS. See ELEC-
TRIC RAILWAYS, Electric Locomotives
GASOMETER See GAS, ILLUMINATING AJSD
FUEL
GASPARIN", ga'spa/ratf', AG^NOB ETIESTNE>
COUNT DE (1810-71) A French statesman and
author, born at Orange He was a department
chief under his father (then Minister of Inte-
rior ) , master of requests in the Council of State,
and Deputy from Bastia (Corsica) in 1842-46.
As religious reformer he was associated with
Fre"de*nc Monod (qv ) From 1849 he lived in
Geneva, Gasparin made early scientific experi-
ments on table tipping and wrote on it (1854)
He published also many monographs on the sepa-
ration of church and state, the abolition of slavery,
the reform of home life, and the Franco-Prussian
War Consult biographies by Naville (Geneva,
1871) and Borel (2d ed, Pans, 1879) See
GASPABIW, VALERIE
GASPARIN", VALERIE BOISSIER, COUNTESS
Dffi (1813-94) A French woman of letters, wife
of the above Born at Geneva, she lived mostly
in Canton Vaud, Switzerland Besides transla-
tions, travel books, and novels, she published Le
manage tie pomt de une ohrSfoen (1842) and
ll y a, des pawvres to Paris et aillewrs (1846),
each of which won the Montyon prize of the
French Academy, Les howzons proehains (1859)
and Les horizons celestes (1859), translated into
English as The Near and the Heavenly Horizons
(1862) , Les tristesses humaanes (1863) , attacks
on various social evils Consult biography by
Barbey-Boissiei (Paris, 1902)
GASPARJJSTO DA BAKZIZZA, ga'spa-re'nQ
da bar-tse'tsa (c 1359-1431) An Italian human-
i3t, born at Barzizza, Bergamo He taught at
Venice and Padua and in 1418 established a school
at Pavia He laid stress on Latin epistolography
and especially the letters of Cicero His WorJcs
were published at Rome in 1723
GASPARY, gas^a-re", ADOLF (1849-92) A
Geiman Romance philologist, born in Berlin He
became lectuier at Berlin University (1879), pro-
fessoi at Breslau (1883), and accepted (1891)
but nevei occupied a chair at G-ottmgen He
tanks among the foremost German Italian
scholars of half a century The incomplete G-e-
schichte der rtahemscJien Litteratur (1885-88),
his chief work, and Die sizihamsche Dichtet schule
des ffreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1878) have been
translated into Italian.
, g^s'pa/ The most oasteily district
in the Province of Quebec, Canada, consisting
of the counties of Gaspe and Bonaventuie, chiefly
a peninsula projecting into the Gulf of St Law-
rence, between the estuaiy of the same name on
the north and the Bay of Chaleurs on the south
(Map: Quebec, B 2) It consists of an elevated
plateau traversed by the Schikshock or Notie
Dame Mountains, ranging from 3500 to 3800
feet m height and terminating in Cape Gasp<§, a
bold headland of sandstone 690 feet high Area,
8015 square miles Pop, 1901, 55,178, 1911,
63,111, the greater number of the inhabitants
being of French descent. Lumbering and fishing
are the chief occupations of the country
GASPE A village in the Piovince of Quebec,
Canada, which gives its name to the district
(qv ) and the bay on which it stands (Map
Quebec, C 2) It is the commercial centre of
the extensive fishing industries of the region and
is a favorite summer resort for sportsmen at-
tracted thither by nne angling and the vaned
scenery. Ihe United States is represented by a
consul and a vice consul It was here that
Jacques Cartier landed in 1534 and took formal
possession of the country for the King of France
It was the scene of the destruction of a French
fleet in 1627, in 1760 it was captured by the
English Pop, 1901, 454, 1911, 606
GASPifi, PHILIP IGNATIUS (1714-87) A
French- Canadian soldier He accompanied De
Longueil on the expedition against the Chicacba
and Natchez Indians (1739) and subsequently
led troops from Mackmac in attacks on the
English colonists In 1750-52 he was in com-
mand of a fort on the St John River and in
1758 led the Canadian militia m the defense of
Fort Carillon (better known under its English
name of Ticonderoga), when 3600 troops under
Montcalm repulsed an English aimy about four
times as numerous under Aberciomby After
the surrender of Quebec m 1759 ie commanded
the grenadiers of De LeVis
GAS POISONING See CHEMICAL WABFAK£,
and SURGERY, MILITABY
GASQTTET, gas'ka', FBANCIS AXBAJST, CABDI-
KAL (1846- ) An Englxsh Catholic prelate
and historian, born in Lon4on He was edu-
cated at Downside College and in 1878-84 waa
GASS
502
GASSEK VON VALHOKKT
superior of the Benedictine monasteiy and col-
lege of St Gregoiy at Downside He afterward
became abbot president of the English Benedic-
tines, president of the International Commission
foi the Revision of the Vulgate, and (1914)
Cardinal Among his important publications
are Henry VIII and the English Monasteries
(1888-89, 2d ed , 1906)., Edward VI and the
BooL of Common Prayer (1890) , The Last Al-
lot of Glastoribury (1895, 2d ed , 1908), A
Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History
(1896) , The Old English Bible (1897, new ed ,
190S) , The Eve of the Reformation (1900) , A.
Short History of the Catholic Church in Eng-
land ( 1903 ) , Vita antiqmssima B Gregoru
Magni (1903) , Collectio Anglo-Premonstratensia
(1904 et &eq ) , English Monastic Life (1904) ,
Henry III and the Ohwoh (1905) 3 Loid Acton
and his Gw cle ( 1906 ) , Parish Life in Medi&val
England (1906) , The Greater Alleys of Eng-
land (1908) , The Black Death of 1348 and 1349
(2d ed , 1908) , England under the Old Religion
(1912), Breaking with the Past (1914)
GASS, gas, WILHELM (1813-89) A German
Protestant theologian, born in Breslau He
studied at Breslau, Halle, and Berlin, became a
lecturer in theology at Breslau in 1839 and in
1846 was appointed piofessor, \\as piofessor
at Greifswald from 1847 to 1862, at Giessen in
1S62-6S, and from 1868 at Heidelbeig His
chief woik is Geschichte der protestantischen
Dogmatik (4 vols , 1854-67) His other publi-
cations include Oennadius und Pletho, Ansto-
tehsmus und Platomsmus in der gneohischen
Knche (1844) , Die Mystik des Nilolaus Kala-
silas vom Lelen in Ghristo (1849), Geschichte
der christhchen Ethik (2 vols, 1881-87) He
was an associate editor of the Zeitschrift far
Kirchengeschichte (after 1876) and of the Theo-
logischer Jahreslencht
GASSBNDI, ga'saw'de', or GAS8END, gas'-
sai?', PIEEEE (1592-1655) An eminent French
philosopher and mathematician He was born
at Champtereier, a little village of Provence, in
the Department of Basses-Alpes His unusual
powers of mind showed themselves at an early
age, and at the age of 16 he became instructor
of rhetoric, then professor of theology, at Aix,
and in 1616 professor of philosophy He mean-
while applied himself with zeal to the study of
the natural sciences that were taught in his day
and was especially interested in astronomy and
anatomy In philosophy he became disgusted
with scholasticism and undeitook to maintain
certain theses against the Aristotelians His
polemic appeared at Grenoble in 1624 and was
entitled Eweroitationes Paradoxicce adversus
Aristoteleos He drew a distinction between
the Church and the scholastic philosophy, deny-
ing that the former must stand or fall by the
latter In 1623 he was appointed provost of the
cathedral at Digne, an office which enabled him
to puisue without distraction his astronomical
and philosophical studies At the recommenda-
tion of the Archbishop of Lyons, a brother of
Cardinal Richelieu, Gassendi was appointed in
1645 professor of mathematics in the Coll&ge
Eoyal de France, at Paris, where he died, Oct
14, 1655 As a philosopher, Gassendi levived
and maintained, with gieat learning and in-
genuity, the doctrines of Epicurus, as he found
the atomistic philosophy most easily brought
into harmony with his own scientific acquire-
ments and modes of thought His Epicurean-
ism, however, was not allowed to inteifere with
his loyalty to the Catholic faith He reconciled
the two views by holding that God is the First
Cause, who cieated matter in the fonn of atoms
and endowed these with motion, which thus be-
comes then indefeasible chaiacteristic His
gieat philosophical opponent was Descaites
(qv ) His philosophy was in such repute that
the savants of that time were divided into Caite-
sians and Gassendists The two chiefs them-
selves always entertained the highest respect for
each other and were at one time on the friendli-
est teims Gassendi ranked Kepler and Galileo
among his friends, and was himself the mstiuc-
tor of Mohere He published De Vita, Moribus,
et Plaeitis Epicun (1647) and Philosophies
Epicuri Syntagma (1649) They contain a
complete view of the system of Epicurus His
Institutio Astt onomica (1647) is a clear and
connected lepresentation of the state of the
science in his own day, in a later work he gave
the biography of Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, and
other astronomers, and a history of astronomy
down to his own time But his principal philo-
sophical work is Syntagma philosophies m in
three parts, dealing respectively with logic,
physics, and ethics This ^ork appears as the
fiist two volumes of his collected writings in six
volumes, published at Leyclen (1658) Another
edition of his collected woiks was published at
Floience (1727) Consult Thomas, La philoso-
phie de Gassendi (Paris, 1889) , Martin, His-
toire de la vie et dcs Merits de Gassendi (Paris,
1853) , Kiefl, G-assendis Erkenntmstheone und
seine Stellung zu,n Matenahsmus (Fulda,
1893) , Biett, Philosophy of Gassendi (London,
1908)
GrASSEB, gas'er, HANS (1817-68) An Aus-
trian sculptor, born at Eisentratten, Carmthia
He studied in Vienna under Kheber and Kahss-
mann and afterward in Munich with Schwan-
thaler. He began as a portraitist, and his stat-
uette of Jenny Lind and busts of Rahl and
Stefan Szechenyi show considerable power Al-
though he inclined to realism, he was too pro-
lific to be careful in execution or profound in
conception His other works include the statue
of Adam Smith at Oxford allegorical statues
for the arsenal and other public buildings of
Vienna, the not very successful monument to
Wieland at Weimar, the statues of Maria
Theresa in Wiener-JSTeustadt and of the .Empress
Elizabeth at the Elizabeth Kailroad Station
He is at his best, however, in the "Donauweib-
chen" (Danube Maiden), in the Vienna Stadt-
park, and the charming "Twelve Months" in the
Belvedei e
GASSEB VON VALHOKKT, gasper fon fol'-
hflin, JOSEPH (1816-1900) An Austrian sculp-
tor, brother of Hans Gasser He was born at
Pragraten, Tirol, and studied at the Vienna
Academy under Schaller, Kheber, and Kahss-
inann, and from 1845 to 1849 in Rome After
his return he executed for the portal of the
cathedral of Speier five statues of heroic size
Among the numerous works intrusted to him
subsequently in Vienna, where he had settled
in 1852, the best are the statues of Emperor
Maximilian I, Frederick the Warlike, and Leo-
pold of Hapsburg, in the Arsenal, busts of the
Emperor and Empress of Mexico, the marble
statues of the "Seven Liberal Arts" in the stair-
case of the opera house, 24 statues m St.
Stephen's Cathedral, and especially the sculp-
tures for the Votivkirche, including the large
bA,s.-rebefa on the three main portals Jle was
GASSION
503
CASTINE
professor at the Academy from 1865 to 1873
and received a title of nobility in 1879
GASSI03ST, ga'syoN', JEAN DE (1609-47). A
French general, bom at Pau He fought under
the Prince of Piedmont in 1625 and under the
Duke de Rohan in 1628 In 1629 he joined a
troop of French volunteers and entered the serv-
ice of Gustavus Adolphus With him he fought
at Leipzig (1631) and saved his life afterward
at the siege of Ingolstadt As a reward, the
King gave him command of a regiment He fur-
ther distinguished himself at Nuremberg and
Lutzen After the King's death he retuined to
France and fought bravely in the battles of
Chaimes and Neuchatel and at the sieges of
Dole, Hesdin, and Landrecies He was made
aiarechal de camp (1638) and materially as-
sisted in the French victory of Rocioi (1643)
He leceived the baton of a marshal of France
m 1643 He died fiom a wound received under
the walls of Lens
GASSNER, gasper, JOHANN JOSEPH (1727-
79) A priest who gained renown as an exor-
cist He was born at Bratz, near Bludenz, in
the Tirol, and became a Catholic priest at
Klosterle, in the diocese of Chur (1758) The
accounts of demoniacs in the "New Testament,
with the writings of celebrated magicians,
brought him to the conviction that most diseases
are attributable to evil spirits, whose power can
be destroyed only by conjuration and prayer
He began to practice on some of his parishioners
and succeeded in healing many He was con-
vinced that he had recovered his own health,
which had begun to fail, by exorcism The
Bishop of Constance called him to his residence,
but, having come to the conviction that he was
a charlatan, advised him to return to his par-
sonage Gassner betook himself, however, to
other prelates of the Empire, some of ^hom be-
lieved that his cures were mnaculous He
gained influential supporters and was sustained
by the ecclesiastical authorities, although in-
numerable attacks were made upon his methods
and the genuineness of his cures Consult his
life by Zimmermann (Kempten, 1878)
GAST, gast, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS (1835-
) An American clergyman of the Re-
foimed church in the United States, born at
Lancaster, Pa He graduated in 1856 at Frank-
lin and Marshall College (Lancaster), studied
at the Mercersburg Theological Seminary (now
at Lancaster), and in 1859-65 was pastor at
New Holland, Pa In 1865 he was chaplain of
the Forty-fifth Pennsylvania Volunteers, in
1865-67 pastor at London and St Thomas, Pa ,
and in 1867-71 principal of the academy con-
nected with Franklin and Marshall College In
1871 and 1872 he was assistant professor in the
college, from 1871 to 1873 a tutor and from 1873
to 1909 professor of Hebrew and Old Testament
theology in the Lancaster Theological Seminary
GAS TAR See COAL TAB
GASTEIW, ga'stin A valley in the Austrian
Duchy of Salzburg, celebrated for its mineral
springs (Map Austria-Hungary, C 3) It is
a side valley of the upper Salzach valley, and
is about 25 miles long and 1% miles bioad,
with an elevation of between 3000 and 3500
feet It is traversed by the river Ache, which
forms near Wildbad-Gastem two magnificent
waterfalls— the upper, the Kesselfall, "200 feet,
and the lower, the Barenfall, 280 feet in
height — and by the Tauern Railway, which goes
to ]\fallnitz The principal villages are Bock-
stein, Hof-Gastem, and Wildbad-Gastem Hof-
Gastein, with a number of deserted gold and
silver mines in the vicinity., contains a military
hospital, and in the open platz there is a bust
of the Empeior Francis I, who in 1828 caused
a conduit of upward of 5 miles in length to be
constructed for the purpose of conveying the
mineral waters thither from Wildbad Wildbad,
the pimcipal wateimg place, is a fashionable
health resort and contains a numbei of hotels
and villas The water of the springs is con-
sidered efficacious in the case of nervous and
skin diseases
GASTEIK", CONVENTION OF A treaty con-
cluded at Wildbad-Gastem, Aug 14, 1865, be-
tween Austria and Prussia, regulating the rela-
tions of these two powers with respect to the
duchies of Schleswig-Holstein (qv ) and Lauen-
buig, which they had taken from Denmark and
occupied in common Schleswig was placed
under Pru&sian administration, and HoMem
under Austrian, while Lauenburg was annexed
to Puissia, Austua ceding its share tor 2,500,-
000 rix thalers This convention postponed foi
a fehoit time only the outbicak of the war be-
tween the two countnes See GERMANY
GASTER, MOSES (1856- ) A Semitic
scholar, born in Buchaiest and educated theie,
at Leipzig, and at Bieslau In 1881-85 he was
a lecturer on Rumanian language and literature
in the University of Bucharest and then was
exiled because he labored in behalf of the per-
secuted Rumanian Je^s He settled in England,
became chief rabbi of the Sephaidic communities
m England (1887), was pimcipal of the Monte-
fiore College in Ramsgate (1890-96), and was
II Chester lectuier at Oxford in 1886 and 1891
He wrote on folklore, gypsies, Rumanian lan-
guage and literature, and Biblical questions
for special reviews, and published Litet atut a
populara romana (1883), Gfirestomathie rou~
mawie (1891) , "Geschichte dcr lumamsehen
Litteratur," in Groeber's G-rundnss der roman-
ischen Pliilologie (1899) , Sephardic Prayer
Book ( 1901-06) , The Samaritan Book of Joshua
(1908), The Hebrew Divorce (1911)
GAS'TERQMYCE'TES (Neo-Lat nom pi,
from Gk yaGrrjp, gastiir, stomach + jttf/ojs,
inykos, mushroom) One of the great groups
of Basidiomycetes (qv ) It contains the most
highly organized of the fungi, their complexity
appearing in the structure of the fructification
The most familar forms are the puffballs The
name refers to the fact that the spore-produc-
ing cells are inclosed within the fruitlike body
This body is of various forms and structure's,
but the globular puffball is the best illustration
GASTIETE, ga'stSn', CIVIQUE (1793-1822) A
West Indian leformer and author, born at Fort
de France in the island of Martinique He was
educated m Now Orleans (1803-09) and in
Philadelphia, where he studied law, but in 1813
had to make his escape to Pans because he had
written and spoken too boldly in favor of the
negro In 1815 he began to publish a journal,
L'Ami du Noir, whose utterances often subjected
him to imprisonment or fines Finally^ upon
the publication of his De la neGessvt& de fawe wfi
traite de commerce avec Haiti (1821), he was
banished He proceeded to Haiti, where he was
granted an annual pension of 5000 francs and
appointed Secretary of Foreign Relations He
wrote Histoire de la rtyublvque $e Haiti (1819),
L'UjsclavO'ge au$ Eta-ts-U^s (1819), and an His-
towe de Vesclavage dam la JLomsiana (1820).
S04
THEOBY
GASTIHEATT, ga'sttfnft', BEKJAMTN (1823-
1904) A French author, bom at Monti euil-
Bellay He was at first a prmtei, but first
attracted attention by a series of articles in
L'Arm du Peuple in 1851, which led to his ariest
and deportation to Algeria He letnrned to
France in 1854, but his connection with the
Quetteur de Saint- Quentin, which he edited in
1856-58, brought upon him the displeasure of
the government, and he was again deported
Aftei the insurrection of March, 1871, he was
placed in charge of the Mazarin Library by the
Communists For this he was in the following
year again sentenced to deportation (in his
absence), but returned to France after the gen-
eral amnesty In addition to fiequent contri-
butions to the reviews, he published a large
number of books, mostly political or histoucal,
including Lutte du caiiioliMsme et de la philo-
sophie (1844), Le bonheur su? terre (1844),
La guerre des Jesmtes (1845), L'OrpheUne de
Waterloo (1847), Le regime de Satan, ou les
riches et les pauvres (1848) , Les femmes et Jes
moeurs de 1'A.lgewe (1852) , Histoire de la fohe
humaine (1862) , Les femmes des Cesws
(1863), Les gemes de la hberte (1865), Les
sociahstes (1865), Les drames du manage
(1865); Les motimes tflsalelle II (1868),
L'Imperatmce du Bas-Empwe (1870), Le cen-
tenaire de Voltaire (1878), Les femmes et les
prdtres (1888), Les crimes des prefaes de
I'egUse
GASTON, ga'stON7, MARIE A nom de plume
of Alphonse Daudet
GASCON", WILLIAM (1778-1844) An Amer-
ican oiator and jurist, born in Newborn, N C,
of a Huguenot family which for several genera-
tions had lived in Ireland He graduated at
Princeton in 1796, studied law with F X Mar-
tin, was admitted to the bar in 1798, and in
1800 was elected to the North Carolina Senate,
in which he served also in 1812-13 and 1818-
20 He was a presidential elector in 1808, and
from 1813 to 1817 a Federalist member of Con-
gress, where he achieved a reputation as an
orator by an able speech in opposition to the
Loan Bill in 1815 In 1808-10, 1827-29, and
1831-32 he was a member of the State Assem-
bly, where lie diafted the act regulating the
descent of inheritances and the act establish-
ing the present Supreme Couit of the State.
He served as a judge of this court from 1834
until Ins death, \\as a member of the Constitu-
tional convention of 1835, and in 1840 refused
the nomination as United States Senator After
the disappearance of the Federal party lie be-
came a Whig and zealously opposed the South
Carolina nullification doctrine
GASTOiN" DE FOXX, de fwa, Due DE NE-
MOURS See Foix
GASTCWIA A city and the county seat of
Gaston Co NO, 23 miles west of Charlotte,
on the Southern, the Piedmont and Northern,
and the Carolina and Northwestern raihoads
(Map Noith Carolina, A 2) It is a manu-
facturing centre, having a number of cotton
mills, oil works, and manufactures of wood fibre,
cotton-mill machinery, brooms, mattresses, ce-
ment, etc Under aii amended charter of 1898,
it is governed by a mayor and a unicameral
council The water works and electric-light
plant are owned by the city Pop., 1900, 4610;
1910, 5759, 1920, 12,871
GfASTOB/JSriS (from Gast-on Plants, the dis-
coveier of the bird -f- Gk fyws, omis, bird) A
genus, or peihaps a family (Gastornithid<e) , of
extinct gigantic buds, larger than and related
to the ostriches, whose bones are tound in the
Lower Eocene of Fiance and England, and which
is represented in coeval foirnations in the United
States by the genus Diatryma 'In the 35uro-
pean gastoims the component bone^ of the skull
remained sepaiate thioughout life, and
there may have been a tooth on each side of the
upper iaw " See BRONTOKNIS
GASTEJE'A THEORY (Neo-Lat, from Gk
yacrr^p ff aster, stomach) A theoiy propounded
by E Haeckel, accoiding to which the gastiula
stage m the development of animals (see EM-
BRYOLOGY) is a recapitulation of a hypothetical
common ancei&toi — the ga&tisea, for "just as the
two-layered gastrula stage, although sometimes
disguised by the piesence of much yolk, is com-
mon in the embryologieal development of the
Metazoa, so in then phylogenetic development
there was a primitive type that was the staiting
point from which all the various metazoan types
have developed along diverging lines The gas-
trula is the type which seems to be the common
one in the embryologieal development of the
Metazoa The hypothetical pliylogenetic type,
the starting point of the Metazoa, Haeckel
named "gastisea " The Gastiaeidse weic supposed
to he of world-wide distribution and of many
families and genera The outer and inner layers
of the gastiula and the gastisea Haeckel homol-
ogized with the ectoderm and entodeim of the
Metazoa This theory, howevei, should not be
wholly ascribed to Haeekel, for the homologies
of the germ layers had aheady been pointed
out by Kowalewsky, Von Baer, Remak, and
otheis Kowalewsky concluded from his em-
bryologieal researches that the nervous layers
and the ectoderm of insects and vertebrates are
homologous, and that the germinal layers of
Amphioxus and vertebrates correspond with
those of ascidians and woims Kowalewsky,
indeed, believed "that the homologies of the
general layers in the drffeient types affoid a
scientific basis for comparative anatomy and em-
bryology, and must be recognized as the start-
ing point for the pioper understanding of the
relationships of the types " The generalizations
of Haeckel, although based largely on such work
as Kowalewsky 's, are much bolder than those
just quoted
The simplest and probably the most primitive
gastrula seen in veitebrate development is that
of A.mphiox'us The blastula, or stage that is
antecedent to the gastrula in Ampfaoxus, is com-
posed of a single layer of cylmdiical cells closely
pined in the shape of a hollow sphere At one
place in this sphere, called the vegetative pole,
the cells are larger and contain more yolk gran-
ules than the cells of the rest of the circum-
feience The vegetative surface begins to flatten
and then to push towards the inside of the
sphere This inpushing is termed "mvagina-
tion " As the cavity formed by invagination
grows larger, the original cleavage cavity in the
sphere grows smaller,, until finally it is wholly
obliterated The resulting- individual is two-
layered and cup-shaped, with one large open-
ing to the exterior, th,e primitive mouth or
blastopore This double-layered, cup -shaped in-
dividual is the gastrula, and its inner cavity as
the primitive intestine Neither this mouth nor
the intestine is homologous with the mouth or
the intestine of the adult animal The two
primary germ layers of the gastrula are known
as ectodeim and entodeim The outei, or ecto-
derm, is the sensitive Uyer, and UK* nmei is the
nutritive layer C E von Baei calls them, in
view of their function, the t\\o pinnitne oigans
of the animal body By the separation and dif-
ferentiation of cells ftom one or the other, 01
both of these layeis, all subsequent develop-
ment and differentiation of the body is brought
about Embiyonic stages quite like this of the
Amphwxws aie known to exist m the Coolen-
terata, some Scolecida, Echmodeirnata, and some
Annelida, in addition to thobe of the lughei
\ ei tebi ates
As Huxley has pointed out, the Ponfeia and
Ocelenteiata very neaily approach the condi-
tions of the gastrjpa The fresh-water hydia
and the microliydra, eg, aie two-lay1! od ani-
mals with a cential digestive cavity din i oimded
by both layers and opening to the extenoi at a
point about the maigms of which the t^ o laws
aie continuous This permanent mouth is the
teiminal apcrtuie of the gastuiea and serves
both for the mgestion and extrusion of ma-
terials, while m the Ponfera it seives as the
permanent egestive opening only
G-ASTRAI/GIA, or GAS 'TROD YN'IA See
INDIGESTION
GASTRIC ITEVEB See TYPHOID FEVER
GASTRIC JUICE See DIGESTION, ORGANS
OF, FOOD, GASTRITIS
GASTRITIS, gas-tri'tis (Neo-Lat, from Gk
yaa-rrip, gaster, stomach) A disease in which
the mucous membrane of the stomach is the
seat of disordered action accompanied by in-
flammation Acute gastritis may be of three
foims 1 Acute catatrhal gastritis, in which
there is a feeling of fullness, production of gas
in the stomach, nausea, slight pain, severe head-
ache, often use of temperature, possibly vom-
iting, diariheea or constipation, with furied
tongue It is caused by errois in diet, such
as excessive quantities of food, ice-cold drinks,
spiced or fermented food, or alcoholic beverages
It is very common and, except in the aged, has
a favorable prognosis Emptying the stomach
by washing with a tube or pump is good tieat-
ment m some instances Some aperient is gen-
erally very desirable, and abstinence from food
should be practiced for two or three days 2.
Toxic gastritis is caused by alcohol, phosphorus,
arsenic, corrosive sublimate, chlorate of potash,
mineral acids, caustic alkalies, etc The symp-
toms are as given for acute catarrhal gastritis,
with vomiting of blood, torturing thirst, &mall
pulse, cyanosis, cold perspiration, and even coma
and death in grave cases The treatment con-
sists in antidoting the poison taken, and in
some cases washing the stomach 3 Purulent
or phlegmonous gastritis, in which variety small
abscesses form in the submucous or muscular
layer of the stomach walls After dyspeptic
symptoms for several days, burning pain, thirst,
revulsion against food, fever reaching 103° to
105° F , small, irregular pulse, vomiting of
mucus and bile, and generally diarrhoea follow
Death generally supervenes in from four days
to two weeks
In chrome ga&tntu the symptoms are as in
the acute catarrhal fonn, persisting perma-
nently, with constipation alternating with diar-
rhoaa, pyrosis, scanty urine, cold hands and feet,
irregular and capricious appetite, sallow skin,
coated tpngue. There is generally a decrease in
the secretion of gastric juice, and low acidity,
as learned from a test meal This form of gas-
Mt3SCLE
tritis is common in men in middle lite and is
the result ot abuse of the stomach by eating
nch, highly beasoned foods and indulgence in
alcohol and tobacco to excess Chionic affec-
tions of the heait, li\ei or kidneys often coexist
Diet and hygiene, occasional Javago, ceitAin
mmeial \\aters, and veiy little cluigging help
many cases to enjoy life foi yeai* Outdoor
exercise, bpmal douches, faradization, and mas-
sage aie useful adjuncts to the treatment
Pathology In acute catanhal gastritis the
mucous membiane ot the stomach is swollen and
led, and coated with an increased amount ot
mucus, although the secietion of gastnc ]uice
is loss than noinial The cells of" the xnufou-a
membiane, both mucous and peptic, are swollen
and gianulur, and there may be considerable in-
filtration of the in tei tubular tissue \vith &emm
and leucocytes In the acute gastritis due to
the taking of mitant poisons, such as strong
acids, caustic alkalies, coirosne sublimate, etc,
the changes in the stomach aro directly piopor-
tionecl to the quantity and strength ot the poi-
son taken Thus, stions; acid in Idige quantities
may not only destiny the entne mucous mem-
brane of the stomach, but may cause e\tens»i\e
destruction of the deepen coats, o\on causing
peifoiation Smaller quantities de&tioy portions
of the mucous membrane and uiideiljmg tissue,
with consequent sloughing and cicaimation In
chronic gastritis the stomach may be of normal
size, small, or enlarged, The mucous membiane
may be thickened or thinner than normal and is
usually coated with thick tenacious mucus It
may be i ed and congested or of a dull gray color
There are atrophy of the gastric tubules and an
increase in the tubular connective tissue The
stomach walla are sometimes greatly thickened
from the formation of new fibrous tissue, and
the capacity of the oigan is thus greatly dimin-
ished A form of gastritis characterized by the
f 01 mat ion of a false membrane is known as
eroupous, membranous, or diphtheritic gastntis
In connection with suppm alive pzoccsses in other
paits of fche body, there may be suppuration with
abscess formation in the walls of the stomach,
tins condition constituting what is known as
suppurative or puiulent gastritis
GASTK.OCH./E:NA? g^s'tro'-ke'ni (Neo-Lat,
fiom Gk yacrrrjp, gaster, stomach -f- xaiveiv, cJiai-
nwn, to gape) A genus of lanielhbranchiate
mollusks, having a delicate shell of two equal
valves, gaping very much in front The animal
sometimes tafcs possession of an already exist-
ing cavity, which it often coats with a cal-
careous lining, so as to forrr\ a tube, to which
the valves of its shell are cemented, sometimes
burrows for itself in sand, coral, 01 calcareous
rocks, and lines its hole with a shelly layer
One species (Gastrocluxna modiohna] , common
in the Mediterranean, pel f orates shells and lime-
stone, making holes about 2 inches deep and %
inch in diameter The tubes of some of the trop-
ical species which live in sand are very curious
See WATERING-POT SHELL
(Neo-Lat , from Gk yaarpoKVTjjjLla, gas-
trokn&ma, calf of the leg, from ywri\$> gaster,
stomach + KvfiM, kne<friet knee) Tie muscle
which forms the greater part of the calf of the
leg It rises by two heads from the two con-
dyles of the femur, or thigh bone, and is in-
serted through the tendo AclxilUs into the pos-
terior part of the heel bone, In nian this muscle
possesses great power and is constantly called
GASTROENTERITIS
506
GASTROPODA
into use in standing, walking, leaping, etc In
walking it raises the heel, and with it the entire
body from the ground, and, the body being thus
supported on the raised foot, the othei leg is
earned forward From its close association with
the erect position, it is much nioie developed
in man than in other mammals
GAS'THOEftPTERI'TIS (Neo-Lat , from Gk
7a(rT9jp, gaster, stomach + Iprepor, entei on, in-
testine) An inflammatory disease of the stom-
ach and small intestine resulting in disordered
function, vomiting, and diairhcea In children
the disease is called cholei a inf antum ( q v ) It
is the "summer diarrhoea" which proves fatal
to so many infants fed on cow's milk from un-
clean bottles In children it is ushered in by
slight fever, fiefcfulness, diarrhoea, coated
tongue, and loss of appetite In a few days the
diarrhoea becomes worse, the stools are thin,
green, yellow, or brown, and contain undigested
food and mucus, and their odor is very offensive
The infant becomes pale and rapidly emaciates
It may improve from this point and reoovei in a
week, or it may suddenly suffer fiom a rise of
temperature to 103° or 105° F, ciy much,
evince gieat thirst, and exhibit a weak pulse
Stupor, sunken eyes, general relaxation, and
even convulsions may follow Vomiting super-
venes on taking any food or watei, and death
results from exhaustion The treatment con-
sists in administering a puigative (calomel 01
castor oil pieferably), -withholding all food for
12 hours or more, allaying thirst with small
quantities of barley water, followed by nuising
every four horns, for two or three minutes at
a time, washing out the stomach in the worst
cases, and irrigating the large intestine by means
of a tube A normal salt solution at 80° F
is best for this purpose Subnitiate or subgal-
late of bismuth, salol, hydrochloric acid, with
small doses of opium in selected cases, and
stimulants such as brandy where collapse
threatens, are all of value City children are
benefited by removal to the country or the sea-
shore.
Gastroenteritis of adults is discussed in
CHOLEKA See also ENTEBITIS
GASTROENTERITIS, IN CATTLE The chief
symptoms of this disease in cattle aie dull-
ness, dry skin, fullness of the left flank, and
staring coat — the hair standing on end The
pulse is weak, the gait staggering, and the
bowels constipated The animal grunts with
each breath, especially when lying down, and
dies in convulsions The more common causes
of the trouble are too long intervals between
feeding, sudden changes of diet, sudden check-
ing of perspiration, and violent exeicise imme-
diately after eating
When the disease is supposed to originate
from imperfectly digested food, one pint of castor
oil should be given, followed by liberal doses of
linseed tea, to which carbonate of magnesia has
been added This may be administered three or
four times daily along with 10 drops of tincture
of aconite
GAS'TROMANCY See SUPERSTITION
GASTROP'ODA (Neo-Lat nom pi , from Gk
ycto-Trip, gaster, stomach + Totfs, pous, foot) A
class of^mollusks characterized by having a dis-
tinct head, usually bearing eyes and tentacles,
and moving by a large creeping disk, or ''foot"
The head and foot are bilateral, but the rest of
the body (except in Patella, etc ) is unsyin-
metncal The animal is usually protected by
a single 01 univalve shell, which is more or less
spirally coiled, inclosing the \isceral mass, le,
heart, stomach, livei, and repioductive glands
Moreovei, these mollusks have, besides two
pharyngeal homy teeth, a rasphke lingual rib-
bon (radula) forming a part of the odontophoie
situated in the mouth, or buccal cavitv Theie
are, in the typical forms, two plumohkc gills
(ctenidia) inclosed in a mantle cavity, but there
may be only one, while in the an -b loathing
forms (Pulmonata, 01 land snails) the animal
bieathes the air through the wall of the mantle
cavity itself, which forms the pulmonaiy sac,
or lung The "foot" is a broad creeping disk,
situated behind the head, and it is usually seen
from beneath to be broad and flat See illustia-
tion undei FIG SHELL
Structure A heait contained in its poii-
cardial sac is always present, except in the paia-
sitic Entoconcha, while in some geneia, as
Nentvna (periwinkle) and HaUotis (abalone),
it, as in the clam, is perfoiated by the intestine
In a few genera theie are two auricles to the
heart, but, as a rule, only one is piebent A
ventucle is always present Theie is but a
single kidney ( nephridmm ) The diqestrve
canal is doubled on itself, the vent opening on
one side of the 'mouth In ceitain opistho-
branchs the stomach is lined with senes of teeth,
sometimes shaip and chitinous In some nudi-
branch gastiopods (see NUDIBBANCHIATA ) the
intestine has numerous lateial offshoots, or gas-
trohepatic branches, which resemble smnUi stiuc-
tures in the plananan and nematode woims
The nervous system varies m the number of
ganglia, but is usually represented by the
"brain," a pair of supraoesophageal ganglia,
with connecting threads (commissuies) passing
around the gullet to the mfraoesophageal or
pedal ganglia, thus forming the oesophageal
nerve ung, theie are also a pair of buceal gan-
glia, while the visceral and abdominal ganglia,
all connected by commissuies, are situated at a
varying distance from the head The ears, or
"otocysts," are usually near the pedal ganglia,
but are always innervated fiom the cerebial
ganglion, or "brain "
The animal in certain foims is bisexual or
heimaphroditic, in others the sexual glands exist
in separate individuals The eggs aie laid in
capsules of various sizes and shapes, usually
attached to seaweeds or rocks, or deposited
freely in the sand Land snails lay their eggs
loose under stones or leaves in damp places
The embryo on hatching passes through a well-
A YOUNG GA.8TEOPOD
Veliger stage v, velum /, foot, 0, operculum, 6r,gill chamber,
sh, primitive shell
marked metamorphosis, the two more important
stages being the trochosphere and veliger, the
latter differing from the trochosphere or top-
shaped primitive stage in swimming about by
means of a pair of sail-like flaps
Soon after the shell of a gastropod begins
D
O
CL
O
en
H
CO
<
•o
z
<
GASTBOPODA
507
GASTROPODA
to form, the foot grows largei, the eyes and ten-
tacles appear, when the young sinks by gravity
to the bottom and gradually assumes the snail
condition of maturity The eyes may be absent
in those marine forms which actively buirow m
the sand, though the single pair of tentacles per-
sists In the land snails theie are two pairs of
tentacles, the upper and longer pair containing
both the eyes and the optic nerve with the olfac-
tory nerve, which ends in gioups of cells
A distinctive feature m gastropods is the
"odontophore," an apparatus of mu&cles bearing
the radula, or "lingual nbbon," a solid flattened
ribbon-like or rasphke plate aimed with trans-
verse rows of sharp siliceous teeth This lasp
is drawn back and forth over a tendon like a
pulley By means of this rasp the land or pond
snail cuts slits into leaves, swallowing the
pieces, or the marine forms, such as the Syooty-
pus (see CONCH) or the "drill," files a hole into
the clam or oyster, so as to get at the flesh
within the tightly closed shell of its victim
Certain forms as the Mureos ( q v ) of the
Mediterianean, secrete the Tynan dye of the an-
cients, and a similar fluid is secreted by the com-
STBUCTURE OF A GA.STBOPOD
1 Diagram of the structure of a gastropod (the common
whelk) /, muscular " foot ", op, operculum, t, one of the
tentacles or feelers, e, eye stalk, at the base of the tentacle,
p, proboscis, retracted, with the mouth at its extremity, oe,
gullet, g, stomach, i, intestine, terminating in the anus, n, 71,
salivary glands, I, liver and ovary, OP, oviduct, h, heart, be,
gill, contained in a hood of the mantle, a, breathing tube or
siphon, c, c, main nerve ganglia 2 Shell, with animal re-
moved a, spire whorls, separated by sutures, 6, body whorl,
m, outer hp of "mouth", n, notch for the siphon at the base
of columella 3 Egg capsules of the whelk
mon Purpura of our coast This fluid is formed
in a peculiar "adrectal gland" situated at the
side of the rectum It is colorless, but turns
purple on exposure to the air
The shell of different gastropods varies greatly
in shape In the limpets (Patella) it is low
and conical, in most of the species it is spiral,
made up of whorls The greater number of
shells are "dextral," i e , the spire turns to the
right, in a few cases they are sinistral or turn
to the left
Over 22,000 species are known, of which
about 7000 species are fossil, there are about
6500 species of land snails alone
Classification. Gastropods are divided into
two subclasses (1) Streptoneura, "in which
the visceral commissures are twisted into a
figure of 8 and in which the sexes are distinct" ,
and (2) Euthyneura, in which the visceral com-
missures are not so twisted, and in which the
sexes are united The former contains the order
Aspidobranchia, which includes the limpets, ear
shells, top shells, turban shells, etc ; and the
order Pectmibranehia, "Which contains the bulk
of the other marine shell-bearing forms The
latter subclass also has two orders Opistho-
VOL. IX. — 33
bianchia, containing the sea hares (Aplysta),
pelagic pteropods, etc , and Pulmonata, contain-
ing the land and fiesh-watei air-bieathmg
snails and slugs
Fossil Gastropods Gastropod shells aie
found in all the geological formations from
those of lowest Cambnan age to those of ic-
cent time, and they occur usually in abundance
in those formations above the Cambrian The
earliest forms are limpet-like shells (Scenella)
and a capulid (Stenotheca) in the Qlenellus
zone of the Lowei Cambrian system Veiy soon,
in the Upper Cambrian a few turreted gastro-
pods appear (RapMstoma and Straparolhna)
These true gastropods are in the Cambrian asso-
ciated with a host of slender conical shells, the
hyolithids, which aie often classed with the
pteropods, but which should more properly be
placed with the tubicolar worms
In the Ordovician the gastropods are widely
diffei entiated and aie repiesented by numerous
genera and abundant individuals, with such
well-known forms as Pleurotomatia, Bellero-
plton, Raphistoma, Mwcliisomcb, Maclutea, Euom-
phalus, and others In the Siluiian a further
evolution has taken place, manifested piinci-
pally in the inci eased ornamentation of geneia
that come up fiom the Chdovician, and in the
creation of new genera from those already exist-
ing Some of the important forms are Loxo-
nema, Murch^son^a, Platyostoma, Pleurotomaria,
Bucama, Trematonotus, JSuomphalus The De-
vonian formations are still richer in species and
are characterized by such forms as Losoonema-,
Turbo, Euomphalus, Platyostoma, Platycera$,
Acrocuha, Macroch&ilus In the Carboniferous
the same genera are present, with the addition of
Naticopsis, Vermetus, and Actceomna The Per-
mian gastiopod fauna is about the same as that
of the Carboniferous The majority of the
Paleozoic gastropods belong to the more primi-
tive, less specialized subclass of the Strepto-
neura, and especially to the order Aspido-
bianchia, and it is worthy of note also that the
Paleozoic genera are, as a rule, holostomatous,
i e , they have shells with nonsiphonate apertures
The Triassic formations at the beginning of
the Mesozoic show important changes in the gas-
tropod fauna The Paleozoic pteropods have
dropped out, the Bellerophontidse, the Devonian
Platyceridae and Platyostomidae have disap-
peared, and ,the euomphalids have become less
abundant, and a new type of shell, the sipho-
nostomatous, appears with the families Ceri-
thudse and Melamidse, in which the siphon is,
however, shorter than in the later members of
these families The important genera are Ohem-
nit&ia, Loaoonema-, Rvssoa, Huhma, Trochus,
Turbo, Pleurotomawa, Cerithium, ffelcion In
the Jurassic the Valvatidse, Vivipandse, Melani-
idse, Aporrhaidse, Strombidae, Columbellidse, Cy-
prseidse, begin their existence, and the fauna is
strongly siphonostomatous One Jurassic fam-
ily, the Nenneidse, which began in the Trias
and continued into the Cretaceous, is a ^ery
characteristic Mesozoic shell, that may be; recog-
nized by its slender turreted spire, resemjblikg
that of its allies the Centhiidse, an$ by the
peculiar longitudinal septa that project from
the columella and wall® of the whorls inJio the
central cavity of the shell f
The Cretaceous ushers in another lot( of fami-
lies Solarndae, Cassididae, Po^iidaa^ Tntonidae,
Bucemidse, Muricidae, Purpund^ yplntidsfc, Oliv-
idse, Cancellaridse, Pleurotpfttidfify Conidae, in
GASTHOPODA
508
GATACHE
fact, all the more specialized families of the
Ctenobranchiata, including- more pronounced
siphonate forms The gastropods hold third
rank among the Cretaceous mollusks, being ex-
celled by the clams and cephalopoda In the
Tertiary the gastropods rise to fiist rank
Among the few new families appearing in the
Tertiary the more impoitant are the Harpidse
and Ovulidse The siphonostomate shells attain
here their highest development and are more
prominent than any others All the Tertiary
forms are closely allied to modern forms, in-
deed, the majority of the Pliocene fossils and a
small per cent of the Miocene species are still
living in the modern ocean. At the present day
the gastropods are enjoying rapid progressive
evolution
The history of terrestrial and fresh-water gas-
tropods is interesting The earliest form known
is Pupa, found in the Devonian beds of St John,
New Brunswick, while a Pupa and a Zomtes,
remarkably close to tlie existing species, have
been found in the coal measures of the Carbon-
iferous In the Mesozoic are found numerous
fluviatile genera, such as Planorbis, Melania,
Hydrotoa, Valva,tat Physa, Limncea, Ammcola,
and Carychium In the Cretaceous appear, in
addition to those already cited in the Jurassic,
Vivipara, G-landina*, Buhmus, G-owio'basis, Lio-
pa$, Plewoceras, and in the Tertiary deposits
the land and fresh-water snails aie quite as
abundant as they are at the present time
Some inteiefeting evolutional seiies have been
woiked out among fossil gastropods Neumayr
has shown how Vwipara of the Miocene beds of
Slavoma starts in the lower layers as smooth
shells with rounded whorls, and changes, or
evolves, through the succeeding ovei lying beds
by successive intermediate stages into a more
elevated shell, with concave whorls and nodose
surfaces, that occurs only in the highest beds
Hilgendorf, and after-ward Hyatt, showed the
peculiar transformations of Planorbis in the
fresh-water Miocene beds of Steinheim, Wurt-
temberg Other similar evolutional series have
been worked out for the Melaniidse, Centhndse,
Volutidse, Mitridae, and Tumtelhdae
Bibliography For general information and
anatomy, consult Parker and Haswell, Text-
Book of Zoology, vol i (New York, 1910) ,
Fischer, Manuel de conchy hologie et de paleon-
tology conchy hologique (Paris, 189 7) , Tryon
and Pilsbry, Manual of Oonchology (16 vols ,
Philadelphia, 1879-96) , Pelseneer, Introduction
& I'Stude des mollusques (Brussels, 1894) , Lang,
Text-Book of Comparative Anatomy, translated
by Bernard, vol 11 (New York, 1896), which
contains an excellent bibliography of gastropod
anatomy and physiology, Walther, "Die Lebens-
weise der Meeresthiere," in Einleitung in die
Geologie, part 11 (Jena, 1893) , Gould, Inverte-
brates of Massachusetts, edited by Binney (Bos-
ton, 1870 ) ; Cooke, Molluscs, vol ni, Cambridge
Natural History (New York, 1895), Pelseneer,
Mollusca, vol Y, Lankester's Treatise on Zoology
(London, 1906) For fossil gastropods, see Von
Zittel and Eastman, Text-Book of Paleontology,
vol i (New York, 1900), where a good bibliog-
raphy of fossil gastropods is given, see also
Ulrich. and Scofield, ' The Lower Silurian Gas-
tropoda of Minnesota," in Minnesota G-eologwal
and Natural History Survey, Paleontology, vol
111, part 11 (Minneapolis, 1897) , Lindstrom,
"On. the Silurian Gastropods and Pteropods of
Gotland," in K&ngUga Svenska Vetenskaps-
Akadennens Handhngar, vol xix, No 6 (Stock-
holm, 1884) , and Dall, "Contributions to the
Tertiary Fauna of Florida," in Transactions of
the Wagner Free Institute of Science, vols in
and iv (Philadelphia, 1895-97) See articles
on MOLLUSCA, and on the vaiious families and
genera of gastropods.
GASTBOPTOSIS, gas'trop-to'sis Pi olapse
of the stomach below its usual site in the abdo-
men It is commonly part of a general relaxa-
tion of the ligamentous supports of all the ab-
dominal organs ( Visceroptosis, G-lenard's disease
or splanchnoptosis , enteroptosis is prolapse of
the intestines) This condition may result from
general malnutrition, loss of the elasticity of the
abdominal muscles from the pressure of improper
clothing, and from chronic intestinal poisoning
The symptoms are those of dyspepsia, lack of
appetite and constipation, together with such
nervous symptoms as headache and insomnia
The treatment consists in applying an abdominal
support, and the use of hygienic measuies de-
signed to strengthen the abdominal muscles
Where a single organ is affected operation is
sometimes necessary
GASTROS'TQMY (from Gk -ycKrnJp, gaster,
stomach -f- arro^a, stoma, mouth) An opeiation
which is performed for the relief of stricture of
the gullet Its object is to relieve the patient
fiom the imminent risk of starvation, by intro-
ducing food directly into the stomach through
an external opening The well-known case of
Alexis St Martin, and numerous experiments
on the lower animals, first led to the introduc-
tion of the operation as a practical surgical
procedure
GASTBOT'OMY (from Gk yacr^p gaster,
stomach -f- TO/XT?, tome, a cutting, from rlfivew,
temnein, to cut) An incision into the cavity of
the stomach for the purpose of removing some
diseased structure or foreign body
GAS'TRTTLA. See EMBRYOLOGY, GASTR^EA
THEORY /
GASZY3STSKI, ga-shin'skg, KONSTANTY (1809-
66) A Polish poet, born at Malawies He
fought in the insurrection of 1830-31 and after-
ward went to France and settled at Aix in
Provence During this exile he wrote much
verse and prose, which has frequently been trans-
lated into French A collection of his stories
was published in Pans in 1833 under the title
Pietini pielgrzyma His sonnets are particularly
elegant His works include Poezye (1856) ,
Sielanka mlodosci (1855) , Re&vty pamictnika
Macieja Rogowskwgo (1847) , Kowtuszowe po-
gadanki (1851) , Listy % podrozsy po Wloszech
(1853), and Pan Dezydery Boczko (1846) Pie
also contributed to magazines and newspapers
His complete works were published in 1870-74
GATA, gaxta, CAPE UE See CAPE DE GATA
GrATACBE, gat'a'ker, SIB WILLIAM FORBES
(1843-1906) An English soldier, boirj near
Stirling, and educated at Sandhurst He en-
tered the army in 1862, passed at the Staff
College in 1875, and from 1875 to 1879 was
instructor in surveying at the Royal Military
College In 1889-90 he served in Burma, in
1895, as brigadier general, distinguished himself
in the Chitral expedition, and in 1898 went to
the Sudan, where he led the British division in
the battles of Atbara and Omdurman In the
Boer War he was placed at the head of a division
with the rank of lieutenant general, was de-
feated at Stormberg Junction, Dec 10, 1899 , and
in April, 1900, was ordered home for failing fco
GATAKEK,
509
GATES
relieve a beleaguered British force at Kedders-
burg He retired in 1904 Gatacre's men
"called him General 'Backacher/ and loved him"
though he worked them so hard Consult the
Life by Lady Gatacre (London, 1910)
GAT'AKER, THOMAS (1574-1654) A Puri-
tan clergyman, critic, and author, born in Lon-
don He was educated at St John's College,
Cambridge, and in 1596 became one of the
earliest fellows of Sidney Sussex College In
1601 he was appointed lectmer to the society of
Lincoln's Inn, and from 1611 he was rectoi of
Rotherhithe (Surrey) He declined the master-
ship of Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1643
was appointed a member of the Westminster
Assembly of Divines In 1645 he was elected
one of seven to draft a confession of faith He
was a scholar of unusual acquirements in He-
brew and the classics Hallam called Gataker's
Marcus Antoninus (1652), the Greek text with
a version and commentary in Latin, "the earliest
edition of any classical writer published in Eng-
land with original annotations", it was re-
peatedlv reprinted Commentanes on Isaiah,
Jeremiah, and Lamentations he prepared for
the Assembly's Annotations (1645, 1651) His
Opera Cmtica, including a De Novi Instruments
Stylo D1ssertat^o (1648), were edited by Witsms
(Utrecht, 1698) His Of the Nature and Use of
Lots (1619, 2d ed, 1627) defended the use of
lots (not for divination) and brought him into
disrepute with some He wrote several contro-
versial works and published a collection of ser-
mons (1637) Consult the autobiographical
matter in his Adversaria Miscellanea Posthuma
(London, 1659), and Brook, The Lives of the
Puritans (London, 1813)
GATCHINA, ga/che-na A town of Russia in
the Government of St Petersbuig, situated about
28 miles south-southwest of the capital on a
small lake formed "by the Izhora (Map Russia,
C 3 ) It is especially worthy of mention for its
Imperial palace, constiucted in 1770, which con-
tains 600 rooms, a theatre, and art collections
It is surrounded by a magnificent paik It
originally belonged to Prince OrlorT, who received
it from Catharine II After his death it re-
verted to the crown and became the favorite
summer residence of Czar Paul I, who bestowed
municipal rights upon the town in 1797 Gat-
china is a very popular summer resort with the
residents of the capital Pop , 1897, 14,735
GATE CITY. A popular name foi Keokuk,
Iowa, from its situation at the head of naviga-
tion on the Mississippi, and for Atlanta, Ga ,
which was so named by Jefferson Davis on ac-
count of the importance of its position
GATE HOUSE PBISON. A prison in West-
minster, London, from which, on Oct 29, 1618,
Sir Walter Raleigh was led to the scaffold in
Old Palace Yard
GATE OP THE LION'S See LION GATE
GATE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN The
Strait of Gibraltar, as the passage between the
Atlantic and the Mediterranean
GATES, CALEB FBANK (1857- ) An
American Congregational missionary and college
president He was born in Chicago, and gradu-
ated from Beloit (Wis ) College m 1877 and from
the Chicago Theological Seminary in 1881 Or-
dained to the Congregational ministry, he was
sent under the auspices of the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions as a
missionary to Mardin, Turkey, Asia Minor, in
1881 From 1894 to 1902 he was president of
Euphrates College at Harpoot, Tuikey, and after
1903 president of Robeit College in Constanti-
nople He is author of A Chi istian Business
Man (1893)
GATES, ELEANOK (1875- ) ^n Ameri-
can playwright, born at Shakopee, Minn She
was educated at Stanford University and the
University of California While still a student
she was on the stalls of the Examiner, Call,
and Chronicle of San Francisco, and the En-
quirer of Oakland, Cal In 1901 she married
Richaid Walton Tully, the playwnght, but was
divorced m 1914 She is authoi of The Biog-
raphy of a Prairie Girl (1902), The Plow-
Woman (1906) , Good Night (1907) , Cupid, the
CoioPunch (1907), The Justice of Gideon
(1910) , and of the play The Poor Little Rich
Girl, the production of which in 1913 was an
unusual popular and artistic success
GATES, FREDERICK TAYTOE (1853- )
An American Baptist clergyman and educator
He was bom at Maine, Broome Co , 1ST Y, and
gi actuated from the Unrveisity of Eochester in
1877 and from Rochestei Theological Seminary
in 1880 He was pastor of the Cential Church,
Minneapolis, Minn , from 1880 to 1888, and as
coi responding secretary of tho Amencan Baptist
Education Society in 1888-93 was instrumental
in establishing the University of Chicago In
1893 John D Rockefeller chose him as his busi-
ness and benevolent repiesentative, he became
chairman of the General Education Board and
also of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Reseaich
GATES, GEOBGE AUGUSTUS (1851-1912). An
Amencan educator, born at Topsham, Vt After
graduating from Dartmouth College in 1873 he
studied in Germany and at Andover Theological
Seminary Ordained to the Congregational
ministry, lie held a pastorate at Upper Mont-
clair, N J , from 1880 to 1887, when he became
president of Iowa College Tins position he left
in 1901 to become pastor of the First Church of
Cheyenne, Wyo He was president of Pomona
College from 1902 to 1909, and thereafter presi-
dent of Fisk University for negio students at
Nashville, Tenn His book, A Foe to American
Schools (1897), an exposure of school-book trust
methods, attracted much attention.
GATES, HOEATIO (1728-1806) An Ameri-
can soldier, prominent in the Revolutionary War
He was born at Maldon, Essex Co , England,
his parents being servants in the household of
the Duke of Leeds He entered the army when
very young, went to America in 1755, and, as
major, served under Braddock (qv) and was
severely wounded at the defeat of the latter on
July 9 of the same year near Fort Duquesne
(Pittsburgh) In 1760 he was stationed, as
brigade major, under General Monckton, at Fort
Pitt (Pittsburgh), and in 1762 was Monckton's
aid at the capture of Martinique Buying a
farm in Berkeley Co , Va , in 1763, he lived there
in retirement until July, 1775, when Congress
appointed him adjutant general in the regular
army, with the rank of brigadier In 1776 he
was appointed to the command of tie army
which had lately retreated from Canada, and
immediately began intriguing to supplant Gen-
eral Schuyler as the commander of the Northern
Department. In this he was successful through
the influence of the New England delegates in
Congress, on Aug 2, 1777 The army under his
command, after fighting tlte battles of Stillwater
and Saratoga, forced BurgoynP to surrender on
GATES 5:
October 17 (See SARATOGA, BATTLES OF )
Gates received neaily all of the credit, though
Schuyler, Arnold, and Moigan had done most
of tiie work, and he had been conspicuous chiefly
for incapacity and for an apparent lack of per-
sonal courage. Soon afterward he entered into
the schemes of the Conway Cabal (qv ), whose
object was to have him appointed, in Washing-
ton's stead, as commander in chief For a time
lie was president of the newly organized board
of war, but was detected m several falsehoods,
became discredited, and withdrew in 1778 to his
farm in Virginia, where he remained until 1780,
when he was put in command of the Army of
the South Owing chiefly to his wretched
generalship, his forces were totally defeated neai
Camden, S C (qv), on August 16 by Loid
Cornwalhs, and on December 2 he was super-
seded by General Greene A court of inquiry,
appointed to investigate his conduct, sat until
1782, and finally acquitted him He then again
retired to his Virginia farm and lived there
until 1790, when, after freeing his slaves, he
removed to New York City, where he remained
•until his death, April 10, 1806 Personally, he
was handsome, affable, and courteous, and in
society was a general favorite For his part in
the Saratoga campaign, consult Stone, Campaign
of Lieutenant~General Burgoyne (Albany, 1877)
aATES, LEWIS EDWARDS (1860- ) An
American critic, born at Warsaw, N Y A
graduate of Harvard, he became connected with
that institution in the departments of English
and comparative literature He won a reputa-
tion as a subtle critic, especially by Ins essays
on Cardinal Newman, Francis Jeffrey, and Mat-
thew Arnold prefixed to volumes of selections
from their writings edited for use in colleges
In 1900 appeared his Studies and Appreciations
GATES, MERRILL EDWARDS (1848- 1922) An
American educator. He was born at Warsaw,
N. Y , the son of Seth Merrill Gates, graduated
at the University of Rochester m 1870, and
from 1870 to 1882 was principal of the Albany
Academy From 1882 to 1890 he was president
of Rutgers College, and from 1890 to 1899 presi-
dent of Amherst He promoted civil-service re-
form and ballot reform, and in 1884 became a
member of the United States Board of Indian
Commissioners, of which he was chairman in
1890-99, and then secretary For several yeais
he was president of the Lake Mohonk Indian
Conferences He received the degree of LLD.
from a number of universities Among his pub-
lications are Land and Law as Agents in Edu-
cating the Indians (1885) , Sidney Lamer, Poet
and Artist (1887), International Arbitration
(1897), The Highest Use of Wealth (1901)
GATES, SETH MERRILL ( 1800-77 ) . An Amer-
ican lawyer, born at Winfield (Herkimer Co ),
N. Y He was admitted to the bar in 1827, and
in 1832 was a member of the State Assembly
In 1838 lie became editor and proprietor of the Le
Roy Gazette* He was an antislavery Whig member
of Congress from 1839 to 1843, the year in which
he drafted the protest signed by the Whigs in
Congress against the annexation of Texas In
1848 he was the unsuccessful candidate on the
Free-Soil ticket for Lieutenant Governor of New
York So pronounced was his hostility to
slavery that a Southern planter offered a reward
of $500 for his apprehension
GATES, SIB THOMAS (c,1559-c 1621) The
first sole Governor of Virginia under the Vir-
ginia Company, He was born probably at Coly-
o &ATESHEAD
foid, DevonshiiOj England, entered the military
service, accompanied Sir Francis Drake on his
voyage to America in 1585-96, and published in
1589 the account of tins voyage \\ritten by
Captain Bigges For his conduct at Cadiz Essex
knighted him in June, 1596 In 1598 he enteied
Gray's Inn and in the following yeai was en-
gaged in public seivice at Plymouth, but soon
afterward he enlisted, together with Sir Thomas
Dale (qv ), in the service of the Netherlands
He was one of the first petitioners for royal
license to colonize Virginia and was one of the
incoiporators of the first Vnginia charter of
1606 Having obtained a leave of absence from
the States-General, he was chosen the first sole
and absolute Governor of Virginia, and was
placed in command, with Sir George Somers and
Captain Newport, of the fleet of nine vessels,
carrying 500 colonists, which sailed for America
in 1609 The Sea Venture, carrying Gates,
Somers, and Newport, was wiecked on the Ber-
mudas, where, within the next nine months,
two new vessels were constructed The story of
the wreck is supposed to be one of the sources
for Shakespeare's The Tempest Leaving the
Bermudas on May 10, 1610, Gates arnved at
Jamestown in May, near the close of the "starv-
ing time," and was installed with great cere-
mony as Deputy Governor, leplacmg George
Percy, the retiring president of the King's Coun-
cil The famished colonists clamoring to be
taken from Vuginia, Gates crowded them upon
four small vessels and started with them for
England, but was met at the mouth of the
James River and turned back by Lord De La
Warr ( q v ) , who took office as Governor Gates
was sent to England for a new supply of cattle,
returned to Jamestown in 1611 with six ships
and 300 colonists, and remained as Lieutenant
Goveinor until March, 1614 He afterward
served on one of the committees of the Vir-
ginia Company, and in 1620 was appointed by
James I one of "the first moderne and piesent
Councill established at Plymouth, in the County
of Devon, for the planting, ruling, and govern-
ing of New England in America" For an ac-
count of the administration of affairs in Virginia
by Gates, consult Brown, The First Republic in
America (Boston, 1898)
GATES'HEAD. A large manufacturing
to\\ 11 in Dm ham Co , England, on the south bank
of the Tyne, opposite Newcastle, of which it is
practically a suburb, and with which it is con-
nected by three bridges, one 1337 feet long
(Map England, E 2) The community finds
employment almost entirely in the neighboring
coal mines, in the Gateshead Fell quarries cele-
brated for "Newcastle grindstone," in the loco-
motive works of the Northeastern Railway, in
shipbuilding yards, iron foundries, cable and
wire-rope factories, tanneries, breweries, and in
chemical, soap, candle, brick, cement, and glass
works Here also are the works of the New-
castle and Gateahead Gas Company At Gates-
head a large portion of the first Atlantic cable
was manufactured The town's history dates
from the Roman occupation The chief archi-
tectural features are the town hall, free library,
mechanics' institute, various denominational
churches, and the restored parish church of St
Mary, established m'the eleventh century, and
in 1080 the scene of Bishop Walcher's murder
by an avenging English mob Daniel Defoe's
dwelling, where he wrote Robinson Crusoe, is
in the Hillgate district The town owns a
OATESVILLE 5:
profitable corporation quay, and maintains
baths, washhouses, cemeteries, public paiks,
recreation grounds, and public hbranes Gates-
head sends a member to Parliament Pop , 1901,
109,888, 1911, 116,907 Consult Welford, His-
tory of Newcastle and Gateshead (Newcastle-
on-Tyne, 1884-85)
GATES'VTLLE A city and the county seat
of Coryell Co , Tex , 45 miles west of Waco, on
the Leon River and on the St Louis South-
western Railroad (Map Texas, D 4) It is the
seat of the State Juvenile Training School The
city ships cotton, grain, and live stock, and has
cotton gins and compress, flour, oil, and planing
mills, etc Pop, 1900, 1865, 1010, 1929
GrATE'WAY. The passage or opening in
which a gate or large door is hung This may be
either a mere opening in a wall 01 a covered way
vaulted or roofed over It differs fiom a door-
way in that it does not open directly into a
building A monumental gateway and doorway
are often both called a portal (qv ). From the
earliest ages the gateway has been considered a
feature of the utmost importance, not only be-
cause of its strategic value m city walls and
fortifications, necessitating its protection and
defense by towers and drawbridges and other
devices, but also because of its architectural
significance and the opportunities it offers for
impressive architectural effect In veiy ancient
times the "gate" — i e , the chamber or passage
between the outer and inner gates of a gateway
in a city wall — was the place where proclama-
tions were made, and where kings or elders
administered justice This was especially the
case in the Orient, where all kinds of business
were transacted in the gateway Hence the
modern term "The Sublime Porte" (le, Lofty
Gate) used of the Turkish government Such
gateways are often mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment, and the great Assyro-Babylonian city
gates, especially those of Sargon's city, at
Khorsabad ( q v ) , illustrate the texts Many
of the Moorish gates of cities and fortified
palaces (eg, of the Alhambra, qv ) in Spain
still exist, bearing significant names like "Gate
of Pardon," "Gate of Justice," etc The
Greek and Roman ga"tes were frequently of great
magnificence The Propylsea at Athens is a
beautiful example, and the triumphal arches of
the Romans were often identical with their city
gates The Lion Gateway at Myeense and the
city gates of Segni and Alatri in Italy are good
examples of early Cyclopean structures before
the seventh century BC Those at Ferentino,
Viterbo, and Falern show the pre-Roman arched
style, those of Volterra and Perugia the later
Roman-Etruscan type The Roman gates at
Verona, the Golden Gateway at Jerusalem, the
gates at Spalato and Benevento, and others in
Gaul, Syria, Asia Minor, and North Africa show
every variety of design and number of open-
ings In the Middle Ages the city gateways
were often crowned by toweis of imposing archi-
tecture, especially in north Germany, as IP
Lubeck and Nuremberg, and the same was the
case with the gateways of bridges, as at Prague,
and of secular buildings, such as those of Oxford
and Cambridge The castle gateways, of which
many remain, have seldom any decorative char-
acter, being for defense, with flanking turrets,
drawbridge (see BRIDGE), and portcullis (qv ) ,
but the monastic doorways, leading into the gi eat
inclosed eouits, were often ( architecturally beau-
tiful, as in the Cistercian monastery at Casamaii
I G-ATHAS
in Italy, with its double porch, porter's lodge,
and living rooms The abbey gates of Canter-
bury and Bury St Edmunds are well known
All closes, whether of abbeys, colleges, law
courts, guilds, fraternities, or the like, had archi-
tectural gateways The city gates of Verona, de-
signed by Sanmichele ( q v ) in the sixteenth cen-
tury, are dignified examples of the Italian Ren-
aissance type aftei the disappearance of the
mediaeval form with its flanking turrets, while
the gate of the Certosa at Pavia with its mosaics
and the elegant gateways of many villas illus-
tiate various noninihtary types frequently imi-
tated in modern work A type peculiar to
modern architecture (at least since 1750) is
that consisting of masonry piers, more or less
decorated, between which are hung elaborate
gates of wrought iion or bionze Parks, private
grounds, and avenues aie often enteied through
such gates
GATH (Heb, wine press) One of the five
cities of the Philistines It was probably situ-
ated at the modern Tell cl-Safiyeh (the white
hill), though the Ciusaders identified it with
Yebna, the ancient Janinia, and some modern
scholars ha\e adopted this view. The first men-
tion of Gath is in tho list of Palestinian towns
conquered by Thothmea Til, where it is referred
to as Kntu (Kintu) In the Amaina letters it
occurs several times as Gfimtj. and Gmti, there
being an Egyptian governor in this c*ty in the
time of Amenhotep IV Its position on the
bordei s of Judsoan territory made it of great im-
portance in the wars with the Philistines The
Philistine champion Goliath (qv) came from1
Gath (1 Sam xvn 4) David took refuge with
Achish, King of Gath (ib xxi 10), and probably
also obtained a wife in Gath It is possible that
Gath was in the hands of the Israelites in the
time of David Whether Solomon and Kehoboam
-ttere able to keep it cannot be determined in
view of the probable late date of the statements
During the wais ^ith Assyria Gath seems to
have formed a part of Ashdodite territory. Sar-
gon mentions in the Khorsabad inscription that
he besieged and conquered Gimtu, probably in
the yoai 711 BC The absence of Gath in many
passages where the othei Philistine cities are
mentioned may be accounted for by its being re-
garded as a dependency of Ashdod lu the days
of Euscbius and Jerome the city still existed,
and the description of the site in the Onomasti-
con seems to point to Tell el feafiyeh At this
place the Blanca Quarda was erected by Foulquea
of Anjou in 1144 The fortress was taken by
Saladin in 1191, and recaptured and fortified by
Richard in 1192 Situated on a hill 300 feet
above the plain with steep walls upon three
sides, it was at all times a difficult place to
captuie and an important stronghold There is
to-day a small village on the top of the hill
Consult Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy
Land /London, 1895), and Huntington, Palestine
and its Transformation (Boston, 1911)
GrATHAS, ga'thaz (Av ga6a, Sktv Pali
getha, song ) The name applied to certain metri-
cal compositions, both in the Avesta and in
Sanskrit Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature,
The Gathas of the Avesta comprise 17 hymns
(Yasna 28-34, 43-51, 53), which contain 232
stanzas, besides three in Yasna 27, 13-14 and
Yasna 54 They aie composed fto five metres,
which are reckoned by the nicwb^r of feet, not
by their quality, as in Greek and L&tin Thes*
metucal schemes, which are <Jf great antiquity.
GATHQB,I$rE-HAB,DY 5]
are composed respectively of three-line stanzas
of 7 _|_ 9 (or sometimes 8) syllables (Ahuna-
vaiti), five-line stanzas of 4 + 7 syllables
(Ushtavaiti), four-line stanzas of 4 -+- 7 syl-
lables (Spentamamyu), three-line stanzas of
74-7 syllables (Vohukhslmthra) , and four-line
stanzas, whose first two lines have 7+5, and the
last two 7 + 7 + 5 syllables (Vahishtoishti).
The dialect in which these hymns are written
differs considerably from the ordinary Avesta,
and is more archaic in character If we may
reason on the analogy of the Gathas of the Bud-
dlnst Jatakas (qv ) , where verse alternates with
prose, it might be plausibly suggested that the
Avesta Gathas represent but a small part of
the original content of this portion of the
Zoroastrian Scriptures There may have been
a large amount of piose between the stanzas
which has been lost The Iranian tradition as-
cribes the authorship of the Gathas to Zoroaster
(qv) himself They are of peculiar difficulty,
owing m part to the inflectional system of the
Gatha-Avesta dialect, and in part to the nu-
merous words which occur but once in them and
have no representatives, so far as known, in any
other Indo-Iraman or even Indo-Germanic lan-
guage Their interpretation is aided, however,
to a large degree, by a Pahlavi version with
glosses, which was translated into Sanskut by a
Parsi priest, Neryosangh, probably about 1200
AD These versions, while important, are not
altogether tiustworthy, mainly on account of
the decay of grammatical knowledge of the
Avesta language They are, notwithstanding,
indispensable in interpreting the Gathas, and
mainly through their aid the meaning of the
hymns is now for the most part tolerably
certain
In India the term "Gatha" was employed in the
Brahmanas (qv ) to denote verses of religious
content which did not belong to any of the four
Vedas (See VEDA ) It became wider in its
scope m the Buddhistic literature, and denoted
especially that part of the sacred canon which
comprised the Dhammapada, Theragatha, Theri-
gatha, and the pure verse sections of the Sut-
tanipata, and also to the verses m the Jatakas
It is most commonly applied, however, to the
North Buddhist Lahta-Vistara (qv ), composed
in verse mingled with prose This work is in a
dialect, probably artificial, of Prakrit words with
Sanskrit terminations, and on account of this
peculiarity the language of the Lalita-Vistara
is often called the Gatha dialect, although prose
works were sometimes written in it Consult
Bartholomae, Die GaBa's und heiligen Gebete des
altiramschen Volkes (2d ed, Halle, 1897), id,
Die Gathas des Awesta (Strassburg, 1905) , Mills,
A Study of the Five Zarathushtrian, [Zoroas-
trian] Gdthas (Oxford, 1892-94), id, A Dic-
tionary of the Cf-dthic Language of the Zend
Avesta (Leipzig, 1902-13), id, The Gathas of
Zarathustra [Zoroaster] in Metre and Rhythm
(Oxford, 1900), Muller, "Der Dialekt der
Gathas des Lahtavistara/' in Beitrage zur
vergleichenden Bprachforschung, vol vm (Ber-
lin, 1876), Jackson, A Hymn of Zoioaster,
TasnaSl (Stuttgart, 1888) , Kanza, The Gathas,
Transliterated and Translated into G-uyerati (2d
ed, Bombay, 1902) , Bulsara, God in the Gathas
(ib, 1906), Macdonell, History of Sanskrit
Literature (London, 1913). See AVESTA,
LALITA-VISTABA, ZOROASTER
GATHOBWE-HABDY, G, See CRANBROQK,
GATHsTEATJ, ga'te'no' A large river of Que-
2 GATTEAUX
bee, Canada, using in a connected chain of large
lakes immediately noith of the 48th parallel
of latitude (Map Quebec, C 4) It ilows fhst
south-southwest, and then almost due south, and
falls into the Ottawa one mile below Ottawa
City The length of the river is estimated at
400 miles, it receives a number of tributaries,
and is extensively used for floating down the
lumber of the upper region
GALLING, KICIIAED JORDAN (1818-1903)
An American inventor He was born in Hert-
ford Co, N C, and during his boyhood ho
acquired considerable skill and mechanical acu-
men working as Ins fathei's assistant m the
perfection of a machine for sowing cottonseed.
His principal invention, and the one by which
he became famous, was the revolving machine
gun, since known by its inventor's name In
1886 he invented a new gun metal of steel and
aluminium Congress afteiwaids voted him $40,-
000 to experiment on a new method of casting
cannon Among his other inventions may be
noted a hemp-breaking machine and a steam
plow Although a graduate of the Ohio Medical
College (1850), he never practiced medicine
See MACHINE GUN, ORDNANCE
GATSCHET, gd'shV, ALBEET SAMUEL ( 1832-
1907) An Ameiican philologist and ethnolo-
gist, born at St Beatenbeig, Bern, Switzerland
He studied at the universities of Bern and Ber-
lin, made investigations regarding the Swiss
dialects, and published Ortsetymologisclie Pw-
schungen als Beitrage &u emer Toponomastik der
Schweiz (1865-67) and Promenade onomato-
logique sur les boras du Lao Leman (1867) In
1868 he removed to the United States, wheie
until 1877 he was connected with the staffs of
various Geinian newspapers, and in that year
was appointed ethnologist of the government
Geological Survey He became linguist to the
Bureau of American Ethnology in 1879 From
1874 he made extensive study of the languages of
the North American Indians, in particular those
of the Tonkawa, Yuma, Chumeto, Hitcluti, Creek,
and Timucua tribes Among the many valuable
treatises published by him, in both English and
German, are Zwolf Spraohen aus dem sud-
uesten Nordamerikas (1876) , Analytical Report
upon Indian Dialects Spoken in Southern Cali-
fornia) Nevada, and on the Lower Colorado River
(1876), "Classification of Western Indian Dia-
lects," in vol vn of the Report of the Geological
Survey West of the 100th Meridian (1879),
VolJc und Sprache der Timucua (1881) , Indian
Languages of the Pacific States and Territories
and of the Pueblos of New Mexico (1882), "A
Migration Legend of the Creek Indians," in No.
4 of Brinton, Library of Aboriginal American
Literature (Philadelphia, 1884-88) , and "The
Indians of Southwestern Oregon/' in Contribu-
tions to North American Ethnology, vol 11
(Washington, 1890) For a further list of
titles, consult Pilling, Bibliography of North
American Languages ( ib , 1885 )
GATSCHIiNA, ga'eh£-na See GATCHINA.
GATTEAUX, ga'to', JACQUES EDOUAKD (1788-
1881) A French sculptor and engravei, born
in Pans He was the pupil of his father,
Nicholas Marie Gatteaux, and of Moitte, and
won the Prix de Rome ( 1809 ) for medahng He
was one of the founders of the "Galerie Numis-
matique des Illustrations Fran§aises" in Paris
He was employed by the French government to
strike a medal commemorative of the establish-
ment of the School of Architecture. Others of
GATTEREK
513
GATJCHOS
his famous medals are those for the "Holy
Alliance" and the Peace of 1814 He was elected
to the Institute m 1845, and left his art col-
lection to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and the
Louvre His busts include those of Michel-
angelo, and of Rabelais, at Versailles His
statue of Aime de Beaujen is in the Luxembourg
Gardens
GATTEKER, gat'er-er, JOHANN CHRISTOPH
(1727-99) A German historian, born at Lich-
tenau He studied at the University of Altdorf,
and in 1759 became professor of history at Got-
tingen, where from 1767 he was also director of
the historical institute established by himself in
1764 He was the first to introduce into the his-
torical courses of German universities geography,
diplomacy, heraldry, and other auxiliary studies
The most important of his woiks are Die Welt-
gesehichte in ihrem ganzen Umfange (2 vols ,
1785-87) and the V&rsuch einer allgemeinen
Weltgesohichte bis zur Entdeckung von America
(1792) Consult Elogium Q-attereri, by Heyne
(Gottmgen, 1800) , also Wesendonck, Die Be-
grundung der neuern deutschen G-esohichts-
schreibung durch Gatterer und Schlo&er (Leip-
zig, 1876)
GATTI, gat'te, BEBNABDINO (c 1495-1575),
called "il Sojaro" (the Cooper) An Italian
painter, bom at Parma He was the pupil of
Correggio and so like him in his manner that
his pictures have been mistaken for that mas-
ter's He also imitated Pordenone and was se-
lected to complete the frescoes left unfinished by
him in the Santa Maria di Campagna, Piacenza
Gatti's works are well represented in Parma
Cathedral and in the church of St Peter at
Cremona His masterpiece is an altarpiece,
"Madonna with Donors" (1531), in the cathe-
dral of Pavia
GATTI-CASAZZA, gat'te-ka-zat'sa, GIULIO
(1869- ) An operatic manager, born at
Udme, Italy, Feb 3, 1869 He was educated at
the universities of Ferrara and Bologna and
completed the course in engineering at the Naval
School of Engineering at Genoa As his father
had been the director of the municipal theatie
of Ferrara, the young man grew up in a musical
atmosphere and always manifested a keen in-
terest in theatrical affairs, so that, when his
father in 1S93 accepted a position in Rome, the
son abandoned the proposed career of an en-
gineer and assumed the directorship at Ferrara,
which he held for five years In 1895 he wa^
chosen director of La Scala in Milan During
the 10 years of his incumbency he raised that
institution to the rank of the foremost opera
house of Italy In 1908 he became the general
manager of the Metropolitan Opera House of
New York Here he found the widest field for
the display of his extraordinary administrative
ability Under his regime the already famous
institution entered upon the period of its great-
est prosperity, financial and artistic The
achievements m every department approach al-
most ideal standards From the very beginning
of his administration Mr Gatti-Casazza fol-
lowed the policy of encouraging native singers
and of producing every year one new opera by
an American composer In 1910 he took the
entire Metropolitan company to Paris, ^ where
it created a veritable furore because of its per-
fect ensemble He married, in 1910, Frances
Alda (qv ), one of the pnma donnas of his
company
QAT'TY, MBS. MABQABET (1809-73), An
English novelist She was born in 1809 and in
1839 married a clergyman and passed most of
her life after marriage at Ecclesfield in York-
shire, becoming widely known by The Fairy
Godmothers (1851) and Pavables from Nature
(five series, 1855-71), translated into the lead-
ing languages of Europe In 1866 she started
a monthly periodical for young people, called
Aunt Judy's Magazine, which after her death,
in 1873, was continued by her daughters till
1885 Here first appeared nearly all the stories
of her daughter, Mrs Juliana H Ewing (qv)
Consult Parables -from Natwe (New York, 1912),
which contains a memoir by her daughter,
Juliana H Ewing
GATUW. See DAMS AND RESERVOIRS, PAN-
AMA CANAL
GAIT, gou (Ger, district) In the earliest
German times used for 1000 men, then tians-
ferred to the territory occupied by them Later
used indefinitely for a district, frequently it
was identical in the Middle Ages with a county,
or Grafschaft, but sometimes with a portion of
a county In the early period of the migrations
the ruler of a gau was frequently designated as
king Consult Schroder, Leln bitch der deutschen
Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1907)
GATJBIL, go-'bel', ANTOINE (1689-1759) A
French Jesuit missionaiy to China, born at
Gaillac He became a Jesuit at the age of 15 and
in 1723 was sent to China, where he learned Chi-
nese and Manchu with wonderful facility His
scholarship won him a place at court, in spite
of the Emperor's aversion to the missionaries,
and his influence kept the Jesuits from being
disturbed He was made interpreter and carried
on diplomatic correspondence with Russia, be-
sides being head of the Imperial Colleges under
Kien Lung when he succeeded Yung Chmg He
was a coi respondent of the Paris Academy of
Sciences and a member of the Academy of St
Petersburg Pere Gaubil died in Peking He
wrote Histoire de Gentchiscan et de toute la
dynastie des Manchoux (1739) , Traite de chro-
nologie chinoise (1814) , and a translation of
Le Ghou King (1771), besides many letters and
sketches published in Lettres ^difiantes and in
Re"musat, Nouveaux melanges asiatigues,
GATTCHOS, gou'choz (countrymen). Pas-
toral nomads of the Chaco, in the Argentine Re-
public, South America, offspring of whites and
Indians of the pampas They are tall and
handsome, with a proud and dissolute expression
of countenance They wear mustaches and have
long black hair hanging1 down their backs Their
costume is brightly colored They are very
polite and possess high ideas of their own equal-
ity and dignity. These hybrids can scarcely be
traced to their original Guaycuru Indian com-
ponents , but since the white infusion has ceased,
the people are reverting to the Indian type, thus
showing a most interesting example of the for-
mation of a new race The free, wild life of the
pampas has developed the Gauchos into an
alert, vigorous people, expert horsemen and
cattlemen, who wield the lariat with great skill.
The bolas (qv ) is also employed in the chase
and in warfare
The Gauchos eat meat exclusively for months
together, and with it a large proportion of fat.
It has been observed that they dislike dry meat.
Curiously enough, they do not < eat salt The
men are proficient in leather working, and the
women weave belts and dress skins Consult Sir
Edmond Temple, Travels w Vdwous Parts of
GAUDEAHUS 5'
Peru (London, 1830), and W H Koebel, Mod-
ein Argentina (Boston, 1912)
GAU'DEA'HUS (Lat, Let us rejoice) The
first word and the title of a well-known Latin
student song popular in Germany and America
It is based partly on a Latin song dating from
1267 and existed in the eighteenth century in a
somewhat obscene form, with German as well as
Latin verses The present version dates from
1781.
GAUDEN, ga/den, JOHN (1605-62) An
English prelate and author He was born at
Mayland, Essex, where his father was vicar
After education at Bury St Edmunds, he en-
tered St John's College, Cambridge, and obtained
the degrees of B A and M A While a tutor at
Oxford he took the degree of B D at Wadham
College in 1635 and D D in 1641 His pupil,
Sir Francis Russell, presented him with the liv-
ing of Chippenham in 1640, and the same year
he was the appointed preacher to the House of
Commons After the Restoration, in 1660, he
was appointed Bishop of Exeter and m 1662
was translated to the bishopric of Worcester.
He died four months later (Sept 20, 1662)
His publications number some 13 or more books,
which appeared between 1642 and 1660 At first
he was inclined to the Parliamentary cause,
but in the end he strongly opposed the Puritan
excesses Among his more forcible writings may
be mentioned Cromwell's Bloody Slaughter
House > 01, His Damnable Designs in Contriving
the Murther of His Sacred Majesty King Charles
I Discovered (1660) He is best known on ac-
count of the contioversies which have raged over
the authorship of Eikon Basilike, a book at-
tributed to Charles I himself It was published
immediately after the execution of the King,
and, according to Malcolm Laing, "had it ap-
peared a week sooner, it might have saved the
King's life." The Bishop claimed its author-
ship in correspondence with Chancellor Hyde,
Lord Clarendon ( 1660-62 ) , and Clarendon ad-
mitted it Burnet in 1674 stated that the Duke
of York told him that Dr Gauden was the
author, and in November, 1686, at the sale of
the Marquis of Anglesey's choice library of
books, the "famous memorandum" was found in
the peer's copy of the Eikon Basilike — "King
Charles II and the Duke of York have both
assured me that this work was none of the
King's compiling, but made by Dr Gauden,
Bishop of Chester ( ? ) , which I here insert for
the undeceiving of others in this point, by attest-
ing so much, under my hand " A sharp contro-
versy arose, which has been revived on various
occasions up to as late as 1880 In Who Wrote
loon Basihke® (3 vols, 1824-28), Dr Christo-
pher Wordsworth "proves" that the King did.
Sir James Mackintosh, reviewing Wordsworth's
book in the Edinburgh Review (xliv), "proves"
that Gauden wrote it Macaulay, Guizot, and
other historians sustain Gauden's claim Con-
sult Almach, Bibliography of the King's Book
(London, 1896) See EIKON BASILIKE
GAUDRY, gtfdrt', ALBERT (1827-1908) A
French paleontologist, born at Samt-Germain-
en-Laye In 1853 he traveled m the Orient and
from 1855 to 1860 m Greece, where he was
occupied with paleontological researches He
was then appointed assistant naturalist m the
Museum of Natuial History in Paris, where in
1872 he became professor In 1882 he was-
elected a member of the French Academy of Sci-
ences. His works include ReeTierches scien-
4 GAUGE
tifiques en V Orient (1855) , Animau® fossiles e$
geologie de VAttique (2 vols, 1862-67), Am-
mauso fossiles du Mont~Le~beron, with Fischer
and Toumouer ( 1873 ) , Enchainements du
monde animal dans les temps geologiques
(1878)
GAUDY, gou'd£, FRANZ BEENHAKD HEINRICH
WiitHELM, BARON VON (1800-40) A German
author, born in Frankfort-on-the-Oder In 1818
he entered the Prussian army, but resigned from
the service in 1833 to follow a wholly literary
career, and at Berlin was a friend of Chamisso,
with whom he edited the Deutscher Musenal-
manach for 1839 His best-known work is his
humorous and frequently epigrammatic verse,
especially his Kaiserlieder (1835) m honor of
Napoleon Some of his poems became widely
popular Of his prose writings, Tagebuch eines
wandernden Schneider gesellen (1836), Venetian-
ische Novellen (1838), Der Katzenraffael, and
Jugendliebe are still read in Germany His
complete works appeared in 1853 (8 vols, ed.
by Arthur Muller)
GAUERMANN, gou'er-man, FKIEDEICH (1807-
62) An Austrian genre, landscape, and animal
painter. He was born at Miesenbach, Lower
Austria, Sept 20, 1807, a son of the landscape
painter Jakob Gauermann He was a pupil of
his father at Vienna, and in copying the old
masters he acquired the technique of the Dutch
school, modified by the smooth, delicate handling
of the Viennese In summer he made studies of
the landscapes and peasants of the Au&trian and
Styrian Alps His landscape motives are poetic
in conception, his representations of wild animal
life dramatic and spirited, and his rough idyls
of the mountaineers show keen observation of
local peculiarities He first attracted attention
at the Vienna Exhibition m 1824 "The Storm"
(1829) assured his reputation, and the "Field
Laborer" (Vienna Gallery) was one of the sen-
sations in the Exhibition of 1834 The Vienna
Academy possesses a series of charming studies
of animals and four paintings, including "Peas-
ants Resting " Among the most important of
his other works are "Vultures Hovering over a
Wounded Deer", "Husbandmen Ploughing";
"Cows, Sheep, a Horse*3 (Leipzig Museum) ,
"Rural Smithy"; and "Well in the Tyrol" (Bei-
1m National Gallery), He was made member
of the Munich Academy in 1836 Gauermann
left at his death, which occurred at Vienna, July
7, 1862, more than 1000 oil paintings, about 565
drawings, and 15 unfinished pictures
GAUGE, gaj (from OF. gauge, yaugej con-
nected with ML gaugatum, gauging of a wine
cask, ytilagium, right to gauge wine casks, and
piobably with jalea, gallon, OF, Fr. jale, bowl).
In mechanics, an instrument for determining the
dimensions, quantity, force, capacity, etc, of
anything Gauges are of various forms and are
employed for numerous purposes in engineering
and the arts Gauges to secure precision in the
dimensions and forms of manufactured articles
are made of hardened steel, or of case-hardened
wrought iron, formed to the exact outline to be
secured and accurately dimensioned Such
gauges are extensively used in machinery manu-
facture where mterehangeability of correspond-
ing parts is sought Wire gauges are circular
disks of hardened steel, having round the edge
a series of notches of different sizes of openings
corresponding to the standard wtre sizes of the
Birmingham or other gauges, such as the Amer-
ican or Brown and Sharpe In the Birmingham
GAUGER
515
GATTL
wire gauges the sizes run from No I, denoting
a wire diameter of 0 3 inch, to No 34, denoting
a wire diameter of 0 004 inch Similar gauges
are used for mcasuung the thickness of metal
plates, and m the United States a standaid
gauge tor sheet and plate non and steel was es-
tablished by Act of Congiess in 1893, the cor-
responding numbers being defined both in metric
measure and fi actions of inches The modern
tendency in design in many large manufacturing
works is to state the actual dimensions in thou-
sandths of an inch or in millimeters rather than
by gauge
Pressure gauges for measuring the pressure of
steam or other gas inside a closed vessel are
familiar to all In the most usual form the
pressuie of the gas acts to cause a pointer to
move aiound a graduated dial The steam-boiler
gauge is a familiar example of such devices
Wind gauges are airangements by which the
wind blowing against a plate diaphragm actuates
a recording device which records the pressure
(See ANEMOMETER ) Water gauges consist of
a strong glass tube with metal fixtures at its
ends, which connect the tube with the interior
of a steam boiler The lower end of the tube
connects with the boiler below the lowest water
line, and the upper end connects with, it above
the highest water line, and the level of the
water between the two points is observable by
the height at which it stands in the glass
Screw gauges consist of a U-shaped frame of
steel, at the end of one arm of which is a steel
plug pointing towards the opposite arm, through
whose end runs a finely threaded thumbscrew
with a graduated head To measure with this
device the end of the plug is brought into con-
tact with one side of the object, and the screw
run out into it touches the other side , a reading
of the graduated head shows the distance apait
of the end of the plug and the end of the sciew,
and therefore the thickness of the object See
CALIPERS, RAILWAYS
G-AtTGER. A United States customhouse
officer whose duty is to gauge or measure casks
and other hollow vessels containing liquids
liable to duty Local officers are to be found in
many States also, whose duties are of a similar
nature These are often known as sealers of
weights and measures
GMLTTGrTTA, gou'gwa See G-UAGUA
GAUG-TTIW, go'gaN', PAUL (1848-1903) A
French figure and landscape painter, one of the
pioneers of the post-Impressionist movement.
He was born at Paris, June 17, 1848, the son
of a journalist of Orleans (not Breton) descent
and of a Peruvian mother. The lad was brought
up at Lima and in the house of his grandfather
at Orleans In 1865 he went to sea, returning
in 1871 He then took up successfully a banking
career and was married to a cultivated and sym-
pathetic Danish lady Painting was for him a
hobby to occupy leisure evenings and Sundays
Forming the acquaintance and acquiring the
friendship of Pissaro, he worked with the Im-
pressionist group, becoming the most radical
of them all He soon achieved a reputation with
his simple and forceful presentation of rocky
Breton landscape and became founder of the
school of Pont Aven He then passed consider-
able time with. Van Gogh (qv ) in southern
France, painting the landscape and figures of that
country Among his notable paintings of this
period are his "well-known portrait of himself
and the curious "Yellow Christ," so called from
the prevailing tone of the painting Disgusted
with the civilization of Europe, he went in 1891
to Tahiti, where he lived like a native until
1893 While tlieie, he painted a remarkable
series of Talutan subjects, which, exhibited with
Maon titles, caused quite a sensation in Paris
The most remarkable of them ^ere brown nudes
in bright tropical landscapes, such as "Te Am
Vahine," also called the "Maori Venus," and "The
Spirit of the Dead" Theie weie albo fine poi-
traits, like the two "Maoii Women/' besides in-
teresting still life and sculptures — "A Maori
Woman" in stone and his own characteristic
head in ^\ood He was well represented in the
International Exhibition held at New York in
1913 The Luxembourg Museum possesses a
"Still Life" by him, the Copenhagen Museum,
his 'Mai dm de Paris" In 1895 he returned to
Tahiti, and died on May 9, 1903, in the Isle of
Dominique Gauguin rejected all dogma in art
and claimed the hbeity for every one to interpret
natme according to his, own temperament Al-
though, according to the accepted standaids, his
art lacks beauty both in line and in color, it
has an indisputable decoiative quality of its
own He also produced some good lithographs
and water colois, and in conjunction with
Charles Monce he published an intei estmg book-
let entitled Noa Noa (1897) Consult De Ro-
tonchamp, Paul Qauguin (Weimar, 1906)
GATTL, gal (Lat Gallw) The name given
by the Romans to that portion of western Europe
which is m the mam identical with France, al-
though extending beyond the bounds of the mod-
em state In the earliest times this region,
bounded by the Atlantic, the Rhine, the Alps, the
Mediterranean, and the Pyrenees, was inhabited
by the Gauls, who had overrun the territory and
had brought under control the earlier peoples,
such as the Ligimans, along the southern coast
line, and the Iberians, who had subjugated the
southwestern section and are repiesented by the
Basques of modern days (Sec IBERIANS, LIGTJ-
RIA, LlGTJEIAN, BASQUE, BASQUE RACE ) The
Greeks founded Massilia (Marseilles), a Pho-
CEean colony, about 600 B c They called the
people KeXra/, either, as Thierry suggests, extend-
ing the name of one tribe to the entire race, or
using a genenc term to indicate the collective
Celtic people Later the Greeks named the
country TaXarta, and the Romans spoke of the
Galli and of Gallia These words are cognate
with the native title Gaeltachd, which means
'the land of the Gauls/ and which designated the
territory above defined, but did not include the
two islands known as Albion ( q v ) or Albin,
the White Island, and Erin (Eri or lar = the
West), the Isle of the West, which were inhab-
ited by the same race
Julius Caesar is the first writer who enlightens
us in regard to this people He speaks of Gaul
as being divided among three peoples — the
Belgae, the Aqmtani, and the Galli (or, "as they
are known in their own tongue," Celtse). The
Belgse dwelt on the north, with the Seine as their
southern boundary, the Aquitam lived in the
south, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees,
the Celtse dwelt between the Belgse and the Aqui-
tam They differed in language, customs, and
laws This description is substantially correct,
although Csesar does not mention all the races
of Gaul, nor does he recognize the fact that the
Aquitam were really distinct in race from the
Belgge and the Celtse, who were closely related
to each other. The Aquitani were Iberian IB
GAUL 5'
stock, and this racial difference was indicated
by marked differences in temperament and physi-
cal charactenstics The Gauls were tall, of light
complexion, sociable in disposition, given to fight-
ing in large numbers, while the Aquitam were
dark, reserved in disposition, and fond of fight-
ing in small bands — traits ^hich are found
among the Basques to-day
Csesar mentions numerous tribes belonging to
the three nations distinguished by him Such
were, in Celtic territory, the Helvetu, the
Sequam, and the ^Edui along the Rhone and
the Sadne, and the Arverm (modern Auvergne)
among the mountains (Cevennes) , along the
Loire were the Namnetes, the Senones, and the
Carnutes, and between the Loire and the Seine
the Armoncan or maritime tribes, such as the
Veneti. The Bellovaci, Suessiones, Nervn, and
Morim were tribes of the Belgse
The part the Gauls played in the ethnic dis-
tribution of the early peoples of Europe was
lemarkable In their nomadic history they wan-
dered far and wide throughout Europe, Asia, and
Africa. Prom their home in western Europe
they spread to Britain, invaded Spain, swarmed
over the Alps into Italy, and, extending their
conquests to the Tiber, burned Rome ( 390 B c ,
see ALLIA; BBENNUS, 1, CAMILLUS, ROME, His-
tory Tor later invasions of Italy by the Gauls,
see MAEIUS, CIMBEI) Other tribes of Gaul
traversed eastern Europe and Asia Minor, rav-
aged Macedonia and Thessaly, passed through
Thermopylae, and pillaged Delphi In 241 BO,
meeting with Attains, King of Pergamus, they
were driven back into the mountain district near
the Halys River, and there they established the
independent principality of Galatia (qv ), or
Gallo-Graecia, which became a power among the
peoples of Asia This represents the first period
of their history. The second is the history of
their settlements in various parts of the world
and the development of their peculiar institu-
tions, influenced as they were by environment
and modified by the introduction of foreign ele-
ments Thus, in Phrygian Galatia the Gallic
civilization was combined with those of Greece
and Phrygia, and in Italy their manners and cus-
toms were affected by their contact with the
Romans Finally, in the struggle to maintain
their freedom, they met the Romans on every
side. As Thierry says "The Gauls and Romans
followed each other over the earth to decide the
old quarrel of the Capitol " It was the long
conflict between a ferociously active but undis-
ciplined people and the sturdy, disciplined prow-
ess of the Romans The northern part of Italy,
because of the early invasion of the Gauls, was
termed by the Romans Gallia Cisalpina, i e ,
''Gaul this side of the Alps," as viewed from
Ronue. (For these invasions, see ROME, History,
under the heading From the Abolition of the
Decemvvrate to the Defeat of the Sammtes, etc >
subdivision 2, External History } This territory
was also known as Gallia Citenor, to distinguish
it from Gallia Transalpma or Gallia Ulterior
Here the contest was waged for centuries, the
Romans gradually pushing their sway up to the
Alps and establishing colonies in the Gallic
towns. Julius Csesar gave its inhabitants Ro-
man citizenship (49 BC ) , in 42 Gallia Cisalpina
was definitely merged with Italy In this terri-
tory were born VERGIL, CATULLUS, LIVY, PLINY
THE ELDEB, and PLINY THE YOUNGER
Then the Romans passed over the Alps, in-
vited by the people of Massiha, who sought
6 GAUL
assistance against their neighbors, but the
invaders did not cease to interfere with the
affairs of southern Gaul until the entire region
from the Alps to the Pyienees became a Roman
province This was known as Gallia Provincia
(Provence), and Narbo became the capital city
The wars of Julius Csesar, which ended with the
eighth campaign, in 50 B c , in the conquest of
Gaul, resulted in the formation of a new prov-
ince, Aquitama To this province was given the
name Gallia Comata, or Long-haired Gaul, just
as Cisalpine Gaul had been termed Gallia To-
gata, and the old province Gallia Biaccata, fiom
the word bracccc, meaning the trousers (bieeches)
worn by the people The third period in the his-
tory of Gaul dates from the time of Augustus,
for in 27 B c Augustus organized the peoples of
Gaul in four provinces — Gallia Narbonensis, the
old province, Aquitama, with the Liger (Lone)
as the northern boundary (laiger by 14 tribes
than the Aquitama of Caesai ) , Galha Lugdu-
nensis, named from the town of Lugdunum
(Lyons), between the Loire, the Seine, and the
Saone, and Gallia Belgic^i, between the Seine
and the Rhine, with the North Sea as the north-
ern boundary This division was not changed
until the fourth century, when Gaul was divided
into two great dioceses, the Dioscesis Galhatum
and the Dicecesis Viennensis The former was
subdivided into eight provinces and the latter
into seven piovinces The Emperor Claudius
did much towards the complete Romamzation
of Gaul, and later emperors completed what
Augustus had begun In the history of the
Imperial period the Gauls had an impoitant
part, their fortunes rose and fell with the
fortunes of the Roman people See ALESIA,
AQUITANIA, AKLES, AUTUN, BELGJS, N!MES,
GfflSAB, GAIUS JULIUS, HELVETII, CELTIC LAN-
GUAGES, CELTIC PEOPLES, ITIUS PORTUS,
ORANGE, DBUID
In the many contests of later Impel lal times
their land was the scene of fierce conflicts, and
when the races of the north and east fought and
overcame those of the south, their land was trav-
ersed again and again by great migiations of the
Burgundians, the Goths, and the Franks, until
out of the rum theie arose a new empire, and
the history of mediaeval and modern Europe
began See FBANCE
Bibliography Thierry, Histoire des 0-aulois
(4th ed, Paris, 1872), Martin, Histoire de
France (4th ed , ib , 1865), Marin de Syr, La
France avant Cesar (ib , 1865 j , Godwin, His-
tory of France (New York, 1860) , Roget, Ethno-
genie gauloise (Paris, 1868-75) , Desjardins,
Qeographie histonque et administrative de la
Gaule romaine (ib, 1877) , Fustel de Coulanges,
Histoire des institutions politiques de I'ancienne
France (ib , 1877), Holmes, Ccesar's Conquest
of Gaul (2d ed, Oxford, 1911), Sihler, Annals
of Ccesar (New York, 1911), and the revised
German edition of this work, C luhus Ccesar
Sein Le'ben nach den Quellen (Leipzig, 1912) ,
the Introduction to Holrnes's edition of Caesar's
Commentaru de Bello G-alhco (Oxford, 1914) ,
the article "Gallia," in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-
Enoyclopadie der classischen Alt er turns wissen-
schaft, vol vii (Stuttgart, 1912) , the article
"Gallia" in Lubker, Realleankon des klassischen
Altertums (8th ed , Leipzig, 1914)
GAUL, ALFRED ROBERT (1837-1913) An
English organist and composer, born at Norwich
He studied under Zechariah Buck, organist of
Norwich Cathedral, from 1854 to 1859 was or-
GAUL
517
GAUB
ganist at Fakenham (Norfolk), and in 1859 was
appointed organist of St Augustine's (Edgebas-
ton)s Birmingham His works include an ora-
torio, Hezekwh (I860), two sacred cantatas,
Ruth (1881) and The Holy Clity (1882), the
latter of which has been very popular in the
United States, a Passion Service (1882), an
historical cantata, Joan of Arc (1887) , The Ten
Virgins (1890) , Israel in the Wilderness (1892) ,
Una (1893) , and anthems and part songs
GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855-1919) An
American historical and genre painter, born at
Jersey City, N J He studied under J G. Brown
and was a pupil of the National Academy of De-
sign, of which he became a member in 1882 He
painted many genre pictmes, such as "Indian
Girl" (1880), "Old Beau35 (1881), but is at his
best in his battle pictures of the Civil War, which
are characterized by clever coloi ing, notable dash
and spirit, and great truthfulness of detail
Among the best are "Charging the Battery,"
"Saving the Colors/3 "Battery H in Action"
(Toledo Museum) , "Exchange of Prisoneis"
(Democratic Club, New York) Among his more
recent paintings are "Golden Prospects" (1910) ,
"Sioux Indian" and "Loot" (1911), "Ration
Day" and the "Peace Conference" (1912)
GAULEY (gala) MOUITTAEN' A ndge in
Randolph and Pocahontas counties, W Va , hav-
ing a maximum altitude of about 4000 feet The
name is also applied to a lower ridge (1500 to
2000 feet) in Fayette Co , W Va , between the
Gauley and New rivers, forks of the Kanawha
River
GAULEY RIVER. A river rising m the
Gauley Mountains, Pocahontas Co , W Va
After a southwest course it unites with New
River at Gauley Bridge, to form the Great Ka-
nawha, a tributaiy of the Ohio
GAULI3ST, gd'laN' (West Indian name) In
Jamaica and the West Indies, a heron
GAULS See GAUL
GAULT A division of the Cretaceous system
of England scpaiating the Lower and Upper
Greensands It consists of a dark, plastic clay,
sometimes sandy or marly, and attains a thick-
ness of from 100 to 300 feet It is exposed
along the southeastern coast of England, one of
the best sections being near Folkestone
GAULTHE'BIA
( Neo-Lat nom pi ,
from GaMltier, a
Canadian physi-
cian) A genus of
low or trailing
shrubs, belonging to
the family Erica-
ceae, a number of
species of which oc-
cur in North and
South America,
Asia, Australia,
and Tasmania
Among the best-
known is Gaultheria
procumbens (wm-
tergreen, q v , or
checkerberry ) , a
common plant in
evergreen woods
from Canada to
Georgia, especially
in the mountainous districts at the south It is
also called teaberry, deerberry, boxberry, par-
tridge berry, and mountain tea The stems are
GADXTHBJRIA
trailing, with ascending tips, which bear the
dark-green, smooth leaves and the scarlet ber-
ries The foliage has the same flavor as that
which characterizes the sweet birch (Betula
lenta) The whole plant contains a volatile oil,
oil of wmtergieen, which is obtained by distilla-
tion This oil is used to some extent in medi-
cine as a stimulant, antiseptic, and diuretic ,
but its chief use is as a flavor Other species,
especially the Asiatic, are used as a souice of
the flavor G-aulth&tia, shaJlon, found from
Alaska to California, is a shrub 2 or 3 feet high
It is known as "salal," and its black berries are
edible The fruits of wax cluster (Gaulthena
hwptda) and GaultJierm antipoda of Tasmania
aie edible, those of the lattei being considered
the better
GAULUS See Gozo
GAUNT, JOHN OF See JOHN OF GAUNT
GAUNTLET, or GANTLET, gantlet (OF
gantelet, dim of gant, glove, from ML wantus,
glove, from Dutch want, OSwed wante, glove,
mitten) In medieval aimoi, a glove usually
of leather covered with iron, which formed pait
of the equipment of knights and men at aims
The back of the hand was covered with scale-
work of plates joined together, so as to permit
the hand to close Gauntlets were introduced
about the middle of the thuteenth centurv
They weie often thrown down by wav of chal-
lenge, like gloves They were frequently used in
heraldiy, the fact of their being for the right or
left hand being expressed by the words "dexter"
or " sinister " Consult Bemmin, Arms and
Aimour (London, 1877)
GAUPP, goup, ERNST (1865-1917) A Ger-
man anatomist, born in Beuthen, Upper Silesia,
and educated at Jena, Komgsberg, and Breslau
At Breslau m 1889-95 he was an assistant in
the university and taught anatomy in the art
school He then went to Freiburg and in 1897
to Komgsberg, where he became professor and
(in 1912) director of the Anatomical Institute
He revised Ecker's Anatomie des Frosches
(1896-1904), wrote "Entwickhing des Kopf-
skelets" (1905), in Hertwig's Handbuch der
Entmcklungslehre, and contributed the chapter
"Morphologic der Wirbeltiere," in Kultur der
Qegenwart
GAUB, gour, or GOUB. The medieval capi-
tal of Bengal, situated on the arm of the Ganges
called the Bhagirathi, in lat 24° 52' N and
long 88° 10' E According to tradition, the
city was founded m the twelfth century by
Lakshmanasena of the Vaidya dynasty of Ben-
gal, who called it, after his own name, Laksh-
manavati, or, in the vernacular, Lakhnauti
Lakhnauti continued for the most part to be the
seat of rulers who governed Bengal and Behar,
sometimes as confessed delegates to the Delhi
sovereigns, sometimes as practically independent
kings It was conquered by the Mohammedans
m 1198, and from the year 1338, with the wan-
ing power of the Delhi dynasties, the Kingdom
of Bengal acquired a substantial independence
which it retained for more than two centtcries.
One of the earliest of the kings during tnis
period, by name Ilyas Shah, transferred the
seat of government (c 1350) to Pandnah, a place
about 16 miles north by east of Gatir After
some occasional oscillation the residence was
again ( c 1446 ) transferred to Q-aur by £Tasr ud-
Din Mahmud Shah I, by which name the city is
geneially known thenceforward, that of Lakh-
nauti disappearing from history On account
GATJB 5
of its somewhat unhealthful situation Suhraan
Hiram (1564-65) abandoned Gam loi Tandah,
a place somewhat neaier the Ganges Mu'umm
Khan, a geneial of Akbai, when i educing these
provinces in 1575, was attracted by the old site
and resolved to readopt it as the seat o± local
government But a great pestilence (probably
cholera) broke out at Gaur and swept away
thousands, the geneial in chief being himself
among the victims Gaur cannot have been en-
tirely deserted, for the Nawab Shiya ud-Din,
who governed Bengal 1725-39, built a new gate
to the citadel The city Is now in rums, its
remains being scatteied over a vast area Con-
sult Kavenshaw, Q-aur Its Ruins and Inscrip-
tions (London, 1878 ) , Ferguson, History of
Indian and Eastern Architecture (ib, 1876, 2d
ed, 1910) , Reports of the Archaeological Survey
(Bengal, 1000-04) , Havell, Indian Architecture
(New York, 1913)
GAUR, gar or gour (Hind , from Skt g&ura,
white) A wild ox (Bos gaums) of India, prob-
ably the largest existing species of wild cattle,
and the one hunted by Indian sportsmen under
the misnomer "Indian bison " An old bull may
stand 6 feet high at the withers, and speci-
mens have been recorded whose horns measuied
39 inches and had a basal circumference of 19
inches, but the average is less than this, the
cow is in every \vay smaller The animal is
massively built, with regularly upwaid-cuivmg
yellowish horns decidedly flattened at their base,
and has a distinct ridge above the shoulders
produced by great upstanding spines of the
vertebrae The ears are very large, the dewlap
inconspicuous, and the tail comparatively short
In color, old bulls aie dark brown, sometimes
nearly black, with the crown of the head and
the muzzle gray, and the lower parts of the
legs pure white. The hair is fine and glossy
This grand animal is to be found in small bands
throughout all the forested parts of India (ex-
cept Ceylon) to the foothills of the Himalayas,
and thence through the hilly districts of Assam
and Burma down into the Malay Peninsula,
where there are two forms — one called sladong,
and the other sapio, in Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London (London, 1890)
It roams widely, but keeps to the jungle and
is so alert and cunning in escape, and so formi-
dable when brought to bay, that its chase is
justly regarded as among the finest sports with
a rifle in the world, and among the most danger-
ous, as it must always be pui&ued on foot An
old bull makes an even match for the tiger him-
self Nevertheless, it is not pugnacious and
rarely or never attacks human beings except
when wounded or brought to bay, but shyly
retreats from man whenever possible These
cattle have not been domesticated, except par-
tially by some semi wild hill tribes east of the
Ganges in company with their gayals, who keep
them as food Consult books of natural history
and sport in India and Burma, especially San-
derson, Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts
of India (London, 1893), noting that most of
these writers call the animal "bison" , also Blan-
ford, Fauna of British India Mammals (2
vols, ib, 1888-91) , id, "On the Gaur and it?
Allies," in Proceedings of the Zoological Society
of London (ib, 1890) Cf GAYAL, and s*e
Plate of CATTLE, WILD
GAURISAJNTKAR, gou'ri-san'ker, MOUXT
See EVEBEST, MOUNT.
GAUSS, gous, KA.KT. FRIEDKIOH (1777-1855)
8 GAUTAMA
A Geiinan mathematician, one of the most bril-
liant mathematicians oi modem times He was
born at Biunpuuck, the son of a day labuiei
Aftoi tlnee yoais (1702-95) in the Caiolmeum
at BiuribWick, he wont to the Unm>mU of Got-
tingen, where he remained from 1795 to 1798,
devoting all of his attention to mathematics
When al Gottingen, he was already in possession
of the idea of least squares (see LEAST SQUARES,
METHOD OF), and in March, 1796, he discoveied
the proposition that a cncle can be divided into
17 equal aics by means of clement aiy geometry,
the hr&t extension of the ancient Greek knowl-
edge in this paiticular During his university
career at Gottingen he also worked upon his
Disqiusitiones Arithmetics (1801, 2d ed , 1889)
a tieatise which soon brought him into prom-
inence befoie the scientific world The Ger-
man astronomers being unable to locate the
planet Ceres, discovered by Piazzi at Palermo,
Jan 1, 1801, Gaubs invented a new method for
calculating the position of heavenly bodies, and
thus enabled Zach (Dec 3, 1801) and Gibers
(Dec 4, 1801) to rediscover the planet His
Theotia Motus Corponim Coelc'Strtim (1809),
vol vn of his Werle (1871, Geiman by Haase,
Hanovei, 1865), completely established his
imputation, so that Laplace recognised him as
the first mathematician in Europe The lattei
pait of his life was devoted largely to two
blanches of applied mathematics, geodesy and
electricity, he measured the meridian from
Altona to Gottingen (1821-24), and he may be
considered as the founder of the mathematical
theory of electricity With Weber he estab-
lished telegraphic connection between the mag-
netic and the astronomical observatories at
Gottingen (1833) and published the Resultatc
aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen 'Vereins
(6 vols, 1838-43) and the Atlas des Erdmag-
netismus (1840) He also wrote on the theory
of surfaces, least squares, and other subjects of
mathematics, physics, and astronomy His col-
lected works weie published by the Gottingen
Academy (vols i-vi, Gottingen, 1862-74, vol
vn, Gotha, 1871, 2d ed, 8 vols, Gottingen,
1870-1900) For his life, consult Sobering
(ib, 1887)
G-AUSSEK, go'saN', Lours (1790-1863) A
Swiss Protestant theologian He was born in
Geneva and in 1816 became pastor of Satigny,
near that city He held strongly to the old
Cahinistic teachings and refused to use a new
and levised catechism which had been substi-
tuted for Calvin's For this he was censured
by the majority of the Geneva ministers and in
1832 was deposed by the consistory In the
same year, with Meile d'Aubign^ and Galland,
he formed the "evangelical society" for the
enculation of Bibles and tracts In 1836 he
became professor of theology in the new evan-
gelical school at Geneva He held to the verbal
inspiration of the Scriptures in its most ex-
treme form Among his works translated into
English are Theopneustics (1841), his most
widely known work, It is Written (1856),
Lessons for the Young on the Six Days of Crea-
tion (1860) , Canon of Scripture (1862)
OATJTAltA7 gou'ta-ma The name of a
family, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, and of sev-
eral individuals known in connection with the
aarly Vedic literature of India This appellative
is a patronymic from Gotama and was borne
also by Buddha (See GOTAMA ) It was es-
pecially preserved also as the name of an early
GAUTAMA BUDDHA 55
Hindu teacher or lawgiver, the author of a work
known as the Institutes of Gautama These
legal aphorisms, like the institutes of Apastamba,
Baudayana, and Vasishta ( q v ) , ai e important
in connection with early Hindu law For a
translation, consult "Sacicd Laws of the Ar-
yans," in Muller, Sacred Books of the East, vol
11 (2d ed, Oxford, 1897), and Mctcdonell, His-
tory of SansLnt Litwatwc (London, 1913)
GAUTAMA BUDDHA, gou'U-ma bood'a
The great religious teachei and refoimei of
eaily India His name is variously given Its
form as Gautama (qv ) was a common appella-
tive in ancient Sanskrit and appeals in Pali as
Gotama It was a family designation, and for
this reason the title "G-autania Buddha" is
sometimes given in English as "Buddha the
Gotamid, or of the Gautama f amilv 3J Often ho
is* called Sakya-raum ( Sage of the Sakya Clan ) ,
as he was descended fiom this tube, and fre-
quently he is styled Siddhartha, 01, in Pali,
Siddartha (the one who successfully attains his
aim) The designation "Buddha" is an epithet
and signifies the "Enlightened One" Similarly
Bodhisatva, or Pah Bodhisatta, means "one who
possesses the venty of knowledge," and it is an
attribute applied to each of a long line of
Btiddhas who have reached or will attain to
perfect enlightenment and wisdom
Buddha was born in the sixth century be-
fore the Christian era, but the precise date is
not known His home was in the region of
India to the northeast of Benares, and the town
where he was born was Kapiiavastu, modern
Kohana, not far from the borders of Nepal
Tradition states that he was born in a garden
sacred to the goddess Lumbim, and it is likely
that the very place which the faith at least
hallowed as his birthplace was discoveiecl m
1897 by Alois Fuhrer, but so many maccuiacies
were connected with his identification of the
column of Asoka, which marked the spot, that
some discredit has been thrown on the authen-
ticity of the identification
The name of Buddha's father is given m the
sacred texts as Suddhodana, a chief of the Sakyas,
and his mother is known as Maya, in the Bud-
dha-vamsa It is generally thought that he was
a prince of the royal blood, but this statement
is not found in the oldest documents For that
reason doubt has, perhaps wrongly, been raised
on this particular point However that may be,
the consensus of opinion is agreed that Siddhar-
tha's mother died when he was but seven days
old, and that he was intrusted to the care of
her sister, Maha-Prajapati, of the Gotamid
family, who was also a wife of Suddhodana
We know little that is authentic legaidmg his
youth and education, but later tradition has
woven a garland of legend about his youthful
attainments and achievements, his talents and
his virtues A reflex of these Oriental descrip-
tions may be gained from Sir Edwin Arnold's
romantic poem The Light of Asia
Prince Siddhartha, if so we may style him
before he attained to Buddhahood, was very early
married to his cousin, the daughter of the Rajah
of Koli, and had a son named Rahula, born
some 10 years after his marriage It was
shortly after the birth of this son, in his thir-
tieth year, when he had fulfilled the obligation
which the Hindu creed required to be discharged
to one's ancestors, that lie left his wife, child,
home, and kingdom, and wandered foith to tak^
up the life of an ascetic This was the method
9 GAUTAMA BUDDHA
of procedure that the Brahman faith authorized,
this was the manner of seeking the path of sal-
vation Finding his way to Rajagnha, he de-
moted himself to such iigorous and excessive
asceticism that he neaily lost his life Discov-
ering that all this was idle and futile for him,
he ga\e himself up solely to thought and medi-
tation, which gradually led him to evolve his
religious and philosophic theory of the general
existence of evil, its origin and its eradication
The place where the light dawned upon his soul
is still pointed out He was seated beneath a
pi pal tiee neai the village that is now known
as Budclh-gaya, to the southeast of Benares
The troo has e\er since been sacred as the Bo
tree (qv) The emancipation of his spirit
found expiebsion in rhythmical stan/as, and he
enjoyed at that moment, even while alive, the
pei feet peace of Ninana To his enlightened
eyes the cause of rmseiy and soirow ^\as desire;
tlu* only ichef \\as to pluck from the heart
tins lust, and to achieve tins he pointed out
the Eightfold Path of truth and light See
BUDDHISM
Aftei attaining the Build h ash ip he pioceedcd
to find the five ascetics with whom he had been
associated in his lecluse life near Benares He
wished to impart first to them the ne\Aly won
joy and the solution of life's pioblems, after
that to his family, kinsmen, countrymen, and
to all mankind Wandering up and down the
Ganges region, the Holy Land of India, he con-
tinued to preach, and, m paiable, precept, and
practice, to impart the tenets of redemption
The purity of his life, the gentleness of his man-
ner, the earnestness of his teaching, and the
firmness of his conviction, won thousands upon
thousands to accept his simple creed and "take
refuge in Buddha " Even during his lifetime
his doctimes spread widely through India, and
they became established in Ceylon hardly less
than two centuries after his death There is
even a tradition, though not generally accepted,
that Buddha himself twice visited the island
See Bo TREE, CEYLON
Much of Buddha's time was spent in founding
monastic oiders and IB developing lines along
which the lehgion was destined in the future to
grow His life was a long one, 80 years, more
than twoscoie of which -\\ere devoted to his
ministry The time of his death is believed1* to
have been about 480 B c , but some latitude
must be allowed for inaccuracy in the deduc-
tions The place where he died was near Kusi-
nagara, some 80 miles to the east of his birth-
place, and about 120 miles^ to the northeast of
Benares A detailed account of the death scene,
even naming the disciples who were present,
especially the beloved Ananda, is given m the
Buddhist scriptures Abundant incidents re
gardmg Buddha's teaching and preaching may
be gathered from the same sources As to pre-
cise biography, m the strict sense of the term,
there is none that is ancient, but the material
may be collected from the Pah texts The in-
troduction to the Jatakas ( q v ) , or book of
birth stories, gives an account of the previous
existences of the Buddha, and a sketch of his
life down to his thirty-sixth year. The two
Sanskrit metrical works entitled Bv&dfffvacarita
and LahtctrVistara (qv ) contain Wagraphical
accounts, but they are not earlier ttian the first
and the second centuries of our era, while the
Pah poem Jina Oanta (Story of the Victorious
One), written in Ceylon, is as late as the twelfth
GrATTTIEBr
520
GAUTIEE.
century A.D , and the Malalankara Watthu is
of uncertain date But the continued publica-
tion of Pah texts, Tibetan writings, Chinese
records, and Ceylonese accounts, is adding new
information each year regarding the history of
Buddha, of whose historical existence theie is
no longer any question, and fresh archaeological
discoveues and researches are contributing ex-
tensively to the knowledge already gained Con-
sult Hhys Davids, Buddhism (new ed, London,
1903), and Bigandet, Life or Legend of G-au-
dama, the Buddha of the Burmese (4th ed.,
lib, 1911-12) See BUDDHISM
GrAUTIEB, go'tya', EKILE TlI^ODORE LEON
(1832-97) A French paleographer and histo-
rian of literature, born at Havre He was edu-
cated at Laval and at the College Sainte-Barbe,
Paris, entered the Bcole des Chartes in 1855,
and became archivist in the national archives
at Paris in 1859, and professor of paleography
in the Ecole des Chartes in 1871 He was made
chief secretary of the national archives in 1886
and was elected to the Institute in 1887 He
was one of the greatest authorities on mediaeval
European literature, his works on early French
literatuie being especially valuable He wrote
Quelques mots sur I'&ude de la paleographie et
de la, diplomatie (1858, 3d ed , 1864), Scenes
et nouvelles catholiques (1861) , Benolt II
(1863), Etudes historiques pom la defense de
I'eghse (1864), Etudes litteraites pour la de-
fense de Veghse (1S65), Epopees pangaises (3
vols, 1866-67, 2d ed , 1878-97), Portraits ht-
t&aires (1868) , La, chanson de Roland (1872),
an edition which won the Guizot prize in 1878
and was repeatedly reissued, Vmgt nouveaux
portraits (1878), La chevalene (1884), His-
toire de la poesie rehgieuse dans les doitres,
des IXe et Xle siecles (1887), Portraits du
XVIIIe siecle (1888) , Etudes et tableau® his-
tonques (1890) ; Biohographie des chansons de
geste (1897).
GKAUTIEK, JUDITH (1850-1918) A French
poet and historical novelist, the daughter of
Theophile Gautier and the noted singer Carlotta
Grisi. She was married to Catulle Mende"s} but
soon separated from him and mairied Pierre
Loti, the famous novelist, in 1913, with whom
she had collaborated in a play, La fllle du ciel
(1912, English, "The Daughter of Heaven"),
translated and produced undei their peisonal
supervision at the Century Theatie, New York
City. She is an Oriental scholar, and hei -K orks
deal mainly with Chinese and Japanebe themes
Among them are Le dragon- imperial (1869),
L'Usurpateur (1875), Les princesses d'amours
(Paris, 1900), Le collier des yours (ib, 1902)
Consult R de G-ourmont, Promenades litteraires
(ib, 1905)
GAUTIER,, (CHARLES) LUCEEN (1850- ).
A Swiss theologian, born at Cologny, near Ge-
neva, and educated at Geneva, Leipzig, and
Tubingen In 1877-98 he was professor of He-
brew and Old Testament exegesis at Lausanne,
and thereafter honorary professor He T/vas
piesiclent of the synod of the Vaudois eghse
libre in 1885, 1886, 1891, and 1892 He traveled
in Palestine in 1893-94 and 1899, and wrote
Au dela du Jourdain (1895, 2d ed , 1896),
Souvenirs de Terre-Sainte (1898), Autour de
la Mer Morte (1901) In addition he trans-
lated Ghazali's Ad-Dourra el-Fakhira (1878)
and wrote- Le sacerdoce dans VAncien Testa-
ment (1874) , La mission du prophete Evechiel
(1891), Vocations de prophet es (1901, in Ger-
man, 1903) , Introduction a VAncien Testament
(1906) , La loi dans Vanoienne Alliance (1908) ,
L3Evangchste de Vexil (1911)
GATJTIER, MARGUERITE The name of an
idealized courtesan, who is the heroine of La
dame auco camehcbs, by the younger Dumas By
a quaint translation of sound rather than sense
the name has been changed to "Caimlle13 in the
English adaptation
GrATJTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-72) A noted
French poet, cutic, and novelist Born at
Tarbes, Aug 31, 1811, he went as a child to
Paris and was educated there He showed spe-
cial interest in the Latin of the Decadence and
the French of the Renaissance, being atti acted
less by the normal than by the primitive or the
ovei refined He became a painter, then a "flam-
boyant" Romanticist, joining as a leaclei in the
a Battle of liernam" (see HUGO), defying con-
ventionality by his flowing hair and far-famed
scai let waistcoat His poems of this period,
Premieres poesies (1830) and Albertus (1832),
show a highly developed technique and a minute
power of descuption Then followed Les Jeunes-
France (1832), stones of nonchalant irony,
mocking alike lomantic liberty and classic re-
straint Gautier's next book, Mademoiselle de
Maupin (1835), a cunous attempt at self-
analysis, was a frank expression of hedonism
Its ait is fascinating, but it tieats the funda-
mental postulates of morality with a contempt
that closed the Academy to him for life For-
tunio (1837) is also frankly pagan In 1836
Gautier put on the harness of journalistic cuti-
cism, embracing art and the drama, and his
later works were, pei force, less offensive to the
moiahsts The best of the short stories printed
in 1845, La morte amoureuse, beais the date of
1836 The deadening effect of this hack work
wore off in the fifties He produced during this
decade the masterful short stories, Arna Mar-
cellaf Jettatura, and Avatar ', and the curiously
antiquarian Roman de la momie But none of
these approaches in interest Le capitame Fra-
casse, which had been announced in 1836 and
appeared in 1861 and 1863 (2 vols ), as "a bill
drawn in my youth and redeemed in middle life "
It is a tiue classic of romanticism, illustiating
a minute knowledge of the epoch of Louis XIII
such as Gautier had already been showing in a
series of literary studies, Les grotesques (1844)
In literary criticism Gautier's most signifi-
cant woiks are his Histoire du romantisme
(1854), his essays on Baudelaire and Lamartine,
and his Rapport sur le piogies de la poesie de-
pms 1830 (1868) An impoitant event in his
life was his change from the staff of La Presse
(1836-54) to the Honiteur (later the official
journal of the Second Empire) Until his death
he was a critic of authority in Paris and ex-
ceptional for the charm of his paiagiaphs
These articles were assembled in Histoire de
Vart diamatique en France (6 vols, Paris,
1858-59) In these he inveighed against the
classic and the bourgeois drama Gautier was
a great traveler for his time and described his
journeys in many books — Voyage en Espagne
(1843), Italia (1852), Constantinople (1854),
La Russie (1866), etc, some of which are still
widely read, owing to his graceful, limpid lan-
guage, and his fondness for discovering artistic
effects
His particular claim to fame, however, lies in
his unique gifts as a poet as represented by his
masterpiece, Emau® et camees — a rather small
GATTTIEU DE COSTES
521
GAVAHNI
collection of poems written between about 1850
and 1S65 They are nearly all in geometrical
stanzas of four lines and eight feet and are dis-
tinguished for their impeccable daintiness, ex-
hibiting Gautier' s love of miniatuie effects and
his adoration for the sculptural and for the
color white This volume shows how concretely
Gautier, a former leader of the Romantic school,
helped to shape the ideals of the Parnassian
school, which was to abandon the exaggerated
ego of the Romanticists for the more polished
and impersonal technique of the Classicists In
this connection it may be said that he was the
originator of the art for art's sake theoiy in
France and the prime inspiration of Beaude-
lane In its pages there is no flesh and blood,
life appears merely as plastic form and pic-
turesque hue The Podstes may be thought of
perhaps as a French pendant to the little poems
of Heine and quite as exquisite in their way
Likely the most famous of them, and certainly
as characteristic as any, is the one entitled
Symphonic en blanc majeur It celebrates the
author's worship of the white, cold divinity of
the passionless nude, which forever toiments
him with its mute, sphinxlike messages of inert
beauty
Gautier was a great genius in his own narrow
limits, rather unmindful than void of ideas and
sentiments, uniting in his pages the pictorial
exotic with the pagan plastic, in accordance
with his celebrated saying "I am one for whom
the visible world exists " In treating his soul-
less images he employed with the accuracy of a
true aitist a vocabulary fanned for its rich re-
sources and a style remarkable for its faultless-
ness For 40 years he was one of the interesting
and conspicuous figures of the Paris literary
and art world A somewhat grotesque person-
ality, he wore by preference the mask of a grave
stoic in a sort of relaxed hopeless attitude
towaids his impecunious destiny When he
spoke, it was to give utterance to some memo-
rable remark or resigned witticism, or to in-
dulge in a droll monologue composed of the
sublime and the absurd He was a cosmopoli-
tan, remarkably open for a Frenchman to for-
eign influences He died in Paris, Get 23, 1872
Consult the Works of Gautier as edited m
English by Sumichrast (24 vols , Boston, 1900
et seq ) , the monographs by Baudelaire (Paris,
1859), Feydeau (ib, 1874), Bergerat (ib,
1878) , Du Csump (ib , 1890) , also Samte-Beuve,
Nouveaux lundis (ib, 1863-72), Spoelberch de
Lovenjoul, Brunetiere, Evolution de la poesie
lyrique (ib, 1894), Faguet, XIXe siecle (ib,
1894), Deschamps, La vie et les livres (ib,
1900) , J G Huneker, The Pathos of Distance
(New York, 1913), E Hennot, "Theophile
Gauthier, poete," in Annales Romantiques
(1912)
GAUTIER DE COSTES, g6'ty&' de kfiat.
See LA CALPREN&DE
GAUTING-, gouging, EREMIT VON See HALL-
BERG-BROICH, THEODOB M. H
GATTTSCH VON FRAtfKENTHURN,
gouch f6n frank'en-toorn, PAUL, BARON VON
(1851- ) An Austrian statesman, born and
educated in Vienna. In 1874 he entered the De-
partment of Education and m 1885-93 was
Minister of Education in the Taafe cabinet
Minister of Education again under Badeni
(1895-97), he succeeded Badem and was Min-
ister of the Interior and head of the cabinet for
three months in 1897-98 a,nd then became Presi-
dent of the Supreme Court of Accounts On Dec
31, 1904, he succeeded Koerber as Premier, but,
on the failure of his scheme for the establish-
ment of universal suffrage, resigned in May,
1906 In 1911, from June 26 to October 31, he
was again Premier
GAUZE (Fr gaze, ML gazzatum, probably
of Eastern origin, cf Peis gazl, thin, coarse
cotton cloth, less probably from the Synan city
of G-aza) A light transparent fabric, originally
made of silk The openness of texture is ob-
tained by crossing the waip threads between the
threads of the weft, so that the weft passes
through a succession of loops in the warp, and
the thieads are thus kept apart, without the
liability to sliding from their places, which
would take place if simple weaving were left so
loose and open Large quantities of medicated
and antiseptic cotton gauze are used by sur-
geons Bolting cloth is a gauze onade of un-
sized silk for separating the products of a flour
mill (See FLOUR ) Fine wire cloth is called
wire gauze The term is also applied to light
woven fabiics of silk, linen, 01 cotton, such as
are used in the manufacture of summer under-
wear
GrAVAG-E, ga'vazh' (Fr , from gaver, togoige)
A method of feeding infants, and sometimes
adults, when, by leason of weakness 01 disinclina-
tion, the individual is unable to take food in the
ordinary way. It is of great value m rearing
premature infants and in those so weak that
they are unable to suck or swallow, and among
adults m certain types of insanity The appa-
ratus consists of a soft rubber catheter, con-
nected by a short glass tube, and about 18 inches
of rubber tubing, to a glass funnel, which holds
from 4 to 6 ounces The catheter is introduced
either through the nostril or the mouth, passed
through the cesophagus and into the stomach,
and, after waiting a few moments to allow
the gas to escape, the food is simply poured
into the funnel When the latter is emptied, the
tube is compressed between the fingers and
quickly withdrawn
QAVARNI, ga'var'ne-' (1804-66) A noted
French caricaturist and illustrator of great orig-
inality and verve, an historical satirist of inex-
haustible inventive power who portrayed types
of French character, and in particular the va-
rious phases of Parisian life His real name
was Guillaume Sulpice Chevalher, and he was
born in Pans, Jan 13, 1804 When a mere boy,
he was placed with an architect, then at the
age of 13 was apprenticed to a maker of mathe-
matical instruments, and two or three years
later studied mechanical drawing at the Con-
servatoire des Arts et Metiers This was all the
artistic training he ever received In 1824 he
took up etching m the employ of Jean Adam,
who sent him to draw and engrave the bridge at
Bordeaux, for which he was to receive 1200
francs a year, but, finding the employment un-
congenial, he threw it up before the year was
out and wandered about for some months, ap-
parently without aim By a lucky chance £&
found a benefactor at Tarbes in M Leleu, tlbe
superintendent of the cadastre in the Pyrenees,
who gave him employment and made hiim at
home an his family, until an offer of regular
work took him back to Paris m 1S28 Here he
taught himself to draw the Jxuman form, and
gradually acquired the mastery; of technique
which so preeminently distinguished him In
1829 he adopted his nom de guerre, derived from
GAVARNI
522
GAVELKIITD
the beautiful valley of Gavarnie in the Pyrenees
In 1830 he made the acquaintance of Emile de
Girardln, who invited him to make the designs
of costumes for La Mode, and it was in its
office that he onet Balzac, who shortly after
asked him to illustrate his Peav, de chagrin
Other papers also had the aid of his pen and
pencil, and theatrical tailors and costumers
found in him a valuable assistant, but his great-
est success was as a satirist of the dandyism
of the day With the year 1832 the period of
uncertainty came to an end, and from that date
he could count upon an appreciative and faith-
ful public Two years later he founded the
Journal des Gens du Monde, of which he was at
once editor and illustrator, and to which he
contributed verse and prose, illustrating both
with charming drawings The undertaking
proved unprofitable, and after struggling through
six months of existence landed its parent in
the debtor's prison at Clichy While, restored
to liberty, he was hesitating as to his future
course, he received a liberal offer from the pro-
prietor of the Charivari Modifying the pub-
lisher's idea, the artist produced the series of
drawings known as Les fourberies de femmes en
mati&re de sentiment (The Tricks of Women in
Matters of Sentiment), which was soon followed
by La boite aux lettres (The Letter Box) Illus-
trating the Bohemian world in which he lived,
series after series flowed from his pencil, all
instinct with vivacity and force, and drawn
mostly from the shady side of Paris life, like
Les lotettes (The Ladies of Easy Virtue), Les
coulisses (Behind the Scenes), Le carnaval, Les
etudiants (The Students), Les dffiardeurs, etc,
while later he embodied in other series his stud-
ies in superior strata of society, as in the well-
known Les enfants tembles, and in La politique
des femmes (Female Politics), Impressions de
manage (Household Impressions), Nuances et
s&n&iments, and others
In 1844 he married Jeanne de Bonabry, but
the union did not prove happy, and three years
later lie went to London He returned in 1852,
so deeply impressed by the scenes of degradation
and wretchedness he had witnessed that it
seemed to color all his future work,, and it is
said that he never laughed again nor made
others laugh He continued the practice of his
ait, but his tone was sterner, and his satire be-
came more biting Some of the series of this
last period exhibit his tendency to be a moralist,
as may be noticed in Les partageuses (The Part-
ners), Les lorettes vieilles (Ladies of Easy Vir-
tue Grown Old), and Les propos de Thomas
"Vwelogue (The Sayings of Thomas Virelogue)
Among his oeat illustrations for books are those
of Eugene Sue's Wandering Jew, Hitzel's Le
diable a Paris, Balzac's Pans marie, and Gulli-
ver's Travels Gavarni had great literary abil-
ity and was a brilliant water-color painter ,
fine examples of his work in this medium are
m the Louvre and many private collections He
also essayed painting in oils, but without much
success During Ms last years he inclined more
and more towards scientific pursuits and passed
most of his time in his garden at Auteuil with,
his two boys He died there, Nov 24, 1866
The Catalogue raisonnG de Voeuvre de Gavarm,
issued by Maherault and Bocher (Paris, 1873),
conveys an adequate idea of the extraordinary
a/mount of work performed by this unique prince
of the pencil In the Bibliotheque Nationale,
Pans, his drawings fill 15 folio volumes, but
they lepresent little more than half of his work,
which numbers about 8000 drawings, water
colors, and lithographs For his biography, con-
sult Duplessis (Paris, 1876), Goncourt (ib,
1879) , and Forgues in Les artistes celebres
(ib, 1888), also Mirecourt, Les contemporains
(ib , 1856) , Blanc, Les artistes de mon temps (ib ,
1876) , Beraldi, Les graveurs du XlXeme siecle
(ib, 1885-92), Cuitis, Masters of Lithography
(New York, 1897) , and the biographical notes
on Daumier and Gavarni by Frantz and Uzanne,
published as a separate volume of the Studio
(1904)
GAVARIiriE, ga'var'ne' A frontier village
in the Department of Hautes-Pyrenees, France,
on the Gave-de-Pau, 34 miles south of Tarbes
The village originated in a hospital of Knights
Templars, and is famous for the Cirque de
Gavarnie, 3 miles to the south, a natural amphi-
theatre, nearly 9 miles in circumference, sur-
rounded by three ranges of limestone mountains,
rising respectively to an altitude of 6900, 8500,
and 9000 feet, the intei mediate slopes being
covered with glaciers Thirteen cascades fall
into the Cirque, the principal one, the Cascade
de Gavarnie, fed by the Gave-de-Pau, having a
drop of 1385 feet Pop , 1901, 269, 1911, 298
GAVAZZI, ga-vat'se, ALESSANDRO (1809-89).
A popular Italian pieacher and reformer He
was born at Bologna, became a monk of the Bar-
nabite Order in 1825, and in 1829 professor of
rhetoric at Naples He entered the priesthood
and acquired great reputation as an orator and
advocate of liberal ideas In 1840 he was trans-
ferred to Home He was one of the foremost
supporters of the liberal policy that marked the
beginning of the pontificate of Pius IX and was
prominent m the patriotic movements of the
time When Borne was captured by the French
(July, 1849), he escaped to England and lec-
tured in that country and m Scotland He also
visited the United States and Canada, where
his reception was not always favorable In 1850
he renounced Catholicism and became pastor of
an Italian, church in London In 1860, having
returned to Italy, he accompanied Garibaldi in
the campaign of that year After the battle ot
Mentana (1867) he devoted himself entirely to
the Free church of Italy, which he organized in
1870 He established a theological school of
the church at Rome in 1875 and became its
professor of dogmatics, apologetics, and polem-
ics He made his last visit to America in
1881 He died in 1889 He published Orations
(London, 1851) , Recollections of the Last Four
Popes (ib , 1859) , Records of Two l^ears9 Chris-
tian, Work in Italy (ib, 1868) For his life,
consult King (ib, 1860), and Lectures in New
York, with life by Campanella and IsTicohni,
corrected by himself (New York, 1853)
GAVELKnSTD, gav'el-kmd (Ir gathail-cme,
from gabhail, tenure + cine, family) An an-
cient form of tenure in England, which ante-
dated the Conquest, and which, in the County
of Kent and in some parts of Northumberland
and Wales, survived the coming and the disap-
pearance of the feudal system Its principal
characteristic was the fact that the lands so
held passed by descent to all of the sons of the
tenant equally, instead of going-, under the
feudal rule of primogeniture, to the eldest
son alone Though Blackstone, probably with
reason, ascribes a Celtic origin to this tenure, it
seems to be the general opinion of English legal
writers that it prevailed over the whole kingdom
GAVEUE
523
GAWAICT
in Anglo-Saxon times, and that in Kent and
elsewhere it was among the "liberties" which
the people were permitted to retain at the Con-
quest In Wales gavelkmd obtained universally
till the time of Henry VIII (34 and 35 Hen
VIII, c 26), and in some parts of England it
is not yet abolished In Kent all lands that
have not been disgaveled by act of Parliament
are held to be gavelkmd In addition to the
characteristics of this tenure already noticed,
Blackstone mentions the following 1 The ten-
ant is of age sufficient to alien his estate by
feoffment at the age of 15 2 The estate does
not escheat in case of an attainder for felony,
their maxim being, "the father to the bough, the
son to the plow " 3 In most places the tenant
had a power of devising lands by will before the
statute authorizing the devise of lands generally
was made See TENXJBE, and consult Blackstone,
Commentates (Chicago, 1899), and the authori-
ties cited under TENURE
GrAVERE, ga'vr'. A small town m the Prov-
ince of East Flanders, Belgium, near Ghent
Pop, 1900, 1893, 1910, 1942 In 1453 it was
the scene of a crushing defeat of the citizens of
Ghent by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy
OKAVEBiNTTZ, G VON SCIIULZE See SCIIULZE-
GAVEBNITZ.
GAV'ESTON, PIERS, EARL OF COKNWAIX
(9-1312) The favorite of Edward II, King of
England His father was a Gascon knight at-
tached to the royal household of Edward I
Here, from an early age, Piers was a companion
of the heir apparent, who, on his accession to
the crown, created him Earl of Cornwall He
was witty and clever, but unscrupulous in the
pursuit of his ambitious designs Presuming
on the King's regard for him, his attitude
towards the English baions was of such a na-
ture as to excite their enmity His nomination
as Regent of the kingdom during the royal
absence in France in the eaily months of 1308,
and the honors conferred upon him at the coro-
nation m the same year, aioused the open hos-
tility of the barons, in compliance with whose
demands the King was forced to send Gaveston
out of the kingdom, making him, however, Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland In July, 1309, he was
recalled and, firm in the King's favor, grew
more insolent than ever This led Parliament
to insist upon his banishment in October, 1311.
In less than two months, however, he returned
and was reinstated in royal favor, whereupon
the barons rose in arms, besieged Gaveston in
Scarborough Castle, captured him, and beheaded
him on Blacklow Hill, near Warwick, on June
10, 1312 In Marlowe's Tragedy of Edward II
Gaveston plays a prominent part Consult
Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol 11 (Oxford,
1896), and Dodge, Piers Gaveston (London,
1899)
GA'VIAL, or GHARXAX (from Hind ghari-
yal, fish eater) A fish-eating crocodile of
northern India (G-avialis gangeticus) , differing
from true crocodiles and from alligators in the
great length and slenderness of the muzzle, and
the cartilaginous swelling at its extremity (in
old males) around the orifice of the nostrils by
which it may be largely inflated The teeth are
very numerous, about 120 ; the longest of the
lower jaw are received into notches in the
upper, as in the true crocodiles The head is
broad, the narrow muzzle begins abruptly, and
in it the branches of the bone of the lower jaw
are 'united and prolonged as one There are two
L. TX— 34
great perforations in the bones of the skull be-
hind the eyes, externally marked by depressions
The plates which cover the back and the nape ol
the neck are united The crest of the tail is
much elevated, the feet are webbed to the ex-
tremity of the toes Its habits are as aquatic
as those of the crocodile of the Nile It attains
a great size, but, owing to the slenderness of its
muzzle, is esteemed loss dangerous than a tiuc
crocodile of smaller size The genus dates from
the Upper Chalk period See CROCODILE
GAVINIES, ga've'nya', PIERRE (1726-1800)
A French violinist and composer He was born
at Bordeaux and was practically a self-taught
musician When only 15, he made his debut at
a "concert spintuel," an enterprise which he in
pait pro]ected His success was immediate,
Viotti, hearing him play, remarked that he was
le Tartini de la Prance Fiom 1795 until his
death he was professor of the violin at the
Paris Conservatory His style is said to have
been formed upon that of the old Italian
masteis and was rcmaikable for its expressive
and sympathetic qualities He was of gicatest
impoitance m the development of violin tech-
nique in Fiance, where he is considered the
founder of the modern school of violin playing
His compositions for the violin are for the most
part very difficult and compuse Les wingt-quatv e
matinees, six violin concertos, and nine violin
sonatas He also composed a three-act comic
opera, Le pr£tendu (1760), which met with con-
siderable success He died at Paris
GAV'IO'TA (Neo-Lat, from Lat gav^a) sort
of bird, probably a sea mew) A species of gull
(Larus cirrocephalus), very familiar about the
harbor of Buenos Aires and neighboring parts of
South America Consult Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London (London, 1871).
GAVOTTE, ga-vot' A French dance, whose
name is derived from the Qauots, a people in-
habiting the Pays-de-Gap, in Dauphme" Origi-
nally a peasant dance, it was introduced at
court in the sixteenth century and was largely
remodeled in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries Its distinctive feature consisted of
the pel formers raising their feet clear of the
giound, instead of shuffling along, as was usual
in dances of this character Kissing and merry-
making played a great part in the old gavotte,
but subsequently it became almost as stifl and
formal as the minuet. As a theatrical dance,
the gavotte was effective and popular, Gluck
and Gre"try in particular having written famous
ones The music is in alla-breve time; in two
parts — the first of four, the second of eight bars
— and each part is repeated As each phrase
begins with an up beat, the fundamental rhythm
of the gavotte is
by which the second bar has a remarkable
caesura Some of Bach's suites contain excellent
examples of the gavotte It generally com-
mences on the third beat of the bar, though
this rule is not without its exceptions. See
SUITE
GAVBE, PRINCE OF See EGMOKT, LAMOHAL
GAVHOCHE, ga'vrdsV A street urchin in
Victor Hugo's Les Mis&rables
GAWAIW, ga'wan, SIB One of the knights
of the Round Table. He is the nephew of
King Arthur (qv) and his ally m the war
GAY
524
GAT
With Launcelot He tries in vain to pull the
magic sword from the magic stone, fails in
the quest of the Holy Giail (qv), and dies
from wounds received in a fight with Launce-
lot Consult Sir Q-awain and the Green Knight
(New York, 1910), retold in modern prose,
with introduction and notes, by J L Weston,
G-awayne and the Green Knight (New Haven,
1913), ed by C M Lewis, Malory, Morte
d'Arthurj Tennyson, Idylls of the King The
name is also given to a knight in Amadis of
Gaul
GAY, ga, CLAUDE (1800-73). A French trav-
eler and naturalist, born at Draguignan, France
He pursued scientific studies primarily in Paris
and, after a few months' travel in G-ieece and
Asia Minor, sailed, in 1828, to Chile with the
intention of making an extensive study of the
flora of the South American continent With
the exception of a short period in 1832-33,
which he spent in Paris supervising the con-
struction of some scientific mstiuments of his
own invention, Gay remained in South America
until 1843, making extensive reseaiches in Chile
and parts of Peru and collecting a gieat mass
of mateiial, not only in regard to the flora of
the country, but its physical characteristics and
political history as well In 1843 lie retuined
to Paris, where, by means of financial aid fui-
nished by the Chilean government, he was en-
abled to publish (in Spanish) his monumental
Histona fisica y politico, de Chile (24 AO!S,
1843-51, with an atlas in 2 vols ) Gay spent
1856-58 in travel in Russia and the Onent and
in 185 8 was commissioned by the Academy of
Sciences, of which he had been elected a mem-
ber, to study mining in the United States, the
results of his investigations being incorporated
in an interesting work entitled Rapport a
I'Acad^mie des Sciences sur les mine,? des Etats-
Unis (1861) Among his other publications
were Consideraciones solre las minas de mer-
curw de Andacolla £ Illapel con su, posicion geo-
logica (1837) , Origine de la pomme de terre
(1851),, Triple variation de I'aiguiHe aimantee
dans les parties Quest de I'Amenque (1854),
Carte generate du Chile (1855)
GAY, DELPHINE, MADAME BE GIBARDIN (1804-
55) A French novelist and miscellaneous
writer, nicknamed the Muse de la Patrie She
was born at Aix-la-Cliapelle, the daughter of
Sophie Gay (qv ), and in 1831 became the wife
of Eonile de Girardm ( q v ) Her great beauty
and charming wit made her salon the most
brilliant of her period While she collaborated
with such great authors as Sandeau and Th£o-
phile Gautier and contributed rather cleverly
to the Lettres parisiennes (1836-48) under the
pseudonym of De Launay, she can hardly be
ranked as a great literary light Of her nu-
merous but ephemeral productions a comedy,
La joie fait peur, and a novel, Le lorgnon
(1831), are sufficiently typical Consult Im-
bert de Saint-Amand, Madame de Giraidin
(Paris, 1875, 1888), F de Baudiss, Chow de
lettres pansiennes (London, 1906) , L. Seche,
Les Muses romantiques (Pans, 1910) , Jean
Balde, Mme de Girardin (ib, 1913)
GAY, EDWABD (1837- ) An American
landscape painter. He was born in Dublin, Ire-
land, but came to America in 1848 and studied
at Albany, N Y, and in Karlsruhe, Germany,
under Schirmer and Leasing His landscape
"Broad Acres" received a prize of $2000 from
the American Art Association and was given by
it to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1887
His mural painting "Taoimma" is in the Mount
Vernon (N Y ) Public Libiary Among other
notewoithy paintings aie "Washed by the Sea"
(Layton Museum, Milwaukee) , "Waving Gram"
(Minneapolis Gallery), "The Hill Side35 (Na-
tional Gallery, Washington) , "The Month of
May'3 (Chicago Art Institute) , "Pines of South
Carolina" (1904), "The House on the Moor"
(1912), "Low Tide" (1913) Gay received the
Shaw puze in 1903, the Inness gold medal in
1905, and was elected a member of the National
Academy of Design in 1907 With a simple and
unaffected ait he paints by prefeience the laige
sunny aspects of nature, distinguished foi fine
atmospheric effects
GAY, JOHN (1685-1732) An English poet
and diamatist, born in 1685 at Bamstable
Devonshire, of an ancient but impoverished fam-
ily After attending the free grammar school
he was apprenticed to a London mercer, but,
dissatisfied with the occupation, he soon aban-
doned it In 1712 he \\as appointed secretary to
the Duchess of Mononouth He had alieady
written "Wine" (1708), a poem in blank veise,
and a pamphlet entitled The Present State of
Wit (1711), which gives an account of the
cuirent periodical literature In 1713 he pub-
lished a poem descuptne of country life, called
"Kuial Sports" It ^as dedicated to Pope,
whose acquaintance Gay had made two yeais
before Now under Pope a influence, he produced
The Fan (1714) and The Shepherd's Weel
(1714), a series of pastoials aimed against
Ambrose Philips Appointed secretaiy to Loid
Claiendon, Envoy to Hanover,, he was abroad in
the summer of 1714 Ketuinmg to England in
Septembei, he addressed an epistle to the newly
arrived Princess of Wales (October) His next
production was a farce in ridicule of popular
tragedies, entitled What-d'-ye-Call-It (1715)
It contains the famous song, "'Twas when the
seas were roaring" Next came Trivia (1716),
descriptive of outdoor life in London This was
followed by an unsuccessful comedy, Three
Hours after Marriage (1717) Three yeais
later he published a collection of his poems with
additions, by which he cleared £1000 Here first
appeared his finest ballad, "Sweet William's
Faie\vell to Black-Ey'd Susan" His poems ap-
peared in 1720, and in the same year, entering
into the South Sea speculations, he lost every-
thing and became dependent on his friends, the
kindest of whom weie the Duke and Duchess of
Queensberry In 1724 he produced for Drury
Lane Theatre the tragedy of The Captiies, which
met with some success Three years later came
the popular verse tales entitled Fables, the best
of their kind in English Gay waa yet to gain
his great fame His Newgate pastoral, Tho
Beggar's Opera, was first performed at Lincoln's
Inn Fields, Jan 29, 1728 It ran for C3 days,
was levived the next season, and performed in
all the great English towns Gay wrote a
sequel entitled Polly, which was prohibited,
but it succeeded remarkably in book form A
fully illustrated edition of The Beggar's Opera,
containing also Polly Peachum, appeared in
New York, 1913 Gay died Dec 4, 1732 A
second series of Falles appeared posthumously
(1738) The Fables, with memoir, were
edited by Dobson (London, 1882), and the
Poetical Works by Underbill (ib, 1893) Con-
sult Johnson, Lives of the Poets (ib, 1854),
and Thackeray, English Humorists (ib, 1853).
GAY
525
GAYAL
GAY, MAEIA (c!880~ ) A Spanish
dramatic mezzo-soprano, born at Barcelona
Originally she studied sculptuie, which art she
pursued eagerly until her sixteenth year Then
she began to study the piano and soon showed
that she possessed remarkable talent When
Pugno (qv ) on one of his touis thiough Spam
heard her sing, he was so struck with the nat-
ural beauty and power of hei voice, which at that
time had not yet been cultivated, that he im-
mediately engaged her for some of his own con-
certs At Brussels the directoi of the Opeia
heard her m a concert with Ysaye and asked her
to study the rCle of Caimen Incredible as it
may sound, five days later she not only made
her d<§but in that difficult role at the famous
De la Monnaie (1902), but also through the
sheer force ot her natuial gifts scored a veri-
table triumph This very success convinced her
of the necessity of serious study, and she at
once went to Paris, where she worked inde-
fatigably for one year with Madame Admy
In 1903 she reappeared as a finished artist and
began her triumphant tours of Europe and
South America During the season of 1908-09
she sang at the Metropolitan Opera House in
New York
GAY, gi, SOPHIE NicHAtrLT DE LAVELETTE
(1776-1852) A French novelist, born in Pans,
July 1, 1776 Her novel Laure d'Estell (1802)
has a sort of biographical interest, for it was
wiittcn to indicate how much the author liked
Madame de Stael and disliked Madame de
Genhs Although a prolific writer, she is better
known as the mother of the famous Delphme
Gay and for her literary salon, most celebrated
during the reign of Louis Philippe
GAY, SYDNEY HOWARD (1814-88) An Amer-
ican journalist and historian He was born in
Hmgham, Mass , studied for a time at Harvard,
then traveled, worked in a counting house in
Boston, and afterward studied law, but became
an Abolitionist, and was precluded from prac-
ticing by his refusal to take the oath to support
the Constitution He became a lecturing agent
for the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1842,
and the editor of the 'National Anti-Slavery
Standard, the official organ of the society, in
1844 He accepted a position as an editorial
writer on. the New York Tribune in 1857 and
from 1862 to 1866 was its managing editor
Subsequently he was managing editor of the
Chicago Tribune from 1868 to 1871 and an edi-
torial writer on the New York Evening Post
from 1872 to 1874. Though nominally only a
collaborator, he actually wrote nearly the whole
of Bryant and Gay's Popular History of the
United States (1876-80), a work whose com-
prehensiveness, clearness, and accuracy soon gave
it a high rank among compendiums of American
history He also wrote a Life of Madison
(1884) for the "American Statesmen's Series",
the chapter on Amerigo Vespucci in Winsor,
Narrative and Critical History of Amenoa
(1886-89) , and many articles on historical sub-
jects for the magazines
GAY, WALTEB (1856- ) An American
interior painter He was born at Hmgham,
Mass, and went in 1876 to Paris, where he
studied under Bonnat He first became known
for his clever and frankly truthful genre pic-
tures, such as the celebrated "BSneMicite"" "The
Blessing" (1888), now in the Amiens Gallery,
"The Cigarette Makers," in the Luxembourg
(Paris) , and "The Spinners," in the Metropoli-
tan Museum, New York — all of which are char-
acterized by skillful handling of light and
haimony of tone In his later work he devoted
himself to rich interiors without figures, painted
with great delicacy, charm, and precision, but
never cold 01 overfinished Good examples are
"Gold and White," "The Medallions," and "In-
tenor," in the Luxembourg, "Interior of the
Palazzo Barbaro" (Boston Museum) , "Interior
of the Petit Trianon" (School of Design, Provi-
dence) , and "Green Salon" (Metropolitan Mu-
seum, New York) He is also repiesented in
the museums of Pittsburgh, Chicago, Philadel-
phia, Brussels, Munich, and m the Tate Gallery,
London He made Pans his residence, exhibited
constantly at the Salon after 1879, and sold
moi e pictures in France than any other stranger
He became a chevalier of the Legion of Honoi
m 1804, and officer in 1906, and received gold
medals at Vienna (1804), Berlin (1896),
Munich (1897), and Paris
GAY, WINCKWORTII ALLAN (1821-1910) An
American landscape painter, bom at West Hing-
ham, Mass He studied undei Robert Weir at
West Point and Troyon in Paris, and tiaveled
extensively m Europe and the Onent He was
one of the first to break away fiom the dry,
thin manner of the eaily Ameiican landscape
school, and his paintings, which are simple and
sincere, have not been properly appreciated out-
side of Boston, where his art life in America
centred, and where most of his work is pre-
served He painted American, French, Dutch<
Italian, Egyptian, and Japanese scenes, among
the best being "Mackerel Fleet off Beverly
Coast," "Harbor Day at Cape Ann," "Windmills
of Delfthaven, Holland," "Forest Sanctuary,"
"Nmich on the Nile," "Scene in the White
Mountains" (Boston Athenaeum), "Scene in
Japan" (Somerset Club, Boston)
GAYA, gl'a, or GYA The capital of the dis-
trict of Gay a, in the Presidency of Bengal
British India, on the Phalgu, an affluent of the
Ganges, 57 miles south of Patna by rail (Map
India, E 4) A place of great sanctity, it is
annually visited by thousands of pilgrims It
consists of the old town, Gaya proper, and
Sahibganj, the modern European and tradnig
quarter Of its many shrines and temples the
most important as the temple of Vishnu, crowned
by an octagonal pyramid over 100 feet high Its
public Institutions include a well-attended high
school and a hospital with a branch for women
Pop, 1901, 71,288, 1911, 49,921 The manu-
factures of the town, largely carried on by
prison labor, include oil, metal work, woven
ware, bamboo baskets, cotton rope, mats, and
jute twine Buddha Gaya, 7 miles to the south,
the ancient dwelling place of Gautama Buddha,
is the seat of a famous temple, which dates from
543 B c and has a pipal tree, the descendant of
the one under which the saint attained Nirvana,
Population of district, 2,225,000
GAYAL, ga'al, Hind ga-yal' (probably from
Skt gaya, household), or MITHAK A species of
native cattle (Bos frontalis) , closely related to
the gaur, which has long been more or less do-
mesticated among the hill tribes of northeastern
India, and thence eastward through Assam to
the Chinese borders, where it is known as
mithan It was formerly considered a race of
the gaur (qv ), but is now known to be a dis-
tinct species, which Blanford asserts to exist
wild in Tenasserim It resembles the gaur, but
is of less size, has proportionately shorter limbs,
GAYANGOS Y AUCE
526
GAYLEY
less of a ridge on the back, and the horns
shorter and less compressed at the base The
head is very broad and flat at the upper part,
suddenly contracted towards the nose, with a
very wide space between the horns The pre-
vailing color is brown, generally dark, but in
some of the herds particolored and white ones
are frequently seen The Keskis, of Tipperah,
and other eastern lull tribes keep herds of
gayals, which they permit to roam at large
during the day in the forests, but which return
home at night of their own accoid Their milk
is extremely rich, but not abundant , the natives,
however, do not use the milk, but lear these
cattle entirely for their flesh and skins They
are never used m agricultural laboi nor as
beasts of burden and, though occasionally mtei-
bred with captive gaurs, have given rise to no
domestic race Beyond the fact that it is, like
the gaui, an inhabitant of the forests, and is
surpiisingly agile among rocky hills, nothing
is known of the habits of the gayal in a wild
state See Plate of CATTLE, WILD
GAYANGOS Y ARCE, gi-an'gos e ar'tha,
PASCUAL DE (1809-97) A Spanish histouan
He studied at Madrid and later in France, held
office under the Spanish government (1833-36),
then lived for a time in London, where he trans-
lated into English Al Makkari's History of the
Mohammedan Dynasties (1840-43) He became
professor of Arabic at the University of Madnd
and in 1881 Director of Public Instruction
Resigning soon afterward, he spent much of his
time in London The historian Prescott, in his
pieface to Ferdinand and Isabella, acknowledges
the valuable services of Sefior de Gayangos, and
he repeats these acknowledgments in his Philip
II He refers particularly to the remarkable
facility of Gayangos "in deciphering the mys-
terious handwriting of the sixteenth century,"
with which "he combined such a thorough ac-
quaintance with the history of his country as
enabled him to detect, amid the ocean of
manuscripts which he inspected, such portions
as were essential to my purpose" His works,
as editor, include a Spanish edition of Ticknor,
History of Spamsh Literature (1851-56) , Oar-
tas y Relaciones de Heman Cortes al Emperador
Catlos V (1866) , Fifth Letter of Hernan Cortes
(1868) , Calendar of Letters, Despatches, and
State Papers England and Spain, 1525-
1529, vol. 111 (1873-77), two volumes in the
Bil)lioteca de Autores HJspanoles- — vol si, Libros
de Caballerias (1874), and vol li, Escritores
en prosa anterwres al siglo XV (1884) His
best original work is his Discurso preliminar
to the edition of the Libras de Caballenas He
also prepared a Catalogue of Manuscripts in
the Spanish Language in the British Museum
(1875)
GAYARREI, ga'ar-ra', CHAELES ETIETOE AR-
THUR (1805-95) An American historian He
•rc as born at New Orleans, La, Jan 9, 1805,
was educated in the College of New Orleans,
studied law in Philadelphia, and was admitted
to the bar in 1829 Returning to New Orleans,
he was soon made a member of the Legislature,
Deputy Attorney-General of the State, and pre-
siding judge of the New Orleans City Court.
In 1SS5 he was chosen United States Senator,
but on account of ill health did not serve and
spent the next eight years in Europe After his
return he was twice again elected to the Legis-
lature and was for seven years (1846-53) Sec-
letary of State for Louisiana, doing much for
the State library and for local historical stud-
ies He was in favor of secession and advocated
the emancipation and arming of the slaves
But although a prominent iiguic of the public
life of Louisiana, his main bent was literary,
and in the course of his long life he published
many volumes, including some lomances and
dramas He is best known, however, as the
historian of his State He died in New Orleans,
Peb 11, 1895 Among his books we may cite
Histoire de la Louisiane (1847) , Romance of
the Histoty of Louisiana (1848) , Louisiana
Its Colonial History and Romance (1848-52) ,
Louisiana, Its History as a French Colony
(1851), History of the Spanish Domination in
Louisiana (1854), Philip II of Spain (1806)
The complete History of Louisiana appeared, in
1866, in four volumes His romance Fernando
de Lemos gives an interesting picture of old
New Orleans
GAYEB, gi'er, JOHATN KAKL (1822-1907)
A German forester, born at Spcier In 1855 he
was appointed professor of foiestry at Aschaf-
fenburg, whence he was in 18 78 called in the
same capacity to the University of Munich In
his work entitled Der Waldbau, (2 vols , 1878-
S03 3d ed, 1889, 4th ed , 1898), he intioducod
a new method of instruction in forestry, based
upon a stricter adherence to natural laws His
manual of foiestiv, entitled Die Forsfbenutzung
(1863, 10th ed, 1909), is the authority on that
subject in Geimany Other works by the same
author are Wald im Wechsel der Zeiten (1889)
and Der Femelschlagbetneb in Bayern (1895)
GAY HEAD See MARTHA'S VINEYARD
GAYIiEY, CIIABLES MILLS (1858- )
An American author He was born at Shanghai,
China, where his parents were missionaries,
and was educated in England, at the University
of Michigan (1878), and at Giessen and Halle,
Germany At the University of Michigan he
taught Latin from 1880 to 1887 and English
in 1887-89 and then became professor of Eng-
lish in the University of California His pub-
lications, the more important of which deal with
the history and criticism of the English drama,
include Classic Myths in English Literature
(1893) , A 0-uide to the Literature of Esthet-
ics, with F N Scott (1890), Methods and
Materials of Literary Cnticism, with F N
Scott (1899), Representative English Comedies
(5 vols , vol i, 1903, vol 11, 1913), a valuable
collection of texts and notes by various schol-
ars, The Star of Bethlehem (1904) , Songs of
California (ed ) (1905^ Plays of our Fore-
fathers (1907), Idols of Education (1910),
English Poetry Its Principles and Progress,
with C C Young (1911) , Beaumont the Drama-
tist (1914)
GAYLEY, JAMES (1855-1020), An Ameri-
can inventor and corporation official, boin at
Lock Haven, Pa He graduated as a mining
engineer from Lafayette College in 1876 Be-
tween 1877 and 1885 he was chemist succes-
sively of the Crane Iron Works at Catasauqua,
Pa , the Missouri Furnace Company at St
Louis, Mo , and the E & G Brooke Iron Com-
pany at Birdsboro, Pa He then served as
superintendent of the blast furnaces, and later
as manager, of the Edgar Thompson Steel
Works, and finally as managing director of the
Carnegie Steel Company From 1901 to 1909
he was first vice president of tho United States
8teel Corporation, and as such had full charge
of the shipping and transportation Ga/yley in-
GAY-LTJSSAC
527
GAYNOK
wonted a bronze cooling plate foi the \\alls of
blast fumaces, and an auxihaiy casting stand
for Bessemer steel plants, and he was the first
to use the compound1 condensing blowing engines
with the blast fuinace For inventing the dry-
air blast (see IRON AND STEEL), he leceived the
Elliott Cresson medal of the Franklin Institute
of Philadelphia In 1904-05 he was president of
the American Institute of Mining Engineers and
fiom 1905 to 1911 president of the board of
directois
GAY-LUSSAC, galu'sak', JOSEPH Louis
(1778-1850) One of the most distinguished
chemists and physicists of the nineteenth cen-
tmy He was born at Saint-Leonard le Noblat
( Haute- Vienne) In 1794 he was bent to Pans
and was admitted to the Ecole Polyteclmique in
1797 After thiee years5 study Berthollet, who
was then professor of chemistry in the Ecole
Polyteclmique, selected him as his assistant at
Arcueil, where the government chemical works
were situated In 1801 the young chemist pub-
lished his fiist memoir, which treated of the
dilatation of gases with rising tempeiaturc, and
which was speedily followed by others, on the
improvement of thermometers and barometeis,
on vapoi pressures and the determination of
vapor densities, and on capillary action In
association with Biot, he was commissioned by
the Institute of France to employ a balloon for
observations, with the view to ascertaining
whether magnetic force existed at considerable
heights above the surface of the earth or only
on the surface, as had been asserted by some
physicists, and made two important ascents.
Alexander von Humboldt investigated with him
the properties of air brought down from a height
of more than 23,000 feet, and their joint memoir
to the Academy of Sciences (read on Get 1,
1804) contained the first announcement of the
fact that oxygen and hydrogen unite to form
water in the simple proportion of one volume
of the former to two volumes of the lattei The
simplicity of the ratio in which these gases
stood to each other in their combining piopor-
tions induced Gay-Lussac to study the combin-
ing volumes of other gases and thus led him to
the important discovery of the law of volumes,
which was announced in 1808 and is one of the
most general and important laws in the whole
domain of chemistry In 1809 he was made
professot of chemistry at the Ecole Polytech-
nique Davy's discoveries of potassium and
sodium, by the decomposing action of the elec-
tric current, having excited much attention in
France, Napoleon directed Gay-Lussac and
The'nard to pursue this class of researches The
results of their investigations appeared in two
volumes, under the title Recherches pliysico-
chimiques, in 1811 Among the most important
of the discoveries announced in these volumes
were a new chemical process which yielded po-
tassium much more abundantly than the elec-
trolytic method, the isolation of boron, and new
and improved methods of analyzing organic com-
pounds Gay-Lussac was also the first to ob-
tain hydnodic and icdic acids and cyanogen
He, further, investigated the manufacture of
hydrated sulphuric acid, bleaching chlorides, al-
cohols, and alkalies employed in commerce In
1805 he was chosen a member of the Committee
of Arts and Manufactures, established by the
Minister of Commerce In 1818 lie was ap-
pointed to superintend the government manu-
factory of gunpowder and saltpetre, and in 1829
lie received the luciative office of chief assayci
to the mint, where he introduced several im-
poitant improvements In 1831 he became a
inenibei of the Chambei of Deputies, m 1832
piofessor of chemistiy at the Jardm des Plantes,
and in 1839 he was made a peer of France He
never took an active pait in politics and was
diligently engaged in scientific lesearch until
Ins last 'illness From 1816 he was coeditor of
the Lnnales de chimie et de physique, in which
many of his original memoirs were published
He also wrote Cou^ de physique (1827), Legonit
de chimie (2 vols , 1828), and other works
Consult American Journal of Science (New
Haven, 1850), and Biot and Gaideur le Brun
Notices ~biogi aphiques sur Gay-Lustac (Chalons,
1850) See CHEMLSTBY, AVOGADHO'S RULE
GAY'LUSSA'CIA A genus of shrubs of the
family Eucaceae (qv ), named after the French
chemist J L Gay-Lussac The species, of which
about 40 are natives of North and South Amer-
ica, bear alternate senate 01 entile leaves,
laoemea of red, white, or reddish-green floweis,
and black or blue, geneially edible fruits Some
species are deciduous, some evei green The
former, though hardv, aie not maikedly orna-
mental, the latter are neaily all atti active in
both foliage and flower, but little cultivated in
cold countries, on account of their tenderness
Like their close relatives, the species of VCLGGI-
nium, they thrive in peaty or sandy soils and
in partial shade In northeastern United States
four species occur, three of which are called
huckleberries
GAYN'HAM, or GABiNPHAM, DK One of
the most lax of the degraded clergymen who,
while confined as prisoners in the Fleet, per-
formed secret marriages in the eighteenth cen-
tury He claimed in court to have lent himself
to 2000 such marriages
GAY'NOB, WILLIAM JAY (1851-1913) An
American "jurist and public official He was
born at Whilestown, Oneida Co , N Y , was
educated at the Assumption and Whitestown
academies, and studied theology for thiee years
at the Christian Brotheis College, St Louis,
Mo After spending some time in travel and
in teaching school at Boston lie moved to
Brooklyn in 1873 to study law, meanwhile sup-
porting himself as a newspaper reporter Ad-
mitted to the bar in 1875, he moved to Flatbush,
then a suburb of Brooklyn, and there fought the
corrupt politicians, effected the election of a
reform ticket, and was himself for a time po-
lice commissioner of that village Moving to
Brooklyn proper in 1885, he carried on the same
reform work, successfully opposed the attempt
of Hugh McLaughlm to sell to the city for
$1,500,000, a property that he had bought for
$185,000, and compelled the Elevated Railroad
of Brooklyn to pay more than $1,000,000 in back
taxes For frauds committed when he was
elected judge of the Supreme Court of New
York for the term 1893-1907, Gaynor obtained
the conviction of John Y McKane and 16 of
his henchmen, he was reelected judge in 1907
In 1894 he had declined the nomination for
Governor of New York and in 1896 for mayor
of Brooklyn, and he was an unsuccessful candi-
date for the Democratic nomination for mayor
of New York City in 1903 and for tiie same
party's nomination for Governor ,in 1904. With
the support of Tammany Hall he was elected
mayor of New York City in 1909 "by a large
plurality, although the uefffc of the Democratic
GAY SABER
528
GAZA
ticket was badly defeated He quickly put the
city administration on an efficient business basis
and thereby incurred the bitter hostility of the
Tammany politicians On Aug 9, 1910, he was
shot as he was boarding an ocean liner, and,
though he resumed the duties of office, he never
fully recovered from the effects of the wound
In 1913 he was a candidate for reelection on
an independent ticket, but died before election
day, while on a sea voyage He acquired con-
siderable renown through his unusual letters,
which frequently were reported by newspapers
Some of Mayor Gaynor's Letters and Speeches
appeared in New York (1913)
GAY SABEBi, ga sa'bar' A small associa-
tion, or committee, originally known as "the
very gay company of the seven troubadours of
Toulouse," which met first in 1324 at Toulouse
Its object was the restoration of the Provencal
language and customs, and the rules which it
adopted are still in force in the annual floral
games held at Toulouse on May 1.
GAZA, ga'za A city in Syria, the modern
Ghazzeh, 3 miles from the Mediterranean coast
and about 50 miles southwest of Jerusalem
It was once the most important member of the
Philistine Pentapohs and a flourishing centre
of Hellenistic culture and is still an emponum
of trade and a place of considerable size, with
a population of about 35,000 Gaza is mentioned
as Gazatu in a list of places in Palestine cap-
tured by Thothmes III (1501-1447 EC ) It is
refened to in the Amaina correspondence under
the form Khazati In the time of Harneses II
it was still an Egyptian possession But the
Pihsti, or Philistines, seem to have secured the
city when they were repelled in their attack
upon Egypt in the reign of Barneses III Prob-
ably the city was not captured by the tribe of
Judah at the time of the Hebrew invasion, as
stated in Judg i 18, since the editorial gloss
contradicts the context In the narrative of
Samson (qv.)? Gaza figures prominently, and
he is said to have carried away the gates of
this city (Judg xvi 3). The Assyrian in-
scriptions do not mention the city until the
reign of Tiglath-pileser IV (745-728 EC ), when
"Chanun, King of Gaza," resisted his attacks,
was defeated, and fled to Miluhha in 734 BC
In 720 BC this King again offered resistance,
aided by Sibe, King of Muzn Sargon defeated
him at Raphia and carried him and 9000 of his
people away into captivity Gaza seems to have
taken no part in the rebellion of Ashdod in
713-711 B c, or in that of Hezekiah of Judah in
701 BC, and its King Sil Bel was therefore
presented with a. part of Hezekiah's territory
Sil Bel is mentioned as a faithful vassal of
Asurbampal (668-625 BC), and even in the
time of Nabunaid of Babylonia (556-539 BC )
the vassals of Gaza are mentioned During the
Achaememan period the city must have been of
great importance Herodotus (11, 159), who
calls it Kadytis, says that it seemed to him not
inferior to Sardis In 332 B c it was taken by
Alexander only after a siege of two months, the
Persian General Bates, with the aid of Arabian
.mercenaries, offering a stout resistance Gaza
was destroyed in 96 B c by Alexander Jannseus,
the Nabataean King Aretas failing to send aid
The ruined city is referred to in Acts vni 26
and also in a Greek geographer as ep^uos, eremos,
'desert3 The port grew up into a new Gaza,
later called Majuma Gazse, or Constantia. Under
the Roman administration Gaza was rebuilt
and attained to a significance that it had
scarcely possessed before Hellenic culture made
it a rival of Antioch, Alexandria", and Athens
In its temples Greek gods were worshiped,
Greek art flourished among its wealthy citizens,
from its schools went forth famous rhetoncians,
philosophers, and poets Representatives of
Neoplatomsm, such as Pioclus, Olympianus, and
Isidor, taught in Gaza in the fifth and sixth
centuries, the last of them even after the clos-
ing of the school of Athens in 529 Christianity
also found here philosophically educated de-
fenders, such as Procopius, Choricius, and Jo-
hannes But both the native faith, the wor-
ship of the god Marna (our lord), and the
Greek cults continued in Gaza longer than in
any other great Syrian city Omai captured
the city in 634 The Crusaders found it in
ruins In 1149 Baldwin II built a citadel,
which he left to the Templars to defend Saladm
plundered the city in 1170, but could not take
the citadel until 1187 Napoleon took it m
1799 Consult Clermont-Ganneau, Archceologi-
cal Researches m Palestine (London, 1806) ,
Stark, Gaza und die philistaische Kuste (Jena,
1852) , Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy
Land (London, 1895) , Gatt, in Zeitschnft des
deutscJien Palastina Verein-s, vol i (1888),
Martin A Meyer, A History of Gaza (New
York, 1907) , Schuier, G-eschichte des judischen
VoUces (4th ed , Leipzig, 1907).
GAZA, THEODORUS (c 1398-c 1475) A fa-
mous teacher of the Greek language and litera-
ture in the West, the successor of Emmanuel
Chrysoloras He was born in Thessalomca and
came to Italy between the years 1435 and 1440,
apparently from Constantinople The Latin
language he learned under Vittorino da Feltre
at Mantua, he studied it so assiduously that
in three years he was a master of the tongue
Soon after 1441 he was appointed professor of
Greek m the newly established school at Fer-
rara. About 1450 Pope Nicholas V invited him,
along with other learned Greeks, to Home,
vvhere he was appointed to the chair of philos-
ophy At this time he made a Latin translation
of Aristotle's Problemata in mechanics and of
his History of Animals Later he made trans-
lations of many other Greek works After the
death of Pope Nicholas, King Alfonso gave him
an invitation to remove to Naples in 1455, but
the death of this monarch in 1458 necessitated
his return to Rome, where he found a patron
m Cardinal Bessarion, who obtained for him a
small benefice in southern Italy, m Calabna
But the learned Greek longed for Rome, to
which he returned for a time under the Popes
Paul II and Sixtus IV He died in Calabria
about 1475 Gaza has been warmly praised by
subsequent scholars, such as Pohtian, Erasmus,
Sealiger, and Melanchthon His principal writ-
ings are his Introductio Grammatica, Lion IV
(a work on the elements of Greek grammar,
first published by Aldus Manutms at Venice,
1495 AD, and long held in high repute), a
number of epistles to different persons on va-
rious literary subjects, and a, variety of im-
portant translations into Latin — portions of
Aristotle, JUlian, Theophrastus, St Chrysostom,
Hippocrates, and other Greek writers Consult
Hodius, De Qrcecis Illustrious (London, 1742) ,
Voigt, Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alter-
turns, vol 11 (Berlin, 1893) ; Gercke, Theodoros
Gazes (Griefswald, 1903) , Sandys, A History of
Classical Scholarship, vol n (Cambridge, 1908).
GAZELLES AND SMALL ANTELOPES
1. KLIPSPRINGER (Oreotragus saltator).
2. NAKONG (Tragelaphus spekei).
3. COMMON or DORCAS GAZELLE (Gazella dorcas).
4. SPRINGBOK (Antidorcas euchore).
5. GUIB (Tragelaphus scriptus).
6. ISABELLE ANTELOPE (Gazella Isabella).
7. CHOUSINGA (Tetraceros quadricornis).
8. BLACKBUCK (Antilope cervicapra).
GAZALAND
529
GAZETTEER
GAZALA3XTD, ga'za-land A district in
southwestern Poituguese East Africa It
marches with the Transvaal on the west and is
tiaversed by the Limpopo Kiver Gazaland is
fertile and well watered Here are recruited
many negroes foi the Transvaal mines Portu-
gal first got a foothold here in 1830 Three
yeais later all her trading posts weie captured
by the natives In 1860, for aid against a
rival, Portugal received the territory south of
the Manhissa River from Umzila Upon his
death (1884) she got the teintoiy north of
that river as far as the present boundary Upon
the attempt to open up the hmteiland a two-
year border warfare bioke out with the British
South Africa Company (1890-91), which re-
sulted in more firmly establishing Portugal's
claims Upon the death of Gungunyano, in
1906, all serious native opposition ceased, and
to-day (1914) gieat strides are being made in
the development of the interior and exportation
from the seaport towns Consult R C Mau-
gham, Portuguese East Africa (London, 1906)
GAZE (ME gasen, from dialectic Swed gasa,
to stare) A term in heraldry (qv), descrip-
tive of a hart or stag represented affront 6e9 or
looking full faced from the field. Such an ani-
mal is said to be at gaze
GAZELLE, ga-zeT (OF gw&el9 gazelle, Sp.
gassela, fiom Ar gha&al, gazelle, from ghazila, to
be affectionate) A name applied to vaiious
small, slender, and graceful antelopes, with
large, liquid eyes and short horns About 20
species are known in southwestein Asia and
noithern Africa They are distinguished from
each other by the length of the ringed and
usually lyrate horns and by color, but the
differences are often hard to define, and some
zoologists regard as mere varieties what otheis
hold to be perfectly distinct species The best-
known species is the tiue gazelle (Q-asella dor-
cas), which exhibits the typical characteis of
the group in their highest perfection It is of
a light tawny color, the underparts white, a
broad brown band along each flank the hair
short and smooth The face is reddish fawn
color, with white stripes at each side, inclosing
a dark triangular space The horns of the old
males are 9 or 10 inches long, bending outward
and then inward, like the sides of a lyre, also
backward at the base and forward at the tips,
then tapering to a point and showing 13 or 14
permanent rings The horns of the female are
smaller The ears are long, narrow, and pointed,
the eyes very large, soft, and black, there is a
tuft of hair on each "knee", the tail is short,
with black hairs on its upper surface only and
at its tip This gazelle is a native of the north
of Africa, Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia It
was known to the ancients, and is described by
^Elian under the name dorcas, which was also
given to the roe deer. The speed of the gazelle
is such that it cannot be successfully hunted by
any kind of dog, but m some parts of the Bast
it is taken by the assistance of falcons and is
also captured in indosures made near its drink-
ing places Although naturally very wild and
timid, it is easily domesticated, and when taken
young becomes extremely familiar. Tame ga-
zelles are very common in Asiatic countries, and
Oriental poetry abounds in allusions to their
beauty and gentleness
Vanous other species of gazelles should be
mentioned The commonest species of the Sahara
is Loder's (Gaeella loderi) , called "reem" by the
Arabs of Algeria, which lives on berries and
leaves and is said never to drink
Another species of the eastern Sahara high-
lands is the adrni, or mountain gazelle (Gavella
cumen), which often comes down at night in
small bands to feed upon the gram in the
valleys It is twice the weight of the doicas,
and in quickness and facility in eluding observa-
tion it is almost equal to the aoudad The
common gazelle of Arabia is Gazella arabica
Abyssinia and the open country southward have
several species, among them the beautiful Kor-
dof an species ( Gavella isalelhna ) , isabelhne in
coloi, with a reddish instead of the usual black
tail , Grant's ( GaveUa granti } , very numerous
about Kilimanjaro, and having the longest horns
of the genus, the long-necked greenuk (LifKo-
cramus lualleri] , the diminutive Thomson's
gazelle, and others In South Afnca the spring-
bok (Gazella euchore) is widespread and fa-
miliar ( See SPRINGBOK ) West Central Africa
has several local species, of which the swift
gazelle (Gavella mohr] and the korin are per-
haps best known, and the dig-dig and dama
(qv ) are familiar in the Sudan For African
forms consult Lydekker, Game Animals of Africa
(London, 1908)
Of the Asiatic gazelles the Indian chinkara
(Ga&ella bennetto) , known to Anglo-Indian
sportsmen as the "ravine deer," is the most
familiar It inhabits the plains from Central
India to Persia, keeps to the broken country,
and is so exceedingly swift as to furnish excel-
lent sport with gieyhounds or falcons and is also
much hunted with the cheeta ( q v ) It is light
chestnut in general color above, and has long
ringed horns, the buck stands about 26 inches
high at the shoulders Two other species in-
habit the lofty plains of Mongolia and Tibet,
and a thud, the Persian gazelle (Gazella gut-
turosa], is well known from the Caspian Sea to
the Desert of Gobi Blandford's writings on the
zoology of India and Persia contain extensive
accounts of these and other Asiatic forms See
ANTELOPE, and the names of various species , and
Plato of GAZELLES
GAZETTE, ga-zSt' (It gazetta, gazette,
small coin, piobably a dim of Lat ga&a,
Gk yd(a, treasure). A newspaper In 1566 the
Venetian government established an official news
sheet, which was not printed at first, but only
written out and exhibited in public places The
fee for reading it was a small coin called
ga&etta The name was soon applied to the
sheet itself The London Gazette, founded in
1665, is the official organ of the government
It appears twice a week It is recognized in
law as the medium of official and legal docu-
ments Similar gazettes are published in Edin-
burgh and in Dublin The word gazette is now
common as a part of the title of many news-
papeis See NEWSPAPER
GAZ'ETTEEIf A geographical dictionary,
more or less descriptive and statistical The
word is connected with gazetier, gazetteer, a
writer in newspapers, and one of the early
publications of this character (that of Laurence
Echard ) was entitled "The Gazetteer's or News-
man's Interpreter, being a Geographical Index of
all Considerable Cities, PatnarcasJhips, Ports,
etc, in Europe" The oldest-known geographi-
cal dictionary is the sixth-century fragment of
Stephanus Byzantius Some of the best known
of modern gazetteers in ttie English language
are Blackie's Imperial (Glasgow, 1850) ; Alex-
GAZOGENE
530
GffiAKY
ander Keith Johnston's (1850, new ed , 1877),
Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World
( Philadelphia, 1855, new completely icwritten
ed, 1911), Longman's Gazetteer of the Woild
(London, 1906) A monumental encyclopaedia
of umveisal geography is Vivien cle Saint-
Martin's Nouveau dictionnaire de geographic
(Paris, 1879-1900) A very exhaustive gazet-
teer (as far as the number of entries is con-
cerned) is the so-called Hitter's Geogtaphisck-
statisches Lecoilon (Leipzig, 1874, 9th ed , 1905
et seq ) On a smallei scale is the Dizionutio
geografico unwersale of G Garollo (Milan,
1898), a work lemarkable for its accuracy As
a type of special gazetteer on a magnificent
scale, may be mentioned Hunter's Imperial
Gazetteer of India (London, 1881, new ed ,
1886-88) Theie are special gazetteers of the
individual States of the American Union
GAZ'OGEWE A gas generator used in
Jessie du Motay process for making illuminat-
ing gas (See GAS ) Also apparatus for gen-
erating carbon dioxide in process of making
carbonated waters See AERATED WATERS
GE/ANyTICLINE A broad gentle arch or
dome in the outer portion of the earth, on the
sides of which the strata dip or are inclined in
opposite directions The structure is like that
of an anticline (qv ), but of larger compass
One of the best illustrations is found in the
Cincinnati geanticline which extends from
southern Ohio- to Tennessee and which dates fiom
Paleozoic times
GKEAK BOX, IN MOTOR VEIIICLE See MOTOE
VEHICLE
GKEAE/ING (from gear, AS gear we, from
gearu, ready, Eng yare] A term applied to
the parts of machinery by which motion in one
part of a machine is communicated to another,
gearing consists in general of toothed wheels,
friction wheels, endless bands, screws, etc , or of
a combination of these When the communica-
tion between the two parts of the machine is
interrupted, the machine is said to be out of
gear; and when the communication is restored,
it is said to be in gear. Gearing lias also for
its object the transmission of motion or of
power, or both, and is usually designed to permit
the arrest or disengaging of the source of power
or motion, and also to provide for the increasing
or diminishing of the original velocity, and in
reference to this is distinguished by the term
"multiplying" or "retarding " See GEAR WHEEL
GEAR WHEEL. A toothed wheel used to
transmit motion and power from one part of a
TYPICAL GEARWHEELS
1, spur gear, 2, worm wheel and gear, 3, internal gear,
4, spur gear, 5, bevel gear, 6, V-shaped or herring-bone
gear, 7, bevel gear
machine to another Gear wheels are of great
variety of forms, the most common being spur
wheels, in which the teeth are parallel TJO the
axis of the wheel, bevel wheels, in which the
teeth are cut radially in the face of a cone,
woim wheels, in winch the teeth aie cut heh-
coidally A familial example of spur geaiing
is in the woiks of J watch, and the oidmary
chamless bic}cle aflords a simple example of
bevel gears Foims of geai wheels and their
theoretical design are found in treatises on ma-
chine design Consult Kent, Mechanical Engi-
neer's Poclet BooL (8th ed , Now York, 1910) ,
Heule<iu\, The Constructor ( Philadelphia, 1893) ,
Frost, Essential Data of Bevel Gearing (Jackson,
Mich, 1905) , Beale, Practical Treatise on Gear-
ing (10th ed, Providence, 1911) See ENDLESS
SCREW
G-EABY, ga'ri or ge'ri, JOHN WHITE (1819-
73). An American soldier and politician He
was bom of Scottish-Irish parentage m West-
moi eland Co , Pa , was educated at Jefferson
College, but left before graduating, taught
school, and then became a clerk in Pittsburgh,
at the same time studying both civil engineering
and law He then engaged for some time in
civil engineering in Kentucky and on the out-
break of the Mexican War was superintendent
of the Allegheny Portage Railway This posi-
tion he lesigned and helped recruit the Second
Pennsylvania Volunteer Regiment, in which he
became lieutenant colonel and served throughout
the war After the capture of the city of
Mexico he was promoted to the rank of colonel
and was placed in command of the city After
peace was declared he settled in San Francisco,
where in 1849 he became the first Amencan
postmaster, with authority to organize post
offices and mail routes on the coast, and the first
American alcalde of San Francisco and judge of
first instance for the district In 1850, upon the
adoption of an American system of municipal
government for the city, he was chosen its first
mayor He worked for the California Free- State
constitution, and was a prominent member of the
convention which drew it up After serving a
year as the head of the Democratic State Com-
mittee he returned in 1852 to Pennsylvania
In 1856 he was appointed by President Pierce
Territorial Governor of Kansas, succeeding Shan-
non, whose vacillation had aroused the hostility
of both the Free-State and Pioslavery factions
Geary's rule was impartial and firm, and in a
few months he restored order The Pieice ad-
ministiation did not support him satisfactorily,
and the predominance of Proslavery men in the
councils of both Pierce and Buchanan appeared
to Geary to render all that he had accomplished
of only temporary effect, and, disgusted with
the conduct of affairs, he resigned on the day of
Buchanan^ inauguration At the beginning of
the Civil War, Geary raised the Twenty-eighth
Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, of which he
became colonel, served with distinction in the
Army of the Potomac, and was promoted briga-
dier general in April, 1882 He had his left arm
shattered at the battle of Cedar Mountain in
the following August and commanded the Second
Division of the Twelfth Army Corps at Chan-
cellorsville and Gettysburg Transferred to the
Army of the Cumberland, he distinguished him-
self at the battles of Wauhatchie and Lookout
Mountain, and in 1863-64 commanded a division
on Sherman's march to the sea, failed in an
attack on the strongly intrenched Confederates
at Dug Gap (May 8, 1864), and was military
governor of Savannah after its capture In
1365 he received the brevet rank " of major
GEBA
531
6KEBHABDT
general He was elected Governor of Pennsyl-
vania by the National Union party in 1866 and
was reelected in 1869, serving until within 18
days of his death
GEBA, zha'ba. A short river m Portuguese
Guinea, West Africa, flowing in a southwestern
direction through the colony and entering the
Atlantic by a wide estuary At its mouth is
situated the small town of Geba
G-EBAL, ge'bal See BYBLOS
GKEBANGr (gS-bang') PALM (native name),
Coiypha gebang A fan-leaved palm, native of
the East Indies, where it is one of the most use-
ful plants The trunks of this palm become CO
to 80 feet high and 2 feet in diameter, with
leaves 8 to 10 feet in diameter Its stem yields
a kind of sago, its root is medicinal, being both
emollient and slightly astringent, so as to be
paiticularly adapted to many cases of dzaiihoea,
its leaves are used for thatch, for making broad-
brimmed hats, and for various other economic
purposes, its young leaves aie plaited into
baskets and bags, in the manufacture of which
many of the people of Java find employment,
the fibres of its leafstalks are made into mats,
ropes, baskets, nets, cloth, etc To the genus
Corypha belongs also the talipot palm (q v )
GEBATTEH, g3/bou-er, JAN (1838-1907) A
Czech philologist, born at Ubislavicz, Bohemia,
and educated at the University of Prague, where
he was appointed instructor in literature and
was elected to the professorship of Slavic
philology in 1874 He published a number of
translations from the Russian, Bulgarian, and
Sanskrit, but is best known for his studies and
researches into the ancient Czech language and
literature such as the Novd rada of Simil Fla&ka
(1876), Zaltdr Witteribersky (1880), and, above
all, by his epoch-making Historical Czechic
Grammar (1894-98) and an Old-Czechic dic-
tionary (1901-03, incomplete) After 1874 he
was associate editor of the Listy Filologiclte
His love of truth, which led him to demonstrate
the spurious character of the famous Czech
Koniginhof and Grunberg manuscripts, caused
him many enemies among the patriotic but
misguided Czechs.
GEBELIN? ANTOINE COURT DB See COURT,
ANTOIKB
GEBEB, ga'ber. The name assigned to the
author of a vast number of Arabic works on
alchemy, astrology, and magic, as well as some
of genuine scientific value Who Geber was is
uncertain, and some Arabic scholars have even
denied his existence His full name may have
been Abu Musa (or Abdallah) Jabir ibn Hajjan
al-Sufi, and it is said he lived in the eighth or
ninth century He appears to have resided for
some time at Cufa, and according to some Cufa
was his birthplace, others say Damascus, and
still others favor Harran in Mesopotamia or
Tarsus in Cilicia About 26 works attributed
to Geber are known by title, the manuscripts of
many being in the libraries of Leyden, Paris, and
elsewhere There are Latin translations of some
of them, G-eben PMosophi, de Alckimw Libri
Tres (1531) and Cj-eben Arabis CHimia &ive
Tradbtio Summw Perfe^oms et Investigate
Uagisterw (1668), An English translation of
the latter, and of other treatises, by Russell,
appeared in 1678 So great was Geber's fame
that for many centuries his experiments were
repeated by European chemists Roger Bacon,
called him Magi&ter Magwtrorum Consult
Berthelot, La chimie m, moym age, vol. m
(Pans, 1893), and Wustenfeld, Geschichte der
arafoschen Aerzte (Gottmgen, 1840)
GKEB'HAUD, HEUNRICII (1878- ) An
American pianist He was born in Germany,
but came to America as a boy of 10 In Bos-
ton he studied piano and composition with Clay-
ton Johns and then went to Vienna, where he
remained four years under Leschetizky Im-
mediately after his debut at Boston he was
accorded a place among the foremost American
pianists He is especially fine as an ensemble
player Besides a number of pieces for piano,
he wrote a string quartet and a sonata for
violin and piano
GKEBHARDT, gep^art, EDUABD VON (1838-
1925). A German historical painter He was
boin at St Johannes, Esthoma, the son of a
Protestant clergyman, and studied flist at the
Academy of St Petersburg (1855-58) and at the
School of Ait in Karlsruhe for the next two
years, part of which he spent in traveling
He finally became in 1860 the pupil of Wil-
hclm Sohn at Dusseldorf, where he permanently
settled, and became piofessor tit the academy
in 1873 His woiks maik a new departure in
the pictorial treatment of religious sub3ects in
Germany, of which he is the foremost modern
representative Although a thorough zealist in
the modern sense, he nevertheless adopted in his
religious subjects the costumes of the age of
Luther and Durer The chief characteristic of
his paintings is their deep and powerful yet
varied expression c*f religious feeling The more
important among the many biblical scenes he
painted are "Christ on the Cross" ( 1866, Reval) ,
"The Last Supper" (1870, National Gallery, Ber-
lin), one of his finest creations, masterly in
characterization of the life-sized figures, "Cruci-
fixion" (1873, Hamburg Gallery), with a strong
leaning towards the Old Flemish school, "As-
cension of Christ'5 (1881, National Gallery, Ber-
lin), another masterpiece, life size, of more ideal
conception, "Taking Care of Chnst's Body"
(1883) and "Jacob and the Angel" (1893), both
in Dresden Gallery, "Christ and the Rich Youth"
(1892) and "Sermon on the Mount" (1893), both
in Dusseldorf Gallery, "Healing of the Palsied"
(1895, Breslau Museum) , and "Christ upon the
Waters" (1902) Of episodes from the Refor-
mation one is "The Reformer at Work" (1877,
Leipzig Museum) To some Pre-Raphaelite im-
pressions received on a visit to Italy in 1882, a
cycle of six mural paintings, "Scenes from the
Life of Christ" (completed 1891), in the former
Cistercian monastery at Lokkum, bear witness,
as do also the fine mural paintings of similar
subjects in the Friedenskirche, Dusseldorf He
also painted many excellent portraits, and was
awarded gold medals at Berlin, Dresden, Munich,
Vienna, and Paris, and was elected a member of
the academies of Antwerp, Berlin, Brussels, Mu-
nich, and Vienna Consult the monographs by
Rosenberg (Leipzig, 1899) and Schaarschmidt
(Munich, 1899)
GEBHARDT, ggp'hart, OSKAE LEOPOLD TOtf
(1844-1906) A German Lutheran theologian,
born at Wesenberg in Esthoma In 1603 fee he-
came chief librarian and professor of paleogra-
phy in the University of Leipzig He published
Theile's Novum Testamentum Gfateoe (W$~
1900) and Das Nem Testament grfaofowjk and
deutsch (4th ed , 1896) , edited 5WW Mkwatures
of the Ashlurnham Pentateuch (1883) ; with
Harnack, Teocte und Untwwcto&*0eto #ur Oe-
sehwhte der altchrvstlwhen < fatttwatur (1882-
GEBHABT
532
GECKO
1905), a serial devoted to New Testament and
patristic criticism, and, with Harnack and
Zahn, an edition of the apostolic fathers (1875-
78)
GEBHABT, ga'bar', EMILB (1 839-1908) A
French writer, born at Nancy and educated at
the Lycee of Nancy and the French School m
Athens. In 1860 he became professor of foreign
literatures at Nancy and in 1879 professor of
Romance literatures in the faculty of philosophy
at Paris His works, aside from eailier ones
dealing with the poetry and art of classic an-
tiquity, include Les Mstonens fiorent^ns de la
Renaissance (1875), Rabelais, la renaissance et
la r$forme (1876) , Les engines de la Renais-
sance en Italie ( 1879) , L'ltahe mystique (1890) ,
Movnes et papes (1896, 4th ed , 1907) , Au son
des cloches (1898) , D'Ulysse a Pamirge (1902) ,
Jules II (1904) , Florence (1906) , Sandra Bot-
t^ceU^ (1907). In 1904 he was elected to the
Academy
GKEBIRS, ga'berz See GHEBKBS
tfEBLEB,, gaoler, OTTO (1838- ). A
German animal painter, born in Dresden He
was a pupil at the academy there and afterward
studied in Munich under Piloty He is an ani-
mal painter almost exclusively There is often
an element of humor in his careful, finely col-
ored works, the best of which are "Obstinate
Sheep", "Disturbed Domestic Peace" (1863),
"Art Critics m the Stable" (1873), National
Gallery, Berlin, "Sheep and Spaniel" (1878),
"Two Poachers" (1880), Dresden Gallery, "Rey-
nard's End" (1883), New Pinakothek, Munich,
"One of the Seven Sleepeis," Dresden Gallery
GKEBLER, TOBIAS PHILIPP, BABON (1726-86)
An Austrian statesman and dramatist, born at
Zeulenroda, Saxony, and educated at Jena, Halle,
and Gottingen. After travels abroad he was
(in 1748) appointed Secretary of Legation of
the Netherlands at Berlin Five years later he
entered the Austrian service, in which he found
rapid promotion, rising to the rank of Vice Chan-
cellar of the Court m 1782. He was a liberal
statesman and aided in the reforms attempted
by Joseph II He also tried to reform the stage
and himself wrote some plays, now forgotten
His Theatrahsche Werke were published in three
volumes in 1772-73 His diama Der Minister
(1771) was very popular m its day.
GEBWEIItEE? gap'vl-ler (OHG. Qelunwi-
lare). A town and industrial centre in Upper
Alsace, Germany, situated on the Lauch, at the
mouth of the Blumenthal, about 17 miles south-
southwest of Colmar (Map Germany, B 5).
It has a splendid twelfth-century church in the
Transition style and a fourteenth-century Do-
minican church, now used as a market and con-
cert hall Among its products are machinery,
silk, cloth, cotton and woolen goods, wooden
articles, sugar, soap, and brick, and especially
white wines of a superior grade Gebweiler is
mentioned as early as 774 Pop, 1900, 13,254;
1910, 13,024, mostly Koman Catholics Consult
Dietwiler, G-ebweiler Chromk (Gebweiler, 1898)
GECKO, ggk'6. A lizard of the family Geck-
onidae, which naturalists have divided into many
genera. The geckos are of small size and gener-
ally of repulsive aspect, the colors of most of
them are dull, and the small granular scales
with, which they are covered are in general min-
gled with tubercles The legs are short, the
gait usually slow, measured, and stealthy, al-
though geckos can also run very nimbly when
danger presses, .and often disappear suddenly
when they seem almost to be struck or caught
The feet are remaikable, being adapted foi ad-
hering to smooth surfaces, so that geckos not
only readily climb trees or walls, but creep in-
verted on ceilings or hang on the lower side of
large leaves The body and tail are never
crested, but are sometimes fuimshed with lateral
STEUCTURE OF A GECKO'S FOOT
a, the whole foot, from above, &, underside of a toe, with
its clinging ridges, c, diagram of a section through a toe,
showing the ndges in section, d, a few ridges, in section,
magnified, showing their bristles, e, f, bristle cells, much
enlarged (After Semper )
membranes, variously festooned or fnnged; and
sometimes so large as to be of use to ai boreal
species in enabling them to take long leaps from
branch to bianch Such is the case with the
flying or fringed gecko (Ptychozoon homaloceph-
alum) of the Malayan region The geckos feed
chiefly on insects They are quairelsome and
will sometimes devour then eggs or young and
even their own tails and exuviated skins They
aie natives of waim climates, are very widely
distributed over the world, and are more or less
nocturnal in their habits Two species are found
in the south of Europe, both of which fiequently
enter houses, as do the geckos ol Egypt, India,
Ceylon (the "chucha"), and other warm coun-
tries Only one gecko ( Splicer odactylus notatus)
dwells in the United States, although three or
four kinds are found in Lower California and
Mexico It is scarcely 2 inches in length and is
sparingly found in Florida and Cuba
The name "gecko" is derived from a peculiar
cry often uttered by some of the species, which
in some of them resembles syllables distinctly
pronounced, while others are described as en-
livening the night in tropical forests by a harsh
cackle, such as that which gives the "croaking
lizard" (Theocodactylus lewis] , so abundant in
Jamaica, its lugubrious name The geckos have,
in almost all parts of the world where they are
found, a bad reputation as venomous and as im-
GED
533
GEDDES
parting injurious qualities to food which they
touch, but there is no good evidence in support
of any such opinion They lay a few eggs in
some warm hollow of a stump, or similar place,
and pay little attention to them 01 to the young
In cool countries they hibernate Consult Ga-
dow, Amphibia and Reptiles (London, 1901),
and Gosse, A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica
(ib, 1851) See LIZARD
GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749). The inventor
of stereotyping He was born m Edinburgh,
where he was employed for some years as a gold-
smith and jeweler In 1725 he took out a patent
for making stereotyped plates from pages of
type He met with active opposition fiom both
compositors and type founders lie was ruined
financially by a man named Fenner, with whom
he entered into partneiship in London He pro-
cured, in 1731, a contract for punting Bibles
and prayer books by his process fiom Cambridge
University, but had turned out only two prayei
books when his failure compelled his leturn to
Edinburgh and the surrender of the contiact
In Edmbuigh he printed, in 1744, an edition
of Sallust irom stereotyped plates, but he was
never able to carry his ideas out successfully and
died in poverty His sons continued the use of
his patent, and it was eventually perfected by
Andrew Wilson
GEDA3STITM See DANZIG
GEDDES, ged'es, ALEXANDER (1737-1802)
A biblical critic, translator, and miscellaneous
writer He was born in Scotland in 1737, of
Koman Catholic parents, and educated for a
priest in his native country and in Paris, where
he acquned an excellent knowledge of languages
In 1764 he returned to Scotland and for 15
years held various positions as priest and be-
came distinguished by his charities, his liberal-
ity of sentiment, and decided literary ability
In 1779, in consequence of difficulties with his
Bishop, he left his church, and the next year
was dismissed on chaigcs of having attended
Protestant worship and gone hunting He went
to London and devoted himself to literature, al-
though he still occasionally officiated as priest
till 1782 With the support of Lord Petre he
was able to carry out a work long planned, viz ,
a translation of the Bible into English for the
use of Roman Catholics After various prelimi-
nary publications to pave the way, the first vol-
ume appeared in 1792 under the title, The Holy
Bible, or the Books Accounted Sacred ly Jews
and Christians, otherwise called the Books of the
Old and New Covenants, faithfully translated
from the Corrected Tewt of the Original, with
Various Readings, E&planatory Notes, and Crit-
ical Remarks In 1797 the second volume was
published, carrying the translation as far as the
end of the historical books, and m 1800 a third
volume was issued, containing his Critical Re-
marks on the Hebrew Scriptures The opinions
enunciated in these volumes, especially in the
last, were, for their time, startlmgly heretical
and approximated to some of the results of mod-
ern criticism As a result, Protestants and Ro-
man Catholics united in their condemnation, al-
though the translation was in the mam excellent,
and many of the remarks of value In 1792 his
translation was interdicted by the Roman Catho-
lic authorities m London Gj-eddes died in Lon-
don, Feb. 26, 1802, and mass was prohibited
over his remains, though he had always held his
loyalty to the Catholic church For his life,
consult Good (London, 1803).
GEDDES, ASTDBEW (1783-1844). A Scottish
portrait and historical painter, born in Edin-
burgh He was a pupil of the Boyal Academy,
traveled much abroad, and frequently resided m
Edinburgh, but finally established himself in
London in 1831 He painted some genre and his-
torical pictuies, such as "The Ascension/3 in
the chuich of St James, Garlick Hill, London,
"Discoveiy of the Scottish Regalia" (1821),
"Christ and the Woman of Samaria," but was
chiefly succebsful as a portrait painter His
portraits are caiefully and charmingly conceived,
rich in color, and of searching characterization,
but aic often incorieet in line Among the best
are those of William Anderson, "The Artist's
Mother", Miss Charlotte Nasmyth as "Sum-
mer", "Dull Reading" — a portrait of Daniel
Terry and his wife — the last three in the Na-
tional Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh His copies
of the old masters are highly prized Geddes
was a brilliant and spirited etcher and left
about 40 plates, mostly portraits
GEDDES, SIB E C First Lord of the British
Admiralty. For his biography see VOL XXIV
GEDDES, JAMBS (1763-1838). An American
engineer lie was bom near Carlisle, Pa , but
removed, in 1794, to Onondaga Co , N Y , \\here
he engaged in the salt business He was one of
the eaihest and most active advocates of the
Erie Canal and made the fiist surveys of the
route in 1808 After serving as a member of
the State Legislature and as a county judge, he
was a Hepi esentative m Congress from 1813 to
1815 In 1816 he became supervising engineer
of the Erie Canal and in the following year chief
engineer in the construction of the Champlam
Canal His success in these undertakings gave
him the reputation of being the foremost canal
engmeei in the country, and his services were
much in demand In 1827 he suiveyed and laid
out the line of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal
and in 1828 was made chief engineer of the
State canals in Pennsylvania
GEDDES, JAMES LQKKAINE (1827-87) An
American soldier, bom in Edinburgh, Scotland
When 10 years old, he went to Canada with his
family In 1843 he revisited Scotland, whence
he went to India, studied at the British Military
Academy, Calcutta, entered the army, and won
distinction in the Punjab campaign, after which
he returned to Canada In 1857 he emigrated to
Vmton, Iowa He fought m the Civil War from
1861 to 1865, distinguished himself at Shiloh,
Vicksburg, Corinth, and Mobile, and in 1865 was
brevetted brigadier general of volunteers After
the war he was principal of the College for the
Blind at Vmton, and after 1870 he held different
posvs in the Iowa College of Agriculture in
Ames He wrote some famous war songs, "The
Soldier's Battle Prayer" and "The Stars and
Stripes" being best known
GEDDES, JENNY Popularly supposed to
have been the name of a woman who inaugurated
a not in St Giles's Chuich, Edinburgh, on
Sunday, July 23, 1637 When the dean of
burgh began to read from a service book
pared by Archbishop Laud and highly obnoxious
to the Scottish Presbyterians, some old woman
in the congregation cried out indignantly and
threw her stool at the dean's head. A great tu-
mult ensued, which proved the deathblow of ibb-e
liturgy in Scotland Who the woman really
was is unceitain It has been clawed that she
was the wife of one John Mein, and others say
}ier name was Hamilton Consult Proceedings
GEDDES
534
GEBFS
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol
111 (Edinburgh, 1852)
GEDDES, PATRICK (1854- ) A Scot-
tish biologist and educator, "born in Peith He
was educated at University College (London),
at Edinburgh and in France, and was appointed
demonstrator of physiology at University Col-
lege, London, of zoology at Aberdeen, of botany
at Edinburgh, lecturer on natural history at
the Edinburgh School of Medicine, and professor
of botany at University College, Dundee Per-
haps his most impoitant work was in connection
with his University Halls project at Edin-
burgh and Chelsea, each as a beginning of col-
legiate life He showed great mteiest in munici-
pal art and education and also became director
of a printing establishment interested chiefly in
the publication of works of Celtic literature
His publications include The Evolution of Sex
(1880), with J Arthur Thompson, Chapters w
Modern Botany (1893) , A. Study in City Devel-
opment (1904) , The Masque of Ancient Learn-
ing and its Many Meanings (1913) In an arti-
cle entitled "The World's First Sociological
Laboratory" (Am&ncan Jouinal of Sociology,
1899), Professor Zeublin gives a ve~y instructive
account of Professor Geddes's educational ex-
periments in Edinburgh
GED'BIE, JOHN (1821- '94) A Canadian
missionary He was born in Banff, Scotland,
but in infancy was brought to Nova Scotia
He was ordamed to the Presbyterian ministry
in 1838, he founded the foieign-mission scheme
of the Piesbytenan church in No\a Scotia, and
was the first missionary (1846) in the islands
of the New Hebrides and the first to translate
and to print schoolbooks, hymns, and, later,
the whole of the New Testament in the lan-
guage of the natives In the last-named work
he WELS assisted by Rev. John Inghs Portions
of the Old Testament were also translated Dur-
ing 1850-61 he wrote letters to Nova Scotia
periodicals describing the islands, their inhabit-
ants, and his missionary labors, which were
recognized by his own and other churches as
eminently successful He published several
pamphlets and seimons, including Memorial
to the Presbyterian Synod, Nova Scotia (1844) ,
The Proposed Mission to New Caledonia (1846) ,
The Universal Diffusion of the Everlasting Gos-
pel (1846)
GE'DEJT, ALFRED SHENINGTON (1857- )
An English Methodist theologian, born at Dids-
bury, Manchester, and educated at the Man-
chester Grammar School and at Magdalen Col-
lege, Oxford He taught theology at London
University His publications include Hebrew
Esc&rcises to Accompany the Hebrew Chrammar
of Qesenws-Kautzsoh , Concordance to the Greek
Testament, with W F Moulton (1897, 3d ed,
1913) } Introduction to the Hebrew Bible
(1909) , Studies in Comparative Religion
(1898) , Studies in Eastern Religions (1900)
He also translated P Deussen's Philosophy of
the Upanishads (1906)
GEDEW, JOHN DETJBY (1822-86) . An English
Wesleyan minister, born at Hastings, England
He was educated at the Kingswood School, and
at Richmond College in Surrey He held charges
at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1851 and at Durham
in 1852 and then spent three years on the Ox-
ford circuit at Manchester In 1856 he succeeded
Jonathan Crowther in the chair of sacred and
classical languages at the Didsbury Theological
Cbllege and soon afteiward became coeditor of
the London Quarterly Review He traveled in
Egypt and in the Holy Land m 1863 In 1870
he became a member of the Old Testament Re-
vision Company He published The Doctrine of
a Future Life as Contained in the Old Testa-
ment Swiptures (1874) and Didsbunj Seimons
(1878)
GKEDIKE, ga'di-ke, FBIEDBIOH (1754-1803)
A German educator, born at Bobeiow, Branden-
burg He studied theology at Fiankfort on-the
Oder and was successively director of the
Werdersehe Gymnasium (1779-91) and of the
Kollnische Gymnasium, Berlin (1793-1803),
which institutions gieatly impioved under his
administration He greatly promoted the ad-
vancement of education throughout Prussia
His ^oiks include Schuhchriftcn (1789-95) ,
Vermtschte Sohnften (1801), Gescliichte des
Fi ied) ich-Wei derschen Gymnasiums, a cente-
nary publication (1781) Consult Horn, ffi.
GediLe (Berlin, 1808)
GEDIMIJST, ga-de'min, or GEBYMIN" ( ?-
1342) Grand Prince of Lithuania He fought
against the Teutonic Knights and the Russians
and conquered a large portion of Russia, includ-
ing Kiev He was killed in an assault upon
a castle of the Teutonic Knights The city
of Vilna was made his capital about 1323
He tolerated Christianity, though he was a
pagan
GrEDOW, ga'don, LOEENZ (1843-83) A Ger-
man architect, sculptor, and decorator He was
born in Munich, wheie he studied sculpture and
applied ait and in 1872 made his mark with the
erection of the Palais Schack Equally at home
m the baroque and rococo styles, he thus gave
a powerful impulse to native German art and
effected a complete reform in the province of
artistic crafts After applying decorative tal-
ent to the architectural arrangement and decora-
tion of the buildings for the various industrial
exhibitions in Munich in 1876, 1879, 1882, and
18833 he undertook the adornment of the German
art room at the Paris Exposition of 1878, which
led to a complete reform in decorating picture
galleries His principal structuie is the Heyls-
hof, in baioque style, at Worms, besides which
he executed much admirable woik of a decora-
tive nature in the gorgeous castles of King Lud-
wig II, in the town hall; and in private palaces
in Munich
GEE, ge, THOMAS (1815-98) A Welsh
Methodist preacher, "born at Denbigh, Wales
Becoming a printer, be published the quarterly
magazine 7 Traethodyddj the encyclopaedia,
G-wyddomadur Cymreig , and Dr Silvan Evans's
English Welsh Dictionary (1868) In 1847 he
was ordained a Calvmistic Methodist minister
and thereafter was active in temperance and Sun*
day-school work In 1857 he founded the news-
paper Baner Cymru, which was united with the
Tr Amserau in 1859 He promoted undenomi-
national schools and church disestablishment
GEEFS, gafs A family of Belgian sculptors
— GUILLATJME GEEFS (1806-83) was born at Ant-
werp, Sept 10, 1806, the son of a baker He
studied at the Academy in Antwerp and in
1828 won the grand medal and a stipend, which
enabled him to study in the atelier of the elder
Ramey in Paris Returning to Belgium, he
was appointed professor at the Antwerp Acad-
emy in 1834 Geefs was an Eclectic, whose art
marks the transition from the Classical ideal
to the Realistic His monument:^ statues, and
busts show versatility and a spirited, facile, but
GOEEL
535
GEESTEMttKDE
vupeificial execution He modeled the monu-
ment of Geneial Beelhaid and in 1833 the tomb
of the Count Fiedenc de Meiode, now in the
cathedral of Brussels — the most btiikmt» of his
\\orks He designed also the monument to the
victims of the revolution of 1830, in the Place
des Martyrs in Brussels, and the Rubens monu-
ment 111 Antwerp In the Pans Exposition
o± 1855 he exhibited a colossal maible statue
of King Leopold I of Belgium and the ^Amoi-
ous Lion" (Biussels Mubeum) Ceefs was chev-
ahei of the Legion of Honor in Fiance and
held many Belgian ordeib He died Jan 24,
1883 His wife, FANNY ISABELLE MAKIE, nee
Corr (1814-83), was veiy successful as a painter
of genie subjects — JOSEPHS GEEFS (1808-85),
biothei of Guillaume, was born in Antwerp, was
educated there and in Pans and Koine and was
appointed professor in the Academy at Ant-
weip in 1841 His principal woiks include the
statue of the anatomist Vesalms in Brussels
(1848), the equestrian statue of King Leopold I
in Antwerp in 1868, the statue of Van liogen-
doip in Rotterdam, 1860, and the sculpture of
the front of the Flemish theatre in Antwerp,
1872— ALOYS GEEFS (1817-41), a younger
brother, was also a sculptor, but of less impor-
tance Consult Bartholeyns, Q-wllaume G-eefs, sa
me ct ses centres (Brussels, 1900), and Le-
monnier, Histoire des beau® w ts en Belgique
(ib, 1887).
GEE!;, Gal, JAKOB (1789-1862) A distin-
guished Dutch scholar, born at Amsterdam, and
educated at the Athenaeum of that city, princi-
pally under Van Lennep After living at The
Hague fiom the year 1811 as a family tutor, he
became second librarian at Leyden in 1823 and
m 1833 head hbiaiian and honorary professor
Meanwhile he had made himself known by edi-
tions of Theocritus, with the Scholia (1820), of
the Anecdota Hemsteihusiana (1826), of the
ftchoha m JSuetomum of Ruhnken (1828), of the
Esccerpka Vatican a of Polybms (1829) , and his
fftstona Gritica Sophistarum Qrcecorum (1823)
had called forth several treatises on the same
subject from German philologists In 1840 ap-
peared his edition of the Qlympicus of Dio Chrys-
ostom, accompanied by a Commentarius de Re-
hquis Dioms Of attonibus } and in 1846 lie issued
the Phoemssce of Euripides, with a commentary,
111 opposition to Hermann. All these works,
which are written in pure and pleasing Latin,
are models of thorough scholarship as well as
of taste and method Geel contributed further
to the revival of classical learning in the
Netherlands by the establishment, along with
Bake, Peerlkamp, and Hamaker, of the Bibho-
tKeca Cntica Nova in 1825 The national litera-
ture is also indebted to him, not only for the
translation of German and English works into
Dutch, but also for original treatises on va-
rious iEsthetical subjects He won, moreover,
the gratitude of the learned throughout Europe
by his liberality as a librarian and especially by
his Oatalogus Codicum Manuscript orum, qui
mde ob Anno 1741 BiUiothecce Lugdwm Bata-
vorum Accesserunt (1852)
G-EELBEC, gaKbek (Dutch, yellow beak).
The Dutch local name in Cape Colony, South
Afuca, for the commonest wild duck (Anas
flavirostns)
GEELONQ-, je'lCng7 A city of Grant Co,
Victoria, Australia, picturesquely situated on
tlie south, side of Cono Bay, 45 miles southwest
of Melbourne (Map: Victoria, D 6) The
discoveiy of gold fields in the neighborhood in
1851 added to the pio&penty of the city, which
had become noted foi its wool trade, the first
mill being elected here The vaiioub industries
include manufactuies of tweeds, cloth, leather,
Hour, cement, paper, and rope, also meat pie-
soiving and fishing Since 1905, when the city
voted $2,000,000 foi haiboi and dock improve-
ments, a laige export and biokerage tiade m
^ool ha^ bpiung up Ships of 2.3 feet draft
can load at the whaives, which have full i ail-
way connection The town has a produce ex-
change, a mechanic^ institute, botanical gar-
dens, a public park, a college, and a public li-
biary The district is exceedingly fertile
Limebtone, coal, and marble are found in the
neighboihood Pop, 1001, 12,399, 1911, 13,618
Including suburbs, 27,000
GEELV13STK (gal'vink) BAY. An inlet of
the Pacific Ocean, on the noith coast of Dutch
New Guinea (Map East Indies, J 6) It pene-
tiates 300 miles inland, nedily across the piov-
ince, and receives a numbei of nveis
CrEER AF EINSPAHG, ydr av fm'spang,
Louis GERHARD, BAKON DE (lSlS-%) A Swed-
ish statesman and authoi, bom .it Fmspa.ug
Pie was president of one of the supicme com Is
in 1855 and Minister of Justice iiom 18.18 to
1870 and again In 1875 In 1876-80 he was
President of the Ministry and then was chan-
cellor of the universities of Sweden until 1888
He introduced numerous legislative reforms
bearing on religion, the penal code, maritime
and military laws, and copyright, and, above
all, the organization of the chief legislative de-
partments of the government, and the intro-
duction of the two chambers with popular
lepresentation (1866) Besides several short
stones and essays on aesthetics, he wrote sketches
of Jarta (1874), Von Hopken (1881), and Von
Platen (1886), and his own memoirs, Minnen
(1892)
GEEKTZ, garts, JULIUS (1837-1902). A
Geiman genre and poi trait painter, born in
Hamburg, where he first studied under the
brothers Genslei At the School of Arts in
Karlsruhe, fiom 1856 to I860, he was a pupil
of Dcscoudres, then m Dusseldorf of Jordan
In 1864 he went to Paris to study the old mas-
ters and after visiting Brittany and Holland
settled at Dusseldorf, where his genre scenes,
serious and humorous, especially those from
child life, met with great favor. Besides "The
Criminal after the Sentence" (1873), which
made his reputation, there may be mentioned
"Sour and Sweet" (Boyal Chateau of Babels-
berg) , "Invested" and "Capitulated," two meriy
juvenile scenes, "Prisoners of War"; 'Tight
between Poacher and Forester" (1883), "The
Village Hero" (1884) In 1890-91 he was in
New York and painted portraits of Carl Schurz
(Liederkranz Hall), Oswald Ottendorfer, and
othei prominent German Americans
GEESE. See GOOSE
G-EESTEMTTNDE, ga'ste-mun'de A seaport
in the Prussian Province of Hanover, Gefcniiaiiy,
at the mouth of the Geeste in the We&gr, di-
rectly opposite Bi emerhaven, of wfc-iA it is a
shipping nval, 32 miles northwest of Bremen
(Map Germany, C 2) The town (date from
1857, when the constiuction of, the harbor was
begun The main basin, opened in, 1863, is
1846 feet long, 386 feet widev 9^d 23 feet deep
The petroleum basm ,U8,7£) ^s a length of
GKEEZ
536
GKEFFROY
772 feet and a breadth of 145 feet To the
northwest of the main basin is the deep-sea
fisheries basin (opened 1896), 3960 feet long,
364 feet wide, and 14% feet deep It is the
most important centre of the fishing trade in
Germany There are large dry docks and sev-
eral extensive shipyards The harbor, which
is one of the largest artificial waterways in Gei-
many, is never frozen Geestemunde has a
school of marine engineering, a navigation
school, and a trade school It is heavily forti-
fied It has large works for making castings,
machmeiy, nets, sails, rope, lumber., and tim-
ber Pop, 1900, 20,100, 1910, 25,061
GEEZ, gez (Ethiopia Qe'ess) The ancient na-
tive name of the Semitic inhabitants of Abys-
sinia, the classical Ethiopia, and of their lan-
guage, now a dead tongue The woid means lit-
erally "wandering," and designates the people as
"wanderers," "nomads," and their language as
the speech of "freemen" See ETHIOPIA, SEM-
ITES , SEMITIC LANGUAGES
GEFFCKEIT, geTken, FRIEDBIOH HEINRICH
(1830-96) A German jurist, born at Ham-
burg and educated at Bonn, Gottingen, and Ber-
lin He was Secretary of the Legation at Paris
in 1854, represented Hamburg at Berlin m 1856,
and in 1859 he was Minister of the Hanse cities
at Berlin and in 1866 at London In 1S72 he
became professor of constitutional history and
public law at the Umveisity of Stiassburg In
1880-82 he was a member of the Council of
State of Alsace He was a personal friend and
adviser of Frederick III before and after he
came to the throne, and in 1888 he was arrested
at the instance of Prince Bismarck for treason,
as he had published without authority in the
Deutsche Rundschau quotations from the jour-
nal of Frederick III, which showed that Fied-
erick and Bismarck had quarreled in 1870 Af-
ter an inquiry of three months Geffcken was set
free He was suffocated by gas in his bedroom
His works, published anonymously, include
Die Reform der preussischen Verfassung (1870) ,
Der Staatsstreich von 1S51 und seine Ruckww-
kung auf Eitropa (1870) , and Die Verfassung des
deutschen Bundesstaats (26. ed , 1870), and,
signed, Die Alubamafrage (1872), Das deutsche
Reich und die Banhfrage (2d ed , 1874), Staat
und Kirehe (1875, in English by Taylor, 1877),
Zur Geschichte des otientalischen Krieges, JSJ#—
56 (1881), Politische Federyeichnungen (2d ed ,
1888), a volume on England, translated by Mac-
mullan under the title The British Empire
( 1889 ) , and Frankreich, Russland und der Drei-
bund (1893)
GEFFCKEW, JOHANNES (1861- ) A
German classical scholar, born in Berlin, and
educated at the universities of Strasslmrg, Got-
tingen, and Bonn In 1887 he became a teacher
in the Hamburg gymnasium and in 1907 pro-
fessor in the University of Rostock His pub-
lished work, mostly on the liteiature, pagan and
Christian, of tlie early Christian period, includes
T^ma^os' G-eograph-ie des Western (1892), being
the fragments of the first and second books,
Leonidas von Tarent ( 1896 ) , Oracula Stbylhna
(1902), an excellent critical text, supplemented
by his K cm-position und JSntstehungszeit der
Oracula Silylhna (1902); Aus der Werde&eit
des Clinstentums (1904, 2d ed, 1909), Das
griecKische Drama (1904, 2d ed.. 1909) , Zwei
gnechischen Apologeten (1907); Die christhche
Apokryphen ( 1908 ) , Kynikd ( 1909 ) , Rawer
Juhanus (1914) He was one of the revisers of
the new (1914) edition of Lubkei's Reallexikon
des klaswschen Attertums
GEFFBARD, zha'frar', FABRE (1806-79).
President of Haiti He was the son of Nicholas
Geffiard, one of the founders of Haitian inde-
pendence, and was boin at Anse Veau, Haiti
In 1821 he enteied the army as a private soldiei,
attaining the giade of captain in 1843, in which
yeai he joined Herard in icbelhon against
Boyer, whom he defeated near Jacmel Having
been appointed general of division in 1845, he
was deprived of his command by President
Riche, who \vas jealous of his popularity, and
was tried by a court-martial After the death
of Riche ( 1847 ) he regained his influence From
1849 to 1856 he was actively engaged in the
army and distinguished himself in the campaign
of 1856 against Santo Domingo, particularly in
the retreat from San Juan Finding that it
was the intention of the Empeior Faustm (Sou-
louque) to arrest him, he proclaimed himself
President in December, 1858, and diove Sou-
louque from Port-au-Prince, Jan 15, 1859 In
spite of the insurrections he had to repress,
Geffrard gave Haiti the most moderate govern-
ment it had as yet enjoyed Commerce and in-
dustry piospeied with the reduction of taxes,
and schools were founded in many parts of the
country Nevertheless the revolutiorsaiy spirit
continued active, and Salnave, who had twice
attempted a rising and failed, was finally suc-
cessful in Febiuaiy, 1867, when Port-au-Pimce
went over to him, and Geffrard was compelled
to flee to Jamaica with French assistance, where
he died
GEFFROY, zhe-frw<i', EDMOND AIME FLOREN-
TIN (c 1806-95) A French actor and painter
He was born at Maignelay (Oise) and studied
at the College of Angeis With little prelimi-
nary training he made Ins successful fiist ap-
pearance in the rDle of Orestes in Andromaque
at the Theatre Francais (1829) and from that
time until his resignation in 1865 was regarded
as one of the principal actors at that theatre
He played at the Odeon from 1872 to 1878 He
also achieved consideiable fame as a painter
and was a pupil of Amaury-Duval Many of
his principal works were exhibited in the Salon,
such as "Charles VII and Agnes Sorel" (1839) ,
VtLa Samte Vierge et 1'enfant Jesus" (1841),
'Les societaires de la Comedie Franchise"
(1842); and another of the same title (1863-
64), which contains poi traits of Mesdames Au-
gustine Brolun, Arnould-Ples&y, Bonval, Judith,
Favait, and many other distinguished actors
and actresses of that celebrated ^theatre
GEFFBOY, MATHIETJ AUGUSTE (1820-95)
A French, historian, born in Pans He gradu-
ated at the Ecole Normale in that city in 1840
After holding pi of essorships at the lyceums
Clei mont-Ferrand, Louis le Grand, and else-
where, he was professor at Bordeaux and then
at Paris and in 1875 became director of the
French School at Rome His historical works
deal especially with Scandinavia and French re-
lations with it and Austria He wrote Histoire
des etats soandmaves (1»851) , Des engines et
de la formation de I'Swope moderne (1853),
Marie Antoinette (forrespondance secrete (with
Arneth, 1874), in which, as in other treatments
on the same subject, he proved that many let-
ters attributed to Marie Antoinette were for-
geries, Mme de Mamtenon d'apres sa corre-
spondance awthentique (1887) , Etudes italiennes
(189S).
&EPLE
537
GEHENNA
GKEFLE, geVla The capital and chief com-
mercial town of the Swedish Lan of Gefleborg,
situated at the mouth of the liver Gene, about
71 miles north of Upsala (Map Sweden, F 6)
The town has been in great part rebuilt since
the fire of 1869 The principal buildings are
the castle, the fine town hall, the hbiary, the
residence of the Governor, the high school, and
a school o± commerce and navigation The town
is increasing1 in industrial impoitance, produc-
ing chiefly linen, sail cloth, leather, electrical
machinery, lumber, paper, cotton goods, and to-
bacco There are also some shipbuilding and
iron molding Fishing is an impoitant industry
As the chief outlet tor the Kopparberg district,
it carries on a large export trade in iron and
lumber, imports aie mainly gram, cotton,
spices, textiles, and fertilizers Pop , 1900, 29,-
522, 1910, 31,941 Population of province or
Ian, 1912, 256,506
GEGKENBATJR, ga'gen-bour, JOSEPH ANTON
•VON (1800-76) A German historical painter
He was born at Wangen, Wurttemberg, and
studied under Kobeit von Langcr at the Munich
Academy, and fioin 1823 to 1826 in Italy, where
he devoted himself to fresco painting To his
appreciation of Raphael his ' Expulsion from
Paradise" and "Moses Striking the Rock," both
in the royal palace at Stuttgart, bear witness
On his retain to Stuttgart he was intrusted
with the execution of fiescoes in the Royal Villa
Rosenstein, near Cannstatt, depicting the story
of "Cupid and Psyche" according to Apuleius,
and "The Four Seasons " After a second so-
journ in Italy, fiom 1829 to 1835, he was ap-
pointed court painter at Stuttgart and foi
nearly 20 years was employed in decorating
a number of rooms in the new royal palace with
episodes from the mediseval history of Wuit-
ternberg He also painted portraits and easel
pictuies of religious and mythological subjects,
and was a draftsman of superior skill Hib
frescoes display invention, clear composition,
animation, and vigoious coloring
GEGENBATJB, KARL (1826-1903) A Ger-
man comparative anatomist He was born in
Wurzburg, Germany, and studied medicine in
Wurzburg, where be was a pupil of Kolliker
and of Virchow, received the degree of MD and
was afterward privatdocent from 1853 to 1855
In the latter year he became professor of anat-
omy and director of the Anatomical Institute
in Jena and remained there until 1873, when he
became professor of anatomy at Heidelberg He
spent two years in Sicily studying invertebrate
life, making important researches on pteropods
and heteropod mollusks Ha also worked on the
histology of Limulus He was not only the
leading comparative anatomist in Germany, but
one of the first class, ranking with Huxley and
Owen, and was distinguished by the great range
of his learning, which covered the entire field of
animal morphology, as well as by the boldness
of his speculations He was the first compara-
tive anatomist to place the study of anatomy
on an evolutionary basis and thus became the
founder of modern anatomy His most impor-
tant works are- Grundtsuge tier vergleichenden
Anatomie (1870) , Qrunduss der vergleicKenden
Anatomie (1878), translated into English by F.
J Bell, under the title Elements of Comparative
Anatomy (1878), Lehrbuch der Anatomic des
Menschen (1883, 3d ed , 1886); Verglwchende
Anatomie der WirbeltJviere tmt Berucksic^gung
der Wwbellosen (1898) From 1876 he was edi-
tor of the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, which he
founded In his Comparative Anatomy of Verte-
biates (1898) G-egenbaur shows how conditions
pievailmg among invertebi ates can be made to
throw light upon the more complicated verte-
brate forms G-adow characterizes this great
woik as "a mine of ino&t suggestive ideas " In
this, as m all his works, he stiove to derive
any given organ from some earlier, moie an-
cestral or generalized structure, instead of being
satisfied with its conditions or its present de-
giee of specialization Gegenbaur's most fruit-
ful work was his theory of the origin of limbs
and their girdles from the embryonic visceral
arches His views on the denvation and evo-
lution of free limbs were also the outcome of a
masterly lesearch
GEHENNA, ge-hen'a (G-k T&vva, or Tetvva,
Geenna) A term used in the New Testament
as a designation of the place of punishment of
the wicked after death The word is a trans-
literation of the Aiamaic Gehennam, or Gehvn-
uam, which is an equivalent of the Hebiew Ge
Hiwnom (For origin of name, see HINNOM,
VALLEY OF ) In the New Testament it never
refers to the valley south of Jerusalem It
occurs 12 times Outside of the Synoptic Gos-
pels it is found only in James in 6, where the
tongue is said to be set on fire by Gehenna In
Luke it is used only once — viz , xii 5, where God
is said to have the power of casting into Gehenna
after He has killed In the corresponding pas-
sage m Matthew (x 28) the disciples are warned
to fear Him who is able to destroy both soul and
body in Gehenna The only passage in Mark
that has the word is ix 43-47, where it occurs
three times, the sacrifice of a head, a foot, or
an eye being recommended in preference to
Gehenna (cf Matt v 29, 30, xvm 8, 9) In
addition to the parallels to the passages quoted
fiom Mark and Luke, Matthew records three
sayings of Jesus, in which He declaies that the
man who says more, i e , "thou fool," is liable
to the Gehenna of file (v 22) , that the Phari-
sees make their proselyte twice as much a son
of Gehenna as they are themselves (xxiii 15) ,
and that the Pharisees are a brood of vipers
not likely to escape the judgment of Gehenna
(xxiii 33) Whether Jesus actually used the
language ascribed to Him upon these occasions,
and, if so, what meaning He attached to the
teim, aie questions that have been seriously dis-
cussed without any definite agreement having
been reached It will be noted that all of these
statements are found only in Matthew that
xxiii 23-33 seems to be a duplicate of the
words of John the Baptist, and that Luke (xvn
1, 2) records the saying as to offenses that must
come, without the amplifications of Matthew
and Mark It is also manifest that in some in-
stances the word is used in a figurative sense
The counsel to sacrifice hand, foot, or eye can
certainly not be taken literally, and there Is
no valid reason for supposing that Gehenna is,
in the same connection, to be understood mfore
literally Manifestly Jesus cannot have intended
to draw such a distinction between an angry
disposition and a contemptuous epithet like,
raka, 'empty head/ on the one hand, and a
similar epithet, more, 'fool,' on the other hand,
as to affix temporal penalties for the former
and eternal punishment for the second As He
cannot have desired the local courts to take
cognizance of the feelings of a man's heart, or
tHe supreme court to make & capital case of a
GEIB
538
GBIGEB
hasty word, but must have used leth din and
Sanhednn figuratively, so He is likely to have
employed Gehenna in a similar way "Son of
Hell" as a cliaiactenzation of a hypocrite and
formalist is also to be understood as a figure of
speech But in Matt x 28 (Luko xn 5) Ge-
henna is evidently meant to be taken more litei-
ally, of man's fate after death The most nat-
ural mterpietation of tins passage is that the
destruction, of both body and soul in Gehenna
means complete cessation of being But the
evangelical tradition scarcely permits any defi-
nite conclusions on this point See HADES , HELL.
GtEIB, gip, KARL GUSTAV (1808-64) A Ger-
man ciiminologist, born at Lambsheim, Bavaria
He studied at Heidelbeig, Munich, and Bonn
In 1832 he was sent to Greece as secretary to
the regency appointed during the minority of
King Otho, and after his return (1834) was ap-
pointed to the chair of law at the Univeisity
of Zurich (1836), where in 1842 he became pio-
fessor of criminal and civil procedure In 1851
he went to Tubingen G-eib was a strict adher-
ent of the historical method The work entitled
Gesdwchte des romischen Kwminalpro&esses Ms
zum Tode Justwvums (1842), although super-
seded by more recent investigations, had an ex-
traordinary influence in Geimany Consult the
biographical sketch by Lueder (Leipzig, 18 64)
GEIBEL, gi'bel, EMANUEL (1815-84) A
popular Gei man lyric poet He was boin at
Lubeck, Oct 17, 1815, was graduated at Bonn
(1836), lived for two yea.is in Beilm in literal y
society, wont as tutor to Athens (1838), traveled
extensively with Ern&t Curtms in the Grecian
Archipelago, and leturned to Lubeck in 1840
He led a studious life there and on the Rhine,
at Stuttgart, Hanover, and Berlin, received a
pension from the King of Prussia m 1843, and
an 1852 was made professor of aesthetics at Mu-
nich He returned to Lubeck in 1868 and resided
there till his death, on April 6, 1884 His fame
rests chiefly on his lyric poetry G-edichte
(1840), Juwusheder (1848), Neue Geckchte
(1856); Qedich-te und GedenKbUtter (1864),
Spather'bst^latter (1877) , and the posthumous
Q-edichte aus detn Naohlass (1896) He wrote
also two tragedies — BrunMd (1858) and So-
phomsle (1868) — and a comedy, Meister Andrea
(1865) He collaborated with others m several
volumes of noteworthy translations — viz, Klas-
sische Studies with Ernst Curtms (1840),
Vollcslieder und Romanzen der Spamer (1843)*
Spamsches Liederbuch, with Paul Heyse (1852) ?
ffunf Bucher frwn&omscher LyriJc, with Leuthold
(1862) Selected translations from Greek and
Latin poets appeared as Klassisches LtederbuGh
(1875) GeibeFs Works are m eight volumes
(3d ed, 1893) , his correspondence is contained
in part in Bwefe an Karl Frevherrn von Mais-
lurg (1885) Geibel's lyric gift was genuine,
but marked rather by a talent for carefully and
skillfully chiseled form than for strong, virile
content For his biography, consult Goedeke
(Stuttgart, 1869), Litzmann. (1887), Leimbach
(Wolfenbuttel, 1804) , Gaedertz (Leipzig1, 1897) ,
and also Predels, JS7 (Mb el und d^e fran&osische
Lyr<ik (Munster i W-, 1905)
GEIEHSTEIW, gl'er-stln, ANNE OF See
ANNE OF GEIERSTEIN
GEIGEH, gi'ger, ABRAHAM (1810-74) A
distinguished rabbi and Jewish scholar He was
born at Frankfort-on-the-Main and was educated
at Heidelberg and Bonn At Bonn lie gained
a prize for an essay on the Jewish spurces of the
Koi an, published (1853) undei the title Was
hat Mohammed aus dcrn Jitdentum aufgenowi-
men* (repnnt of Eng tians, Madras, 1898),
which is &till of conbideiable value In 1832 he
became rabbi in Wiesbaden and in 1835 one of
the editors of the Zeitvchuft fur judische Theo-
logie In 1S38 he \vas chosen associate i<ibbi
at Breslau, in 1863 he removed to ITiankfort,
where he was rabbi until 1870, and was then
elected to the charge of the largest Jewish con-
gregation in G-ermany — viz, at Beilm — and ie-
mained theie till his death, in 1874 Fiqm 1862
to the end of his life he published at Breslau
Judische Zeitschrtft fur Wisscnsohaft und Leben
(11 vols ) Geiger's woik was mainly in theo-
logical lines, and he was one of the foremost ad-
vocates of the "reform" of Judaism, standing
for liberality m the construction and obbeiva-nce
of the Jewish traditional law In line with this
work he published a new Hebrew ntual and be-
came piofessor in the Hochschule fur die Wis-
senaehaft des Judenthums, a school to tram
Jewish, rabbis according to the modem interpre-
tation of Judaism, which he had helped to found
Endowed with an unusually active mind, he
worked untiringly, and of his extremely numer-
ous works on Jewish history, literature, and
theology, only a few can be mentioned heie.
Lehr- °und Lesebuch &ur Sprache der Mi&chna
(1845), B6^ttage yur yudischen Littei aturge-
schichte (1847), Diwan des Castihers 4.1)ufl-
Hassan Jada ha-Levi (1851) , the two veiy im-
portant works, Urschrtft und TJebwsetsungen
der Bi'bel in ihrer Alhangiglceit von der mncrn
BntwiolvGlung des Judentums (1857) and &a&-
dutsaer und Phansaer (1863) } a collection of
lectures published under the title Das Judentum
und seme G-eschioMe (1864-71), and &alwno
Gabirol und seine Dichtimgcn (1868) His
posthumous works, Nachgelassene Bchriften,
were published by his son Ludwig, the last
volume of this collection contains his biography
and letters The most important of his works
is the Ursohnft, an exceedingly valuable contri-
bution to the history of Old Testament literature
OEIGEB, LAZARUS (1829-70) A toman
philologist, born at Frankfort-on-the Main He
studied at Bonn, Heidelbeift, and Wur/burg
During the last nine years of Ins life he was
instructor in German, Hebrew, and mathemati-
cal geography at the Jewish High School of
Frankfort His principal philological works are
respectively entitled Ursprung und Entwitfte-
lung der menschhohen Sprache und Vernunft
(2d ed, 1899, Eng trans, 1880) and Der
Ursprung der Sprache (1869) Consult L
Rosenthal, I Geiger (Stuttgart, 1884)
GKEIGKER, LUWIG (1848- ) A German
author and historian, born at Breslau After
study at Heidelberg, Gottmgen, and Bonn, he
became decent an history at Berlin in 1873
and m 1880 was appointed to a chair of modern
literature there His more important researches
have been concerned with the history of hu-
manism, to which he contributed such studies as
Ntkolaus JSlleribog, &m Humanist mid Theolog
des seoh&ehwten Ja3vrliun$erts (1870), Johawn
ReuMvn*, sew Le'bem und seine Werke (1871),
Petrwrca (1874), an examination of Petrarch's
significance as author and scholar, and Renais-
sance und Humarnsmws in Itahen und Dewfachr
land (1882) He also revised Jakob Burck-
h.ardtje, Dw Kultur der Renaissance m Italian
(7tk ed, 2 vols, Leipzig, 1899) In J88Q lie
began the publication of the '
GEIGEB
539
G-EIKIE
and from 1886 to 1892 was proprietor and an
editor of the Zeitschrift fur Geschichte det
Juden in Deutsohland (5 vols), in connection
with which subject he published Da<? Utiidium
der hcbraischen Spiache in Deiitschlavtd vom
Ende des 15ien bis sur Mitte des 16 ten Jahihun-
dert? (1870) and 0-eschichte der Juden in Bcr~
hn (1871) Other works are Vottvage und
Tersuche (1890), Berlin 1688-18 W (1893-95),
Das junge Deutschlass und die prenstisehe Zen-
sur (1900) , Bettina von Arnim und Fuednch
WiJhelm IV (1902), Aus Ohamissos Fnihs&it
(1905), Ooeth& und Zelters Bviefwcclisel
1905), Chamissos Leben (1907), Ghamissos
Wevke (1907) , Der Biiefweclisel G-octhes mit
HumbolcU (1908), Charlotte von Schiller
(1908)
GEIGEB, NIKOLAUS (1849-97). A German
sculptor and painter, born at Lauingen, Ba-
vaiia He was a pupil of Rnabl at the Munich
Academy In 1873 he went to Berlin and soon
became known through ornamental woik in the
Tiele-Wincklei Palace After a visit to Italy
he studied painting in Munich and m 1884 re-
turned to Berlin, where he was awarded a gold
medal in 1886, was elected member of the acad-
emy in 1893, and was made professor in 1806
His most important works in Berlin arc the
groups of "Inspiration" and "Homage of Art"
(1886), m the Exhibition Building, the high
relief "Adoration of the Magi" (1894), m St
Hedwig's Church, the statue of Barbarossa for
the Kyfthdusci monument-, a statue of "Work,"
foi the National Bank, Berlin, and "Centaur
and Nymph," in the National Gallery A
frieze in relief for the Soldiers' Monument at
Indianapolis may also be mentioned His style
IB decorative, with a leaning towards the picto-
rial His painting, "The Communion of the
Samts," on the ceiling of St Hedwig's, Berlin,
is the most notewoithy
GEIGER, WILIIELM (1856- ) A Ger-
man Oiicntahat He was born at Nuremberg
and was educated at the University of Erlangen,
where in 1891 he became professor of Sanskrit
and Indo-Germamc philology In 1905 he be-
came a member of the Landtag of Bavaria He
wrote Handbuch der Awestasprache (1879) ,
Ostirdnische Kultur (1882), translated into
English as The Eastern Iranians (London,
1885) , Elementwr'buch der Samknt-Sprache (2d
ed, 1909), G&ylon (1898), Litteratur und
ftprache der flmghalesen (1001) , and, as co-
editor, Orundnss der iranischen Philologie (2
vols, 1885-1905), to which he contributed the
portions on Afghan, Baluchi, and minor Iranian
dialects, and on the geography of Iran He also
wrote Dipavamsa, und Mahavamsa und die ge-
schichUiche Ueberheferung in Ceylon (1905),
and tfahav&maa, (1908-12)
GEIJEB, yi'Sr, EBIK "GUSTAF (1783-1847)
A Swedish historian, poet, and composer, born
at Kansatcr, Varmland, Jan 12, 1783, of par-
ents who were of Austrian descent He was
educated at the Gymnasium of Karlstad and at
the University of Upsala and in 1803 competed
successfully for an historical prize offered by
the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm In
1806 ne obtained his master's degree from
Upsala and in 1809 traveled in England The
year following he became a lecturer in history
at Upsala and in 1815 assistant to Fant In
1817, on the death, of his chief, Greijer was made
professor in his place In 1824 he waa elected
a member of the Swedish Academy Geijer was
VOL. IX— 35
hardly less famous as a poet than as an histo-
rian, and he exercised a maiked. influence on the
poetic liteiatuie of Sweden Accoiding to the
testimony of his countiyineii, his Sista SLalden,
Viking en, Odalbonden and other heroic pieces
place him in the foremost lank of Swedish poets
He and his friends Acllei belli, Tegner, and Ni-
kdndcr adhered to the Gothic bchool of poetiy,
which owed its origin to the Society of the
Goths, established as eaily as 1810, they pub-
li&hcd at the same time a magazine, Iduna,
(1811-24), m which fiist appeared several of
Goijer's best poems Gieat as is the value of
Geijer's historical works, he did not complete
any one of the vast undertakings which he
planned Of the 8vca P^kes 1m f der (or Kecoids
of Sweden), \\hich were to have embraced the
histcnv of Ins native country fiom mythical ages
to his own times, he ""finished only the intro-
ductoiv volume His flvcnvla follets histona
(3 vols, 1832-36), vslneh \\a& intended to form
one of the seiics of Euiopoan histories edited
by Loo and Ukert, was nnt camod beyond the
abdication o± Queen Chiistina (1G34), the ica-
son probably bein^ the authoi's conversion to
liberalism in histoiy and politics, yet, incom-
plete as they me, these woiks lank among the
most valuable contributions to Swedish hihtoiy.
To Gcijer was intrusted the task of examining
and editing the papers winch Gustavus III
(qv) had bequeathed to tin* Univeisrty of
Upsala, wjth the stipulation that they were not
to be opened for 50 years after his death In
fulfillment of his charge Geijcr arranged these
papers in a work which appeared in 1843-45
under the title of Oustaf III s efterlemnade pap-
per, but they contained little or nothing of value
Duimg the last 10 years of his life Gei]er took
an active part in politics, but although his
political writings possess great ment, the very
versatility of his powers diverted him fiom
applying them methodically to the eotnpletc
elaboration of any one subject In 1828-30 and
1840-41 he was a member of the Swedish Diet
as a repi csentatave of his university In addi-
tion to "being an historian, poet, and publicist,
Gei]cr was well known as a musician and com-
poser of no moan order He set many of Ins
own songs to stirring music, and hymns of his
rendering appear in the Swedish Service Book
In 1814-15 he cooperated with Afzehus in pro-
ducing a three-volume edition of Swedish folk
songs of the Middle Ages In 1846 increasing
ill health forced him to resign his position as
professor at Upsala He died April 23, 1847, at
Stockholm He left some personal memoirs of
value, filmnen (Upsala, 1834) His collected
works, Samlade Sknfter, with a bibliographic
tieatise by Tcodblad (8 vols), appeared at
Stockholm (1873-75) His History of the
Swedes down to Charles X was translated into
English by Turner, with biogiaphical introduc-
tion (London, 1845) For huef biogiaphical
treatises, consult Malmstroem {Upsala, 1848),
Fries (Stockholm, 1849) , Carlson (Stockholm,
1870), Nieksen (Odenae, 1902)
GKEIKIE, gs'ki, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835-1024)
A distinguished British geologist, boin in Edin-
burgh, where he attended the high, school and
university Becoming a member of thfe Geologi-
cal Survey of Scotland under Murchison, he
was raised m 1867 to the otfice of director
From 1871 to 1882 he held the Murchison pro-
fessor ship of neology and mineralogy in the
University of Edinburgh, resigning the position
CMKffi
540
to become diiector geneial of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom and director of
the Museum of Piactical Geology in London
He retired fiom these offices in 1001 Oikio
rose to be an eminent authoiity and coiitiibutoi
on geological subjects His btudios in inoigamc
geology, particulaily physiography, dynamism,
and the structuic of the earth, fehow a keen ap-
pieciation of natuial processes, while his geo-
logical textbooks are models of an angement,
general balance, and facility of expression He
received the honorary degiee of D 0 L from Ox-
ford, that of DSc fiom Cambndge and Dublin,
and that of LL D from Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Abeideen, St Andrews, and other British uni-
versities In 1891 he was elected piesident of
the Geological Society of London and was
knighted He also served as pi evident of the
British Association foi the Advancement of
Science and as piesident of the Royal Society
(after 1908) In 1897 Geikie visited the United
States to deliver the first series of lectures on.
the George Huntington Williams foundation at
Johns Hopkins University. He was created
K. C B in 1907, was awarded the. Older of Merit
in 1914, received gold medals from numerous
scientific societies at home and abioad, and he-
came a corresponding member of the Fiench In-
stitute Among his more important works, some
of which have passed tlnough several editions,
are Scenery of Scotland, Viewed in- Connection
with its Physical OeogtapJuj (I860) , Field Ge-
ology (1879), Teat Bool of Geology (1882),
Class-Book of Geology (1886) , Ancient Vol-
canoes of Britain (1897), The Founders of
Geology (1897, 2d ed , 1906) , Types of Scenery
and their Influence on Literature (1898) , Scot-
tish Reminiscences (1904) , Landscape in His-
tory (1905) , Love of Nature among the Romans
(1912)
GKEIKIE, CUNNINGHAM (1824-1906). An
English clergyman and writer He was born in
Edinburgh. He studied at Queen's College, To-
ronto, Canada, held Presbyterian pastoiates at
Halifax, Nova Scotia, and at Toronto, and later
in England In 1876 he took pnest's oiders in
the English Establishment and was successively
settled m Dulwich (1876), Paris (1879), Barn-
staple (1883), and Norwich (1SS5) He retned
to Bournemouth in 1890 His wide fame rests
upon his Life of Christ (1876) , his history of
the English Reformation (1878), Hows with
the Bible (12 vols , 1880-96), Tlie Holy Land
and the Bible (1887)
GEIKIE, JAMES (1839-1915) A Scottish
geologist and author, brother of Sir Archibald
Geikie, born at Edinburgh He was educated at
Edinburgh University, was appointed an assist-
ant in the British Geological Suivey in 1861,
and m 1869 was made directoi of the Survey
in Scotland In 1882 he was elected to succeed
his brother as Murchison professor of geology
and mineralogy at Edinburgh University, where
later he was made dean of the faculty of science
He wrote much on various geological subjects
and especially those connected with glacial geol-
ogy His works include The G-reat Ice Age
(1874, 3ded, 1894), Prehistoric Europe (1882,
4th ed, 1903), Outlines of Geology (1884, 4th
ed , 1903) , Songs and Lyrics of ffcinrich Heine
and Other German Poets (1887) , Fragments of
Earth-Lore (1892); Earth Sculpture or, The
Origin of Surface Features (1889, 2d ed , 1909) ,
Structural and Field Geology (1905, 3d ed ,
1912) , Mountains Their Origin, Growth, and
GEI3STITZ
Docai/ (1913) , The Antiquity of Man in Em ope
(1913)
GEIL, gil, WILLIAM EI>G \K (lSG~>-192->) An
American exploiei and anthoi Ho was born
neai Doylestown, Pa , was educated at Doylcb-
to\\n Semmaiy, attended Lafayette College in
1890, and made archaeological studies in western
Asia in 1896 In 1901 he started on a four-yeai
world louincy foi compaiatrve study of puini-
tive peoples He tiaveled in all paits of China,
exploied the Gieat Wall, and penetiated the
gigmy forest of Africa He also lectured in
hma, Japan, India, Australia, Gieat Britain,
and the United States His publications in-
clude Pocket Sword ( 1895 ) , Laodicea ( 1898 ) ,
The Jslc that is Called Patmos (1898, 1905),
Ocean and Jsle ( 1902) , 4 Yankee on the Yangtze
(1904), The Man of Galilee (1904, 1906), A.
Yankee in Pigtmjland (1903) , The Men on the
Mount (1905), The Automatic Calf (1905),
Cannibals Before and After (1907), The Gieak
Wall of China, (1909, 1911) , Eighteen Capitals
of China (1911)
GEILER VON KAYSERSBERa, gllei fon
kl'zers-beiK, JOIIANN (1445-1510) A famous
German Catholic mystic and populai pieacher,
bom at Schaffhausen, but bi ought up by his
giandfather at Kayscisbeig (Alsace), whence his
epithet He was educated at Ammer&weier and
at Fieiburg and soon after his taking ordeis
went (1471) to Basel , where he became dean
of the philosophic faculty (1474) and a pio-
fessor of theology (1475) A year later he
letuined to Freiburg and became lectoi of the
univeisity In 1478 he became preacher at the
cathedial of Strassburg and held this office for
32 years In the nave of the cathedral is the
pulpit built for him m 1481 He has been called
"the German Savonaiola" Of his sermons, the
best known are the cycle based on Brant's Nar~
lensohtff (1494) and called Navicula sive
Speculum Fatuoium (1510) In the same sa-
tiric foim and showing the same power and re-
ligious depth are Daf> iSchiff tier Ponitenz
(1514), Der Seelcn Patadies (1510), and Christ-
hche Pilgerschaft (1512), all first composed m
Latin and delivered in German His more im-
portant works may be found in De Lorenzi,
Geilers ausgcwulilte Schrtften (1881-83), with
a biographical sketch, and an excellent biography
and general ciiticism in Godeke, Orundnss zur
Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, vol i, p
397 et seq (1884) Consult Dacheux, Un re-
formateur catholique a la fin du XVe siecle
(Paris, 1876), on which is based Lindemann,
Johann Geiler von Kaisersberq (Freiburg,
1877), and Schmidt, Histoire litteraire de I' Al-
sace a "la fin du XVeme sieole (Pans, 1879)
GEILFUS, giTfoos, GEORG (1815-91) A
Swiss histonan, born at Lampertheim, Germany
He studied at Giessen, and from 1856 to 1868
was supei intendent of schools of Wmterthur
Besides numeious mmoi writings, historical and
biographical, he published the important work
entitled Helvetia Vaterlandisohe Sage und Ge-
schichte (4th ed, 1879)
G-EINITZ, gi'nits, HANS BBUNO (1841-1900).
A German geologist, born at Altenburg and edu-
cated at Berlin and Jena He was appointed
professor of mineralogy and geognosy at the
Polytechnic Institute of Dresden in 1850 and
was director of the Museum of Mineralogy there
from 1857 to 1894 His works include Chwrak-
teristik der Schichten und Petrefakten d&a
sachsisch-'bohmisCfhen Kreidegebirgqs (1843);
GEISHA
54*
GELASIUS
Die Versteinerungm der Steinkohl en] ot motion
in Sachscn (1855) , Ocologic dei Htcmhohlcn
Deutschfands und anderei Landci Ihnopav
(1865) , Garbonformation und /)//«<? in, Arfc/v^Aa
(1866), Geologic von Sumatra (1875), Vcbet
fossile Pflanzen und Tictarten in rfcu (iKjvntm-
isohen Provinacn San Juan und Jlfcndoza (1876)
GEISHA, gfi'shd (Oh mo- Japanese, peison of
pleasing accomplishments) One of a clabs of
young women in Japan endowed with more
than the ordinary share of personal atti actions,
elegant and accomplished in the aits of gayety
and especially in music and the peculiar
ihythmic dances of the countiy which foim the
chief featuie at enteitainments in the average
social life of Japan It is cuhtomaiy to apeak
of geishas as "singing gills " They correspond
in some degi ee to the Almech of Kgypt and other
parts of the Orient Usually the tunning of the
gul begins when she is seven yeais old The
geisha is the imposing theme of a laige num-
ber of rhapsodical and erotic writeis on Japan,
but m the new and better social life of Japan
and reconstruction in national habits and ideals
the solution of the geisha problem is a serious
one A capitation tax of one yen per month
is levied on each geisha. Consult Bacon, Jap-
anese Girls and Women (Boston, 1891) , Cham-
berlain, Things Japanese (London, 1891) , Grif-
fis, The Japanese Nation in Evolution (New
York, 1911), Lloyd, Everyday Japan (London,
1011) , Nitobe, The Japanese Nation (New
York, 1912)
GEISHUSLEB/, gis'lms-ler, OSWALD See
MYCONIUS, OSWALD
GEISSEL, gis'el, JOHANNES VON (1796-1864).
A German Roman Catholic prelate He was
born at Gimmeldingen in the Palatinate and
was educated at the Episcopal Semmaiy m
Mainz He was ordained a priest in 1818 In
1819 he was appointed professoi at the Gymna-
sium of Speyer, and thiee years later became
canon of the chapter. He was made dean in
1836 and Bishop in 1837 In 1842 he became
the coadjutor, and three years later the suc-
cessor, of the Archbishop of Cologne After the
revolution of 1848 he was chosen a member of
the Prussian Constituent Assembly, and largely
through his influence the independence and
rights of the church in Prussia were assured by
the new constitution In 1850 he was made
Caiclinal He was a zealous defender of the
Ultramontane position in Germany and dis-
tinctly favored the Jesuits One of his most
noteworthy achievements was the suppression
of Hermesiamsm* (See HERMES, GBOEG ) The
long-delayed completion of the Cologne Cathe-
dral was undertaken about the time of his ap-
pointment as coadjutor, and m 1863 he cele-
brated its completion, except the towers His
writings, edited by Dumont (Cologne, 1869-76),
include addresses, poems, and miscellaneous writ-
ings, and Dumont edited Diplomatische Cor-
respondent uber die Berufung des Bischofs
Johannes von Q-eissel (Freiburg, 1880) Consult
the biography by Pfulf (Freiburg, 1895-96)
GEISSLEB, gisler, EtanaiOH (1814-79) A
German scientific-instrument makei, born at
Igelshieb, Saxe-Memmgen After acquiring con-
siderable proficiency as a glass blower, he estab-
lished at Bonn, in 1854, his well-known factory
for making chemical and other scientific appa-
ratus. He was noted for his inventive genius
and also for the excellence of the scientific in-
struments of his manufacture. The celebrated
meicunal air pump used for obtaining high
vacua, and known as tho Geissloi pump (see
AIK PUMP), was lust < onstmc'tecl by him, as
were also the well-known tleisslei'b tubes
G-EISSLER'S TUBES The goneial name for
sealed vessels ai ranged to bhow the biilliant ef-
fects of electricity passed through laiefiod gasob
They usually consist of glass tubes and bulbs
with platinum wires nisei ted to foim the elec-
trical connections These tubes aie filled \\ith
vanous rarefied gases and show an infinite
vanety of delicate lights in figuios or patterns,
depending upon the shape of the tubes, the ai-
rangement of the wne connections inside, the
gas contained, and the degree of rarefaction
The eilects produced, besides being very cunous,
are of value to the investigator, as they ailoid a
means of examining various incandescent #asos
with the spectioscope, and numerous othei ex-
pei i merits
GEIST7 gist (Gei , spuit) Used oftenest in
tho compound teim Zeitgeist, 01 'spirit of the
age,' 'time spirit,' introduced into English lit-
oiaiv luni'iMgi' by Matthew Arnold
GEITNEB, glt'nC'i, RKNRT AUGUST (1783-
1852) A Gei man chonnst, boiu at Geui Af-
tei conducting a chemical f<ictoi\ <it Lost-tint? hck
founded another at Schnoeboig, in 181.5, which
he conducted until MB death He wan eminent
as a chemical investigator and was the discov-
erer of the alloy argenton, or Gei man silver
He also devoted considerable attention to the
chemistry of dyeing and was the first to utilize
chromic salts for animal and vegetable dyes
He published Brief e uber die Ohemie and Die
Familie West, oder Unterhaltungen uber Ohemie
und Technologic
OEX'TONOa'AlCY. See POLLINATION.
GE'LA (Lat, fioni Gk. IVAa) In ancient
times an impoitant town on the southein coast
of Sicily, on the river of the same name It was
founded by a Rhochan and Cretan colony (about
600 BC ) Its rapid pionpenty nuy be inferred
jtrom the circumstance that as early as the year
582 B c Agngentum was founded by a, colony
from Gela After Oleander had made himself
tyrant in the ^ear 505 B c , the colony reached its
highest power under la a brother Hippocrates
( 498-49 1 B o ) , who subdued much of east Sicily.
Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the
same career of conquest, and Syracuse itself fell
into his hands and was even made his principal
residence, Gela being committed to the govern-
ment of his brother Hiero. Here JSschylus, after
having been honorably received by Hiero, died
and was buried about 456 BO During the Cai-
thaginian wars Gela suffered greatly ( 405 B c ) ,
but its rum was completed by Phintian, of A<>fii-
gentuin,, who before 280 B o lemoved the inhabit-
ants to a town in the neighborhood which he
had founded and named after himself Its site
is believed to be occupied by Terranova, at the
mouth of the Fmme di Terranova For the ex-
cavations there, consult Lubkci, Realleaoikon d&s
klassischen Altertums, 8th ed (Leip/ig, 1914).
GEL AD A (j§l'a-da) BABOOK See BABOON
GrELA'SIUS The name of two popes 1
GELASIUS I (Pope, 492-496). He restated the
supremacy of Rome over Constantinople and in-
sisted on the removal of the name of Acacius,
Bishop of Constantinople, from the official list
of holy persons for whom prayers were to bo
offered During his pontificate the canonical
books of the Old Testament were determined by
a council at Rome. He vigorously opposed the
GELASIUS A SANTA CATHABINA 542
GELATIN PBOCESS
Mamchgean, Pelagian, and Arian herebies, and
defended the purity of Christian life against im-
moral heathen piactices After his death he was
canonized, his day being No\ ember 18 His
woiks are in Migne, Patrol Lat , lix (Paris,
1844-80) Consult his life by Roux (Paris,
1880) , the Gelasian Sacramentary, ed by Wil-
son (Oxford, 1894) , McKilham, Chronicles of
the Popes pom $t Peter to Pius X (New York,
1912) 2 GELASIUS II (Pope, 1118-19) He
was born of noble descent at Gaeta about 1030
He leceived his theological education in the
abbey of Monte Cassino and afterward held the
office of cardinal deacon under Uiban II and of
chancellor under Paschal II On the death of
Paschal II he was elected Pope by the cardinals
Cencius Prangipani, a partisan of the Emperor
Heniy V, laid violent hands upon him and thiew
him into puson, but he was set at Iibeity
through the general upusmg of the people in his
behalf The sudden appearance of the Empeior,
however, compelled him to leave Home foi Gaeta,
and the Imperial party chose an antipope, Bur-
dinus, Archbishop of Braga, Portugal, unclei the
name of Gregory VIII Gelasrus held a council
at Capua and excommunicated his rival and the
Emperor Returning to Home, under the pio-
tection of the Gorman princes, he lay concealed
for a while nariowly escaping capture once more
by the Frangipani, and, after •wandeimg through
Italy and Fiance, died at Cluny in lll9 IIis
letters aie in Migne, Patiol Lat , clxin (Pans,
1814-80) Consult H K Mann, Lues of the
Popes in the Middle Ages (9 vols , St Louis,
1914)
GKELASITTS A SAETTA CATHABINA. See
DOBNER, JOB FELIX
GELATIN (from ISTeo-Lat gelatina, from Lat
gelatus, p.p of gelare, to freeze, from gelu,
frost), or GLXJTIN (not gluten) A term applied
to the purest form of glue Gelatin is not found
as such in animal tissues, but is obtained by the
hydrolytic action of hot watei or hot dilute
acids on protein substances of the albumenoid
or sclero-protein type, principally collagens.*
Skins or hides, tendons, hoofs, bones, muscle, in-
testines, bladders, etc , are utilized for making
gelatin and glue The former, however, is usu-
ally prepared from selected connective tissue in
skins and bones and appears as a yellowish,
transparent, buttle, tasteless, and odorless sub-
stance* The ordinary commercial process for
preparing gelatin consists in caiefully washing"
the connective tissue employed, then cutting it
and digesting in a dilute solution of soda lye for
10 days at a moderate heat. The matenal is
then, removed into an air-tight chamber lined
with cement, where it is heated at a temperature
of 70° F. It is next transferred to revolving
cylinders supplied with an abundance of clean
cold water for washing and afterward is placed
in another chamber, lined with wood, where it is
bleached and purified by exposure to the fumes
of burning sulphur, after which it is washed with,
cold water to remove traces of sulphurous acid.
The next operation is to squeeze it as dry as
possible and transfer it to the gelatinizing pots,
which are large earthen vessels inclosed in steam-
tight wooden cases Into these vessels water is
poured, and the mass is kept at a high temper-
ature by means of steam coils surrounding the
pots By this process the gelatin is dissolved
out of the tissue and is strained off while still
hot. It is then poured out in thin layers, which,
as soon as they are sufficiently cool and consoli-
dated are cut into small oblong plates and laid
on nets to diy If the solution is daik-colored,
it may be puiified by tieatment with animal or
vegetable charcoal The gelatin of bones may be
exti acted on a large scale by the combined action
of steam and a current of water trickling over
their ciushed fragments in a piopeily con-
structed apparatus When the gelatin is to be
used as an aiticle of food, the bones must be
quite fiesh, well pieseived in brine, 01 diied
by a stove, and should be crushed by passing be-
tween giooved iron rollers The puiification of
commercial gelatin may be effected by soaking in
distilled watei ioi some days in older to remove
salts, dissolving in hot distilled water, and filter-
ing -fihile hot into 90 per cent alcohol The gela-
tin then separates in the form of white thieady
masses, which can be subsequently dried The
pine gelatin thus obtained contains only about
V2 pei cent of ash The ash of a high-grade gela-
tin should not exceed 2 pei cent and should con-
tain no heavy metals, such as copper Glue may
have 4 per cent or moie of ash The limit of
sulphur dioxide (S0_.) in a standaid gelatin is
generally accepted as not more than 5 parts
per 100,000 It should contain no appieciablo
amount of chondrin, a homy substance deriwu.
fiom caitilage and having a lowei gelatinising
power than gelatin When soaked in cold water
for foui hours and then made into a jelly by
heating in watei, it should give no offensive
odor
Although gelatin is classed as a protein, it
differs from other proteins in dissociation prod-
ucts and in properties and cannot be considered
a true protein food It is known as a protein
sparer and as such has a food value
Gelatin is soluble in concentrated acetic and
mineral acids, if thus treated, it loses its gela-
tinizing property, but the solution may be used
as a cement for glass and for certain other pur-
poses In contact with cold water it takes up
from 5 to 10 times its weight, swelling to an elas-
tic transparent mass, which readily dissolves in
warm water. On cooling, the solution "gelatin-
izes," and thus gelatin is extensively used for
culinary pui poses, being employed as a vehicle
for other materials, eg, in making jellies Gel-
atin is further used in taking casts and impres-
sions for electrotypmg, and besides being em-
ployed for gelatin dry plates in photography, it
is used in the carbon piocessea of photographic
printing, which depends on the power of certain
bichi ornates to render the gelatin insoluble when
exposed to the action of light. This last piop-
erty has also led to the use of gelatin as an in-
soluble glue or waterproofing mateiial Gelatin
is one of the ingredients of printers' rollers, it
is also employed in dyeing and as a size in paper
making and painting As a fining, it is employed
in beer brewing, and it also finds application in
medicine as a coating for pills and capsules The
crude gelatin, prepared by the simplest proc-
esses, is called glue.
Consult Davidowsky, Practical Tieatise on
the Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gel-
atin, etc, trans by Brannt (Philadelphia,
1884) , Standage, Cements, Pastes, Glues, and
Gums (London, 1893) , Thorpe, Dictionary of
Applied Chemistry (ib „ 1912) See also ISIN-
GLASS, GLUE
GELATIN", VEGETABLE See AGAK AGAR
GEL'ATIN PBOCESS, Gelatin is used m
many photographic and photomechanical proc-
esees as a vehicle for certain chemicals which
GKELCICH
543
GKELEE
either alone or in combination are sensitive to
the action of light and under its influence ex-
perience changes in their condition The sub-
stitution of the gelatin film of the dry plate
for the collodion surface of the wet plate was
an important development in photography, while
the fact that gelatin mixed with bichromate of
potash becomes insoluble when acted upon by
light furnishes the basis for many photographic
processes. See PHOTOGRAPHY and PHOIO-EN-
GKAVING for a description of the more important
uses of gelatin in photography and photome-
chanical printing processes
G-ELCICH, gel'tsiK, EUGEN (1854- )
An Austrian naval expert and scientist, born at
Cattaro, Dalmatia. He was director of naval
schools at Lussinpiccolo and Triest and in
1902 became chief inspector of commercial and
naval schools in Austria He wrote extensively
on geographical and chronometric topics and
magnetism, as well as studies on the discovery of
America, such as G-eschichte der Uhrmacher-
kunst (5th ed , 1887) , Estudios sob?e el desen-
volmmiento histonco de la n&vegacitin- (1889) ,
La scoperta d'America e Ghnstoforo Colombo
nella letteratura moderna (1890),, Die Uhr-
macherLunst und die Behandlung der Prazions-
uhren (1892), Die astronomischen Bestim-
mungen der geographisehen Koordm&ten (190-1) ,
Weiohs-G-lon oesterreiohe Schif-fahrts-Pohtik
und unseres nautisches Bildungswesen (1912).
GEI/DERLAItfl), or GTJELDEBS An east-
ern province of the Netherlands, bounded by the
Zuyder Zee and the Province of Overyssel on the
north, Westphalia and the Rhine Province on
the east and southeast, north Brabant on the
south, and south Holland and Utrecht on the
west (Map Netherlands, D and E 2) Area,
1906 square miles The northern part is sandy
except in the eastern coiner The southern poi-
tion between the Rhine and the Meuse is low
and marshy, but very fertile The province is
watered by the Rhine, Meuse, Waal, Barkel,
Schipbeek, and a few smaller rivers The chief
occupations are agriculture and stock raising,
and the products are exported, notably cereals,
fruits, flax, tobacco, and horses The manu-
factures include brick, cotton goods, paper,
leather, footwear, and beer The commerce is
facilitated by a canal from Yssel to Zwolle
Pop, 1912, 662,250 Capital, Arnhem (qv)
History. Gelderland was a part of the Holy
Roman Empire and first appears in history
clearly as the County of G-elre, under Otto of
Nassau, about 1061 In the first half of the
fourteenth century it was one of the foremost
provinces in the Netherlands. In 1339 it be-
came a duchy, but soon thereafter the house of
Nassau died out, and after a long struggle Gel-
derland, in 1379, was united to Juhch Con-
tinual wars about the succession devastated the
country, and from 1472 to 1477 Charles the Bold
of Burgundy held the duchy, his claims passing
to his daughter Mary, wife of Maximilian of
Austria The latter, however, was unable to
conquer the country, and only In 1543 was
Charles V able to incorporate the country with
the rest of his Empire The larger portion,
known as Lower Gelderland, shared the history
of the rest of the Protestant Netherlands (See
NETIIEELANDS ) Upper Gelderland remained
with Spain, but was claimed by Frederick I of
Prussia as Duke of Cleves and taken possession
of during the War of the Spanish Succession
(1701-13), and recognized as his in the Treaty
of Utrecht, but he could ictain only a portion
of it peimanently, the rest going to Austria as
a part of the Spanish Netherlands Finally the
Austnan poition fell to the independent Nether-
lands During the French Revolution Upper
Gelderland was united for a time to France by
the Peace of Basel (1795) and Luneville (1801)
In 1815, by the Peace of Vienna, most of it was
given to the Netherlands and the rest (around
Dusseldorf ) to Prussia Consult Westerate, Gel-
derland in den patriot tented (Utrecht, 1903)
GELDNEB, gelt'ner, KARL FBIEDRICH (1853-
) A German Orientalist He was born at
Saalfeld, Saxe-Meimngen, and studied at the
universities of Leipzig and Tubingen In 1887
he went to the University of Halle, and in 1890
to Berlin as piofessor associate of Indo-Iianian
languages In 1907 he was elected to the chair
of Indo-Iranian languages at Mai burg His
important publications are Ueber die Metrik
des jungeten Avesta (1877) , Studien zum Aiesta,
(1882) , Dtei Yasht aus dem Zendavesta (1884) ,
Vedische 8tudien, with Pischel (3 paits, 1889-
1901), "Die altpersische Litteratur" in Die
onentahschen Littetaturen (1006) , ttlossar zu
den Rigveda (1907) , Der Rigveda in AuswaM
(1907), Zur Kosmogonie des Rigveda, mit
besonderer Berucksichtigung des Liedes 10, 129
( 1908 ) , Vedismus und Bf ahmanism us (1911)
He edited Avesta the Sacred Bools of the
Parsis (Stuttgart, 1886-95), Grundnss der
iramschen Philologie (2 vols, 1896-1904), Eng.
trans by Mackichan in Avesta, Pahlavi, and An-
cient Persian Studies in Honor of the Late 8an-
yana (Bombay, 1904)
GELE, zhel, ALPHONSO VAN (1849- ) A
Belgian explorer of Africa, born in Brussels In
1882 he was sent to Africa and became admin-
istrator of the region near Stanley Falls Three
years later he revisited the Congo and explored
its branches,, subsequently tiacing the Ubangi to
long 23° E, and proving (1889) that the
Ubangi was the same as the river that Schwein-
furth had called Welle
GELEE, zhe-LV, CLAUDE (1600-82), generally
called Claude Lorrain, fioin the country of his
birth A French landscape painter, the most
important and influential master of the so-
called Classical school, also an etchei He was
born in the village of Chamagne in Lorraine in
1600 His parents were of humble origin, and he
was the third sou of five children He became
an orphan at 12 and in consequence sought work
for his own support, which led him to Home
about the age of 16 His talent and enthusiasm
for art were aroused when he saw landscapes by
a Flemish, painter, Godfrey Waels, then residing
at Naples He made the lourney on foot to
Naples to discover the master of his choice and
lived in the artist's family for two years, while
he made special studies in architectural design
and perspective On his retuin to Rome he
sought employment in the studio of Agostmo
Tassi, a pupil of Paul Bril, another landscape
painter from Flanders The subjects of Tassi's
pictures were picturesque ruins3 harbors crowded
with fleets and throngs of men from all nations,
which were reflected later 111 the works of Claude.
In 1625 he visited Venice and several cities in
Germany and France On his return to Rome,
where he lived for the rest of his life, he formed
an intimacy with the painter Joachim Sandrart,
to whom we owe his biography, and to whom
Claude owed the incentive to study directly from
GELEE
544
GELL
nature He enjoyed the patronage of Pope Ur-
ban VIII, for whom he painted two pictures,
now in the Louvre — the "Village Fete" and a
"Seapoit at Sunset" Pope Clement IX also
confeired upon him many iavors
Thuty veais of residence in Rome, studying
the ancient buildings, made it possible for Claude
to give to his pictuies a true setting for the
semipagan tastes of the ruling class His popu-
larity reached such a point that he found it
difficult to supply the demand for pictures, and
they brought such, high prices that other artists
plagiarized las style and name In order to
prevent the sale of "fraudulent copies, he designed
the Liber Tentatis, a book of 200 sketches in
pen and ink wash, \\hicli could be used to verify
the original work It was reproduced in mezzo-
tint by Earldom and published in two volumes
in 1777 j a third volume of 100 drawings was
added in 1819 Three of the four paper books
which composed the original are now in posses-
sion of the King of England He worked up to
the last year of his life, dying at 82 years of
age, on Nov 25, 1682 His character was with-
out reproach , one of his chief traits was thought-
fulness for others His testament gave mstiuc-
tions that his body should be buned in the
church of Santissima TrmitA de* ^lonti The
French government, in 1836, had the remains
removed to the French church, San Luigi de*
Francesi, near the Pantheon
Claude Lor rain was by fai the most important
and iniluential paintei of classic landscape dur-
ing the seventeenth eentuiy, if not of all time
His influence affected the landscape of all Euio-
pean countries, especially that of England in the
works of Richard Wilson in the eighteenth cen-
tury and Turner in the nineteenth century The
subjects of Claude's works are marines and land-
scapes, often with sylvan groves and classical
architecture His technique is smooth, but ex-
pressed with great simplicity. His color is
warm and rich m quality, often glowing with a
yellow tone, producing brilliant effects of light
reflected in the sky, clouds, and water One
of the charms of his pictures is the unlimited
space they present, always interpreted with
poetic feeling
In 1630 he appeared as an etcher and en-
graver, on the 44 etchings ascribed to him there
are at least 18 signatures, some in French and
others in Italian The technique of his drawings
is curious, combining lines and wash. The lines
are used only to emphasize the shadows and to
delineate the figures
Most of his paintings are in England, but he
is also represented in all the important galleries
of Europe In the National Gallery, London,
are the "Embarkation of the Queen of Sheba,"
"Embarkation of St Ursula," a "Seaport," and
others; in Madrid, the "Finding of Moses/' "Em-
barkation of St Paula'% in Munich, the ''Ex-
pulsion of Hagar and Ishmael/* "Hagar in the
Desert", in the Louvre (Paris), the "Landing
of Cleopatra at Tarsus," the "Village Dance,"
six marine views, and two landscapes, in the
Hermitage, St Petersburg, the ( Meeting of
Jacob and Rachel," the "Flight into Egypt/9
* Apollo and Marsyas "
Bibliography. A contemporary account of
Claude's life and art was written by his friend
and fellow artist, Joachim Randrart, Teutsche
Academic d&i edlen Ban , Bild- und Malerei-
kunste (Nuremberg, 1675-70) Consult also
D*Argenville3 Abregc de la vie des plus fameu®
pemties (Pans, 1745) , Cousin, Du vraif du
beau, et du lien (ib, 1853), and monographs
by Sweetzei (Boston, 1878) , Lady Dilke (Lon-
don, 1884) , Pattison, Claude Lorrain, sa vie
et ses oeuvres (Pans, 1884) , Dullea, Claude
Qelee, le Lorrain (London, 1887) , Grahame,
Claude Lori am, Painter and Etchet (ib,
1805), Rouyer (Paris, n d), Rose, Renais-
sance Masters and a Study of the Art of Claude
Lorraine (3d ed , New York, 1908) No satis-
factory monograph on Claude Lorrain has as
yet appeared
GELERT, JOHANNES SOPHUS (1852- )t
An American sculptor He was born at Nybel,
Schleswick, Denmark (now Prussia), and came
to the United States in 1887, becoming a citi-
zen five years later His studies were made at
the Royal Academy of Copenhagen and in Italy,
where a Danish government scholarship took
him He succeeded early in America and received
many important commissions and honors
Among his more important works aie the "Hay-
market Monument" in Chicago the statue of
General Grant in Galena, 111 , "Hans Christian
Andersen" and "Beethoven" in Chicago, "Den-
mark" (New York Custom House), and "Ro-
man Civilization/' four statues on the facade of
the Brooklyn Institute Museum, "Gothic Ait"
and "Napoleon," St Louis Museum, the statue
of Col J F Stevens, at Minneapolis, and the
extensive decorations of the courthouse at Hack-
ensack, N J.
GELIGiNTTE See EXPLOSIVES
GELIMER, ggl'i-mer or jel'-, or GILOtER,
gill-mer ot jtl'- The last King of the Vandals
in Africa He was a great-gi andson of Genseric,
the conqueror of Carthage, and founder of the
Vandal Kingdom in Africa After deposing his
cousin, Hilderic, about 530, and occupying the
throne, he was defeated (after he had put Hil-
deric to death) in the battles of Carthage and
Tricarnarum (533) by the Byzantine army under
Belisarms, and brought as a captive to Constan-
tinople It is said that when he walked as a
captive in the triumphal procession, he con-
stantly repeated the words of Solomon "Vanity
of vanities , all is vanity " He af tei ward retired
to his domain in Galatia, which had been be-
stowed upon him by the Emperor Justinian
GELL, gel, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836) An
English antiquary and traveler, the younger son
of Philip Gell, of Hopton, Derbyshire He was
educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, and for
some time was a fellow of Emmanuel College in
that university Save for a diplomatic mission
to the Ionian Islands (1800) and his service of
Caroline, Princess of Wales, mentioned below,
he devoted his time principally to topographical
and geographical studies and published in Lon-
don the following works, which, though not
marked by scholarship, contain much material
of value The Topography of Tioy (1804) , The
Geography and Antiquities of Ithaca (1807),
The Itinerary of Cheece wth a Commentary on
Pausamas and Strata (1810) The Itinerary of
the Morea (1817, new ed , 1827), Pompeiana
or, Observations upon the Topography, Edifices,
and Ornaments of Pompeii, in conjunction with
J. P Gandy, an interesting and beautiful work
(1817-19, Ser 2, 1832) , Narrative of a Journey
in the Morea (1823) , The Topography of Rome
and tts Vicinity (1834, new ed by Bunbury,
1846) , Rome and its Environs (map, 1834). In
August, 1814, Caroline, Princess of Wales, con-
sort of G-eorge IV, on her departure for the
GELLEUT
545
GELSEMITTM
Continent, appointed him as one of hei cham-
berlains In that capacity he attended her in
\arious parts of Ttaly, but, being attacked with
the gout, was soon obliged to lesign his situa-
tion In 1820 he was examined as a witness at
the bar of the House of Loids during the pro-
ceedings against her aftei she became Queen and
had returned to England he testified in her
favor (See CAROLINE, AMELIA ELIZABETH )
Subsequently he resided in Italy, principally at
Naples, having a house also at Rome, where he
occasionally took up his abode He died at
Naples and was mteried in the English bmial
ground of that city His onginal drawings of
classical rums, about 800 in number, were be-
queathed to the British Museum, these aie
exact and detailed
GELLEKT, gel'ert, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT
(1715-69) A noted German fabulist and pro-
fessor, of unusual personal influence in his day
He was born at Hamichen, Saxony, and studied
theology at Leipzig, where he afteiward passed
most of his life as tutor, teacher, professor, and
author. His didactic and leligious poems,
fables, plays, and novels were in their day im-
mensely popular, as were his lectures on morals
and literature. His Works (10 vols , 1769-74
and 1867) are types of the innocuous and ration-
alistic His Fabeln und Erzahlungen (1746)
and the religious poems are still often repub-
hshed separately His Tagebuch (1869) is the
best available biography Consult also his Life
by Donng (Greiz, 1833)
GEI/LIUS, AULTTS A Latin author of the
second century AD Little is known of his life
He is supposed to have been born at Rome,
where, at all events, he studied rhetoric Subse-
quently he proceeded to Athens to pursue the
study of philosophy On his return to Rome he
entered upon a legal career, without, however,
abandoning his literary pursuits Gelhus' well-
known work, The Attic Nights (Noctes Atticce),
begun during the long nights of winter in a
country house near Athens and completed dur-
ing the latter years of his life, is a> collection
of miscellaneous matter on language, antiqui-
ties, history, and literature, in 20 books, of
which the eighth is wanting. The work is des-
titute of any plan or arrangement, is disfigured
by archaisms, and derives its value mainly from
being a repository of curious knowledge, and by
its preservation of many extracts from Greek
and Latin works no longer extant The editio
princess appeared at Rome in 1469 , the earliest
critical edition is that of Gronovius (Leyden,
1706) , the most important editions aie those of
Hertz (Berlin, 1883-85, editto minor, Leipzig,
1886), and Hosius (Leipzig, 1903 this book
contains a good bibliography of writings on
Gellius) There are editions of selections, with
notes by Nail (London, 1888), and Knapp (New
York, 1895) There is an English translation
by Beloe (London, 1795). Consult the Intro-
duction to the edition by Knapp, Sandys, A
History of Olassic&l Scholarship, vol i (2d ed,
Cambridge, 1906), Nettleship, "The Noctes
Atticse of Aulus Gellius/' in Lectures and Es-
says (Oxford, 1885) , Knapp, "Archaism in
Aulus Gellms," in Classical Studies in Honour
of Henry Dnsler (New York, 1894) , Foster,
Studies in Ajroha/Mm in Aulus Cfellius (ib.,
1912)
GEIiJKTHATJSEN', geln-hou'zen. An ancient
town in the Prxissisun Province of Hesse-Nassau
(Map Germany, 03), situated on the nver
Kmzig, 27 miles northeast of Frankfort It is
sunounded by walls, and has the church of St
Mary, built in Transition style in the thirteenth
centuiy \vith four toweis (lecently restored) ,
the Rathaus , a building dating from the time of
Fiedenck I and supposed to be a guild house,
and a so-called Hexenturm (witches' tower)
On a small islet in the Kmzig lie some well-
preserved parts of an Imperial palace erected
by Fiedenck Baibarossa in the twelfth century
and destroyed by the Swedes in the Thirty
Years' Wai The town has also a monument to
Philip Reis, the alleged inventor of the tele-
phone and a native of Gelnhausen The town
once had the rank of an Imperial city and was
the tempoiary residence of several emperors It
has manufactures of rubber goods, electric lamps,
shoes, chemicals, cigars, sealing \vax, organs, and
has a trade in wine, fruit, and sandstone. Pop ,
1910, 4859
GE'LON' (Lat, from Gk Tfouv). Tyrant of
Gela and Syracuse He was the son of Dmo-
menes and a native of Gela His family was one?
of the oldest and most distinguished of that city
Gelon fiist nguies in history as general of horse
in the army of Hippocrates, Tyrant of Gela
On the death of the latter he contrived to obtain
the supreme power, 491 BC, and about 485 BC
made himself master of Syracuse also, to which
he transferred the seat of his government, and
which he rendeied the first Greek city in Sicily
All the inhabitants of Camarina, more than half
of those of Gela, and many from other neighbor-
ing towns, he brought to Syracuse His influence
soon extended itself over a great part of the
island At the time of the invasion of Xerxes
Gelon refused to come to the aid of the Greeks,
ostensibly because they would not make him
commander in chief He soon after came into
collision with the Carthaginians, but defeated
them in a decisive battle at Himera in 480 B c —
on the same day, it is said, on which the battle
of Salamis was fought He theieafter luled in
peace He is piaised as a merciful and wise
ruler, who was beloved by his people and hailed
as their deliveier and sovereign After his
death, about 478 B c , he was honored as a hero.
His brother Hiero succeeded him
GrELSE'MITJM (Neo-Lat, from It gelsomino>
jasmine, from Ar. yasmln, from Pers. y&smin,
jasmine) A drug, consisting of the rhizome and
rootlets of Gfelsemium sempermrens, a climbing
shrub of the natural order Logamacese, having a
milky juice, opposite lanceolate, shining leaves,
and axillary clusters of from one to five large,
funnel-shaped, very fragrant yellow flowers The
fruit is composed of two separable jointed fol-
licles, containing numerous flat- winged seeds.
The stem often runs underground foi a consider-
able distance The plant is a native of the
United States, growing on rich clay soil by the
side of sti earns near the coast, from Virginia to
Flonda and Texas Its principal constituents
are two alkaloids, gelsernme and gelseminine^ a
volatile oil, and gelsemmic acid The physio-
logical action of the drug is to paralyze the
motor centres, affecting successively the third,
fifth, and sixth nerves Its fatal action is due
to asphyxia fiom paralysis of the respiratory
centre In large doses it produces alarming
symptoms, which have terminated fatally
These appear to vary in different cases, but the
more prominent are pain in the forehead and in
the eyeballs, giddiness, a feeling of muscular
fatigue, slurred pronunciation, lajbored respira-
GELSEHKIBCHEH
tion, ptosis, wide dilatation of the pupils, and
impossibility of keeping an eicct postuie The
mind in most cases lemams clear until shoitly
before death The eaiiiest and most pi eminent
symptom of a fatal or dangeious dose is the
drooping of the eyelids, which indicates the im-
mediate admmistiation of stimulants, for when
the paralysis of the tongue, which, ensues, ex-
tends to the epiglottis, deglutition becomes im-
possible, and, unices the sufferer he placed in a
forward position, the epiglottis is apt to fall
back and close the windpipe The antidotes
which have been found most efficient are carhon-
ate of ammonia, brandy, ai omatic spirits of am-
monia, and morphine Gelsemium is not much
used in modern medicine on account of its dan-
gerous qualities and unceitam effects, but it has
proved valuable in some cases of malarial fever
and is occasionally used as a cardiac depressant
and in spasmodic affections and as a remedy for
iheumatism and neuralgia
GELSE^KIBCHEN, gel'zen-kirK'en A thriv-
ing industrial town on the Rlnne-Herne Canal
in the Prussian Province of Westphalia, 5 miles
north of Essen It has extensive coal mines,
large iron and steel works, rolling mills, soap
factories, and flour and saw mills, manufactuies
boilers, glass, mirrors, soap, chemicals, safes,
electric machinery, furniture, vehicles, bricks,
leather; and caines on a trade in giam,
\\ood, horses, and cattle Its lapid giowth is
due to the large coal deposits discovered in 1855
in the vicinity In 1910 5,600000 tons of coal
were mined It was made a city in 1875,
In 1003 several adjacent localities were incor-
porated with it, and the growth of the town
since has been lapid. Pop, 1852, 844, 1900,
36,935, 1910, 169,513. It is the headquarters
for many German labor organizations, and has a
museum of fire protection.
GKIiYES? hel'vas, Los. A small island in the
Gulf of Cabes, Mediterranean It was the scene
of a great battle between the Spaniards and the
Turks in 1790 Combined land and naval forces
of 13,000 Spaniards defended the island; but
when the Turks attacked, the Spanish com-
manders deserted The fleet of 65 vessels and
5000 men was immediately captured, and of the
8000 soldiers who stoutly defended the shore
from their trenches only 1000 were left at the
end of an eight weeks' siege, and most of them
were slaughtered It was a great blow, not only
to Spain, but to all Christendom.
G-E33CABA, ge-mu'ra (Aram, complement).
That portion of the two Talmuds, the Babylo-
nian and the Palestinian, containing the anno-
tations, discussions, and amplifications of the
Mishna, or Talmudical law, by the schools of
Babylon and Palestine The Babylonian Geonara
is far more complete than the Palestinian, as
well as more lucid, and is a more highly valued
authority It was not completed till about
600 A D The Palestinian Gemara was com-
pleted c 375 A D. See MISHNA, TALMUD
GEMATBIA. A Hebrew word, derived in a
transhteral way from the Greek vewparpta, geo-
m atria, geometry, and describing a system, of
uncertain antiquity, by which the Scriptures
were given mystic interpretation Its process
was to substitute for or find in a word another,
the numerical value of whose letters totaled
the same sum
CJEMBLOTHRS, SIGEBEET OE\ See SIGEBEBT
OF GEMBLOURS.
GEMBI/OUX, zhasr'bloo', A town of the
546 GKEMISTTJS
Belgian Province of Namur, 24 miles southeast
of Brussels (Map Belgium, C 4) It is noted
for its Benedictine abbey, founded in the tenth
centuiy and now occupied by the Royal Agri-
cultuial College It has laige i airway and en-
gine works Gembloux was the scene of the
defeat of the Dutch bv the Spanish undei Don
John of Austiia in 1578 Pop, 1910, 4759
GEM/INI (Lat , tains) The third constella-
tion of the zodiac, containing the two bright
stars Castor and Pollux, its sign is II It
contains a couple of interesting spectroscopic
binaries, £ and ?j Geminorum., the formei has
a penod of 10 days, 4 hours, while the latter
is a long-period variable of the Mna class and
runs through its phases in 229 days T\\o
noi>(B have appealed in this constellation the
first was discovered by Turner as a star of the
seventh magnitude at" Oxford in 1903, and the
second — of the fourth magnitude — by Enebo at
Domaas, Norway, in 1912, they are now, accoid-
ing to Barnard, of the sixteenth and eighth
magnitudes respectively
GEHHSTIAKI, FEANCESCO (1067-1762) A
famous Italian -violinist and composer, boin in
Lucca He \\as a pupil of Lunati and Coielli
(qv ) In 1714 he \vent to London, where,
through his sensational success as soloist and
teacher, he exerted a lasting influence upon the
art of violin playing. In 1749-55 he lived in
Paris, after vihieh time he leturned to London
His original compositions consist of 12 violin
sonatas and 12 concerti grossi However, his
most important woik is The Art of Playing on
the 'Violin, written in English and published
in London in 1751 It is the first instruction
book for the violin ever compiled, and in it
the principles laid down by Corelli are fully
explained
GEIO/MUS (Lat., from Gk re/u?os). A
Greek writer, probably of the first half of the
first century B c His birthplace is unknown,
although Rhodes is often given It is equally
uncertain where he lived, the claim on behalf
of Home being insufficiently established Of his
works only one is extant, the Introduction, to
Phenomena, an astronomical work, published
with Latin translation by Hilderic (Altorf,
1590), by Petau, in his Uianologian (Paris,
1630), and with a French translation by Halma,
in his Chronologie de Ptolemee (Paris, 1819)
Of his best works, the Arrangement of Mathe-
matics, comprising at least six books, was the
most important Fragments of this work have
been preserved by Pappus, Eutocms, and espe-
cially by Proelus, and form one of the chief
sources for the study of the early mathematical
history of the Gieeks
GrEMIS'TTTS (Lat, from Gk re/uo-rfo),
GEORGE, called GEQBGIUS PLETHON, and more
commonly GEMISTUS PLETHON. A Byzantine
philosopher. The exact dates of his birth and
death are uncertain, but he is known to have
lived between 1350 and 1450 He was probably
born at Constantinople, and the greater part of
his life was passed in the Peloponnesus, where
he probably died, almost a centenarian He was
one of the deputies sent by the Greek church
to the council which was held at Ferrara and
Florence in 1438-39, for the purpose of ar-
ranging a union between the Latin and Greek
churches Gemistus was more celebrated as a
philosopher than as a theologian In his tune
the Aristotelian philosophy reigned supreme,
but it had degenerated into a mere science of
547
words, from the study of which Gemistus turned
away disgusted and applied himself to Plato
Plato's philosophy so charmed him that thence-
forward he devoted hionself to its propagation,
and in furtherance of this view, when in Italy,
induced Cosmo de3 Medici to embrace it Cos-
mo's example was followed by others in Florence,
and thus a Platonic school was founded in the
West which flourished foi nearly 100 years
afterward. During the latter part of his life
Gemistus was engaged in bitter conflicts with
the most eminent of the Aristotelians, among
whom George of Trebizond held a high position,
and the discussion was cairied on with un-
seemly violence Consult Schultze, G-escMchte
der Philosophic der Renaissance, vol i (Jena,
1874) , Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grrceca, vols vm,
xn (12 vols, Hambuig, 1790-1809), Symonds,
The Renaissance in Italy, vol n (new ed , New
• York, 1897-98) For his own writings consult
Migne, Patrologia Q-rceca, vol cix (161 vols,
Paris, 1854-66).
GE3OOE, jenrAm& (Lat, buds). Peculiar
vegetative reproductive bodies which are formed
upon the thallus of certain liverworts See
HEPATIC^:
GrEMMELLAE-O, jem'mel-la'ro-, GAETANO
GIOEG-IO (1836-1904). A Sicilian naturalist,
born at Catania He was educated in that city
and in Naples and subsequently became pro-
fessor and rector at the University of Palermo.
His researches in archaeology and volcanology
are valuable, and the Monte Gemmellaro, a
volcanic formation caused by the eruption of
Mount Etna in 1886, was named after him His
works include Desenzwne di alcune specie
di minerah dei vulcani estinti di Patagonia
(1854-56), Pesci fossih della Sicilia (1858);
Btudi paleontologies sulla fauna del calcare a
Terebratula janitor (3 vols, 1868-76); La
fauna dei calcan (1887-99), I cvostacei dei
calcari (1890) , / celalopodi del Frias supenore
della regione occidentale della Sicilia (1904)
GrEHJOtl (gem/me) PASS, A mountain pass
across the Alps in Switzerland, at an altitude
of 7640 feet, and connecting the cantons of
Bern and Valais It contains a very dangerous
mule path along which travelers are now not
allowed to ride
G-EMMTJLE, jem'ul (from Lat gemmula,
little bud, dim of gemma, bud) In biology,
( 1 ) a mass of cells cut off from the parent for
reproduction, (2) a hypothetical self -multiply-
ing particle upon which inheritance depends
(1) Among animals, gemmules are found m
the groups of sponges and Polyzoa In sponges,
as winter approaches, numbers of the migratory
cells form an aggregation in which two layers
are eventually distinguishable The central
cells are loaded with yolk, the cells of the
outer layer become club-shaped and arrange
themselves in a sort of high epithelium This
layer of cells secretes a cuticular membrane
around the inner mass of cells and forms a
layer of dumbbell-shaped spicules close set in a
radial fashion The central cells are those from
which, the embryo is to arise next spring The
outer layer is protective The gemmules thus
constituted are set free when winter kills the
sponge tissue. Next spring the inner cells grow
and the bonds of the outer layer are broken.
Such gemmules are found chiefly in fresh-water
sponges, but within the last decade they have
been found in marine sponges also In the fresh-
water Polyzoa the gemanules are of somewhat
different charactei and are called statoblasts
The statoblast arises in a special thieadlike
oigan, the funiculus, that is composed of ecto-
derm within and of mesoclerm without The
ectodermal core prohfeiates to foim a hollow
square, which later flattens and eventually pro-
duces the tough cuticula by which the statoblast
is covered The outei mesodermal layer thick-
ens, stores food matenal, and becomes enveloped
by the ectoderm In addition to the cuticula,
which tlie ectodermal layer secretes, the stato-
blast is often piovided with spines and a float
which permits the statoblast to swim In the
spring the embryo develops within the brown
cuticula, buists open this shell, and emerges to
lay the foundations of a new colony Both of
the foregoing gemmules are devices for enabling
the species to outlast the winter
(2) The hypothetical material basis of in-
heritance called gemmule by Darwin has been
recognized by one name or another by almost
every philosophic writer in biology, other nearly
or quite synoymous teims are the physiological
units, of Spencer, the bioblast of Beale, the pan-
gene of De Viies, the plasome of Wiesner, the
micella of Nageh, the plastidule of Haeckel and
Elssberg, the biophore of Wei&mann, somacule
of Foster, idioblast of Heitweg, idiosome of
Whitman, biogen of Verworn, and gemniule of
Haacke The hypothesis lias arisen on account
of the necessity of assuming a structure to pro-
toplasm intermediate between the visible foam-
work and granules and the invisible molecules
The line of argument is briefly this The qual-
ities of the adult are inherent in the egg and
also in each of the cleavage spheres, each
quality is represented by material particles,
which divide when the cell divides , the particles
ai e not molecules, for it is hardly conceivable that
a molecule stands for a somatic quality, there-
fore theie must be some sort of unit groups of
interacting and internally associated molecules
Dan\ m's hypothesis (see PAN GENESIS ) was that
each cell thiew off one or more gemmules, they
floated in the blood to the germ cells and Ibe-
came lodged in these cells Galton tested this
theory by transplanting the blood of one species
of hare into a second The progeny of the
second was not influenced by the blood of the
first species Weismann believed in no such
migration of gemmules The gemmules of the
germ cells receive no influx of gemmules from
outside by which their characters might be
changed, on the contrary, the composition of
the germ cells is unchanged, says Weismann,
except as a result of crossing or internal spon-
taneous modifications See EMBRYOLOGY
GEMOT, ge-mot'' (AS gemot, assembly)
Among the Anglo-Saxons, a public assembly of
freemen or men of noble rank for the purpose
of legislative or judicial action, but gemot, or
moot, is also used for any formal meeting
Besides the great council of the nation, the
witenagemot ( q v ) , there were among the
Anglo-Saxons various minor motes, or moqts,
which were local bodies dealing with local
affairs. There was a, shire-gemot, or county
court, which met usually twice a year; a burg-
gemoty and a hundred- gemot (see HTJNDBED)
which met every month, and a halle-gemote,
or lord's court These institutions are re-
garded as being derived from the old Teutonic
assemblies where every freeman had a voice,
and where a clashing of arms betokened the ap-
proval, and a groan the rejection, of a plan
GEMS
548
GEMS
GEMS (from Lat gemma) Precious or
beautiful stones, especially those cut 01 engiaved
101 u'se as jewels or seals The ait of engiav-
ing gems at the earliest period of the Egyptian
monarchy was comparatively unknown, although
beads and vases were cut out of many vaiieties
of stone About the beginning of the foiuth
dynasty scarabs (see SCARATVEUS) of obsidian
or crystal began to take the place of the wooden
cylindrical intaglios pieviously used as seals,
of which a few examples have been found at
Abydos and Nagada Beginning \uth the eight-
eenth dynasty, scaiabs aie counted by thou-
sands While the beetle foims aie usually
naturalistic, the flat underside affords a splendid
surface for hieroglyphic engraving Historically
the scarab is of especial importance, because
adopted and improved by the Phoenicians, the
Greeks, and the Etiuscans Howevei, other
forms were numeious m Egypt An oblong
of green jasper in the Louvre shows on one
side Thothmes II ( 1800 B c ) killing a lion,
and on the other in his war chariot drawing
his bow A square signet of yellow -jasper is
in the British Museum engraved with the name,
titles, and horse of Amenophis II (about 1450
B c ) Figurines of deities and animals were
carved out of amethysts, emeialdb, agates,
sardonyx, carnehan, obsidian, haematite, lapib
lazuli, etc There are in mu&euins numeious
cats, lions, crocodilevs, eagles, frogs hippopotami,
and other symbols Under the Ptolemies and
Romans the 'Gnostic gems, called abiaxas, gen-
erally of lapis lazuli, bloodstone, and jasper,
begin to appeal , but these are made by the
same process as the Greek, from which they
were derived The earliest engraved gems are
Babylonian, always until a late period in the
form of cylinders from 1 to 2 inches long and
about ^ or % of an incli thick, pierced through
their long axis for a cord or pin, and used for
impressing the sign manual by rolling on soft
clay. Their universal use multiplied them to
such an extent that they form our main source
of information as to the periods and themes of
Babylonian sculpture, the favorite theme was
the figures of the patron god and goddess being
worshiped by the owners of the gem, and the
figures are arranged in a single friezehke row
There are also many scenes purely mythological,
such as the legends of Gilgamesh, the Babylonian
Hercules, of Merodach, of Samas, of Raman,
and other deities The seals of the ancient
kings Sargam (c3850 BC ), Naramsm (c3800),
and Ur-gur (c2800 BC ), of Gilgamesh breaking
the lion's back, of the captives of Erech, are
treated in a conventional style that indicates
long traditions. These Babylonian traditions,
together with the cylinder seal, were adopted
by the Assyrians, but with less use of the nude
and a narrower range of themes Also the
outlines are sharper and the details cleaner
It was the Assyrian style which most influenced
the gem cutting of Persia, the seal of Darius,
with the King in his war chariot, is only a
puny copy of the corresponding spirited As-
syrian scenes In late Assyrian times the roll-
ing cylinder was partly replaced by the conical
signet with figures cut on the base Meanwhile
all the Orient had copied Babylonian models
The Phoenicians, Hittites, Syrians, and other
races used cylinders of similar style. A cruder
style, with animals and heads, came into vogue
under the Parthians, often accompanied with
Pahlavi inscriptions Among the Jews the use
of signets (see KING) was common, and the
breastplate of the high priest consisted of 12
cvlinducal stones of ditteient colois — sard,
topaz, emeiald, caibimcle, sapphire, jasper,
jacinth, agate, amethyst, chiysohte, beiyl, onyx
— each engia\ed with the name of one of the
12 tubes, but no Hebrew engiaAed btones
eaihci than the fifth or sixth contuiy BC are
known The eaihest Gieek engiaved gems are
those revealed by the recent excavations in
Ciete These are triangular prisms with hieio-
glyphs, dating fiom befoie 3000 BC and made
of* the native soft steatite, which later was
superseded by the harder carnehan and chalced-
on> About 2000 B c the picture signs began
to 'be supeiseded by script, and simultaneously
the engia\ers acquued great skill in lendering
animal forms The Cretans used engraved gems
not only as sealb but also for inlaying, and in
the palace at Cnobsus was found a lapidary's*
shop with unfinished pieces of maible, steatite,
]aspei, and ber\l Also piehistoric, and closely
resembling the Cietan gems, are those unearthed
by Dr Schhemann at Mycenae, wheie a lapi-
darVs shop like the one at Cnossus has since
been found While theie is no mention of
seals in the Iliad 01 the Odyssey, Solon about
600 B c had a law forbidding engraveis to re-
tain the impressions of seals made by them
Mnesdichus, the father of Pythagoias, who
h\ed about the same time, was an engraver of
gems Theodoras of Samos about 540 B c made
for Pohciates the famous ring with engraved
emerald that he tried to lose by throwing into
the sea (Heiodotus, 111, 41) At the period of
the Persian wars signet rings were in common
use, and later the writings of the Platonists
and Stoics constantly allude to gems The flute
player Ismemas (437 B c ) purchased an emerald
engraved with the figure of Amymone One of
the Ptolemies presented as a most precious gift
his portrait engraved on an emerald to Lucullus ,
and Cleopatra had a gem with Bacchus
Although the principal varieties of decorative
stones were known to the Greeks and Romans,
yet, owing to the absence of scientific and chemi-
cal analysis, they appear to have distinguished
them only by color, specific gravity, and den-
sity The nomenclatuie, too, has caused con-
fusion, so that it is impossible to identify all
the stones mentioned by Theophrastus and
Pliny. The ancients seldom engraved diamonds,
rubies, or sapphires, being content with stones
of less hardness and value The principal stones
they used were ( 1 ) the carnehan and its more
transparent variety the sard, m common use
in the days of Plato (so called from Saidis in
Lydia, but chiefly obtained from India and
Babylonia) , (2) the chalcedony, used for seals
and reliefs, (3) the onyx, or nail stone, vari-
ously described by Pliny and his predecessors,
but distinguished by a white layer resembling
the nail, (4) the mccolo, or J&gyptolla,, obtained
from the onyx, a blue spot with a black zone
encircling it, (5) the sardonyx which was a
variety of the onyx, having black, blue, white,
and red colors, and particularly used for cameos
and vases, by cutting down the lighter-colored
layers to the darkest for a background to the fig-
ures, (6) the agate, or achates, so named from
a Sicilian river, embracing many varieties, as the
laspachates, dendryachates, but confounded with
the jasper, considered a charm against scorpions
and spiders, used for whetstones, and as a talis-
man by athletes, and obtained from Egypt,
GEMS
549
GEMS
Gieece, and Asia, (7) plasma, or the prasius,
loot of emerald, its varieties \\eie the wolo-
chates and niliovi, (8) numerous ^alletles of
the jasper, green, blood red, yellow, black, mot-
tled or porcelain, and even blue, weie employed
for signets at the Roman period, and procured
from India, Persia, and Cappadocia, (9) gar-
nets, the granatici, or led hyacinths of antiq-
uity, principally in use in the latter days of
the Roman Empire, (10) the carbunculus, sup-
posed by some to be the name given by the
ancients to the ruby, brought from India, Caia-
mantis, Carchedon, and Anthemusia, (11) the
hyacmthus, or jacinth, a yellow vanety of the
garnet, used for signets, and imported fiom
Ethiopia and Arabia, (12) the lyncunum, or
lychms, the ancient name of the true modern
jacinth, (13) several varieties of the emerald,
or smaragdus, as the Bactrian or Scythian, sup-
posed to be a green ruby, principally denved
from the emerald mines at Zabora in the neigh-
borhood of Coptos, (14) the beryl, obtained
from India, cut in shape of a hexagonal pyra-
mid, used at an early period and for engiavmg,
(15) the amethyst, brought from Arabia Petrsea
and Armenia Minor, used for intaglios at all
periods, (16) the sapphirus, supposed by some
to be lapis lasfuh, brought from Media and m
use among the Egyptians and Persians, (17)
the anthrax, supposed to be the ruby, (18) the
topaz, a name applied by the ancients to a
green stone found by the Troglodytes in the
island of Cytis in the Red Sea, and first sent
by Philemon to Berenice, out of which a statue
of Arsinoe was made and placed in the so-called
"golden temple" by Ptolemy Philadelphus , (19)
the chrysohthuSj (20) chrysoprase^ (21) the
magnes, or lodestone, used for cylinders and
gems of a late period, (.22) the green tourma-
Une, or avanturme, (23) the obsidian, four
elephants made of which were dedicated by
Augustus in the Temple of Concord, besides
which we read of a statue of Menelaus, made of
the same material, returned to the Hehopohtans
by Tiberius; (24) the opal opahtes, obtained
from India, the largest of which then known
was of the size of a hazelnut, (25) the adamas,
of which seven varieties were known to the an-
cients, used only for cutting other gems, or
worn rough, but not engraved, or even faced
Other stones m Pliny's list had fanciful names,
as (26) the aromatites of Arabia and Egypt,
so called from its fragrance, (27) the alec-
tonus, worn by the wrestler Milo, so called from
being taken out of the gizzard of a fowl, (28)
the aspilates, a fiery stone, said by Democritus
to be found in the nest of the Arabian birds
In the selection of stones for engraving the gem
engravers adapted the material to the subject
Bacchanalian subjects were often engraved on
amethysts, marine, on beryls, martial, on ear-
nehan, sards, and red jaspers; rural, on green
jasper, celestial, on chalcedonies Virtues were
also superstitiously attributed to the different
varieties of gems Thus, the amethyst was sup-
posed to be a protection against the influence
of wine, and Hercules engraved on a Median
stone, against colic
Among Etruscan products were scarabs en-
tirely carved out of sard, carnelian, and agate,
with engravings often ofi exquisite work, but
generally narshy and sometimes of severe style,
with subjects derived from the earliest Hellenic
myths, and occasional inscriptions in the jEtrus-
can language, the names of the personages repre-
sented, seldom moie than one figure appealing
on the gem The subject is suiioundod with a
guilloehe, 01 engrailed b^idei, and the &>caiabs
were pieiced thiough their long axis, to set
as rings or to "\\eai as othei objects of attire
The contents of Etruscan tombs shovv how the
numerous mipoxted gems, both Oriental and
Gieek, furnished the models to native aitibts
The Romans of the latei Republic collected and
copied Etruscan and Greek engiaved gems,
laigely set as lings The device of Scipio Afri-
canus was a head of Syphax, that of Sulla,
the submission of Jugnrtha, of Pompey, a lion
cairymg a sword, and of Csesar, Venus armed
with a dart Scaurus, the stepson of Sulla,
had a collection of gems, dactyliotUeca, Pom-
pey sent the collection of Mithndates as an of-
fering to the Capitol, Caesai, to outvie his great
competitor, presented six such collections to the
shrine of Venus Genetrix, and Maicellus, an-
other to the cella of the Palatine Apollo At
the commencement of the Empiie the portiaits
follow the costume and art of the period, the
hair is expiessed by bioad stiokes, the com-
positions raiely contain more than two figures
Artists of great merit were Dioscondes, Apollo-
nides, and Chionms
After the Antonmes the ait lapidly declined,
and portraits after Severn s are lare, although
even that of Mauricius is said to occui At
the middle period of the Empire the work is
exceedingly rude, often merely scratched out by
a diamond point in carnelians, jaspers, and gai-
nets The gems of this latter period are some-
times square, generally, however, the long or
convex oval During the Empire, cameos (see
CAMEO), or gems engraved in relief, the an-
cient ectypa sculptura, were much in vogue
The smaller ones were used for rings, the
larger, which are often perforated, are supposed
to have been often attached to the dress as
phaleice They were woiked out with the dia-
mond point The first great cameos are those
of the Ptolemies, such as the great Naples
cameo of Zeus by Sosus, that of Ptolemy and
Arsinoe in the Hermitage of St Petersburg,
the onyx cap of Ptolemy at the Cabinet des
Medailles in Paris, the famous Farnese cup, the
vase of St Martin d'Agaune — all masterpieces
and serving as models for the artists of the
Augustan age. To the early Roman Empire
belong some superb pieces, such as the "Triumph
of Augustus," a sardonyx in the Vienna collec-
tion, and the so-called "Apotheosis of Augustus"
in the Biblioth&que Rationale in Paris, also a
sardonyx The composition in these Koman
works is elaborate, and the figures numerous
and sometimes in several lows On the Vienna
sardonyx Jupiter, Augustus, and Roma are en-
thioned above, in the middle row are Earth,
Ocean, Abundance, Germanicus, Victory, and a
triumphal chaiiot, while below are German and
other captives The cameo at St Petersburg
is 1 foot long, and that in the Marlborough col-
lection, with the heads of Didius, Juhanus, and
Mantio Scantilla, is S1/^ inches long by 6 inches
high Still larger carvings are in the form of
vases, cups, boxes
The subject matter of classic gems embraces
tljie whole circle of ancient art and follows the
laws of its development, animal forms being
succeeded by those of deities and subjects de-
rived from the battles of Greekjs and Amazons
and centaurs, the exploits of Hercules and other
heroes; then by scenes from tragedians and later
GEMS
myths, and finally by portiaits, historical
sentations, and allegories The mscuptions con-
sist of the names of artists (often forgeries),
sometimes in the genitive case, but often accom-
panied with the verb hrotet, made, addresses
to individuals, gnomic or other sayings, indi-
cating that the gems are amulets against
demons, thieves, and various evils, or charms
for procuring love, the names of the possessois,
and sometimes addresses, occasionally even dis-
tichs of poetry, and various mottoes These
inscriptions were often added by subsequent
possessors and are not of the age of the gem
itself
The chief implement used by the ancient en-
gravel s (see LAPIDARY'S WOEK) appears to
have been made by splitting diamonds into
splints with a heavy hammer and then fixing
these points like glaziers' diamonds into iron
instruments, with which the work was executed
by hand The drill was often used for hollow-
ing out the deeper and larger parts of the \A ork,
before the diamond point was brought into
operation, and emery powder was used for
polishing The wheel, a minute disk of copper,
secured to the end of a spindle, and moistened
with olive oil, emery po\\der, or diamond dust,
and driven by a lathe, does not appear to ha\e
come into use till the Byzantine epoch It has
been conjectured that tlie aitist used lenses of
some kind, or globes filled with water, to exe-
cute his minute ^oik, but the ancient, like the
modern engraver, rather felt than saw his way
A more primitive method \~sas that in which
nothing but a copper tool was used, moistened
as described A still more primitive technique
is that of many rude, early, or provincial Baby-
lonian cylinders, where the drill is the only in-
strument, and the forms are indicated either by
larger or smaller hollows connected usually by
straight lines
The decadence in sculpture was very quickly
felt in gem cutting, which produced little, and
that of hardly any value, after the second cen-
tury A D Even the small skill shown in Gnostic
and" early Christian examples was lost, and the
Merovingian and Carohngian monarchs, except
in the case of monograms engraved on signet
rings, were obliged to use antique gems, instead
of those engraved by the artists of their day
Rock crystals, however, were employed in a By-
zantine style of art, with sacred subjects, in the
ninth century, and a few other examples have
been preserved m the treasury of St. Mark's
at Venice, and in Pans (Bibhotheque Natio-
nale). The art was all but lost m the West,
except for a few pieces such as the Gothic rings
of the Guerrazar treasury, the seal of Lothair at
Aix-la-Chapelle, and the crucifix of Conques It
was revived during the pontificate of the Vene-
tian, Paul II, himself a collector, by Lorenzo
de' Medici (1449-92), who had Giovanni delle
Corniole, at Florence, and Domenico dei Camei,
at Milan, work under his patronage A subse-
quent school of gem engravers originated with
Pietro Maria da Pescia, who worked for Leo
X, the chief representatives of the school are
Michelino, Matteo de' Benedetti, the celebrated
painters Francia, M A Moretti, Caradossa of
Milan, Leonardo da Vinci, J Taghacarne, Gio-
vanni Bernardi of Castel Bolognese, celebrated
for a Tityus copied from Michelangelo These
•were succeeded by Matteo del Nassaro of
Verona, who worked for Francis I and produced
a crucifixion on heliotrope, so that the red spots
3 GEMS
seemed diops of blood issuing from the wounds
of Chust, Caiagho, \\ho flourished in Poland
about 1570, Veleria dei Belli, who chiefly em-
ployed rock crystal, Marmita, Domenico di Polo,
Nanm, Anichmi of Ferrara, and Alessandro
Cesau, celebrated for a cameo head of Phocian,
Dei Rossi, a Milanese, who engiaved the laigest
cameo of modem times, Giacomo da Trezzo,
celehiated foi us portiaits, -ft ho is said to have
been the fiist to engrave on the diamond (in
1564) — an honoi disputed, howevei, by Birago,
anothei Milanese, who made a portrait of Don
Carlos and the arms of Spam on this gem
The ait, which had declined at the close of the
sixteenth centuiy in Italy, flounshed in the sev-
enteenth century in Germany undei Rudolph
II, for whom Lehinann engraved at Vienna, and
in France, -\\here Coldore worked for Hemy IV
and Louis XIII In the seventeenth centuiy Sir-
letti, who died at Rome in 1737, excelled in por-
traits and copied antique statues with great ex-
cellence The two Costan?i weie celebrated about
1700, one for the head of Nero on a diamond
Rega of Naples is said to have come nearest
to the antique Natter of Nuiemberg, who died
in 1763, is celebrated foi his intaglios, Guay
and Barier weie celebiated in the French school,
and the English pioduced Reisen, who died in
1723, Glaus, who died in 1739, Smart, cele-
brated for the lapidity of his works, and his
pupil Seaton, a Scotchman, who engiaved por-
traits of the great men of his day The greatest
aitist of the age, however, was Natter Of the
subsequent Italian school, Ghinghi, Girometti,
Ceibara, Bernini, and Putentati are much
piaised The nineteenth century produced Mar-
chant, Burch, Wray, and Tassie, while Pis-
trucci, celebrated for his charming cameos, Wei-
gall, and Saulini, who made intaglios, complete
the list.
With respect to ancient gems in the Middle
Ages they were preserved in magnificent book-
bindings— especially of manuscripts of the Bible
— in reliquaries, eibonums, shrines, chasses, and
other ecclesiastical vessels, in \\hich they were
set The collections of St Mark's, Venice, of
Aix-la-Chapelle and other churches, the Bibho-
theque Nationale at Pans, the cabinets of the
museums of Florence, Vienna, St Petersburg,
etc , show how this was done by Byzantine,
Carohngian, Romanesque, and Gothic artists
The collecting of antique gems for their own
sake, as examples of ancient art, commenced
with Lorenzo de' Medici, who formed the Floren-
tine collection and had his name incised on his
gems The large cameos of the European col-
lections, however, appear to have been brought
by the Crusaders from the East The French
collection dates from Charles IX and was aug-
mented by the successive kings of France, it is
very rich in gems of all kinds, that of Berlin,
containing the united cabinets of the Elector of
Brandenburg and the Margrave of Anspach, col-
lected by Stosch, consists of nearly 5000 stones
The Vienna collection, far less numerous, is re^
markable for its large cameos In England the
collection of the British Museum, collected
originally by Townley, Hamilton, Payne-Knight,
and Cracherode, consists of about 1500 stones,
some of great beauty and merit, but is very poor
in cameos The private collection of the Duke
of Devonshire, formed in the last half century,
comprised upward of 500 intaglios and cameos,
including some of the finest known. The
Pulzky collection contains many rare and choice
GEMS
551
GEMS
intaglios A celebrated collection, the Poma-
towski, formed upon the basis of the old col-
lection of Stanislas, last King of Poland, was
so filled with forgenes by its last possessor,
executed by Roman artists, with inscriptions by
Diez, that it entirely lost its value on dispersion
The Hertz collection was remarkably rich in
fine Etruscan searabsei and other intaglios The
Tyszkiewiez collection enriched the Boston Mu-
seum with 'many fine pieces The Morgan col-
lection, in the American Museum of Natural
History, New York, begun in 1899 and added
to since, is one of the largest There aie in
existence probably about 10,000 gems reputed
to be antique Yet these are only a small
portion of those formerly existing During
the Renaissance numerous and successful imita-
tions (see GEMS, IMITATION) of antique gems
were made and the signatures of Greek and Ro-
man artists were manufactured Such forgeries
are still frequent
Bibliography. The chief ancient literary
sources of information about gems are Theo-
phrastus, who wrote irepl \lduv at the end of
the fourth century BC, and the thirty -seventh
book of Pliny's 'Natural History, that is mainly
a compilation from Theophrastus and othei
Gieek and Latin authors, Babelon, La graiure en
pierres fines (Paris, 1894) , King, Antique Gems
(London, 1866), id, Antique Gems and Rings
(ib, 1872); id, Engraved Gems (ib, 1885),
Middleton, Engraved Gems of Classical Times
( Cambridge, 1891 ) A pioneer for the Babylonian,
Assyrian, Syrian, Phoenician, and Hittite schools
is Menant, Les pietres gtavees de la Haute Asie
(1883-86) Consult also Dana, Manual of Min-
eralogy and Lithology (3d ed , New York, 1878) ,
Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North Amer-
ica (ib , 1890) , Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen
(3 vols , Leipzig, 1900) ; Bauer, Precious Stones
(Philadelphia, 1903) , Claremont, The G-em-Cut-
ter's Craft (London, 1906) , Kunz and Steven-
son, The Book of the Pearl (New York, 1908) ,
Wodiska, Book of Precious Stones (ib , 1910) ,
Osborne, Engraved Gems (ib , 1912) } Kunz, Curi-
ous Lore of Precious Stones (Philadelphia, 1913) ,
and on prehistoric Cretan gems, articles by A J
Evans in the Journal of Hellenic Studies and
other periodical publications. Important cata-
logues are Prendeville, Antique Gems of Prince
Poniatowski (London, 1857) , Engraved Gems m
the British Museum, (ib, 1888), Babelon, Le
cabinet des antiques a la Bibliotheque Rationale
(Paris, 1887), id, Catalogue des camees de la
Bibliotlieque Rationale (ib, 1897); Southesk,
Catalogue of [hisl Collection of Antique Gems
(London, 1909) , Fitzwilham Museum, Catalogue
of the Ivories, Gems, etc (New York, 1912)
GKEMS, IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL The high
appreciation in which gems were held by the
ancients naturally led to the 'manufacture of
imitations, and as early as the time of Pliny
imitation opals and emeralds were well known.
Seneca mentions that Democritus invented a
process for making imitation emeralds by giving
a green color to rock crystal According to
Thomas Aqumas, emerald, hyacinth, ruby, sap-
phire, and topaz were made in the twelfth cen-
tury The "Sa-cro Catino" of the cathedral of
Genoa, and the celebrated table of Solomon
taken, by Vespasian from the temple at Jeru-
saleniy are known to have been imitations The
powder of crystal was largely used in the manu-
facture of imitation gems among the Romans,
with, the result that thousands of spurious gems
accurately imitating the sapphne and the ruby
were passed upon the uninitiated, indeed, mod-
ern examination shows that many of the famous
gems of antiquity weie made simply of glass
Imitation Gems Imitation gems may be
divided into two groups, imitation and counter-
feit The first includes mineral substitutes
and doublets and tuplets, the second, gems
made from natural substances by chemical
means The first class includes quaitz, white
Brazilian topaz, and the colorless varieties of
beiyl, emerald, sapphire, and zircon, which have
been sold as diamonds Colored varieties of
quartz are frequently substituted for other
gems, thus, the yellow varieties, as cairngorm
and citrine, are sold as topaz, and the purple
vaneties of quartz as the Oriental amethyst
The application of heat to certain gems, such
as topaz and sapphire, frequently renders them
colorless and increases their brilliancy, in con-
sequence of which they are cut and sold as
imitation diamonds Doublets and triplets are
thin plates of a genuine gem attached to a
valueless backing by means of a thin layer of
gum mastic Those imitation gems that are
made by chemical processes aie geiieially a special
variety of glass known as paste, or strass, which
consists of pure powdered quartz ipieferably
rock crystal) 38-59 parts, reel lead 28-53 parts,
and dry potassium carbonate 8-14 paits These
proportions admit of considerable variation, and
arsenious oxide, borax, potassium nitrate, alu-
minium oxide, and calcium carbonate are fre-
quently added The ingredients are powdered
separately, carefully mixed, and heated in a
sand crucible The heat is gradually raised to
fusion and is maintained and carefully regu-
lated at that temperature for about 30 hours,
after which it is gradually lowered The value
of the pioduct depends chiefly on the regularity
of the temperature, the intimacy of the previous
admixture, and the slowness of cooling, and is
much increased by prolonged fusion
This glass forms the basis ot nearly all of
the imitation gems, and the imitation diamonds
are cut directly from it The required tint for
the colored gems is imparted by the solution in
the paste of certain metallic oxides and other
substances, as is shown in the following formu-
las amethyst, paste 1000 parts, glass of anti-
mony 8 parts, cobalt oxide 5 parts, purple of
Cassius 0 2 part, lieryl, paste 1000 parts, glass
of antimony 7 parts, and cobalt oxide 0.4 part,
carbuncle, paste 1000 parts, glass of antimony
500 parts, purple of Cassius 4 parts, and man-
ganese dioxide 4 parts, emerald, paste 1000
parts, copper oxide 8 parts, and chromium oxide
0 2 part, garnet, paste 1000 parts, with variable
proportions of purple of Cassius, ruby, paste
1000 parts, glass of antimony 40 parts, purple
of Cassius 1 part, and gold 1 part, sapphire,
paste 1000 parts, cobalt oxide 14-25 parts,
topaz, paste 1000 parts, glass of antimony 40
parts, and purple of Cassius 1 part The tem-
perature at which these mixtures are fused, and
the time occupied in fusion, naturally affect the
product, and the proportion of the colorless in-
gredients also varies considerably The manu-
facture of these imitation gems is an important
industry in Switzerland and in various parts
of France and Germany Agate? carnehan,
chalcedony, and onyx, for making jewelry and
for engraving, have been artificially stained at
Oberstem and elsewhere m Germany. The
stone is soaked in oil or other organic liquid and
GEMS
552
GEMSBOK
then boiled in strong sulphuric acid The or-
ganic matter absoibed by the stone is thus car-
bonized, and a black coloi is pioduced A red
color may be obtained by soaking the stone in
a, solution of ferrous sulphate, and a deep blue
color lesults by afterward soaking in a solution
of potassium fenicyanide
The 'manufacture of imitation pearls is an im-
portant industry The pearls are made by coat-
ing the inner surfaces of glass beads with a
pieparation made from the scales of certain
fishes This extract is piepared as follows
Several pounds of scales aie washed in fresh
watei to lemove dirt, and they are then churned
for se\eral liouis in cold fiesh water, and the
mass subjected to pressuie in a linen bag The
silvery, lustious i minings are caught and set
aside, and the operation repeated until the
scales have lost their silvery appearance The
i minings, to which a little ammonia has been
added, are put aside to clarify, care being taken
to pi event putrefaction The sediment is
washed repeatedly with fresh water and left to
settle, when the washings are quite clear, the
lustrous sediment is bottled with its own volume
of alcohol, shaken, and allowed to settle Ihe
alcohol is then decanted off, and the opeiation
repeated until the sediment has lost its \\atei
and is of the consistency of butter For use, the
preparation is mixed in small quantities i\ith
a, hot aqueous solution of gelatin, to \\hich a
small quantify of alcohol has, been added In
the manufacture of coloied perils the desired
shade is obtained by the addition of some suit-
able coal tai dyestuff
Artificial Gems As eailv as 1837 Gaudin
obtained rubies by fusing alum in a carbon
crucible at a high* temperature , a small quan-
tity of chromic oxide was used to give the red
color In 1847 Ebelman made the same experi-
ment, using boracic acid as a flux Sainte-
Clatre Deville and Garon, in 1858, described va-
rious processes by which they obtained small
crystals of white and green corundum, rubies,
sapphires, etc Fremy and TTeil, in 1877, were
able to produce crystals that possessed the form
of natural rubies and easily scratched topaz.
Then process involved the fusion of lead oxide
and pure alumina in a clay crucible, holding
the mass m fusion until the silica of the clay
united with the lead, leaving the alumina in
crystallized masses In 1S88 Fiemy and Ver-
neuil announced their successful preparation of
artificial rubies by heating to redness a mixture
of barium fluoride and alumina containing a
trace of potassium bichromate In 1902-04
Veraeml described a new and eminently suc-
cessful method of preparing gem rubies of large
size and fine quality The process makes use
of a vertical oxyhydiogen blowpipe whose ory-
gen tube contains a fine screen through which
finely divided pure alumina mixed with 2%
per cent of chromium oxide can be passed Un-
dei the orifice of the blowpipe is a small rod of
fused alumina on which the flame impinges
Using coal gas, the flame temperature is main-
tained at 1800° F. to 2000" F with reducing
action. The small particles of oxides falling
through the flame melt and build up a pear-
shaped mass on the lower support, which must
he lowered as the mass increases The rate of
formation is 12 caiats per hour, and the limit
of size 80 caiats The annual output of the
Pans factory is 5,000,000 carats, at an average
cost uncut of 25 cents per carat.
Artificial Diamonds J B ILinna^ (1880)
and K S Mai&den (1SS1) announced the pro-
duction of artificial diamonds, subsequent teats
proved their product to be caiborundum Later
H Moissan, bv means of the electric furnace
and the ingenious inti eduction of uon as a
matrix, produced genuine diamonds of minute
size Moissan's process is briefly as follows
Pure iron is melted with evcess of puie carbon
prepared from sugai in the electric furnace,
employing a temperature of 4000° C and using
700 ampeies of current at 40 volts The hot
carbon ciucible containing the molten mass is
suddenly plunged in cold water and cooled be-
low red heat Under these conditions the cool-
ing of the exterior exerts great pressuie on the
interior of the mass and causes part of the
carbon to liquefy and deposit minute crystals
These crystals are subsequently recovered by
dissolving the mass of cooled iron, and fuither
purified from giaphite and silica
Tiie electric furnace has yielded another prod-
uct ^hich, while, strictly speaking, it is not a
synthetic gem, is nevertheless essentially an
artificial gem Impel feet rubies, chips, and
small stones are fused in the furnace, together
with a small amount of coloring oxide, such as
that of chiommm The fused product is then
cut and polished, and the result is a gem of good
color and fanly laige size Emeralds and other
colored stones "have been made by this method,
and so important has the industry become that
the couits have been called upon to decide what
constitutes an artificial gem A decision which
has applied to the rubies was obtained, in which
it was decided that the woid applied only to the
red-colored corundum or anhydrous aluminium
oxide that also occurs already formed in nature
Bibliography De Fontonelle and Malepeyre,
Glass, Artificial Stones, etc (Paris, 1854) ,
Streeter, Previous Stones and Gems (London,
1879) , Tassm, Descriptive Catalogue of the Col-
lections of Gems in- the United States National
Museum (Washington, 1902) ; Moissan, Le four
electrique (Pans, 1897) j id, trans by De
Mouilpied, The Electric Furnace (London,
1904- ) , Verneuil, Comptes rendus, 135, 791
(1902) ; Goodchild, Precious Stones (New York,
1908) , Boyer, La, synthese des pierres prScieuses
(Paris, 1909) , Moses, in American Journal of
Science, vol xxx, p. 271 (1910).
GEMSBOK, g&na/bdk (Dutch, chamois buck).
A large South and West African antelope (Oryx
gavella), representing a group which contains
the beisa (qv) and similar straight-horned an-
telopes of the North (See ORYX ) It is a
HEAP AND HQKN& OF GBMSBOE
heavy, stout animal, about 4 feet high,, with
rough reversed hair on the neck and along the
ridge of the back, large pointed ears, and almost
perfectly straight horns, sometimes over a yard
long, in the plane of the forehead? little diverg-
ing? and ringed at the base The recoid length
is 47% inches. The colors are harshly con-
trasted, dark rusty gray above, and white on the
GEMtTKTDEB
553
GE3KTDEB
underparts, scpaiatcd by a bioad dark-biown or
black band, the head ^hite, with black traverse
bands, the thighs black, and the legs white
The hoofs are lemarkably long and well adapted
to the rocky mountainous distucts \\liich the
animal frequents It will thrive in utteily
waterless and apparently bairen deseits, goes
about in pairs or small bands, and is by no
means ieet of foot, but in lieu of speed for es-
cape is able to defend itself against even the
lion with its spearlike horns, which are sought
by the negroes to be converted into weapons
Its flesh and hide are highly esteemed The
"bastard gemsbok" of the Boeis is the roan
antelope (qv ) See Plate of ANTELOPES
GEMOTTDEK, ge-mun'der, AUGUST (1814-
95) A natuialized Ameiican violin maker,
born at Ingelfingen, Wurttembeig With his
brother George (q v ) he learned his trade under
the famous Baptiste Vuillaume, of Pans, but
in 1846 he settled at Springfield, Mass , and es-
tablished himself in business there He speedily
earned an international reputation and in I860
moved his business to New York Several fa-
mous violinists used his instruments, but pei-
haps his greatest masterpiece was the celebiated
copy of Sarasate's Amati, which, that artist
pronounced equal to the original He died in
New York
GEMTTNDER,, GEORGE ( 181 6-99 ) . A brother
of August Gemunder ( q v ) , born at Ingelfingen
He worked at violin making in Germany and
France, followed August to the New World in
1847, and settled m New Yoik in 1852 His in-
struments took the first piize at the great Eng-
lish Exhibition of 1851 In 1873 his copy of a
Guarnerius waa pronounced by the jury of
awards at the Vienna Exhibition to be a genuine
instrument He claimed as the secret of his suc-
cess that he did not use chemicals in the piepa-
ration of his wood, but instead used it in its
natural condition His instruments were even
finer than his brother's and were beyond ques-
tion the best violins ever made in the United
States He was the author of a book entitled
G-eorge Gemunder3 s Progress in Violin-Making
(Astoria, N Y, 1881) His death occurred m
New York
GEW'ABTJM CAENUTUS , CHABTRES
GEN ALA, ja-nala, FBANCESCO ( 1 843-93 ) .
An Italian legislator, born at Soresma, Prov-
ince of Cremona He took a conspicuous part
in regulating the finances of the city of Florence,,
where he was a lawyer after 1862, and where
he published Rappresentanza propor&ionule
(1871) In the House of Deputies he was a
member of the Left, and in 1883 was appointed
Minister of Public Works m the Depretis cabi-
net, and held this portfolio again in Giolitti's
cabinet of 1892-93 The leasing of the Italian
railroads to three great corporations m 1885
was due chiefly to him
GENEVA The Latin for Geneva ( q v ) , a
city in Switzerland
GENAZZA1TO, ja'nat-sa'nS A town in the
Sabine Mountains, Province of Rome, central
Italy, 27 miles east of Rome It is famous for
the chapel of the Madonna del Buon Consigho,
visited by many pilgrims, at the festivals of the
Virgin, and for the old castle of Colonna Pop
(commune), 1901, 4121, 1911, 4206
GENDARMES, zhaN'darm' (Fr, men at
arms) From 1445 to the time of the French
Revolution, the most distinguished cavalry corps
in the service of the French kings, to whom they
foimed a sort of bodyguard They were dressed
in armor and had five soldiers of inferior rank
to wait on them Under existing arrangements
the gendarmes constitute a military police and
comprise both cavalry and infantry The force
contests puncipally of soldiers taken from the
aimy, generally on account of intelligence and
good conduct The men receive much higher pay
than the rest of the army, of which, however,
the corps is a part, liable in cases of emeigency
to be sent on active service The gendarmes
amount to about 21,000 men and are intrusted
with the execution of many of the most delicate
details of government They form a national
police, embracing all the depaitments and col-
onies of Fiance In war they aie employed for
the maintenance of order in camp and on the
march. Germany and Russia likewise possess
a force of similar nature, combining the func-
tions of soldier and national police officer
These are mostly employed on patrol duty in
lural districts and on the border Consult H
Delattre, Esquisse liistoiique de la gendarmerie
franchise (Paris, 1885)
GEN'DEE, (OF gendie, geme, Fi genre,
from Lat genus t lace, fiom gignere, to beget,
Gk. yiyvecrBai, gignesthaiy Skt jan9 to be born)
A grammatical category, commonly regaided as
indicating the sex of a noun Gendei is either
grammatical or natural In the former case
there is no necessary coincidence of sex and
gender. Thus, Lat. femtna, woman, is both
naturally and grammatically feminine, but Lat.
mensa, table, is naturally sexless and grammati-
cally feminine In natural gender, on the other
hand, sex and gender must agree, as in Eng
man (masculine), woman (feminine), thing '
(neuter). In the Indo-Germanic languages
(q v ) the inflectional group, as Greek, Russian,
or German, have grammatical gender, while the
analytic group, as English or Persian, have only
natural gender, except in a few apparent in-
stances, as Eng ship Gender in all Indo-
Germanic tongues is divided into thiee classes:
masculine, feminine, and neuter It was long
supposed, according to a theory promulgated by
Jakob Grimm (qv), that grammatical gender
depended upon personification , that, in other
words, a noun had sex ascribed to it on account
of some attribute, either real or fancied Thus,
Lat. sol, sun, was masculine because of its
burning rays and the energy which it imparts
to all human activity; luna, moon, was feminine
as being gentle and calmly beneficent, mare,
sea, was neuter from its obvious sexlessness
The faults of this theory in a wider study of
language, e g , the fact that Sonne, sun, is
feminine in German, while Mond, moon, is mas-
culine, led to a rejection of Grimm's theory and
the substitution of entirely new hypotheses. A
study of gender, however, as of all primary
linguistic categories, is incomplete if the Indo-
Germanic languages alone are considered Nat-
ural gender, the application of which is too
obvious to require exemplification, is found in
practically all languages, even the most primi-
tive, many of which have no grammatical
gender, as in Dmka Negro (tine d$onJoor, fe-
male horse; inuor adzid, bull fowl), Melanesian
and Polynesian (as in the dialect of the island
of Viti, a toa tainane, of fowl <male, a toa alew&,
of fowl female), or Annamese (kon-trai, son
child; kon-gaif daughter child) . Other languages
have a division into animate and inanimate, as
Algonquin, Iroquois, and Cherokee, or the Bra-
GEHTDEB
554
GENDER
vidian high caste and low -caste genders More
elaborate schemes are also found, as in certain
languages of the Noith Caucasian gioup, which
have six gendei s — for animate and inanimate,
rational and n rational, masculine and feminine.
(See GEORGIAN on IBERIAN LANGUAGE ) It
seems safe, theiefoie, to conclude, on such analo-
gies as these, that the most primitive foim of
the pre-Indo-Gei manic languages also had a
natural rather than a gi ammatical gender The
question then arises as to the ongin of gram-
matical gender This problem, one of the most
difficult of all those piesented by linguistic sci-
ence, has been answeied in se\eial ways, and all
theones conceining it must be legarded, in the
present state of linguistic knowledge, as meiely
tentative Of the two most plausible, the fiist is
the one defended by Brugmann (qv ) The mas-
culine-neuter must' be set over against the femi-
nine In this all scholars of prominence aie
agreed It is then to he noted that the nomina-
tive plural neuter and the so-called nominative
singular feminine are identical in their termi-
nation, as Vedic Skt yuga, yokes (classical Skt.
yugani] , and sent?, aimy (cf with shortened
final syllable, Gk &5pa, gifts, \\rta %6$/>a, land,
Lat opp^da, towns, with annna, soul, while
Oscan and 0 Church Sla\ retain representatives
of original -& in the neutei pliual, as Oscan.
prtiftu, things proved, bebide nu, way, and
OGhurch Slav nicha, gaiments, beside tioga,
foot) Again, in Gieek and Aiesta a neutei -
plural subject takes a singnlai root, as TO. olKy-
fjiara 'evfo-eif, the buildings fell, ya lanasaitt, what
things shall be done In Aiew of facts like
these, the feminine singular is regarded as a
collective, originally identical with the neuter
plural This has an interesting and suggestive
analogue in Arabic, \vhere the so-called broken
plural, which is preeminently a collective word,
takes its verb in the feminine singular, as )&a>
rajwlttn* there came a man, but ]&at njalun,
there came men. The termination of the broken
plural is also often identical with that of the
feminine singular, as ^khwatun^ brothers, from
aJJiun, brother (el mahkatun, queen, from
mahkwi, king) This theory, however, is not
altogether adequate, and it has been supple-
mented by such scholars as Wheeler and Jaeobi.
They have pointed out the influence of the pro-
noun, whose declension was perhaps once en-
tirely unrelated to that of the noun, upon the
noun. Here the origin of giarnrnatical gender
seems to he* It is true that the feminine singu-
lar was originally a collective noun, merely
differentiated in meaning from the neuter plural,
and that it was occasionally concretized to
denote a female heing, as in the case of the
Gk 70*4, woman, Boeotian j8a*>o, Skt gna, (origi-
nally 'bearings' in the discrete, then 'bearing*
in the abstract, finally she who bears* in the
concrete) From such instances many words
in -a were termed feminine by analogy (qv ).
On the other hand, the pronoun in all languages
expresses natural, not grammatical, gender, de-
noting male, female, and sexless The feminine
singular of the pronoun (may have terminated
originally in -», like its neuter plural, but in-
dependently of it, differing herein from the
noun, as already stated On account of the true
feminine termination of the pronoun, the collec-
tive noun, which chanced to coincide with it in
form, was regarded as feminine, and by ana-
logical extension a numerous class of "femi-
/* some female and others sexless, was
evolved In this way the so-called feminine
gender probably arose" The so-called masculine
gender was similar in development The neuter
originally differed fiom the masculine only in
the nominative smgulai (as Lat seruus, servum,
slave, but templum, templuw, temple), and its
plural, except foi the collective foim in -a (the
so-called nominative and accusative, as templa,
temples), was merely an extension analogical
with the masculine The neuter seems to have
been a passrve noun, while the masculine was
active, and it was thus originally identical with
the so-called accusative or objective case (cf
Lat seiuus curnt, the slave runs, but servum
ccedit, he kills the slave, with tewplum cadit,
the temple falls, and templum eruit, he pulls
down the temple) The pimciple of personifica-
tion, on which Grimm laid such emphasis, was
developed after, not before, grammatical gender
The original independence of natuial gendei is
seen from the so-called epicene nounb, which
have but one grammatical gendei for both nat-
ural ones, as Lat lepus, haie (masculine),
^ulpes, fox (feminine), Ger Ease, hare (mas-
culine), 3Iau$e, mouse (feminine), which leads
to such apparent incongruities as wipes mas-
ciila, male fox, ueiblicher Rase, female hare
With the decay of the inflection grammatical
gendei is giadiially disappearing, and the more
pumitive system of natural gender, so long
superseded, " is resuming its original position,
so that the classification of nouns as masculine,
feminine, or neutei is being based more and
more on sex, and not gender
In English, where grammatical gendei does
not exist, natural gender is indicated in three
ways The first and most common method is
by distinctive terminations for the feminine,
especially by -ess (of Romance ongin), as em-
peror, empress, lion, honessj count, countess;
and also by -ia (of Latin origin), as executor,
executrix., -ine (of Latin-Romance origin, pri-
marily an adjectival formation of relation, as
Lat regma, queen, lit kingly woman), as hero,
heroine j and other more sporadic terminations
The second method is by prefixing woids denot-
ing the sex, as he-goat, she-goat, manservant,
maidservant _, etc The third method is the use
of different words for the two sexes, as kvng,
queen, T)oy9 girl} stag, hind; and the like
In the highly inflected languages theie are
certain terminations distinctive of the different
genders It is probable, indeed, that originally
every noun or adjective had a suffix indicative
of the sex, real or imaginary, of the object des-
ignated, although, like other inflections (qv ),
these suffixes of gender were in process of time
mutilated beyond recognition or in many cases
altogether worn off The teimmations most
characteristic of the thiee genders in Latin are
masc uSy fern a, neut um , corresponding to
the Greek os, e, on In a gieat majority of the
adjectives in both those languages the genders
are thus marked In English the gender of a
noun affects only the personal pronoun substi-
tuted for it; in most other languages the ad-
jectives (including the articles) have different
forms for the several genders — a useless compli-
cation, in the case of modern languages at least
See ADJECTIVE.
The prevalent feminine termination in Gennai^
is -in, as in Tan%er%n, a female dancer (Fr
danseuse) ; of this there are two instances in
English, in the provincial carlw, the fern of
car I, and m<ven = G«r. P^chsm, a' female
GENEALOGY
555
GENES
This affix was already in use in Latin, as in.
regma, a queen (?eg(s), a king) , and in this
form it is used in Europe generally to feminize
proper names, eg., G-eorgina, Wilhelmina, Caro-
line
In such pairs as son — daughter; man — ma^d.,
horse — mare, cocL — hen, there is no etymolog-
ical relation between the woids, they are from
distinct roots But with regard to hen,, e g , the
Anglo-Saxon had the two forms, han for the
male, and hen for the female, and mare was
originally applicable to both sexes, as horse still
is (cf Fr matechal, Fiankish marahskalL, ongi-
nally an officer who had charge of the hoises,
marah being the equivalent of the Eng mare]
The oldest-known form of the Teutonic speech,
the Gothic, had the two words magus, son, and
magaths, daughter, both from the root mag, to
beget, or to make Magaths has become in Ger
Magd, in Eng maid; magus has been lost in
the Teutonic tongues, but it is possibly repre-
sented by the Celtic mac (son), which may be
derived from the same root King, queen, were
in Skt ganiha, father, and gom, mother, both
from the loot gan, to generate, produce The
masculine form appears in OGer as chiMig, in
mod Ger komg, in Eng king, the feminine was
represented by the Gk ^vvf\, a woman, as well
as the Saxon cwen, Swed quinna, OEng quene
or quean applied to a woman generally, and the
modern queen, the chief woman of the land
See GBAMMAB
Consult Delbruck, Vergleichende Syntax der
indogermanischen Sprachen (3 vols , Strassburg.
1893-1900) , Brugmann, Nature and Origin of
the Noun G-enders in the Indo-European Lan-
guages (New York, 1897) , Jaeobi, Compositum
und Ncbensatv (Bonn, 1897) , Wheeler, "Origin
of Grammatical Gender," in Journal of Germamo
Philology, n ( Bloommgton, Ind , 1898), Paul,
Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte ( 4th ed , Halle,
1909) ; Wundt, Vollerpsychologie (2d ed , Leip-
zig, 1904) , La Grassene, De I'ewpression de
1'idee de sexuahte dans le langage, in vol. Ivm
of the Revue Philosophique (Paris, 1904) , Lom-
melj JStudien uber indogermanische Feminiribil-
dung en (Gottmgen, 1912)
GENEALOGY, jen'S-al'd-ji or je'ne-- (Lat.
genealogia, Gk yevea\oyia, pedigree, from yeveu-
\6yos, genealogos* one who draws up a pedigree,
from yevea, genea, family + -Xo7^«, -log^a, ac-
count, from \eyew, legein, to say) The science
whereby the history of the origin and descent
of a family or race may be ascertained. There
has been a growing interest, especially in the
United States, in matters pertaining to genea-
logical research, and although it is not of suffi-
cient importance to rank as an independent sci-
ence, it forms a very important part of history.
This is largely due to the growth of the patri-
otic hereditary societies which have flourished
so extensively in the United States since 1890.
In these organizations membership is granted
only to those who are descended from an ances-
tor who was conspicuous in some historic event
Its literature is for the most part shut up m
the archives of historical libraries, but that
natural instinct which prompts one to love the
place of his birth and the chief circumstances m
the lives of his progenitors is gradually attract-
ing the attention of the intelligent public
From the earliest times, genealogy has always
formed the basis of all true history In the an-
cient records of Assyria, JSgypt, alL<l Arabia, the
lineage of an individual was the thread upon
VOL IX —36
which were strung the stirring events of cen-
turies, and so important a place did its preser-
vation occupy among the Jewish people that it
was established as a positive obligation upon
every Levite of the temple Nor -vs as this genea-
logical form of history pecuhai to Semitic races
The first Greek lecoids were those of ancestry
The progress of civilization in states, and m pai -
ticular the institution of coi potations and guilds
in the towns, afforded a wider scope for gene-
alogy But the absence of criticism and the
desire to flatter the great were the causes of in-
troducing the most ridiculous fables into gene-
alogy Ancestors were fabricated in the most
impudently false manner, and families carried
back in an unbioken line, not only to the age
of Charlemagne, but even, in many cases, to
the heroes of the Trojan War The fact, how-
ever, is that scarcely any family, however dis-
tinguished, can trace its" ancestors even to the
middle of the eleventh century
GENEE, zhe-na', ADELINE (1878- ) A
noted ballet dancei, born at Aarihuus, Jutland,
Denmaik She fiist danced in public when only
eight years old, and in 1895 she had become
principal dancer at the Copenhagen Opeia
House After appearing in the opera houses of
Berlin and Munich she entered upon a 10-year
engagement with the Empue Theatre of Leices-
ter Square, London, m 1897, taking leading
?arts m all the notable ballets there produced
n 1908 she appeared with great success in
"The Soul Kiss" in New York City and subse-
quently touied the United States in the same
ballet She played return engagements m New
York in 1909, 1910, and 1912, reappeared in
London in 1911, and toured in Australia in
1913
GENEE, zhe-na^ RICHARD (1823-95). A Ger-
man opera composer and librettist, born at Dan-
zig Upon abandoning medicine for music he
became a pupil of Stahlknecht in Berlin He
held many important appointments, principally
as orchestra leader, in the following towns and
cities Riga, Reval, Cologne, Ai^:-la-Chapelle,
Danzig, Dusseldorf, Mainz, Schwerm, Amster-
dam, Prague, and Vienna His operettas had
considerable local success, but are little known
abroad They are as follows Der Geiger von
Tirol (1857) , Der Musikfeind, Die Qeneral-
probe, Rosma, Am Runenstein (1868), Der
Seekadett (1876), Der schwarze Pnnz, Im
Wunderlande der Pyrawiiden, Die letzten Mo-
htkaner, Die Piraten} Nisida, Zwillinge, Die
Drei&elvn, (1887) He also wrote some of his
own librettos, and others for Milldcker, Strauss,
and Suppe" His death occurred at Baden, near
Vienna.
GENfeE, RUDOLF (1824-1914=) A German
author and Shakespearean reader He was born
in Berlin, a son of Friedrieh Genee, formerly
stage manager of the Konigstadtisches Theater
in that city He at first devoted himself to
wood carving under Professor Gubitz, but later
wrote several successful plays, of which the
comedy entitled Das Wunder, performed at the
Court Theatre, Berlin, m 1854, was particularly
successful For a time, as editor of the Dan&tger
Zeitung and of the Kolurger Zevtung (1861-
64), he published his Frauenkranz, a series of
readings on dramatic female figures in history
It was at Coburg that he began his public read-
ings of Shakespeare, which he continued with
marked success at Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, and
GEtfELLI
556
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD
other cities of Geimany His \voiks include
Geschichte der shakespeareschen Dratnen in
DeutscMand (1870), ShaLespeares Lcben und
'Werke (2d ed , 1874), Hundett Jahre des
Lomglichen ftchauspiels in Berlin (1880), Ma-
nenburg, a novel (2d ed, 1886) , Bismartkiade
(1891), Zeiten und Menschen (1897); W
fthakespeare in seinem "Werden und Wesen
(1905)
GENELLI, ja-nel'le, BON^VENTUTXA (1798-
1868) A German painter and designer. He
was born in Berlin, the son of Janus Genelli, a
landscape painter Although lie painted bibli-
cal and mythological subjects, lie was more cele-
brated for his bold and ingenious designs after
the manner of Carstens He had the imagina-
tion of a poet, but in working rarely soared
beyond contour and silhouettes Everything was
sacrificed to line He essayed onuch in water
color and oil, but failed to express himself with
success m those mediums He was a pupil of
the Berlin Academy, where lie studied under
Bury and Hummel, and also spent 10 3 ears in
Borne, where he was especially influenced by
Koch, Cornelius, and Friednda Muller In 183G
he settled at Munich, where he lived in poverty,
but executed his principal works. In 1S30 he
removed to Weimar, \\here lie was appointed
professor Among his best designs aie the cop-
per prints of the "Life of a Piofligate" and the
"Witch " He also designed 48 outline illustra-
tions for Homer and 3G foi Dante In the Leip-
zig Museum are his ~v\atei color "Triumph of
Bacchus and Ariadne" and four otheis The
Vienna Academy possesses 284 of his plates,
and six of his* best oil paintings are in the
Schack Gallery, Munich, including- 'Hercules
and Omphale," e'Abraham and the Angels," and
a drop curtain with allegories He died in
Weimar, Nov 13, 1868 Consult Pecht, Deutsche
Kunstl&r des 19 Jahrhunderts (Ser 2, Nordlin-
gen, 1879), and Muther, History of Modern
Painting (4 vols., London, 1907)
GEH'EIIAL (Lat. generahs, general, belong*
ing to a race, from genus, family, from gign&re,
to beget) A military rank and title denot-
ing an officer holding a general command, or
a rank and grade equivalent thereto In modern
armies, practically every officer commanding an
organization of troops larger than a regiment
is a general officer. In the United States the
rank has the following grades bugadier general,
major general, and one lieutenant general in
supreme active command of the army as a whole
Officers of other ranks are sometimes gr\en the
temporary and relative rank of general, as in-
spector general, judge advocate-general, quarter-
master-general, etc. In European armies the
rank of general is a step higher than that of
lieutenant general, and is the next in importance
to field marshal in England, and to marshal in
the armies of continental Europe See BANK
AND COMMAND.
The title is also applied in the Roman Catho-
lic church to the superior head, under the Pope,
of a religious order. The governing authorities
of the monastic orders may be arranged in three
classes* (1) the superiors of individual con-
vents or communities, called in different orders
by the various names of abbot, prior, rector,
guardian, etc , (2) the provincials, who have
authority over all the convents of an entire
province, the provinces, in the monastic sense
of the word, being usually coincident as to local
limits with, the several kingdoms in which the
Older is established, (3) the general, to whom
not only each membei of the order, but ill the
vanous officials of eveiy lank, are absolutely
subject The geneial is* usually elected by the
geneial chaptei of the order, which, in the
maioiity of ordeis, consists pioperly of the pro-
vincials, with whom, however, are commonly
associated the heads of the more impoiUnt
monasteries, as also the superiors of ceitain
subdivisions of pro\mces The office of genial
in most orders is held foi three years In that
of the Jesuits it is foi life, but in all, the elec-
tion of the general chaptei must be confirmed
by the Pope In most orders, too, there is
assigned to the geneial a consulter (admonitoi )
or associate (soctws), who, however is only en-
titled to advise and has no authority to control
the supenoi The general also is supposed to
consult with, and to receive leports from, the
various local supenoi s He sends, if necessary,
a visitor to inquire into particular abuses or to
leport upon such controveisies as may arise,
and he holds a general chapter of the older at
stated times, which differ according to the usage
of the seveial ordeis The geneial is exempt
fiom episcopal jurisdiction, being subject to the
immediate jurisdiction of the Pope He lives in
Rome, where he has ceitain privileges, the most
important being the light to sit and vote with
the bishops in a general church council
GENERAL ASSEMBLY See PRESBYTE-
GENERAL AVERAGE. See AVERAGE, IN
MARITIME LAW
GKEHEBAL BAPTISTS. See BAPTISTS
GENERAL GONTEBENCE MEN3STON-
ITES. See MENNOXITES
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD An or-
ganization established for the purpose of dis-
tributing gifts made by John D Rockefeller for
educational purposes It was chartered by Con-
gress m 1903 The board has received gifts
from Mr Rockefeller amounting to $50,000,000,
of which $30,000,000 has been set aside as en-
dowment As will appear below, it is the policy
of the board to make its gifts to existing agen-
cies and institutions, and accordingly it does
not undeitake independent educational work
The gifts are made mainly for the four follow-
ing purposes*
1 The promotion of practical farming in the
Southern States After a careful study of edu-
cational conditions in the South the board de-
cided that the problem which, needed greatest
assistance was the improvement of farming and
of rural life in general Through the Depart-
ment of Agriculture the board has, since 1906,
made appropriations amounting in 1912-13 to
$659,700 for the purpose of promoting agricul-
ture by the establishment of demonstiation
farms under the direction of the late Dr Sea-
man A Knapp According to recent reports,
236 men were engaged in supervising such farms,
while 23,301 farmers were employing unproved
methods under their direction, and these in turn
were influencing the work of nearly 200,000
farmers in the South In connection with the
public schools State agents have been appointed
to conduct demonstration work among boys un-
der actual fanning conditions and by the estab-
lishment of corn clubs To improve home life
and household management in connection with
the farms, girls' clubs have also been organized
— some under the titles of girls' canning and
poultry
GENEBALIEE
557
GENERAL STAFF
2 The establishment of public high schools
in the Southern States Foi this purpose the
boaid appropriates to the State univeisities
in the South sums to pay the salaiies of high-
school repi esentativea to tiavel thioughout their
States and stimulate public sentiment in favor
of high schools As a result of this work, 912
high schools have been established in 11 South-
ern States, $9,306,580 have been raised for
buildings and maintenance, and the annual sum
available for their support has been increased
$1,332,667
3 The promotion of institutions of higher
learning The board, after careful inquiry into
the needs, the financial and educational strength,
and the relations to other institutions of higher
learning in the respective States, makes condi-
tional appropriations to institutions of higher
leainmg that wish to laise money The gifts
aie made for endowment The board has made
such conditional appropriations to the amount
of $8,817,500, gifts which are towards an ap-
proximate total of $41,020,500
4 Schools for negroes The board has made
contributions,, amounting' to $620,105, to schools
for negroes, mainly those for the training of
teachers. The board also contributes towards
the expenses of two lural school supervisors
connected with the State department of educa-
tion for the development of better school, eco-
nomic, and social conditions in rural areas,
while negro farmers also participate in the dem-
onstration work mentioned above
In May, 1914, the gifts of the General Educa-
tion Board appropriated for these purposes ag-
gregated $1,400,000
GENERALIFE, na-na-ra-le'fa (Ar. ^annat-
al-arlf, Garden of the Architect) A summer
palace of the Moorish kings, at Granada, east
of the Alhambra, now the property of the
Marquis of Campotejar The extensive grounds
are tiaveised by the waters of the Darro The
couit contains cypresses dating from the thir-
teenth century and communicates with a raised
garden and belvedere, which affords an exten-
sive view
GENERAL ISSUE. In the English law of
pleading, the form in which the defendant trav-
erses or meets with a simple denial the whole
allegation, or the principal fact on which the
plaintiff lehes m his declaration Thus, in
actions founded on wrongs the general issue is
"not guilty", in actions of debt, that the de-
fendant never was indebted, In actions on a
deed or bond, non est factum, i e , it is not the
deed of the defendant Under this issue the
defendant may prove that he never executed the
deed, but not that it is bad in point of law
In criminal proceedings the general issue is
"not guilty/* by which plea, without further
form, every person not having the privilege of
peerage, upon being arraigned upon any indict-
ment fof treason, felony, or piracy, is deemed
to have put himself upon the country for trial
Where a prisoner refuses to plead, a plea of not
guilty may be entered for him (7 and 8 Geo IV,
c 28) Under the plea of not guilty the pris-
oner is entitled to give in evidence not only
everything which negatives the charge, but also
all matter of excuse or justification.
This form of plea survives and retains its
principal characteristic® even under the re-
formed systems of pleading which, in England
and many of the United States, tave supplanted
the common-law system* See PL$A, PLEADING
GENERALIZATION See INDUCTION
GENERAL PAUSE In music, a pause foi
all instruments or parts dining a composition
The name is especially applied to rests of con-
siderable duration, wlien so introduced as to
break the rhythm and produce a striking effect
A "hold" ( /s ) over tlie rest mark of a, general
pause indicates that its length is indeterminate
and so destroys the rhythmic value of the rest
by suspending the counts or heats See HOLD
GENERAL SHIP A ship which has been
advertised by the owners to take goods from a
particular port at a particular time, and which
is not under any special contract to particular
merchants The owners in this case engage
separately with each merchant who applies to
them to convey his goods to the ship's destina-
tion The contract between the owneis, or the
master acting in their behalf, and the pro-
pi letois of the goods, may in the case of general
ship be established by parole evidence, and, in-
deed, theie is rarely any other writing on the
subject beyond the adveitisement and the bill
of lading In a general ship, the master being
intrusted by the owneis with full power to con-
tract for and take in goods, no agreement for
freight which any one may have made with the
owneis, independently of him, will be effectual
to secure room in the vessel All such agree-
ments must be intimated to the master, or those
•acting for him on board, before he lias engaged
freight for the whole vessel By such intima-
tion a preference will be secured over the mer-
chant who brings his goods to the ship's side on
cliance If the owners of a general ship have
advertised her as bound for a particular port,
they must give notice to every person who may
ship goods on board, of any alteration in her
destination, and they will be liable for the conse-
quences of neglecting to do so The reduction
in the numbei of sailing ships in recent years
and the great mciease in the number and capac-
ity of f i eight steamers running on regular
routes and carrying freight for all shippers at
rates that are usually published have reduced
the importance of the laws and practices con-
cerning general ship
GENERAL STAFF An organization of
superior or selected officers, appointed for duty
at the headquarters of the army or on the staff
of a general officei commanding, whose duties
may be generally described as converting the
ideas of their chief into orders, not only by con-
veying them to the troops, but by working out
all necessary matters of detail The general staff
organization was originally peculiar to Ger-
many, but is now being generally adopted
throughout Europe The great general staff,
Grosser Generalstab , aa distinct from General-
stab, in the G-erman army of to-day, is a body
of general staff officers who are not attached to
any corps, intrusted with the duties of drawing
up and preparing schemes for the strategical
concentration of the army in certain particular
directions by road and rail, with collecting and
estimating the strength, etc , of the various
European armies, with the study of theatres of
war, and with the preparation of military maps
The general staff corps of the United States
army, created in conformity to the Act of Con-
gress approved Feb 14, 1903, and subsequently
amended, is composed of 4 general officers (the
chief of staff, the assistant chief of staff, the
chief of the division of -militia affairs, the chief
of the coast artillery corps), 4 colonels, 6 lieu-
GENERAL SEMINARY
558
GEETESEE RIVER
tenant colonels, 12 majors, and 12 captains
Two of these, the chiefs of coast artillery and of
the division of militia affairs, are members of
the general staff corps by law All the other
officers are detailed for service in the corps for
a period of foui years under uiles of selection
prescribed by the President Upon expiration
of the four-year detail these offieeis return to
the branch of the array in which they hold per-
manent commissions The law established the
general staff corps as a separate and distinct
staff organization, the chief of which has super-
vision, under superior authority, over all
branches of the military seiviee, line and staff,
with a view to their coordination and harmoni-
ous cooperation The general staff corps, under
the direction of the chief of staff, is cliaiged
with the duty of investigating and reporting
upon all questions affecting the efficiency of
the army and the state of preparation for mili-
tary operations It prepares plans for the na-
tional defense, studies possible theatres of war
and strategic questions in general, and collects
military information at home and abroad
The members of the general staff aie assigned
to two general classes of duty first, to duty
on the staff of commanders of armies, divisions,
separate brigades, and territorial departments
— -these officers are collectively kno\\n as the
general staff setmng uith troops ^ second, to
duty under the immediate dnection of the chief
of stafi at the War Depaitment, Washington,
D C The latter constitute the War Department
getwial stuff Hie senior of the geneial staff offi-
cers on the staff of a commander is called the
chief of staff of that command He sees that
the ideas, intentions, and decisions of the com-
mander are executed, cooidmates the work of
all the other staff officers, is responsible for the
performance of the necessary reconnaissance and
security of the command, establishes an in-
format wn dwiswn, exercises a general super-
vision over all records and returns, and sees
that a war diary is kept
All vacancies below the grade of brigadier
general are filled on the recommendation of a
board of five general officers of the line, not
more than two of whom shall be general staff
ofliceis Since its creation by law in 1903, the
geneial staff corps, composed of officers from
the line of the army, to which they return after
a four-year detail, lias fully justified its exist-
ence by steadily and progressively increasing
the administrative and fighting efficiency of the
army Consult United States Army Regulations
(Washington, 1913) and Field Service Regula-
twm, Umted States Army (ib, 1914) See
STAF^, ARMY ORGANIZATION
GEBDEBAL THEOLOGICAL SB3SONARY.
The leading seminary in the United States of
the Protestant Episcopal church. The seminary
was established by order of the General Con-
vention in 1817, and instruction was begun in
New York City in 1819 In 1820 the seminary
was removed to New Haven, but was reestab-
lished in New York in 1822 on a part of the
plot of land given in 1819 by Clement C Moore.
For many years the seminary suffered severely
from financial deficiencies, and it was not until
the administration of Eugene A Hoffman, dean
of the school from 1878 until his death in 1902,
that it was placed upon an independent basis
Dean Hoffman's personal gifts to the seminary
were most generous The theological course
proper extends over three years> and there is
also a graduate course The degrees of DD
and B D are conferred , the former is both a
higher academic and an honor aiy degree, while
the latter is conferred on graduates of any
theological seminary of the Episcopal church or
of any church in communion theiewith who has
accomplished prescribed work and written a
thesis satisfactoij to the faculty This degree
is not confeired ' in course" nor "honoris causa "
The control of the senimaiy is vested in a board
of trustees composed of the presiding Bishop of
the chuich, the Bishop of the diocese in which
the seminary is located, the dean of the semi-
nary, and 10 bishops, 10 presbyters, and 10 lay-
men elected by the G-eneial Convention, and
thiee bishops, three presbyters, and three lay-
men elected by the alumni of the seminary
The student attendance in 1913-14 was 137 No
tuition fee is charged, and prizes of value aie
offered Within 30 years the student body has
iaigely increased, and extensive buildings have
been ^ erected, including the library (59,000
volumes), Hoffman Hall, the chapel of the Gocd
Shepherd, and nine dormitories The pioduc-
tive funds in 1914 amounted to about $2,170,000
The dean in 1914 was W L Robbms, D D
GEH'EB.A'TIOItf' See KEPBODUCTION.
GElSTERATIQlsr (Lat genet atio, from gene-
iate} to beget, fiom genus, family) In mathe-
matics, the formation of a magnitude or geo-
metric figure by the movement of another
magnitude or ngnie For example, a moving
point describes a line, a moving line, in general,
describes a surface, and a moving surface, in
geneial, describes a geometric solid An angle
is said to be geneiated by revolving a line about
a fixed point from an initial position A figure
called the generatrix, moving according to a
fixed law, geneiates a particular figure called
the generant, eg, a straight line moving
so as constantly to pass through a given
curve, and to remain parallel to its original
position, generates a cylindrical surface The
given curve is called the directrix. The volume
of a ring generated by revolving a polygon
about an axis not cutting the polygon is equal
to the area of the polygon multiplied by the
length of the path of the mean centre of the
polygon This proposition is known as Pappus's
or Guldin's theorem, Pappus (qv) being the
real discoverer.
GENERATION, ETERNAL See TBINITY,
DOCTRINE OF THE
GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF. See AL-
TERNATION OF GENERATIONS
GENERATIVE CELL. A term, technically
applied in seed plants to the first cell which
appears in the speim series In gymnosperms
(pines and their allies) it is the cell which
divides to foim the stalk and body cells, the
latter of which subsequently divides to form the
male cells In angiosperms (true flowering
plants) it is a cell which is formed by the first
division of the nucleus of the pollen grain and
in turn by division forms the male cells See
SPEEMATOPHYTE
GENERATOR, EI>ECTRIC See DOTAMO
ELECTRIC MACHINERY and Plate*
GEN'ERA'TRIX See GENERATION.
GENESEE (jen'e-se') RIVER (Amer. In-
dian, shining valley, or beautiful valley) A
river which rises in Potter Co , Pa , and which
empties into Lake Ontario 7 miles north of
Rochester (Map New York, C 4) It is about
135 miles long and is navigable for lake vessel
GKENESEO
559
GENESIS
for only 5 miles. At Poitage there are three
falls of 65, 90, and 110 feet respectively, and
within the city of Rochester there are three
more of 96, 26, and 83 feet, all of which furnish
excellent water power
GEETESEO, jen's-se'e A city in Henry Co,
111, 20 miles east by south of Mohne, on the
Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific Railroad
(Map Illinois, D 3) It is the seat of the
Geneseo Collegiate Institute and contains a city
hospital and public library It is in a rich agri-
cultural and stock-raising region, has a canning
factory, and has extensive trade in farm prod-
ucts and live stock Under a charter of 1865
it is governed by an annually elected mayor and
a unicameral council The city owns and oper-
ates its water works Pop, 1900, 3356, 1910,
3199
GENESEO. A village and the county seat of
Livingston Co, N". Y, 28 miles by rail south of
Rochester, on the Genesee River, and on the
Erie Railroad (Map New York, C 5) It is
the seat of a State normal school and has the
Wadsworth Public Library The village is in an
agricultural region, has a large vegetable can-
ning factory, and manufactures jam, flour,
gloves and mittens The water works are
owned by the municipality Pop, 1900, 2400,
1910, 2067
GrENvESIS (Lat. from Gk yeve<nsy genesis,
ongin, from ylyvevBai, gignesthai, to become).
The name given m the Greek version to the
first book of the Bible In the Hebrew canon
it is called B'resMth (in beginning), frorn^ the
initial word, in the Talmud it is sometimes
referred to as "the Book of Creation" The
Masoretic division into 12 parashioth (out of
54 in the Pentateuch), or 45 sedarim (out of
154 in the Pentateuch), is based on the custom
of reading through the Law in one year or thiee
years respectively the division into 50 chapters
is of Christian origin, 20 of the breaks being
contrary to Masotetic custom R Solomon b.
Ismael (c!330 AD) adopted the Christian nu-
meration of chapters and placed the numerals
in the margin of the Hebrew Bible, for con-
troversial purposes, in order to facilitate refer-
ence to particular passages In the Compluten-
sian polyglot the Masoretic sections were dis-
regarded, and in 1517 Felix Pratensis indicated
in the margin the Christian chapters in Hebrew
letters A much earlier division seems to be
indicated by the inscription Toledoth (genera-
tions, history), which occurs 10 times in the
course of the book. The book naturally falls
into two parts, chaps i-xi and xn-1 The fiist
extends from the beginning to the call of
Abraham and includes the accounts of creation,
the fall, the generations between Adam and
Noah, the deluge, the giants, the tower of Babel,
and the dispersion of the human race, and the
generations between Noah and Abraham The
second gives the history of the patriarchs —
Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Esau, and
Joseph — and concludes with the settlement of
Jacob's family in Egypt.
The Jewish canon makes Genesis the first of a
series of five books, which it comprises under
the term Torah, or Law, and according to the
tradition of the synagogue Moses was the author
of all of these books. There is no intimation in
Genesis itself as to its authorship. But since,
in spite of its distinct subject matter and origin,
it forms a natural and appropriate introduction
to the history of Moses and the legislation, it
was inferred £»t an early age and long main-
tained that Genesis too was written by the
author of the following books, who was held
to be Moses Some indications of a later date,
such as refeiences to Dan, the Canaamtes who
were then (in the time of Abraham) in the land,
the kings who reigned m Edom before there was
a king m Israel, and some other facts, led many
scholars, among them Ibn Ezia, Carlstadt,
Masius, Perena, Hobbes, Spinoza, Simon, and
Le Clerc, to believe that there was post-Mosaic
material in the book In order to offset the
tendency to deny the Mosaic authoiship, Astruc
published in 1753 his conjectures as to the docu-
ments that may have been used by Moses in
Genesis He observed that in some sections one
divine name (Yahwe), in other sections another
(Elolnm), was employed by preference, and
assumed that these sections represented dif-
ferent documents wntten by various patriarchs
and incoiporated by Moses m his narrative, and
that he used also certain shorter fragments
Through Eichhorn, Ilgen, and a long line of
distinguished scholars this conjecture was
further developed A particularly clear descrip-
tion of these sources was given by Hupfeld By
the end of the nineteenth centuiy a very large
number of Protestant, and some Catholic and
Jewish, scholars had reached the conclusion that
three documents, usually designated as J, E, and
P, and some fragments made up the Book of
Genesis The prevailing view was that J, the
Judsean or Yahwistic document, was written in
the ninth or eighth century, but subsequently
enlarged, that E the Ephraimitish or Elohistic
document, was about a century younger, and
was likewise amplified before the union of the
two, and that P, the Priests' Code, was post-
exihc and also somewhat expanded before the
final redaction of the Pentateuch As further
research seemed to show that the same docu-
ments were used in Exodus, Leviticus, and
Numbers, the defenders of the Mosaic author-
ship, among them such Protestant scholars as
Hengstenberg, Keil, and Green, and such Catho-
lic scholars as Welte, Knabenbauei, Ubaldi,
Kaulen, and Comely, rejected the critical analy-
sis, while those who accepted this analysis either
rejected the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
m toto, or ascribed to Mosea only some sections
distinctly claimed for him in the other books,
but not the Book of Genesis (See PENTA-
TEUCH ) Recently some independent scholars,
among them Eerdmans, Wiener, Dahse, and
Schmidt, have been led by text-critical studies
to abandon the current system of analysis
They do not deny, however, the composite origin
of Genesis or of the Pentateuch, but only the
applicability of the criteria generally relied
upon in the analysis of sources and the conse-
quent division Thus, Schmidt has shown that
in the story of the garden of Eden, regarded as
the finest and most characteristic example of
the Yahwist's art, the Greek translator in the
third century B o. in all probability had before
him a Hebrew text in which the divine name
Yahwe was never used, yet he does not doubt
the separate origin of the two stories of creation
(q.v ) Eerdmans has given good reasons for
rejecting the theory that the names Jacob and
Israel are characteristic of the supposed Yah-
wistic and Elohistic documents, but he recog-
nizes that the name Israel was used m a
different source from that which employed
Jacob Dahse has called attention to the fact
GENESIS
560
GEFESIS
that interpolations and additions aio hkeh to
occur at tlie end of pericopes, and this is an
important consideiation, even if the annual and
triennial sections are too late to fiumsh a clew
to the eaiher booklets, and Wienei has empha-
sized the need of separating the accretions and
taking note of the marked changes the text has
undergone in the couise of its tiansmission
These investigations seem to point the way to a
new theory as to the origin and giowth of
Genesis as well as the rest of the Pentateuch
Archaeological discoveries in western Asia have
in recent times brought us into more dnect con-
tact with the social life and the world of thought
in which the stories reeoided in Genesis are
likely to have developed There is no room for
doubt that the accounts of creation, the first
man (see ADAM), the tree of life (see EDEN),
the antediluvian patriarchs, the deluge (qv ),
and the tower (see BABEL, TOWER OF) were
derived from Babylonian stories, ultimately of
Sumenan origin But while it was at first
thought that familiarity with these would not
be possible in Palestine before the Invasions of
Assyrian armies, or even before the settlement
of Jewish exiles in Babylonia after 586 B c , it
is now known that Babylonian mytlis had
traveled as far as into Egypt in the fourteenth
century BC (see ADAPA), and many bdiolais
regard it as probable that they were already
told among the Amontes (qv ) long befoie the
immigration of Hebrew tribes into Syria, which
may have begun in the fifteenth century BC
(See JEWS, TEL EL-AMABXA TABLETS ) There
is, indeed, nothing that forbids the assumption
that in their original form they were committed
to writing by the Hebrews as soon as they
became acquainted with the Semitic alphabet,
(See ALPHABET ) In view of the cuneiform
tablets found in Syria it is not even incon-
ceivable that some Hebrews may have known
this system of writing and thus had a means of
learning something of Babylonian lore which had
found Its way into the land of the Amontes
But of this there is as yet no evidence. It
should be observed that some scholars, notably
Grunkel and Gressmann, who maintain the cur-
rent documentary hypothesis and the dates
usually assigned to the sources, are quite ready
to admit that these Babylonian myths may have
been known in Palestine and among the Hebrews
centuries before they were given their present
form by the supposed Juda^an and Israehtish
writers The patriarchal stories clearly have
their home m the Negeb (qv ). They were first
told concerning the heroes of Hebron, Beersheba,
Beerlahairoi (Am el Muwehh), and probably the
southern Bethel (Halasa) Even Jacob lived in
uthe vale of Hebron" (Gen xxxvn 14). As
these stones spread to the north, they naturally
received here and there an Israehtish setting
How early the Negeb heroes were connected with
Babylonia and Mesopotamia on the one hand,
and Egypt on the other, is not easily determined
It has been maintained that the term "Ur of the
Chaldees" was possible only in the time of the
Chaldaean Empire (625-539 BC.) , but it is not
improbable that the city of Ur was largely in-
habited by Chaldseans already in the Kassite
period, and some of the succeeding dynasties on
the throne of Babylon may have been Ohald&an
(See BABYLONIA,) It is not the Aramaeans of
Damascus, but those of Mesopotamia* who flomv
ished at an earlier period, that figure in the
amplified story of Abraham, Isa&e, and Jacob
Steindoift and Lagarde attempted to prove that
such Egyptian names as those m Gen xh 45 —
Zaphenath-paneah, Asonath, and Potiphera— as
\\ell as the designation of Pharaoh, did not be-
come common before the twenty-sixth dynasty,
and that consequently the Elohist could not have
AMitten before the middle of the seventh cen-
tun , and it has been widely held that these
names are due to a revisei of the document As
names of this type are raier m earlier days, and
feome of thorn tend to disappear latex, it is not
impossible that they are interpolations made at
this time, but such names occur sporadically at
least as eaily as the twenty-second dynasty,
and familiarity with Egyptian names is not
impiobable in Syria in the age of Solomon <uid
Kehoboam An important observation, bearing
on the age of the stones in Genesis, has been
made by Suderblom (Gkidstrons uppkomst,
Stockholm, 1914) He calls attention to the
striking contrast between the conception of the
divinity that prevails in Genesis and that of
Yalnve* in the story of Moses Whatever the
name may be, El, El olam, El Bethel, El shaddai,
El elyon, Elohim, or (in our piesent test) Yahwe,
there is a marked distinction in charaetei be-
tween him and the tenor-inspiring, jealous god of
Sinai, Mhom Soderblom regards as an animistic
divinity, while the deity in Genesis reminds him
nioie of the originators, or creators, of piiimtive
peoples (See CREATION ) It would certainly
be strange if these stones were wntten down,
m the days of Elijah or Isaiah, by the same men
Mho related the awful dealings of the god pro-
claimed by Moses This also seems to militate
against the theory of a Mosaic authorship Be-
sides, the patriarchal narratives reveal an
acquaintance with Palestine, its many sanctu-
aries, and the often divergent etymologies of
their names which many students regard as an
evidence that they were written there, and not
by one who according to tiadition never was in
that country, and they give the impression of
having been written originally in Hebrew, and
not in Egyptian hieroglyphics or Babylonian
cuneiform writing, such as might have been
known to an Egyptian in the fifteenth century
BC, and, so far as we now know, Hebiew was
never written with the wedge-shaped signs
As to the historical value of Genesis, theie is
much difference of opinion The obvious fact
that even the earlier stories show a remarkable
suppression of mythical elements characteristic
of the Babylonian onginals is still interpreted
by some as evidence of a primitive tradition
preserved in relative purity among the He-
brews, while it has been overlaid with poly-
theistic, mythical, and superstitious features in
the pagan narratives Most Protestant scholars,
howevei, seek to account for the difference by
the gradual growth of monolatry and monotheism
m Israel and no longer attempt to harmonize
the stories in the first part of Genesis, which
they regard as of mythical origin, with the
results of modern scientific and historical in-
vestigation On the other hand, there are not a
few scholars who consider Abraham an historic
personality and are inclined to look for a kernel
of facts m the stories of Jacob (q.v.) and
Joseph (qv ), while others regard these patri-
archs in the same light as the long-lived antedi-
luvians Future discovenes, especially in
connection with Gen. xiv (see ABKAHAM,
AMRAPHEL , HAMMUBAPI ) , may throw light upon
i$ question so far as Abraham is concerned.
GENET 5
Bibliography Of the numerous commenta-
iies on C4enesis the more lecent are those of
Dolitzbch ( 1887 ) , Dillmann ( 1802 ) , Humme-
lauei (1895), Ball (1896), Strack (1897), Hol-
/mger (1898), Driver ( 1906) , Mmocchi (1908),
Mitohel (1909), Skinner (1910) , Gunkel (1910),
Eyle (1914) Among the introductions to
the Old Testament the following, wntten from
different points of view, should especially be
consulted viz , those of Richard Simon, Carp-
zov, Eichhom, De Wette, Haveimck, Herhst-
Welte, Kuenen, Keil, Vatke, Bleek-Wellhausen,
Cornill, Driver, Baudissin, Sellm, Ubaldi, Cor-
nely, and Kaulen Special introductions to the
Hexateuch have been written by Westphal, Hol-
zinger, and Carpenter-Battersby Consult also
Hobbes, Leviathan (London, 1651) , Spinoza,
Ttactatus theologico-pohticus (Hamburg, 1670) ,
Le Clerc, Sentimens dc quelques theologians de
Hollande (Eotterdarn, 1685), id, Gommentanus
in P&ntateuchum (Amsterdam, 1693) , Astiuc,
Conjectures sur les memoires omginaux dont il
parait que Moise s}est servi pour composer la
Genese (Paris, 1753) , Ilgen, Urkunden des
jerusalemischen Tempelarchivs (Halle, 1798),
Tuch, Gommentar uber die Genesis (ib, 1838),
Hengstenberg, Die Authentie des Pentateuohs
(Berlin, 1836-39) , Welte, Nach-Mosaisches im
Pentateuch (Tubingen, 1841), Hupfeld, Die
Quellen der Genesis (Berlin, 1853) , Knaben-
bauer, "Der Pentateuch und die unglaubige
Kritik," in Stimmen aus Maria Loach (Frei-
burg, 1873) , Lamy, Gommentatio in Genesin
(Mechlin, 1883), Budde, Die bibhsche Urge-
schichte (Giessen, 1883) , Lagarde, Mitteilungen,
in, pp 226 ff (Gottingen, 1889) , Bacon, The
Genesis of Genesis (New York, 1892) , Halevy,
Recherches bibhques (Paris, 1895) , Green, The
Unity of the Book of Genesis (New York, 1896) ,
Spurrell, Notes on the Text of the Book of
Genesis (ib, 1896), Gunkel, The Legends of
Genesis (Chicago, 1901), Ehrlich, Randglossen
zur hebraischen Bibel I (Berlin, 1908) , Eerd-
mans, Alt test amenthche Studien (ib, 1908),
Wiener, Pentateuchal Studies (Oberlin, 1912) ,
Dahse, Teootkntische Matenalien zur Heasateuch-
frage (Leipzig, 1912) , Gressmann, Mose und
seme Zeit (ib, 1912), N. Schmidt, in Journal
of Biblical Literature, xxxiii (New York, 1914) ,
Jastrow, Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions
(ib, 1914)
GENET, jen'St, or GENETTE (Fr genette,
fiom Sp. gineta, from Ar jarnait, genet) One
of several species of small animals forming the
genus Genetta of the family Viverndae, and
nearly allied to the true civets (qv ), but hav-
ing only a rudimentary odoriferous pouch, and
claws perfectly retractile, as in the cats The
approximation to that family also appears in
the vertical contraction of the pupil of the eye
The species are numerous, smaller and more
slender animals than the civets, mostly natives
of Africa and southwestern Asia One, the
common genet (Genetta genetta, or vulgams) ,
is found in the south of Europe, western Asia,
arid northern Africa, and is divisible into several
sub specific forms It is gray, with small round
or oblong black or brown spots, the tall, which
is as long as the body, ringed with black and
white It frequents the banks of brooks Its
fur is a considerable article of commerce It is
easily domesticated and is kept in houses in
Constantinople to catch mice Of the other
species two are South and East African, and
on^ is restricted to West Central Africa
The genet is sometimes met with in heraldry
Theie was an order of knighthood in France,
A\hieh was said to have been founded by Charles
Martel, called the Order ot the Genet, but it has
loni» ceased to exist
GENET, or GE3STEST, zlie-ne', EDMOND
CHARLES EDOTJARD (called "Citizen Genet")
(1765-1834) A Fiench diplomat, born at Ver
sailles His fathei, Edme-Jacques (chod 1781)
\\as the chief of the Bureau of Correspondence
of the Department of Foreign Affairs, and tne
youth, with the rank of captain of dragoons,
was attached to the bureau as interpreter in
1775 The son developed remarkable powers as
a linguist, and at the age of 12 translated from
the Swedish into French the Histoire d'Enc
SJV, 101 de Suede (1777) and Recherches sur
Vancien peuple finnois (1778) In 1779 and
1780 he was successively attached to the French
embassies at Berlin and Vienna and in 1781 suc-
ceeded his father in the Department of Foreign
Affaiis In 1788 he accompanied the Comte de
Segur to St Petersburg, as Secretary of the
French Embassy, remaining in charge aftei
Segur's retnement until 1792, when he was given
his passports at the demand of the Empress
Catharine II In Paris Genet allied himself to
the Girondists, and in November, 1792, was
named Ambassador to Holland, whence he was
transferred in the following spring as "Minister
Plenipotentiaiy to the Congress of the United
States " Before it was decided to execute King
Louis, Thomas Paine suggested that he be sent
to the United States, and Lebrun that Genet
escort him thither His actual mission was to
induce the United States to declare war against
Great Britain, and he came with the intention
not only of accomplishing that purpose, but of
raising a volunteer army to regain Louisiana
from Spam and of commissioning privateers in
American ports. He landed at Charleston, S C
April 8, 1793 He was enthusiastically wel-
comed and feted at Charleston and Philadelphia,
and, encouraged by the expressions of sympathy
and friendship for France which he heard on
all sides, he began to commission privateers and
seek recruiting agents He planned expeditions
against East Florida from Georgia, against
Louisiana from the Carolinas, and against New
Orleans from Kentucky, the last to be led by
George Rogers Clark Washington, by the unan-
imous advice of his cabinet, had issued a procla-
mation of neutrality on April 22, and on June 5
Jefferson, the Secretary of State, notified the
Fiench envoy that lie must cease arming and
equipping privateers in American ports Gen§t
replied that he was acting under the treaties of
1778 and continued to disregard Jefferson's
warning In the next few months eight priva-
teers, commissioned by him, had, with the assist-
ance of two French frigates, captured 50 British
merchantmen, some of which had been taken
within the jurisdiction of the United States
Gengt asserted that these prizes could be con-
demned by French consuls in American ports,, de-
manded the right to enter the condemned goods
duty free, and declared that the United J States
Constitution did not give Washington the right
to treat with him and made the demand that an
extra session of Congress be called for that
purpose His criticisms and attacks upon
Washington, and the continuance of his activi-
ties in fitting out privateers and raising re-
cruits, lost him most of the allies he had at first
possessed, and the arrest of two of his agents
G-ENETHLIALOGY
562
GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY
and the expulsion of tlie Fiench Consul at Bos-
ton weie followed by a demand foi hife own
recall, winch was acceded to by the French gov-
ernment m the following year In December,
1793, he published his instructions, Genet and
the Federal Gowtnmemt The fate of his fellow
Girondists warned Genei not to return to
France, and he became a naturalized American
citizen, settling in Kew York, where he married
a daughtei of Gov Geoige Clinton, whose cam-
paign for the presidency in 1808 he favored in
Communications on the ~Xext Election . l>y a
Citizen of 'New TerL (1808) Consult Turnei,
'Genet'b Projected Attack on Louisiana and the
Floridas/' in American Historical Review, vol.
in (New York, 1898), and his "Policy of France
toward the Mississippi Valley," in the same
Revieit, vol x (1005)
GENETH'LIAI/OGY (Gk 7^0X^X07^, ge-
nethhalogia, casting of nativities, from v*ve6\yf
genethle, birthday, from yfypeorQai, gignestJiai, to
be born + -\oyia, -logia, account, from \eyew,
legein, to say) A teim sometimes used to de-
scribe astrology as used in calculating nativities
or predicting future occurrences from the stais
that preside at the birth of persons See AS-
TROLOGY Di\ INATION
GENET'IC PSYCHOLOGY (from Gk yfrew,
genesis, origin, from ytjvecdat., gignesthai, to be
born) Under this head are included all those
branches of psychology which treat of the growth,
or development of mind, individual or social
Hence, like expeiimental psychology (qv), it
is rather psychology as viewed from a particu-
lar standpoint than a particular department of
general psychology It is customary to bracket
together animal and child psychology (qqv)
under the genetic heading, but while the child
mind may be investigated as the immediate, and
the animal mind as the more remote, source of
origin of the adult human mind, both the ani-
mal and the child may also be examined for
themselves, without overt regard to their place
in the evolutionary series. Bthnopsychology and
social psychology, m the same way, may be
treated either statically or genetically, though,
as a rule (especially in the discussion of the
great mental products, myth, language, and cus-
tom), the genetic method is followed*
Modern science is so thoroughly dominated by
the evolutionary idea that it may seem, at first
thought, as if a scientific psychology must neces-
sarily be genetic And this is true, in the sense
that the psychologist, in whatever field he may
be working, must never forget the organic char-
acter of mind, the fact that our present con-
sciousnesses are what they are by reason of the
past history of the organism as well as of
current stimuli Even when we attempt to ana-
lyze so apparently simple a process as percep-
tion, we are invariably referred to genesis for
the explanation of certain of its features At
the same time it would be impossible to-day to
write a satisfactory genetic psychology, in the
full meaning of the term For (1) the most
assured results of mental science lie in the
domain of analysis, not of genesis. When we
think of the development Of mind, we think
instinctively of the development of mental func-
tion Now, a psychology of function tends to
become a merely classificatory psychology (see
FACULTY) ; and the writers who have escaped
this tendency are not in agreement among them-
selves, some making will, and some feeling, and
some an intellectual process, the root function of
mind It follows that the \\oikb on genetic
psychology have a distinct peisonal flavoi , it is
as' natural to speak of "Spencei's ps'vchologj11 as
it is unnatuial to speak of "Kelvin's physics"
01 kLiebig's chemistry" Again, (2) while the
belief is piactically universal among psycholo-
gists that the human mind is in some sort
continuous with the rudimentary consciousness
of piimitive organisms, it is still very difficult
to envisage the course of development, to im-
agine what the primitive mind was and how — by
%\ hat steps or stages, by what mechanism — it has
developed Some investigators (eg, Romanes)
\\rite as if there \Aere a simple superposition of
function on function, faculty on faculty, others
(eg, Baldwin) give u& rather a development of
a motor than of a mental oigamsm, otheis offer
descuptions of special consciousnesses at vaiious
levels of development, without asking how the
earlier become transfoimed and difierentiated
into the later
A genetic psychology is, therefore, not so much
an accomplished fact* as the conscious and nec-
essary ideal of psychological inquiry, itself the
final term of a psychological development
Meanwhile theie are, as we have just indicated,
a number of concrete genetic psychologies, some
of which rest upon a psychological basis, otheis
upon a physiological, or an anatomical, or an
anthropological basis We may, e g , mark off
periods m the groNvth of mind by changes in
mental capacity — development of the senses, of
speech, of emotional activity, of power of atten-
tion, etc , or by the functional activities of
various organs , or by stages of physical gi owth ,
or by the successive appearance of racial charac-
teristics This last principle of division implies
a similarity between racial evolution and in-
dividual development, which is summed up in
the "recapitulation theory" The theory posits
a parallelism, physical and mental, between the
epochs through which the race has passed from
primitive to civilized man, on the one hand, and
the growth of the individual on the other One
phase of recapitulation has been adopted by the
Herbartians in their theory of ''culture epochs "
They contend that the individual passes thiough
the same stages of culture that the race has
traversed The theory seems to hold only when
it is taken broadly The ' young savage" in the
child is strikingly appaient at times, and his
passion for hunting, fishing, roving, and his in-
tolerance of restraint are strong reminders of
lower grades of culture But there are many un-
like factors in the environment of the child and
the savage The race wrought its own culture,
the child has its culture thrust upon it It lives
in a social and moral forcing house, from which
a primitive race is exempt, except in so far as
it comes into contact with more civilized peoples.
These diflerences, together with the physical
immaturity of the child, can but cut across
and modify "recapitulation " And yet this may
be clearly traced in certain general tendencies
of the child, eg, in the use of gesture Ian-
guage, m word inventions and onomatopoeia,, in
rhythmic movements, in the character of his
drawings, and m his aesthetic preferences. We
should, however, find similar resemblances be-
tween the child of civilization and the child of
primitive culture The two seem to differ chiefly
in the shorter period of infancy and adolescence
which is allotted to the primitive child. So that
We are led to a fact which DS perhaps more im-
portant than the alleged recapitulation — the fyct
GENEVA
563
GENEVA
that childhood diffeis comparatively little be-
tween one level of culture and another, wheieas
the mental status of the adult varies materially
But not only does the evolutional y study of
the child mind hint at the paiallehsm of indi-
vidual and racial development, it intimates that
the child often "harks back" to experiences of
his animal progenitors Many of his emotions,
as fear and anger, his instinctive and impulsive
actions, his vegetarian piopensities, habits of
scratching, biting, clawing, teasing, his cruelty,
many of his games and plays, have been in-
stanced as showing atavistic tendencies In this
matter, again, the via media is the only safe
way Many so-called atavisms are simply ana-
logies, some of them poor analogies, whose real
explanation is to be found within the experience
of the individual himself We grant that the
experience of the human young has many points
m common with the experience of certain of the
lower animals, but the question is whether the
likeness is not usually coincidental Take, e g ,
the cruelty of the child It is due largely to a
failure to appreciate the significance of pain,
while in the savage it is the natural result
(where it really exists) of a hard struggle for
survival
A like criticism must be passed upon other
current attempts to work out a genetic psy-
chology, in the concrete, upon some special
basis, their generalizations are limited in scope
and uncertain in application Such psychologies
must, at the best, be classificatory or explana-
tory rather than descriptive, and it may be
doubted whether they can ever furnish material
aid to that ideal genetic psychology of which we
spoke earlier in this article
Consult Darwin, Descent of Man (New York,
1906) , Baldwin, Mental Development in the
Child and the Race (ib, 1906) , Spencer, Prin-
ciples of Psychology (ib, 1890), Romanes,
Mental Evolution in Animals (London, 1885),
id, Mental Evolution in Man (ib, 1888) , Hall,
Adolescence (New York, 1905) , Kirkpatrick,
Genetic Psychology (London, 1910) , Partridge,
The Genetic Psychology of Education (New
York, 1912).
GENEVA. See GIN
GrENE'VA. The southwesternmost canton of
Switzerland, bounded by the Canton of Vaud
and Lake Geneva on the north, and by France on
the east, south, and west (Map (Switzerland,
A 2) Area, 108 square miles The surface
consists of low hills, watered chiefly by the
Rh6ne The soil is not naturally fruitful, but
the careful industry of the inhabitants has ren-
dered over 81 5 per cent of the total area of the
canton productive Gram, wine, fruits, and
vegetables are produced in considerable quanti-
ties, and domestic animals are raised Indus-
trially Geneva is one of the leading cantons of
Switzerland and is famous for its watch-manu-
facturing industry, which was introduced from
France as early as 1587. The manufacture of
music boxes and jewelry was begun later, and
at present the products of the canton include
machines, mathematical instruments, and elec-
tric apparatus. Large manufacturing establish-
ments which utilize the power of the Rh6ne have
materially changed the character of the indus-
tries and increased the total value of the output
The number of factories subject to federal in-
spection in 1911 was 519, employing 13,433
workers. The silk industry, formerly of great
importance, 19 now in a, state of decline. The
commerce is greatly facilitated by the prox
imity to France, and the products of Geneva,
especially watches, are exported to all paits of
the world Budget leceipts in 1910 were 11,-
730,000 fiancs, in which year expenditures
amounted to 11,634,000 francs
The constitution of the canton, first adopted
in 1847 and repeatedly modified, piovides foi a
true democratic foim of goveinment The legis
lative power is vested in the Grosser Hat, con-
sisting of 100 elected members, the executive
power, m a Council of State of 7 elected mem-
bers The referendum was introduced in 1880
Besides a number of highei and inferior courts,
Geneva has also arbitration courts for the settle-
ment of industrial disputes Pop , 1900, 132,-
609, 1911, 156,288 Neaily one-third of the
population is of foreign birth, chiefly French
and Italian The inhabitants are divided about
equally between Roman Catholic and Protes-
tants, about 30 per cent being foreigners and
neaily 90 per cent speaking French Capital,
Geneva (qv )
GENEVA The capital of a canton of the
same name, Switzeiland, situated at the south-
west extremity of the Lake of Geneva, at the
outlet of the nver Rhone, which divides the city
into two equal parts (Map Switzerland, A 2)
It is magnificently situated, in full view of the
Alps (including Mont Blanc) and the Jura
The old city, on the left bank of the river,
constitutes the business and financial quarter
and is irregularly laid out, with steep, crooked
streets, except for the portion along the river,
which has fine quays and broad avenues On this
side of the river is the section of the city called
Eaux Vaves Several bridges span the Rhdne,
one of which rests upon an islet called Rous-
seau's Island On the right bank is the Quarter
of Samt-Gervais, which is chiefly residential,
containing a great part of the laboring popula-
tion Here are also hotels for the accommoda-
tion of foreigners, who form a considerable colony
in Geneva There are numerous squares, parks,
and gardens, most of them in the old city The
most notable are the Jardin Anglais, or Prome-
nade du Lac, along the lake shore, and the Place
Neuve, with the Promenade des Bastions, leading
southward to the botanical gardens The most
important square in the Saint-Gervais Quarter
is the Place des Alpes, with a magnificent
memorial cenotaph of the Duke Charles II of
Brunswick, who left his fortune of $4,000,000 to
the city Boulevards laid out on the site of the
ancient walls extend around the city The prin-
cipal buildings are the Romanesque cathedral of
St Peter, built in the eleventh century, the six-
teenth-century town hall, with, the house neai
by in which Rousseau was born, the university
(see GENEVA, UNIVERSITY OF) , the Musee Fol,
with archseological collections, and the Musee
Rath, an immense art collection given by the
Russian General Rath to the city Also note
worthy are the Anglican and American Episco
pal churches and the new theatre Besides the
university, Geneva has the College de Gen&ve,
founded by Calvin in 1559, various industrial
technical, and commercial schools, academies of
art and music, a deaf and dumb institute, and a
municipal library with about 200,000 volumes
There are many learned and art associations,
notably the Natural Science Association, the
Geographical Society, and the Society of Artists
Geneva has long been known as a manufactur-
ing city and especially as a clock, watch, and
GENEVA
564
GENEVA
jewelry making centre Besides these industries
the most important are enameling, diamond
cutting, and the production of music boxes and
scientific instruments There are also iron and
chemical works The town enjoys a favoiable
position for tiade with France and the Meditei-
ranean shore, exporting its own manufactures
and those of the surrounding districts A large
pait of the area surrounding the city is a ' free
zone," into which material for use in manufac-
turing for exportation may be introduced duty
free It is the seat of a United States consul
The toun is a railroad centre and is traversed
b\ horse-car lines and steam suburban railroads
The municipality's progressiveness has been pai-
ticxdarlv marked since 1847 by radical improve-
ments throughout the city Breakwaters, pro-
tecting the lake harbor, hydraulic works in the
Rhone, supplying the city with water and fur-
nishing power for factories, and gas, electue-
lightmg, and power plants are owned by the
city Pop, 1888, 52,043, 1900, 105,710, 1910,
125,520
At the time of Csesar's campaign against the
Helvetn Geneva belonged to the country of the
Allobroges It was afterward included in the
Roman Provincia Maxima Sequanomm and vas
a place of some importance under the Burgun-
dian kings In the year 534 it came under the
rule of the Franks and towaids the close of the
ninth centurv became part ot the new Kingdom
of Transjurane Burgundy It had been made a
bishop's seat in the fifth century, and from the
twelfth centurv continual feuds arose between
the bishops and the counts of Savoy with regard
to supremacy In 1032 Conrad II of Germany
got possession of the town and put a bishop m
fharge of it In 1531 the Genevese renewed
their alliance with Fribourg and Bern, and thus
Geneva became a member of the Swiss Con-
federation. The doctrines of the Reformation,
boldly and enthusiastically preached by Guil-
latime Fare!, a Frenchman, met with general
acceptance in Geneva In conjunction with
Bern the citizens expelled the adherents of the
dukes of Savoy from the town and declared the
bishopric vacant In August, 1535, the Reformed
religion was established by Iaw3 and in 1541
Cal\m "was invited to take up his residence
permanently in Geneva as public teacher of
theology It was he who chiefly impressed the
stamp of iigid morality, not unalloyed with
pedantry, on the minds of the citizens of Ge-
neva and awakened a taste for the exact sciences
The town, which had hitherto been merely a
place of trade, thus acquired an important* in-
fluence over the spiritual life of Europe and
became the centre of education for the Protes-
tant youth of Great Britain, France, Germany,
and Spain In 1602 the last attempt of the
dukes of Savoy to recover the town was frus-
trated by the energy and resolution of the citi-
zens During the eighteenth century Geneva
was distracted by a continued feud between the
aristocratic and popular parties, until in 1782
Bern, Sardinia, and, in particular, France inter-
fered in favor of the aristocracy The French
Revolution led to a new crisis, the government
was overthrown in July, 1794, equality in the
eye of the law was established, a national con-
vention appointed, and a reign of terror com-
menced In 1798 Geneva With its territory was
annexed to France, under the name of the
D^>artement du Le*man After the overthrow
of Napoleon Geneva recovered its independence,
and the Congiess of Vienna increased its teiri-
tor\* consideiablv and guaranteed its neutialitv
From 1841 to 1878 its Instoiv \\as one of polit-
ical stiuggles between cleiieal, conservative,
radical, and independent factions, which le-
sulted in the beparation of church and state
and the triumph of the progressive parties In
1879 the Referendum was introduced and in
1891 the Initiative and Recall In 1907, by a
icferendum, the chuich and state weie sepa-
rated The most important event in the history
of the to\\n since 1907 was the purchase, on
Maich 23, 1012, by the Canton of Geneva of
the main railway station fiom its Fiench owners,
the Pans, Lyons, and Mediten anean Railway
Company Consult Pictet de Sergy, Gendve,
origine," etc (Geneva, 1843-47), and Geneve
rcssuscitce (ib, I860), Cherbuhez, Geneve, $es
institutions, etc (ib, 1868), Galifie, Geneve
histortque et m cheologique (ib, 1869), Blavi-
pnac, Etudes sm Geneve (ib, 1872-74), Bois-
fa'onnas, Geneve & tta^ets les vccles (ib, 1900),
Chapuisat, La muntnpahte de G-eneie pendant
la, damnation pan^dise 1798-1814 (2 vols,
ib 1910)
GE3STEVA, A city and the county seat of
Kane Co , 111 , 38 miles west of Chicago, on
the Fox Rivei, and on the Chicago and North-
western Railroad (Map Illinois, H 2) It is
popular as a residential place for Chicago busi-
ness men, has a public libraiy and one of the
finest courthouses in Illinois, and is the seat
of the State Reformatory for Female Juvenile
Offenders There are manufactures of wind-
mills, sadirons, boxes, flour, candv, shoes sani-
tary cups, and hardware It is also a milk and
butter centre Settled about 1833, Geneva was
incorporated in 1835 as a village and as a city
in 1887 The water works and eleetnc-hght
plant are owned and operated by the municipal-
ity Pop, 1900, 2446, 1910, 2541
GrEMTSVA A city and the county seat of
Fillmore Co, Neb, 54 miles (direct) west by
south of Lincoln on the Burlington and Mis-
souri River and the Chicago and Northwestern
railroads (Map Nebraska, G 4) It is the seat
of the State Industrial School for Girls and
contains a Carnegie library The principal in-
dustries are farming, bnckmaking, and stock
raising A large nursery is situated here
Geneva owns its water works Pop , 1900, 1534
1910, 1741
GENEVA. A city in Ontario Co, N. Y, 51
miles southeast of Rochester, on Seneea Lake,
the Seneca and Cayuga Canal, and the Hew
York Central and Hudson River and the Lehigh
Valley railroads (Map New York, C 5) It
commands a magnificent view of the lake and
surrounding country and is the seat of Hobart
College (Protestant Episcopal, opened in 1822),
a college for girls, and of the State Agricul-
tural Experiment Station It contains also
a city hospital. The city is noted for its
extensive nurseries and has manufactures of
stoves, steam boilers, motors and motor boats,
optical supplies, cereals, canned goods, wagons,
cutlery, glass bottles, etc Geneva was char-
tered as a city m 1898 and is governed by a
mayor, chosen every two years, who controls
appointments to most of the municipal offices,
and a unicameral council The city owns and
operates its water works Near Geneva, stood tne
Indian village, Kanadesaga, destroyed by Gen
James Clinton m 1770 Fop , 1900, 10,433, 1910,
12,446 3 1914 (U, 8, *st ), 13>30J, 1920, 14,946.,
GENEVA
565
GENEVA CONVENTION
GENEVA (from OF gcncvic,Yi genidvte,It
ginepro, jumper, fiom Lat yumpeius, jumper,
coriupted by popular etymology with Geneia, a
city of Switzerland) One of the names of the
jumper berry, but also often applied to the
spirit distilled from gram and flavored with
jumper berries and manufactured in Holland
and hence called Hollands or Holland gin The
\\oid "gin" is itself a corruption of '"Geneva "
GENEVA, LAKE (Fr Lac Leman, the Lacus
Lemannus of the Romans) A crescent-shaped
lake, the largest in Switzerland, extending
around the northern part of the Depaitment of
Haute- Savoie, France, and with its west, north,
and east shores bordering the Swiss cantons of
Geneva, Vaud, and Valais (Map Switzerland,
A 2) It has an aiea of 224 square miles It
is 45 miles long and attains a maximum breadth
of 8y0 miles between Morges and Amphion, its
greatest depth is 1015 feet, between Evian and
Ouchy At the Strait of Promenthoux, 2 miles
wide, it is divided into the Great Lake, about
39 miles long, with an average breadth of 6
miles, and the Little Lake, 6 miles long and 2
miles broad The river Rhone, turbid and
yellow, enters the lake at the northeastern end
and leaves it at the southwest, through the
city of Geneva, perfectly clear and of a deep-
blue tint The deposits of this river at the
northeast end have contracted considerably the
area of the lake, former towns and villages on
its shores in some cases now being miles inland
About 20 other streams, all insignificant, flow
into the lake, which is 1230 feet above the sea,
with the melting of the mountain snow in sum-
mer the lake rises from 6 to 8 feet above its
usual level It is subject to the phenomena
known as seiches, caused probably by local
alterations in the atmospheric pressure, which
frequently occasion a rise and fall of from 2 to
5 feet in the course of half an hour The seiches
longitudmales traverse the lake from one end
to the other, the highest on reeoid being over 6
feet high, the seiches transvet sales cross from
the Swiss to the French side in 10 minutes
The lake is never entirely frozen over It
abounds in trout, lake salmon, perch, pike, and
carp
The beauties of Lake Geneva have been cele-
biated for centuries "and annually attract thou-
sands of tourists, its shores have been favorite
residential resorts of numerous celebrities The
shore on the side of the Pays de Vaud is cele-
brated for the magnificence of its scenery, the
southern French shore rises solemn and stern,
with the mountains of Savoy in the background
From the Lake of Geneva Mont Blanc is visible,
and, although 40 miles distant, is often reflected
in its intensely blue waters. The principal
places on Lake Geneva are Geneva, Coppet,
Nyon, Morges, Lausanne (with its port, Ouchy),
Vevay, Montreux, Evian-les-Bains, and Thonon
Consult Lewis and Gribble, The Lake of Geneva
(London, 1909)
GENEVA, UNIVERSITY OF A Swiss univer-
sity, known under its present name only since
1873, but the outgrowth of one of the oldest and
most famous of Protestant institutions of learn-
ing the Academy of Geneva, founded by the
Genevan Republic in 1559 The academy had
the usual faculties of philosophy, science, law,
and theology, but the last named, under the
direct oversight of Calvin and Bern, was the
most renowned The institution soon became
tie leading resort of Protestant scholars and
students of all nations and lent much lustre to
a city already famous for its curious theocratic
republican loim of government After the Hu-
guenot persecutions Geneva became more than
evei the centre of French Protestant culture and
influence, a characteristic maintained through-
out the eighteenth century The names of
Scaliger, Casaubon, De Saussure, and De Can
dolle have given the university distinction It
is still a place of educational importance It
was attended in 1913 by 1669 students, many
of them from abroad, who were mainly in the
faculties of medicine and philosophy Women
aie admitted on the same conditions as men
Consult C Borgeaud, Histoire de I'Unwet site
de Geneve (2 vols , Geneva, 1909)
GENEVA ABBITBATION The interna-
tional adjudication of the controversies between
the United States and Great Britain gi owing
out of the depiedations of the Alabama and
other Confederate ciuisers upon the commerce
of the former country during the Civil War
The arbitration tribunal was instituted as the
result of the Tieaty of Washington, signed
February, 1871, by the joint commission which
had met at Washington to settle those contro-
versies For the nature of the differences thus
adjudicated and the constitution of the tribunal
and the results of the arbitration, see AEBITBA-
TION, INTERNATIONAL, ALABAMA CLAIMS
G-ENEVA BIBLE See BIBLE
GENEVA CATECHISMS A smaller and a
larger French catechism by Calvin, published in
1536 and 1541, the second of which was after-
waid translated and adopted as the formulary
of the Reformed churches of Switzerland, France,
and Hungary
GENEVA CONVENTION" An agreement
concluded at an international conference which
was held at Geneva, 1864, under the presidency
of General Dufour, the Swiss Plenipotentiary,
for the purpose of ameliorating the condition of
the sick and wounded in time of war The credit
of originating this conference belongs to two
citizens of Geneva — Dunnant, a physician, who
published a startling account of what he had
witnessed in two military hospitals on the field
of Solfenno, and his friend Moymer, chairman
of the Society of Public Utility, who took up the
idea of "neutralizing the sick wagons," formed
associations for its agitation, and at length
pressed it upon the governments of Europe,
most of which sent representatives to the con-
feience The convention was, drawn up and
signed by them on August 22, and since then it
has received the adherence of every European
power, the United States, and several Latin
American and Asiatic countries The conven-
tion consists of 10 articles, which provide (1)
for the neutrality of ambulances and military
hospitals as long as they contain any sick,
(2) for that of the staff, (3) that the neu-
trality of these persons shall continue after oc-
cupation of their hospitals by the enemy, so
that they may stay or depart, a£ they choo,se;
(4) that if they depart, they can only take
their private property with them except in case
of ambulances, which they may remove entire,
(5) that a sick soldier in a house shall be
counted a protection to it and entitle its occu-
pants to exemption from the quartering of
troops and from part of the war requisitions,
(6) that wounded men shall, whep. cured, be
sent back to their own country on condition of
not bearing arms during the rest of the war,
G-ENEVA 0OW3ST
566
(7) that hospitals and ambulances shall carry,
in addition to the flag of then nation, a dis-
tinctive and uniform flag beanng a red cross
on a white ground, and that their staff shall
wear an arm badge of the same colors, (8)
that the details shall be left to the commanders
A second conference was held at Geneva on
the same subject in 1868 and a supplemental y
convention diawn up It consists partly of
interpretations of the former convention and
partly of an application of its principles to
maritime wars Its mam provisions are these
That when a- person engaged in an ambulance
01 hospital occupied by the enemy desires to
depart, the commander m chief shall fix the
time for his departure, and when he desires to
remain, that he be paid his full salary, that
account shall be taken in exacting war requisi-
tions not only of the actual lodging of wounded
men, but of any display of chanty towards
them,, that the rule which permits cured sol-
diers to return home on condition of not serving
again shall not apply to officers, for their knowl-
edge might be useful, that hospital ships, mer-
chantmen having wounded on board, and boats
picking up wounded and wrecked men shall be
neutral, that they shall carry the red-cross flag,
and their men the red-cross armlet, that hospi-
tal ships belonging to the goveinnaent shall be
painted white with a green strake, those of aid
societies white with a red strake that in na\al
\\ars any strong presumption that the conven-
tion is being abused by one of the belligerents
shall give the other the light of suspending it
towards that power till the contrary is pioved,
and, if the presumption becomes a certainty, of
suspending it to the end of the war See RED
CROSS SOCIETIES , WAB
GENEVA GOW3ST. See COSTUME, ECCLESI-
ASTICAL
GrElTEVIEVE, jSn'e-veV The heroine of a
poem by Coleridge, which is sometimes known
by the same name, but more frequently by that
of "Love " It was added to the second edition
of the Lyrical Ballads (1800)
GE1STEVIEVE, zheVvy^v', SAINT (Lat Geno-
tefa) (c 422-5 12) The patron saint of Paris
and the subject of many popular and highly
poetical legends She was bom in 419 or 422,
in the village of ISTanterre, near Paris, where,
as a mere child, she attracted the notice of St
Germanus of Auxerre ( q v. ) , who passed a night
at Nanterre on his way to Britain (c430) and
who is said to have marked her out as specially
destined to a life of holiness and purity She
devoted herself to a life of virginity and conven-
tual seclusion On the death of her parents she
removed to Paris, and her active charity, and
the extraordinary reputation for sanctity which
she acquired, both there and in other cities of
France which she visited on missions of Chris-
tian benevolence, won for her the admiring ven-
eration, not alone of her own people, but even
of the heathen or half converted The Frankish
rulers Childeric and Clovis set prisoners free
at her intercession When (e450) it was pro-
posed to abandon Pans in alarm at the ap-
proach of Attila and the Huns, G-enevie've, as-
sembling the matrons a,nd consecrated virgins in
one of the churches, exhorted, them to avert, by
prayer and fasting, the threatened calamity
The unexpected alteration of Attila's inarch
towards Orleans, leaving Pans untouched* added
still more to her reputation and to her influence.
Later, when Clovis besieged the city, Genevifcve,
GENGHIS KHA3ST
\\ith her sisters in religion, set out on an ex-
pedition for the relief of the staivmg people
and successfully convened to Paris a supply of
piovisions After his conversion the city opened
its gates to him by her advice (497) She
died in Pans) Jan 3, 512 Under her patron-
age and with her name a religious congiegation
of priests—The Canons of St Genevieve— was
founded in the eleventh century, which with
some vicissitudes continued until the Revolu-
tion (1789) A religious congregation of
women, under the name of Sisters of St Gen-
evieve, was established in 1636 for the purpose
of caring for the sick and the education of
girls An edifice built in her honor and upon
the supposed site of her tomb in 1764-90, which
is now called the Pantheon, contains the famous
mural painting of the saint by Puvis de Cha-
%annes Adjoining is the Libiary of St Gene-
vieve, containing 200,000 volumes, and near by
is a relic of the abbev of St Genevieve Her
dav is January 3 Consult her life by Delalain
(Paris, 1872), Vidieu (ib, 1884), and Lesetre
(ib, 1S99)
GE3STEVIEVE BE BRABANT, de bra'baN'
Aceoiding to the legend, daughter of a duke of
Brabant, and wife of Siegfried, Count Palatine
of Treves in the first half of the eighth century
During Siegfried's absence with Charles Martel
against the Saracens, she was criminally solicited
by Golo, a knight in whose charge her husband
had left her When he returned, finding that
his wife had given birth to a child (which in
reality was his own), he ordered both mother
and child to be killed But their lives were
preserved, and many years later the repentant
Siegfried found them out and acknowledged
the injustice of his suspicions Consult Sauer-
born G-eschichte der Pfal&grafin Genovevu und
der Kapelle Frauenkwchen (Regensburg, 1856),
and Golz, Pfalzgrafin Genovefa in dei deutsthen
Diclitung (Leipzig1, 1897)
GENOA, jen'ga, GIEOLAMO (c 1476-1551) An
Italian painter, architect, and sculptoi, born at
Urbmo He received instruction from Luca Si-
gnorelh, whom he assisted in the frescoes in the
chapel of the Virgin at Orvieto, and afterward
became the pupil of Perugino, in whose company
he met Raphael The frescoes he painted in
the Petrucci Palace at Siena (1508) are de-
stroyed except the two preserved in the Acca-
demia of Siena, representing "J3neas and An-
chises" and "Escape of Prisoners " Four years
afterward he went to Urbmo and did some
decorations at the command of the Duke Guido-
baldo II Soon after this he went to Borne,
where he executed what is probably his best
picture, "The Resurrection," in the church of
St Catharine of Siena Recalled to Urbmo, he
worked for the Duke, in company with Timoteo
Viti, and after his patron's deposition went with
him to Cesena, and returned with him in
triumph to Urbmo From that time on his
work was architectural He restored the palace
of Castel Durante at Urbmo and built Monte
Imperiale near Pesaro, the church of San Gio-
vanni Battista at Pesaro, the Bishop's Palace
at Smigaglia, and the cloister of the Zoccolanti
at Monte Baroccio, In painting Genga was an
eclectic, influenced by many masters — Viti,
Raphael, and Sodoma, besides the teachers
mentioned.
GE3STGHIS, JEJSTGHIS, or ZESTGIS KHAN,
jen'gis Kan \ 11 62-1227). A celebrated con-
queror, originally known as Temujln (after a
GENGHIS KHAN
567
GENGHIS KHAN
great Tatar chief), the title "Genghis Khan"
merely signifying 'Great Khan' 01 'Ruler ' He
•was born at Deylun Yeldak, near the northern
bend of the Hoang-ho, in Mongolia, being the
son of Yesuka Bahadur, a Mongol chief who
ruled over the tribe of Neyrun, dwelling between
the Amur and the Gieat Wall of China, and
paying tribute to the Khan of East Tartary
On his father's death Temujin assumed the reins
of government, though only 13 years of age
Some of the subject tribes, however, refused to
obey him and chose another chief belonging to
the same family A war of several years' dura-
tion was the result, cairied on mostly by Temu-
jin's mother At its termination the young
ruler was compelled to retire to Karakorum,
the capital of Toghrul Ungh, Khan of the
Keraites, and place himself under that monarch's
protection Ungh Khan gave him his daughter
in marriage and appointed him to the command
of the army, in which capacity Temujin ga\e
proof of great military talent, conquering the
Mekreit, Tan jut, Jellaeir, and other neighboring
tribes His growing reputation aroused the
jealousy of his master, who ordered him to be
assassinated, but Temuj'm fled to his own coun-
try, where he arrived after many hairbreadth
escapes at the head of 5000 cavalry Raising
an army, he marched against his father-in-law,
and Toghrul, vanquished in battle in 1203,
sought refuge among the Naymans, but was
slain by the guards situated on the frontiers
Temujin immediately seized upon Toghrul's
dominions In the following year a number of
Tatar tribes, alarmed at his increasing power,
formed a powerful league against him The
command was given to Tai Ungh Khan, chief
of the Caymans, but in a battle fought on the
banks of the Amur, Temujin routed his enemies,
slew their leader, and became at once master of
almost all Mongolia Grander views of conquest
seemed now opened up before him In the year
1206 he convoked a general assembly on the
banks of the Onon, a tributary of the Amur,
flowing through his native land This meet-
ing was attended by deputies from the sub-
jugated hordes of Tartary, and the astute mon-
arch contrived to obtain a religious confirmation
of his designs Up to this period he had borne
the name of Temujin, but a renowned magi-
cian or priest, surnamed Bout-Tangri ("Son of
Heaven" ) , venerated by all the Mongols, now
came forward and pronounced him Genghis Khan
—i e , Greatest of Khans, or Khan of Khans, de-
claring that he should rule over the whole earth
The deputies were duly impressed About this
time the Uigurs, an agricultural and civilized
people, inhabiting the country at the sources of
the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang, voluntarily
submitted to his sway From this people, who
professed Buddhism, the Mongols appear to have
acquired a knowledge of writing They adopted
the Uigur alphabet, but preserved their own
language, and Genghis selected one of the tribe
to instruct his children
The most important incident in the career of
Genghis was the conquest of the northern part of
China, or Khatai The immediate cause of the
war between him and the Emperor of China,
Tchong-Hei, was the refusal of the former to
recognize the latter as his suzerain, or liege
lord Most of the Tatar tribes which Genghis
had subdued were really vassals of the Chinese
Empire, and Tchong-Hei, though he had not
interfered to prevent the conquests of the Mon-
gols, now called upon Genghis to acknowledge
his supenority by paying tribute Genghis im-
mediately prepared for war, scaled the Great
Wall in 1211, divided his army into three divi-
sions, and after a series of bloody and piotracted
campaigns succeeded in taking 'Peking in 1215
Meanwhile Genghis had quelled an insurrection,
headed by the Naynians, and conquered the
Gur-Khan of Kara-Khatai These tubes were
neaily exterminated in a gieat fight which took
place neai the sources of the Yenisei Pressing
westward, the Mongols at length reached the
Sihun, the northeastern boundary of the Em-
pire of Khwarezm, or Khorasmia, whose ruler,
Ala-ed-Dm Mohammed, was one of the most
powerful sovereigns in Asia The dynasty to
which he belonged had risen into powei tlnough
the weakness of the Seljuk sultans, and its
sway now extended from the borders of Syria
to the river Indus and from the river Sihun to
the Persian Gulf The muider of some Mongol
merchants at Otrar, a town on the Sihun, af-
forded Genghis a pretext foi invasion In 1219
an army of 700,000 men, according to the East-
ern chroniclers, commanded by Jujy, the son of
Genghis Khan, entered Khwarezm Samarkand,
Bokhara, and all the other impoitant cities of
the country were captured In 1221 Genghis
Khan assumed personal command The Mongols
in three separate divisions now scoured and
ravaged Khwarezm in all directions In the
course of five or six years they overran Persia,
subdued the inhabitants of the Caucasus, crossed
into Russia, and plundered the land between
the Volga and the Dnieper They swept over
the whole of southern Asia, as far as the Sutlej
in northern India, but the exhaustion of the
Mongol hordes compelled Genghis to return to
Karakorum, the capital of his Empire, in 1224
Dm ing his absence his generals had been prose-
cuting the Chinese war with the greatest suc-
cess Genghis had still the old thirst of con-
quest, and, having recruited his forces, he led
them across the great Desert of Gobi to the
Kingdom of Tanjovt, in the northwest of China,
the capital of which, Nm-hai, he besieged Dis-
heartened by the loss of the greater part of his
army, the King of Tan j out promised to capitu-
late at the end of a month, but in the interval
Genghis died, Aug 24, 1227, on the hill Liou-
pan, worn out with years and toils He is said
to have hadj^500 wives and concubines and to
have left a great number of children, among
three of whom he divided his enormous posses-
sions The third son, Ogotai, was appointed
Grand Khan and received for his share the
region now called Mongolia, with Khatai, 01
northern China, as far north as the mouth of
the Amur The second son, Tcheghatai, received
Turkestan north of the Amur. Jujy, for his
share, obtained Kiptchak (qv ) and all the
country west and north of Turkestan, an im-
mense tract extending from the Caspian Sea
almost to the Arctic Ocean Sanguinary and
barbarous though he was, Genghis showed many
statesmanlike qualities and many virtues He
was a strict monotheist, but tolerated all reli-
gions, exempted from taxes and military service
physicians and priests, made obligatory the
practice of hospitality, established severe laws
against adultery, theft, and homicide, organized
a system of communication throughout his
dominions, mainly no doubt for military pur-
poses 3 and so thoroughly organized what may
be called the police or civil authority that it
GEISTGLEK
568
GEiNTPAP
was said that one might tiavel without fear 01
danger from one end of Ins Empire to the othei
He would appear to Lave rebpcctod men of
learning and to have retained seveial of such
about his person The only memorial of Genghis
now kno\\n to o\ist is a granite tablet, v ith a
Mongol inscription decipheied bv Schmidt, of
St Petersburg-, discovered among the ruins of
Nertehmsk This tablet had been elected by
Genghis in commemoration of his conquest of
the Kingdom of Kara Khatai Consult Ho-
worth, History of the Mongols (London, 1876-
88) , Eidmann, Temudschin der Unet schuttct -
liche (Leipzig, 1S62) , Douglas, Life of Genghis
Khan (London, 1877), Hoyle, History of the
Mongols (ib, 1876-88), Gurtm, The Mongols
A, History (Boston, 1908), Johnston, Famous
Cavalry Leaders fib, 1908)
GKENGLEB, geng^er, HEINEICH GOTTFEIED
(1817-1901) A German jurist, born &t Bam-
berg, and educated at Wurzburg and Heidel-
berg For more than 50 years he occupied the
chair of law at the University of Erlangen His
works include Das deutsche Privatrecht in
semen Grundeugen fur Studierende ei orte, t
(1856, 4th ed, 1892) , Germamsche Rechtvdenk-
maler, with a glossary (1875) , Des Sehualen-
sptegels Landrechtsbuoh (2d ed , 1873) Ueber
di$ deutschen Stadtepritilegien des 16, 17 , und
18 Jahrhundetts (1901)
GENIE DTI CHRISTIASriSME, zhA'ne' du
krSs'ty&'nS's'm (Fr , Genius of Christianity) A
celebrated work by Chateaubriand (1802), a de-
fense of Christianity on puiely aesthetic and
emotional grounds, avoiding all frank discussion
of dogma The work gathers together illustra-
tions of the sublime in Christian dogma, poetry.,
art, and literature, and, besides its religious im-
portance, had a distinct influence on the literary
tendency of the nineteenth century
GE3STH, je'ni-I (Lai, guardian spirits).
Spirits supposed to protect human beings, or
tutelary divinities who presided over places and
things The classical nations believed that there
were orders of spirits whose function it was to
take in charge the infant at birth, to watch
over the person day and night during the whole
life, to point out to him the right and fortunate
thing to do, to warn him of danger and wrong-
doing, and thus to guide him safely throughout
lus life The genii had access to their wards
at all times and could change themselves into
any desired form The demon (Gk Saifjuav) of
Socrates is often mentioned as an example of a
guardian spirit In his case, however, the phi-
losopher seemed to have believed not so much
in an everpresent genius prompting him as in
a friendly hand holding him back from danger
and wrongdoing. But, according to the classi-
cal belief, not only persons were thus cared for,
but also there were special spirits in whose
keeping the protection of the land itself was
believed to be placed. Rome, e.g, had its tute-
lary genii, and the Lares and Penates were
looked upon as household gods embodying the
spirit of the hearth and home As such, the
various genii received honors and divine wor-
ship in ancient Italy and Greece
It is an easy step from this belief in guardian
spirits to that in evil, misleading, tempting
spirits, who are sent either to test the virtues
of the good or to guide the evil mortal in
ways of wrongdoing (See DEMOSTOLOGY ) Thq
Greeks had kakodaimones as well as a^atho-
daimones The Romans came to believe in evil
genii as \\ell as good Tt \\ill be readily under-
stood that the eaily Glinstians sei/ed upon these
ideas, and out of them grew the behet in guard-
ian angels, ministering spirits, and evil genii 01
spirits
In classical ait the genii aie sometimes i op re-
sen ted in the form of a youth \vith wings,, some-
times as closely wiapped in a mantle and hold-
ing \\ itlun the hand some emblem of their office ,
and the genius loci, or guardian spurt, of a place
is otten pictmed as a serpent partaking of some
ollenng on an altar Under Christian influence
the good genius is frequently represented as an
angel, the bad genius under some evil guise
The idea of such spirits is a belief widely
spread and by no means confined to the classical
nations or ancient peoples or uncivilized races
The same sort of conception prevailed in an-
cient and modern India, and the Zoroastrian
doctrine of the fiaiashis m the Avesta as
heavenly spirits piesiding ovei man. and over
the house, village, tribe, and country, shows how
old this notion was in Persia The Eskimo
recognize the same idea in the spirit of the
person after whom one is named acting Ab Ins
guardian genius Among the Mohammedans
there is a kindred belief in the existence ot
jinns, spurts of good and spirits of evil Ac-
coidmg to their belief, the jmns were the off-
spring of fire, being siiperioi to man by their
magical power, but far inferior to angels They
\\eie supposed to be ruled by a race of kings
called Suleytnan, one of whom is believed to
have built the pyramids of Egypt They dwelt
in the mountain Kof and assumed at will both
human and animal forms
The role played by the pnns m the Arabian
Nights* or by the afritss or evil genii, in Arabic
stories, is familiar to every reader of Oriental
literature or of Eastern folklore With the
Arabic jinn, the Latin genius became entangled
in the popular mind through the influence of
the Arabian Nights, although there was no ety-
mological connection between the two The
Greek word 5cu/tw/, which was originally used
in the general sense of spirit, as explained
above, has become degraded to mean demon in
Christian theology The question of the belief
m genii lies near the inquiry into the origin of
leligion itself, but it is not difficult to trace
backward all such beings to the pumitiye, child-
ish faith which endows everything with human
traits and capabilities The shadow, the drea-m-
self, the physiological hallucination, all helped
to give substantiality to the creatures of the
imagination Consult B Bekker, Le monde en-
chante (Amsterdam, 1691), M D Conway,
Detnonology and Devil-Lore (3d ed-, 2 vols.,
New York, 1889), R C Thompson, Devils and
Evil Spirits of Babylonia (2 vols, London,
1903-04) See ANGEL, MAN, SCIENCE OF,
APPARITION, DEMONOLOGY, JINN, RELIGION,
COMPARATIVE
CrEN7IPAP (from genipapo, the native name) .
A much esteemed fruit of the West Indies and
warm parts of South America The tree which
yields it is Oenipa americana of the family
Kubiacese The fruit is a two-celled berry, con-
taining many seeds, about as large as an orange,
of a whitish-green color, with a dark-purple
juice of an agreeable, vinous taste The species
resembles the popular hothouse shrubs ot the
gentis $orcfewMfy of which genus the Cape jas-
mine (QQrfanMk f<wwww<fes) is perhaps the
best-known
GKENIPI
569
GrENTFI, ]en1-pG See ACTITLTEA
GENXS'TA A genus ot low shiiilw of the
faimlv Legunnnosa The spec iOh, of \\hich there
aie about 80, natives of the Old \\oild, have
small deciduous 01 almost evei^ieen leaves,
terminal lacemeb, 01 clusteis of handsome Ael-
low flo\\eis, boine in gieat abundance in Kpimg
or suminei, and little pods JFew of the species
are perfectly hardy in cold climates Genista
tinctona, Genista, angehca, and Genista gct-
manioa withstand the winters when given cover-
ing Genista tinctona, the dyei's greenweed,
has become established in New England and
New York The plants succeed best on sandy 01
rocky, \\ell-diained soils in sunny places The
so-called genista that the florists usually bung
into blossom about Easter time is a species of
Cytisus
GENITIVE (Gel, Dan, Swed genitii, Fi
genitif, Lat genitivus, of or belonging to bnth,
from gignere, to pioduce) The name of one of
the cases in grammar (See DECLENSION )
In such an expression as (Lat ) regis films,
(Eng ) the king's son, the form regis or Ling's
is called the genitive case, and according to the
usual explanation, this name was given it be-
cause it indicates the source or origin of the
thing joined with it In reality, however, the
terms of giammar were originally applied, not
to the parts of speech, but to the elements of
thought, they were logical terms before they
were grammatical The Greek writers on dia-
lectics, in analyzing the different parts of an
expressed thought, had distinguished the prin-
cipal notion, the subject or nominative as it is
called, from secondary or dependent notions,
the dependency of the latter they expressed by
the word TTToms (Lat. casus), a fall or leaning
of one thing upon another, and in such a propo-
sition as "The king's son is dead," they indicated
the exact nature of the dependence by calling it
the yeviKJj TTTUXTLS, — i e the case showing the genus,
kind, or class, the generic case, for while the
name "son" is applicable to every man having
parents, "king's son" is limited to the class of
sons having kings for their fathers The names
thus applied to ideas were transferred to the
words expressing them by the Greek grammari-
ans of Alexandria and were afterward trans-
lated into their Latin equivalents by the Greek
grammarians who taught their language to the
youth of Eome But by this time the terms had
become strictly technical, and their original sig-
nification little thought of, and this may account
foi the Greek yeviKvi, the Latin equivalent for
which is generalis, being rendered by gemtivus,
'generating or producing/ which would have been
expressed in Greek by yevveTiKrj
In English the genitive is the only case or
relation among nouns expressed by a difference
of termination, and even it is often expressed by
the preposition of, as, the nver3s brink, or the
brink of the river. From the frequency with
which the form in 's indicates that one thing
belongs to another, it is often called the posses-
sive case But this name is little applicable in
such expressions as a day's journey, still less in
many cases where the genitive is used in. the
ancient languages, e g , fens lactis, a fountain of
milk TJie generic case, however, meaning that
which limits the other noun to a class or kind,
will be found to express the real relation in
every conceivable combination Besides the
possessive, the typical usages of the genitive in
Efcglish are the partitive genitive^ as "a
of milk,31 and the genitive denoting that the
t>o\erning substantive is \\hat it is in virtue
of what depends upon it, as ' the aiithoi of the
book "
The termination \s A\as often oironoously sup-
posed to be a contraction for his, as if "'the
knit's &on" — "the King his son", but it is a
genuine lehc of the inflections (qv ) common
at an earlv stage to all the Irido-Germanic
languages 8 was one of the prevalent endings
of the genitive singular in the Anglo-Saxon
With the oidmary plural termination in 5, and
sometimes in the singulai when the noun ends
in s, the additional s of the genitive is omitted,
for the sake of the sound, as, kings' sons, Fran-
cis' store Consult Van Gmneken, Principcs
de hnguisttque psycliol-ogique (Pans, 1007) ,
Paul, Pnnvipvcn dei Sprachgeschichte (Halle,
1909) , Mauthner, Zur Grammatik und Logik
(Stuttgart, 1013)
GENIUS, jen'yiis (Lat, tutelary godling,
from gignere, Gk yLyvevdaL, gignesthai, Skt yaw,
to be born) The name given by the ancients
to the lesser divinities, good and bad, to whose
chaige aie committed the destinies of the indi-
vidual human being This usage is still re-
tained, metaphorically, in such phiases as "his
good (or evil) genius prompted him" Hence
arises, further, the employment of the term foi
a special aptitude or characteristic, as when
we speak of the bent of a man's genius 01 of
the genius of nineteenth-century thought The
current meaning of the word, however, which
naturally suggests itself in the absence of a
limiting context, is that of "an ability that is
exceptionally high and at the same time in-
born" (Galton) That man is possessed of
genius — or is a genius — whose natural abilities
are of an unusually high order and display
themselves in creation or construction, while
that man is talented whose natural abilities,
though fai above the average, depend for their
realization upon education and tiaming, and
whose superiority is displayed rather in acquisi-
tion or in artistic execution than in invention.
The man of talent, says Galton, is one in four
thousand, the man of genius is one in a million,
01 even in many millions
Many attempts have been made to define
genius Carlyle remarks that it -means, first of
all, "the transcendent capacity of taking
trouble1', and when we think of the leaders
in science or of great military geniuses, we
shall admit the measure of truth in his state-
ment Lowell, on the contrary, declares that
"talent is that which is in a man's power;
genius is that in whose power a man is" — an
account that seems to contradict Carlyle3 s defi-
nition outright, but one whose justice we shall
concede when we think, eg, of a poet like
Shelley This contrariety of description shows
how foolish is the attempt to put a technical in-
terpretation upon the word "genius" or to char-
acterize a "typical" genius There is a popular
belief that the man of genius is a puny and un-
healthy being, all brain and no muscle, and tjie
work of Lombroso has given new vogue to the old
idea that genius is closely related to insanity
Now, there can be no doubt that men of ex-
traordinary gifts have often had poor constitu-
tions; we have only to think of the philosopher
Kant as an example But the rule is to the
reverse effect a "collection of living magnets
in various branches of intellectual achievement"
is good to see, writes Galton, for the reason that
570
G3S3STOA
they are "such massive, vigoious, capable-looking
individuals " For the second belief there seems,
unf 01 tunately, to be better evidence We are
not called upon to suspect insanity \\herever we
find an unusually high intelligence this position
is negatived by the lemark just quoted But
high "intelligence implies a finely wi ought and
peculiaily excitable brain, and these character-
istics of" the nervous system, balanced in the
case of the genius by preservative conditions,
may appeal in his near relatives, without the
required checks and presei \atives, as some form
of eccentricity, if not of mental derangement
Consult Galton, Hereditary Genius (London,
1892) Lombroso, The Man of Genius (New
York, 1801), Nordau, Degeneration (ib, 1895),
Ellis, A Study of British Genius (London,
1904) , Heibmayi, Die JSntwicLlungsgcschichte
des Talents itnd Genius (2 vols , Munich,
1908), Larned, A Study of Greatness in Men
(Boston, 1911) , Nisbet, The Insanity of Genius
(London, 1913)
OEWLIS, zhdtflSs', STEPHANIE F&LICIT& Du-
CSEST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COUNTESS DE (1746-
1830). A French novelist, dramatist, and
memoir writer, born at the Chateau of Chainp-
ceri, near Autun. She afterward became pre-
ceptress (1781) of the sons of the Duke of
Chartres, known later as Philippe Egalite
Among these was the future King Louis Philippe,
for whom she wrote several educational books
During the Revolution she lived in Switzerland,
in Berlin, and in Hamburg Napoleon recalled
and pensioned her She continued to write
voluminously during the Revolution and seems
to have enjoyed the liteiary quarrels roused by
her cleverly sarcastic Diners du baton d'Holbach,
witty persiflage of the intolerant fanaticism of
eighteenth-century philosophy Her Memoires
medits sur le XVIII&me siecle et la revolution
•ftang&ise (10 vols, 1825), and a novel, Mile de
Ol&nnont (1802), are other noteworthy works
among her 90 volumes, many of which "were
translated into English She died in Paris.
Consult Samte-Beuve, Causer ws, vol m (Paris,
1857) , L Chabaud, Les prticurseurs du femi-
msme (ib, 1901), C M Bearne, Heroines of
French Society (New York, 1907) , J Harmaud,
A Keeper of Royal Secrets (London, 1913).
GENN'A'DnTS (Lat,fromGk r«wtt«w). A
learned Greek, Patriarch of Constantinople
(c 1453-59). His lay name was Georgius
Scholarius But little is known of Ins life, and
it has even been thought that there were two
writers of the same name living at the same
period The first appears in history in 1439,
when he accompanied the Emperor John Palse-
ologus to Florence, whither the Council of
Ferrara had been adjourned, and where an ef-
fort was made to unite the Eastern and Western
churches (See FE&KAEA-FLOKENCE, COUNCIL OF^
ETJGENITJS IV ) Scholarms, at this time a lay-
man, played a politic and cautious part, admit-
ting the necessity of union and trying to draw
up a form which from vagueness and ambiguity
might be accepted by both parties After his
return to Constantinople he became a monk and
opposed the union which he had formerly fa-
vored He next appears in 1453, after the cap-
ture of Constantinople by the Turks The con-
queror Mohammed, finding that the patriarchal
chair had been vacant for some time, chose the
monk Gennadius for the office. At the request
of Mohammed lie drew tip a symbol or confession
of faith, which xs valuable as an expression of
the belief of the Greek church After four 01
five years he lebigned his episcopal dignity and
retired to a nionasteiy Gennadms was a pio-
lific writer, many of his extant vvoiks ha\e
never been edited He v\as an able champion of
the Aristotelians in the contest between Plato-
nism and Aristoteliamsm which marked the
transition fiom mediaeval to modern thought
For his confession, consult Schaff, Creeds of
Christendom (4th ed , 3 vols, New York, 1905)
Some of his works are in Migne, vol clx (Paris,
1854-66)
GEMOTSABET, jen-nes'sa-ret, LAKE OF. See
GALILEE, SEA OF
G-E1OTESABET, LAINTD OF A term derived
from the faulty rendering in the Authorized
Yeision of the frfto passages in the New Testa-
ment (Matt xiv 34, Mark vi 53) where the
name 4kGennesaiet" is used as refemng to a lo-
cality. Properly rendered, both passages should
read "And ha\mg crossed ovei, they came to
land at Gennesaret " The locality so named
was a small plain on the western shore of the
Sea of Galilee, \\hich denves from it the name
"Lake of Gennesaret" (Luke v 1), first used in
1 Mace xi 67 in the form "water of Gennesar-
eth," and appearing several times under differ-
ing foims in later writers The plain extended
noith and south some 3 miles, between the high
promontories of Magdala (El-Mejdel) on the
south and the hills of Capernaum (Tell Hum)
on the north, and for about l1^ miles inland
to the foot of the western upland In form it
•was crescent-shaped, lying, with the Sea of
Galilee, some 650 feet below the level of the
Mediterranean. It was exceedingly fertile, be-
ing watered by plentiful streams from the
western hills and by copious springs -within its
own aiea Josephus7 glowing description of its
fruitfulness (War, m, x, 8) gives what, after
all, is quite likely to have been its condition in
the gospel times It was also thickly populated,
as is implied in the passage in Mark (vi 53-
56), and confirmed by the rums of towns and
Tillages found scattered over it today
As to the origin of the name, there is much
uncertainty. On philological giounds it as not
probable, though it has been strongly urged,
that it is derived from Chinnereth, the Old
Testament name of the lake It is moie likely
that it comes from some combination of gan,
'garden/ or gey, Valley/ with some following
element no longer discoverable in the word
It is called to-day El-Ghuweir, fthe little hollow '
For bibliography, see GALILEE, SEA OF
GrEJTOA,, j£n'S-a (It. Q-enova^ Genoese Z§na,
Pr @$nes} A fortified seaport of Liguria,
Italy, capital of the Province of Genoa, formerly
the capital of the Republic of Genoa, situated on
the Gulf of Genoa and the Bisagno River, in
lat 44° 24' INT and long 8° 54' E (Map Italy,
B 2 ) . It is one of the principal ports and im-
portant commercial centres of Italy The ton-
nage of vessels entering and leaving in 1910
•was slightly less than that of Naples, but double
that of any other port of Italy The mean
temperature is 61° F, 9° above that of Turin
in the interior, 100 miles northwest At Genoa
the January temperature averages 46° F and
seldom falls below 23° F, but the changes are
sudden, and the winter winds from the sur-
rounding Ligurian Apennines are raw The
average temperature at Genoa in July is 76° F.
Seen from the sea, the city justifies its title
of "la superba" (the proud) In a 9-mile eir-
GEETOA 5>
tint it rises like an amphitheatre of churches,
palaces, and houses Picturesqueness is added
to the panorama by terraced gaidens and by
budges, the most remarkable of which is the
Ponte Carignano, that leads over seven-stoiy
buildings to the chuich ot Cangnano and was
built in 1718 by the Sauh family It is 361
feet long, 17 feet wide, and 112 feet high The
old town is a network of steep, narrow streets
lined with high buildings, but the modem en-
circling and radiating boule\ards are bioad and
magnificent Among these avenues aie the im-
posing Via di Cireonvallazione a Mare, on the
site of the exterior foitifications,, and the Via
di Cireonvallazione a Monte, stretching superbly
along the heights back of the city One of the
most characteristic streets in the business sec-
tion is the Via Garibaldi, with stately palaces
The Piazza Ferrari, with its large equestrian
statue of Garibaldi, is the converging point of
the extensive system of electric street railways,
some of which reach the adjacent country
through tunnels, giving ample suburban resi-
dence facilities. There are also three lines of
cable cars
The harbor, with an area of over 600 acres,
consists of the Porto, or old harbor, with 19
feet of water, the Porto Nuovo, with 32 feet of
water, and the Avamporto for war vessels, with
45 feet of water. The Porto is partially in-
closed by the Molo Vecchio, said to have been
built in the twelfth century, and by the eight-
eenth-century Molo Nuovo The additions to
the Porto were made (1877-95) at an expense
of over $12,000,000, of which the Duke of
Galhera contributed $4,000,000. These inci eases
of the area and capacity of the harbor were in
part due to increased demands upon the open-
ing of the St Gothard Tunnel, which increased
the area served by the port Much of the sea
traffic of Switzerland and southern Germany
now utilizes this port The harbor now has,
besides an elaborate system of quays, a steel
floating dock, 282 feet long, a graving dock, and
two stone dry docks, 588 and 722 feet long re-
spectively To the west, on rocky Cape Faro,
stands the lighthouse (La Lanterna), 384 feet
high, with a magnificent view of the sea, harbor,
city, Riviera, and mountains Modern batteries
and forts render the city a sea and land fortress
of great strength The rowing and bathing
in and about the harbor add to the attractions
of the city.
Genoa is famous for the number of marble
palaces in the style of the best period of the
Renaissance It is also unique for its many
noble staircases It accordingly presents a proud
and grand appearance and is the least agreeable
and sympdtlyique of the great Italian towns
The most splendid palaces it owes to the de-
signs of Galeazzo Alessi (died 1572) and his
successors, Bianco (1604-56), Tagliafico (1729-
1812), and Cantoni (1736-1818), who inter-
preted Alessi in the spirit of Michelangelo The
oldest of the 82 churches is the cathedral of
San Lorenzo, founded in 987, rebuilt in the Ro-
manesque style about 1100, restored in Gothic
in 1307, and given a Renaissance dome in 1567
The choir was modjernized in 1617, and in 1896
the interior was properly restored. In it are
statues, paintings, vestments, relics, of which
perhaps the most interesting is the Saero Catmo,
in which tradition says that Joseph of Ari-
mathea caught drops of tke blood of his cruci-
fie4 Saviour TJhe^e are excellent altarpieces by
VOL. IX— 37
•i GEHOA
Baroccio and Battista The most magnificent
chuich in Genoa is the Santissima Annunziata,
the most bcautiiul is the sixteenth-century
Santa Maria di Carignano The Annunziata
dates from the sixteenth century and is a basilica
\\ith a dome, the vaulting being borne by fluted
and inlaid shalts of marble Sei vices aie held
in English at the Episcopal Church, at the Pies-
byterian Church, and at the Sailois' Missions
Genoa, &o rich in architecture, as poor m
mafatei pieces of painting and sculpture The
principal pictuie galleiies are in the Palazzi
Ros&o and Bianco, presented to the city by the
Duchess of Galhera, in. the seventeenth-century
Palaz/o Balbi-Senarega (private), and in the
Palazzo Duiazzo-Pallavicim, which also contains
a library with examples of early printing The
Rosso collection embraces meritorious paintings
by Paris Bordone, Cassano, and Van Dyck The
Bianco contains letters by Columbus, majolica,
coins, miniatures, tapestnes. Oriental vases, and
noteworthy paintings by Rubens and David.
The Balbi-Senarcga Palace is perhaps the most
pleasing one m the city, ce\\ ing to its Doric court
with colonnades set oil by an orangery Among
the good paintings here are works by Rubens,
Titian, and portraits by Van Dyck The city
owns the Villetta di Negro, with its aitihtic
pleasuie gardens and fountains It contains the
municipal museum and zoological gardens The
Palazzo Doria was presented in 1522 to Andrea
Doria (q.v), "father of his country," and, as
the Latin inscription on the building says,
admiral of the Papal, Imperial, French, -and
Genoese fleets. The building was remodeled in
1529 by Montorsoli, after plans suggested by
Doria, and was at that time decorated with
frescoes by Penno del Vaga, a pupil of Raphael
The interior of the little thirteenth-century
Gothic chuich of San Matteo was also remodeled
by Montorsoli The facade of the church bears
inscriptions in honor of the Doria family, the
sword of Andrea Doria hangs over the high
altar, and his tomb is in the chapel The
thirteenth-century Palazzo Ducale, remodeled in
the sixteenth century, and, after a fire, mod-
ernized in 1777, was once the residence of the
doges, now it is given over to judges and
police commissioners. The seventeenth-century
Palazzo Realq, acquired by the royal family in
1815 and restored in 1842, is magnificently
furnished In the church of Santo Stefano is a
celebrated painting by Grulio Romano, "The
Stoning of Stephen"
In the Piazza Acquaverde, before the railway
station, there is a marble statue of Columbus,
who was born near or in Genoa. This monu-
ment, sculptured in 1862 by Canzio, has four
allegorical figures — Religion, Science, Strength,
and Wisdom At the foot kneels a figure repre-
senting America. On the pediment of the Pa-
lazzo Farragiana, opposite, are scenes from the
life of Columbus in marble lelief In the six-
teenth-century Palazzo Mumcipale (City Hall)
is a mosaic portrait of him, and in the pedestal
of his bust are preserved the originals of BOKO& of
his letters There are also memorials of him in
the Palazzo Bianco He is said to have fteen
baptized in the architecturally interesting1 ehurch
of Santo Stefano The Mumcipale possesses also
Paganim's famous violin (Guaraeri) Atoong
the many monuments which enrich the spacious
piazzas and corsos of Genoa are those of* Victor
Emmanuel and Mazzini, who wm$ born here, and
an immense bronze monument to the Duke of
GENOA
572
GENOA
Galhera The modern Campo Santo (cemetery)
is beautifully laid out on the north bank of the
Bisagno It contains many splendid monuments
and is famous for its imposing appearance,
crowning rotunda, and galleries with their
striking variety of sculptured monuments In
the environs are several lordly and celebrated
villas, and gorgeous views of sea and shore
abound on e\ery hand, as in the city itself
The finest court and stairway in Genoa are in
the Palazzo dell' Universita, which was begun as
a Jesuit college in 1623 and transformed into a
university by Napoleon in 1812 The university
had m 191* about ITS instructors (including
docents) and over 1000 students Among the
principal libraries are that of the university,
the city library (in the Academy of Fine Arts),
that in the Palazzo Rosso, the Mission! Urbane,
and the Franconia Genoa has two royal gym-
nasia, two royal lyceums, a theological semi-
nary, a royal school of shipbuilding, a commer-
cial school of university rank, five technical
schools, three royal normal schools, two techni-
cal evening schools, a school of technical de-
sign, and the industrial school Duchessa
Galliera
Among the splendidly equipped institutions of
charity, to which the city grants liberal appio-
priations, are the Pammatone Hospital, with
beds for 700, founded m 1420 by Bartolommeo
Bosco, the poorhouse, founded in 1655 and en-
larged in 1835, with accommodation for 1400,
the hospital for the mcuiable, the Sant'
Andrea Hospital, the asylum for the deaf and
dumb, the orphan asylum, with accommodation
for 600 girls, the insane asylum, the asylum
for the blind, the Protestant Hospital; and the
children's hospital
Of the seven principal theatres the most im-
portant—one of the largest in Italy — is the
Teatro Carlo Felice, built in 1828, with $000
seats-. There are excellent electric-lighting, gas,
telephone, water, and sewerage systems, and the
death rate has declined appreciably during the
past generation The city government has a
high reputation for efficiency Genoa is the seat
of an archbishop
There is regular communication by steamship
with the principal Mediterranean ports, with
Germany and the British Isles, with New York,
and with Asia and Australia The headquarters
of the Navigazione Generale Italiana and of
other steamship companies are here
As a commercial centre, Genoa has made very
rapid advances and is one of the most important
of the Mediterranean ports The connections
by rail with the St Gothard Tunnel, 200 miles
north, render it the principal port on the Medi-
terranean for Switzerland, Germany, and a part
of Austria The east railway station in the city
is connected with the main, or west, station
by a subway 1% miles long, which has a branch
diverging to the harbor station The harbor
station is connected with the various docks by
rail. The warehousing- system has been greatly
strengthened.
In 1912 the total commerce of Genoa, exclusive
of the transit trade by land and sea, amounted
to $306,140,000 The imports were valued at
$207,680,100, the exports were valued at $98,-
360,000 The transit trade amounted to ap-
proximately $60,000,000, chiefly merchandise for
Switzerland and southern Germany In 1891
the value of the imports was about $78,000,-
000, of the exports about $38,000,000, m 1877
the imports were valued at $58,000,000, ex-
ports at about $9,500,000 The number of
\essels entering in 1910 was 5970, with a ton-
nage of 7,475,583, dealing 5979, tonnage
7,485,717 The number of vessels entering and
clearing in 1S91 was 12,256, with registered
tonnage of only 6,421,637 In the seventies
the number of vessels entering and clearing
averaged only 5000, with tonnage of about 2,000,-
000 The principal imports in 1912 were coal,
chiefly from Great Britain, about $20,000,000,
wheat, $25,310,000, cotton, valued at about
$44,000,000, metals, $24,000,000 The principal
exports were cottons, valued at about $20,000,-
000, also fruits, wine, cheese, macaroni, soap,
hats, and marble American cottonseed oil is
mixed here in large quantities with olne oil
and exported The industrial interests are also
important
The manufactures are velvet and silk fabrics,
woolen goods, cotton goods, ribbons, damask, em-
broidery, artificial flowers, hats paper, leather
and leather goods, furniture, ob-jects in gold, sil-
ver, ivory, marble, alabaster, and coral, essences,
soap, preserved fruits, chocolate, macaroni, and
vermicelli San Pier d'Arena (qv), the most
important subuib of Genoa, is a manuf actui ing
centre The large impoits of grain have led to
the establishment in the neighborhood of Genoa
of numerous flour mills Pop. (commune),
1901, 234,710, 1911, 272,221
History In ancient and mediaeval times
Genoa, was probably an important seaport At
the time of Augustus Genoa was, accoiding to
Strabo, "a flourishing town and the chief em-
porium of the Ligunans," but there is surpris-
ingly little material for its early history A
Greek cemetery of the fifth and fourth centuries
BC has been discovered We learn that Genoa
was destroyed by the Carthaginians and re-
stored by the Romans, that it had municipal
rights, that its wine was good, and that is
about all the information. During the Dark
Ages Genoa, with different barbarian overlords,
maintained in greater part its municipal or-
§amzation In 936 it was plundered by the
aracens, against whom it had been a bulwark
of defense for the whole of Liguria In the fol-
lowing century Genoa and Pisa formed an alli-
ance to expel the Saracens from the strongholds
of Coisica and Sardinia This being effected,
the Genoese obtained, by papal arbitration, the
grant of Corsica, while Sardinia was assigned
to the Pisans. For the next two centuries the
two cities were almost continually at war, until
in 1284 m the naval battle of Meloria the
Genoese broke the power of Pisa Meanwhile
the Genoese had vigorously cooperated in the
Crusades and, as material reward, had obtained
important commercial privileges in the Holy
Land The city had also established settlements
at Constantinople, in the Crimea, in Syria,
Cyprus, Tunis, and Majorca, and rose to such
a height of maritime power throughout the Medi-
terranean that the natural sequence was a long-
continued struggle with Venice, which termi-
nated after the Venetian victory at Chioggia in
1380, decidedly disadvantageous^ to Genoa
During both, the Pisan and the Venetian wars
internal dissensions had weakened the city and
occasioned changes in the form of government
The election of the first Genoese Doge was in
1339 This supreme magisterial office, which
was held for life, and from which nobles were
excluded, continued for two centuries The great
GENOA
Genoese Bank of St Geoige %\as the most im-
portant factor in the city
The ambitious contentions of four leading
families — viz , the Adorni, the Fregosi, the
Guaici, and the Montaldi — succeeding those of
the patrician houses of Doria, Spinola, Gn-
maldi, and Fiesehi, engendered such disastious
civil strife under the early doges that in 1396
the citizens invoked the protection of the French
King Charles VI and finally submitted to the
lule of the Visconti (qv ), the lords of Milan,
in 1464 After the invasion of Louis XII in
1499, Genoa was subject to the French till 1528,
when the genius and resolution of a great citi-
zen, Andrea Doria (qv ), freed his country
from foreign invaders and restored to Genoa
Republican institutions But the power of
Genoa was on the wane The Turks seized her
Oriental possessions, the French bombarded the
city in 1684, and the Austrian troops occupied
it for a brief time in 1746 In 1736 the Corsi-
cans, who had for seven years been in rebellion,
chose a Westphahan nobleman named Neuhof
(qv ) as their King He was soon expelled by
the Genoese with the aid of the French, who in
1768 obtained the island During the French
Revolution, when the French swept over Italy,
Genoa sought to remain neutral, but, being
threatened by the English under Nelson, finally
joined Fiance Then a Democratic uprising
favored by Napoleon put an end to the sway of
the nobility In 1797 a Democratic constitution
was adopted, and the Ligurian Republic estab-
lished In 1800 the French general Massena
was besieged in Genoa by the Austrians and
English and forced to capitulate In 1805
Napoleon annexed the Ligurian Republic to
the French Empire After the fall of Napoleon
Genoa was, against her will, awarded by the
Congress of Vienna to the Kingdom of Sardinia
( q v ) Consult Mallison, Studies from Genoese
History (London, 1875), Canale, Nuova Istoria
delict, Repuolica di Geneva ( 4 vols , Florence,
1858-64) , Bent, Genoa How the Republic Rose
and Fell (London, 1881) , Duffy, The Tuscan
Republics, with Genoa (New York, 1893) , Car-
den, The City of Genoa (ib, 1908), Staley,
Heroines of Genoa and tJie Rwieras (ib, 1911)
GENOA, GULF OF The portion of the Medi-
terranean, near the Italian city of Genoa, which
is partially inclosed by the Province of Liguria
(Map Italy, B 3)
GENOUDE, zha'nood', the name by which
ANTOINE EUGENE GENOTJD is usually known
(1792-1849) A French publicist, born at
Montelimar (DrOme) At first a student of
eighteenth-century philosophy, he became an
ardent Catholic and upholder of the Bourbons.
He worked zealously for universal suffrage He
was one of the founders of Le D6fenseur (1820),
which was replaced by L'Etoile ( 1821 ) , the
government organ, and he revived the old Ga-
zette de France (1825), in which he opposed
the Martignac ministry After the revolution
of July (1830) he attacked the new party with
much vigor In 1835, the year following the
death of his wife, he took orders He was
elected a deputy in 1846 His works include
Voyage dans la Vendee et dans le midi de la
France (1820), La raison du christianisme
(1834-35); a translation (1837-43) in French
of the Church Fathers of the first three cen-
turies; and a 16-volume Eistowe de France
(1844-47)
(Fr- knee-
573
GENRE PAINTING
piece) A teim in fortification (qv ), denoting
that part of the interior slope of the paiapet
\\hich serves as a co\er foi the lower part of a
gun carriage The teim itself is denved fiom
one of the articulated pieces of metal used in
suits of armor In the thirteenth century it
\\as a kneepiece of beaten metal (iron) held in
place by a leather bandage or stiap, but subse-
quent improvements made it much more pliable
and added (in the fourteenth century) large
rings which projected reai \\ard on each side of
the knee joint
GENOVESI, ja'no-va'se, ANTONIO (1712-69).
An Italian wiiter on philosophy and political
economy At an early age he was destined by
his father for the Church and began the study
of theology m a monasteiy He took ordeis and
was appointed to the chair of rhetoric in the
theological seminary of Salerno He now read
with eagerness the works of the chief modern
philosophers and was paiticulaily attracted by
Locke Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Ge-
novesi resigned his post at Salerno and pro-
ceeded to Rome, where he undertook the study
of law and qualified as an advocate The de-
tails of legal practice, howevei, pioved as dis-
tasteful as theology, and for some years he gave
himself up entirely to the study of philosophy,
attending most of the distinguished lectures at
the University of Naples At this place, after
having obtained the appointment of professor
extraordinary of philosophy, he opened a semi>-
nary 01 private college for students His reputa-
tion as a teacher was increased by the publica-
tion in 1743 of the first volume of his Elements
of Metaphysics and in 1745 of his Logic Both
works are imbued with the spirit and principles
of the Empirical school of philosophy On ac-
count of the accusation of infidelity and heresy
excited by his discussions of metaphysical prin-
ciples, he had some difficulty in obtaining the
professorship of moral philosophy and failed in
his effort to be appointed to the chair of the-
ology He published a continuation of his Ele^
ments of Metaphysics., but with every ne\\
volume he experienced fresh opposition from the
partisans of scholastic routine In spite of
this Genovesi obtained the approbation of Pope
Benedict XIV, of several cardinals, and of most
of the learned men of Italy Among them was
Intien, a Florentine, who founded at his own
expense, in tfte University at Naples, the first
Italian chair of political economy, under three
conditions, viz , that the lectures should be
in Italian, that Genovesi should be the first
professor, and that after his death no ecclesi-
astic should succeed him In 1765 he published
the results of his economic studies in Lezioni di
commercio o sia economica civile He was one
of the first in Italy who dared to write upon
philosophy in the common language of the coun-
try His Opere scelte were published (4 vols,
Milan, 1835) Consult Bobba, Commemorasnone
di A Genovesi, (Benevento, 1867), and Gentile,
Dal Genovesi al Gallupi (Rome, 1903)
GENBE (zhaNV, Fr , sort) PAINTING.
A term used in art to denote that class of sub-
jects which portray the intimate and everyday
life of any people This draws the line sharply
between genre and historical painting, which
latter depicts important moments of national
life The subjects are the familiar life of the
family, street scenes and sports, festivals and
picnics, tavern scenes — all that goes to make
up the occupations of a people* These may be
G-ENS
574
GENSEBIC
comic, serious, or pathetic, but genie painting,
strictly speaking, always includes as a dominant
note the human element If actual historical
personages are represented, the picture is termed
4 historical genre "
History Genre painting was practiced by
the Greek artists of the late Greek and Boman
epochs, as may be seen in the surviving ex-
amples unearthed at Pompeii During the fif-
teenth century real genre subjects were repre-
sented, both in Italy and the Netherlands, as
religious pictures, at Florence by Ghirlandaio
and Gozzoli and others, and in Venice in the
sixteenth century by Giorgione and the Bassani.
It was first developed as an independent art in
Flanders during the sixteenth century, par-
ticularly by Pieter Breughel the elder, and after
him by^Brauwer and Teniers in the seventeenth
century, which was indeed the golden age of
genre This was especially the ease in Holland,
where even the greatest masters, like Hals and
Rembrandt, were genre in tendencies Around
them a group of painters developed who de-
picted, in pictures of small form, every phase of
Dutch life — Ostade, Dou, Jan Steen, Ter Borch,
Metzu, Pieter de Hoogh, Vermeer van Delft, to
mention a few of many names During the
eighteenth century genre painting was practiced
by many able painters in France, such as Wat-
teau, Lancret, Chardm, Boucher, Fragonard,
and in England by Hogarth In the second
quarter of the nineteenth genre painting became
popular in all the European countriess in the
\vorks of such artists as Meissomer, Eoybet,
Bargue, Vibert, and others in France, Fortuny
and his many followers in Spain and Italy,
Wilkie, Newton, the American Leslie, Mulready,
and Frith in Great Britain, and Knaus, Defreg-
ger, Diete, and Grutzner in Germany In the
United States most of tbe figure painters of the
middle period also painted genre subjects, and
a few, like J, G. Brown and Mount, devoted
themselves entirely to it The more recent mod-
ern naturalistic tendency, which regards nature
as a whole, is hostile to specialization, and genre
painting is at present little practiced as a
special branch. See PARTING, and the articles
on the genre painters mentioned above
GE3STS (Lat, race) A word sometimes used
by the Komans to designate a whole community,
the members of which were not necessarily con-
nected by any known ties of blood, though some
such connection was probably always taken for
granted. In this sense we hear of the gens Latir
norum, Campanorum, etc But gens had a far
more definite meaning in the constitutional law
of Rome According to Scsevola the pontifex,
those alone belonged to the same gens, or were
"gentiles/* who satisfied the four following con-
ditions,: (1) who bore the same name, (2) who
were born of freemen, (3) who had no slave
among their ancestors, and (4) who had suf-
fered no oapttu cfammutw (reduction from a
superior to an inferior condition ) . In the iden-
tity of name some sort of approach to a common
origin seems to be implied The Homan gens,
in fact, included all those who could trace their
descent, through males, from a common ancestor
The gens thus consisted of many families, sup-
posed to be nearly allied by blood Consult
Lange, Romische Alterth&m&r, vol. i (3 vols-,
Berlin, 1877}
The Roman form of organization is tamd
among all races and in every part of tjie world
and is now known genetically, by the common
consent of ethnologists, as the clan (qv), al-
though in literature and in history gens is the
familiar term The clan is a body of kindred
\\ider than a family 01 household and nairo^er
than a tribe (qv ), and lecognizmg lelationship,
together with the right to names and to property,
in one line of descent only, through the mother
hut not through the father, or through the
father but not through the mothei The primi-
tive clan, found in savagery and the lower stages
of barbarism, is a totemic group (see TOTEM-
ibM), or "totem kin " Its members hold sacied
some species or variety of plant or animal,
regarded as female in sex, and claim to be
descended from it Such aie in many cases the
clans of the Australian aborigines and of the
North American Indians Clans thus tiacing
descent through the mother aie called matro-
nymic , the clans found in a higher stage of social
evolution, as among the Aiabs, the Greeks, and
Romans, and the Slavs, the Celts, and the Teu-
tons at the dawn of European histoiy, in which
descent is icckoned through fatheis, are called
patronymic The Greek yews, and its equiva-
lent foirn the Roman gens, weie highly developed
patronymic clans The discovery that the to-
temic oiganization of the North American In-
dians was in all essentials like that of the Roman
gens, except in being matronymic, was made by
Lewis H Morgan From this discovery w that
of the practical univeisahty of the clan as the
characteristic social form of tribal communi-
ties was but a step, and the wider generaliza-
tion was offered by Morgan in his System
of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family (Washington, 1869) The functions of
this clan are economic, religious, and juristic
It usually holds common property and a bunal
place It regulates marriages, in the primitive
clan the clansman may not marry his own clans-
woman This restriction was breaking down in
the Roman gens at the beginning of the authentic
historic period. All clansmen were bound to
defend one another and to redress one another's
injuries In Morgan's writings the word gens
is everywhere used for clan, and his use of
gentile to distinguish tribal from civil society
has been usually followed Consult the article
tlGens/3 in Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Antiquities, vol i (3d ed , London,
1890) , the article "Gens," in Pauly-Wissowa,
Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumsms-
senschaft, vol vii (Stuttgart, 1912), Greenidge,
Roman Public Life (London, 1901) , Botsford,
"The Social Composition of the Primitive Ro-
man Populus," m Political Science Quarterly,
vol xxi (Boston, 1906), id, "Some Problems
Connected with the Roman Gens," in Political
Science Quarterly, vol xxu ( 1907 ) , id , The
Roman Assemblies (New York, 1909)
G-E^SAM", gen'saV See WONSAN
G-EH'SEBIC, ory more correctly, GAX'SEBIC
(f 400-477) King of the Vandals (qv). He
was an illegitimate son of Godigisdus, who led
the Vandals into Spain After the death of his
brother Gkmdenc, Gensenc became sole ruler
In the year 429 he invaded Africa, on the invita-
tion of Boniface, Count of Africa, the Viceroy
of Valentinian HI, Emperor of the West, who
had been goaded to rebellion through the machi-
nations of Ms rival Aetaus (See BONIFACHJS )
Gtansenofe army at first amounted to 50,000
warriors, As they swept through Mauritania,
the Kabyte mountaineers and the Donatiat here-
tics swelled tae horde and more than equaled
GEHSELEISCH
S75
GENTIAN
thezr associates in acts of cruelty and blood-
thirstiness The friends of Boniface, astonished
that the hero who alone had maintained the
cause of the Emperor and his mother Placidia
during their exile and distiess should have in-
vited the Vandals to Africa, attempted, with
ultimate success, to bring about an interview
between the Count of Africa and an agent of the
Empress The army Boniface hurriedly col-
lected to oppose the Vandals was twice defeated
by Genseiie, and he was compelled to retire to
Italy, where he was soon afterward slain by
Aetius All Africa west of Carthage fell into
the hands of Genseric, who shortly after seized
that city itself and made it (439 AD ) the
capital of his new dominions He also took
possession of part of Sicily, Sardinia, and
Corsica In 451 he encouraged Attila to under-
take his great expedition against Gaul Tradi-
tion states that, at the request of Eudoxia, the
widow of Valentiman, who was eager for re-
venge upon her husband's murderer, Maximus,
Genseric in 455 marched against Koine, which
he took, and abandoned to his soldiers for 14
days On leaving the city he earned with him
the Empress and her two daughters, one of
whom became the wife of his son Huneric The
Empire twice endeavored to avenge the indigni-
ties it had suffered, but without success First,
the Western Emperor, Majorian, fitted out a
fleet against the Vandals in 457, which was
destroyed by Genseric in the Bay of Carta-
gena, secondly, the Eastern Emperor, Leo, sent
an expedition under the command of Heraclius
and others, in 468, which also was destroyed,
off the city of Bona Genseric died in 477, in
the possession of all his conquests He seems
to have regarded himself as a "scourge of God "
In creed Genseric was a fierce Arian and in-
flicted the severest persecutions upon the ortho-
dox, or Catholic, party. Consult Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders, vols. 11 and 111 ( 6 vols ,
1892-95) , Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Ro-
man Empire (Bury's ed., London, 1906-12),
Martroye, G-eneseric La oonquete vandale en
Afnque (Paris, 1907) ; Cambridge Mediceval
History, vol i (New York, 1911)
GENSFLEISCH, gens'flish. See GTJTEHBERG,
JOHANNES
GENSICHEN, gen'siK-en, OTTO FRANZ (1847-
) A German author, born at Driesen,
Prussia, and educated at Berlin. After an as-
sociation as dramaturgist with the Wallner
Theatre in Berlin (1874-78), he devoted himself
exclusively to literary work His principal
publications include Gedichte (2d ed, 1871);
Vom Deutschen Kaiser, 12 poems (4th ed,
1871) , Felicia, an epic (16th ed, 1882) , plays,
including Robespierre (1873), Phryne (1878),
and Jungbrunnen ( 1901 ) , and novels, including
Blutschuld (1905)
GENSOMTSTE, zhaNWna7, ABMTAND (1758-93)
A French legislator, born at Bordeaux He was
elected a deputy from the Gironde to the Legis-
lative Assembly, was Commissioner to La
Vendee, with Gallois, and proposed the Law of
Dec 31, 1791, accusing the brothers of the King
and several members of the aristocracy The
decree of confiscation against the property of
the emigrants (Feb 9? 1792) and the declara-
tion of war against the King of Bohemia and
Hungary (April 20, 1792) were drawn up by
him He was President of the National Con-
vention for two weeks in March/ 1793, but
imprisoned (Jtme 2, 1793), was tried for
tieason (October 3), and was executed with his
Girondin associates (on the 31st).
GrEiNTTH, gent, FBEDEEICK AUGUSTUS (1820-
93) An Amencan analytical chemist and
mineralogist, born at Wachtersbach, Hesse He
was educated at Heidelberg and other German
universities From 1845 to 1848 he assisted
Bunsen He went to Philadelphia in 1848 and
set up an analytical laboratory In. 1872 he was
appointed to the chair of chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, but resigned in 1888
and reopened his laboratory He established 23
new minerals, wrote extensively on chemistry
and mineralogy, and was best known for his
publications, which included Researches on the
Ammonia-Cobalt Bases, with Wolcott Gibbs
(1856) , a study of "Corundum," in American
Philosophical Society Proceedings (1873), and
a report as chemist and mineralogist to the
Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, on the
mineralogy of the State He was a founder,
and president (1880), of the American Chemical
Society
GENTS, gent, LILLIAN MATHILDE (1876-
) An American figure painter She was
born in Philadelphia and studied there at the
School of Design foi Women, under Elliott
Daingerfield Later she continued her studies
under Whistler in Paris, returning to America
in 1903 From an early style, in which her
color was sombre, she turned to painting in a
higher key, her usual subject being the female
nude with a landscape backgiound She also
did some work in portraiture, attaining a
measure of popularity in both fields In 1904
she received the Mary Smith (Pennsylvania
Academy) prize for pictures done by women, in
1907 the Shaw memorial prize, and in 1911 the
first Hallgarten prize at the National Academy
of Design (of which she was elected associate).
Pictures by Miss Genth are in the National
Gallery, Washington, the Carnegie Institute,
Pittsburgh, the Metropolitan Museum, New
York, and the Brooklyn Institute Museum.
GENTHITE, gen'thlt A hydrated magne-
sium silicate closely related in composition to
serpentine (qv ), but with part of the magne-
sium replaced by nickel It occurs in amorphous
crusts of a resinous lustre and apple green to
yellowish green in color A variety known as
garnierite, which is found extensively near
Noumea, New Caledonia, is an important ore of
nickel
GEMTTIAH, jen'shan (Lat gentiana} Gk. yev-
rwfi, gentian^, said to have been named after
an Illyrian king, defeated by the Romans about
160 BO, Qentius, Gk. T&TLOS, who first discov-
ered the properties of the plant) A genus of
plants of the family Gentianacese The species
are numerous, natives of temperate and boreal
parts of Europe, Asia, North and South
America, and New Zealand, many of them, grow-
ing in high mountain pastures and meadows,
which they adorn by their beautiful blue or
yellow flowers. The common gentian, or yellow
gentian (Gentiana lutea), is abundant in the
meadows of the Alps and Pyrenees at elevations
of 3000 to 6000 feet It has a stem 3 or 4 feet
high, ovate-oblong leaves, and numerous whorls
of yellow flowers The part employed in medi-
cine is the root, which is cylindrical, ringed and
more or less branched, and which appears in
commerce in a dried state, in pieces varying
from & few inches to more than a foot in length,
and from % inch to 2 inches it* thickness. It ift
GENTIADJTACEJE
576
GKENTILES
collected by the peasants of the Alps Although
gentian root has been examined by various
chemists, its constituents are not very clearly
known it contains, however, gentiopicrm, gen-
tianm or gentisic acid, pectin, fi^ed oil, and
sugar As much as 14 per cent of the last is
present, and in consequence of it an infusion is
capable of undergoing fermentation and of form-
ing the abitter snaps," or "Enziangeist," which
is much employed by the peasants on the Swiss
Alps Gentian is a highly valued medicine, a
simple tonic, bitter without astrmgency, and is
much used in diseases of the digestive organs
and sometimes as an anthelmmtic The bitter
principle on which its virtue depends exists in
other species of this genus, probably in all, and
appears to be common to many plants of the
same order Hoots of inferior quality of the
species Gentiana, purpurea, Gentiana punotato,,
and G-entiana, pann&mca, are often mixed with
the gentian of commerce Among the most com-
mon European species are Cren-tiana campestns
and 0-entiana amarella, plants of a few inches in
height, with small flowers, both species being used
as tonics in domestic medicine Qentiana sapona-
na, a North American species, is extensively used
in its native country as a substitute for common
gentian, and Oentmna kurroo is employed in the
same way in the Himalayas Several species of
gentian are common ornaments of gardens, par-
ticularly Gentwna acauhs, a- small species with
large blue flcweis, a native of the countries of
Europe and of Siberia, often planted as an
edging for flower borders Gentiana andrensii
and G-entiana pub end a, American species — the
former known as closed gentian or bottle gentian
from the nonopenmg of the flowers, and the
latter with blue, funnel-shaped flowers — are com-
mon in American gardens Of the f ringed-
gentian species Gentwna crvnita* is particularly
celebrated for the beauty of its flowers, which
are large, blue, and fringed on the margins It
has a branched stem and grows in wet ground
The brilliancy of the flowers of the small Alpine
species has led to many attempts to cultivate
them, which have generally proved unsuccessful,
apparently from the difficulty of imitating the
climatic and soil conditions of their native
heights The horse gentian is Tnosteum per-
fohatum See FEVERWORT, and Colored Plate of
MOUNTAIN PLANTS
aEareiANACIi-ffl, jen'shan-a'se-e (Neo-Lat.
noin pi, from Lat gentiana, gentian), the gen-
tian family A family of dicotyledonous plants,
most of which are herbaceous, though a few are
small shrubs Many of the herbaceous species
are perennial from a rhizome The leaves are,
for the most part, opposite and without stipules
The inflorescence is some form of cyme, and the
flowers are usually regular The calyx is 5,
sometimes 4, 6, S, or 10, parted The corolla,
which is hypogynous, has the same number of
lobes as the calyx. The stamens are of the same
number as the corolla lobes and the ovary, which
consists of two carpels and contains numerous
small seeds. The family comprises about 60
genera and more than 750 species Species of
this family are found in nearly every part of the
globe and in all s&rta of situations Some are
arctic and alpine plants, some are saprophytes,
some grow in dry situations, others in marshes,
while the species of one genus are aquatic in
habit The flowers of many are of great beauty,
bafh as to color and form, and some are cul-
tivated as ornamentals Medicinal properties
are attributed to some The principal North
American genera die Rabbatia, Centaw iuw
( centaury ) ^Gentiana ( gentian ) , Frasei a ( Amer-
ican eohimbo), and MenyantJies (buck bean)
See BUCK BEAX , GENTIAN , CENT VUKY
GENTILE DA FABBJANO, ]en-te'U da
fa'bre-a'n6 (c 1360-c 1428) The chief Umbrian
painter of the transition from the Middle Ages
to the Renaissance He was born at Fabriano,
m the March of Ancona, and studied with Alle-
o-retto Nuzi He has also been called the pupil
of Fra Angeheo, but this is not probable He
must have attained a high leputation in his art
by 1411, for about this time he was summoned
by the Doge to Venice to fresco the groat
audience hall of the Ducal Palace The sub-
]ects were scenes glorifying the part of Venice
in the struggle between Pope Alexander III and
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, which he de-
picted with such success that he was lewarded
by a pension and certain privileges accorded to
the nobility. He exercised a very important in-
fluence on the early Venetian school, particu-
larly on the painters of Murano About 1422
he went to Florence, wheie he was enrolled in
the painters5 guild In 1423 he painted his
chief surviving masterpiece, "The Adoration of
the Magi/' now m the Florentine Academy He
-nas active also in other Italian cities, as in
Oivieto, wheie his fresco of the Madonna still
survives in the cathedral For Pope Martin V
he painted frescoes m St John Lateran, of which
fragments still survive m the Vatican Museum
and elsewhere His chief surviving panels, be-
sides the "Adoration," arc a "Madonna m
Glory/3 with other parts of an altarpiece repre-
senting saints, in the Brera, Milan, a "Presen-
tation m the Temple," m the Louvre (formerly
belonging to the "Adoration" altarpieee) , "The
Magdalen, St John the Baptist, St Nicolas of
Ban, and St. George" (1425), and Madonnas
in the museums of Berlin, Perugia, Pisa, and m
the Jarves collection (New Haven, Conn )
Gentile's beautifully studied pictures sparkle
with gold and colors like jewels The figures
aie always animated and the faces smiling
Although he clung to primitive methods of
painting, in technical knowledge he went be-
yond most artists of his time His chief pupil
was Jaeopo Bellini, who worked with him in
Venice and Florence Consult Vasan, Lives of
the Most Eminent Painters ( 10 vols , New York,
1912)
GENTILES, jen'tilz (Lat genttks, belonging
to a clan, or family, from gens, tribe, family),
A term often used in the Bible, especially in the
New Testament, to designate the non-Israelitic
peoples It represents the Hebrew goyim (pi
of goi), 'nations' The peculiar significance of
the term "Gentile" in Jewish and early Chris-
tian usage simply marks the crystallization of a
long previous process of doctrinal development
Prior to the conquest of Canaan Israel's life
was of a strictly tribal character, and m accord-
ance with the common Semitic ideas the tribes
constituting Israel probably felt that they dif-
fered from other tribes or peoples only in the
fact that they worshiped their God, Yahwe, while
the other peoples worshiped their particular
deities Hence in the old stories pf the patri-
archal age there is manifest no special hostility
or attitude of superiority towards the surround-
ing nations
The occupancy of Canaan and the development
of a vigorous Hebrew nationality after a long
GENTILES
577
GKENTILESCHI
stiuggle vMth the old inhabitants and with out-
side nations led to a new and more positive
national consciousness Israel was now a people
(Heb 'am], Yahwe's people, one of the goyim
of the earth, ready to assert its peculiar rights
and privileges
The historical narratives pointed out how
Israel was specially called of Yahwe to be His
own peculiar people, and the legislation defined
the legal status of foreigners residing in the
borders of Israel The early Hebrew law dis-
tinguished two classes of such non-Israelites —
the ger, or tosliabh, ie, sojourner, a permanent
resident and in sympathy with Israel's life, and
the tsar, or nohn, i e , the stranger or foreigner,
who was not looked upon so favorably As to
the ger, the law required of him obedience to the
Sabbath law and provided that he was not to
be vexed or oppressed He could also present
an offering to the priests, which was not allowed
to the nokri (Lev xxn 25)
In the prophetic teaching (c750 BC to the
Exile) the contrast between Israel and the na-
tions (goyim) is most forcibly expressed.
Israel's place is unique, and while Yahwe's
gracious attitude towards other nations is some-
times asserted, still it is only through Israel
that His blessings can be shared by them With
this advocacy of Israel's peculiarly exalted posi-
tion, the prophets also insisted on the open-
hearted favorable treatment of the sojourn ers in
Israel required by the older laws.
The legislation in Deuteronomy, influenced by
prophetic thought and the later teachings of
Ezekiel, and the still later priestly legislation
of the Pentateuch, reveal the growth of the
tendency to draw the lines more rigidly between
the Israelites and the foreigners As a result,
we have such teachings as these The ger and
nokii may eat that which dies of itself (Deut
xiv 21), which is strictly forbidden to the
Israelite, the nokn is not entitled to the privi-
lege of the year of release (xv 3) , no nokw has
a right to the throne of Israel (xvii 15) , one
may lend on interest to the nokw (xxiii 20)
Furthermore, not only could no nokn make an
offering, but he also could not enter the sanc-
tuary (Ezek xliv 7, 9) nor eat of the Passover
(Ex xn 43). If a g&r desired to eat of the
Passover, he must be circumcised and thus be-
come legally a full Israelite (Ex. xii 48).
Such principles as these, which became the
fundamental law of the Jewish communities of
postexilic times, show how at last the convic-
tion became deeply rooted and clearly expressed
that Israel was, theoretically, a holy entity, a
people by itself, altogether unique among the
peoples of the earth The other peoples, the
goyim, were per se profane The Israelite could
not meet them as equals. The work of Haggai
and Zechariah at the time of the building of the
second temple (520-516 BC.) and later that of
Ezra and Nehemiah were of great influence in
this respect Henceforth the attitude towards
the non-Israelite manifested two marked phases
On the one hand was the insistence on the idea
of separation, of exclusiveness, under all cir-
cumstances, so that the Jew, not only in Pales-
tine, but also in the Dispersion, scattered among
the Gentiles, was ever a Jew, holding himself
aloof from intimate familiar intercourse with
the non-Israelite, with a lofty contempt for
Gentile ideas and customs A protest against
this narrow view, as it was held c 400 B c , was
circulated m the form of tiie parabolic story of
Jonah in -which God's sympathy for the heathen
world is set forth with great pathos The preju-
dices against the Gentiles were intensified by the
bitter stiuggles of the Maccabsean times and
were at last shared by the great majority of
Jews, even of the humble classes (cf Acts x
28) Practically violations of these principles
were constantly occurring There were certain
limits, however, which no Gentile could ever
overstep, eg, the prohibition in the temple of
Herod marking off the couit of the Gentiles from
the precincts in which Israelites were allowed,
reading as follows "No foreigner may enter
within the railing and fence about the sanctu-
ary Whoever is caught so doing renders him-
self guilty, for death follows"
On the other hand, the early and prophetic
teachings, and the legal sentences recommending
kindness to the ger and emphasizing Yahwe's
care for the nations, coupled with the convic-
tion that as Jews they possessed in their Scrip-
tures the only satisfactory, all-sufiiCient revela-
tion, all combined to make many Jews willing,
even anxious, to win over to adhesion to Juda-
ism the foreigners with whom they ^ere in con-
tact Hence arose the practice of proselyting
In later Jewish usage the word for proselyte was
the old word ger, which indicated the most
favorable status of the foreigner The Macca-
bsean princes compelled conquered peoples — the
Idmnseana, e g — to become Jews, i e , be circum-
cised But more usually these efforts were
carried on privately and with astonishing suc-
cess, when we remember the almost universal
contempt for Jews among the cultivated Greeks
and Romans Strictly speaking, there was but
one class of proselytes — those who fully accepted
Judaism and, if males, became circumcised
These were called in later rabbinical literature
"proselytes of righteousness " Others, who did
not fully embrace Judaism, but were favorably
disposed towards it and accepted many of its
doctrines and practices, were held in high
esteem in the Jewish communities
In the early Church the relation of the Gen-
tiles to Christianity became a most important
question — were they to be received mediately,
through Judaism, and thus become Christian
Jews, or immediately accepted into the Christian
brotherhood without being required to be cir-
cumcised and obligated to keep the Jewish law9
While many early Christians took the former
position, Paul advocated the latter and thus
broke down the barrier between the religion of
Yahwe, Israel's God, and the Gentile world
Consult A Bertholet, Die Stellung der IsraeUten
und der Juden %u den Fremden (Freiburg,
1896) , also the article by Hirsch and Eisenstein
in The Jewish Eiwyclopcedia, vol v (New York,
1901-06).
GENTILESCHI, jgn'te-les'ke A family of
Italian painters — ORAZIO ( c 1565-1 647 ) , the
father, was born at Pisa He was also called
Lomi, being a pupil of his half brother and
uncle by that name At Rome, in conjunction
with Agostino Tassi, a landscape painter, he
decorated the interiors of a number of palaces
In 1621 he went to Genoa, where he painted
"David after the Death of Goliath," in the
Palazzo Dona He visited England in 1626,
under the patronage of Charles I, and was him-
self painted by Van Dyck in Ms series of por-
traits of illustrious men Among his best works
are "Saints Cecilia and Valerian/' in the Palazzo
Borghese, Home, "Joseph and Potrphar's Wife,"
0EKTILESSE
578
GENTLEMAN
at Hampton Court, "Moses Saved from the
Waters/' in the Madrid Museum, and an "An-
nunciation," in the Turin Gallery His pictures
are striking and vivid in coloi, but weak in
composition and lacking in nobility He died
in London — His son FRANCESCO assisted hia
father in England, but of Ins work little is
known — ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI ( 1 590-1G42 ) ,
the daughter of Orazio, was born at Borne, and
studied under her father and Guide Reni She
accompanied her father to England and, in the
opinion of Horace Walpole, excelled her parent
in portraiture She married Antonio Schiattesi
and spent the latter part of her life in Naples
Among her most important paintings are "Judith
and Holofernes," in both the Pitti and Uffizi
galleries, Florence "Mary Magdalen," in the
Pitti Galleiy, a portrait of herself, at Hampton
Court, and " Christ among the Doctors," in the
New Yoik Histoiieal Society. Her paintings
are careful in execution and remarkable for
a skillful use of chiaroscuro, but are poor in
composition
G-ENTILESSE, jen'tHes' A poem of Chau-
cer's which has been preserved as the fifteenth
to seventeenth stanzas of "a morale balade of
Henry Slogan, Squyer " The latter has been
? raited in toto in all editions of Chaucer's works
rom Caxton to Skeat, but the interpolation was
pointed out long ago by John Shirley, the fif-
teenth-century copyist Skeat was the fiist to
print Chaucer's part of the poem separately.
The poem \^as originally addressed to "the
Lordes and G-entilmen of the Kinges house"
Scogan was an admiring fellow poet and disciple
of Chaucer
G-B3STTILI, jen-te'le, ALBERICO (called in Latin
ALBERICUS GBNTILIS ) ( 1552-1 608 ) An Italian-
English jurist, born at San Ginesio (Ancona).
In 1572 he received the degree of LLJ) from
the University of Perugia Because of his
Protestant views he was forced to leave his
native town and to flee to Caraiola and in IS 80
to England, where he was appointed lecturer on
Roman law at Oxford and in 1587 regius pro-
fessor of civil law there So great was his
reputation that he was consulted by the govern-
ment when Mendoza, the Spanish Ambassador,
"was found to be plotting against Elizabeth
(1584) His book De Leg&tionibus (1585) dis-
cusses tins subject. He also wrote De Jure Belli
(1598), a collection of disputations on the law
of war. In 1605 lie was made standing counsel
for the King of Spam The notes he made while
acting in this capacity were published posthu-
mously, under the title Hispanww A.dvocattt.on.is
JUfrr* Duo (1613) The last decade of his life
he spent in London in active practice Gentili
rendered valuable services to international law,
and Grotius is indebted to him for much that is
valuable in his own writings Gentih's works
were put on the Index Expurgatorius In 1908
a statue of him was unveiled at his birthplace*
Consult Holland's edition of De Jwe BelU (Ox-
ford, 1877) and his Studies vn International
Law (ib, 1898).
GKENTIXItYj zhkN't£'yeA A town of France,
situated in the metropolitan Department of
Seine, about 2y2 miles south of Paris. The
great bastioned wall of Paris passes through
the town, separating it into two portions, called
Great and Little Gentilly The parish church
dates from the thirteenth century There are
extensive chemical works, potteries, and tan-
neries Pop, 1901, 7433; 1911, 10,744.
GENTLE A maggot See FLESH FLY
GrE^TLEKAW (OF, Fr gentilhomme, ML.
gentilis homo, man of breeding, fiom Lat g&nr
tihsy relating to a family, fiom gens, family,
and homo, man) Originally a person whose
kindred \\as known and acknowledged, which is
the sense in which it is still employed when it
is not intended to make any refeience to the
moral and social qualities of the particular in-
dividual One who was sine gente, on the other
hand, was one whom no gens acknowledged and
who might thus be said to be ignobly born
The term "gentleman" is often confounded
with that of "esquire," but the terms are not
equivalent, though the latter is in England
generally used to-day m correspondence when
addressing any man who has no title and is
above the class of manual laborers or small
tiadesmen The same custom holds more or less
in America, except in business or official letters,
where "Mr** is the more general form of ad-
dress In America "Mr" is increasingly used
also in private correspondence The distinction
involved in the choice of these terms is in-
vidious and ridiculous, and "esquire," now a
pseudolabel of gentility, might well, in ac-
cordance with Matthew Arnold's suggestion, be
abolished altogether The term "gentleman,"
whatever of definite class significance may from
time to time have attached to it, has always had
as well a certain moral significance, while
u esquire" was a word simply descriptive of
function, and signifying one who was an at-
tendant upon a knight and in the apprentice
stage of knighthood Now it has become a-
vague and well-nigh meaningless social epithet
To assign anything like precise social signifi-
cance to the word "gentleman" until the fif-
teenth century would seem difficult At that
time a statute of Henry V's required, m legal
actions, that the degree and estate of a man
should be specified Those who under this
requirement called themselves gentlemen were
chiefly sons of men of title, hangers-on of great
nobles, and fighting men at home or abroad.
That the gentleman was at first a fighting man
is indicated by the fact that he who would be
beyond cavil counted such was wont to procure
Ljmself a coat of arms, coat armor being origi-
nally a distinguishing badge worn in battle
This custom persisted, and Shakespeare, by a
grant of a coat of arms, became technically a
gentleman That the gentleman was originally
a soldier is suggested, too, by the custom, long
prevalent on the part of those who claimed to
be rightly so styled, of wearing a sword — a
custom now generally honored in the breach,
though still observed in the case of the sword
required in England as a part of court dress
In the special sense m which the word "gentle-
man" was used in the fifteenth century the
term soon became obsolete, and it is now, as it
has for the most of its history been, of some-
what uncertain or ambiguous meaning On the
one hand, there is "nature's gentleman," by
which phrase is intended the man of fine,
generous, and delicate instincts, whether a son
of toil or, a man of lineage According to
Chaucer, e.g , he who ^s virtuous and does gentle
deeds (consult the Wife of Bath's Tale) is a
gentleman On the other hand, for centuries
past and at the present time, the word often is
used in a narrower sense, and one in winch it
is more nearly synonymous with the French
&f as denoting those whose blood and
DANCING-MASTER s
race were noble and known Even here, how-
ever, it scarcely seems that any connection with
a titled family was considered necessary to con-
fer the character, for it is described as cor-
responding, not to nobility, in the English sense,
but to nobihtas, in the Roman sense, and as
resting on "old nches or powers remaining in
one stock " There can be no doubt that in still
earlier times patents of gentility were granted
by the King of England There is one still in
existence by Richard II to John de Kingston,
and another by Henry VI to Beinard Angevin,
of Bordeaux These patents corresponded to the
modern patents of aims which are issued by the
heralds' colleges in England and Ireland, and
by the Lyon office in Scotland, and were probably
given on the payment of fees A patent of arms
confers the rank of esquire, and there probably
is no other legal mode by which an untitled
person can acquire it, unless he be the holder
of a dignified office The word, however, is
loosely applied to all persons who have not
themselves "risen from the ranks," or in a still
less limited sense to^ those who, whatever their
origin, display the qualities associated with
"gentle" birth Consult Stevenson's essay,
"Gentlemen," in Familiar Studies (Thistle ed,
New York, 1895).
GENTLEMAN DANCING-MASTER, THE.
A comedy by Wyeherley (1671)
GENTLEMAN GEORGE. A sobriquet of
George IV of England.
GENTLEMAN USHER, THE A comedy by
Chapman It appeared in 1606
GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS One of the body-
guard of the Butish sovereign Its full title is
"His Majesty's Bodyguard of the Honorable
Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms " Instituted in
1509 by Henry VIII, under the name of "Speers"
or "Men-at-arms," it became known later in the
same reign as "Gentlemen Pensioners," and it
received its present name in 1834 With the
exception of the Yeomen of the Guard, it is the
oldest corps in the British service It is com-
posed of a captaincy, the Gold Stick, value £1200
a year, a lieutenancy, the first Silver Stick,
£500, a standard-bearer ship, the second Silver
Stick, £310, a clerkship of the cheek, £120, an
adjutancy, a subofScership, and 40 memberships,
£70 each The corps does duty only at drawing
rooms, levies, and on important state occasions
The appointments are crown gifts on the com-
mander in chief's recommendation, and are given
to military officers of distinction chosen from the
retired list The captaincy is vacated with each
ministry
GENTLE SHEPHERD, THE A pastoral
drama by Allan Ramsay (1725).
GENTLE SHEPHERD, THE A nickname
of George Grenville originating from a satirical
aside of Pitt's during debate in the House In
considering the advisability of an additional
duty on cider, Grenville bewailed in languid
utterance the increase of taxes after the late
war and demanded where they could now be laid.
Not receiving an answer, he repeated the in-
quiry, and Pitt responded softly in the words of
the old song "Gentle Shepherd, tell me where "
GENTOCK A corruption of the Portuguese
gentw (gentile, heathen), formerly used to
designate various Hindu and Dravidian-Kolanan
peoples of India — the Telugu, or Telmgas, in
^ MEREDITH POWDEXTEB (1800-66).
An American statesman He *^as born in Rock-
mgham Co , 1ST C With a natural aptitude for
oratory, he became widely known as a public
speaker, was a State representative in 1835-39,
and in 1839 was sent by his Whig constituents
to Congress There he became distinguished for
his advocacy of tlie policy of receiving petitions
for the abolition of slaveiy and his strong
speech favoring the restoration of exclusive
patronage He was a Representative in Con-
gress from Tennessee fiom 1839 to 1843 and
from 1845 to 1853 In 1862 and again in 1863
he was a member of the Confederate Cong i ess,
where he was noted for his moderate policy He
was one of the best-informed men of his day on
political history, according to Alexander H
Stephens, who called Gentry's extempore eulogy
of Henry Clay, "apt, powerful, and pathetic "
GENTZ, gents, FRIEDRICII VON (1764-1832)
A German publicist and statesman, born at
Bieslau He studied law at Frankfort and
Komgsbeig, became in 1786 Secretary of the
General Dnectory in the Prussian seivice, and
in 1793 was made a Prussian wai councilor
He was very much addicted to liquor and high
living A pupil of Kant and a disciple of
Rousseau, he at first looked with favor upon the
revolutionary movement in France, but was
converted by the comse of the extiemists, and
by the influence of Burke, whose essay on the
French Revolution Gentz translated in 1794,
together with the writings of Mallet du Pan and
Mounier (1794-95) He spent some time in
England and became a strong advocate of the
English constitutional system He founded two
reviews, Neue Deutsche Monatsschnft (1795-
98) and the Histortsches Journal (1799-1800)
The latter was the vehicle of English attacks
against the Revolution He wrote several
articles against the Revolution and was forced
to leave the country because the government
did not want to give up its strict neutrality
He became an Imperial councilor in Austria in
1802. He was a bitter opponent of Napoleon
and advocated the coalition with England
against France In 1804 he wrote Fragments
aus der G-eschichte des pohtisohen Qleiohgewichts
von Europa, and he was the author of several of
the proclamations directed against the French.
After the Peace of Vienna, in 1809, Gents
dropped his liberalism and became the facile in-
strument of Metternich's reactionary policy
He brought out, in 1818, a reactionary review,
the Werner Jahirbuefoer der Littera-tur, and was
the secretary of the Austrian plenipotentiaries
at the congresses of Vienna (1815), Aix-la-
Chapelle (1818), Troppau, Laibaeh, and Verona
( 1820-22 ) For these services he received large
pecuniary rewards, which he squandered in
dissipation He was a political thinker of some
ability, and his classic and vigorous literary
style made his services sought for, but he waa
always mercenary and wholly lacking in fixed
principles He died at Vienna, June 9, 1832.
His more important writings are contained in
the collection ed by Weickz, AusgewMte Sdtffif*
ten (5 vols^ Stuttgart, 1836-38) , in the Kleme
Schriften, ed by Schlesier (5 vols,, MannhMm,
1838-40) , and in the M£moires eb lettres ed. by
Prokesch-Osten (4 vols, Vienna, 1873-74) ; also
Briefwechsel sswischen Fnedrwh Q-ent® *md Adam
Muller, 1800^29 (Stuttgart, 1857) ; andD^cfres
initiates du Ghevaher de Gentv way hotipodars
de Valachve 1819-28 (Fans, 1#76). For his
biography, consult Fournier, &en$z und Coben&l
(Vienna, 1880) , Reiff, Pr^^rwh Qentts, <m Op-
GffiNTZ
580
GEODESY
ponent of the Ftench Revolution and Napoleon
(Urbana, 111, 1912), Lubbe, Fnedrich Gents:
und Heinmch von Sylel (Gottingen, 1913)
GEISTTZ, WILHELM (1822-90) A German
genre and landscape painter, noted for his de-
lineations of Oriental subjects He was bom at
Neuruppin, Brandenburg, and studied at the
Berlin Academy, under Kloeber, at the Academy
of Antwerp, and in Pans under Gleyre and
Couture He traveled widely through the Orient,
then settled in Berlin in 1858 and began his
remarkable delineations of life in the Orient
His eaily pictures, biblical subjects with life-
size figures, such as "Christ among the Phai isees
and Publicans" (1857, Chemnitz Museum), met
with scant appreciation, and even his Oriental
scenes worked their way to success only gradu-
ally Gentz may be called the founder of the
modern Berlin school of Oriental painting
Although he was a skillful technician, he ap-
pears too dryly realistic when compared with
the French masters, and lacks in harmony and
animation Among the most prominent of his
numerous paintings are "Transportation of
Slaves through the Desert" (I860, Stettin Mu-
seum) , "Funeral Rites near Cairo" (1872, Dres-
den Gallery) , fkEntry of the Crown Prince of
Prussia into Jerusalem, 1869" (1876, National
Gallery, Berlin), one of Ins masterpieces, for
which he made special studies in Palestine in
1873, "Memorial Service at a Rabbi Graie in
Algiers" (1881, Leipzig Museum), "Palm Sun-
day in Early Chustian Times" (1886) , "Even-
ing on the Cataracts of the Kile" (1887) He
also contributed illustrations to Ebers's Egypt
and to some of his novels He was professor at
the Berlin Academy and received gold medals
at Vienna, Munich, and Berlin
GENTTA. The ancient Roman name for
Genoa ( q v. ) ,
GEWTTFLEXIOU ( ML genuftemo, from Lat.
gmufleoiiere, to bend the knee, from gown, knee
+ fleeter, to bend). The act of kneeling or
bending the knees in worship While the com-
mon attitude of the Jews in prayer was stand-
ing, yet in times of special urgency or solemnity
the suppliant sometimes knelt (1 Kings vm 54,
Dan vi 10, Luke xxn 41, Acts vii. 60, ix 40,
Phil. 11 10) That the use continued among the
early Christians is plain from the Shepheid of
Hennas, from Eusebius* History, and from num-
berless other authorities, and especially from
the solemn proclamation made by the deacon to
the people in all the liturgies — Flectamus genua
(Let us bend our knees) , whereupon the peo-
ple knelt, till, at the close of the prayer, they
received a corresponding summons — Levate
(Arise) In celebration of Christ's rising from
the dead the practice of kneeling at prayer, as
early as the age of Tertullian, was discontinued
throughout the Easter time and on all Sundays
through the year. The kneeling posture was
especially assigned as the attitude of penance,
and one of the classes of public penitents in the
early Church took their name, genuflectentes,
from this circumstance The custom is a modi-
fication of the Oriental prostration, as an atti-
tude of supplication or of reverence In the
modern Roman Catholic church the act of genu-
flexion implies the highest form of worship and
is frequently employed during the mass, as well
as whenever persons enter or leave the church
or pass in front of the altar on which the Blessed
Sacrament is reserved, if it is publicly exposed,
the genuflexion is made on both knees In the
Anglican church the rubric prescribes the kneel-
ing posture in many parts of the service, and
this, as well as the practice of bowing the head
at the name of Jesus, was the subject of much
controversy with the Puntans
GENTING, jfe-nung', JOHN FRANKLIX (1850-
1919) An American rhetorician and biblical
scholar, born at Willseyville, N Y He gradu-
ated from Union College in 1870 and from
Rochester Theological Seminary in 1875 and
received the degree of Ph D from the University
of Leipzig in 1881. He was a Baptist minister
for several years, but after 1882 taught at
Amherst College, becoming professor of litera-
ture and biblical interpretation in 1906 In
1911 he became editor of the Amherst Gradu-
ates' Quaiterly His writings include Practical
Elements of Rhetoric (1885, 4th ed , 1902),
The Study of Rhetoric in the College Course
(18S7) , The Passing of Self (1899) , The Work-
ing Pnnwple? of Rhetoric (1901), a standard
college text, Ecclesiastes and Omar Khayyam
(1901), Words of EoheUth (1004), The He-
fa ew Lit&atwe of Wisdom in the Light of
Today (1906) , The Man tilth the Pitclicr and
his Stou/ (1912)
GEITUS, ES BIOLOGY See CLASSIFICATION
OF ANIMALS
GENUS, IN LOGIC See PKEDICABLES
GEosm VAX/GUM, see KNOCK-KNEE
GE'ISTTT VA'RinC, or BOWLBGS See LEG
GE'OCEETTBIC (from Gk 7*7, ge, earth +
K&TpQv, kentron, centre) A teim used in as-
tronomy to describe the motions and positions of
the heavenly bodies such as they would appear
to an observer at the earth's centre See HELIO-
CENTRIC
Q-E'ODES (Lat geodes, sort of gem, from^Gk
ye<&5i7s, earthlike, from 7^, g®, earth + etSos,
ados, form) Rounded hollow aggregates of
mineral material, or indurated nodules, either
empty or containing a more or less solid and
free nucleus and having the cavity frequently
lined with crystals They are sometimes called
' potato stones" on account of their size and
shape The name seems to have been given
them because they are occasionally found filled
with a soft earthy ochre Agate is a geode
built up of concentric layers of chalcedony
GEOIXESY (from Gk yewdauria, geodaisiay
art of mensuration, from 7^ ge, earth + Safety,
daiein, to divide) That science which deals
with the size and shape of the earth In a
geodetic survey the curvature of the earth is
considered, and the exact horizontal locations of
places on the earth are determined with relation
to two great circles of the earth at right angles
Those generally accepted are the equator and
the meridian passing through the observatory at
Greenwich, England The vertical location of
a point is determined with relation to the sur-
face of the geoid (see below)
In any accurate survey of the earth's surface
it is necessary to know the relative positions of
some points in order to control the detailed
work. If the area is limited, the positions of
these points may be determined by traverses,
but if the survey extends over a large area or
a great distance, such as a state or along the
coast, the controlling points must have their
relative positions determined by the method
called tvwMgulwtion It resets upon the mathe-
matical principle that when three elements of a
triangle are known? one being a side, the other
three can be 'computed.
CKEODESY 5!
The usual proeeduie in ti langulation is to
measure directly a side of a tuangle as a base,
the line a 6 in the figure, and then to observe
each angle in the scheme At the station a
the angles cad and d a &, at the station b
the angles a I c and c ft d, and at station c the
angles e c f3 fed, d c t>3 and b c a are measured,
J
and so on throughout the whole network The
triangulation may be carried on by a system of
single triangles, but usually a double system is
used, as shown in the illustration This insures
greater accuracy and prevents mistakes In ex-
tensive triangulation additional lines are meas-
ured directly to give greater strength In each
of the triangles c 6 a and d "b a the measured line
d 1} is used as the base, but for each of the other
triangles the base is a computed length
Measurement of Bases The apparatus used
for measuring a base has its length determined
in terms of some standard unit, such as the foot
or meter The earliest base measurements were
made with wooden bars and glass tubes, but they
were found to be unsatisfactory Later, bars of
various metals were used A bar consisted of a
small rod incased in wood or other material
The single-rod bars were not very satisfactory,
owing to the difficulty of obtaining the exact
temperature during the measurements The best
bars were composed of two rods made of metals,
having a wide difference between their coeffi-
cients of expansion, which were fastened together
in such a way as to make a metallic ther-
mometer Some of these bars gave satisfactory
results Nearly all measurements with bars
were made in daylight A great advance in ac-
curacy and economy was made when tapes and
wires of steel and brass were substituted for
bais in base measurements The field work was
done with them at night when the temperature
of the air is more constant and the temperature
of the apparatus could be more accurately de-
termined Wires and tapes were first employed
on bases by Dr Edward Jaderm, of Sweden,
about the year 1882, Metal tapes were first
used in the United States pn primary base meas-
urements in 1891 on the Uolton base in In-
Ji GEODESY
diana by Prof R S \Voodwaid of the Coast and
Geodetic Survey He made elaborate tests and
proved that the tapes, which were of steel gave
as accurate results as the best bars
All nations are now measuring primary bases
with tapes or wires made of the alloy of nickel
and steel called iniar, which has a coefficient of
expansion as low as one twenty-fifth that of
steel It is not necessarv to obtain the tem-
perature of the apparatus with extreme ac-
curacy, therefore measurements can be made
during the da> A base can be measured with
invar appaiatus with an accuracy greater than
one part in one million Therefore the un-
certainty in a base 10 kilometers in length is
less than 10 millimeters
Tapes and wires of various lengths are used,
but they are seldom more than 50 meters long
The apparatus has a single line or a scale at
each end The length of the tape or wire
is the straight-line distance between the zero
lines at the two ends, \\hile the apparatus
is supported at a certain number of points, under
a definite tension and at a given temperature
The length is found by comparison, in a \atilt
of constant temperature, with a standard bar
whose length in. meters, feet, or some other unit,
is known
The measurement in the field is made with
the same number of supports and at the tension
used during the standardization The apparatus
is supported by stakes driven into the ground
or by portable tripods The zero mark at one
end of the tape or wire is placed in contact with
one end of the base line, and, with the tension
applied, the zero of the other end is transferred
to the forward support The apparatus is then
moved forward, the rear zero is placed in coinci-
dence with the mark on the support, and the
tape length is transferred to the second support
This piocedure is continued throughout the
whole base One or more additional measme-
ments are made to increase the accuracy The
inclination of each tape or wire length is de-
termined by spirit levels, and the measurement
is reduced to a horizontal distance Since in
triangulation all lengths are referred to the sea-
level surface, a correction must be applied to
the measured length of the base, to obtai^i
the distance at sea level between the verticals
through the two base ends
Measurement of Horizontal Angles Tri-
angulation is classified as primary, secondary,
and tertiary, according to the accuracy of the
measured bases and angles Primary triangula-
tion is usually considered to be that grade which
has an average probable error of about one pait
in one million in the base measurements and an
average closing error of triangles of about one
second of arc The closing error of a tuangle is
the difference between 180° and the sum of its
three measured angles, but in large triangles the
spherical excess is taken into account Primary
triangulation is used to extend the control
over large areas, tertiary triangulation furnishes
the detailed control for suiveys and mapsf and
secondary triangulation is employed to connect the
tertiary and primary schemes ( See SUEVEYING )
The angles for primary triangulation are
measured with a large theodolite It consists of
a horizontal circle, divided usually into five-
minute spaces, mounted upon a base, and an
alidade supporting the telescope and several mi-
crometer microscopes The telescope is pointed
on the distant stations m turn, and for each
58*
GEODESY
pointing the position of the telescope i-s detei-
mined by leadings of the ciicle by tlie micio-
scopes "The angle formed by any two lines is
obtained fiom the recorded circle leadings The
measurements are lepeated manv times to lessen
the effect of errors of pointing and reading For
each series of observations the leadings are
made on different parts of the circle to eliminate
accidental and periodic eirois of graduation
The use of two or more microscopes equally
THEODOLITE
spaced eliminates the errors due to any eccen-
tricity of the centres of the alidade and of the
circle
The observations in daylight are made upon
poles, various kinds of targets, or heliotropes ac-
curately centred over the distant stations. The
heliotrope is a small plane mirror by which the
sun's rays are reflected towards the observer
At night the observations are made on lamps
set over the stations The most successful lamp
for long lines is an acetylene searchlight In
1910 and 1911 such lamps were used on tnangu-
lation in New Mexico and Arizona for lines more
than 100 miles in length
Geographic Positions. In addition to the
measurement of the bases and angles, it is neces-
sary to determine by astronomic observations
the latitude and longitude of some one station
and the true azimuth, or direction, of a line of
the tnangulation The azimuth is expressed as
the horizontal angle I>etween the line and the
plane of the meridian through the station Then
an ellipsoid is selected which closely represents
the mean shape and size of the earth The
geographic positions of the various stations of
the tnangulation can then be computed from the
initial station which was located astronomically
In a continuous netuoik of tnangulation, \vith
the geographic positions of all points leferied to
this initial station, the leUtive positions of e\en
the most widelv sepaiated points are correct,
but, on account of the phenomenon called deflec-
tion of the lettical, the whole network may not
be in its true position on the eaith's surface with
relation to the equator and the Greenwich
meridian In ordei to appreciate the effect of
the deflection of the vertical and the method of
eliminating it, we must consider the actual water
surface and the ellipsoidal surface
If we imagine a network of sea-level canals
extended ovei the continents and the cessation
of the movement of the oceans represented by
tides, then the surface of the oceans and of the
water in the canals would define an equip oten-
tial surface called the geoid This surface would
be irregular, but its mean would be an ellipsoid
of revolution, a regular geometric figure Owing
to the material above sea level on the continents
and to the deficiency of mass in the oceans, the
geoid surface over the water would be below the
ellipsoidal surface, at or near the seacoast the
actual \\ ater surface and the mean surface would
intersect, ^lule within the continental aieas the
geoid \\ould be above the mean surface The
gieatest separation would occur undei the
laigest mountain masses and over the deepest
parts of the oceans The direction of the plumb
line at a point on the earth's surface is normal
to the geoid surface and is not coincident with
the noinial to the ellipsoid at that point unless
the two surfaces there coincide or are concentric.
As the astronomic latitude of a station is the
angle between the plumb line and the plane of
the equator, and the astronomic longitude the
angle between the initial meridian and the
meridian at the station, it is evident that the
astronomic observations at the station may not
give its true geographical position with relation
to the position of some distant point, also deter-
mined astronomically The island of Porto Rico
furnishes a notable example of this phenomenon
At two stations on the north and south coasts
accurate determinations of the astronomic lati-
tudes were made from which the width of the
island was computed These stations were later
connected by tnangulation which gave the true
distance between them, and it was found that
the two distances differed by more than one
mile. The angle formed at a point by the nor-
mals to the ellipsoid and to the geoid is called
the station error, or deflection of the vertical
See DEFLECTION OF THE PLUMB LINE
The astronomic determinations at a single
station cannot be used as the datum for a large
area like the United States Therefore geode-
sists have determined the astronomic positions
of many triangulation stations and then, by the
method of least squares, have computed £he mean
position of the initial station, which brought
the astronomic and geodetic data, as a whole,
into close agreement The geodetic bureaus of
the United States, Canada, and Mexico have
adopted for their triangulations the North
American Datum, which is the computed lati-
tude (39° 13' 26686"), longitude (98° 32'
30506"), and azimuth (to Waldo triangulation
station, 75° 28' 14,52") at the triangulation
station Meades Ranch, Kkns Points are said
to be on the North American Datum (called
the United States Standard Datum before its
recent adoption by Mexicb and Canada) when
they are connected with the station M&ades
GEODESY
583
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH
Ranch by continuous triangulation, through
^hich the corresponding latitudes, longitudes,
and azimuths have been computed on the Clarke
spheroid of 18G6, expressed in meters, starting
from the above data
Elevations The elevations of points back
from the coasts are detei mined by geodetic spirit
leveling in which the curvatuie of the earth is
considered The elevations are referred to the
sea surface, the geoid, not to the mean surface,
the ellipsoid The mean sea level at the start-
ing points of the lines of levels is determined
by long series of tidal observations
Mapping After the triangulation and geo-
detic levels covei an aiea it is a, simple matter
for the surveyor to fill in the topographic de-
tails in their pioper horizontal and vertical
positions See SURVEYING
"Figure of the Earth. The determination of
the shape and size of the earth would be a
simple problem if the water surface were a
regular geometric figure, for then it would only
be necessary to measure accurately the distances
between each two of several points located on a
meridian and to determine the astronomic lati-
tude of those points But the earth's water
surface (see above) is an irregular one The
problem is to determine the dimensions of the
mean surface which most closely fits the actual
one For this purpose many arcs measured by
connected triangulation, covering a large area,
are necessary, with determinations of the as-
tronomic latitude and longitude of many of the
stations and the astronomic azimuth of a num-
ber of lines of the triangulation A least square
solution of the data furnishes corrections to the
dimensions of the provisional ellipsoid on which
the triangulation was computed After these
corrections have been applied a new figure of
the earth is obtained
The theory of isostasy was taken into con-
sideration by the United States Coast and Geo-
detic Survey in its recent determination of the
figure of the eaith, conducted under the direction
of Prof John F Hayford This theory pos-
tulates that at and below a certain depth ( found
to be about 122 kilometers below sea level) the
earth's materials are in hydrostatic equilibrium
In consequence the vertical pressures on unit
areas at that depth are the same at all points
Therefore, under the continents the lithosphere
has deficiencies of density and under the oceans
excesses of density These deficiencies and ex-
cesses of matter exactly balance the materials
above sea level on the continents and the de-
ficiencies of matter in the oceanic volumes In-
vestigations prove this theory to be substan-
tially true Before making the computations
which gave the dimensions of the mean figure of
the earth, the direction of the plumb line (or
vertical) at each astronomic station was cor-
rected for the attraction, positive or negative,
of the masses above sea level, the deficiency of
matter in the oceans, and the deficiencies and
excesses within the lithosphere See ISOSTASY
The resulting- values for the dimensions of the
earth have greater precision than those pre-
viously found, and are equatorial radius, 6,378,-
388 meters ? polar semidiameter, 6,356,909
meters , reciprocal of the flattening, 297 0.
Bibliography Some important works on
geodesy are Jordan, Handfiuch tier Vermes-
sirngskunde (Stuttgart, 1857); Helmert, Theo-
new tier Geodasie (Leipzig, 1880-84) , Clarke,
0eod&sy (!/ondon,i 1888), Hayford, Geodetw
Asttonomy (New York, 1898), Merriman,
Geodesy (ib, 1899), Wright and Hayford, Ad-
justment of Observations (ib, 1906), Crandall,
Geodesy (ib , 1907), Hayfoid, Figure of the
Eatth and Isostasy (Coa&t and Geodetic Survey,
Washington, 1909, 1910) , Bo\\ie, Geodetic As-
tronomy (Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1913),
Woodward, Iced Bar and Tape Base Apparatus
(Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1892) , Baldwin,
Measurement of Base Lines along the 98th
Meridian (Coast and Geodetic Suivey, 1901),
various other publications of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, and publications of
the geodetic bureaus of other countries
GEODETYIC STJBVEY, UNITED STATES See
COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, UNITED STATES
GEOFFREY (jef'ri) CBAY'ON, GKEHT
See CRAYON.
GEOFFREY DE VINSAUF. See YINSAUF,
GEOFFREY DE
GEOFFREY OF MONMOTJTH, mon'muth
(c 1100-1154) A Welsh chronicler, born at
Monmouth, Wales Little is known of his life,
except that he obtained the archdeaconry of
Llandaff about 1140, was consecrated Bishop
of St Asaph in 1152, and died probably in
1154 He is the author of a famous book in
Latin called Historia Regum Britannia (His-
tory of the Kings of Britain ) , which was in
circulation as early as 1139 and assumed its
final shape about 1147. The book purports
to be a translation from an ancient Kymric
chronicle, which Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford,
brought over from Brittany and communicated
to Geoffrey As to how much truth there may
be in the statement, scholars do not agree It
has been shown that some parts are merely
amplifications of the Historia Britonum, attrib-
uted in its earliest form to a certain, Nennms
(fl. 796) But for other parts no sources have
been discovered. The book can hardly be re-
garded as a fabrication by Geoffrey, for it un-
doubtedly rests upon a mass of Kymric tradi-
tions which may have already assumed the form
of a saga Geoffrey gives the histoiy of the
kings of Britain from Brutus, the great-grand-
son of JEneas, down to Cadwallader, who at
length, defeated by the Saxons, flees to Armorica
and then to Rome, where he dies In the line
of kings are Gorboduc, Oymbelme, and Lear
The story of the latter is related at large
Geoffrey's history is also one of the main sources
(though not the only source) of the Arthur
legend, and, as such, it is of the highest in-
terest and value Arthur indeed had been men-
tioned earlier, in Nennius he appears as a
leader of the Britons (du® lellorum) in 12
great battles against the Saxons , and in William
of Malmesbury's Gesta, Regum Anglorum (1125)
there are allusions to fables concerning Arthur
But in Geoffrey first appears the Arthur legend
somewhat as we now know it Under the title
of Brut (1155), Geoffrey's History was trans-
lated, with additions, into French verse by am
Anglo-Norman poet named Wace This version
was rendered into English, with other additions,
by Layamon in a poem also entitled Brut (about
1200) The critical edition is by San Marte
(Halle, 1854) For English translation, consult
Thompson, Geoffrey of Monmouth, e<L by Giles
(2d edr London, 1842) , Geoffr&y of Monmouth,
trans by S Evans (London, , 1904; new ed,
1911) F6r criticism and biography, consult
UlTbrieh, "tJeber das Verhalte^ von Waces
Roman de Brut zu seintr 'QudUe des Gottfrid
GEOKFKIN
584
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
von Monmouth Histona regum Bntanmae," an
Somaniache Forschungen, vol xxvi (Erlangen,
1909), Maclean, The Liteiatute of the Celts
(Glasgow, 1906), Rhys and Brynmor-Jones,
The Welsh People (London, 1909) See ABTHTJE
0EOPFBI3ST, zho'fraN7, MARIE THERESE
(1699-1777) A wealthy patroness of letters,
who inherited the famous salon of Madame de
Tencm Her hospitality and liberality to men
of letters earned her eulogies from D'Alembert,
Thomas, and Morellet (Eloges sur Mme de
Geoff j in, Pans, 1812) To the Encyclopedic of
D'Alembert and Diderot (qv ) she contributed
100,000 francs She died in Paris Her cor-
respondence with Prince Stanislas Auguste
Pomatowski, later King of Poland, published
in 1878, makes very interesting reading Con-
sult Segur, Le royaume de let rue Saint-Honor^,
JJme Qeoffnn et sa cour (Paris, 1897), and
Janet Aldis, Mme de Geoffnn Her Salon and
her Time? (New York, 1905)
GEOFFBOY, zhd'frwa', JEAN (1853- )
A French figure painter, born at Marenncs
(Charente-Inf&rieure). He studied under Le-
vasseur and Eug&ne Adan and first exhibited
in 1874. His paintings and illustrations depict
chiefly childhood and poverty Good examples
are "The Unfortunates," Amiens Museum , ' Vis-
iting Day in the Hospital," in the Luxembourg,
and "The Prayer of the Humble/' all sympa-
thetically painted in a low kev with much chai in
and sincerity. He received a gold medal at
the Pans Exposition in 1900
GEQETBOY, JULIET Louis (1743-1814) A
French dramatic critic, born at Rennes He
studied to join the Order of the Jesuits, but
upon its suppression became a teacher. He
edited the Annee L^tteralre (succeeding the
younger Freron) and the Royalist Journal de
Monsieur and L 'A. m% du Roi (1790-92), and
during the Revolution he was obliged to live in
retirement In 1806 he began his connection
with the Journal des D6bats (for a time called
the Journal de I* Empire) as dramatic critic He
was a most vigorous opponent of eighteenth-
century ideas, and Voltaire was his especial
detestation, but, despite his narrowness, bitter-
ness, and inordinate love of the classic, he had
solid learning and a powerful pen. His daily
criticisms weie collected bv Gosse under the
title Gouts de htterature dramatique (1819-
20) He also wrote, among other volumes,
Discours sur la critique (1779)
GE05TBO Y DE VINSATTF, de vax'sof See
VlNSATJF
GEO^FBOY SAINT-HILAIBE, sa^te'lar',
ETIENNE (1772-1844) A French zoologist, born
at Etampes, France. He studied with Brisson,
Hauy, and Daubenton. In 1793, when only
21 years old, he became professor of vertebrate
zoology in the newly instituted Museum at
Pans and began to make the famous collection
of animals in the Jardin des Plantes In 1794
he invited Cuviea: to Pans, and the two men be-
came thenceforth, Associates in the field of nat-
ural history. In 1798 Geoffrey accompanied
Bonaparte to Egypt, where he remained three
years In 1807 he became a member of the
Acad&niie des Sciences and in 1809 professor of
zoology in the Faeult4 des Sciences Geoff roy
Saznt-Hilaire was by nature a philosopher and
by education an anatomist, and in his specula-
tions held that a single plan of structure pre-
Yails throughout the animal kingdom. In this
he ;was violently opposed by Ouvier, who was
an empiricist and not a philosopher, and who
maintained that four distinctively different
tvpes of structure were present The two
naturalists differed also in their conception of
the mutability of species, Geoffrey arguing for
it and Cuvier against it He raised teratology,
or the study of monstrosities, to the rank of a
science Of his many works, -we may mention
Phitosophie anatomique (1818-20), 8ur Vunitz
de composition organique (1828), Pivnmpe de
philosophie eoologique (1830), Etudes progres-
sives d'un natmaliste (1835), Notions syn-
thetiqucs, histonques et physwlogtques de phi-
losophic naturelle (1838) For his views on
species, and the relation he boie to Lamarck
and the agitation leading towards the announce-
ment of the hypothesis of evolution, consult
Packard, LamatcJ* His Life and Work (New
Yoik, 1901), and Life of Geoffrey, by his son
(Paris, 1847)
GrECKFEBOY SAINT-HILAIBE, ISIDORE
(1805-61) Son of Etienne A Fiench zoolo-
gist He was born in Paris, became assistant
at the Museum of Natural History in 1824, and
received a medical dcgiee in 1820 He became
piofessor of zoology in the Museum m 1841 and
in the Faculte des" Sciences in 1854, and in the
&ame year he founded the Societe d'Acchmata-
tion He wiote a life of his father, and also
flistoire genef ale et patticuhere des anomalies
de V organisation cliez I'homme et les ammaucc
(1832-37) and Histowe natwelle (1834-62)
GEOGNOSY (from Gk yjj, ge, earth +
yvtieis, gn^s^s, knowledge) A study of the ma-
terials of which our planet consists The term
is not synonymous with geology, which con-
cerns itself not only with the materials of the
earth, but with theories as to their arrangement,
succession, and development As applied to
rocks, the teim "geognosy" is now superseded
by "petrography" See GEOLOGY
GEOaBAPHICAIi BOTANY. See DISTRI-
BUTION OF PLANTS
GffiOaBAPHICAI* DISTRIBUTION OF
ANIMALS. See DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AMERICAN
A society, organized in 1852, for the investi-
gation and dissemination of geographical knowl-
edge by discussion, lectures, and publication,
for the encouiagement of geographical ex-
ploration and discoveiy, and for the establish-
ment in the chief maritime city of the United
States, for the benefit of commerce and naviga-
tion and the gieat industrial and material inter-
ests of the country, of a place where the means
shall be afforded of obtaining coi rect inf 01 mation
for public use concerning every part of the globe
The society maintains a large library, contain-
ing about 50,000 volumes Two gold medals
are awarded yearly at the discretion of the exec-
utive council These medals are bequests from
General Cullum and Charles P Daly and are
called the Cullum and Daly medals respectively.
In 1911 a new building for the society, erected
at a cost of $300,000, was completed It was
erected m 3STew York City, at Broadway and
156th Street> on land which was the gift of the
family of the late Collis P Huntington The
building is equipped with the most modern
appliances for research and includes rooms for
the editorial and library force, the map floor,
and drafting1 room, besides accommodations for
meetings in the social life of its members The
society ispues a monthly Bultetw, containing
geographical news5 original papers, and
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
585
GEOGRAPHY
and bibliographical departments The collec-
tions are open for free reference to the public
The membership in 1914 was about 1200
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ROYAL See
ROYAL GEOGKAPIIICAI/ SOCIETY
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF PHILA-
DELPHIA The Geographical Society of
Philadelphia had its inception in 1891 TTVO
yeais later a charter was gi anted to the Geo-
graphical Club of Philadelphia, of which Angelo
Heilprm was first president In 1897 the so-
ciety assumed its present title It has contiib-
uted to the extension of geographical knowledge
by supplying funds to exploring expeditions, by
issuing a bulletin at intervals during the year,
and through its library The society confers
annually a gold meclal — known as the Elisha
Kane medal — as a reward for eminent geo-
graphical work It has been awarded in tuin
to Di A Donaldson Smith, Rear Admiral R
E Peary, U S N" , Prof Angelo Heilprin, Capt
Robert F Scott, R N, Prof William B Scott,
Capt Roald Amundsen, Dr Rven Hedin, Sir
Ernest H Shackleton, Rear Admnal George W
Melville, U S N , and Prof William Morns
Davis The membership in 1914 numbered 991
GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, UNITED STATES
BOARD o^ An organization for the purpose of
introducing uniformity in the orthography of
feographic names, instituted in 1890 by Presi-
ent Harrison, at the instance of a number of
the government departments. The arbitrary
manner in which geographic names were spelled
and pronounced prior to that time resulted in
considerable confusion, particularly in the Post-
Office Department, where names were often as-
signed to stations not at all in accord with com-
mon usage The transliteration of Indian names
and the Russian nomenclature in Alaska were
also found to be misleading To remedy these
evils this board, at first a voluntary organiza-
tion, was instituted with power to make final
decision, binding upon all departments of the
United States government in cases where there
existed a divergence in the spelling of geographic
names The board consists of 15 members, rep-
resenting the executive departments, the Smith-
sonian Institution, and the Government Printing
Office The board aims, as a rule, to follow
local usage and to simplify names by dropping
unnecessary letters, syllables, and the combina-
tion of compounds By executive order, dated
Jan 23, 1906, there was added to the duties of
the board the determining, changing, and fixing
of place names within the United States and
insular possessions, and it was also decided that
all names hereafter suggested for any place by
any officer or employee of the government shall
be referred to said board for its consideration
and approval, before publication In 1898 the
board was called to decide upon an extensive
list of geographic names in the Philippines, but
at present there is an independent board of
geographic names in the Philippines. Also
there is an advising committee on native names
in Hawaii, whose reports are passed upon by
the United States Board The board's reports
have been published by direction of Congress
GEOGRAPHIC POSITIONS. See GEODESY
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, NATIONAL A
society, founded m 1888, at Washington, D C ,
with the object of collecting and diffusing geo-
graphic knowledge chiefly through its official
organ, the National Geographic Maga&vne. The
society maintains research work, both inde-
pendently and in connection with other or-
ganizations and institutions The society has
organized 01 participated in scientific and ex-
ploring expeditions 111 Alaska, South America,
and the Hudson Bay legion The results of
these explorations aie published m the National
Geographic Magazine The society has a mem-
bership of about 300,000 It occupies its own
building m Washington and maintains an ex-
cellent library, containing about 50,000 volumes
A course of 20 lectures is given by the society
from November to April in each year
GEOGRAPHY (Lat geographia, Gk yeca-
VpcKpia, horn yeuYpd<f>os, geographos, geographer,
from 717, ge9 eaith + ypd<j>ew, graphem, to write)
Geography is the science which deals with the
phenomena of the earth's surface, their distri-
bution and their interaction upon each othei
Inasmuch as the influence of the phenomena
upon man is the most important phase of geo-
graphical inquiry, the subject may also, fol-
lowing Mackinder, be defined as the study of
the earth as the home of man Up to 30 01 40
years ago, geography was confined, in the main,
to a bald description of the earth, its phenom-
ena, its countries, and its inhabitants It com-
prised little more than a collection of facts
Since then, however, it has advanced greatly,
especially in the study of the causes of phe-
nomena Modem geography is not merely de-
scriptive, but interpretative
The subject may be divided into general geog-
raphy and regional geography General geog-
raphy deals with the general principles of the
subject, as deduced from phenomena from all
over the world. Regional geography portrays
the geography of a definite region, large or
small, by systematically applying these prin-
ciples to it General geography may be con-
veniently subdivided into three large divisions —
mathematical geography, physical geography,
and biogeography
Mathematical geography treats of the form,
size, and movements of the earth, and herein is
connected closely with astronomy, it also deals
with the methods of delineating the earth's sur-
face, and hence includes geodesy, surveying, and
cartography
Physical geography treats of the three layers
of the earth's surface — the lithosphere, hydro-
sphere, and atmosphere, or the land, sea, and
air It discusses the land forms and the forces
that shape them (this subdivision of physical
geography is generally termed physiography and
touches closely upon the domain of geology) as
well as the hydrography of the land — its lakes
and rivers, it investigates the ocean and its
phenomena — physical properties of the water — -
waves, tides, and currents (this subdivision is
termed oceanography) and, finally, it deals
with the phenomena of the air — temperature, at-
mospheric pressure, winds, and precipitation (the
subject matter of meteorology and climatology).
Biogeography treats of the living organisms
of the earth's surface It discusses the distri-
bution and life conditions of plants (phytoge-
ography), animals (zoogeography), and' man
( anthropogeography ) . In view of the funda-
mental difference between the nonintelligent or-
ganisms, plants and animals, on the one hand,
and man on the other, phytogeography and
zoogeography are often classified as subdivi-
sions of physical geography, awl antkropogeog-
raphy, or the geography of man, is considered
by itself one of the three major divisions of the
GEOGBAPHY
586
GEOGBAPHY
subject The geography of man discusses the
races of man and their cultural divisions, lin-
guistic and religious, it discusses the distribu-
tion and density of population and the various
types of human occupations — fishing, hunting,
pasturing, agriculture, mining, manufacture, and
commerce On account of its intrinsic impor-
tance that subdivision of human geography which
deals -with man's industries has been especially
well developed It is generally teimed economic
geography it treats of natuial products and
raw mateuals, of manufactures, by which their
forms are changed, and of trade and transpor-
tation, or commerce by which commodities are
exchanged Because of the emphasis laid on
the last factor, this subdivision of human geog-
raphy is often styled commercial geography
Another phase of human geography has also re-
ceived special attention, viz , man's adaptation
to his environment This specific application to
human affairs of the modern geographical prin-
ciple of interaction is termed anthropogeog-
raphy, in this sense the term is therefoie more
restricted than when used to denote human geog-
raphy as a whole.
MATHEMATICAL GEOGBAPHY
Astronomy and Geodesy. The form of the
earth is spheiical, with a slight flattening at the
poles Its equatorial diameter is 7926, and its
polar diameter 7900, miles, the diilerence be-
tween them, 26 miles, measuring the eccentric-
ity. This flattening of the earth at the poles
is a necessary consequence of the earth's rota-
tion about its axis See EARTH
The chief method employed in the determina-
tion of the size and form of the earth may be
explained in general terms without going into
details The latitudes and longitudes of two
points, widely separated, are determined by as-
tronomical means, and the direct distance be-
tween th€rn is measured by geodetic methods.
A comparison of the two methods gives the
length of a degree, or series of degrees, of lati-
tude and of longitude. Such arcs have been,
measured in. various parts of the earth, from
noithern Africa northward across Europe, in
India, in the Andes of South America, across
the United States from east to west, and south-
west from New England to the Gulf coast
Latitude is distance north or south of the
equator expressed in terms of the angle sub-
tended at the earth's centre. It is determined
by measuring the angle of elevation of the sun
or of any star whose position is known, when
crossing the meridian of the place of observa-
tion j or, most accurately, by measuring the dif-
ference between the zenith distances of two
stars, whose position is known, such measure-
ments bemg made by zenith telescope. Longi-
tude is distance east o-r west of a selected me-
ridian, expressed in terms of the angle subtended
at the earth's axis. The meridian of the ob-
servatory at Greenwich, England, has been al-
most universally adapted as the initial point
for the statement of longitudes. Difference of
longitude is difference of time. Since the earth
revolves on its axis, i.e., turns, 360° once in 24
hours, an hour corresponds to 15° of longitude
Hence, in order to determine the difference of
longitude between two places it is only neces-
sary to determine and compare the local sidereal
times of those two places The determination of
time is made by observing, with a transit in-
strument and chronometer, the passage across
the meridian of stars, whose position is known
The observed sidereal times of their passage, or
transit, compared with their nght ascensions,
gives the error of the chronometer, and hence
the tiue sidereal time Local sidereal time of
the two places is compared by the use of the
telegraph See LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE, DE-
GREE OF LONGITUDE,
Measurements of distance on the eaith's sur-
face are commonly made by tuangulation A
base Ime, 2 to 5 miles long, is first measured
directly, using steel wire, or tape, or bars
Angles are measured at each end of the base,
between the other end and certain signals erected
to the right and left, and from these signals the
third angle of each triangle is measured Then,
with the angles and one side known in each
tiiangle, the other sides may be computed, and
these in turn become the bases for other tri-
angles, as the work is extended See ASTRON-
OMY, GEODESY
The plane of the earth's orbit about the sun,
known as the ecliptic, is inclined to the earth's
equatoi at an angle of 23° 28' Hence, in the
course of the year the sun appaiently moves
north and south thiough an angle of 46° 56',
the equator being in the middle The sun reaches
its most northern position, which is known as
the tropic of Cancer, about June 21, and its most
southern point, the tropic of Capricorn, about
December 21, passing the equator about March
21 and September 21 This apparent movement
of the sun causes the change of seasons
There is an area about each of the poles of
the earth where in midwinter the sun fails to
rise above the horizon, even at midday, and
where in midsummer it does not sink below the
horizon, even at midnight The circles bounding
these areas are the polar circles, and the areas
are the polar zones, distinguished as the Arctic
and Antarctic, The areas lying between the polar
circles and the tropics are the temperate zones,
and that lying within the tropics the torrid zone
Cartography — Haps are representations, com-
monly upon flat surfaces, of all or parts of the
earth's surface The scale of a map is the re-
lation which distances on the map bear to dis-
tances upon the area represented They may be
expressed in terms of miles or kilometeis on the
ground to an inch on the map, or by a fraction,
as TTn3J5w, or 1 : 100,000, in which the nu-
merator refers to the distance on the map, and
the denominator to that on the ground, both
being expressed in the same units, as feet,
meters, or miles The last is known as the nat-
ural scale. A third method is by the linear
scale, in which actual measurements are drawn
on the map and marked with the distances which
they represent in nature
Maps may be classified in accordance ^ith
the kind of information which they present
Thus, there are geological, climatic, and statisti-
cal maps The maps considered here, however,
are those only which repiesent the topographi-
cal features proper, the streams and other bod-
ies of water, the relief of the cotintry, its moun-
tains, valleys* and plains, and the culture or
the works of man, the cities, roads, railroads,
boundaries, etc Restricted to this definition,
maps may be classified as (I) plans, which are
upon large scales and represent limited areas,
such as a city or township, (2) topographic
maps, upon smaller scales, say from 1 to 8
miles to an inch and covering much larger
THE WORLD
SHOWING
COUNTRIES AOT> THEIR COIXX5OES.
TfflE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES AND THEIE
COLONIES AEE COLORED THUS:
izzr
Denmark
Countries without ForeignTojssesskyas
I T,<vn eit/iWlft "Rust from Greeirwich.
a.
<
cc
CD
O
UJ
GEOGRAPHY 5
gravel, and other detritus Strains in the earth's
crust, produced perhaps by shrinking of the in-
terior on cooling, result in folds and breaks
in the ciusts These may be of small extent,
producing mountain ridges, or they may involve
large paits of the earth, resulting in laismg
continents above the sea They may be low and
flat, or they may be high and shaip, even to so
great an extent that the sides of the fold pass
beyond the vertical (See FAT;LT, ANTICLINE,
SYNCLINE ) Lava fkms out from vents and
spieads over great areas, or it may be forced in
between beds of stratified rock, or, in a plastic
state, be forced up thiough such beds
No sooner has a region been uplifted than the
agencies of eiosion, always at work, attack it
with renewed activitv Water percolates into
the seams and cie^ices of the rocks, and, freez-
ing, splits them into fiagments by its expansion.
Water, often with acids in solution, dissolves
the soluble portions of the rocks and thus dis-
integrates them Flowing water, glacial ice,
and the wind wear the rock away The rock
waste thus produced is transported, ahvavs
downward, by the winds, streams, glacieis, and
its own weight, most of it having the sea bottom
as its ultimate destination On the way, how-
ever, some of it is deposited, as in dunes, mo-
raines, and deltas, and thus the agencies of de-
struction are also constructive agents Tims
there is a constant movement do\\mvaid, from
the land to the sea. Unless this is offset by ele-
vation movements in the crust of the land, it
results eventually in the reduction of the land
to a low plain Furthermore, if the limits of
sea and land remain constant, there is a vast
accumulation of sediment on the sea bottom,
and a corresponding thinning of the solid crust
over the land See PHYSIOGBAPHY , GEOLOGY
Eydrosphere, The sea, including the Pacific,
Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic oceans, with many
great gulfs and bays, covers 72 per cent of the
earth's surface Oi these the Pacific is far the
largest, comprising much more than half the
water surface of the globe The average depth
of the sea is about 2% miles, or 13,200 feet.
The greatest depth yet measured in the At-
lantic, at a point north of the West Indies, is
1660 fathoms This depth is considerably ex-
ceeded in the Pacific, where, in the Philippine
Trough, to the east of Mindanao, a sounding of
9788 meters, or 32,114 feet, has been obtained
See OCEAN, ATLANTIC OCEAN; ETC
The water of the ocean is strongly saline,
being supplied constantly by streams whose
waters contain saline material in solution in
greater or less amount Even if the amount be
trifling, since there is no outlet save evapora-
tion, its degree of salinity is merely a question
of time The salinity of certain landlocked seas,
situated in hot regions, such as the Red Sea
and the Mediterranean, is greater than that of
the open ocean, owing to excessive evaporation
from their surfaces*
The temperature of the surface water ranges
from the freezing point in Arctic regions to 90°
in landlocked seas, in the tropics, such as the
Red and Caribbean seas The annual range of
temperature at the surface is small, except in
localities where currents change their positions
with the seasons At moderate depths there is
no change of temperature throughout the year,
and at great depths the temperature in all
parts of the sea is very nearly the same, being
but little above the freezing point.
J8 GEOGKAPHY
The surface waterb of the sea aie disturbed
by waves and tides and moved about by cui rents
and drifts Waves are set in motion by the
wind, but have little movement of translation,
consisting mainly of \eitical oscillations Ihey
are rarely % of a mile in length from crest to
crest, and 50 feet in height The tides (qv )
aie oscillations in the sea surface, occurring
twice a day, one of them following the passage
of the moon acioss the meridian, the other nearly
12 houis latei They are slight in the open sea,
being not more than 2 or 3 feet, but upon the
seacoast they aie commonly much higher, and
at the heads of funnel-shaped bays aie in many
cases veiy high The tides are due to the dif-
ference in the force of attraction, mainly of the
moon, upon the surface of the eaith and its
centre, owing to their difference in distance
from it Diifts aie surface vater tiansported
by the wind The movement is commonly very-
slow and changes in direction \uth the wind
When dnven by constant \\mds, such drifts
do in some cases develop into cmients (See
OCEAN CURRENTS ) The gieat ocean cunents,
such as the equatorial curients, the Gulf Stieam
(qv), and the Japan current, thus originate
The constant trade winds, blowing fiom the
northeast and the southeast diagonally towaids
the equator, induce gieat dufts in these dnec-
tions These, meeting near the equator, flow
v\estwaid acioss the oceans See HYDROGRAPHY
Atmosphere The height of the atmosphere
is unknown, but from the rate at which its
density diminishes with altitude above the
earth's surface, it is clear that in a few miles
it becomes extremely rare, so raie that its
effects may be neglected The pressure of
the atmosphere at sea level has an average
value over the earth of 14 pounds per square
inch, equivalent to about 30 inches of the mer-
curial column In equatorial regions the pres-
sure is slightly below, and in temperate regions
slightly above, this average See AIB, ATMOS-
PHERE, BAEOMETER.
Heat is produced by the absorption of the
sun's rays by the earth The more nearly over-
head the sun is, the moie heat is received per
unit of area, and the higher is the temperature,
other things being equal The degiee of tem-
perature at the earth's surface is2 however, af-
fected by other conditions, chief among which
is the relative moisture of the air, since a moist
air absorbs much of the heat before the rays
reach the earth Hence very high temperatures
are not observed in moist equatorial regions,
while in desert regions extraordinarily high tem-
peratures have been observed On the whole,
however, the equatoiial legions receive the gieat-
est amount of heat, and the polar regions the
least Hence the air over the equator rises, be-
ing forced upward by the pressure of air on
the north and south. This produces a flow of
air towards the equator from both sides — a
flow which would be directly south and north,
were it not for the rotation of the earth, which
deflects the currents to the westward and thus
produces the well-known uniform trade winds-
(See WIND ) The land absorbs heat lapidly
and is as rapidly cooled, the sea, on the con-
trary, absorbs heat slowly and gives it out
slowly. Moreover, by means of its waves, tides,
and currents, the waters of the sea circulate
freely and thus tend to establish a uniformity
of temperature in its various parts Hence it
is that the sea is on an average throughout the
GEOG-BAPHY
589
GEOGBAPBY
year warmer in the noith and south and
coolor in the tropics than is the land in the
same latitude Moreover, the sea is cooler in
summer and warmer in winter than as the land.
The difference in the attitude of land and sea
towaids tempeiatuie produces monsoons and
land and sea breezes The latter are diurnal
and strictly local The land being heated dur-
ing the day, the air over it rises and thus in-
duces an inward draft of air fiom the sea At
night, the air over the land being cooled, a re-
verse current is set up The monsoon (qv ) is
a similar land and se<* wind, but on a much
greater scale, and is induced by differences of
temperature between land and sea in summer
and winter There is a monsoon tendency on
the margins of all continents, but in most cases
it has little influence upon the more general
movements of the atmosphere The cooling of
the land suiface, and consequently of the sui-
face atmosphere, after nightfall induces a local
circulation of air in the mtenor of continents
This air, being cooled and consequently heavier,
flows down slopes and collects in the valleys
Hence in mountainous regions there is a wind
at night down the cafions, and the air in the
depressions is cooler than on the slopes above
Frosts occur in the valleys, while the slopes
above may be exempt from them
A fall of rain or snow requires the coexistence
of two conditions — an atmosphere partly or
wholly saturated with moisture, and the chill-
ing of this atmosphere below the saturation
point, which may be bi ought about by forcing
the air currents up to an elevation, to a higher
latitude, or by mixture with colder air. The
trade winds of the Atlantic bring to the Amazon
basin and the eastern slope of the Andes an at-
mosphere loaded with moisture, which, as the
land is during most of the year cooler than the
air, is deposited freely, giving this region a
profuse rainfall, while the summit and western
slope of the Andes within the tropics are mainly
desert The southwest monsoons of India and
southern China bring vast stores of moisture
from the Indian Ocean, which aie deposited
freely upon the colder land The west coast of
the United States and Canada, under the in-
fluence of the prevailing westerlies from the Pa-
cific, receives in winter, when the land is cold,
a pi of use lamfall, while in summer, when the
land is warmer, these moist air currents carry
much of this moisture over into the Kocky
Mountain region Hence in Colorado, Arizona,
and New Mexico the summer is the rainy season
The same westerly winds supply moisture from
the Atlantic to western Europe, and here since
there are no great mountain ranges to intercept
it all at once, the rainfall is more generally dis-
tributed than in North America, being greatest
on the coast and diminishing gradually east-
ward, so that it is only in the far interior of
Asia that desert conditions prevail The south-
ern part of South America lies within the region
of the prevailing westerly winds, and here the
western slopes of the Andes have an ample rain-
fall, while over the pampas of Argentina these
winds, drained of most of their moisture in the
passage over the Andes, blow as dry winds See
METEOROLOGY
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Phytogeography and Zoogeography. The
distribution of plants and animals is determined
by a number of factors, which are more1 or, less
interdependent The chief of these aie the
ical charaeteiistics, the climate, topography,
etc , of the region, with which should be coupled
the characteristics of plant and animal life
Closely related to these are the changes in cli
mate, topogi aphy, etc , and the adaptability of
various species Other factois aie the means
of dispersal of forms of life, and the results of
the competitive struggle for existence among
them Under the last should be included the
results of man's interference with the adjust-
ment of life conditions which prevailed upon
his advent
The play of the above agencies has resulted
in a somewhat complex distribution, some of
whose features are not yet easy to explain In
some cases widely separated regions have fauna
and flora remarkably similar, like the British
Isles and those of northern Japan The physical
conditions aie quite similar, but the areas are
separated by almost the senucircumference of
the globe On the other hand, adjacent regions,
"with similar phj sical conditions, often differ
widely in fauna and floia, as in the case of
Australia and New Zealand Regions with veiy
different fauna and flora are in some cases
connected by transition zones, through which the
change is made gradually, while in other cases
the change is a sudden and violent one Certain
well-marked types occur in scattered localities
in various parts of the earth without apparent
connection one with another
Although much study has been devoted to the
subject, no satisfactory classification of the
earth's surface with respect to its life has yet
been evolved.
In polar regions, such as the northern parts
of North America, Europe, and Asia, the soil
is permanently frozen below, thawing only at
the surface m summer, thus forming the well-
known tundra, whose chief vegetation is reindeer
moss, among which bloom in summer many
bright-coloi ed flowers This tundra passes in
less cold regions into moors and heaths
Desert regions are characterized by a scanty
growth of yucca and many species of thorny
shrubs, where desert conditions are less intense,
various species of Artemisia abound The great
plains of North America, the pampas of Argen-
tina, and the Siberian steppes, which may be
characterized as subhumid regions, are clothed
with grasses, and these pass by insensible de-
grees through prairie regions of mingled grasses
and woods to forested regions These differ
widely in character in different parts of the
earth In the colder regions coniferous forests
prevail, in the more temperate regions conifers
and broad-leaved trees are mingled, while the
forests of tropical regions are commonly of the
latter class, with dense undergrowth The great-
est and densest forests are, as a rule, found in
regions of heaviest rainfall Thus, the broader
distinctions in the character of the vegetation
are in great part controlled by temperature and
rainfall See DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS
The faunas of the earth are less dependent
upon climate than the floras, since animals can
migiate somewhat freely and have in greater or
less degree the ability to protect themselves
from its adverse elements Still, each climatic
zone has a fauna of its own, differing markedly
from neighboring ones— the polar from the tem-
perate, and the temperate from the tropic zone
The musk ox, polar bear, and Arctic foxes, blue
and white, are confined to regions of ice and
GEOGBAPHY
590
G-EOGBAPHY
snow In temperate regions their neaiest rela-
tives are the bison, the black and guzzly bears,
and the led fox, who range with the wapiti, an-
telope, and many species of deer The tropic
fauna is probably less closely related to that of
tempeiate regions It is characterized by large
mammals, the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopota-
mus, camel, lion, tiger, leopard, many species
of marsupials (in Australia), monkeys, etc
The fauna of the desert differs widely f i om that
of well-watered regions in amount, vaiiety, and
species, which is due, in great part, of course, to
the diileience in plant food supply In the same
latitudes and similar climates there are both
close agieements and wide differences Thus,
the faunas of Europe and North America do not
differ materially, but between Australia, Africa,
and South America theie are wide, even radi-
cal differences Australia, with its marsupial
fauna, resembles no other region on earth, and at
few points are there resemblances between Africa
and South America The great carnivora of the
former continent have few repi esentatives in
South America See DISTRIBUTION or ANIMALS.
Ant&ropo geography Of all forms of life, man
is the most cosmopolitan. He is found from the
frozen, region to the equator. His ability to
protect himself from hostile climatic conditions
enables him to survive even under those most
adverse, but certain conditions seem to be the
most favorable to his development Arctic con-
ditions, -where besides a hostile climate the eco-
nomic struggle is severe, aie not conducive to
his development On the other hand, the lan-
guid climate of the tropics, with the ease of
living, seems equally unfitted for the develop-
ment of civilization It is in temperate climates,
which stimulate exertion, and where effort meets
with adequate reward, that man has reached
the highest level.
The races of mankind are commonly classified
according to color and other characteristics as
fair-complexioned or Caucasian, yellow or Asi-
atic, brown or Bast Indian, red or American
Indian, and black or negro. The Caucasians
(including all the Indo-European peoples, the
Semites and the Hamites, the last-named being
dark-skinned) inhabit Europe, a large part of
Asia (mainly in the south and southwest),
northern Africa, North America, South Amenea
(in parts of which, they are outnumbered by
the red race), and Australia, and are scattered,
in greater or less numbers, over other paits of
the earth The yellow race comprises the
Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Tibetans, and vari-
ous peoples of Central and southeastern Asia,
brown peoples are those of the Malay Pen-
la* the East India Islands, and Polynesia.
American Indians inhabited the entire con-
tinent from Bering Strait ta Cape Horn, but
5n Central and South America they have become
much mixed in "blood with their Spanish con-
querors The black race, whose home is Africa,
have been subjected to forced migrations, under
slavery, and many millions of them are now
found in the United States, the West India Is-
lands, and Brazil See MAN, SCIENCE OF
The migrations of man over the earth's sur-
face, his present location, and the stage of civil-
ization which he has reached, are, in the last
analysis, the results of geographical environ-
ment, whatever the immediate cause may be.
Great Britain has become, because of her insular
position and her limited farming area, a great
commercial nation. New England, by reason of
the dostrut'tne competition of Western farms,
has changed her industries fiom dgricultuie to
manufactures Thus, the climate, soil, and sui-
faee determine in gieat measuie the pioducts and
leading industnes of a legion, subject, of couise,
to the degree of civilization of the inhabitants
The leading industries of mankind— pastoral
pursuits, mining, fishing, agriculture, manu-
factures, and commevce — lequne different foinis
of distribution of the inhabitants Pastoral
pursuits imply a very spaise population scantily
distributed, smce cattle and sheep lequire large
areas for their sustenance In agiiculture a
much smaller area to a family suffices, implying
a much denser population, while manufacturing
and commerce require that people be closely
grouped in towns and cities Hence, in the his-
tory of the settlement of a region, we inav often
trace a dnect connection between the principal
vocations of the people and the average density
of population In eailv stages of settlement,
when the people are few in number and widely
separated, pastoral pui suits are the principal
ones. As population increases, the herders are
crowded out bv the farmers, and still later cities
spring up and grow, and manufactures and
commerce become the dominant industries
Cities have been located from a great variety
of considerations Anciently a common cause
of their location was protection from enemies,
and hence they were placed in easily defensible
positions. As wais have become less frequent,
and as private property has become more ex-
empt from danger, they have been placed in in-
dustrially strategical positions — commercial cit-
ies on harbors, manufacturing cities at sites of
water power, etc. Often, however, through
changes in industrial methods, such locations
cease to be advantageous, yet through sheer
inertia the cities remain and grow
The form of landholdmgs is significant of the
degree of civilization, and often, on the other
hand, may hasten or retard its progress Among
savage and barbarous peoples, and even those
possessing some degree of civilization, such as
the Hussian peasantry, land is held in common
by communities Among most highly civilized
peoples individual ownership is well-nigh uni-
versal, and such a form of ownership undoubt*
edly conduces to a high development of the racef
as it carries with it a sense of proprietorship and
responsibility.
The people of the earth are organized into
communities, various in form, size, and char-
acter, for governmental purposes Savages are
grouped in clans and tribes, civilized man into
empires, kingdoms and republics With primi-
tive man the functions of government are few
and are mainly confined to war, offensive and
defensive, and the organization is feeble and of-
ten short-lived With advance in civilization
come an increase in the strength of the gov-
ernment and an extension of its functions From
being only an offensive and defensive league,
the government of a civiii7ed nation defends the
rights of its citizens against one another, pro-
tects them in person and property, m many
cases educates them, and maintains public utili-
ties, such as surveys, means of communication,
water supply, lighting, etc
Bibliography. For general reference, con-
sult. Wagner, Lehrbuch der 0-eographie (Oth
ed, Leipzig, 1912), Hann, Hochstetter, and
Pokorny, Allegem&ine ISrdfamde (5th ed, ib,
1896-09) ; Reclus, Nouvelle g&ograpfwe unw&r-
selle (19 vols , Paris, 1875-94), Mill, Interna-
tional Geography (New York, 1900) , Unstead
and Taylor, General and Regional Geography
for Students (London, 1911), Salisbury, Bar-
lows, and Tower, Modern Geography (New
Yoik, 1913) MATHEMATICAL Clarke, Geodesy
(Oxford, 1880) , Gunther, Handbuch de? mathe-
matisclien Geogtaphie (Stuttgart, 1S90) , W.
E Johnson, Mathematical Geography (New
York, 1907), Zoppntz and Bludau, Leitfaden
dcr Kartenentuurfslehre (2 vols, Leipzig,
1908-12), Groll, KartenLunde (2 vols, ib ,
1912) , Reeves, Maps and Map-MaLing (Lon-
don, 1910) , Hinks, Map Projections (Cam-
bridge, 1913) PHYSICAL Fisher, Physics of
the Earth's Crust (London, 1889) , De Mar-
tonne, Ttaite de geographic physique (new ed ,
Paris, 1913) , Supan, Grundzuge der physischen
Etdkunde (5th ed, Leipzig, 1911) , Penck, Mor-
phologie der Erdoberflache (Stuttgart, 1894) ,
Davis, Phys^ca-l Geography (Boston, 1898) ,
Geikie, Earth Sculpture (New York, 1898) ,
Lapparent, Legons de geographie physique (3d
ed , Paris, 1907) , Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's
History (New York, 1898), Salisbury, Physi-
ography (ib, 1907), Krummel, Handbuch der
Oveanographie (2d ed , 2 vols , Stuttgart, 1907-
11) , Murray and Hjort, The Depths of the
Ocean (London, 1912) , Thoulet, L'Ocean Ses
lois et scs proWemes (Paris, 1904) , Hann,
Handbuch der Khmatologie (3d ed , 3 vols,
Stuttgart, 1908-11, Eng trans by Ward,
New York, 1903) , Ward, Climate Considered
Especially in Relation to Man (ib , 1908) , Mil-
ham, Meteorology (ib , 1912). BIOGEOGRAPHY,
(a) PHYTOGEOGRAPHY and ZOOGEOGRAPHY-
Drude, Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie
(Stuttgart, 1890) , Schimper, Pflanzengeogra-
phie auf physiologischer G-rundlage (Jena,
1898) , Warming, (Ecology of Plants (Oxford,
1909 ) , Hardy, An Introduction to Plant Geog-
raphy (ib, 1913), Schmarda, Die geogra-
phisohe Verbreitung der Thiere (Vienna, 1853) ,
Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Ani-
mals (2 vols, New York, 1876) , W. L and P.
L. Sclater, The Geography of Mammals (Lon-
don, 1899) , Newbigin, Animal Geography (Ox-
ford, 1913). (&) ANTHROPOGBOGRAPHY Dem-
ker, Les races et les peuples de la terre (Paris,
1900), Keane, Ethnology (London, 1896), id,
The World's Peoples (New York, 1908) ; Peschel,
Volkerkunde (Leipzig, 1877) , Ranke, Der
Mensch, vol. 11, Die heutigen und die vorge-
schichtlichen Menschenrassen (3d ed., ib , 1912) ,
Ratzel, Anthropogeographie ( 2 vols , Stuttgart,
1891-99), id, Politische Geographie (Leipzig,
1897) , Semple, Influences of Geographic En-
vironment (New York, 1911), Brunhes, La
geographie humame (new ed., Paris, 1912) ;
Reclus, L'Homme et la terre (6 vols, ib , 1905-
08 ) , KirchhofT, Mensch und Erde (3d ed , Leip-
zig, 1910) , Richthofen, Vorlesungen uber allge-
meine Siedlungs- und Verkehrsgcographie (Ber-
lin, 1908) , Oppel, Natur und Arbeit Eine all-
gemeine Wirtschaftskunde (2 Vols, Leipzig,
1904) ; Dubois and Kergomard, Precis de geo-
graphie economique (3d ed, Paris, 1909) ,
Chisholm, Handbook of Commercial Geography
(7th ed, London, 1908), Friedrich, Allgemeine
und spe&ielte Wwtschaftsgeographie (new ed,
Leipzig, 1907) ; Bckert, Grundriss der Handels-
geograpMe (2 vols , ib , 1905) , Hassert, All-
gemewe VerJcehr&geographie (Berlin, 1913) ;
Heiderich and Sieger, Karl Andrew Geographic
ties Welthandels (3 vols., Frankfort, 1910-13) ;
>x GEOGRAPHY
Gregory, Keller, and Bishop, Physical and Com-
mercial Geography (Boston, 1910), J Rus-
sell Smith, Industrial and Commercial Qeog-
taphy (New York, 1913) The leading period-
icals are Petermami's Mitteihwgen (Gotha,
monthly) , Geo graph ische Zeitschnft (Leipzig,
monthly) , Amiales de Geographic (Paris, 5
numbers a year) , Rwista Geografica (Flor-
ence, 10 numbers a yeai ) , Geographical
Journal (London, monthly) , La Geographie
(Paris, monthly) , Bulletin of the American
Geographical Society (New Yoik, monthly).
The most important geographical bibliographies
are the critical Bibliographic Annuelle, pub-
lished annually as a supplement to the Annales
de Geographie, and the Geopr aphisches Jalir-
buch (Gotha), ed by Hermann Wagnei, an
annual in which the hteratuie of the various
departments of geogiaphy is reviewed by special-
ists These reviews geneially cover a period
of seveial yeais, so that all depaitments aie
not represented in each issue of the Jahtbuch
HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY
The history of geography falls natuially into
two divisions, the first of which rccoids the
development of ideas regarding the shape and
size of the earth, while the second deals with
the gradual increase of definite mf carnation
about the actual facts of land and water dis-
tribution The conception of the earth as a
flat surface, probably encircled by water, is
common to all primitive peoples This idea,
which is still held by many savage tribes, was
gradually discarded as the mathematical sciences
and philosophical speculation in general devel-
oped, and the Greeks finally succeeded in proving
that the world is a globe Aristotle is ordinarily
credited with this discovery, though the Pythag-
oreans taught the doctrine of the rotundity of
the earth long before his time Aristotle esti-
mated the ciicumference of the globe at about
40,000 miles
The earliest map representing the known por-
tion of the earth is that of the Greek Anaxi-
mander, who lived 610 to 546 B.C. Hecatseus,
also a Greek, who lived between 550 and 475 B c ,
and who had traveled extensively in Egypt,
Persia, Libya, Spain, and Italy, wrote a book
describing these countries and made a map im-
proving and extending that of Anaximander.
Thales, a Greek of Miletus, who flourished about
600 BC, divided the earth into five climatic
zones, much as they are recognized to-day, and
introduced the equator and meridians He dis-
covered that the plane of the ecliptic is inclined
to that of the equator and made a rough meas-
urement of the inclination.
The real founder of scientific geogiaphy was
Eratosthenes, librarian of Alexandria ( c 276-
195 B c ) . He made accurate measurements of
the length of the sun's shadow at Alexandria
and at the First Cataract of the Nile, assuming
that they were on the same meridian, and thus
calculated the earth's circumference as about
25,000 miles, which is surprisingly near the
actual figure
Strabo, who was born about 60 B c., was the
first to attempt a work on general geography,
His treatise consists of 17 volumes, two of
which are devoted to the world at large as an
introduction, 10 volumes to Europe, four to
Asia, and the remaining one to Africa
The great work of loolemy the Alexandrian,
aBOOKRAPHY
592
GEOGBABHY
who lived in the second century of our era,,
marked an epoch in eailj geogiaphical science
and was for many centimes the pai amount au-
thouty on the subject of the eaith, and his map
was that universally used Still, the map con-
tained several serious errors, which had far-
leaching results. He fell into the error of
adopting the result given by Posidomus foi the
earth's circumference, and this, together with an
eiror in the longitude of the Canaries, which
marked his initial meridian, resulted in bring-
ing the west coast of Europe and Africa within
9000 miles of the east coast of Asia. It was
this which induced Columbus, 13 ^ centuries
later, to voyage westward to leach the Indies
The map is constructed on a reticule of parallels
and meridians, and though its errors of posi-
tion and form in detail are many, it shows in
comparison with eailier maps, especially that
of Hecatseus, a- vast extension of the known
world The advances in knowledge thus made
were largely lost during the Middle Ages,
when the scholastics developed the older plane-
surface theory of a world, with Jerusalem as
the centre of the univeise The most elaborate
treatise embodying these ideas is that of Cos-
mas Indicopleustes, who lived in the sixth cen-
tury (a translation has been published by the
Hakluyt Society, London, 1899) Many speci-
mens of mediaeval cartogiaphs, embodying these
ideas, have survived, the most important of
which have been leproduced by Pi of Konracl
Miller, of Stuttgait The modem de\elopment
of ideas concerning the form and magnitude of
the earth is treated in the articles on ASTRON-
OMY and NAVIGATION
Exploration, Ancient. The legend of the
Argonauts undoubtedly giew up around the
ktory of actual voyages made by the early
Greeks to the Far East The Phoenicians were
the first nation of discoverers, and, like most of
their successors., they were animated by the de-
sire of gain. Tyre and Sidon became great
commercial centres, from which ships sailed to
all the Mediterranean waters, and to which
traders came from India and from the lands be-
yond the Ked Sea a thousand years before the
Christian era By the time of Herodotus ( c 4S4~
424 D c ) Phoenician voyagers had passed through
the Strait of Gibraltar, the ancient Pillars of
Hercules, establishing settlements along the
northwestern African coast, or coasting across
the Bay of Biscay to the tin mines of Cornwall
The Phoenicians made valuable contributions to
the exact knowledge of geography in their
periph, or itineraries The names of two fa-
mous sea captains are associated with the fur-
thermost extension of Phoenician exploration —
that of Hanno ( about 450 B.C ) , who led a party
of several thousand colonists down the African
coast to the neighborhood of Sierra Leone, and
that of Himilco (about 500 BO), who sailed
bevond Cornwall to lerne or Ireland Another
famous voyage was made somewhat previous
to this time by an Egyptian fleet dispatched by
the Pharaoh Necho, which started from the Red
Sea and, as it is reported, returned through
the Strait of Gibraltar after a voyage around
Africa lasting several yea/s. About 320 B c
Pytheas, a Carthaginian navigator, set out from
Marseilles and sailed past the coast of Spain and
Gaul as far as ''Ultima Thule," probably the
Shetland Islands The conquests of Alexander
tne Great added little to the limits of explora-
tion, but proved of inestimable service in bring-
ing Euiope and Ahia togethei and giving the
West some knowledge of the countnes and char-
acteristics of the East Rome continued the
work of inci easing and unifying the geographi-
cal knowledge of the woild and bi ought Biitain,
Germany, and many other bordei regions \\ithin
the cucle of civilized nations Much of this
knowledge \\as \\iped out in Europe bv the ir-
luptions of the Gei manic and Tatar tubes, but
much too, \\as fortunately saved by the Arabi-
ans, who rose to power aftei 630 Science and
leainmg, driven out of Europe, nourished at
Bagdad, Damascus, and Coidova, and othei capi-
tals of Islam After 800 the study ot the
Ptolemaic cosmography was assiduously carried
on, and important geographical treatises were
composed by Abu Jaafia Mohammed, "who wrote
between 813 and 833, Al Masudi, who between
043 and 94 tiaveled extensively in southern
Em ope and Asia, going as far as China, and
Idusi, whose comprehensive Geographers G-ai-
den of Delight appeared in 1154 The gieatest
of the Mohammedan travelers was Ibn Batuta
(e 1304-78), a Moor of langieis in Morocco,
who traversed northern Africa, Asia Minor, In-
dia, China, and the steppes of southein Hussia
and Central Asia, coveiing neaily 75,000 miles
When the Renaissance came in Euiope, much
of the older geographical learning was lecovered
from Arabic books and scholars During the
mediaeval period the journeys of Beniamm of
Tudela (1160-73), Friar John of Piano Carpini
in 1245, William of Ruysboeek in 1255, and the
Franciscan Friar Odoiic (1316-30), served to
keep Europe in touch with what was happening
in Asia Much more important were the travels
of Marco Polo, of Venice, because the spirited
account of his adventures and observations, writ-
ten after his return in 1295, acted greatly to-
waids the revival of active exploration
Exploration, Modern. This revival is asso-
ciated with the name of Prince Henry of Portu-
gal, known as "the Navigator" Prince Henry
devoted all his time and resources, from 1418
until his death, in 1460? to fostering maritime
exploration, with the results* detailed in the
article on AFRICA, under History Of the Medi-
terranean nations, Italy especially furnished a
remarkable succession of navigators, who, sail-
ing under other flags, doubled the extent of the
known world during the century following the
death of Prince Henry Columbus m 1492
proved the possibility of crossing the Atlantic
and discovered the New World, which he took
to be the Indies; John Cabot in 1497 landed
on the coast of Horth America, Vespucci be-
tween 1497 and 1501 established the continental
character of the southwestern Atlantic shores,
and Verrazano gave France her claim to the
northern continent in 1524 Before the advent
of these Italians Bartholomeu Dlas in 1488
rounded the southern point of Africa In 1497-
98 Vasco da Gama ma-de the sea voyage to
the real Indies by way of the Cape of Good
Hope For the next hundred years discoveries
followed close upon each other, until all the
main features of sea and land upon the globe
had been determined Serr&o reached the Mo*
luccas or Spice Islands by way of India in 1512,
and in 1520-21 Magellan found the way to
them across the Pacific Magellan perished in
the Philippines, but his ship, the Victoria, kept
on her voyage westward to Spain, completing
the first circumnavigation of the globe Cartier
in 1543 entered the St Lawrence and with ttia
Pacific Ocean
Galapagos
Marquesas
Uw Archvp
Tahiti „
THE KNOWN WOULD
IN 1800.
GEOGRAPHY
503
GEOGRAPHY
exploration of that liver basin began the work
which was continued by Champlain, Joliet, and
the Jesuit fathers in the seventeenth century
and completed by La Salle, who i cached the
mouth of the MibSissippi in 1682, thus estab-
lishing the geneial charactei of the in tenor of
Noith America In 1542 Antonio de Mota
reached Japan, and in the same yeai Gaetano
discovered the Sandwich, 01 Hawaiian, Islands
In 1553 and 1556 Sir Hugh Willoughby, Rich-
aid Chancellor, and Stephen Burrough sailed
around northern Scandinavia to Archangel,
sighting Nova Zembla Chancellor and Jenkm-
son pioceeded to Moscow, and thence the latter
went on to Bokhara, bringing back to Europe
much information about the intenoi of Russia
Frobisher began the long record of English ex-
plorations in the Noithwest in 1576, and the
next yeai Drake started on the second circum-
navigation of the globe Austiaha was dis-
coveied by Torres and the Dutch sailors of the
Duyfken in 1606, although it is possible that it
had been seen a few years before by the Portu-
guese In 1642 Tasman completed the delinea-
tion of the mam outlines of this continent and
established the character of the lands beyond it
to the south and east For a century and a half
the tide of discovery slackened while the nations
of Europe were busy with the task of occupy-
ing and exploiting the vast areas newly brought
to their knowledge Then came the woik of
Bering, who in 1728 established the boundary
between Asia and America at the strait which
had been reached in 1648 by Deshnev (and
which received the name of Beiing Strait), and
that of Captain Cook, who between 1768 and
1779 completed the survey of the water world,
proving that there was no large habitable land
mass undiscovered in the Southern Hemisphere
The work of Cook was perfected by La, Perouse,
who finished the delimitation of the oceans in
1788
Meanwhile the scientific exploration of the in-
terior of the continents had begun In 1740
Varonne de la Ve'randrye reached the Rocky
Mountains of North America, and in 1771
Hearne penetrated to the Arctic shores of the
same continent by way of the Coppermine River
In 1768-72 Bruce began the century-long task
of opening up the interior of Africa by his jour-
ney "to the headwaters of the Blue Nile. In
1789 Mackenzie discovered the great river to
which his name is given Lewis and Clark
(1803-06) and Pike (1805-07) filled in many
of the important features of the western United
States From 1799 to 1804 Humboldt traveled
in the West Indies, Mexico, and South America,
and by the accurate and comprehensive reports
of his observations set a new standard which
has increased immensely the value and trust-
worthiness of most of the geographical work
done since his time. Mungo Park had reached
the Niger in 1796 Through his explorations
and those of Clapperton, Denham, and Lander,
the problem of the source of the Niger was
solved by 1830 In the course of their journeys
Clapperton and Denham reached Lake Chad
in 1823 In 1828 Rene" Caillie" visited Timbuktu,
where Laing had been killed in 1826 Living-
stone crossed South Africa, tracing the course
of the Zambezi, between 1849 and 1856, and in
1859 he discovered Lake Nyaasa While Liv-
iiigstone was traveling in the region of the Zam-
bezi, the German traveler Barth was engaged in
a remarkable series of explorations m the wesir
em Sudan Burton and Speke found the way to
Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza in 1858, and
\\ithm the next six years Giant, Speke, and
Baker approximately solved the pioblem of
the leal sources of the Nile Lake Albert Ny-
ama was i cached by Bakei in 1864 Stanley
in 1876-77 traced the comse of the Congo, the
principal affluents of which weie observed by
Wis&mann during his two jouineys acioss Afuca
between 1881 and 1887 In 1887 Stanley set
out on the Emm Pasha relief expedition, in the
course of which he discovered the Mountains of
the Moon of Ptolemy Asia, largely because it
has been in parts longest known, remained for
a time least known to Europeans Between
1785 and 1794 Billings surveyed eastern Siberia
Somewhat earlier, in 1761-67, Niebuhr had ex-
plored parts of Arabia, a work which was sup-
plemented by Palgrave in 1862-63 In 1856-
57 the biotheis Schlagmtweit crossed the Him-
alayas and Tibet In 1868 Eichthofen entered
upon his caieei as a Chinese explorer, and about
the same time Ney Elias traversed central
China The arid wastes of Central Asia included
within the boundaries of China were visited four
times between 1871 and 1888 by Pnezhevalsky
ValikhanofF reached Yarkand in 1859, and in
1870 Fedtchenko penetrated into the country
north of Pamir The course of the Yang-tse,
Mekong, and Brahmaputra livers was traced by
the Pundit Krishna between 1878 and 1882
Younghusband traveled from Peking to Kash-
mir m 1887 Among other recent explorers of
Central Asia have been Sosnovski, Potanin,
Pyevtsov, and other distinguished Russian
travelers, Bell, Carey, Rockhill, Bonvalot, Henry
of Orleans, Littledale, and Sven Hedin, who
spent the years from 1893 to 1QOO in exploring
Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, and Mongolia
Among the great Arctic explorers of the first
half of the nineteenth century were Pairy, the
two Rosses, and Sir John Franklin See POLAR
RESEAKCH
Final proof of the fact that the oceans encircle
the continents was supplied by McChire's achieve-
ment of the northwest passage (1850-54) and by
Nordenskjold'a voyage from Norway along the
Sibeiian coast and out through Bering Strait in
1878-79 In 1892 Peary established the insular
character of Greenland Nansen's voyage in the
Fram (1893-96) determined the problem of the
Arctic ice motion and proved that there can be
no large land division at the North Pole Borch-
grevinck visited the Antarctic regions in 1894-
95, and again in 1898-1900, and the later Bel-
gian, British, German, Swedish, and French ex-
peditions widely extended knowledge of the
South Polar regions
The first geographical atlas was prepared by
Claudius Ptolemy at Alexandria about 150 AJX
This gave the location of places on the earth's
surface and continued to be the best compendium
for 1400 years It was printed many times dur-
ing the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, usually
with the addition of maps embodying the results
of contemporary travel and observation It was
finally superseded by the Atlas of Ortelius, pub-
lished in 1570, and this m turn gave place in
1595 to that of Mercator, who had devised, about
1539, the principle of the projection known by
his name Jlanrusio and Hakluyt^ contempora-
ries of Mercator, published tike first two great
collections of travels in the les^-known parts of
the world, -thereby providing the data for suc-
aeeding efforts to enlarge geographical knowl-
504
SUBVEY
edge Atlases making notable contributions to
general knowledge were published by Blaeu in
163S, Sanson m 1645, Dehsle in 1700, D'Anville
in 1745-71, and Stieler in 1817.
Systematic G-eograpny. The modern science
of geography, as defined at the beginning of this
article, may be said to have its origin in the
work of Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Rit-
ter Although approaching the subject from dif-
ferent angles, each demonstrated its unity and
showed that mtei action between the physical and
the organic world was its undeiljmg principle
A geneiation elapsed before geography leceived
univeisity recognition in Germany, but now
every university in that country, where the
subject is moie advanced than elsewheie, has
its chair of geography The foremost exponent
during this period was Baron von Bichthofen
Within the last 15 or 20 years the seience lias
also made great progress in France, thanks to
Vidal de la Blache, and in Great Britain through,
the efforts of Mackinder and Herbertson In
the United States the European, conception of
geography is just beginning to make itself felt
Although the Hitter school had an able expo-
nent in this country, in the person of Guyot at
Princeton University, this influence did not
prevail. It was rather the geological side of
the subject that received special attention in
this country, mainly through the efforts of
W. M Davis, whose woik in physiogzaphy has
left a lasting impression on American geography
Only recently has interest arisen in other phases
of the subject, mainly in human geography,
more especially in response to a demand from
educational circles for a more teachable presen-
tation of the subject.
Bibliography. Tozer, A History of Ancient
Geography (Cambridge, 1897), Berger, Ge-
der iwssenschafthchen Erdkunde der
(new ed, Leipzig, 1903) , Bunbury, A
of Atwn-ewfr Geography (2d ed., 2 vols.,
London, 1883) ; Beazley, The Dawn of Modern
Geography (3 vols,, London, 1897-1906),
Lelewel, Geographic $u, moym &ge (Brussels,
1852, with atlas) ; Nordenskiold, Facsimile
Atlas (Stockholm, 1889), Penplus (ib, 1897);
Peschel, Geschichte d&r Erdkunde (new ed, Mu-
nich, 1877) , Vivien de Saint-Martin, Hwtoire
de la ft^ographie (Paris, 1873, with atlas) ;
Gunther, Geschiehte der Erdkunde (Leipzig,
1912) , Wisotzki, Zeitstromungen m der Geo-
graphie (ib , 1897), Kretschmer, G-esohichte der
Geographze (ib, 1912); Keltie and Howarth,
History of Geography (London, 1913).
GEOGRAPHY, ECONOMIC Economic geog-
raphy treats of the production, exchange, and
transportation of commodities It discusses the
distribution of natural resources, plant, animal,
and mineral, and the various industries con-
nected with them. It takes up the various
forms of man's economic activities The most
important of these are agriculture, mining-,
manufacturing, and commerce All of these pre-
suppose an advanced stage of civilization, while
such activities as gathering, fishing, and hunt-
ing, as the sole means of subsistence, represent
the lower forms of civilization The moat im-
portant mineral products are coal and iron;
their association is the mainstay of modern
industrial development* Manufacturing is
mainly carried on with the aid of machinery.
The necessary power is derived from several
sources — moving water, ateam, and electricity
Commerce consists essentially of the exchange
between different regions of the commodities
which each most easily produces It may be
divided into t\vo pails, tiade and tianspoitation
Tiade is the airangemcnt of the e\ch*inges, eg,
the buying and selling of goods, \\lnle tians-
portation is the convex ance of the goods to then
destination That part of economic geography
which deals \\ith commeice has otten been
designated commercial geogiaphy, although this
term is also used synonymously with \vhat lias
here been denned as economic geogiaphy The
study of Commeicial 01 Economic Geography
forms an important couise in the A\ork of
many leading universities For bibliography
see the article GEOGRAPHY
GKEOGrKAPHY, MEDICAL See DISTRIBUTION
OF DISEASES
GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 0!F AMERICA
An oiganization for the piomotion of science
and geology in North America, organized in
1888 The society holds one meeting annually,
at T&hich. many technical papers are piesented,
and duimg the following year some of these
papers are punted in a \olume known as the
Bulletin The society had a membership in 1914
of about 360, compiising neaily all the working
geologists of the United States
GEOLOGICAL STJBVEY, UNITED STATES
The United States Geological Sinvey, a bureau
of the Department of the Intel 101, is changed
with the investigation of the geological stmctuie
and mineial resources of the country The bu-
reau was organized in 1879 as a consolidation
of the independent surveys that had been active
for several years in exploring the Western States
and Territories. In 1867 Clarence King oigan-
ized a geological expedition for the examination
of a belt of country including the fortieth paral-
lel, and extending across the Rocky Mountains
from Wyoming to California In the same year
the general government commissioned F V.
Hayden, who had previously been attached as
scientist to exploring parties in the West, to
make a survey of Nebraska The exploration of
territory west of the one hundredth meridian
and of the Colorado basm was provided for by
the government in 1871, and the expeditions were
placed under the direction of George W Wheeler
and J W. Powell The four organizations, popu-
larly known as the King, Hayden, Wheeler, and
Powell surveys, fulfilled an important mission in
the scientific investigation of a vast and little-
known territory. As the scope of operations was
extended, however, it became evident that the
work could be conducted to better advantage
under a unifoim system A plan for unifying
the service was proposed by the National Acad-
emy of Sciences and finally adopted by Congress
in 1879, when the independent surveys were dis-
continued. The control of the new organization,
known as the Geological Survey, was placed m
the hands of a director, who was required to
submit an annual report of plans and operations
of the Survey to the Secretary of the Interior.
The functions of the Geological Survey, as
originally outlined by law of Congress, with sub-
sequent modifications, include the preparation of
a topographic map of the United States, the in-
vestigation and mapping of the areal geology,
the examination of mineral deposits, the collec-
tion of mineral statistics, the study of hydrog-
raphy with reference to water power and the
irrigation of and regions, and the classification
of public lands The preparation of the topo-
graphic map, a necessary preliminary io the
GEOLOGY
595
GEOLOGY
geologic and hydrographic work, is earned on
by the topographic branch of the Survey At the
end of the fiscal year 1913 a total area of
1,178,974 square miles, or 38 9 per cent of the
entire area, exclusive of Alaska, had been sur-
veyed upon scales of 1, 2, and 4 miles to the
inch, varying with the importance of the differ-
ent regions When completed, the topographic
map will give an accurate presentation of the
surtace features of the country The geologic
branch of the Survey investigates and maps the
geological formations The map, as rapidly as
completed, is issued in folios, it shows the areal
distubution of the vanous rocks, their geological
structure, and the location of mineral resources
The work of the geologic branch is conducted by
four divisions, as follows geology, Alaskan min-
eral resources, mineral resources, and chemical
and physical researches The Geological Survey
has contributed much to the advancement of geo-
logical science as well as furthered the material
interests of the country The publications issued
for general distribution include the director's
report (annual), monographs, professional pa-
pers, bulletins, and water-supply papers, Con-
sult Walcott, The United States Q-eological Bui -
vey (Washington, 1895) . See MINES, BUKEATJ OF
GEOL'OOY (from Gk. 71?, ge, earth + -\oyia,
-logia, account, from X^yecy., legein, to say) .
Geology is the science which investigates the
history of the earth The rocks of the earth's
crust contain the records of this history Many
of the pages of the rock book are lost, others
are obscured through partial destruction, and
many, like the hieroglyphics on ancient monu-
ments, require great care, patience, and intelli-
gence to decipher, yet, in spite of these dif-
ficulties, we are already in possession of a vast
fund of information concerning the history of
the earth
Geological study shows that forces similar to
those of the present have been operating in the
past Therefore the proper interpretation of the
past history presupposes a knowledge of the
forces working at the present time to modify the
earth* One class of forces, depending largely upon
energy from within the earth, causes the earth's
surface to rise and fall, volcanoes to erupt, and
the rocks to be disturbed, another, deriving its
energy from without the earth, mainly from the
sun, sets in operation winds, waves, rain, nvers>
glacieis, and tides, which wear away the surface
of the land and distribute the waste in the
oceans The effect of life on the globe is an-
other geological factor Many geological changes
are influenced by animals and plants It is of
importance, therefore, that in many instances the
layers of rock forming the crust contain re-
mains of animals and plants of past ages. The
study of these remains has given much informa-
tion concerning past life and the conditions
amid which the life existed. Moreover, since
life has developed in orderly succession, the
study of the fossils of animals and plants has
given a basis for the division of the earth's his-
tory into periods, or ages
Although geology stands as a distinct science,
with numerous subdivisions, to master it thor-
oughly requires a broad knowledge of several
allied sciences. Botany and zoology are indis-
pensable to the student of fossils, physics and
chemistry, to the student of rocks, and as-
tronomy and geography, to all who would
broadly grasp the subject of geological history
Eacti of these sciences famishes tools with, which
the geologist works out the varied and com-
plex earth history
Fundamental Principles of Geology. Geo-
logical work is so slow, and the evidence of vast
changes in the past so clear, that, so long as it
was held that the age of the earth was to be
reckoned m a period of a few thousand yeais, no
other conclusion was possible than that the
changes observed had been rapidly made as a
result of stupendous catastrophes Thus, the
early literature of geology deals largely with
imagined deluges, sudden uphftings of the crust
to form mountains, destructive invasions of the
land by ocean water, and similar catastrophes
When, however, it was made clear by Hutton
and his successors that the recorded facts indi-
cated slow changes, it began to appear possible
that the age of the earth was great The pro-
mulgation of the doctrine of evolution, and the
increased knowledge of past life, as recorded by
the fossils, brought further evidence of the great
age of the earth In consequence of these ad-
vances in science the interpretation of the
former history of the earth by modern geology
rests upon two principles that may be considered
established one, that the age of the earth is very
great j the other, that in the processes in opera-
tion at present, we may look for illustrations of
most of the changes of the past These two
principles were formulated in the doctrine of
uniforniitananism (qv ), which was proposed as
a substitute for the older theory of catastro-
phism (qv) By this doctnne the past may
be investigated in the light of the present Given
time enough, even the slow processes opera/ting
at present, which produce no perceptible change
in one's surroundings in a lifetime, will accom-
plish the stupendous results so clearly proved
by geological study
Age of the Earth. The evidence from geology
all points towards an age for the earth to be
reckoned in millions of years One line of evi-
dence upon which this conclusion is based may
be illustrated as follows theie are, in some
places, great accumulations of rock layers which
were deposited in the ocean These layers aie
known to reach a depth of many thousands of
feet, m some instances over 40,000 feet A
study of these beds indicates that they were
accumulated slowly, as similar beds of lime-
stone, clay, sand, and gravel are now being- ac-
cumulated in the sea If anything like the
present rate prevailed, the time required for
their formation is very great, probably not less
than 100,000,000 years This estimate is, of
course, open to doubt because of the question
whether the past and the present have been
so closely alike, hut even if this doubt is war-
ranted, the deduction must still be made that
the age of the earth is very great From a
study of the wearing away of the land and the
planing down of mountains, a similar conclusion
may be reached A second class of evidence
pointing to a great age for the earth is supplied
from a study of the fossils preserved in the
rocks The evolution of plant and animal ^ life
seems, in general, to have been gradual, as it is m
the present time, and this conclusion harmon-
izes with the evidence from the rocks themselves
Physicists have also estimated the age of the
earth in several ways One of these estimates is
"based on the rate of cooling of the heated in-
terior of the earth Another estimate is based
on the effect of the tides m retarding the rota-
tion of the earth by the friction of the tide
GEOLOGY
596
GEOLOGY
wave StiH a third line of argument is based
upon the rate of cooling of the sun, whose light,
according to Lord Kelvin, will not last more
than 5,000,000 01 6,000,000 years longer The
facts concerning the earth's heat, the sun's heat,
and the earth's foim, together with the rate of
cooling of the sun and the earth and the effect
of tidal friction, ha\e led Lord Kelvin and other
physicists to the conclusion that the age of the
earth is not greater than 20,000,000 years
Cheat though this estimate of time is, it is
not great enough to satisfy geologists, for the
evidence from geology seems to point to a far
longer history for the eaith Moreover, physi-
cists are now geneially inclined to concede a much
greater age than Kelvm estimated, the dis-
covery of new factors, eg, i adioactivity, that
enter into the calculations has necessitated a
more liberal interpretation of the data
From what has been said, it is evident that
we are not in a position to state even approxi-
mately the age of the earth in years, but all
lines of evidence agree in pointing to the con-
clusion that geological time is to be reckoned
in millions of years, and geologists are practi-
cally unanimous in the belief that the time since
the oldest stratified rocks were deposited cannot
be much less than 100,000,000 yeais
The Branches of Geology. Investigation of
the earth's history may be carried on along va-
rious lines, in fact, geology is so complex a
subject that it is now no longer possible for one
man to claim to have a thorough knowledge of
the entire subject Consequentlv it has come to
be the custom to subdivide geology into several
branches Some of these branches are quite
universally recognized, in the case of others
there is difference in usage.
1 Gosmical Geology — In this branch aie
included investigations in the borderland be-
tween astronomy and geology. It is a considera-
tion of the relations of the earth to the other
members of the solar system and to other bodies
in space. As archaeology is related to history,
so is this phase of cosmica! study related to
geology proper.
2 Geognosy — This division of geology in-
cludes a study of the materials of which the
earth is formed — air, water, minerals, and rocks
of the crust — and of the condition of the eaitlr*s
interior The study of minerals to determine
their composition, crystal form, and other char-
acteristics is the province of the science of min-
eralogy, which has chemical and physical, as
well as geological, relationships The study of
rocks forms the science of petrology or hthology
Petrogiaphy, a branch of geology recently de-
veloped, is concerned with a study of rocks from
the standpoint of their composition, characteris-
tics, and geological relations
3 Dynamic Geology- — Under this heading is
included a study of the operation and effects of
the forces that are and have been at work to
modify the earth.
4. Structural Geology — This division of ge-
ology is concerned with a study of the archi-
tecture of the earth. That is to say, structural
geology investigates the actual arrangement of
the materials that are included under geognosy
as they have been placed by the forces of dy-
namic geology Using the parallel of architec-
ture, the crude materials are included under ge-
ognosy, the arrangement and position of these
materials, and their relation to one another, are
included under structural geology 3 the forces
that have formed the materials and arranged
them, and the way in \\hich they have operated
to do it, form the" theme of dynamic geology
5 Physiographic Geology — This division deals
with the forms assumed by the surface of the
land as a result of the operation of the dy-
namic forces upon the materials and structure of
the earth Extending the paiallel of architec-
ture to this division, it is to geology what the
finished building is to architecture This divi-
sion of geology is coming to be considered a sep-
arate science of physiography, 01 gcomorphology
Q Sitatigraphic Geology — Historical geology
is a term often applied to this division, because
it is more intimately connected with a study
of past histories than any other of the divisions
By a study of the life record inclosed as fossils
in the stiata, and by a study of the rocks
themselves and their structural relations, strati-
graphic geology tells of many of the gieat e\ents
in earth history One of the most important
phases of this line of study relates exclusively
to the investigation of the life lecoid This
may be called paleontological geology But now
the broader students of stratigraphic geology
make use not only of paleontology, but of dy-
namic, structural, and physiographic geology to
determine not merely the life lecord,^ but also
the physiography of past ages Thus con-
sidered," it is one of the broadest divisions of
the science
7 Glacial Geology — One of the latest events
of stratigraphic geology was the general glacia-
tion of different parts of the world The study
of the events of this time, which necessanly in-
cludes a study of existing glaciers, has attracted
a large number of geologists, so that glacial
geology has come to be recognized as a distinct
branch of the science
8 Economic Geology — The geological proc-
esses have resulted in the accumulation of many
useful materials — soils, clays, building stones,
and metallic minerals The study of these from
the standpoint of their occurrence and origin
constitutes economic geology
COSMICAL GEOLOGY
A full tieatment of this phase of geology is
out of place in a brief general article More-
over,, much of it belongs to astronomy Studies
of the shape of the earth, and the resemblances
between the earth and other bodies in space,
both in form and composition, are undertaken
by physicists and astronomers These studies,
however, throw light upon the earliest phases of
eaith history, pointing to the conclusion that
the earth, like other bodies in space, was once a
molten sphere which has cooled on the outside,
forming a solid, cold crust Of the original
crust geological investigation has as yet found
no sign. It is to the continued cooling of this
once molten sphere that we owe some of our
most important geological events The forces,
having their seat in the heated interior, may be
considered as terrestrial, or hypogene, forces
The passage of light and heat to the earth, the
gieat movements of rotation and revolution, and
the pull exerted by the sun and moon constitute
the ewtrater? estnal, or eptgene, forces, which,
aided by gravity and acting through the medium
of air and ocean, set in motion another series
of geological agencies Dynamic geology is con-
cerned with a study of the operations of these
two sets of forces whose origin is cosmical
GEOLOGY
597
GEOLOGY
Other phenomena of the earth having an in-
fluence on geological history are the precession
of the equinoxes and the variations in the eccen-
tricity of the eaith's orbit These two astro-
nomical changes have influenced the amount and
distribution of heat on the earth's surface in
past times, but to what extent is an unsolved
problem There are still othei obscure questions
in cosmical geology, eg, the possible changes of
the earth's axis and centre of gravity Being
on the boi dei land of two or three sciences and
dealing with subjects on which it is difficult
to gather facts, these are among the gieat scien-
tific problems awaiting solution
GEOGNOSY
The earth consists of three quite different sec-
tions— the solid earth itself, or the lithosphere,
a partial water cover, or the hydrosphere, and
a gaseous envelope, the atmosphere Each of
these has its geological bearings.
The Atmosphere. The atmosphere consists
of a mixture of gases, of which the most im-
portant are oxygen and nitrogen m the propor-
tion of 21 per cent of oxygen to about 79 per
cent of nitrogen, argon, and other similar ele-
ments recently discovered The nitrogen is
inert, the oxygen very active, not only in its
influence on life, but also in its effect on rocks
A minute percentage of carbon dioxide, about
0 03 per cent, is of basal importance to plant
life A variation in the percentages of these
three constituents would produce a very great
difference in the effect of the air Water vapor
is present in variable quantities in the air, and
its condensation causes the rain upon which
springs, rivers, and lakes depend There are
also minute solids, called dust particles, and
very small quantities of a large number of other
substances, as salt, nitric acid, ammonia, etc
(See ATMOSPHERE ) By its influence on life the
air is of the highest geological importance. It
also affects rocks directly, causing them to
oxidize and disintegrate, and the movements
of the air, in the form of wind, produce direct
geological results, as well as indirect ones by
the agency of waves and currents which are
wind-driven A consideration of the geological
effects of the air forms part of dynamic geology.
The Ocean. Filling the depressions between
the continent upfolds are the oceans, reaching
a depth in some places of 5 or 6 miles. Al-
together, about three-fourths of the earth's
surface is covered with ocean water, with, an
average depth of over 2 miles This great hy-
drosphere is disturbed by tidal waves, ocean
currents, and wind waves, which are important
agents of dynamic geology. As a modifier of
climate, and as the source of the water vapor
in the air, it is also of geological importance
In the ocean water many substances are held in
solution, the dissolved solids constituting about
three and one-half parts to every one hundred
parts of water Of these dissolved substances,
over three-fourths are common salt and one-
tenth is chloride of magnesium A minute pro-
portion of carbonate of lime is the basis for the
limy shells and tests which have so often ac-
cumulated to form beds of limestone As the
home of shell-building animals whose remains
form rock beds, and as the seat of deposit of
tfaste from the land, the ocean is of the very
highest geological importance. See OOEAIT
The Crust of the Earth, The cold, outer
portion of the earth is composed of rocks — some
derived from beneath the surface, whence they
have iisen in molten condition, others formed by
the reassoitment of the materials obtained fiom
the dismtegt ation of other locks The&e rocks
have been subjected to movements, as a lesult of
which the earth's suiface has been made irregu-
lar The cause of these movements of the crust
depends upon the unstable equilibrium of the
earth itself, the results have been to make
great downfolds where the ocean basins are situ-
ated and upfolds wheie the continents are lo-
cated, with numeious minor uplifts and down-
sinkings along narrow lines, both in the sea and
on the land, forming mountain langes (Seo
CRUST OF THE EARTH ) By far the gi eater part
of the eaith's surface is fanly level Most of
the ocean bottom is a vast senes of submarine
plains with occasional mountain langes and vol-
canic peaks using above them On the land
much more than half the surface is also plain
or plateau, some of the plateaus using to eleva-
tions of 10,000 to 15,000 feet See CONTINENT
In the ocean the deposit of waste from the
land, and the accumulation of the solid parts of
animal remains, have the general tendency to
level the sea floor Agents of eiosion are in
general ineffective excepting at the contact be-
tween land and sea, and consequently the only
forces operating to make the sea floor irregular
are those of uplift or downsinking of the crust
On the land, on the other hand, the action of
the forces of denudation carves the mountains,
plains, and plateaus, making the surface more
iriegular And along the coast line the work
of the waves and tides is added to the dynamic
processes by which the land is being irregularly
denuded Thus, the land portion of the earth's
crust is often deeply scarred and cut, revealing
the internal structure of the superficial portions
of the crust
Interior of the IJithosphere Early geol-
ogists considered the interior of the earth to be
molten, basing then conclusion upon a number
of facts pointing- to a high temperature for the
interior The numerous hot springs indicate
heated conditions below the surface, all deep
borings and mines show a rise in the tem-
perature with increasing depth, and volcanoes
actually bring melted rock to the surface The
movements of the crust also may be accounted
for by assuming a heated interior, which upon
cooling and shrinking" allows the cold, solid crust
to settle on it and wrinkle. If the observed in-
crease in temperature in minjes and borings, which
averages 1° for every 50 to 60 feet of descent,
is continued far into the earth, temperatures
must eventually be encountered which are above
the melting point of rocks at the surface.
Astronomers and terrestnal physicists have
shown, however, that the earth cannot be a mol-
ten sphere with a thin crust. In its "behavior
towards other members of the solai system the
earth acts like a solid body, and one as rigid
as steel If there is a solid crust, it must be at
least 2500 miles thick The evidences for this
conclusion are obtained not only from the be-
havior of the earth towards other members of
the solar system, but also from the absence of
tides which would be present in a molten in-
terior, and from the fact that the average den-
sity of the earth is far greater than that of the
rocks at the surface, indicating a very dense,
heavy interior.
Geological facts also point towards the conclu-
GEOLOGY
508
GEOLOGY
sion that the earth's interior is not molten
Consequently geologists have long accepted the
hypothesis of a solid heated interior, so hot that
it would be molten under noimal conditions, but
kept from melting by the enormous load of the
ciust, since the melting point of rocks is raised
with an increase in pressure Whether there is a
zone of molten rock between the solid cold crust
and the solid heated interior is not known.
Many believe that the rock of the interior is
molten only where the pressure as relieved by
the up arching of the crust under mountain folds.
The condition in which the heated rock exists in
the interior is one of the fundamental problems
of geology still awaiting solution
Elements and Minerals of trie Earth's
Crust Relatively few of the 80 or more ele-
ments form an important percentage of the
crust Oxygen, the most abundant element of
the outer portion of the earth, constitutes 86
per cent of the ocean, 21 per cent of the air, and
47 per cent of the crust Nitrogen, though form-
ing about three-quarters of the air, is of little
importance in the ocean or the rocks Silicon,
forms 27 per cent of the crust, and aluminium 8
per cent, so that the three elements (oxygen,
silicon, and aluminium) together constitute 82
per cent of the crust. Next in importance aie
the following iron, 5, calcium, 4, sodmm, po-
tassium, and magnesium, each about 2 5 , carbon,
022, hydrogen, 021., phosphorus, 01, sulphur,
003, and chlorine, 001 pei cent
These elements, combined according to definite
chemical laws, form minerals A great variety
of different combinations are known, making, in
all, over 2000 mineral species Most of these
are rare, and only a very few form prominent
contributions to the crust Of these common
minerals, by far the most abundant is quartz,
made of the two common elements silicon and
oxygen. Its hardness and indestructibility make
it a factor of strength in rocks. Probably next
in abundance is the group of feldspars, of which.
a number of different kinds are recognized Al-
though hard minerals, the feldspars disintegrate
in the weather, forming clay and certain soluble
substances. Calcite is a third common mineral,
composed of calcium, carbon, and oxygen. It is
fairly soft and quite soluble in waters carrying
carbon dioxide or mineral acids Dolomite, the
magnesium carbonate of lime, has similar char-
acteristics to calcite Other common rock-form-
ing minerals are the micas, amphiboles, and py-
roxenes, mainly complex silicates of aluminium
with potassium, magnesium, iron, etc Gypsum,
the hydrous sulphate of lime, and the several
oxides of iron — limonite, hematite, magnetite —
the carbonate of iron, sidente, and the sulphide
of iron, pyrite, are other common minerals Of
these or their decayed products the great part of
the rocks of the crust are made These minerals
are of high geological importance; the others
are of interest especially to the 'mineralogist
and the petrographer. See MINERALOGY;
QUARTZ, FELDSPAR, ETC
Hocks of th,e Earth/s Crust. Minerals, com-
bined in various ways, form rocks Sometimes
the combinations are according to definite chem-
ical laws; but rocks are usually mere aggre-
gates of several minerals A threefold division
of the rocks may be made as follows: qjneous,
or those derived from a molten condition; sedi-
mentary, mainly sediments in water; and meto-
morpMCy or those due to the alteration of other
reeks by heat and pressure.
The igneous rocks vary among themselves in
two characteristics — one chemical composition,
the other texture — and the classification now
generally lecogmzed is based upon this double
variation From different volcanic vents the
lava differs chemically — in the one extieme be-
ing very acid, : e , with, much silica , in the other
being very basic, i e , with a small percentage
of silica and a large percentage of the basic ele-
ments— iron, magnesium, potassium, sodium, etc
These chemical differences give rise to different
classes of minerals — quartz and feldspar prevail-
ing in the acid rocks, micas, amphiboles, py-
roxenes, and iron oxides in the basic Accord-
ing to the conditions of cooling, the igneous
rocks vary in texture Some aie blown out by
violent explosive expansion of steam and, cool-
ing quickly, form gla&sy, porous pumice and vol-
canic ash In other cases flowing lava cools so
rapidly that it sets without the formation of in-
dividual minerals, forming natuial glass, or
obsidian More commonly the lava becomes
crystalline and is either fine-grained 01 has a,
fine ground mass inclosing large porphyntio
crystals Many igneous masses do not reach
the surface, but cool in the vent of the volcano
or, being intruded into the rocks, cool m the
crust These cool so slowly that the minerals
crystallize into good-sized individuals, pro-
ducing coarse-grained rocks, like granite, syenite,
etc
The term "sedimentary" for the second class
of rocks is not perfectly satisfactory, since not
all the rocks included are sediments The group
comprises mechanical deposits, such as conglom-
erate, sandstone, and clay, which are derived
from preexisting rocks by the processes of dis-
integration and erosion, and are removed and
deposited by air, water, or ice, chemical de-
posits, accumulated by the precipitation of ma-
terials held in solution, and including rock salt,
gypsum, calcareous tufa, etc , oiganic deposits,
such as limestone, chalk, marl, coal, and bog-
iron ore, which, are formed by the growth and
decay of animal and plant oiganisms
Either igneous or sedimentary rocks, under
the action of heat and pressure, are subjected to
changes which in some cases go sa far as to
remake the rock entiiely This alteration, or
metamorphism, sometimes takes the form of
crushing, accompanied by the development of
new minerals, in other cases there is a develop-
ment of new minerals without noticeable crush-
ing. This formation of new minerals may go
so far as to destroy entirely all evidence of
the original characteristics of the rock, as in
many schists and gneisses The new minerals
naturally develop with their long axes along the
lines of least resistance, thus giving to the rocks
a parallel structure, and it is due to this feature
that slates split readily m one direction, viz,
parallel to the cleavage planes of the micaceous
minerals By metamorphism, also, limestone is
often changed from amorphous carbonate of lime
to crystalline calcite, forming marble Sand-
stone is changed to dense quartzite by the de-
posit of silica around the grams. Coal is
changed to anthracite by the expulsion of vola-
tile substances, causing the concentration of
carbon, and in some cases this metarnorphism
has gone so far as to produce crystalline
graphite, which is pure carbon, For details
as to origin, composition, and classification
of rocks, see the articles on PETBOLO&Y and
DYNAMIC GEOLOGY
Dynamic geology is a conflict between the
hypogene and epigene forces The hypogene
forces laise some paits of the earth's surface
into the an and lower other parts beneath the
ocean, the epigene forces attack the parts thus
laised and tend to spread over the sea floor the
materials derived The epigene forces may be
grouped under the general heading of denuda-
tion So fai the forces of uplift have been more
potent than those of denunciation, and the land
surface is battered and scarred by the conflict,
but should the forces of uplift cease, 01 so lose
in effectiveness that denudation was more rapid
than uplift, the land would slowly lose in rug-
gednoss, and the surface would be reduced by
denudation to a more and more level condition.
In discussing the scope and principles of dy-
namic geology we will first consider the hypogene
foices
Changes in the Level of the Land Among
the most far-reaching results of geological study
is the proof that the earth's surface is not stable
at the present time, and that a similar condition
has existed m all periods of the past Again
and again stratigiaphic geology tells of changes
m land level of stupendous nature, and studies
in dynamic geology have proved that similar
changes are now in progress in many parts of
the world In some places the movement is
an uprising of the land, in others a downsink-
ing, and these movements in some cases affect
bioad areas of the crust in a slow uprising or
downsinkmg, while in other cases the movement
is localized and spasmodic These latter move-
ments are usually associated with mountain
growth, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions, and
over a- limited area the level of the land may
change several inches, or even feet, in a few
minutes. The movements affecting large areas
are so slow that careful study is necessary to
prove their existence
Many instances of land movement now in
progress might be given. The coast line of
New Jersey is sinking at the rate of about 2
feet a century, the coast of Labrador is rising
at an unknown rate, the coast of West Green-
land la sinking; in Sweden records of 150 years
show that the region south of Stockholm is
sinking, while to the north the land is rising,
in one place having risen 7 feet in that period
Local rapid movements of the land were observed
in Japan during the earthquake of 1891, and
m California displacements of from 10 to 20
feet were noted after the earthquake of 1906,,
changes of level, both uprising and downsmking,
have occurred in the Bay of Naples, the coast
of Chile has been uplifted during earthquakes
in the last century Evidence of changes of
level in past ages is furnished by elevated
beaches, raised beaches that are no longer hori-
zontal, and submerged forests The irregular
coast line of parts of continents, as in north-
eastern America, is interpreted as a drowned
coast, "where, by land sinking, sea water has been
allowed to enter the valleys, forming fiords. In
some cases the continuation of the land valleys
may be traced along the sea bottom, as in the
case of the Hudson Biver (q-v,).
The question has naturally been raised as to
whether these changes are due to land move-
ment or to changes in sea level Some of them,
,as in Sweden, where the movement is differ-
>0 GEOLOGY
ential, and the spasmodic movements in limited
ai eas, are certainly due to land movement With
regard to others, the conclusion is not so cei-
tain, though the geological evidence all points
towards a change in the land lather than of
tlie sea,
The cause for the instability in the crust has
often been refeired to the heated condition of the
earth's interioi Various hypotheses have been
proposed to account for the exact manner in
which this heated condition causes change in
level One hypothesis would explain the change
by contraction, by which it is held that, through
loss of heat, the interior is shrinking, and the
crust, m accommodating itself to the shrinking
interior, is caused to move A different explana-
tion, which is supported by some of the leading
investigators in dynamic geology, is based upon
the principle of isostasy This explains crust
movement by assuming that vanations in the
load on the crust cause mo\ements The reduc-
tion of load by denudation of the land and the
increase of load in places of sedimentation neces-
sitate an isostatic iead)ustment, causing sink-
ing in one place and using in anothei, as theie
would be in a pile of ^ax of megular height
Other hypotheses have also been pioposed, but
space forbids their discussion heie
Mountain Formation The sti esses bi ought
about in the earth's crust through the eneigy
which is causing- change in level, whether thia be
due to contraction, isostasy, or other cause,
throw the surface into a series of folds, the larg-
est forming the continental uplifts and ocean de-
pressions, the smaller forming mountain chains
According to the contractional hypothesis the
general movement of the crust is a downsmk-
ing, but locally poitions are uplifted be-
cause the solid crust cannot accommodate itself
to the shrinking interior without wi inkling
The great pressure thus applied to the rocks,
operating through long periods of time, causes
them to bend or break Where the rocks which
are subjected to these stresses are deeply buried,
and hence under great pressure, they bend, even
though they are brittle rocks When the strain
is more quickly applied, or when the rocks are
nearer the surface, faulting is common,, and
thick beds of brittle rocks, like sandstone or
limestone, are more liable to break than thin-
bedded rocks such as shales See FAULT
All evidence points to the conclusion that the
formation of mountains in the past has been
slowly accomplished Indeed, some mountain
chains, such as the Andes and those of the East
Indies, the Philippines, and Japan, are now
growing and apparently little if any more
slowly than the mountain growth of the past
It is found by a study of the structure of moun-
tains that in most cases their growth has been
intermittent ; i e , periods of freedom from uplift
have occurred Many of the mountain chains
are along lines of crust weakness established m
the early periods of geological history Along
these lines the stresses have relieved themselves
at various times so that these regions have re-
mained mountainous throughout geological tione.
On the other hand, many parts of the crust
have been marked by entire freedom from moun-
tain folding The zones of mountain growth
extend in a general north and south direction in
many parts of the earth, as in western !North
and South America, eastern North America, and
eastern Australia A belt of shorter ranges,
with east and west axes, exteuds across the Old
GEOLOGY
<5oo
GEOLOGY
World m the north temperate zone Many ef-
forts have been made to find a system in the
airangement of the mountains of the glohe and
to account for their di&tubution, but no thor-
oughly satisfactory theory has been evolved
See CONTINENT, MOUNTAIN, ETC
Volcanic Action Molten la^a, rising from
within the earth towaids the suiface, sometimes
leaches the surface, but often rises into the
crust and remains there Small masses filling
cracks in the rocks are called dikes, masses
thrust in between the layers of the strata form
sills or intruded sheets, like the Palisades of the
Hudson, still larger masses, which lift the rock
and form gieat wells of la\aa are called lacco-
liths, 01 laccohtes, and huge masses, with ir-
regular boundaries, common in the cores of
mountains, are known as bosses Instances of
each of these classes of igneous rock have been
levealed by the denudation which has stripped
oft the overlying strata *
Where the molten rock reaches the surface it
usually uses through a fissure, and when the
volcanic energy is vigorous, as it was during the
formation of the mountains of the western
United States, the lava may well out through
these fissures and form vast floods which inun-
date great areas on either side of the fissure
Hundreds of thousands of square miles in the
West are coveied by these ancient lava foods
In no part of the xvoild is this form of fissure
eruption well developed at the present day,
though the volcanoes of Iceland approach this
type
The geological effects of volcanic eruptions are
of very great importance The heat of intruded
masses causes change in the rocks with which
they come in contact By the outflowing of the
lava extensive changes are made in the topog-
raphy, and highly important, though usually
destructive, effects are produced on life. Much
Foek material is added to the crust, mostly near
the vokanoes, in the form of ash and lava flows,
but partly as intrusions into the crust and
partly as deposits, on the land and in the sea,
derived from ash drifted about by the air and
water currents. See VOLCANO, LACCOLITH
Earthquakes The eruption of volcanoes is
frequently accompanied by a shaking of the
earth, and the rising of la\a into the crust and
the movements of the lava before an eruption
also cause earth jars Likewise a breaking of
the rooks, or a movement of the strata along a
fault plane, causes earthquakes Indeed, any jar
to the rocks, even the explosion of gunpowder
or the falling of a cavern, will produce an earth-
quake shock The jar, originating at a point or
along a plane, is transmitted through, the rocks
48 a series of waves moving outward in curved
form fiom the centre, or focus At the epicen-
trum, directly abo\e the focus, the wave move-
ment is upwaul, on all sides fiom the epicen-
trurn it leaches the suiface at an angle, depait-
ing more and more fio-m the \eitical as distance
from the epicentium increases The violence and
the time of appearance of the shock vaiy in all
directions from this centre Iri egulai ities of
rock texture and structuie interfere with the
legularity of these variations The propagation
of the earthquake ^ave under ideal conditions
is shown in the accompanying diagiam, where
22 represents the epieentrtun and A B coseismal
curves
Among the geological effects of earthquakes
the destruction of life is best known, but the
shaking of the ground sometimes changes the
topography, shaking loose earth about and open-
ing nssuies in the ground and rocks When the
earthquake originates under the sea a gieat
water wave is laised This, advancing on neigh-
boring shelving coasts, so mci eases in height as
to wash over the lowei land with highly destruc-
tive effects These earthquake watei vaves have
an important influence on sedimentation in cei-
tam places, and the jarring of the sea floor and
the ocean \\ater sometimes causes a great de-
struction of life, -flinch aids in the formation and
preservation of fossils If the jarring is too
frequent, howerei, the tendency is towards ex-
tinction of life in the region subjected to the
jarring See EAKTHQUAKE
Hot Springs and Geysers. Water is every-
\vheie percolating through the upper layers of
the crust Beaching fissures, it often rises to
the surface, forming large and permanent springs
This water is frequently heated in its passage,
sometimes through the influence of heat-produc-
ing chemical changes in the rock, sometimes
deriving its heat from rocks whose temperature
has been raised by the friction caused by slip-
ping along fault planes, sometimes being
warmed by the presence of intruded masses of
lava The time required for the cooling of great
masses of intruded melted rock is so great that
hot springs and geysers might be caused by
them for many centuries
The heated waters take many mineral sub-
stances into solution in their passage through
the rocks On reaching the surface this is often
evident in the deposits made near the outlet as
the water cools For example, the geysers of the
Yellowstone precipitate silica, the hot springs
carbonate of lime Many hot springs have
medicinal properties because of the minerals in
solution A great variety of mmeial matter is
carried by the hot water, and even veins of
precious metals are formed by it See GEYSER,
THERMAL Spsnm
Formation of Ore Deposits Heated water
under pressure in the rocks is a potent chemical
reagent It soon becomes alkaline or acidic from
substances derived from the rocks and in this
condition dissolves and changes minerals in a
complex way. As it circulates through the
crust, the condition of this water is constantly
changing — growing warmer or cooler, receiving
accessions of water from different sources, and
obtaining various substances from the rocks
through which it passes Under these changing
conditions mineral substances may be dissolved
in one place only to be subsequently deposited
elsewhere Nor is the activity confined to highly
heated water. The surface waters descending
through the rocks also dissolve and deposit, as
GEOLOGY
60 1
GEOLOGY
is illustrated especially well in certain deposits
of iron ores However, the conditions most
favoring the foimation of mineial veins are the
presence of heated water and of channels which
permit its ciiculation Of channels the most
impoitant aie fault planes, joints, and fissmes
Since these aie most abundant in the mountain
legions, and since mountains 'most commonly
have associated igneous phenomena by \\hich
the water is heated, or which themselves may
give off hot waters and gases, such regions are
especially favorable for mineral deposit In
addition, the igneous rocks contain the greatest
store of the metallic elements, and hence their
piesence is important as a source of supply of
the metals All these conditions prevail in the
mountainous sections of the western United
States, one of the great mineral regions of the
\\oild See ORE DEPOSITS
Metamoiptt-isna. The phenomena of mountain
building and igneous activity are favorable to
that alteration of rocks which is included under
the term 'metamorphism " Heat, hot solutions
and vapors, and great pressure are effective in
changing the character of rocks This altera-
tion may be local, through contact with in-
truded masses of igneous rock, when it is called
contact onetamorphism ; or it may be widespread,
through intense and extensive mountain build-
ing, when it is known as regional metamorphism
In each case the resulting changes are similar,
though the alteration is usually carried to a far
greater degree in regional than in contact meta-
morphism Metamorphism has also been sub-
divided, according to the agency which has pre-
dominated, into hydrometarnorphism, thermo-
metamorphism, and dynamometamorphism
All rocks in a region of metamorphism are in-
volved, and the resulting changes are inde-
pendent of the origin of rock, being determined
by the nature of the metamorphism and the com-
position of the rock subjected to the change
Sometimes the alteration is so complete that
no trace is left to tell thi^ original character of
the rock, not even the general class to which
it belonged, and there are some geologists "who
believe that in some cases metamorphism has
been carried to the extreme of actual melting,
or, at least, to the reduction of the rock to a
plastic condition On the other extreme, some
rocks are so slightly altered that their original
condition is easily recognized , eg, pebbles of
conglomerate, elongated and stretched out of
shape, are sometimes found : bedding planes in
some slates are still observable crossing the
planes of cleavage, distorted fossils may be
present, and beds of marble may be traced to
their origin from limestone strata, or quartzite
to a previous condition of sandstone The gene-
sis of even the highly metamorphosed schists
and gneisses may at times be traced by follow-
ing along the beds to some less intensely meta-
morphosed section containing fossils, or other
indications of their origin Thus, it is known
that some of the highly altered beds of meta-
morphic rocks m the Alps' were deposited in the
Tertiary sea and metamorphosed during the
building of the Alps in late Tertiary time. See
METAMORPHISM
Weathering Of an entirely opposite char-
acter to metamorphism is that change m rocks
which results from contact with the air In
the processes of metamorpihism. the materials of
rocks are rearranged, and in most cases bound
inore closely together, in the processes of weatn-
ermg the matenals aie weakened and the rock
caused to dismtegiate and fall apait Weather-
ing, like othei geological processes, is a complex
phenomenon lesultmg fiom a cooperation of
various agencies Most of the agencies of
\veatheiing opeiate both chemically and me-
chanically
Air aids in the weathering of rocks by sup-
plying oxygen, caibon dioxide, and othei sub-
stances foi chemical changes Through the wind
it perfoims mechanical woik Heat and cold,
by causing contraction and expansion, aid in the
bi caking up of the rocks Percolating wateis
cause many chemical changes, especially by the
aid of oxygen from the air, caibon dioxide from
air and decaying vegetation, and organic acids,
derived fiom plant decay Mechanically watei
is important when the ram drop strikes the
ground, and \\hen fiost is formed in soil and
rocks, the expansive foice rends the materials
apart with gieat effect Plants are also im-
portant, both chemically and mechanically
Chemically they TV oik by obtaining plant food
fiom the eaith, mechanically by the intrusion
of their loots in soil a,nd rock Buri owing ani-
mals aie likewise effective agents of weathering,
especially the ants and eaithwoims, which bung
fresh materials to the surface and make the
soil more porous
The effectiveness of the agencies of weathei-
ing varies with the natuie and situation of the
rock All rocks are entered by water, but some
are far more porous than others Some min-
erals are easily soluble, some relatively insolu-
ble, some decay with ease, others are almost
indestiuctible But even the densest rock, made
of the most indestructible of minerals, will
crumble, though slowly, in the weather On
steep slopes, as on mountain tops and cliffs, the
bare rock is exposed to the weathei by the aid
of gravity, which removes the fiagments as
they fall, but on more level ground some of the
weathered material remains as a blanket, pro-
tecting the rock from some of the agencies of
weathering Arid lands are unfavorable places
for weathering, because of the general absence
of water A forested country is protected by the
forest cover, and it is probable that this pro-
tective effect is of more importance than its
destructive effect In damp tropical regions
rock decay is of most importance, in cold
climates frost is one of the most important
agencies
Of the effects of weathering, by far the most
important is the disintegration of the rock to
form soil Whenever the slope is not too steep,
BESIDtTAL SOIL
the disintegrated fragments accumulate as soil
cover Such a soil of rock decay i% called a re-
sidual soil, because it is a residuutn of mineral
decay after all the easily soluble portions have
been removed By far the greater part Af the
602
&E0LOGY
land lias a soil cover of this origin. A second
highly important effect of weatheung is the
preparation of rock for transportation, and
were it not for weathering geological history
-would have been far different The rock waste
falls or is washed into the sti earns which use
it as tools for carving valleys, as the material
for building flood plains and deltas, and as con-
tributions to the deposits of sediment which are
made in the sea.
Wind "Work As an agent of geological
change, the importance of the wind is not fully
lecogmzed by dwellers in humid regions Aside
from its influence in weathering, mentioned
above, the wind does effective work in two
classes of legions, viz, in and lands and on
seacoasts In both places the protective cover-
ing of vegetation is absent, and in both places
fine-gramed rock fragments are dried and ex-
posed to the wind In these positions the sand
is borne about by the wind and piled into ii reg-
ular hills, or dunes The friction of the sand
particles over one another grinds them down;
and, when blown against rocks and cliffs, a
natural sand blast is in operation, with the
result that the rocks are worn away. An addi-
tional effect of wind action is the construction
of land in the sea. Where sand bars are
thrown up by the waves, or where coral beaches
are built on coral reefs, the wind completes the
construction of land by building- dunes of the
fragments washed ashore The blowing of sand
and dust out to sea adds to the sediments
gathering there The distribution of volcanic
ash over wide areas is another important geo-
logical effect of the wind Indirectly the wind
is exceedingly potent as the transporter of vapor
for rain, and as the force which causes the
waves and currents in the ocean See WIND,
DUNE, LOESS; JEOLIAN ACCUMULATIONS.
Work of Underground Water. Water is
ever percolating through the rocks of the crust,
and this underground water is an effective
agency of dynamic geology Much of this water
returns to the surface after a short journey, and
it is this which with rain keeps the rivers
supplied Wells show its general presence in
the surface rocks, and springs are places where
favorable conditions have conspired to direct
quantities of it back to the air. Among these
favorable conditions are fault fissures, joint
face and emerging as springs on some valley
side into which the undergiouud watei is diam-
ing These caserns aie often oinamented ^ith
stalactites and stalagmites, Caused by the de-
posit of caibonate ot lime which the watei must
SPUING ALONG FAULT PLANE.
planes, and relatively impervious layers. The
percolation of water ^along such layers when
they rest in unstable positions is an important
cause of landslides Where rocks, such as lime-
stone, are made of minerals that are soluble, the
passage of water usually dissolves out under-
ground channel ways. Along the joint and
bedding planes the rock is slowly dissolved away,
the water entering from sink holes at the sur-
SFRING
SPRING ON HILLSIDE
P, porous rock, 7, impervious strata
precipitate on emeiging from the lock into tht
cave an See CA\E
Kiver "Work. In draining from the land the
water carries a load of mineral mattei in solu-
tion and in suspension. The toimei is mainly
supplied from the underground w<itei, though
some is obtained fioni the river bed The sus-
pended mateual is in pait deiived iioni the in-
wash of soil by the rains, in pait from materials
obtained by weathering of the valley sides, and
in part by the direct woik of the rivers, using
the rock matenals as tools of excavation. There
FOBMATION1 OF CAVE IN LIMESTONE
is a great variation in the woik which rivers
are doing Some have such a lock load, on so
gentle a slope that they cannot cut, but must
build up, their beds. Otheis are lapidly ex-
cavating their beds and have cut deep gorges
and canons, which they are still deepening
Their rate of work varies with the volume of
water, the slope, the nature of the rock, and
the amount and nature of the load of rock waste
being transported Since the rate of work va-
ries with the kind of rock which is being exca-
vated, rivers that are engaged in deepening their
valleys are liable to have falls and rapids be-
cause of unequal erosion on rocks of different
hardness
One of the great geological results of this
river work is the formation of valleys Where
a stream is rapidly cutting, its valley is narrow
and steep-sided Even in this case the valley is
broader than the stream, partly because by its
meandering course the river undercuts its bank
and partly because weathering is broadening the
valley Weathering continues even after the
stream has ceased its downcutting, and there-
fore the valley continues to grow broader and
broader, the stream removing the materials
which this weathering supplies Thus^ as a
transporting agent, rivers, in cooperation with
GEOLOGY 603
weatheiing, which prepares and supplies the
materials, are important factors long after they
have ceased to cut directly into the lock
In the transfer of the waste of the land to the
sea, some of the material halts on the way Even
the most lapid of streams, bearing the coarsest
of fragments, furnish illustrations of this in
their beds, in bais, and in narrow stups of de-
posit on their margins The larger streams,
especially near their moutns, are often bordered
by flood plains in which sediment is laid aside
in flood time and in \\hich, as the stream slowly
changes its course by meandering, portions aie
being taken up on the side of cutting, while
other portions of the river load are being de-
posited on the opposite side Such flood-plain
deposits are built of fine-grained fragments,
making a very fertile soil See EROSION, VAL-
LEY, FLOOD PLAIN, DELTA, ETC
The Work of Lakes* Lalres are formed by
some interference with drainage, usually a dam
across some stream course, as the growth of a
mountain barrier, a lava flow, or a dam of
glacial deposit The lake waves work on the
coast line, cliffs are cut, beaches are formed,
and on these the fragments are giound finer.
The rivers which enter the lake add still more to
the deposit accumulated, forming deltas where
they enter, but giving the finer material to the
currents for transportation off into the lake.
Weathering adds to the supply of sediment, and
the wind drifts more rock fragments to the
water In the quiet lake waters, even the finest
of this sediment in time settles to the bottom
Given time, then, the fate of lakes is to be filled ,
and the truth of this has been graphically stated
in the remark that "rivers are the mortal ene-
mies of lakes " But rivers are not allowed to
do the entire work of lake destruction, as has
been shown Aside from the agencies of lake-
filling mentioned, the influence of organisms is
effective The shells of animals and the accumu-
lations of plant remains are also factors of im-
portance. In the last stages of lake destruc-
tion water-loving plants — the reeds, rushes, and
sphagnum mosses — are effective, both by their
own accumulation and by their interference
with waves and currents, thus aiding in the
deposit of rock fragments Many filled lakes
have been transformed by plant growth, to bogs
in the northern climates, where the sphagnum
moss grows readily By the processes of lake-
filling important accumulations of sedimentary
rocks are made, and in some countries, as the
western United States, where large lakes were
formed behind mountain dams in recent geo-
logical periods, there are extensive areas occu-
pied by lake-formed strata Coal beds, repre-
senting the stages of organic influence, are a
part of these lake beds In and climates, where
evaporation exceeds the rainfall, the lake waters
are lowered below the outlet, then, year by
year, the mineral substances brought in solu-
tion by the incoming water, and left behind in
the lake as the water is evaporated, become more
and more concentrated Such lakes become salt
and, if the process continues, deposit layers of
salt, gypsum, and other substances Before this
stage is reached, however, the precipitation of
carbonate of lime takes place because this sub-
stance is relatively less soluble than the chlorides
and sulphates. Beds of these precipitated rocks
aie common in the West, where they hav6 been
recently formed and, in fact, are in some cases
Still forming; they are also found among the
VOL
GEOLOGY
strata of earlier ages when similar conditions'
existed See LAKE
Glacier Work Glacier action at present i&
confined to high mountains or to high latitudes
There are three classes — valley, 01 alpine, pla-
teau, and continental Of the last named, Green-
land and the Antarctic fuiiush illustrations,
and during the Glacial period ( q v ) continental
glaciers covered noithwestern Europe and north-
em North America Hence glacial action as-
sumes wider importance than it would if con-
sidered solely from the standpoint of the work
of present glaciers The erosive action of gla-
ciers seems to be very great where the ice move-
ment is free along valleys The weight of the
ice, pressing its grinding tools on the under
rock and slowly dragging over it, grooves and
polishes the rock and deepens a6 well as broad-
ens the valleys The results of this work are
readily seen in a region from which vigorous ice
action has disappeaied The material dragged
along by the ice is a mixture of large and small
rock fragments in various stages of reduction
by the grinding piocess At the ice front, or
when the ice melts away, tins >mateual is re-
leased and, falling to the giound, accumulates
as an unassorted mixture of materials, because
the ice carried large and small fragments with
equal facility This glacier deposit is known as
till, or boulder clay If the ice front stands
long enough along a single line, the accumula-
tion of ice-borne de'bris forms a moraine The
melting of the ice releases much water along the
front, and this water assorts a portion of the
till, causing clay deposits in one place, sand
and gravel in other places By the glacier-borne
floods large quantities of rock fragments are
carried far away from the ice front and depos-
ited in the river valleys and even borne to sea
Where glaciers enter the sea theie is a direct
contribution of material to the ocean, and by
means of the icebergs which break from the
glaciers some of the rock fragments are carried
far to sea The deposits made directly by the
ice, and by water supplied by ice melting, cover
noitheastern North America and northwestern
Europe, forming the soil of those regions
These glacial deposits vary greatly in form and
in texture according to the exact nature of the
formation, and they vary also in depth Many
important effects have been produced by these
deposits, especially on the drainage The great
number of lakes in Europe and America are
mostly due to some form of glacial interference
with drainage, and the goiges and waterfalls
are due to the turning- aside of streams by
glacial deposits See GLACIER, BOTJLDEB CLAY,
ETC
Ocean Work. The most powerful agent of
erosion in the ocean is the wind wave By its
direct blow, and by hurling and grinding rock
fragments together, waves are wearing coast
lines back From the cliffs thus formed much
material is supplied by weathering, which is
assisted by the influence of the salt and other
soluble substances with which the rock is sprin-
kled by the ocean spray The waves, approach-
ing the coast diagonally, drift the rock frag-
ments along the coast, and this movement is
farther aided by the wind and wave-formed cur-
rents These fragments often find lodgment in
embayments, forming beaches Such beaches-
are mills in which the rock fragments are fur-
ther ground down The finer, fragments ob-
tained by the waves, added to those brought by
0EOLOGT 6c
the rivers, the wind, and weathering agencies,
are m pait drifted out to sea by the undertow,
the wmd-foimed cunentb, and the tidal cur-
rents Raiely the tides have an oiosivo influ-
ence, but with ocean currents and ocean drifts
thej aie important transporting agents The
currents and drifts are also geological factois
in modifying climate and m bringing food to
sea animals The materials derived fiom the
land by the vanous agencies are stiewn o\er
the sea bottom near the land — the coarsest near
the coast, the finest out to sea Sometimes the
sediment comes to the sea m greater quantities
than the agencies of the ocean are able to
remove Then they accumulate as bars along
the coast, and the \\aves expend then eneigies
on the bars, lea\ing the piotected coast behind
the bars untouched If the sea bottom is sinking,
great beds of conglomeiate, sand, and clay may
be accumulated, if it is using, the beds pre-
viously formed are added to the land, as along
the eastern United States south of New York
More than half of the rocks of all the conti-
nents were formed on subsiding sea beds near
land areas and made of the land waste Latei
they were elevated to form parts of the conti-
nents, and they have often been built into great
mountains, such as the Alps, Appalachian, and
Rocky mountains
In the sediments accumulating on the sea
floor animal remains aie always present, and
as the distance from the coast mci eases, these
become of increasing importance because of the
diminution of the supply of rock \^aste Far
from the coasts, in the open ocean, the contri-
butions of land waste are so slight that the
sea-floor deposit is made almost exclusively of
animal remains, especially of the tests of minute
surface animalculse which have dropped to the
sea floor. This forms an ooze, variously named
from the animal forms predominating Of these
the most numerous are usually the Globigerma,
low forms of Eoraminifera Chalk beds are
made of G-lobigerina ooze, raised to the surface
and consolidated In the very deepest oceans
only the insoluble residue of these shells con-
tinues to the bottom, forming a red clay de-
posit In this clay are found also volcanic
dust, meteoric iron, and the ear bones of whales,
indicating its extremely slow accumulation
About one-third of the sea floor is covered by
red clay, and one-third by ooze, yet red clay
is not found on the continents, and ooze rarely
This seems to indicate a permanency of the deep
ocean basins, and that the ocean-formed rocks of
the land were mostly made in those shallow parts
of the ocean which bordered the continents
Organic influences are not confined to the de-
posits of the deep sea Grasslike plants and, in
tropical regions, mangrove trees are effective in
aiding deposit on many coasts, especially in pro-
tected spots. Shell-building animals also form
deposits in addition to contributing to the elas-
tic sediments But far the most important of
the coastal organic influences are those of the
corals, which build reefs along the coasts, and
islands on shoals in the sea The coral frag-
ments are built into islands by uplift, by waves
and winds, and coral ooze is strewn over the
sea floor near the reefs by the grinding of the
waves and transportation by the currents. By
these means beds of limestone are being accumu-
lated See OCEAN , DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION j
CORAL ISLAND
Work of Life. As a geological agent, life is
important in many inspects, and leference to
life has already been frequently made It helps
to disintegrate locks, to transpoit fragments,
and to make deposits of rock raatenals All
foims of hfo have geological influence, and man,
the highest and most poweiful of the animals,
has come to be one of tlio most impoitant of the
geological agents By modifying and destroying
animals and plants, by removing the forests, by
inter feimg A\ith rners, lakes, and oceans, by
excavations in the ground, and by many other
actions, man is aiding in geological change, and
in a way more varied and effective than any
other organic agency
Denudation The land uplifted by continent
movements, mountain building, and volcanic ac-
tivity is being attacked by the agents of denuda-
tion The rocks aie dissected, the land made
irregular, and the fragments carried to the sea
Mountains aie planed down, volcanoes removed
to their veij loots, coast lines cut back, and
the structme of the upper parts of the crust re-
vealed Thousands of feet have been removed
from all of the continents, and new land has
been made of the fragments deposited in the
sea and then lifted to the air by the forces from
within the earth Ihe work of destruction by
the agencies of denudation is partly repaired by
uplift A study of the form of land lesultmg
fiorn this interaction of uplifting and down-
cutting belongs to physiography (qv)
STBTJCTUEAL GEOLOGY
The rocks of the crust, considered under the
three headings of sedimentary, igneous, and
metamorphiCj present certain characteristic
structural features When in the form of flows
the igneous rocks are arranged in layers, and
they are often covered with beds of sedimentary
INTRUDED SHEET OF IGNEOUS BOCK
stiata Sheetbke intrusions of lava aie also in
beds But dikes, bosses, and laccoliths are more
irregular These igneous rocks vary in texture,
as has been already stated Joint planes are
commonly present, being due to contraction of
the cooling masses which results in a breaking
of the rocks These ]omts at times assume al-
BQSS OF INTRUDED ROCK (J5)
most mathematical regularity, as in the hexag-
onal columnar jointing of Fmgal's Cave and the
Giant's Causeway Many of the metamorphic
rocks inherit some of the characteristics of the
rock from which they were derived But,
GEOLOGY
ANTICLINAL FOLD, CHESAPEAKE & OHIO CANAL, NEAR HANCOCK, WEST VIRGINIA (UPPER)
JOINT-PLANES IN ROCKS NEAR ITHACA, N. Y. (LOWER)
GEOLOGY
605
highly metamorphosed, they "become massive and
crystalline, resembling m this respect the ig-
neous rocks However, owing to the influence of
pressure, the metamorphosed locks are charac-
terized by a parallel development of then con-
stituents, often very niarked Veins aie com-
mon in the metamorpliic rocks, and the layers
are often highly contorted undei the strain of
the tremendous pressuie to which they have
been subjected Joint planes of later origin are
also pi esent The sedimentary strata are chai ac-
terized by arrangement in layers due to the as-
soiting action of the agencies which have caused
their accumulation This assortment is found
both on a very small scale, represented by lami-
nae, and on a large scale, represented by changes
in the nature of the material For example, a
series of shales, with many lammse, may grade
downward to a sandstone and upwaid to a lime-
stone The minor variations represent the influ-
ence of slight variations in the foice or direc-
tion of currents or in the nature of material
LACCOLITH
supplied, the larger changes indicate more ex-
tensive changes, such as uplift or depression,
which completely alter the conditions under
which the sedimentation is taking place A
shallowing means coarser fragments, a deepen-
ing finer fragments, because of change in the
position of the coast line The sedimentary "beds
have the shape of greatly flattened lenses, be-
cause they die out in all directions, but the
beds of coarser fragments, having less extent,
are more lens-shaped than those made of nnei
fragments.
The nature and structures of sedimentary
rocks often reveal the manner of origin Coarse-
ness indicates nearness to shore, limestone indi-
cates abundant life, and the presence of cur-
rents, varying in velocity and direction, is indi-
cated by cross, or current, bedding, in which
the layers vary greatly in coarseness and in the
direction and angle of inclination This form
of bedding is caused by river, wave, and wind
currents Ripple marks, ram prints, footprints
of land animals, and mud cracks, formed by the
cracking open of mud exposed to the sun, are
also commonly found, indicating shallow-water
origin for the deposits Prom such evidence a
remarkably large proportion of the sedimentary
beds are known to have been formed in shallow
water While most of the rocks included in the
sedimentary group are deposited as fragments,
and hence are at first unconsolidated, the sedi-
mentary strata of the land are mainly consoli-
dated This consolidation is usually the result
of the deposit of some kind of cement by per-
colating water. Carbonate of lime, some sort of
iron, and silica are the common cements The
presence of cementing materials in the ground
water is illustrated by the replacement of woody
matter by silica, forming petrified wood At
times this cementing material gathers around
centres, such as grams of sand or fossils, form-
ing concretions*
Aside from the "bedding planes, the sedi-
mentaiy locks, as well as the other groups, aie
cios&ed by joint planes, which, with the bedding
plants, cause the lock to broak natmally into
FAULT
A B, fault plane, D Et throw, U, upthrow, Dt, downthrow
ihombic or cubical blocks, gieatly aiding in
quairymg operations Most of the -jointing in
sedimentary strata, and much of that in the
igneous and metamorphic rocks, seems to be due
to distuibances in the rock, which cause stiama
Under violent strains the rocks are often folded
and faulted, especially among mountains This
folding is sometimes very complex and amounts
to real contortion A single fold, with a dip in
OVER-THRUST FAULT
but one direction, is called a monocline, the
ordinary upaidnng of rocks is known as an anti-
cline, and the downfoldmg as a synchne These
may be symmetrical or unsymmetrical, and in
cases are even overturned or recumbent Under
favorable conditions the rock under strain
breaks in place of bending, forming faults
Some of the faults are dislocations of only a
tTNCONFOBMITY
A B, between two senes of horizontal sedimeatary rocks-
few inches, some of thousands of feet. Ordi-
narily the plane of faulting is approximately
vertical, but in some cases, a$ when folds are
overturned and the folding continues to the
point of breakage, faults are developed with
0EOLQGY
606
GEOLOGY
nearly honzontal planes Such faults are called
over-thrust faults, and the plane a thrust plane,
because the locks on the uppei side are tluust
o^ei those on the loner side
Oidinanly the sedimentaiy stiata aie hoii-
zontally deposited in the sea, and when lifted
to four* a pait of the land they are usually still
approximately horizontal With mountain dis-
turbance, howeveij the lock layeis are thrown
into inclined positions In plains and plateaus,
on the other hand, the rocks aie pie^vaihngly
hoiizontal and there is little distui bance Ow-
ing to the volcanic activity accompanying moun-
tain formation, and to the great piessure under
which the strata are placed in folding, both
volcanic and metamoiphic rocks aie common
among mountains, but are rai ely found in plains
By reason, of the instability of the eaith's crust,
land is often lovieied below sea level subsequent
to a period of denudation Then sedimentaiy
deposits are laid down on the submerged sur-
face, after which the area may be raised once
more into land The plane between the new
UNCONFORMITY
A B, between sedimentary rocks and a series of folded rocks.
deposit and the old land marks an unconformity,
and the upper rocks are said to rest uncon-
forxnably upon the lower. An unconformity
thus represents a gap in rock formation and in
the life record and is often of great use in, inter-
preting geological history See JOINTS, ANTI-
CLINE; SYNCLLNE, BIKE, FAULT, ETC
PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOLOGY
This branch of geology is specifically treated
under the heading of PHYSIOGKAPHY, so that
only the general principles will be here stated
Physiography is concerned with a study of the
forms assumed by the surface of the crust and
the origin of these forms Both on the ocean
bottom and on the continents, plains, mountains,
and volcanoes have been built, and each of these
crust forms has a history This history may
start with the origin — the plain is an old lake
bed, or a raised sea bottom, or a lava plain, etc
After its origin changes of one kind or another
have occurred, giving it its present modified
characteristics For example, riveis may have
developed upon it, or the agencies of the sea
may be at work upon it, or glaciers may have
passed over it It is a question of physiographic
geology to decide what has happened since the
origin of a given land form.
In recent years* largely as a result of the
fcrork done by Professor Davis, it has been found
that land forms normally pass through a life
history which can be stated in terms of youth,
maturity, and old age The chaiactenstics oi
a newly formed coast line, a young stream val-
ley, or* a matuie plain aie leadily seen These
aspects of physiogiaphy may be consideied
briefly by a few examples A young stream has
steep sides, because theie lias not been time
enough foi weathering to bioaden them, it is
ceitam to have falls or lapids, if the rock
materials aie of vanable hardness, because it
has not yet established a grade, and is therefore
busil\ cutting in its bed and discovering rock
in egulanties , it may have lakes, because there
has not been time enough foi the livers to fill
them, and its tributaries aie liable to be few
and its divides poorly developed, for want of
time A matuie stream has lost these chaiac-
tenstics It has many tributaries and "well-
defined divides, but no waterfalls, excepting pos-
sibly in the headwater legions Lakes aie
absent, and the valley is broad and its side
slopes model ate This is the normal develop-
ment, but accidents may occur to inteifere with
this de\ elopment Foi example, lava floods may
cross the \alley or fill it, glacial deposits may
be laid down to embarrass the stiearn, and the
land may be laised or depressed A mountain
or a plain, or any other land feature, when
ne\tly formed and hence young, \ull have, there-
foie, certain charactenstics, but with increasing
age these \\ill be changed For example, diam-
age, at ni st \ igorous, will dissect the land foi m,
making it more irregular A plain may then
become a hilly region, and a mountain chain
will become veiy rugged Weathenng and eio-
sion will later reduce the 11 regularities, caus-
ing the mountain to become more level and the
plain once more to approach a level condition
See PHYSIOGRAPHY
STEATTGRAPHIC GEOLOGY
The fossil organisms, whose study forms the
basis of paleontology or biogeology, in connec-
tion with a study of the rocks themselves, are
useful in telling of past changes in climate and
physical geography But perhaps their most
impoitant service to the geologist is as factors
in the determination of the geological age of the
rocks Their use in this respect depends upon
two important principles — one that the strata
are normally found in the ordei of their deposi-
tion, the oldest below, the highest above This
is known as the law of superposition of strata
The second principle is that, in the evolution of
life on the globe, there has been a general up-
ward progression A knowledge of the nature of
this progression, therefore, makes it possible, by
a study of the fossils of given strata, to tell in
what stage of life development they live and to
assign an age to the strata in which they are
found The use of the term "age" in this
connection naturally does not mean years
A term like the Devonian period might be con-
sidered to represent in geological history what
the term "Bronze age" means when applied
to human history It refers to a stage of life
development
Prior to the enunciation of these principles by
William Smith about a century ago, there had
been various attempts to classify the strata An
early attempt employed the three terms Pri-
mary, Secondary, and Alluvial A later attempt
elaborated this time division as follows Primi-
tive> Transition, Secondary, Tertiary, and Allu-
vial. In the classification at present widely in
GEOLOGY
607
GEOLOGY
use, the term "Tertiary" is still employed, and
"Secondary" is occasionally met in the writings
of geologists of a few yeais ago At one peiiod
hthological data were used in classifying the
stiata, on the assumption that at certain periods
widespread conditions permitted the general de-
posit of rocks with certain hthological charac-
teristics Thus, there was a Carboniferous
period, or age of coal, an Old and a New Red
Sandstone period, a Cretaceous, cr Chalk
period, an Oolitic period, etc Several of these
inherited terms are still in use, even now that
it is known that hthological characteristics
\\eie not universal With the inti eduction of
the life record it was found possible to define
periods of geological history with more definite-
ness, often placing their boundaries at uncon-
formities which marked a break in the preserva-
tion of the life lecord, thus making a good
dividing line This study has led to the neces-
sity for the introduction of new names and the
abandonment of some of the old ones. Very
commonly the new names are geographic — De-
vonian, from Devonshire, England, and Permian,
from Perm, Russia, e g - — being adopted from the
region where the study necessitating the new
name was made The use of fossils has also
made it possible to subdivide the larger divisions
of geologic history, and the names thus intro-
duced »are usually geographical and of local
significance Thus, those of Te^as differ from
those of New York, California, India, or Eng-
land But the large divisions are of world-wide
application The following table gives the
names commonly in use in America for the main
divisions .
DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGICAL TIME
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
Quarternary
Tertiary
C Cretaceous
. . { Jurassic
Paleozoic
Penman,
Carboniferous
Devonian.
( Recent
\ Pleistocene
( (Glacial period )
/ Pliocene
1 Miocene
\ Ohgocene
' Eocene
C Upper Cretaceous
j Lower Cretaceous
f Coal Measures
\ Subcarbomferous
( "Upper Devonian
Middle Devonian
( Lower Devonian •
Upper Silunan or ( Cayugan.
Silurian
Lower Silunan or
Ordovician
Cambrian
I Niagaran
( Oswegan.
{ Lorraine
j Trenton
( Canadian
( Upper Cambrian
] Middle Cambrian
( Lower Cambrian
Proterozoic
Archeozoic
( Keweenawan
< Ammikean
( Huronian
( Archean Complex
I (Laurentian and Keewatm )
In a given region a broad statement of the
stratigraphic geology would start with the old-
eat rocks, perhaps the Archean, and continue
down to the present It would treat of the fos-
sils, their characteristics, variations, and asso-
ciations, and it would include a study of the
structure, position, and relations of the rocks
themselves These studies would be applied to
an interpretation of the history of the region,
m general wd 113. detail, th$ evolution of
life, the climate and its variations, the relation
of sea and land, and their variations in relation,
the natuie of sedimentation and the conditions
accompanying it, the geogiaphic conditions and
the changes in past geography, with causes,
penods of volcanic activity and their effects,
the growth of mountains and their reduction,
in a word, all the many and complex changes
and interactions and interrelations of condi-
tions which have helped to make the geological
histoiy It is such a complicated subject that
no adequate abstiact is possible in an article of
this scope In fact, stratigraphic geology, being
a histoiy of the past, diffeis for each locality
and can be pioperly discussed only in treatises
on geology Much on stratigraphic geology is,
however, given in various articles on specific
topics See PALEONTOLOGY, PALEOBOTANY, As-
CHEAN SYSTEM, CAMBBIAN SYSTEM, SILUBIAN
SYSTEM, ETC
GLACIAL GEOLOGY
One of the last great episodes in geological
history was the advent of great ice sheets fiom
northern lands, invading and o\ei\\ helming
northern North America and northwestern Eu-
rope Because of its recency (in the Pleisto-
cene period), the recoid of tins invasion is
clear It lowered the hills, deepened the vallev^,
scoured, grooved, and polished the rocks, and
transported soil and bowlders in its onward
march, leaving them in complex deposits when
it melted back These deposits clogged the val-
leys, turning streams aside and causing them to
carve new valleys, which are now gorges with
rapids and falls, and by making dams across
the streams many lakes were ponded back in the
stream valleys In its advance the ice sheet
drove out both animal and plant life, and many
interesting effects on life were produced A
study of these records, and an interpretation
of the events which they record, are the province
of glacial geology
The time of coming, the length of duration
of the ice invasion, and the length of time since
its withdrawal, are not known in years From
25,000 to 50,000 years is the estimated time
since the withdrawal of the ice from the north-
ern part of the United States The duration of
the ice invasion was many times the length of
the post-Glacial period and was great enough
for a large amount of work to be performed
The beginning and the end of the Glacial period
are included in the Pleistocene, so that even
the time of coming is a recent geological event,
being post-Tertiary Theie is increasing evi-
dence that the Glacial period was complex, con-
sisting of several ice advances, with interme-
diate periods of deglaciation, or mterglacial
epochs
Much discussion has arisen on the question of
the cause of the Glacial period, without, how-
ever, arriving at definite results That the
land in the glaciated regions at the beginning
of the Glacial period was higher than now is
demonstrated, and it seems probable that, could
the land be once more raised to that elevation,
glaciation would again set in There is reason
to believe that the ice invasion such as marked
the Pleistocene was not a unique event Char-
acteristic glacial materials have been found in
the Permian system of South Africa, India, and
Australia, and some geologists believe that they
occur also as far back as Cambrian time What-
ever the causes may have been, there is no rea-
GEOLOGY
6oS
GEOLOGY
son to suppose they reached then single culmi-
nation during the Pleistocene period See
PEEIOD
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
A great number of geological products have
economic value, and our industrial development
of the present time is dependent upon these
products The investigation of these from the
standpoint of then occurience, ougm, and uses
belongs to the economic geologist. Of the topics
of economic geology, undoubtedly the most im-
poitant is the soil Its origin, distribution, vari-
ations in texture and chemical composition, and
the means of bettering it and of properly utiliz-
ing it, are questions of high importance Build-
ing products — the building stones, cement ma-
terials, and clays — form a second impoitant
gioup, mineral fuels, including coal, natural
gas, and peti oleum, a third group, and metallic
products, including both the precious and baser
metals, form a fourth group Besides these,
there are many lesser products — the precious
stones, abrasive materials, salt, gypsum, fer-
tilizers, etc The number of industries dependent
upon this varied list of geological products and
the vital relation of several of them to modern
civilization show the value of a thoiough and
scientific knowledge of the natme and cause of
their occmrenee It is the importance of this
economic aspect of geology that has led govern-
ments, both state and national, to support ex-
pensive geological suiveys For a scientific study
of economic geology, other aspects of geology
must also be eonsideied, consequently the whole
field of geology has profited from the need of
study of the economic aspect See OEE DEPOS-
ITS; MINING
THE HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
Greology ranks as one of the youngest of the
sciences In the latter part of the eighteenth
century the discussion was being waged with
warmth by Hutton and his followers on the one
hand., and Werner and his followers on the other
hand, as to whether arty but the most recent ig-
neous rocks were to be ascribed to other than
aqueous agencies* as Werner affirmed Catastro-
phism was rampant, and articles on that phase
of natural philosophy which dealt with the
earth history were mainly philosophical pole-
mics defending some hypothesis The clergy
took a share m the discussions, opposing any
theory of earth history which seemed at variance
with the then existing dogmas of theology It
had not yet come to be the custom in the nat-
ural sciences to gather facts patiently, weigh
them carefully, and endeavor to draw logical
conclusions from them Kather it seems to
have been the custom to take such facts as
appeared, philosophize upon them, and defend
the conclusions with vigor against all comers
and all fact
James Hutton, in 1785, sounded the first note
of the new geology when he said that he saw
"no traces of a beginning, no prospect of an
end " This generalization, BOW a foundation
stone of the geological structure, was based upon
a wide and thoughtful study and upon many
carefully gathered facts In Playfair's Illus-
trations of the Huttoman Theory are to be found
many of the principles of modern geology A
second great epoch in the history of geology
was the \\ork of William Smith at the close of
the eighteenth centuiy As has been stated
above, his woik made possible the division of
the geological record into ages based upon scien-
tific punciples His work, therefore, stands as
the foundation of stratigraphic geology The
work of Hutton and Smith made it possible for
others to follow, and quickly facts began to
accumulate and conclusions to be diawn which
gave to geology the right to be consideied as a
separate science Sir Charles Lyell, sometimes
called the founder of modern geology, gathered
these results and added to them his own, putting
them together as a system in his Principles of
Geology, still a geological classic He vigor-
ously promulgated his system, and was, without
doubt, the gieatest and most effective of geo-
logical teachers
In these earliest days of geology as a science
Americans had but little share, but before the
middle of the century James Hall, James D
Dana, and others were vigoiously at work on the
geology of the North American continent State
geological suiveys were established in many of
the States, government geological expeditions
and surveys vveie started, and, finally, the pres-
ent United States Geological Survey was or-
ganized Another event of great importance in
the histoiy of geology TV as the announcement
of Agassiz's glacial hypothesis Prior to his an-
nouncement floods, and then floods with ice-
beigs, relics of the earlier days of catastrophic
geology, were appealed to in explanation of the
phenomena of the drift Aside from its impor-
tance for the science of glacial geology, which
it originated, Agassiz's doctrine of a glacial
period was important as the destroyer of the
last remnant of catastrophism from geological
science Henceforward uniformitarianism was
accepted and for a while perhaps too thoroughly
accepted and too blindly followed, as a result
of LyelFs energetic advocacy No longer was
there any belief in the performance of geological
work in a limited period of time, but moderate
uniformity and great lapse of time were firmly
established principles Perhaps to Darwin's doc-
trine of evolution, which Agassiz did not accept,
is due the final establishment of the principle
of a great lapse of geological time. Be this as it
may, the promulgation of the doctrine of evolu-
tion was an event of great importance to geol-
ogy, -uhich made advance in certain phases of
geology possible This theory was based in part
on paleontological evidence, and geologists took
a large share in its establishment The dis-
cussion which followed its announcement re-
sembled in some respects the discussion on
geological philosophy at the end of the preced-
ing century
Out of the old natural philosophy have come
several sciences, and out of each of these have
developed several divisions, or subsciences, some
of which may be classed as distinct sciences
The field of geology is so large, and its problems
are so varied, that, as the body of fact gathered
by the army of workers has increased, it has
become necessary to subdivide, and, as in all
sciences, the tendency is ever towards narrower
and narrower specialization The generation of
geologists now passing- away could be familiar
with the whole field, as their teachers could be
naturalists, and theirs natural philosophers In
one sense this is unfortunate, but in others it
is for tatie best, because with specialization the
details of knowledge are best gathered. Some
GEOLOGY
609
GEOMETRY
day a geological Dai win will appeal with laige
enough grasp of the subject to arrange the facts
patiently gatheied in the various fields and to
see their bearing on the gieat and still unsolved
problems of geology
Bibliography GENERAL WORKS Play fan,
Illustrations of the Huttoman Theory of the
Earth (Edinburgh, 1802) , Lyell, Principles of
Geology (2d ed , London, 1875), Geikie, Text-
Book of Geology (4th ed , ib , 1903), Dana,
Manual of Geology (4th ed , New York, 1895),
Le Conte-Fairchild, Elements of Geology (5th
ed , ib , 1903), Presfrwich, Geoloqy, Chemical,
Physical, and Mtt atigt aphical (Oxfoid, 188G-
88), Heilprin, Principles of Geology (1890),
Bischof, Chemical and Physical Geology (Lon-
don, 1854-59), Scott, An Introduction to Geol-
ogy (New York, 1902) } Tair, Elementary Geol-
ogy (ib, 1897), Jukes-Browne, Handbook of
Physical Geology (ib, 1893), Geikie, Outlines
of Field Geology (3d ed , London, 1883) , Chain-
berhn and Salisbury, Geology (3 vols , 2d ed,
New York, 1907-09) 3 Kayser, Lehrbuch der all-
gemeinen Geologie (5th ed, Stuttgart, 1912,
Eng trans by Lake, London, 1893) , JDe Lau-
nay, La science geologique (Paris, 1913)
COSMICAL GEOLOGY Croll, Chmate and Time
(Edinburgh, 1885), Fisher, Physics of the
Earth's Crust (London, 1881) , Ball, The Earth's
Beginning (ib, 1901) MINERALOGY ANI> PE-
TROGRAPHY Dana, Manual of Mineralogy (3d
ed, New York, 1878) , Moses and Parsons, Min-
eralogy, Crystallography and Blowpipe Analysis
(ib, 1895), Pirsson, Rocks and Rock Minerals
(ib, 1911) ; Kosenbusch, Elements der Gestems-
lehre (Stuttgart, 1910) DYNAMIC AND STRUC-
TURAL GEOLOGY Suess, The Face of the Earth
(4 vols, Oxford, 1904-10) , Merrill, Rocks, Rock-
Weathering and Soils (New York, 1897) , Geikie,
Earth Sculpture (London, 1898) , Shaler, As-
pects of the Earth (New York, 1890) , Reade,
The Origin of Mountains (London, 1886) , Dana,
Characteristics of Volcanoes (New York, 1890) ?
Bonney, Volcanoes (London, 1898) , Russell, Vol-
canoes of North America (New York, 1897) ;
Geikie, Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain
(London, 1897) ; Hull, Volcanoes, Past and
Present (ib, 1892); Judd, Volcanoes (New
York, 1881), Milne, Earthquakes (ib, 1886),
Dutton, Earthquakes m the Light of the 'New
Seismology (ib , 1907), Knott, Physics of
Earthquake Phenomena (Oxford, 1908) , Powell,
Canyons of the Colorado (Meadville, Pa , 1895) ,
Russell, Rivers of North America (New York,
1898), id , Lakes of North America (Boston,
1894) , Hovey, Celebrated American Caverns
(Cincinnati, 1882), Darwin, Coral Reefs (Lon-
don, 1891), Dana, Corals and Coral Islands
(New York, 1890) PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOLOGY
Gilbert, Geology of the Henry Mountains
(Washington, 1877) , Davis, Physical Geography
(Boston, 1900) , Tarr, Elementary Physical
Geography (New York, 1895) ; Salisbury, Physi-
ography (ib, 1909), Geikie, The Scenery of
Scotland (London, 1887), Avebury (Lubbock),
Scenery of Switzerland (ib , 1896) STRATI-
GRApnicAL GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY- Zittel-
Eastman, Text-Book of Paleontology (London,
1900) , Nicholson and Lydekker, Manual of
Paleontology (London, 1889). GLACIAL GEOL-
OGY Geikie, The Great Ice Ape (New York,
1895) ; Wright, The Ice Age w Worth America
(ib, 1890) , Russell, Glaciers of North America
(Boston, 1897) , Bonney, Ice Work (New York,
1896) ; Penck and Bruckner, Die Alpen tn JEfce-
-eilalte) (Leipzig, 1901-09) ECONOMIC GFOL
OGY Phillips, Treatise on Ore Deposits (London
1896) , Kemp, Ore Deposits of the United States
and Canada (3d ed , New York, 1901), Lmd-
gien, bimetal Deposits (ib, 1913), Ries, Eco-
nomic Geology of the United States ( ib , 1905 )
HISIOBY OF GEOLOGY Geikie, The Founders of
Geology (London, 1897) , Zittel, ftistoty of Geol-
ogy and Paleontology (New York, 1901) GEO-
LOGICAL REPORTS AND PERIODICALS The govern-
ments in both America and Europe have geolog-
ical buieaus which aie actively engaged in the
in\ estimation of geological pioblems In the
United States this buieau, known as the United
States Geological Survey, publishes reports, bul-
letins, and monogiaphs of great value There are
also geological suiveys in operation in the differ-
ent Statea Among the leading geological jour-
nals in America may be mentioned Journal of
Geology (Chicago) , Economic Geology (Lancas-
ter, Pa ) , American Journal of Science (New
Haven), Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America (Washington) In England the lead-
ing journals aie the Geologist (London) and
Quarterly Joutnal of the Geological Society
(ib ) The leading Geiman periodicals are
Neues Jahrbuch fur Geologie, Mmeralogie und
Palaontologie (Stuttgart) and Zeitschnft fur
praktische Geologie (ib )
GE'OMAN'CY (from Gk 797, ge, the earth,
and pavrela, manteia, divination) Divination
by means of signs from the earth See SUPER-
STITION
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS See LIGHT
GEOMETRIC MEAH* If three quantities,
a, 6, c, are in geometric progression, & is called
the geometric mean between a and c , e g , 2, 4, 8
are three such numbers, 2 being the constant
multiplier, and 4 is the geometric mean From
the nature of the series,
T = -J or
o c
» = oc, and &— Vac.
The positive value of the square root is usually,
but not necessarily, taken as the geometric mean
when a and c are positive, the negative value
being taken when a and c are negative, eg, the
geometric mean between 2, 8 is V~16 = + 4, but
between — 2, — 8, it is — Y~16 = — 4. The
several terms of a geometric series which he
between two numbers, as a, Z> are called the
geometric means between a, I The geometric
mean of n positive real quantities is the posi-
tive value of the nth root of their product , e g ,
the geometric mean of 8, 27, 64 is V~8 27 64
= 24
GKEOMETBIC PBOGRESSIOJST See SEKIES
GEOM^ETBID MOTH See MEASUEING
WORM
GKEOM'ETIIY (Lat geometna, from Gk. TCW-
/terpla, geometna, from ye&^Tptjs, geometres,
geometer, from yij, ge, earth -f- f^erpoy, metron,
measure) The science of form Geometric con-
cepts arise from the consideration of forms of
actual objects, just as numerical concepts arise
from the consideration of collections of objects,
for example, the idea of a cube results from ob-
serving that the corresponding physical object,
as a die, occupies a certain part of space This
implies the first geometric assumption, viz, that
space is divisible In this case it is divided into
two parts, that within the cube and that outside
of it Geometry considers only the former, the
space occupied by a substance. This space is
GEOMBTBY
610
GEOMETRY
called a geometric solid or simply a solid The
boundary between tlie space and that outside of
it is a surface A surface, being itself an ele-
ment of space, is also dmsible, and the boundary
between two paits of it is called a line A line,
in tum, is divisible by a point The number,
comparative size, and position of these elements
unite to make the concept cube With accurate
ideas of point, line, surface, solid, it is easy to
imagine a world of geometric nguies formed by
their combinations It is then only necessary
to add concise definitions and axioms (qv ) to
found a system of geometry But the -validity
of these assumed piemises must determine the
validity and scope of the resulting science — a
fact forcibly exemplified in the case of Euclidean
geometry
Geometry was developed by the ancients, es-
pecially by the Greeks, to a high degree But
their constructions and solutions in elementary
geometry were geneially effected by the use only
of the straight edge and compasses (instruments
corresponding to the geometric elements, straight
line and circle) Their achievements were there-
fore limited, and such problems as the tri-
section of an angle, the duplication of a cube,
and all those which cannot be expressed by
equations of the first or second degree, remained
unsolved until the introduction of other instru-
ments The ^ord "geoiuetiy" signifies land
measure, and Herodotus attributes the origin of
this science to the necessitv of resuiveymg the
Egyptian fields following each inundation of
the Nile He lefers to the plan of taxation en-
forced by Sesofetns (Rameses II), which re-
quired a survey of the land Proclus also con-
firms the Egyptian origin of geometry by say-
ing that Thales introduced this art from that
country into Greece The greatest among the
disciples of Thales ^vas Pythagoras, who formu-
lated deductive geometry and discovered many
important propositions Among the illustrious
successors of Pythagoras were Anaxagoras,
CEnopideS, Bryson, Antiphon, Hippocrates of
Chios (who duplicated the cube, but not by ele-
mentary geometry), Zenodorus, Democntus, and
Theodorus. To this list should be added the
name of Plato, who introduced a new epoch in
the science by formulating the method of geo-
metric analysis and emphasizing the necessity
of accurate definition Menaechmus, a contem-
porary of Plato, discovered the conic sections
Among those who studied at the Academy of
Hato were Budoxus, who contributed extensively
to tie theory of proportion and the method of
exhaustions, and to whom are due many the-
orems found in Euclid's Elements, and Aristotle,
who improved many geometric definitions The
name of Euclid (qv) marks another epoefc in
the history of geometry Euclid's work is re-
markable, not for its originality, but for its
simplicity and perfection as a logical system,
based as it was on the discoveries of his prede-
cessors This work of 15 books, called the Ele-
ments, has for over 2000 years formed the basis
of elementary instruction in geometry wherever
the science has been taught For the develop-
ment of the geometry of conic sections we are
indebted to Apollonras, of Perga, and to Arehi-
medes The later Greeks also cultivated geom-
etry enthusiastically, as is attested by Nico-
medes and Hipparchus, and in the Christian era
by Ptolemy and Pappus
The elementary plane geometry ordinarily
studied in the American schools is based directly,
or indirectly through the work of Legendre, upon
Euclid's Elements Of this classic work, the
first four and the sixth "books" aie devoted to
plane geometry, i e , geometry in which the fig-
ures can all be imagined m one plane, even
though, for purposes of superposition, they may
be imagined as taken out of that plane in the
comse of the discussion Euclid's treatment of
solid geometry, in which the figuies aie imagined
as occupying thiee dimensions, was so meagre
that the element aiy treatment of the subject
to-day diflers quite radically from that in the
Elements One of the principles of Euclid's
work now most often violated is the attempt to
avoid hypothetical constructions For Euclid
seeks to show how to construct each, of the
figures needed before he makes use of it Thus,
since it is impossible to trisect a general angle
by the use of the compasses and the unmaiked
straight edge, Euclid would have been estopped
fiom asking such a question as, Do the arms
of an angle, and the two lines which trisect the
angle, trisect a transversal of these lines ? At
piesent it is more common to assume that the
necessary figures can be constituted and see
what propositions can be pioved from certain
assumed postulates and axioms Later, the
question of the figures admitting of construc-
tion by the compasses and straight edge is con-
sidered by itself Euclid's woik has, until veiy
lecently, been the leading textbook on geometry
in the schools of England and her colonies, but
it has long since given way to a more modern
treatment in most other countries and of late
has been abandoned as the standard textbook
in England
The basis of ancient geometry as set forth in
the Elements went practically unchallenged un-
til the nineteenth century The renewed interest
in the science, growing out of the Renaissance,
inspired the investigation of Euclid's assump-
tions and led mathematicians to seek to demon-
strate the fifth postulate or twelfth axiom
(given by Brill as the eleventh), viz, that two
unlimited straight lines intersect on that side of
a transversal on which the sum of the interior
angles is less than a straight angle Among the
eminent mathematicians who sought to show the
dependence of this proposition upoi those pre-
ceding it were Legendre and Gauss Lobachev-
sky and Bolyai were the first to construct a
geometry independent of Euclid's assumption
and thus to found the so-called non-Euclidean
geometry Then at once followed a great ad-
vance towards exploring the new field, and from
the researches of Riemann, Helmholtz, and Bel-
trami, it is concluded that 10 of the Euclidean
assumptions are valid for all geometry, but that
the one just mentioned and "two straight lines
[or, more generally, two geodetic lines] include
no space," are limited to the properties of par-
ticular space Riemann and Helmholtz formu-
lated assumptions for a geometry in space of
w-ply manifoldness and with constant curvature
and observed that on the sphere, whose curva-
ture is constant and positive, the sum of the
angles of a triangle is less than a straight
angle, this characterizing the space of the
geometry of Bolyai and Lobachevsky Klein
has designated these three geometries respec-
tively, the elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic
Starting with this broader view, many of the
leading mathematicians of the last quarter of a
century, including Cayley, Lie, Klein, Paseh,
F^ed|er7 and Jtfansion, have given
attention and made valuable contributions to the
subject of geometry
Without questioning the validity of Euclidean
geometry, there ha\e giown out of it in modern
times two great systems — an analytic, or coor-
dinate (see ANALYTIC GEOMETRY), and a syn-
thetic, or "modern/1 geometry The latter
embraces descriptive and projective geometry,
although systems of coordinates have been in-
troduced also in the second of these subjects
Descriptive Geometry This has for its ob-
ject the representation of solids upon two planes
at right angles to each other, these planes then
being, for convenience, flattened out into a single
plane This may be done in a variety of ways,
but the original method is that of parallel rays
perpendicular to the planes and known as the
P//T"
SLD
orthographic, or orthogonal, projection These
projections are commonly made, one on a hori-
zontal plane (called the plane of the figure),
and one on a vertical plane (called the eleva-
tion) , eg, take a circle as the given figure, and
let H V be the planes of projection intersecting
in X JT' Draw PP2 P'P'2, perpendicular to H",
and PPj, P'P'i perpendicular to V The rays
from P determine the plane perpendicular to
XX' at P3 and those from P' determine a plane
peipendicular to XX' at P'3 Continuing in this
way, the circle is projected into an ellipse on H
and into an ellipse on V The plane V may now
be revolved about XX' as an axis through 90°,
causing the projection P2P'3 to form P4P'4, and
thus representing two projections of the circle
in the same plane This process is entirely re-
versible, from which it is clear that a figure
may be constructed from its projections De-
scriptive geometry is a powerful agent in
solving the problems of mechanics and the
constructive arts , eg, in the planning of ma-
chinery, arches, and conduits
Projective Geometry As the name suggests,
this investigates the properties of figures by
means of projections The fundamental idea is
that of transforming a plane figure into a plane
figure by means of protective pencils, or three-
dimensional figures into three-dimensional fig-
ures by means of a sheaf of rays In the broader
sense projective geometry also includes the
study of the corresponding forms of vanous
dimensions, eg, the axial pencil (planes with a
common axis) corresponds to the pencil of rays
(lines with a common point) If two ranges of
points, as /i, B, 0 and Af, #', C' ,
or as A, B, O and A", J3", C" in
the accompanying figure, are sucli that the lines
which join con esponding points concur, as at
8, the two ranges are said to be in perspective,
but A, B, C and A", B", C" are said to be pio-
jective The anharmonic ratio (see ArOLAB-
MONIC RATIO) of projective ranges is constant,
ie, (A"B"G"D") = (ABOD) This property
forms the basis of the general definition of pro-
jective plane figures, which may be stated thus
Any two plane figures in which for every point
of the one theie is a point in the other, and for
every line in the one there is a line in the other,
and so related that the anharmonic ratios of
any corresponding ranges of four points or cor-
responding pencils of four lines are equal, are
said to be projective
Hypergeometry Generalization has led
geometers to imagine other spaces than that in
which we live and to seek the properties of fig-
ures existing in space of more than thiee di-
mensions The result has been the building up
of a geometry of hyperspace or of n dimensions
Reasoning in this geometry is possible only by
the use of symbols Since a line segment, i e ,
a figure of one dimension, is lepresented by an
algebraic quantity of degree 1, such as a, since
a square, having two dimensions, is represented
by the algebraic expression #2, and, finally,
since a cube, having three dimensions, is repre-
sented by the algebraic expression a? — the idea
naturally suggests itself that some figure of
four dimensions corresponds to the symbol &*,
and that, in general, some figuie of n dimensions
corresponds to the symbol an The fact that four
dimensions cannot be represented in the three-
dimensional space in which we live has little
bearing upon the idea itself, a three-dimensional
figure (a solid) cannot completely be repre-
sented on a plane, and yet mathematical thought
involving the concept of three-dimensional space
would remain logical and useful even if all
actual figures were only two-dimensional
The idea of the fourth dimension thrusts it-
self upon the mind even more prominently in
studying rectangular coordinates in analytic
geometry, ax = 6 represents a point, one axis
being necessary, ax + 6i/ = c represents a line,
two axes being necessary , and one + by -f- cz = d
represents a plane, three axes being necessary
This suggests that ax + "by + cz + dw = e may
represent a three-dimensional figure in a four-
dimensional space It is evident that, just as we
can draw in a plane the nets of the five regular
bodies, we ought to be able, by analogy, to model
in three-dimensional space the solid nets of all
the six structures of four-dimensional space cor-
responding to the five regular bodies This has
been done by Schlegel the models being msude by
Brill, of Darmstadt The figure corresponding to
the square and cube may be described as fol-
lows It is bounded by 8 cubes, just as the cube
is bounded by 6 squares, it has 16 corners, 24
squares, and 32 edges, so that from every corner
4 edges, 6 squares, and 4 'cubes proceed, and
from every edge 3 squares and 3 cubes Thus,
reasoning by analogies, mathematicians have
GEOMETBY
612
PLANT
gradually developed higher geometnc systems
and have succeeded in greatly extending the
scope of geometry The idea of highei dimen-
sions has been bi ought somewhat into disiepute
owing to the effoits of the followers of Professor
Zollner, of Leipzig, to explain the phenomena of
spiritualism by making the fourth-dimensional
\voild the abode of spirits Neveitheless, mathe-
maticians agree as to the great practical value
of the idea, inasmuch as it leads to important
simplifications of mathematical language, and
especially inasmuch as by its perfect geneiahty
it gives" lemaikable clearness to the concepts
of real geometry A reasonable mathematical
treatment of the subject may be found in Schu-
bert's essay on the "Fourth" Dimension/' in his
Mathematical Essays and Recreations (Chicago,
1898), and in Manning, The Foutth Dimension
(New York, 1910)
The phases of modern geometry are closely in-
terwoven in their historic as well as in their
logical development Monge, the father of mod-
ern geometry, published his Geometrie descrip-
tive in 1800, five years later the woik of his
pupil, Lacroix, appeared, Essais sur Venseigne-
ment en general, et sur celui des mathematiques
en particuher Following his works weie those
of Hachette (1812, 1818, 1821), and later Leroy
(1842), Ohviei (1845), De la Gouinene (1860)
In Germany leading contributors ha\e been
Ziegler (1843), Anger (1858), Fiedlei (3d ed ,
1883-88), and Wiener (1884-87) Monge did
not confine his labors to desciiptive geometiy,
he set forth the fundamental theorem of recip-
rocal polars, though not in modern language,
gave some treatment of ruled surfaces, and ex-
tended the theory of polars to quadrics Monge
and his school concerned themselves especially
with the theoiy of form, but Desargues, Pascal,
and Carnot treated chiefly the metrical relations
of figures. Carnot investigated those relations
in particular connected with the theory of trans-
versals, in his works Geom$trie de position
(1803), Theory des transvermles (1806). The
present geometry of position (Geometrie der
Lage) has little in common with Carnot' s
Geometrie de position,
Although Newton had discovered that all
curves of the third order can be derived by cen-
tral projection from five fundamental types, the
origin of protective geometry is generally at-
tributed to Poneelet (1822) He first made
prominent the power of the protective relations,
and the principle of continuity in research.
Mobius followed Poneelet, making much use of
anharmonic ratios in his Barycentmscher Oalcul
(1827) The anharmome point and line prop-
erties of conies have been further elaborated by
Brianchon, Chasles, Steiner, and Von Staudt
Plucker applied the theory of transversals to
curves, and Salmon discovered the so-called cir-
cular points at infinity Brianchon (1806) ex-
tended the application of Desargues's theory of
polars To Gergonne (1825-26) is due the prin-
ciple of duality, the most important after that
of continuity in modern geometry Gergonne
TV as the first to use the word "class" and ex-
plicitly defined class and degree (order), show-
ing their dual relation He and Ghasles were
the first to study scientifically surfaces of higher
order Steiner (1832) gave the first complete
discussion of the projective relations between
ranges and pencils and laid the foundation for
modern pure geometry In 1848 Steiner showed
that the theory of polars can serve as a founda-
tion for the stud> ot plane cuiveb, independent
of the use of coordinates He mtioduced the
noteworthy cuives "\\hicli now bear the names
of himself, Hesse, and Cayley Chasles, in his
Aper^ii histowque (1837), popularized the new
geometry and inti educed the name "homo
graphic'*1 and extended the homogiaphic theory
Ton Staudt (1847, 1856-60) set foith a com-
plete pure geometiic system in which metric
geometry finds no place Cieniona (1862, 1875),
To\\nsend (1863), and Clifloid did much to ex-
tend the knowledge of modern geometry
Bibliography A few of the more impoitant
works of reference are Reye, Geometue der Lage
(Leipzig, 1882-86, Eng trans by Holgate, New
York, 1898) , Clebsch, Torlesungen uber Geo~
wetne (Leipzig, 1876), Poneelet, Ttaite des
proptietcs projeotwes des figures (Pans, 1822) ,
Wiener, Geschtchte der daistellenden Geometiie
(Leipzig, 1884) , Cremona, Projective Geometry,
tians by Leudesdorf (2d ed , Oxfoid, 1893),
Russell, "nssay on the Foundations of Geometry
(Cambridge, 1897), Chasles, Apei<;u histonque
(3d ed, Paris, 1889) and Ttaite de geometrie
supcneioe (ib, 1852) , Smith, 'History of Mod-
em Mathematics/' in Merrimaii and Woodwaid,
HigJiei Mathematics (New York, 1896) ,
Chasles, Rapport silt Ics ptogies de la geometrie
(Pans, 1870) , Tannery, La geometrie grecque
(ib, 1887), Ccisey, Sequel to Euclid (5th ed ,
Dublin, 1888), Rouche* et Comber rousse, Traite
de geometrie (7th ed , Paris, 1900), Henrici
and Tieutlein, Lehvbuch der Elementar-Geome-
ttie (3d ed, Leipzig, 1901), Hilbeit, Founda-
tion of Geometry, trans by Townsend (Chicago,
1902) , Klein, Famous Problems of Elementary
Geometry (Boston, 1896) , Low, Practical Ge-
ometry and Graphics (New York, 1912) , Tracy,
Descriptive Geometry (ib, 1914) , Hatton, Prin-
ciples of Protective Geometry (ib, 1914) Con-
cerning the methods of geometrie reasoning, see
ANALYSIS
GEOPH'AGY (from Gk yij, ge, earth +
<frayelvy phagew, to eat), or EARTH EATING The
habit of eating clay or other earthy substances
is widespread, having been noticed among the
Indians of Bolivia and Peru, the Javanese, Per-
sians, Hindus, Europeans, Afucans, and certain
inhabitants along the southern Appalachians in
the United States This habit is susceptible of
a number of explanations The Hopi Indians
of Arizona, eg, prepare the small tubers of
the wild potato (Solanum jamesu) for eating
by mixing them with clay, the object being to
reduce the acridity of the root The Dyaks
take along with them in their canoes a supply
of red ochre and oleaginous clay to eke out their
rations, just as the Veddahs of Ceylon in time of
famine eat decayed wood mixed with honey, in
these cases the bulk of the food appeasing
hunger by giving a sensation of fullness to the
stomach
Other earth eaters allege that clay improves
the complexion, it undoubtedly imparts the
fhastly sallowness declaring a clay eater Deni-
er explains geophagy as perhaps due to the
necessity of supplying the need of mineral sub-
stances which induces the eating of salt It is
probable that in the majority of cases the habit
is due to morbid or nervous conditions, such as
cause biting of the finger nails, chewing slate
pencils, etc The habit of geophagy is fatal,
causing death by dysentery or dropsy
(jMFMfLs) PLANT §ee
GKBOFHYTE
6i3
GEOPCOTXKA
GE'OPHYTE (from Gk 7^ 03, eaitli -f <pvr6v,
phyton, plant) A plant whose perennial oigans
live under or close to the ground The term
"geophilous" has been applied to such plants
The majority of geophytes have two distinct life
aspects, corresponding to the periods of greater
and lesser physiological activity In the so-called
growth period (summer in the lughei latitudes,
GBOPHTTB
A spring beauty (Claytoma), showing the -underground
corm, the other (aerial) portions are present only a small
part of the year
the rainy season m arid low latitudes), ge-
ophytes are conspicuous landscape features, by
reason of aerial organs of various kinds, such
as aerial stems, leaves, flowers, in the so-called
resting period, however (winter in the higher
latitudes, the dry season in arid low latitudes),
they are inconspicuous by reason of the relative
absence of aerial orgaris The most extreme
geophytes are those whose organs are entirely
beneath the soil during periods of lesser activ-
ity; examples of this class are bulbous plants
(such as onions and lilies), plants with corms
(such as Indian turnip and spring beauty), and
lootsfcock plants (such as sweet flag and bracken
fern) In the cases cited the entire plant is
often hidden from oidmary view during the
resting season One may also include in this
category plants (like the canot and dock)
whose stems die down to the root at the close
of a season of active growth , such plants
usually have prominent roots The geophytic
habit is also shown, though to a less extreme
degree, by ordinal y lawn grasses and by clover,
in these and in similar plants the perennating
oigans are close to the soil rathei than beneath
it Biennials, such as mullein and evening
pumrose, have rosettes closely appiessed to the
soil m the winter or dry penod, while in the
growing penod erect stems are sent up into the
an In most geophytes reserve foods are stored
in the undei ground parts, and in many cases
these parts are greatly enlaiged, ordinary bulbs,
roots like turnips and beets, and potato tubers
illustiate this habit The chief advantage of the
geophytic habit in high latitudes is doubtless
the attainment of protection from excessive cold
and injuries consequent thereon, in and regions
protection from excessive transpiration is se-
cuied by a sojourn m the soil
GEOPOiKT'ICI (a modem term, Lat in form,
based on a (hypothetical) Gk form rewinm/coi,
OeoponiLoi denoting those who have to do with
working the soil, fiom 777, ge, earth, and iropos,
ponos, toil) A Greek term for the Greek and Ro-
man writers on agriculture, a similar Latin term
is Script ores Rei Rustics ' Among earlier Greek
writers on agriculture may be mentioned Democ-
ritus, Aristotle, and Theophrastus , Xenophon
praised Agriculture in his (Economicus and in
his Memorabilia Democritus' treatise, TLepl
rewp7ias, Peri Georgian, was much used by later
wiiters Many Greek writers of the Alexandnan
period dealt with agriculture, their names appear
in the works of Varro and Columella, named be-
low (See also GEOPONIKA ) For the Roman
attitude towards agriculture, see AGRICULTURE ,
ROME Consult Cicero, De Officus, i, 150-151,
and Horace, Carmina, 11, 15, with the notes of
the editors on these passages By order of the
Senate the work of Mago the Carthaginian on
agricultuie was translated into Latin Cato
the Censor wrote a work called De Agncultura;
Varro wrote Rerum Rusticarum Libn Tres Ver-
gil's Georgics ranks high m this field See
HraiNUS, GAIUS JULIUS, COLUMELLA, PALLA-
DITJS, RTJTIUUS TAUEUS ^MILIANUS , AGRIOUL-
TUEE Consult the edition of the Roman Scrip-
tores Rei Rustic® by J J Schneider (4 vols ,
Leipzig, 1794-97, 3d ed , 1819-21), and Mager-
stedt, Bilder aus der romischen Landwirtschaft
(5 vols., Sonderhausen, 1858-62)
GE'OPO^IKA (Gk. yeuvoviKa, nom pi
neut. of y€(aTrovLK6sf geopomkos, relating to agri-
culture) A Greek treatise on agriculture It
received its present form in the tenth century
from an unknown hand, at the request of the
Emperor Constantine VII ( Porphyrogemtus ) ,
to whom it is dedicated The basis of this work
was a compilation made in the sixth or early
seventh century by a certain Schohasticus Cas-
sianus Bassus, from the earlier works of Vinda-
rms Anatohus, of Berytus, and Didymus, of the
fourth or fifth century Recent researches tend
to show that the ultimate source of the work is
the Latin translation of a treatise, on agricul-
ture by the Carthaginian Magq; this translation
was made by Cassxus Dionymus, of tFtica* in the
first century B a The names of some of the
GKEOUGE I
614
G-EOHG-E II
earlier authors to whom refeience is made aie
Afiicanus, Apulems, Damogeron, Democritus,
Diophanes, Florentinus, Leontmus, Pamphilus,
Paxamuss, the Qumtihi, Varro, and Zoroasties
The 20 parts into which the tieatise is divided
contain a mass of rules and directions bearing
on the daily life of the husbandman Syrian,
Arabian, and Aimeman tianslations of this
work are extant The best editions are by Niclas
(Leipzig, 1781) and Beckh (ib , 1895) Con-
sult Krmnbacher, Byzantimsche Littet atui ge-
sGhichte (Munich, 1897), pp 261 ff, and the
\\orks there referred to, Wellman, in Heimes
(Berlin, 190S) See GEOPONICI
GKBOR&E I (GEOBGE Louis) (1660-1727)
The first Hanoverian King of Great Britain and
Ii eland (1714-27) He TV as the son of Ernest
Augustus, first Electoi of Hanover, and Sophia,
granddaughter of James I of England, and TV as
born at Hanover on March 28, 1G60 Entering
the army at the age of 15, he distinguished
himself by his bravery His morals, however,
were as loose as those of his contemporaues of
equal rank, intrigues and mistresses made his
marnage with his cousin, Sophia Dorothea, un-
fortunate. On the death of his father, in Janu-
ary, 1698, he became Elector of Hanovei When
his mother, at an advanced age, ^as declared
heiress to the throne of England by the Act of
Settlement of 1701 George diew near to Marl-
borough and the Whigs, on whom he rehed for
the suppoit of his claim In 1705 he became
Duke of Celle, and in 1706 his daughter was
married to Frederick William of Prussia At
the death of Queen Anne he succeeded to the
crown without difficulty and reached England
Sept 18, 1714 Unlike William III, who had
aimed to reconcile opponents by calling men of
both parties to the ministry, George, a far in-
ferior man, employed Whigs only as advisers
Utterly ignorant of English character and even
of the language, and lacking sympathy with his
new subjects, he aimed to exploit England for
the benefit of his German electorate Another
ground for his unpopularity was the greed of his
favorites and mistresses, who sold offices, great
and small George had little to do personally
with the government, which was carried on by
his ministers — at first by Stanhope and Town-
shend and later by Walpole The Jacobite in-
surrection, of 1715 was easily suppressed, the
leaders were put to death, and about 1000 rebels
were transported to the plantations After this
event George's frequent visits to Hanover made
him still more unpopular, and even while he
was in England lie rarely attended the cabinet,
as he could not understand the discussions
For these reasons power came rapidly into the
hands of Walpole During one of the absences
(1720) , the South Sea bubble burst, and the mis-
fortune was naturally laid at the King's door,
the company was alleged to have paid great
bribes to the Duchess of Kendall, his favorite
mistress Thereupon some advised George to
abdicate in favor of the Prince of Wales , others
urged him to seize absolute control of the gov-
ernment Without permitting him to resort
to either expedient, Walpole, supported by
Townshend, brought the government safely
through the crisis Sometime afterward the de-
mand of Spain for the restoration of Gibraltar
and of ^Minorca (1725) led to a short war with
that country Admiral Hosier commanded an
unsuccessful expedition to the Spanish posses^-
SIGHS in America (1726), but in 1727 peace was
signed The King died of apoplexy on a journey
to Hanovei on June 11, 1727 He had two legiti-
mate childicn — George, T\ho succeeded him, and
Sophia Doiothea Commonplace in ability as
well a s in peisonal appearance, Geoige neverthe-
less ga\e England a \\ise foreign policy, and
though he \\ as by nature autoei atic, the circum-
stances of his reign favoied the growth of con-
stitutional principles
Bibliography Ha\emann, Geschichte dei
Lande Braunschueig und Lunebwg, vol in
(Gottmgen, 1857), Marlotie, Bert? age sur
Geschichte des BtaunsGhweig-Luneburgisclien
Ilauses und Hofes (Hanover, 1860-62) , Klopp,
Fall des liaises Stuart, ix-xiv (Vienna, 1881-
S8)3 Coxe, Life of Walpole (London, 1808),
TV light, England under the House of Hanover
(ib, 18-JtS), Thackeiay, Four Georges (London,
1S61), tthich desciibes the manners, moials, etc,
of the time English Historical Review (ib ,
18SG) , Melville, The First Geoige in Eanover
and England (ib, 1908} , Chaner, George I and
the Xojtk&n War (ib, 1909)
(3-EOEGE II (GEOKGE AUGUSTUS) (1683-
17CO) King of Great Biitai* and Ireland,
Elector of Hanover (1727-60) The son of the
piecedmg he was born at Herrenhauscn, Han-
ovei, Nov 10 (N s ), 16S3 After his mothers
divoice in 1694, he lived with his grandparents,
who superintended his education. On Sept 2,
1705, he married the Margrave of Anspach's
daughter, Carolina Wilhelmina His code of
moials was on a par with his father's, but his
\\ife gained considerable influence ovei him by
condoning his infidelities, and her death, in 1737,
which was considered a national loss, he genu-
inely deplored In 1708 he joined Marlborough's
aimy and showed conspicuous bravery at Oude-
narde, wliere he narrowly escaped death At his
father's accession to the throne he was created
Prince of Wales Owing to his affection for his
mother, he had never been on good terms with
his father, who connived at a plot for his forci-
ble disappearance. Their mutual repugnance
increased when the King, during his visits to
Hanover, was averse to appointing the Prince
guardian of the realm The Prince supported
the opposition party, but at his father's death,
in 1727, was persuaded by the Queen to retain
Walpole in po^er Walpole's administration
was distinguished by the preseivation of peace,
and his unwillingness to declare wai with. Spain
led to his resignation in 1742 He was suc-
ceeded by Oarteret, who favored a war policy
Anxious for the safety of Hanover, the King
made an alliance with Maria Theresa of Austria
in the Silesian Wars, and at Dettingen, in
1743, commanded the victorious army in per-
son The Young Pretender's rebellion in 1745-
46 was suppressed at Culloden by the Duke
of Cumberland, the King's second son Eng-
land joined Prussia in the Seven Years' War,
which brought about the downfall of the colonial
power of France. In 1757, by the victory of
Plassey, Olive laid the foundations of the Indian
Empire, and in 1759 Wolfe's victory on the
heights above Quebec achieved the conquest of
Canada In 1749 the funds rose above par,
and Pelham effected an appreciable reduction
of the national debt by reducing the mteiest
from 4 to 3 per cent George II, although a
mediocrity and possessed of an obstinate tem-
per, was always sagacious enough to perceive the
superior wisdom and, prudence in -the counsels
offered by his ministers and acceded to their ad-
GEORGE III
615
GEORGE III
vice, to the material benefit and industrial prog-
ress of the country At the end of his reign Pitt
conducted the affairs of the nation George
II died suddenly from rupture of the heart, Oct
25, 1760, at Kensington Consult Hervey,
Memous of the Reign of George II (London,
1854) , Walpole, Memoirs of the Last Ten Yeais
of the Reign of Qeotge II (ib, 1822, 1846),
Schmucker, Hist ot y of the Four Qeoiges (New
Yoik, 1860) , Thackeray, Four Qeorges (London,
1861), McCarthy History of the Four Georges
and William IV (ib, 1884-1901), Jesse, Mem-
oirs of the Court of England from the Revolu-
tion of 1688 to the Death of George II (ib,
1843), Co^e, Memoes of the Life and Admin-
istration of Sir Robert Walpole (ib, 1798) , id,
Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole (ib, 1802) ,
Wilkms, Caroline the Illustrious (New York,
1904) , Lucas, Qeoige II and Ms Ministers (Lon-
don, 1010)
GEORGE III (GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK)
(1738-1820) King of Great Britain and Ire-
land (1760-1820) He TV as bom on June 4,
1738, and succeeded his giandfather, George II.
His father was Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales,
and his mother was Augusta, dauglitei of the
Duke of Saxe-Gotha His early education was
the occasion of much quarreling between his
father and grandfather and suffered m conse-
quence After his father's death, in 1751, he
was kept in seclusion and educated in a very
narrow way by his mother and her favorite
counselor, the Earl of Bute He learned to speak
French and German, but knew little Latin and
less Greek His English was poor in conversa-
tion and worse in writing He spelled badly
and had no taste for literature Nevertheless,
he began the famous collection of books and
manuscripts which, under the name of King's
Library, is one of the greatest treasures of the
British Museum, and he had a genuine appre-
ciation of music
George III had but average ability, but more
than average obstinacy Although a great stick-
ler for formalities and royal dignity, he was
simple and economical in his tastes, which were
emphatically those of the middle class He had
a taste for farming and was fond of petty me-
chanical contrivances, and was often derisively
called "Farmer George" and "the royal button,
maker " He was sincerely pious and, unlike his
immediate predecessors and successors, was
highly moral He married in 1761 the Princess
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the Duke of Meck-
lenburg, and became the father of 15 children
He was a man of great courage and in momenta
of danger preserved the greatest dignity At
the time of the Lord George Gordon nots his
was the only clear head in the Council, and it
was by his advice that the riots were suppressed
George III was perhaps the most important
figure m the British constitutional development
of the eighteenth century In his boyhood his
mother had instilled exalted notions of the loyal
prerogative into his mind The Earl of Bute,
too, emphasized these tendencies His plan was
to do away with the party system as it then
existed, and to resume the powers of the crown
which had been appropriated by the cabinet
ministry From the time of the accession of the
house of Hanover the Whig oligarchy had con-
trolled Parliament, and by their chosen minis-
ters ruled the King George III designed to
break up thaa oligarchy and to make himself
the ruler. He differed from the Stuarts in that
lie proposed to rule constitutionally, with the
consent of Parliament, and from the Pitts in
that he wished to overthrow the oligarchy by
exercise of the royal power, instead of appealing
to public sentiment He reassumed the crown
pationage which had passed into the hands of
the cabinet and by it organized a group of
politicians upon whom he could depend The
"King's friends" thus became an important fac
tor in politics He did not hesitate to use cor-
inption to gain his ends, both in geneial elec
lions and in seeming parliamentary votes, ac-
cording to the custom of his age Although
at times the nation disapproved of his policy,
yet in the mam it supported his measures and
the Whig oligaichy was finally broken
The histoiy of the reign of George III is a
description of the stiuggle he made to put his
political theories into practice After the fall of
Pitt, under whom England had entered upon a
brilliant career of victory and conquest in the
Seven Years3 War, he succeeded in 17G1 111 intro-
ducing some of his own friends into the Whig
ministry of Newcastle, and on the letirement of
the latter in the following yeai lie made Bute,
Ins favoiiLe, Prime Minister But there was
great prejudice against Bute, on account of his
Scottish nationality and well-known opinions
on the royal prerogative He was not a man of
sufficient ability to overcome this prejudice and,
recognizing his failure, resigned in 17C3 Mean-
while the Whig party had broken into three
factions, and the King invited George Grenville,
the leader of those whose opinions differed least
from his own, to form a new cabinet He ap-
proved of the prosecution and exile of the Radical
leader Wilkes by Grenville, and the Stamp Act
(17G5) taxing the American Colonies But being
unable to tolerate Grenville's rudeness and dic-
tatorial attitude, he dismissed him and reluc-
tantly admitted the Rockmglaam ministry, which
represented the most liberal of the Whig factions
and the only English party that made no use ot
parliamentary coiruption Their liberal meas^
ures, notably the repeal of the Stamp Act, dis-
pleased the King, and in 1766 he invited Pitt,
whom he made Earl of Chatham, to form, a cabi-
net Pitt's cabinet was formed, but the King's
plans were frustrated by the failure of the Prime
Minister's health During the ministry of
Grafton that followed, the King approved of
Townshend's duties levied in 1767 on certain
goods imported into the American Colonies and
also of the exclusion of Wilkes from the House
of Commons, although the attitude of the House
was in opposition to the best political and legal
thought of the day On the resignation of Graf-
ton he at last found in Lord North a minister
after his own heart North honestly agreed
with the King's ideas and tried to cany them
out He was firm and able, seldom gave offense,
and had great tact foi managing pailiamentary
majorities During his long ministry (1770-82)
the King virtually directed political affairs, as
his correspondence vnth Lord North shows (ed
by W B jDoane, London, 1867) Throughout
the American War, of which he was strongly in
favor, his wishes controlled the ministry, the
Commons being a mere instrument in his hands
After the French -American alliance he alone
wished to continue the war, refusing to allow
Lord North to resign When at last the inevi
table resignation came, he contrived to break up
the second Rockingham ministry,, through the
influence of Shelburne OIL the downfall of the
GEOBGE III
6x6
GEOBQE V
Shelbmne ministry he defeated by his personal
effoits the combination ministry of Fox and
North In the face of a hostile majoiity he ap-
pointed the younger Pitt as Prime >Iimstei, and
the electors signified their approval by returning
a Tory majority to Parliament
Although Pitt was by no means subservient,
there was no friction between him and the King,
who approved most of his measures George ^as
strongly in favor of the long and i unions \xar
with France, and of the union which Pitt forced
upon Ireland in 1801 He was opposed, how-
ever, to Pitt's attempted parliamentary reform
m 1785 and to the impeachment of Warren
Hastings, which measuies \\ere, after all, de-
feated He lefused to allow the cabinet to ap-
point the bishops, as had become the custom,
and in the case of Aichbishop Sutton of Canter-
bury took the appointment directly out of Pitt's
hands He refused positively to grant Catholic
emancipation, which he conceived to be con-
trary to his coronation oath, and in 1801 forced
Pitt to lesign rather than allow his promise of
emancipation to the Irish Catholics to be ful-
filled In 1804 he dismissed the entire Addmg-
ton ministry because its members refused to
pledge themselves never dm ing- his life to advo-
cate Catholic emancipation His dislike of Fox,
who he supposed had a bad influence on the
Prince of Wales, is -well kno\\n He repeatedly
refused to allow him to cnlei the mmistiy
(1781, 1782, 1803, 1804, 1806), "even at the
hazard of a civil wai " This dislike he lived to
overcome, and he much regretted the death of
Fox
The King's last years were darkened by many
troubles, keenest of which was the conduct of his
bi others and of his children, particularly the
Prince of Wales, whose immoral and undutiful
behavior embittered his life He had to bear
the brunt of popular ill feeling occasioned by the
economic misery the French War brought to
England He was also afflicted by sickness In
1805 he had trouble with his eyes, and by 1809
he became blind. As early as 1765 he was men-
tally deranged for a short time In 1788 there
was a recurrence of the same trouble, and the
first Regency Bill was passed, but he speedily
recovered In 1811, soon after the death of Ins
favorite daughter, Amelia, he finally became
hopelessly insane, and his son (afterward
Oeorge IV) acted as Regent until the King's
death, on Jan 29, 1820
Bibliography. The Qal&idar of Home Office
Papers of the Reign of George III, ed Padmgfcon
(Rolls Series, London, 1878), is the most im-
portant source Among the private correspond-
ence, consult Grenmlle Papers, ed. W. J Smith
(London, 1S52) , the Correspondence of John,
Dule of Bedford, ed Lord J Russell (ib,
1842), that of William Pitt, ed. by Taylor
and Rmgle (ib, 1840) ; of Lord Harris Malmes-
bury (ib, 1844); of Lord Charles Cornwalhs,
ed, by Ross (ib, 1859), and especially The
WorLs and Correspondence of ffldmund Burle}
Bohn Library (ib, 1857) Among cqntempoiary
memoirs, consult- Walpole, Memoirs of the
Reign of George HI (ib, 1894) ; Memoirs of the
Marquis of RocKinffham and his (fontemporan&s,
ed by Thomas (ib, 1852) Especially impor-
tant politically are the Letters of Jumus (ib ,
1806; also published in the Bohn Library ),
usually ascribed to Sir Philip Francis. His^
TOBIES • Adolphus, History of England from the
Accession to the Decease of George III (London,
1840) , Mas^ey, History of England dunng the
Reign of Gooige III (ib, 1855) , Lecky, Histoiy
of England in the Eighteenth Century, \ols 111-
vi (ib, 1878-90), May, Constitutional History
(Ne\i York, 1805), begins with this reign Con-
sult also Trevelyan, George III and Charles Fox
(ib, 1912)
OEOUGE IV (GEOEGE AUGUSTUS FREDERICK)
(1762-1830) King of Great Britain and Ire-
land (1820-30) The eldest son of George III,
he was born in St James's Palace, Aug 12,
1762, and \\as created Prince of Wales five days
afterward He was well educated and strictly
disciplined, but displayed an ungovernable tem-
per, and on attaining his majority became
notoiious for his profligacy and extravagance
He contracted a mainage with Mrs Fitzherbert,
Dec 15, 1785, but in 1787, to obtain parlia-
mentary assistance for his debts, he allowed
Fox to deny the marriage in Parliament On
April 8, 1795, again to liquidate his debts, he
married his cousin, Caroline Amelia Elizabeth,
of Brunswick ( q v ) They had one daughter,
the Pnncess Charlotte Augusta, born Jan 7,
1796, who married Prince Leopold, afterwaid
King of Belgium, but died in childbed, Nov 6,
1817 George deliberately deserted his wife
shoitly aftei his daughter's birth, and his con-
duct towards hei, his attempts to procure a
divoice, his numerous mistresses, and general
behavior, made him extremely unpopular, not-
withstanding his cleverness, versatility, and gra-
cious manner, which among a certain class of
associates earned him the title of "the first
gentleman m Europe" From a spirit of an-
tagonism he supported the Whig opposition, and
his father's insanity was partly due to his mis-
conduct He became Prince Regent m 1811, and
King at his father's death, on Jan 29, 1820
The Napoleonic wars, the War of 1812-15 with
the United States, the aid rendered to the
Greeks by the British fleet in the battle of Nava-
nno (1827), which secured the independence of
Greece, and the passing of the Roman Catholic
Emancipation Bill (1829), are the notable
events of his reign He died at Windsor, June
26, 1830 Consult McCarthy, History of the
Four Georges and of William IV (4 vols , Lon-
don, 1884-1901), Thackeray, Four Georges (ib,
1861) , Lady Bury, Diary of the Times of
George IV (ib, 1838), Croly, Life of George
IV (ib , 1830), Huish, Memoirs of George IV
(ib , 1830) , Holland, Memoirs of the Whig Party
(ib, 1854), Fitzgerald, Life of George IV (ib,
1881 ) Melville, The First G&ntleman of Europe
(ib, 1006), Wilkins, Mrs Fitsherbert and
George IV (ib , 1908).
0EORGE V (GEORGE FBEDEBICK EENEST AL-
BEKf) (1865- ) King of Great Britain and
Ireland and of the Dominions beyond the Seas
and Emperor of India The second son of Ed-
ward VII, he was born at Marlborough House,
London He entered the navy in 1877, studied
at Greenwich, and became lieutenant in 1885
and captain in 1893, rear admiral in 1901 and
vice admiral in 1903 After the death of his
elder brother, Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence,
m 1892, he was made Duke of York. In 1893
he married Princess Victoria Mary of Teck, who
had previously been engaged to his brother Al-
bert Victor She bore him five sons and a
daughter- JJdward, Prince of Wales (1894) , the
princes Albert (1895), Henry (1900), George
(1902), and John (1905); and Princess Mary
}. tTpon the accession of Edward VEL
GEORGE I
617
GKEOBGE
(1901) he received the title of Duke of Corn-
wall, made a jouiney around the world, in the
course of which he visited all the great British
colonies, and on his return in November was
created Prince of Wales In 1905-06 he made
a toui of India On the death of his father,
in 1910, he succeeded to the tin one as George
V, his wife taking the style of Queen Mary
They were crowned June 22, 1911, in West-
minster Abbey, visited India and held a dui-
bar on Dec 12, 1911, and in February, 1912,
returned to England The chaige made m a
"republican" paper, the Liberator, by Edward
Myhus that in 1890, before he became Duke of
York, King George had marned secretly m
Malta a daughter of Sn Michael Culme- Sey-
mour was dispioved in 1911 in a tual for libel,
in which the King wished to take the witness
stand Although the new court soon showed
itself stricter and more old-fashioned than King
Edward's had been, King George had become
popular as the "Sailor Prince," who as early as
1901 had made a vigorous speech from the text
"Wake up, England " Even the heroic measures
by which the Parliament Bill of 1911 was forced
through under threat that the King would create
peers to give effect "to the decision of the coun-
try" did not affect the popularity of the crown
Consult Robert Hudson, Our Sailor Kvng (Lon-
don, 1911), H F Burke, Historical Record of
the Coronation (ib , 1912), J W. Fortescue,
Narrative of the Visit to India of their Majes-
ties, King G-eorge and Queen Mary (ib , 1912)
See WAR IN EUROPE
GEORGE I (1845-1913) King of Greece
from 1863 to his death in 1913 He was the
second son of King Christian IX of Denmark
and served for some time in the Danish navy
After the deposition of King Otto in 1862, the
National Parliament in the following year con-
ferred the crown on Prince William of Denmark,
as George was then called, who, with the con-
currence of his own family and the consent of
the Great Powers, ascended the throne of Greece
as George I He was married at St Petersburg
to Princess Olga, daughter of Grand Duke Con-
stantine, Oct 27, 1867 He consistently pur-
sued a Panhellenie attitude, as shown especially
in the war with Turkey (1897) After carry-
ing on a war with his ancient enemies, the
Turks, to a successful conclusion (1911-13),
King George I was assassinated at Salonika,
March 19, 1913 See GBEECE, BALKAN WAB
GEORGE V (1819-78) The last King of
Hanover He was the son of Ernst August
(q v ), and grandson of George III of England
When he ascended the throne m 1851, on the
death of his father, he was afflicted with blind-
ness As a result, he fell into the hands of un-
wise and unscrupulous advisers He was a
bitter foe to Prussia and joined Austria against
her in 1866 After Austria's defeat Hanover
became a part of Prussia, and King George
went to Vienna and then to Paris, where he
continued to agitate against Prussia In 1868
he relinquished his claims to Hanover for the
sum of 16,000,000 thalers, but his enmity to
Prussia declared itself so strongly that the sum
was not paid, but was held by the government
as the "Guelph Fund" (qv )
GEORGE (1832-1904), King of Saxony He
was the youngest son of King John (1801-73),
entered the army in 1846, studied at Bonn in
1849-50, fought in the War of 1866 against
Prussia, and was corps commander in the
Franco-German War He succeeded his brother
Albert June 19, 1902, and died Oct 15, 1904
His eldest son, Frederick Augustus, followed
him on the throne
GEORGE II (1826-1914) Duke of Saxe-
Memmgen and Hildburghausen, born at Mei-
nmgen, a son of Duke Bernhaid II He was
educated at Bonn and Leipzig, and succeeded
upon the lesignation of his father in 1866 He
was a patron of the drama and advanced his-
ti ionic art by oiganizmg, with the assistance of
his mtendant and manager, Ludwig Chronegk,
a troupe of actors who played in Europe and
America He manied in 1850 Charlotte,
Puncess of Prussia, who died in 1855, in 1858,
Feodore of Hohenlohe-Langenbuig, who died m
1872, and in 1873, morganatically, Helene
Franz, who received the title of Baroness von
Heldburg His son Piince Fiedericjk was killed
at the siege of Namur, Aug 23, 1914
GEORGE (1653-1708) Prince of Denmark
and husband of Queen Anne of England He was
the son of Fredeiick III of Denmark By Anne,
whom he manied m 1683, he had 17 children,
all of whom died before then mother became
Queen of England Prince Geoige was devoid of
talent and ambition, "but was biave and humane
Through his wife's influence he deseited James
II in the houi of need Aftei the tmmiph of
the Prince of Orange, Prince George was natuial-
ized and created Duke of Cumberland He was
present at the battle of the Boyne, and when
his wife ascended the throne he was created
Lord High Admiral
GEORGE, called THE BEARDED (1471-1539).
Duke of Saxony He was the eldest son of
Albert the Brave, founder of the Albertine line
of dukes He received a theological education
at Meissen and Leipzig and succeeded his father
m 1500 He was a son-in-law of King Kasimir
of Poland He was a good luler, kindly and
accessible to Ms subjects Though he agreed
with Luther as to the need of reform m the
Church, the Duke did not acquiesce in the change
in dogma advanced by him, and he soon became
an ardent opponent of the Reformation, espe-
cially after the famous debate between Luther
and Eck at Leipzig in 1519 Consult Welck,
G-eorge der Bartige (Brunswick, 1900)
GEORGE, called PISIDA, "the Pisidian." A
prominent churchman and historical and religious
writer of Constantinople in the seventh century.
He held various offices in the "Great Church"
(of St Sophia) and is thought to have accom-
panied the Emperor Herachus on his expedition
against the Persians (622 AD.). He was the
author of many poems of an historical or reli-
gious character, in which he celebrated the wars
of Herachus and discussed the theological ques-
tions of the day, these are to be found m Migne,
Patrologia Grcsca, vol xcu (Paris, 1854-66)
Consult Sternbach, in Wiener Studien, vols xiu-
xiv (Vienna, 1891-92), id, De G-eorgii Pisidce
apud Theoplianem alwsque Historwos RehquMs
(Cracow, 1899).
GEORGE, DAVID See DAVJDISTS, JOBIS,
DAVID
GEORGE, FREDERICK WIIXIAM ERNEST (1826-
1902) Prince of Prussia, general, and author,
He entered the Prussian army in 1836, was ad-
vanced to the rank of lieutenant general in 1860,
and subsequently became general of cavalry
( 1866 ) . Of his numerous dramatic works, pub-
lished Under the name of G Conrad, several
have been publicly performed and are still some-
GEOBGE
618
GEOKGE
times played They include Wo hegt das
QluoK* (1877), Don Sylvio (1877), Elektra
(1877), Tolanthe (1877), Medea (1877), Sap-
pho (1887) Some of these weie collected in
four volumes (1S70) He also wrote on econom-
ics and politics Consult the sketch by Von
Olfers in vol vi of the Hohenzollem-Jahrbuch
(Leipzig, 1903)
GEORGE, GRACE (1880- ). An Ameri-
can actress She was born in New York City,
where she made her debut in The New Boy in
1894 She first starred in The Princess Chiffon
(1899) and afterward in Her Majesty (1900);
Under Southern Slies (1901-02), Frou-Frou
(1903) , Ptetty Peggie (1903-04) , The Two Or-
phans (1904) She made a great success in the
rdle of Cyprienne in Divorgons in both New
York and London in 1907, and she reappeared in
the same play in 1913 She also played in
Sylvia of the Letters (1909) , A. Woman's Way
(1909), Just to Get Married (1911-12), The
Earth (1912), Barne's Half an Hour (1913);
and a revival of Clyde Fitch's The Truth (1914).
Consult William Winter, The Wallet of Time
(2 vols, New York, 1913)
GEORGE, HENBY (1839-97). An American
economist, born in Philadelphia, Pa When 14
years old, he was forced to leave school and to
seek work in order to support himself After
shipping as foremast boy on a vessel bound for
Melbourne and Calcutta, he learned the printer's
trade and in 185S worked Ins way to California.
At this time the excitement attending the discov-
ery of gold in Fraser River, British Columbia,
was at its height, and Henry George worked
his way to Victoria on a sailing vessel After
endming many privations he returned to San
Francisco, where he found work m a printing
office As the business of the printing office
grew slack, he secured a position in a rice mill.
For the next few years he drifted from one em-
ployment to another, always in financial straits,
due to no lack of energy on his own part In
1861, in company with five other printers, he
undertook to publish a daily newspaper, the Eve-
ning Journal, but this venture also proved un-
successful. In 1865 he began to write for the
press He was soon engaged as a reporter on the
San Francisco Times, where he was quickly pro-
moted to the position of chief of staff In 1866
he wrote a letter to the New York Tribune at-
tacking the Central Pacific Railroad and the
Wells, Fargo Express on the ground of their
monopolistic extortions In 1869 he wrote for
the same paper a letter on the Chinese question,
which gamed the warm commendation of John
Stuart Mill The great fortunes acquired in
California through the rapid increase in the
value of land fixed his attention upon the land
problem, and in a pamphlet published in 1871,
entitled Our Land Policy, he advanced most of
the ideas that later appeared in Progress and
Poverty — that the value of land represents in
the main a monopoly power, and that the entire
burden of taxation should be levied upon it,
thus freeing industry from taxation and equaliz-
ing opportunities by destroying monopoly ad-
vantage
Progress and Poverty, George's most impor-
tant work, was first published in 1879, At first
it attracted little attention and found few buy-
ers, but in a few years it attained extraordi-
nary popularity, especially in England, where
the Irish land problem was the burning ques-
tion of the day. Interest in the book increased
at home, and by 1883 Mi George found himself
regarded as the apostle of a new social creed
From this time his activities were engaged
chiefly in lectiumg both in America and in the
United Kingdom and in writing articles for
papers and magazines on the land question and
on other economic and political subjects His
literary activities brought him but little pecuni-
ary return, and he lemained in straitened cir-
cumstances until the end of his life In 1886
George became a candidate for the mayoralty of
New York City, but was defeated by Abram S
Hewitt, In 1897 he again ran for mayoi, but
died before election day
The chief contributions of Henry George to
economic science are to be found in Progress and
Poverty The Science of Political Economy, pub-
lished after his death, contains little that is of
value The mam theses of Progress and Povw ty>
that economic progress is marked by increasing
extremes of wealth and poveity, resulting from
the tendency of rent to absorb all values above
minimum wages and interest, and that the con-
fiscation of lent through a single tax on land
would restore democratic equality and universal
prosperity, have not received acceptance fiom
scientific writers But the theoiy of wages
which he advanced in opposition to the prevail-
ing "Wages Fund Doctrine" — that the laboier
is paid, not out of capital, but out of the value
Tihich he himself creates — has been adopted by
some of the most important economists of the
day See SINGLE TAX, and consult George, The
Life of Henry George (New Yoik, 1905)
GEOBGE, JAMES ZACHARIAH (1826-97) An
American legislator, born in Monroe Co , Ga
After serving in the regiment known as the Mis-
sissippi Rifles during the Mexican War, he de-
voted himself to the study of law Soon after
the secession convention in Mississippi he en-
listed in the Confederate army and eventually
rose to the rank of brigadier general As chair-
man of the executive committee of the Demo-
cratic party in 1875 he was a conspicuous fac-
tor m the political agitation of that period He
was appointed Chief Justice of Mississippi in
1879 and was a member of the United States
Senate from 1881 until his death He was dis-
tinguished alike as jurist and statesman and
during his career in the Senate displayed ex-
ceptional oratorical ability and unusual power
of logical reasoning He was probably the most
influential member of the State Constitutional
Convention of 1890 He published Reports of
the Mississippi Supreme Court for 1856-60 and
a Digest of the same court for 1818-72 The
infirmary of the State Agricultural and Mechan-
ical College bears his name
GEORGE, LAKE A lake in eastern New
York, lying in Warren, Washington, and Essex
counties, near the border of Vermont (Map-
New York, G 3) It is about 33 miles long
from south to north, and from about % to
about 3 miles wide, generally shallow, but in
some places very deep It is connected with Lake
Champlam on the north Lake George is one of
the most beautiful of the lakes of the United
States Its waters are singularly clear, it is
dotted with charming islands, and the surround-
ing scenery, with the closely encompassing foot-
hills of the Adirondack Mountains rising to a
maximum i altitude of 2665 feet (Black Moun-
tain, near the eastern shore), is mosib picture
esque. Great historical interest attaches to it
in events Connected witli the ITreneli ^and
GEORGE
619
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC
War and the War of the Revolution, especially
the battle of Lake George (1755), which is com-
memorated by a monument in the Fort George
Battle Park, of 35 acres, a State reservation
The lake was discovered in 1642 by the Jesuit
Father Jogues and was named by him Lac Samt-
Sacrement In 1775 it was given its present
name in honor of King George III Consult
"Lake George" in Harper's Magazine, vol Irx:
(1879), for a .description of the scenery about
the lake and its historical associations, also,
Reid, Lake George and Lake Ohamplain (New
York, 1910)
GEORGE, SAINT (?-303). The patron saint
of England Little is known of his life, the re-
ports concerning him being largely legendary
Although frequently confounded (as, eg, by Gib-
bon) with George of Cappadocia, the Arian leader,
he lived at an earlier period than the latter
He is said to have been a person of consequence,
born at Lydda or at Ramleh, Palestine, and edu-
cated in Cappadocia, who embraced Christianity,
attained high rank under Diocletian, and suf-
fered martyrdom in Nicomedia in April, 303.
His festival (Roman) is April 23 He was ex-
tremely popular with the English Crusaders
and was adopted as the tutelary saint of Eng-
land during the reign of Edward III, although
the Council of Oxford m 1222 had decreed that
his feast should be a national one He is also
the patron of Russia and Portugal Churches
and religious establishments have borne his name
from the earliest times He is venerated not
only by the Western and Eastern churches, but
also by the Mohammedans as Ghergis3 or El
Khouder The red cross of Saint George on a
white ground was long worn as a badge by the
English soldiery and is now displayed on the
Union Jack The story of the combat between
St George and the Dragon first appears in the
Middle Ages in the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus
de Voragme, it may owe something to the fact
that Lydda was near the scene of Perseus' rescue
of Andromeda, or to an allegorization of Diocle-
tian as a dragon Consult Budge, The Martyr-
dom and Miracles of St G-eorge (London, 1888),
Coptic texts and versions, Flemming, St George
of England (New York, 1901), Huber, Zw
Q-eorgslegende (Erlangen, 1906) , Gordon, 8<wn>t
George (London, 1907), Bulley, St Q-eorge in
Merwe England (ib , 1908) , and, of utmost im-
portance, Delehaye, Les Ugendes grecques des
saintes mthtcwrea (Paris, 1909)
GEORGE, WUJJAM REUBEN ' (1866- ).
An American, known as the founder of the
Geoige Junior Republic He was born at West
Dryden, N Y, was educated in the public
schools, and moved to New York City in 1880,
where he engaged in. business In 1890-94 he
took large parties of boys and girls to spend
vacations with him In 1894 he instituted
the plan of requiring the children to work for
what they received and also introduced self-gov-
ernment among them, and in the following year
this plan was developed into the "George Junior
Republic," at Freeville, N Y For a considera-
tion of the further relations of Mr George to the
Republic, see GEORGE JUOTOE REPUBLIC.
GEOBGE-A-GBEEKE, THE PIKKEE OF
WAKEFIELD,. A comedy ( 1595 ) , ascribed to Rob-
ert Greene on the evidence of certain obscure
and contradictory manuscript notes on the title-
p&ge of a copy now in possession of the Duke
of Devonshire At any rate, the reputed author
tie part of tke Pinner The sources are
VOL. I3L— 40
an early prose romance entitled The History of
George-a-G-reene and a ballad called The Jolly
Pmder of Wakefield with Robin Hood, Scarlet,
and John
GEORGE BARMPWELIi, OB, THE LONDON
MEBOHANT A bourgeois tragedy in prose, by
George Lillo, produced at Drury Lane, June 22,
1731 Consult Gibbet's Life of L<dlo
GEORGE EI/IOT The pseudonym of Maiy
Ann Evans, the English novelist " See ELIOT,
GEORGE
GEOBGE FREDERICK, PRINCE OF WAL-
DECK A German soldier See WALDEGK, GEORG
FRIEDRICH
GEOKGE JimiOE, REPUBLIC A com-
munity of boys and girls near Freeville, 1ST Y ,
about 9 miles east of Ithaca It was founded
in 1895 by William B, George, of New Yoik,
for the purpose of affording neglected, leckless,
and unfortunate children an oppoitumty to ac-
quire the qualities necessary for their future
welfare in life, and was the outcome of an ex-
periment which Mi Geoige had been conducting
for some years by taking every summer from 150
to 250 children of the slums to spend then
vacation with him at his country home
The constitution of the miniature republic is
modeled upon that of the United States, with
elective officers, a legislature (first a town meet-
ing and later two branches), a judicial system,
and administrative machmeiy At first Mr
George was president, with adults in the higher
offices, but since 1896 the boys have filled all
offices Each citizen was obliged to work or
starve, he could work for Mr George for six
hours a day, or for citizen contractors, who pur-
chased licenses for the different kinds of busi-
ness from Mr George, or in the school Nothing
could be obtained in the community except by
purchase in the citizens' own tin coin (now
aluminium), which at the end of the summer
was redeemed in United States money, or sup-
Elies to take home. In the first year a num-
er of practical questions were met by the youth-
ful legislators a depreciated currency, a tariff
question, woman's suffrage, and a trust among
hotel proprietors Much criticism has been di-
rected against the republic from the beginning
on account of the great latitude granted to its
immature citizens in enacting and administering
the laws In particular it has been charged
that excessively long prison sentences are im-
posed, and the New York charitable authorities
have insisted that the constitution be modified
so as to place penal authority in the hands of
adults Mr George and his disciples insist that
any curtailment of responsibility must inevitably
reduce the educational value of the institution
The original purpose of the institution was to
provide for the rehabilitation of boys and girls
who had fallen into delinquency through the in-
fluence of an unwholesome environment Later
Mr George concluded that life in the com-
munity would be good for other youths as well
Some children of well-to-do parents have been
placed in the institution simply to secure the
benefits of its wholesome training in independ-
ence The republic does not admit defectives
knowingly In some instances mental defec-
tives liave been harbored in the republic, to its
injury, and without benefit to themselves
Children from any part of tfre United States
may be consigned to the guardianship of the
trustees by parents or public authorities The
a£e of admission is 12 to 18 years. The repub-
GEORGE OF CAPPADOCIA
620
GEORGETOWN
lie has a number of buildings, with simple ac-
commodations which are used for school, gov-
ernment purposes, workshops, hotels, restau-
rants, store, bank, and library The kinds of
work earned on under efficient directors are
farming (the trustees own or control a little
over 300 acres), carpentry (the boys put up
new buildings), printing, dressmaking, scien-
tific cooking, domestic service, bread and wafer
baking, furniture manufacture, and plumbing
The institution also operates a laundry All
children under 16 must attend the republic's
primary and giammar school
The success of the George Junior Republic
soon attracted attention throughout the coun-
try In 1897 Mrs William T Carter, after a
visit to the republic, established a similar in-
stitution at Reddington, Pa , known as the
William T Carter Junior Republic. In 1899
citizens of Washington and Baltimore estab-
lished the National Junior Republic at Annapo-
lis Junction, Md In 1904 the Connecticut
Junior Republic was organized at Litchfield,
Conn These organizations, although in close
comnruni cation with the George Junior Repub-
lic, were entirely independent of it In 1908
representatives from these republics met at the
invitation of Mr George and founded the Na-
tional Association of Junior Republics, of \\hich
Mr George \\as made directoi The object of the
association is to correlate the activities of the
several organizations and to woik towards the es-
tablishment of new organizations After the
formation of the association junior republics
in affiliation with it were established at Chino,
Cal , Flemmgton, 1ST J , Grove City, Pa , Moores-
town, N J, and Dorset, England After the
extension of the Junior Republic movement to
other towns and the formation of the National
Association of Junioi Republics the connection
of Mr. George with the Junior Republic at Free-
ville became essentially that of unofficial ad-
viser. In 1913 serious criticisms of his methods
of conducting the Republic were brought by the
State Board of Chanties, and a committee of
investigation, with personnel accepted by both
George and his critics, while absolving the in-
stitution's founder of the charge of personal
wrongdoing, censured severely certain of his
methods in dealing with citizens of the Republic
suspected of delinquency. In 1914 the recur-
ring deficits in the Republic budget led to a
decision on the part of the trustees to close the
institution An offer of Mr G-eorge to take the
institution under his charge was accepted
Bibliography American Journal of Sociol-
ogy, 111, Annals of American Academy of Politi-
cal and Social Science, x, 73, Nothing without
Labor, report of Q J, R. Association (July,
1899) ; Address to Twenty-eighth National Con-
ference of Charities and Correction (1901);
George, The Jumor Republic (New York, 1909) ;
George and Stowe, Citizens Made and Remade
(ib, 1912) ; The Citizen, a monthly publication
of the George Junior Republic; Annual Reports
of the National Association (1908- )
GEORGE OF CAP'PADCXCIA. Arian Arch-
bishop of Alexandria, 356^361. He was a, na-
tive of Epiphama, in Cilicia, yet he is always
called a Cappadocian, though such only Iby an-
cestry Our knowledge of him comes from his
adversaries, who load his early life with slan-
ders He seems to have lived for some time at
Constantinople It is not known when or how
he obtained ecclesiastical orders* but in 356 he
tin us up as Bishop of Alexandria after the
banishment of Athanasius He had the suppoit
of the Arian faction and the Emperor Constans
His cruelty and oppiession were such that a
rebellion broke out, and he had to flee for his
life He v\as lestored by a military demonstra-
tion, but did not mend his ways A few days
after the accession of Julian the populace aiose
en masse, dragged him out of prison, where he
had been placed by the magistrates for safety,
paraded him with every indignity through the
stieets on a camel, burned his dead body, and
cast the ashes into the sea He is represented
as ignoiant not only of the Scriptures and the-
ology, but even of letters Yet it is said he
owned a fine library which Julian had preserved
for his own use He is not to be confused, as
Gibbon has done, with St George, the patron of
England
GEORGE OF TREB'IZOND (c 1396-1484).
A scholar famous in connection with the revival
of the study of Greek in Italy He was born in
the isle of Crete, but was descended from a
family of Trebizond A noble Venetian, Fran-
cesco Barbaro, invited him to Venice, where he
became professor of rhetoric and philosophy As
secietaiy to Pope Eugemus IV and later to
Pope Nicholas V, he occupied a conspicuous
position at Rome as a Greek scholar and as a
translatoi of Greek authors into Latin The
inaccurate character of his work provoked the
ciiticism of contemporary scholars, especially
of Caidmal Bessanon He was an ardent advo-
cate of the Aristotelian system of philosophy
and engaged m contioversy with his contempo-
rary, the Platonic philosopher, Gemistus Ple-
thon Among his writings are Rhetorica (1470)
and Comparatwnes Philosophorum Platoms et
Ari£toteh$ (1523) Consult Fabncms, Bibli-
otheca Crrceca, ed by Starles, vol xn (Ham-
burg, 1790-1809), and Voigt, Ihe Wiederbele-
bung des Classischen Altertums (2d ed , 2 vols ,
Berlin, 1893)
GEORGES, zharzh, MAEGUEBITE JOSEPHINE
WEIMAE, known as Mademoiselle Georges (1787-
1867) A French tragic actress of great beauty
and talent, boin at Bayeux When she appeared
at the Theatre Frangais in 1802 as Clytemnes-
tra, she made an unusual sensation In 1808
she suddenly deserted her position and went to
Russia She played before Napoleon at Dresden
in 1812, however, and in 1813, under the patron-
age of Hortense, was allowed to return to the
Come*die Fiancaise, but left that stage definitely
in 1816 Talma was one of her teachers She
devoted herself upon the stage to the Romantic
movement led by Victor Hugo and the elder
Dumas, and in their works won some of her
greatest triumphs Among her famous rdles
were Dido, Semiramis, Lucrezia Borgia, and
Marie Tudor She left the stage in 1849 Her
later years of retirement were unhappy, largely
through the caprices that had marred her career
and the comparative poverty which ensued
GEOBGE SAND, Fr, pron. zhCrzh saNd See
SAND, GEOBGE
GEORGE'S CHA1T1TEL. See ST. GEOBGE*S
CHANNEL.
GEORGES DANDHT, zhOrzh da^'dasr'. The
title of a comedy by Moh^re (1668).
GEORGETOWN. The capital of British
Guiana, situated on the right bank of the
river Demerara, 1 mile from its mouth (Mapf
America, $, D 2). It is well built, and its
streets are regular and well shaded by trees.
GEORGETOWN
621
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
The houses are generally of wood Some of the
sheets are tiaversed by canals Among the pub-
lic buildings may be mentioned the Anglican
and Roman Catholic cathedials, the museum,
with its library, the Colonial Hospital, orphan
asylum, Queen's College, teacheis' seminary, sea-
men's home, etc There aie also botanical gai-
dens, schools, theatres, bai racks, electric lights,
electric street railways, and telephone service
Georgetown is connected by rail with Mahaica
and Rosignol Along the banks of the river
e\tends the Ring, a piomenade sheltered with
cabbage palms The city is supplied with water
from aitesian wells The harbor provides good
anchorage and has a mole and fortifications
The climate is hot but not particularly un-
healthful, mean annual temperature, 80° F ,
mean annual rainfall, 92 inches The commerce
is considerable, the chief expoits being sugar,
gold, rum, and balata The population is about
54,000, of whom only about one-tenth aie whites
GEORGETOWN A city of the British
Straits Settlements See PEN AN G
GEORGETOWN. A railway junction in
Halton Co , Ontario, Canada, 29 miles west of
Toronto, on the Grand Trunk Railioad (Map
Ontario, E 6) Its manufactures include paper,
knitting machines, boots and shoes, lumber,
f loves, acetylene-gas machines, and carilages
op, 1901, 1313, 1911, 1583
GEORGETOWN A seaport town and the
county seat of King's Co , Prince Edward Is-
land, Canada, situated on a peninsula formed
by the Cardigan and Brudenell rivers, 39 miles
east of Charlottetown by rail (Map New
Brunswick) and on the Prince Edward Island
Railway Georgetown has steamboat com-
munication with various ports and carries on
a considerable trade in agricultural produce
There is a lobster-packing industry A United
States consular agent is resident here Pop ,
1914 (local est ), 1010
GEORGETOWN A town and the county
seat of Clear Creek Co , Colo , 50 miles west of
Denver, on the Colorado and Southern Railroad
(Map Colorado, D 2) It has important gold,
silver, lead, zinc, and copper mining interests,
and is popular as a summer resort because of
its picturesque location and healthful climate.
The town contains a public library, hospital, and
a, tine park The water works are owned by the
municipality Pop, 1900, 1418, 1910, 1950
GEORGETOWN A town and the county
seat of Sussex Co , Del , 40 miles south by east
of Dover, on the Pennsylvania Railroad (Map
Delaware, J 3) It is in an agricultural region
and has canning interests Pop, 1900, 1658,
1910, 1609
GEORGETOWN Formerly a town in the
District of Columbia, now included within the
limits of Washington (qv)
GEORGETOWN A city and the county seat
of Scott Co , Ky , 12 miles north of Lexington,
on the Queen and Crescent, the Frankfort and
Cincinnati, and the Southern raihoads (Map
Kentucky, F 3) It is primarily a residential
place and is the seat of Georgetown College
(Baptist), established in 1829 The city is in
an agricultural and stock-raising region, and
has brickworks, flouring mills, and a large oil-
refining plant The Royal Spring, rising in the
centre of the city and flowing 200,000 gallons
per hour, supplies the city with water and
furnishes power for an ice plant, flour mill,
and other industrial establishments Settled in
1776, Georgetown was first mcorpoiated in 1790
and was chartered as a city of the fourth class
in 1894 The government is administered by a
mayor, chosen every lour years, and a um-
cameial council, elected on a geneial ticket
Pop, 1900, 3823, 1910, 4533
GEORGETOWN A village and the county
seat of Brown Co , Ohio, 42 miles east by south
of Cincinnati, on the Cincinnati, Georgetown,
and Portsmouth, and the Ohio Kiver and Colum-
bus railroads (Map Ohio, C 8) The village
contains a children's home It is the centre and
distributing point of a tobacco-growing district
and has some manufactures Limestone is quai-
ried in the vicinity The electric plant is opei-
ated by the town Pop , 1900, 1529, 1910, 1580
GEORGETOWN. A city, port of entry, and
the county seat of Georgetown Co , S C , at the
head of Winy ah Bay, 60 miles by rail northeast
of Charleston, on the Georgetown and Western
Railroad (Map South Carolina, E 3) It is a
seapoit of some impoitance, the market for a
feitile agricultural legion travel sed by 1000
miles of navigable nveis that empty into the
bay, has steamship communication with New
Yoik, Charleston, and Baltimore, and expoits
rice, cotton, turpentine, shingles, lumber, fish,
grain, alcohol, etc The manufacturing estab-
lishments include machine shops and foundiies,
bottling works, chemical and canning factories,
saw mills, and an alcohol factory Georgetown,
settled about 1700 and incorporated in 1805,
is famous as the landing place of Lafayette on
his first visit to the United States It contains
a public libiary and fine custom house and post-
office buildings The government is administered
under a charter of 1892, which provides for a
mayor chosen biennially and a council elected
at large The water works are owned by the
city Pop, 1900, 4138, 1910, 5530
GEORGETOWN A city and the county seat
of Williamson Co , Tex , 28 miles by rail north
of Austin, on the San Gabriel River, and on the
International and Great Noithern and the
Missouri, Kansas, and Texas railroads (Map
Texas, D 4) It is in an agricultural and stock-
raising region and has cotton gins, a cotton-
seed-oil mill, and planing mills The city is the
seat of Southwestern University (Methodist
Episcopal, South), founded in 1873 In Page
Park are mineral wells, which analysis shows to
be similar to the famous Karlsbad Springs Set-
tled in 1848, Georgetown was incorporated 18
years later and is governed under revised stat-
utes of 1895 by a mayor and council elected bien-
nially on a general ticket The water workb
and electric-light plant are owned by the city
Pop, 1900, 2790, 1910, 3096
GEORGETOWN INDIANS See SAIISBJOS
STOCK
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY An insti-
tution of higher education, situated at George-
town, DC It was founded in 1789 by members
of the Roman Catholic church and was in 180o
transferred to the Society of Jesus in Maryland
in wliose control it remains By a congressional
Act of 1815 the university was empowered to
grant academic degrees, and in 1833 tlie holy
see authorized it to confer degrees, in the name
of the church, in philosophy and theology. The
university consists of the college; the school of
medicine, organized in 1851 and including a
school of dentistry, and the school of law, or-
ganized in 1870 The college comprises the
graduate school, organised in 1856, the under-
GEOBGE WASHINGTOH" TJNIV
622
GEOHGIA
graduate department, and the astronomical ob-
servatory, established in 1842 The scheme of in-
struction is, in general, conducted m accordance
with the famous Ratio 8tudiorwn of the Jesuits
The supervision of students is no closer than in
most colleges of equal standing, and the stand-
ard of scholarship is very high Degrees are
confeired m arts, philosophy, medicine, den-
tistry, and law In 1914 the faculty numbeied
177, and the student enrollment was 1507.
The income (1914) was about $260,000 The
president in 1914 was Veiy Rev A J Donlon,
S J Consult J S Easby-Smith, History of
Georgetown University (2 vols , New Yoik,
1908)
GEOUGE WASHINGTON TTNIVEBSITY
An institution of higher learning, situated at
Washington, D C Founded in 1821 by mem-
bers of the Baptist church, it was known as
Columbian College until 1873, when, following
a gift by W W Corcoran with this end in view,
the college and professional schools were in-
corporated as Columbian University In 1904
this and other educational institutions weie
merged under the name of G-eorge Washing-
ton University, thus carrying out the \\ish of
George Washington that a national university
be founded at Washington
The departments and colleges aie grouped as
follows (1) Department of Aits and Sciences
(a) School of Graduate Studies, (6) Columbian
College, (c) College of Engineeimg and Me-
chanic Aits, (d) Teachers College, (2) Depait-
ment of Law, (3) Department of Medicine;
(4) Department of Dentistry, (5) Associate
Colleges, having independent financial founda-
tions and separate boards of tiustees, (a) Na-
tional College of Pharmacy, (&) College of Vet-
erinary Medicine
In the academic year 1912-13 the university
registered 1347 students From 1821 to 1913
it granted 7912 degrees on 6390 persons The
president in 1914 was Charles H. Stockton,
LL.D
GEOB/GIA (Pers. Gturfistan, Armen Vrastan,
Lat Iberia, Russ Grusia; influenced in popular
etymology by the name of the patron saint
George) A region in Transcaucasia, constitut-
ing, until the year 1799, an independent king-
dom and now forming the main part of the
Russian governments of Tifhs and Kutais It
comprises the ancient Iberia, Colchis, and Al-
bania The native name of the country is
Kathh, or Sakarthvelo
Tradition traces the origin of the Georgians
to Thargamos, a great-grandson of Japhet
Mtskhethos, the supposed builder of Mtskhetha,
the ancient capital, near Tiflis, is a prominent
figure in their legendary history They are
known to have submitted to Alexander the Great
and to have been freed from foreign rule and
united in one kingdom by Pharnabazus, who
ruled from 302 to 237 B c. Georgia was invaded
by Pompey m 65 BC and by Trajan m 114 AD
Georgia was Christianized during the fourth
century. A Sassanide dynasty was established
in 265 A D , and continued with a half-century's
interregnum until 571, when the long line of
Bagratian sovereigns (see BAGRATIDES) came to
liie throne The latter drove out the Arab in-
vaders who had subjected the Sassanide princes,
granted the disorganized country, and advanced
its civilization and material welfare In 787,
however, the Arabs completely overran the
country and imposed their will and religion on
the Georgians In the eleventh century the
country was temporarily brought under the yoke
of the Seljuk Turks, but regained its independ-
ence undei David III (1090-1125) Until the
thirteenth centuiy, ^hen it was conquered by
the Mongols under Genghis Khan, Georgia pros-
pered greatly and inci eased in extent undci a
seiies of able soveieigns Undei Queen Tamara
(1184-1212), v\ho mariied a Russian prince and
thus initiated the intimate connection of Georgia
\uth Russia, the country attained the height
of its piospeiity and po\\ei Towards the end
of the fourteenth century Timui subdued
Geoigia, but was expelled in the beginning of
the next century by Geoige VII Alexandei I,
who succeeded George VII, drvided the kingdom
among his three sons Each of these states was
again duided, and at one time 26 different
princes reigned in Geoigia The histoiy of
Georgia now falls into two parts that of the
castem states, Karthli and Kakheth, and that
of the western states, including Iinentia, Mm-
gieha, and Guna This division -ft as fatal to
the independence and power of Georgia Fioni
1638 to 1650 several of these sovereigns took
the oath of allegiance to the Czai of Russia
From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century
the eastern states \\eie oppressed by Persia, and
in 1799 George XIII resigned in favor of Paul,
Emperor of Russia In 1802 the Emperor Alex-
ander proclaimed the terntory a Russian prov-
ince Of the thiee states forming we&tein
Georgia, Guna fell into the hands of Russia in
1801 and formally sui rendered itself to that
Empire by the Treaty of 1810, Mingrelia was
virtually added to Russia in 1803, Imeritia had
been acquired by Russia towards the close of
the eighteenth century (1798) Consult Khak-
hanoff, Aper^u geographique et tibrege de I'Jiis-
toire et de la Utterature georgienne (Paris,
1900), and Marr, History of Georgia, (m Rus-
sian) (St Petersburg, 1906) See GEORGIAN, or
IBERIAN, or GKUSINIAN LANGUAGE, GEORGIANS
GEOBGIA (named m honor of George II of
England). A South Atlantic State and one of
the original thirteen States of the American
Union ( Map United States, J 4 ) It is bounded
on the north along the parallel ot lat 35° N by
Tennessee and North. Carolina, on the east by
South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, on the
south by Florida, and on the west by Alabama
Geoigia ranks nineteenth in size among the
States of the Union, is the largest State east of
the Mississippi, the area being 59,265 squaie
miles, of which 540 square miles are water The
extreme length from north to south is 320 miles,
and the greatest breadth 253 miles
Geology All the large divisions of geolog-
ical time, except the Juia-Trias, are well repie-
sented in Georgia Metamorphic or crystalline
rocks, mostly of Archean age, without distinct
stratification but prevailingly schistose, includ-
ing granite, gneiss, etc., chaiacterize the whole
of the piedmont region, commonly known
as middle Georgia The rocks of the north-
eastern mountains, including gneiss, quartzite,
mica schist, marble, etc, are also metamorphic,
but probably of later age than the piedmont
gianites In most of the metamorphic counties
are found narrow trap dikes having a general
northwest-southeast trend, which may be Trias-
sic, like the lithologically similar Palisades of
New Jersey Near the southern border of the
piedmont region is a belt of sandstone of mi-
known age, forming the Pine Mountains
GEO&GIA
623
GEORGIA
The valley and plateau region in the north-
western coiner of the State, comprising about
10 counties (northwest Georgia), is made up
of Paleozoic rocks, mostly lunescone, sandstone,
shale, and chert, distinctly stratified hut very
much folded and faulted in places, ranging from
Cambiian to Carboniferous The last is chiefly
confined to the plateaus m the extreme north-
west
The coastal-plain deposits — Cietaceous, Tei-
tiary, and Quaternary — mostly sand, clay, and
mail, with not much hard rock, cover about
three-fifths of the State, known as south Georgia
The Cietaceous stiata undeihe the fall-line sand
hills which extend nearly across the State, and
the gi ay-marl region southeast of Columbus
The Eocene, Ohgocene, Miocene, and Pliocene
divisions of the Tertiary form successive belts
between the Cretaceous and the coast, their
stiata dipping gently southeastward The Pleis-
tocene, or Quateinaiy, is represented by peat
deposits, dunes, river terraces, etc, and per-
haps by a thin mantle of sand which covers most
of the coastal plain, though the last is now
regarded by some geologists as a mere product
of weathering of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
strata
Topography and Scenery. In the extreme
northwest corner of the State are Sand and
Lookout mountains, portions of the Cumberland
plateau of Tennessee and Alabama, covering
parts of two counties These mountains, capped
with Carboniferous sandstone (coal measures),
have comparatively flat tops, several miles wide,
averaging about 1000 feet above the adjacent
valleys or 2000 feet above sea level. The re-
mainder of the Paleozoic region is mostly narrow
chert and sandstone ridges, of lesser elevation
than the plateaus just mentioned, and broad
shale and limestone valleys, having a general
north-northeast to south-southwest trend There
are several caves in the valleys
The northeastern mountain region termi-
nates on the west in a bold escarpment, 500 to
2000 feet above the neighboring Paleozoic val-
leys The whole region is mountainous, with
many peaks 2000 to 5000 feet above sea level,
and sharp ridges and narrow valleys radiating
from them in a very irregular manner, the whole
affording some magnificent scenery
The piedmont region ranges in altitude from
about 1500 feet at the foot of the mountains to
300 feet or less along the fall line Its topog-
raphy is characterized by broad rounded ridges
and comparatively narrow valleys, averaging
perhaps 100 feet deep From most elevated
points in the region the horizon appears nearly
level, but there are quite a number of isolated
peaks standing out conspicuously above the
surioundmg country, such as Kennesaw Moun-
tain m Cobb County (1809 feet above sea level),
Stone Mountain in Bekalb (1686 feet), Little
Stone Mountain in the same county, Alcovy
Mountain in Walton, and Graves Mountain in
Lincoln By far the most striking of these is
Stone Mountain, which is plainly visible and
easily reached from Atlanta, It is a massive
dome of granite, over a mile in diameter and
about 700 feet high, with the north side almost
perpendicular Being mostly bare of vegetation
and variegated with vertical stripes made by
water running over the smooth rock in rainy
weather, it presents a sight never to be forgot-
ten In the southern part of the piedmont re-
gion, between Griffin and Columbus, are the
southernmost mountains in the eastern United
States, two sandstone ridges appioximately
parallel to the fall line The northern and
larger of the two, known as Pine Mountain, ex-
tends from neai Barnesville to the Chattahoo-
chee River, and its summit is in some places
about 1300 feet above sea level, or 800 feet
above the country on either side The Flint
River cuts through it neai its centre, making
some veiy pictuiesque scenery Oak Mountain,
a few miles farther south, is sniallei in every
way
The boundary between the piedmont region
and the coastal plain is known as the fall line
because most of the livers which cross it have
shoals or rapids there
The coastal plain is not m the least moun-
tainous, its maximum elevation along the fall line
being about TOO feet, but its topogiaphy is con-
siderably divei sified It is travel sed by a few
inland-facing escaipments, the most pronounced
of which are in the westein half of the State, at
the inland edge of the Eocene led lulls and of
the rolling wire-grass country, or Altamaha Grit
region Towards the coast and along some of
the rivers there aie some evidences of low ter-
races facing seaward
In the gray -marl legion southeast of Colum-
bus there are narrow ridges and broad valleys
something like those of noithwest Georgia on
a small scale The southern red hill region is
characterized by broad ridges and valleys some-
thing like those of the piedmont, except that
the valleys are usually more or less swampy
The lime-sink region has a gently undulating
surface, with many shallow ponds and few
streams. Near its south edge in Grady County
there is a remarkable bit of scenery in the shape
of a lime sink about 50 feet deep, into which a
small stream plunges perpendicularly, making
a beautiful waterfall. There are a few caves
and lakes in the same neighborhood
The rolling wire-grass country is moderately
hilly to nearly level, with many streams, some
of the smaller ones being in valleys as much as
50 feet deep Shallow ponds, which dry up in
spring, are common in the moie level portions
Prom the inland edge of this region to the coast
the topography gradually flatten s, and most of
the area within 50 miles of the coast is less than
100 feet above sea level In the fiat country,
however, the scenery is somewhat diversified by
numerous swamps and ponds and a few low
terraces and ridges From a few miles west of
Jesup a broad low ridge, parallel to the coast
and 40 miles distant from it, extends southward
into the great bend of the St Mary's Biver
and some distance into Florida Although it ib
less than 100 feet high, and its slopes are verv
gentle, the flatness of the country on both sides
of it makes it rather conspicuous Immediately
west of this ridge (as if dammed up by it),
near the Florida line, is Okefinokee Swamp,
( q v ) , a little-known but beautiful wilderness
about 700 square miles in extent
Along the south border of the State, between
Valdosta and Cambridge, is a more diversified
region, with low hills, comparatively rich soil.,
and considerable hammock (qv) vegetation.
The coast is bordered by a series o£ islands of
various shapes, with sand dunes on their outer
edges and extensive salt marshes between them
and the mainland
Waterways. Every part of Georgia, except
the lime-sink region and some of the flat coun-
OTSOBGIA
624
try near the coast, is well supplied with streams.
Most of the rivers take fairly dnect couises to
the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, except
in a few of the northernmost counties, where
some of the diainage is into the Tennessee
River and thus through Alabama, Tennessee,
and Kentucky into the Ohio and finally into the
Mississippi.
The rivers of the northwestern valley region
aie mostly sluggish, and the Coosa is navigable
from Rome some distance down into Alabama
In the mountain and piedmont regions the iiv-
ers are full of rapids, and there is no steam-
boat navigation, but a vast amount of water
powei, which is used by many factories and
hydroelecti ic plants. The gieatest water powers
are just above the fall line at Augusta and
Columbus and have contributed largely to the
development of those cities It has been esti-
mated that the total available water power in
Georgia, for the lowest stage of the sticams, is
nearly 500,000 horse power This makes no
allowance for storage reservoirs, which might
be expected to double the minimum water powei
There is no water power in the coastal plain ex-
cept on some of the smaller streams in the more
elevated portions.
The five large muddy rivers which cross the
fall line in Georgia, viz , the Sa\ annah, Oconee,
Oemulgee, Flint, and Chattahoochee, are navi-
gable most of the way across the coastal plain,
the first and last all *the way (to Augusta and
Columbus), and the others usually to Dublin,
Hawkmsville, and Albany respectively The
streams which rise below the fall line and are
thus confined to the coastal plain are, as a rule,
coifee-coloi ed ( from vegetable mattei ) instead
of muddy, and are too small for much naviga-
tion except in the tidal portions near their
mouths.
Between the sea islands above mentioned and
the mainland there is an intricate system of
crooked tidal channels, forming a continuous
protected waterway the whole length of the
G-eorgia coast and some distance into South
Carolina and Florida, for sailboats and power
boats of light draft. The principal seaports are
Savannah, Brunswick, Darien, and St Mary's,
in the order named
Climate Owing to its considerable extent
from north to south (4%° of latitude), com-
bined with the fact that the highest elevations
are close to the north border and the lowest at
the south, Georgia has a wide range of climate.
At Clayton, near the northeast corner, 2100 feet
above sea level, the average temperature for
January is 40° F, for July 744° F, and for
the year 56 9° F , with a growing season (period
free from killing frosts) of 187 days, or scarcely
more than half the year, while the mountain
summits in the vicinity, nearly 3000 feet higher,
must be considerably coldei In the whole north-
eastern mountain region the climate is too cold
for the successful cultivation of cotton, which
seems to require a growing season of at least
200 days At St Mary's, in the southeast cor-
ner of the State, the average temperature for
January is 524° F, for July 81° F, and for
the year 67.4° F , with a growing season of 263
days or nearly nine months. For the whole
State the average temperature is just that which
mankind finds most comfortable
The lowest officially recorded temperature in
Georgia is 12° Tbelow zero F. (though it doubt-
less falls below this figure on the higher moun-
tains, wheie no one hveb), and the highest 106°
F. Snow falls in the mountains beveial times
each winter, and there was 24 inches of it at
"Rome in December, 1886, and 26^ inches at
Diamond, Gilmer Co, in Febiuaiy, 1895 Along
the southern bordei of the State several yeais
sometimes elapse between snows
The a\eiage annual precipitation ranges from
about 40 inches at Swamsboro, in the south-
eastern poition, to 69 inches at Clayton, and
doubtless still moie at higher altitudes Outside
of the mountains the total precipitation does
not seem to be correlated very closely with al-
titude 01 distance from the coast or any other
kno^n factor Some of the extreme figures for
single years are 101% inches at Diamond in
1889 and less than 30 inches at Augusta m
1904
The rainfall is pretty well distributed over
the seasons, no station having less than two-
fifths or moie than two-thirds of the total an-
nual pi ecipitation in the six wannest months
(May to Octobei) The driest summeis seem
to be at Koine, m noithwest Georgia, wlieie 42 6
per cent of the rain falls in the six wannest
months and 302 per cent in the foui wannest
months , and the wettest ( proportionately ) along
the coast, where nearly two -thirds of the rain
comes in the six warmest months and about half
in four months
In general, the amount of summer ram in-
creases towards the coast, except that it is
greater in the mountains than at lower altitudes
near by
West Indian hurricanes sweep the coast every
few years in late summer or fall, and tornadoes
sometimes cut narrow swaths in the interior,
mostly in the western hcilf of the State and in
spring or early summer, avei aging probably
not more than one in two or thiee years for
the whole State, or one in 1000 years for any
one locality
Arlington was damaged in that way in 1897,
Gainesville in 1903, and Griffin and vicinity in
, 1908.
Vegetation. Georgia, was originally com-
pletely covered with forests, except for a few-
grassy glades and mountain summits ("balds")
in the northern half, a few lakes or laige ponds
in the southern half, salt maishes, beaches, and
shifting dunes along the coast, and the chan-
nels of nvers Appi oximately 67 per cent was
still wooded at the time of the last census,
but piobably not over half of that is virgin
forest
In the northern half the forests are generally
composed of short-leaf pines and deciduous trees
in approximately equal proportion, except that
west of a line drawn from Rome to Macon there
is a considerable admixture of long-leaf pine
White pine and hemlock grow in several of the
northeastern mountain counties Long-leaf pine,
the most important tree of the South, is found
in every county in south Georgia, but is not
very abundant in the Cretaceous and Eocene
regions. On the Pine Mountains of western
middle Georgia, previously mentioned, and still
more on the fall-line sand hills and m the lower
three-fourths of the coastal plain (except in the
southern hammock region and along the coast),
it is the dominant feature of the landscape The
forests of this pine are generally very open and
sunny, with an undergrowth of wire grass and
other low plants i
Swamps of various kinds are chiefly confined
GEOBGIA
625
GEOKGIA
to the coastal plain, arid in them are found
cypress and vanous oaks, bays, gums, etc , rarely
seen north of the fall line Many of the swamps,
especially coastward, are bordered by hammocks
( q v ) , in which the evergreen magnolia, ever-
green willow oak, red bay, dogwood, hop horn-
beam, etc , are usually conspicuous The "Span-
ish moss" (Tilland&ia usneoides } , an epiphyte
which is abundant in the lower and damper
parts of the coastal plain, gives a somewhat
tropical touch to the landscape
In the flat pine woods within 50 miles of the
coast the saw palmetto ($e?enoa) is a chai-
acteristic feature of the undergiowth, its stiff
fanhke leaves rising to an average height of
about 2 feet from a prostrate trunk The cab-
bage palmetto (Sabal palmetto), the only ai-
borescent palm in the eastern United States
outside of Florida, grows on seveial of the sea,
islands and in a few places on the mainland
near by
Evergreens are most abundant where the soil
is poorest and the summers wettest. They piob-
ably constitute about 50 per cent of the forest
on the higher mountains and 75 per cent in the
coast counties
There are about 140 species of trees in Geoi-
gia, including 10 pines, about 25 oaks (at least
one of these confined to Georgia ) , 5 or 6 ashes,
5 gurus (including sweet gum, winch belongs
to a different family from the other four), 4
or 5 maples, 6 or 7 magnolias, 4 elms, and at
least 6 hickories Two or three of the pines
are more abundant than any other species, and
piobably some of the oaks next
Mineral Resources. Gold was found m White
County in 1829, and 10 years later the gold-
mining industry had reached such importance
that a branch mint was established at Dah-
lonega Both quartz and placer mines occur,
but most of the output at the present time is
made from the former type of deposits, which
occur along the southern slopes of the Blue
Ridge Iron ore is mined at several localities in
the Paleozoic region, where there are also valu-
able deposits of ochre, manganese, and bauxite
under exploitation Among nonmetalhc prod-
ucts, coal, clay, marble, and granite are most
important The coal fields are located in Dade
and Walker counties and are an extension of
the Warrior field of Alabama Brick clays and
fire clays are widely distributed throughout the
State, but mining is limited practically to lo-
calities near the larger towns The marble in-
dustry for several years past has steadily grown
in importance, owing to the reputation which
Georgia marble has gained all over the United
States as a valuable building and ornamental
stone Various qualities of granite suitable for
building, street paving, and monumental work
are quarried, and the State's resources in this
stone are inexhaustible* Among the other min-
eral products of Georgia are silver, copper,
pyrite, graphite, asbestos, talc, mica, corundum,
cement, slate, kaolin, ochre, barite, marl, and
limestone.
Mining Georgia is of relatively minor im-
portance in the value of its mineral output, al-
though it ranks second among all the States in
the production of five mineral substances — as-
bestos, barytcs, bauxite, mineral paints, and
fuller's earth In relative importance among
the States in the production of minerals it ranks
thirty-seventh, with an aggregate annual output
at a little over $6,000,000. No metal of any im-
portance is produced except iron, and the only
mineral fuel mined is coal, a small amount of
which is produced annually in the northwest
corner The branches of the mining industry
that furnish the principal portion of the prod-
uct are the quarries and the clay-woiking es-
tablishments In the production of stone Geor-
gia ranks first among the Southern States and
eleventh among all the States of the Union It
is third among the Southern States* and twelfth
among all the States in the vdlue of its clay
products Its granites have a high reputation
for building, and Georgia marbles are highly
praised for their stiucture and decorative possi-
bilities The total value of the stone pioduc-
tion in 1913 was $2,105,360, compared with $1,-
983,016 in 1912 The principal stone-quarrying
counties are Dekalb and Hancock for granite
and Pickens for marble The manufactmed
clay products in 1913 were valued at $2,692,619,
a decrease from $2,806,541 in 1912 In addi-
tion to the manufactured claj pioducts, 75,815
short tons of raw clay, valued at $244,953, weie
sold in 1912 Common brick represents about
60 per cent of the total manufactured clay prod-
ucts, and sewer pipe less than 25 pei cent Bibb
County is the principal clay-working county and
the chief producer of common and fiont brick
and sewer pipe Common brick is also exten-
sively manufactured in Richmond and Fulton
and other counties The principal law-clay
pioduct is white clay used in the manufacture
of paper, of which m 1912 Georgia produced 48,-
432 short tons, valued at $210,908 The State
is the principal producer of this grade of clay
The production of coal, which, as stated above,
is limited to the noithwest corner of the State
in Dade and Walker counties, was, in 1913,
255,626 tons, valued at $361,319, compared with
227,503 short tons, valued at $338,426, in 1912
The production of cement decreased from 368,-
462 barrels, valued at $330,186, in 1911, to
359,769, valued at $311,616, in 1912 Georgia
is one of the chief sources of supply for ochre,
of which 11,869 tons, valued at $123,616, were
pioduced m 1913 Other productions of con-
siderable importance are bauxite, 19,587 tons,
valued at $80,701; fuller's earth, asbestos, bary-
tes, lime, pyrite, and sand-lime brick A small
amount of gold is mined In 1912 this amounted
to 695 fine ounces, valued at $14,360 In the
same year 135,337 long tons of iron ore, valued
at $227,282, were taken from the iron mines
of the State The total value of the mineral
products m 1913 amounted to $6,525,792, com-
pared with $6,306,140 in 1912
Fisheries The fisheries of the State are not
lelatively important The most important prod-
uct of this industry is the oyster, of which
in 1908, the latest year for which statistics are
available, 1,423,000 bushels were taken. These
were valued at $332,990 Next in importance
was shad, of which 1,333,300 pounds, valued at
$190,000, were taken in 1908 Of some impor-
tance are the catches of red snapper, terrapin,
turtles, catfish, sea bass, and squeteague, or
trout The total value of the products of the
State in 1908 was $699,660
Agriculture Agriculture is th.e most impor-
tant industry of the State There is am abun-
dance of land adapted to the successful
growing of crops The soils are extremely
varied, ranging from gray and yellow sandy
loams to heavy red sandy loams and red clays
The principal soils of the piedmont region are
626
OEOB0IA
a heavy red clay and a gray sandy loam with
a heavy red clay subsoil The soils of the
eastern portion of the mountain region are
red loams, and clays derived from the weath-
ering of the met amor phic rocks of this section
Within the western mountain and plateau
regions the soils are principally sandy and
silty loams denved from the weathering of
sandstone and shale are not extensively used
foi agricultural purposes The soils of the
limestone valleys consist either of daik-brown
or red clay loam and clay soils, or of eherty-gray
silty loams or stony loams Extensive areas of
the mountain section of northern Georgia are
coveied by forest.
The appi ox.imate land area of the State is
37,584,000 acres, and of this there were in farms,
in 1910, 26,953,413 acies, compared with 26,-
392,057 acres in 1900 The improved land in
farms in 1910 was 12,298,017 acies, compared
with 10,615,644 acres in 1900, or an increase of
15 8 per cent m the decade The total number
of all farms in the State in 1910 was 291,027,
compared with 224,691 in 1900, a gam of 63,~
336 farms, or 295 per cent. The average acies
per farm in 1910 were 92 6, compaied with 117 5
m 1900 The total value of the farm pioperty
of the State, including land, buildings, imple-
ments and machineiy, domestic animals, poultry,
and bees, was, in 1910, $580,546,381, compared
with a value m 1000 of $228,374,637 This is a
gain of $352,171,744, or 1542 per cent in the
decade The aveiage value of all pioperty per
farm increased from $1016 in 1900 to $1995 in
1910, and the average value of land per acre
increased from $5 25 in 1900 to $13 74 in 1910
Since 1870 the increase in improved acreage
has been relatively greater than in the total
farm acreage, the proportion of improved acre-
age rising continuously from 28 9 in 1870 to
45 6 in 1910.
The average size of farms in the State has
decreased continuously from 4409 in 1850 to
92.6 acres in 1910. The decline was most rapid
in the decade from 1870 to 1880 In 1850 and m
1860 the "plantation'' was the common farm
unit in a considerable part of the State, as it
had been during the entire first half of the cen-
tury, and it had not entirely disappeared even in
1870 During the last 40 years most planta-
tions have been divided gradually into smaller
parcels of land, operated largely by tenants Of
the total number of farms in 1910 (291,027),
98 628 were operated by owners, 1419 by man-
agers, and 190,980 by tenants Tenants, accord-
ing to the character of their tenancy, numbered
105,504 share tenants, 3089 share-cash tenants,
and 75,223 cash tenants While the total num-
ber of farms increased 109 9 per cent from 1880
to 1910, the number of tenants increased 207 2
per cent It will be noted, therefore, that by
far a larger part of the farms of the State are
operated by tenants, but nevertheless the greater
farm area is operated by owners. This included
55 I of all land in farms in 1910, while only
42 per cent of the land area in farms was oper-
ated by tenants.
The relative participation of the white and
colored population m farming in Georgia is^of
interest as tending to show in a State in which
a large proportion of the population is colored,
the development of that race in agricultural
pursuits The total land area owned, managed,
or leased by white farmers m 1910 was
19,861,362 acres, and the improved land in
farms was 7,506,455 acies In 1900 the total
acreage was 20,917,083, while the impioved
acreage was 7,292,998 For colored owneis,
managers, and tenants, the total acreage in
1910 was 7,092,051 The improved land in faims
\vas 4,791,562 In 1900 the total acieage was
5,474,974, while the irnpioved land was 3,322,-
646 The total value of faim propertv owned
or leased by white farmers was, in 1910, $350,-
320,600, compared with $144,028,880 m 1900.
The value of the land owned or leased by col-
ored farmeis m 1910 was $128,883,732, compaied
\\ith $39,341,240 in 1900 It will thus be seen
that the total acreage, the improved land in
faims, and the value of farm piopeity owned by
colored farmers has increased moie lapidly than
that owned by white farmers Of all the land
in farms operated by white farmers in 1910, 68
per cent was in farms opeiated by their owneis,
and 28 2 in tenant farms, while of that in farms
operated by colored farmers, 19 per cent was in
farms operated by owners and 80 6 pei cent in
tenant farms Between 1900 and 1910 the pro-
portion of land in farms operated by owneis de-
creased among white farmeis, while among col-
ored farmers it showed an increase The white
faim opeiators in 1910 numbered 168,468, or
57 9 per cent, while 122,559, or 42 1 per cent,
were nonwhites Of these all but five were
negroes The aveiage size of faims operated
by3 white farmers in 1910 was more than twice
as large as that of farms operated by colored
farmers The aveiage size of the former was
1179 acres and of the latter 579 acres Both
classes of farms decreased m size between 1900
and 1910 The proportion of land impioved was
larger for faims of coloied farmers than for
those of white farmers, being respectively 67 6
per cent and 37 8 in the total acreage in each
class of farms
Of the 98,628 farms owned in 1910, 78,004
were free from mortgage, while 18,275 were
mortgaged The average debt per farm was
$794, while the average equity per farm was
$1918.
The general character of farming operations
in the State is indicated by the table below,
LEADING CHOPS
Acreage
Prod bu
Value
Com . 1913
4,066,000
63,023,000
$57,351,000
1909
3,383,061
39,374,569
37,079,981
Wheat 1913
140,000
1,708,000
2,050,000
1909
93,065
752,858
871,494
Oats 1913
420,000
9,240,000
6,283,000
1909
411,664
6,199,243
4,236,625
Rye 1913
13,000
124,000
167,000
1909
12,352
59,937
69,365
Rice 1913
500
16,000
13,000
1909
6,445
148,698
145,813
Potatoes 1913
12,000
972,000
1,021,000
1909
11,877
886,430
684,427
Sweet potatoes 1913
1909
83,000
84,038
7,221,000
7,426,131
4,910,000
4,349,806
Hay 1913
250,000
350,000*
6,265,000
1909
253,157
261,333
4,056,907
Tobacco 1913
1909
1,800
2,025
1,800,000 1
1,485,994
558,000
297,167
Cotton 1913
5,328,000
2,275,000 J
139,135,000
1909
4,883,304
1,992,408
126,695,612
* Tons. t Pounds.
Bales of 500 pounds each.
which shows the acreage, production, and value
of the leading crops m 1909 and 1913. The fig-
ures for 1909 are from the thirteenth census,
and those for 1913 are estimates of the United
States Department of Agriculture
GEORGIA
627
GEORGIA
The relative importance of cotton in the agri-
cultural industry of the State is shown by the
fact that about two-thirds ( 66 2 per cent ) of
the total crops in 1909 was contributed by cot-
ton and somewhat less than one-fifth (187 per
cent) by cereals The remainder, representing
15 1 per cent of the total, consisted for the most
part of potatoes and other vegetables and of
forest products The leading crops in the order
of their importance as judged by value are cot-
ton, corn, cottonseed, sweet potatoes and yams,
oats, and hay and forage The acreage of the
combined ceieals is about four-fifths that of
cotton, while their value is only about one-
third that of this latter crop Corn ranks first
among the cereals, representing about seven-
eighths both of the total acreage and the total
value Theze has been a constant increase in
the acieage of cotton in recent years The larg-
est increase was during the decade 1900-10,
when it amounted to 1,369,465 acres The out-
put of cottonseed in 1909 was 996,204 tons,
valued at $23,241,446 During the same decade
the production of corn decreased slightly, while
oats made a slight increase The acreage of
hay and forage has increased very rapidly dur-
ing the last two decades The growing of pea-
nuts has become an important industry, and
since 1889 the acreage has increased with
great rapidity, more than trebling since that
year.
The acreage of cotton is distributed more or
less generally throughout the State, except in the
mountains and near the coast. The largest acre-
ages, however, are reported for counties located
in the lowlands and river bottoms, as Burke,
Laurens, Meriwether, and Sumter The acreage
of corn is also distributed very evenly throughout
the State As a rule, those counties which have
large acreages of cotton have also large acreages
of corn. Counties in which peanuts are chiefly
grown are almost entirely in the southern half
of the State, the leading county being Brooks
The value of the peanuts grown in 1909 was
$2,440,926 The amount produced was 2,569,-
787 bushels from 160,317 acres The growing
of sugar cane is important in south Georgia
The cane grown in 1909 was 317,460 tons From
this was made 22,392 pounds of sugar and 5,533,-
520 gallons of sirup The total value of sugar-
cane products in 1909 was $2,268,000, compared
with $1,481,000 in 1899
The total value of orchard fruits grown in
1909 was $2,930,793 The most important of
these were peaches of which there were grown
2,555,499 bushels, valued at $2,182,613 Other
fruits are apples, pears, plums, and prunes
Of grapes there were produced, in 1909, 2,767,-
366 pounds, valued at $99,216 Figs are pro-
duced in considerable quantities The produc-
tion in 1909 was 1,183,494 pounds, valued at
$50,326 The most important small fruit are
strawberries, of which 1,157,472 quarts, valued
at $101,161 -were grown in 1909
Live Stock and Dairy Products The total
value of the domestic animals, poultry, and
bees in 1910 was $78,118,098 The cattle
numbered 1,080,316, valued at $14,060,958,
horses, 120,067, valued at $14,193,839, mules,
295,348, valued at $43,974,611, swine, 1,783,-
684, valued at $5,429,016, sheep, 187,644,
valued at $308,212 The number and value of
live stock on Jan. 1, 1914, were estimated by the
United States Department of Agriculture as
fallows^ cattle other than milch cows, 660,000?
valued at $8,382,000, milch cows, 402,000., val-
ued at $12,583,000, sheep, 166,000, valued at
$349,000, swine, 1,945,000, valued at $15,949,-
000, horses, 128,000, valued at $16,768,000,
mules, 319,000, valued at $51,359,000 The total
numbei of fowls of all kinds in 1910 was 5,328,-
584, valued at $2,088,563
The total value of the dairy products, includ-
ing milk, cream, butter fat, butter, and cheese,
made in 1909 was $6,621,585
Manufactures. Although Georgia is an agri-
cultural rather than a manuf actui ing State, it
has for the past 60 years been one of the lead-
ing and most progressive industrial States of the
South The superior transp citation facilities
account in part for its rapid industiial growth
duimg this penod It is travel sed bv the im-
portant railway systems of the South, from
which numerous feeders afford easy access to all
parts of the State It possesses also the ad-
vantages of excellent watei communication The
growth of the manuf actui ing industries of the
State is shown by the fact that the total value of
the manufactured products, including the prod-
ucts of neighborhood and hand industries,
amounted in 1849 to only $7,082,000, while in
1899, exclusive of the value of the pioducts of
the neighborhood and hand industries, it was
$94,532,000, or more than 13 times as great as 50
years previous The increase during the decade
1900-10 was even more remarkable The value of
products of the factory industries of the State
had by 1909 increased to $202,863,000, a gam of
114 6 per cent in the decade, which was far in ex-
cess of the proportionate growth of the popula-
tion The table on the following page gives the
most important data relating to the manufactur-
ing industries of the State in 1909, in comparison
with 1904. Only industries whose product in
1909 was valued at $1,000,000, or ovei are shown
in this table There were in Georgia, in 1909,
4792 manufacturing establishments, which gave
employment to an average of 118,036 persons
during the year and paid out $43,867,000 in sala-
nes and wages
Although a few industries predominate in im-
portance, there is a considerable diversity in
the manufacturing activities of the State The
most important industry is that connected with
the manufacture of textiles This includes cot-
ton goods, hosiery and knit goods, and woolen
and worsted goods. The value of these manu-
factures in 1909 was $52,141,000, 01 257 per
cent of the total value of all the manufactured
products of the State The textile industries
are confined entirely to the cotton-goods branch,
which is first in importance among the individ-
ual industries of the State, with a value of prod-
ucts in 1909 almost doubling that of the lum-
ber and timber industry, which ranked next
For a number of years Georgia has produced
next to the largest cotton crop of any State, but
it ranks only fifth among the States in the value
of its cotton manufactures It is interesting to
know that, while the percentage of increase in
the value of products from 1899 to 1904 was
greater than that in value added by manu-
facture, from 1904 to 1909 the increase in the
value added by manufacture was the greater
This variation was due partly to the rise in
price of raw cotton during the earlier five-year
period Closely allied to the cotton industry is
the manufacture of hosiery a»d knit goods,
which are made almost entirely of cotton ma-
terials, Although the yalue of products of this
GEOBGrlA 628 GEORGIA
COMPAKATIVE SUMMARY FOR 1909 AND 1904
THE STVTE — ALL IN0TTSTBIES COMBINED AND SELECTED INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRY
Cen-
sus
Num-
ber of
estab-
lish-
ments
Wage
earn-
ers
(aver-
age
num-
ber)
Capital
Wages
Cost of
mate-
rials
Value
of
prod-
ucts
Value
added
by
manu-
fac-
ture
Expressed in thousands
All industries
1909
1904
4,792
3,219
104,588
92,749
$202,778
135,212
$34,805
27,392
$116,970
83,625
$202,863
151,040
$85,893
67,415
Agricultural implements
1909
1904
17
16
552
584
1,410
792
190
171
583
602
1,117
1,040
534
438
Boxes, fancy and paper
1909
1904
8
4
309
172
659
114
93
36
786
87
1,140
185
354
98
Bread and other bakery products
1909
1904
110
82
491
396
525
312
213
138
932
560
1,532
935
500
375
Bnck and tile
1909
1904
75
59
1,901
1446
2,771
1,814
547
350
534
365
1,711
1,337
1,177
972
Carnages and wagons and materials
1909
1904
83
75
1,059
1,115
2,220
1,509
489
426
1,367
1,222
2,560
2,303
1,193
1,081
Cars and general shop construction and repairs
by steam-railroad companies
1909
1904
34
28
6,269
4,777
4,271
2,102
3,162
2,416
2,964
2,058
6,535
4,775
3,571
2,717
Clothing, men's, including shirts
1909
1904
22
14
1,242
1,022
1,006
548
341
265
1,168
929
1,934
1,482
766
553
Confectionery
1909
1904
23
16
648
589
902
656
225
156
1,432
969
2,172
1,570
740
601
Copper, tin, and sheet-iron products
1909
1904
25
11
619
186
2,808
86
292
88
707
182
1,326
325
619
143
Cotton goods, including cotton small wares
1909
1904
116
103
27,803
24,130
64,651
42,350
7,721
5,313
32,049
23,832
48,037
35,174
15,988
11,342
Fertilizers
1909
1904
110
57
2,770
2,192
24,233
11,158
921
581
10,944
6,527
16,800
9,461
5,856
2,934
Flour-null and gnstrmH products
1909
1904
105
114
386
464
2,749
1,869
144
146
6,729
7,265
8,000
8,179
1,271
914
Foundry and machine-shop products
1909
1904
107
84
2,892
3,112
7,993
5,260
1,452
1,298
2,662
2,052
5,808
5,264
3,146
3,212
Furniture and refrigerators
1909
1904
42
32
1,406
1,828
2,080
1,904
508
504
883
902
2,060
2,115
1,177
1,213
Gas, illuminating and heating
1909
1904
15
12
459
482
7,075
5,832
206
164
368
291
1,425
1,061
1,057
770
Hosiery and knit goods
1909
1904
22
21
2,743
1,935
3,270
1,947
719
396
1,872
1,417
3,233
2,326
1,361
909
lee, manufactured
1909
1904
61
48
494
399
3,360
1,705
210
142
275
200
1,163
858
888
658
Leather goods
1909
1904
34
29
683
1,021
1,426
1,011
252
330
1,332
1,325
2,086
2,072
754
747
Leather, tanned, curned, and finished
1909
1904
10
29
306
533
1,267
2,406
99
154
1,051
1,887
1,374
2,382
323
495
Liquors, malt
1909
1904
4
5
212
319
1,790
1,574
120
141
416
306
1,207
1,284
791
978
Lumber and timber products
1909
1904
1,826
949
22,257
19,684
23,337
15,309
7,305
6,324
8,505
6,666
24,632
21,648
16,127
14,982
Marble and stone -work
1909
1904
104
50
2,099
2,018
2,117
2,924
998
823
793
626
2,648
2,408
1,855
1,782
Oil, cottonseed, and cake
1909
1904
142
112
2,888
2,307
12,720
11,527
846
608
19,440
11,262
23,641
13,540
4,201
2,728
Patent medicines and compounds and drug-
gists' preparations
1909
1904
50
34
210
168
557
75S
81
63
442
319
1,421
1,541
979
1,222
Printing and publishing
1909
1904
442
359
2,395
2,066
4,732
3,770
1,344
964
1,588
1,030
6,400
3,980
4312
2,950
Turpentine and rosin
1909
1904
592
432
12,787
11,736
2,990
2,374
2,931
3,041
1,260
1,156
6,939
7,706
5t679
6,550
GEOBGIA
629
GEORGIA
industry is small \vhen compared with that of tries — the manufacture of cotton goods, the lum-
the cotton-goods industry in 1909, it increased 89 bei, and the feitilizer industries — are to a large
per cent fiom 1899 to 1904 and 39 per cent fiom extent conducted outside of cities having a popu-
1904 to 1909 The manufacture of woolen,
worsted., and felt goods is comparatively unim-
portant
The second industry in impoitance in the
value of its pioducts is that connected with lum-
bei and timber and their manufactures It em-
braces establishments engaged in logging, and
also saw mills, planing mills, and wooden pack-
ing-box factories Statistics of mills engaged
exclusively in custom sawing for local consump-
tion are not included The thud important in-
dustry is that connected with the manufaetuie
of oil, cottonseed, and cake This industry,
which is dependent upon the cotton crop for its
materials, was not important until after 1890,
but since that date its growth has been rapid
The fertilizer mdustiy is fourth in importance
In 1904 Georgia contributed about one-sixth the
total value of the products of the feitilizer in-
dustry. The increased production of fertilizers
in the State, the value of which was about five
times as great in 1909 as in 1899, is due to sev-
eral causes, among which were the greater de-
mand for fertilizers, the rapid increase in the
manufacture of cottonseed oil m the State, and
the increase in the amount of phosphate rock
mined in adjoining States
The presence of extensive pine forests has
made the turpentine and rosin industry one of
lation of 10,000 or ovei
The increase in the industrial importance of
the State is indicated by the japid growth of
its large cities from 1900 to 1910 Atlanta,
winch in 1900 had a population of 89,872, had
increased in 1910 to 154,839 The wage earneis
in that city in 1909 numbered 12,302, compared
with 11,891 m 1904 and 7966 in 1899 The
value of the pioducts of the manufactures of
Atlanta in 1909 amounted to $33 038,002, com-
paiod with $25,745,650 in 1904 and $14,418,834
in 1899 This shows an inciease of over 100
per cent in the decade Macon ranks second in
the value of its products, but fourth in the nuin-
bei of wage earners Augusta ranks second in
the number of wage earners and thud in the
value of products Both these cities had pio-
duced manufactured pioducts of a value of over
$10 000,000 m 1909 Columbus ranked third
in the numbei of A\asfe earners and had prod-
ucts valued at $8,531,998 m 1909 In Savan-
nah theie were 2727 wage earneis and a product
valued at $6,733,651 Other important manu-
facturing cities aie Athens, Rome, Waycross,
and Biunswick In ail these, except the last
named, the value of products in 1909 exceeded
$1,000,000
Porest Products The thirteenth census re-
ports 2083 saw mills in Georgia, with the fol-
importance Georgia ranks among the first of lowing output of lumber, laths, and shingles
the States in the pioduction of these commodi-
ties. The mdustiy, however, shows a decrease
from 1904 to 1909 This is due m part to a
depletion of the forests in certain localities of
the State and in part to the unsatisfactory prices
for the year 1909
Conifers — "Yellow pine" (which means all
the pines except white), 1,194,987,000 feet;
white pine, 31,324,000, "spruce" (probably
meaning spruce pine, for real spruce is not
for turpentine which tended to discourage its known in Georgia) , 2,789,000, hemlock, 966,000,
manufacture in 1909
An examination of the table will show that
in 1909 there were 104,588 wage earners em-
ployed in the industries of the State Of these,
83,998 were men and 14,549 were women 16
years of age or over The wage earners under
16 years of age numbered 6041 The larger pait
of the total number of women wage earners is
employed in the cotton-goods industry, in which
nearly one-third of the wage earners are women
16 years of age and over In the 10-year period
1899-1909 there was a small decrease in the em-
ployment of children under 16 years of age
For the great majority of wage earners em-
ployed in the industries of the State, the pre-
cvpress (two species), 27,517,000, cedar, 1,648,-
000 Total coniferous wood, 1,259,231,000 feet
Hardwoods — Oak (of several species), 46,-
329,000 feet; yellow poplai (tulip tree), 21,-
472,000, red gum (sweet gum), 4,828,000, ash,
3106,000, chestnut, 2,429,000, cottonwood, 2,-
260,000, hickory, 1,171,000, maple, 535,000,
tupelo gum, 286,000 elm, 274,000, basswood
(linden), 88,000, svcamoie, 80,000, beech, 67,000,
walnut, 48,000, birch, 20,000, cherry, 15,000,
all others, 10,000 Total hardwoods, 83,018,000
The reports of the Census Bureau and Forest
Service made in combination put the total out-
put of lumber in 1900 at 1,308,610 thousand feet
in 1900, 1,041,617 in 1910 and 941,291 thousand
vailing hours of labor in 1909 lange from 60 to feet in 1912
72 a week Of all wage earners 232 per^ °*;v These figures of course do not include fuel,
were employed in establishments where the p °* y^rossties, poles, posts, staves, veneers, tanbark,
vailing hours were less than 60 a week, ano*» £aval stores (qv), etc In 1910 the produc-
only 1 4 per cent in establishments where there tion of turpentine m Georgia was 6,950,000 gal-
were more than 72 a week Ions, worth $4,509,000, and of rosin 870,000
Unlike some others of the Southern States, barrels (of 280 pounds each), worth $4,637,000
the manufacturing industries are not confined These products come from the long-leaf and one
chiefly to the larger cities In 1909 establish- or two other pines Two or three decades ago
• - • - • •• "--'-- i TA A/W\ -_ Georgia led all the other States in naval stores,
but it is now outranked by Florida
There were 133,260 farms in the State which
reported forest products in 1909, and the total
value of these products was $8,938,390, compared
ments located outside of cities having 10,000 in-
habitants or over reported 62 9 per cent of the
total value of manufactured products of the
State and employed 69 4 per cent of the total
average number of wage earners. While very
little relative change took place from the 10-
with $3217,119 in 1899 Of the value m the
year period 1899-1909, on the whole the indus- former year $5,734,530 was that of products
tries of the districts outside the Cities increased used or to be used on the farms themselves,
somewhat more rapidly in respect to value of $2,502,000 as that of products sold or for sale,
products than those located in cities of 10 00€ and $702,360 as the amount received for stand-
* _ mi a i ._i__ j.* j.i~~ £~ «4. j.v.r.4. t^ttf •friYw"Km» rFViooa fi <wi T*oa eTiiYor n. anV»«i'.5i.T»r,iaA
and over This is due largely to the fact that
tkree of the largest and most important mdus-
ing timber These figures
increase for the decade,
a substantial
GEOBGIA
630
GEORGIA
Transportation. See also statement under
Manufactures The total mileage of railways
on June 30, 1912, was 7066 There were, in
addition, 80 miles of double track The rail-
ways having the longest mileage in the State in
1912 \\ere the Central of Georgia Railway,
1331, Southern Railway, 909, Seahoard Air
Line, 744, Atlantic Coast Line, 707, Atlanta,
Birmingham, and Atlantic Railroad, 484,
Georgia and Florida Railway, 310, and the
Georgia Railroad, 303 The city of Savannah
is one of the most important seaports of the
South, and the Savannah, Chattahoochee, Oemul-
gee, Altamaha, and Oconee rrvers are navigable
for eonsideiable distances The Federal govern-
ment has foi seveial years been engaged in
excavating a channel 26 feet deep in Savannah
harbor. The government has also done consider-
able work in the Savannah River below Augusta
See Waterways above
Education In common with other Southern
States, Georgia has had problems relating to
education which have been difficult to solve and
which indeed cannot be solved for many years
The negro population constitutes nearly half of
the total population of the State, and there is
also a large and scattered rural population, the
providing of which with satisfactory educational
facilities is extremely difficult It'is the dispo-
sition of the people and of the Legislature, how-
ever, to make as rapid advance in matters con-
cerning education as is possible under the cir-
cumstances. The Legislature has passed many
local laws concerning education which have in
a measure obviated the need of general legisla-
tion. If a good idea is advanced and finds favor
in a ceitam community, that community can
readily, as a rule, secure legislative consent to
its adoption and need not disturb other com-
munities in doing so. There were in the State
in 1912 over 80 districts organized under laws
of their own choosing, and nearly every modern
idea in constructing a separate school system
can be found in some one or more of the special
laws of the State
That education is advancing in Georgia is
shown by the fact that from 1900 to 1912 the
public-school enrollment increased from 484,-
385 to 571,230, the State appropriation from
$1,440,642 to $2,550,000, the average length
of the school year from 110 days to 142 days,
and the number of teachers from 9692 to
13,105 From 1900 to 1910 the white illiterates
in the State decreased from 119 to 78 per
cent, and the negro illiterates from 52 to 36 5 per
cent It must be considered, in connection with
the negro illiteracy, that, following the close
of the Civil War and for many years after,
almost all of the colored population was illit-
erate. The total number of illiterates in the
State m 1910 was 389,775 Of these 80,203
were native whites and 308,639 were negroes
The illiterates in 1900 numbered 480,420, of
whom 100,431 were native whites and 379,-
067 were negroes In the percentage of il-
literacy Georgia stands about midway among
the Southern States. It ranks above Missis-
sippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Ala-
bama Among all the States Georgia ranks
forty-third m the matter of literacy This
low rank is due chiefly to the large negro popu-
lation, there are more of the colored race in
Georgia than in any other State in the Union
There are several counties, however, where the
white illiteracy is large Of the number of pupils
enrolled in the public schools, only six States in
1912 ranked below Geoigia, and 44 of the States
had more money invested in school property In-
deed only thiee States — Noith Carolina, South
Carolina, and Mississippi — have spent less for
this purpose Only four States — Mississippi,
Alabama, North Carolina, and South Carolina,
in the order named — have a smaller annual ex-
penditure for their school children than Georgia
In salaries paid to teacheis Georgia lanks
low. The average is about $250 a year, while
the average for the United States is about
$485
The total eniollment in the public schools of
the State m 1912 was 571,230 Of these 348,-
571 were \\hite and 222,659 were colored The
average attendance for white pupils was 226,-
914 and foi coloied pupils 130,329 The pupils
in the high schools numbered 23,714, of whom
22,797 weie white and 917 were colored The
total numbei of schools m 1912 was 7840, of
which 4782 were foi white pupils and 3058 for
colored The teachers numbered 13,105, of
whom 9053 weie teacheis in white schools and
4052 in colored schools The average monthly
salary paid to white male teacheis in the county
systems was $66, and to white female teachers
$44 44 For colored male teachers in the county
systems the average was $26 80, and for colored
female teachers $20 85 In special systems the
average monthly salary paid to white male
teacheis was $140, and to white female teachers
$58 92. The average salary for colored male
teachers under the special systems was $31, and
for colored female teachers $30 The total value
of school property and equipment in 1912 was
$12,344,595, and the total number of school-
houses was 6907 The amount raised by local
taxation for the support of schools was $1,819,-
860, and the amount given by the State was
$2,550,000
Georgia is one of the six States having no
form of law with regard to compulsory school
attendance While conditions lender it inad-
visable to attempt radical legislation along this
line, the State Commissioner of Education in his
report for 1912 suggests that it should be pos-
sible to secure legislation that will be help-
ful through moial as well as legal effect, in-
flict no hardship upon people, and give ground
upon which to stand for fuither advancement
later
The Legislature of 1911 passed an educational
reform bill winch in many particulars was an
excellent measure The Act, however, does not
applj to Atlanta, to a few county districts, or
in most of its details to special incorporated
school districts The title of the chief executive
officer of the State was changed from School
Commissioner to Superintendent of Schools
There were, in 1913, 11 distuct agricultural
schools The results attained in these schools
have been very successful Theie are high
schools in nearly all the largest cities These
high schools have to a large extent superseded
nearly all the academies, of which there were
many in the State previous to the Civil War,
In 1913 there were 95 public four -year high
schools and 24 private high schools on the ac-
credited list
Normal schools include the Georgia Normal
and Industrial College at Milledgeville, the
South Georgia State Normal College at Val-
dosta, and the State Normal School at Athena.
The, institution^ for higher e<tucati9n include i&e.
GEOBGIA
631
GEORGIA
University of Georgia (for men) at Athens,
the Geoigia School of Technology at Atlanta,
the North Georgia Agricultural College at Dan-
lonega, Andrew Female College at Cuthbert,
Agnes Scott College for Women at Decatur,
Piedmont College at Demorest, Bessie Tift Col-
lege (for women) at Forsyth, Brenau College
(for women) at Gainesville, Lagrange College
(for women) at Lagiange, the Southern Female
College at Lagrange, Mercei University (for
men) at Macon, Wesleyan Female College at
Macon, and Shoitei College (for women) at
Rome Lamar College was founded at Claiks-
ton, near Atlanta, under the auspices of the
Chiistian church, in 1913 Emory College, at
Oxford, became in 1914 the collegiate depart-
ment of a new university established by the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South, under the
name of Ernoiy University In addition there
were the following colleges for colored students
Atlanta Baptist College at Atlanta, Atlanta
University at Atlanta, Morris Brown College at
Atlanta, and Claik University at South Atlanta
There is also a State normal and industrial
college for colored youths at Savannah
Banks On Aug 9, 1913, there were in the
State 116 national banks, with a capital of
$14,268,500, deposits subject to check of $40,-
635,215 There were 612 State banks, with a
capital of $20,857,753, deposits subject to check
amounting to $25,886,454, and savings deposits
amounting to $10,462,647 In addition to these
theie weie 28 stock savings banks, with 44,852
depositois, and deposits aggregating $1,412,064,
6 private banks, with deposits amounting
to $264,230, and 22 loan and trust companies,
with deposits subject to check amounting to
$5,904,753 and savings deposits amounting to
$3,213,575.
finance. The repoit of the State Treasurer
showed a balance at the beginning of the fiscal
year 1913 of $1,113,517 The receipts for the
year ending Dee 31, 1913, amounted to $6,907,-
138 The disbuisements amounted to $7,281,030,
leaving a balance on Dec 31, 1913, of $739,625
The chief disbursements were for the State in-
stitutions, State departments, schools, pensions,
and interest on the public debt The bonded
debt of the State on Dec 31, 1913, was $6,630,-
702 Of this amount $3,679,000 m bonds ma-
tures in 1915
Population. The growth of the State has
been steady It has never usen above the ninth,
nor fallen below the thirteenth place in rank
In 1910 it held tenth place among the States
After Texas, Georgia is the most populous of
the Southern States, although the density of
population per square mile (444) m 1910 is
exceeded by some others The population m
1790 was 82,500 Since 1850, by decades it has
been as follows 1850, 906,000, "i860, 1,057,000,
1870, 1,184,000, 1880, 1,542000 1890, 18^-
000, 1900, 2,216,000, 1910, 2,609,121, 1920,
2,895,832 The estimated population of the State
on July 1, 1914, was 2,776,513 The per cent of
increase of population in the decade 1900-10 was
17 7 compared with 20 6 from 1800 to 1900 As
is the case with the other Southern States, the
population is prepondeiantlv rural The urban
population, i e , the population in towns of 2500 or
over, was, in 1910, 538,650, while the rural pop-
ulation was 2,070,47L As in other parts of the
country, the percentage of urban population,
however, shows a greater increase than the rural
From 1900 to 1910 the urban population in-
creased 43 2 per cent, while the rural in-
creased only 12 5 per cent The white popula-
tion in 1910 was 1,431,802, while the negroes
numbered 1,176,987 In 1900 the white popula-
tion was 1,181,294, and the colored 1,034,813
In the cential part of the State the negroes
greatly pi edommate, and m some counties
they outnumber the whites The white popu-
lation is almost entirely native-born Immigra-
tion into the State has been very small The
whites of native paientage m 1910 numbered
1,391,058, the whites of foreign or mixed par-
entage 25,672, and foreign-born whites only
15,072 The population is almost exactly divided
between males and females The males in 1910
numbered 1,305,019 and the females 1,304,102
While among whites males are moie numerous
than females, this condition is leversed among
the negroes The males of voting age in the
State in 1910 numbered 620,616 There weie
four cities with a population of 25,000 or ovei
These aie Atlanta, Augusta, Macon, and Sa-
vannah The population of these cities in 1910
and 1900 was as follows Atlanta, 1910, 154,-
839, 1900, 80,872— Savannah, 1910, 65,064,
1900, 54,244 — Augusta, 1910, 41,040, 1900, 39,-
441— Macon, 1910, 40,665, 1900, 23,272 Both
Atlanta and Macon showed large inci eases in
the decade 1900-10 In the case of Atlanta this
amounted to 72 3 per cent and in that of Macon
to 74 7 per cent This increase is due partly
to the development of manufacturing in these
cities (See Manufactures ) Other important
cities in the State are Columbus, 1910, 20,554,
1900, 17,614— Athens, 1910, 14,913, 1900, 10,-
245— Waycross, 1910, 14,485; 1900, 5919—
Rome, 1910, 12,099, 1900, 7291 — Brunswick,
1910, 10,182, 1900, 9081— Albany, 1910, 8190,
1900, 4606 — Amencus, 1910, 8063, 1900, 7674
— Valdosta, 1910, 7656, 1900, 5613— Griffin,
1910, 7478, 1900, 6857 The capital is Atlanta
Religion. The Baptist and Methodist denomi-
nations pi edommate, the former having about
half the religious membership of the State
rlhe Methodists number (1913) about 300,000,
of whom 100,000 are colored Of the smaller
denominations, the Presbyterians have about
20,000 members, the Catholics, 20,000, Chris-
tians, about 10,000, and the Congregationalists,
about 5000 There are 7000 Hebrews
Charities and Corrections The charitable
institutions of the State include an insane asy-
lum for whites and another for negroes, both at
Milledgeville, an institute for the deaf and dumb
at Cave Spring, and an academy for the blind
at Macon In addition to these a number of
private benevolent institutions are supported
in the larger cities of the State There is also
a home for Confederate soldiers There is a
State penitentiary at Milledgeville In. 1905 a
State reformatory, for all persons under 16
years of age convicted of crime in the State,
was established Counties are authonzed to
maintain industrial farms for those convicted of
crime Georgia, in common with other States,
for many years leased its convicts by private
contract The system was first introduced in
1866, when, convicts were leased for a teim of
years to private individuals In 1907 a law
was passed by the Legislature by which the
control of State convicts passed from the
hands of agents or lessees A State-prison com-
mission was created which had administrative
authority over State institutions This com-
mission accepted contracts for convict labor, but
OEOB0IA 6
the prisoners were cared for by State officials
Great abuses developed in this system, and in
1907-08 an investigation was earned on which
showed that many wardens had been in the pay
of convict lessees and that the convicts had been
subject to cruel tieatment in the convict camps
A special session of the Legislature met in that
year, and an end was put to the convict lease
system in the State By the terms of the meas-
ure passed, the leases of convicts which expired
on March 31, 1909, were not to be renewed and
after that date the counties were allowed to
take their pro rata part of the State convicts for
use upon the public \\orks Any convicts re-
maining after this distribution may be employed
by the puson commission in such a way as in
its discretion may seem for the best interests
of the State On April 1, 1909, in accoidance
with the terms of this Act, 2500 prisoners were
transferred from various private stockades to
the respective counties in which their crimes
were committed In 1906 a child-labor law was
passed by the Legislature By the terms of this
mea-sure'no child under 10 years of age is pei-
mitted to labor in or about any factory, and
after Jan 1, 1907, no child under 12 may be so
employed unless an orphan with no other means
of support, or unless a widowed mothei 01 aged
father is dependent upon the child's labor From
Jan 1, 1908, no child under 14 may be employed
in a factory between the hours of 7 p M and 7
AM, and from that date no child under 14 may
be employed in any factory without a certificate
of school attendance of 12 weeks, of which six
weeks must be consecutive
Militia The militia organizations include
three regiments of infantry of 12 companies
each and one separate battalion, of four com-
panies, one squadron of four tioops of cavalry
and one separate troop, two batteries of field
artillery, four companies of coast artilleiy, and
six detachments of sanitary troops The total
strength of enlisted men in 1913 was 2675, and
the officers numbered 223 The official designa-
tion is the National Guard of Georgia
Government, The present constitution of
the State wa& adopted in 1877 It has been
amended, but not in essentials Proposed
amendments must receive a two-thirds vote of
all members of each House, and a majouty vote
of the electors qualified to vote for members of
the Assembly, each amendment being voted on
separately.
Executive — The executive officers of the State
include the Governor, Secretary of State, Comp-
troller, Treasurer, Attoiney-General, Commis-
sioner of Agriculture, and a few others, all
elected for two years The Governor may
serve for two consecutive terms and is then
ineligible for reelection for four years The
President of the Senate and the Speaker of
the House respectively succeed to the gover-
norship in case that office has become vacant
The Governor has the veto power, which may
be overcome by a two-thirds vote of each House
He has also the usual powers of granting re-
prieves, pardons, etc
Legislative — The legislative bodies, the Sen-
ate and the House of Representatives, compose
the G-eneral Assembly The Senate is composed
of 44 members and the House of not more than
184 The senatorial districts include contig-
uous, undivided counties Representatives are
elected from counties on the basis of popula-
tion, and the counties can neither be joined nor
32 GEORGIA
divided Elections for members of the Legis-
lature are held biennially in October of the even
yeais The sessions of the Legislature aie an-
nual ( in summei ) and limited to 50 cla> s The
seat of a membei of either House shall be va-
cated on his removal fiorn the district or county
fiom which he was elected The House of Rep-
resentatives has the power of impeachment, and
the Senate the right to try impeachments
Judiciary — The courts of the State include a
supreme court, a court of appeals, superior
courts, courts of ordinary, justices of the peace,
etc The supreme court is composed of a chief
•justice and five associate justices, and a ma-
loritv of the court constitutes a quorum These
justices are elected by the people and hold of-
fice for six years The court of appeals is com-
posed of three members, also elected by the
people and holding office for six years The
superior court includes one judge for each judi-
cial circuit The term of office is four years,
and the judges are elected by the people The
superior courts have exclusive jurisdiction in
divoice, in criminal cases wheie the ofiendei is
subject to the death penalty, in cases affecting
titles to land, and in equity cases There is an
attorney-general tor the State, and solicitors-
general for each judicial circuit
Suffrage and Elections — The Legislate e of
1907 enacted an amended suffrage law which
had the effect of piactically eliminating the
negro vote in the State This measure required
a two-thuds majouty of the popular vote to
ratify it, and this it received in the autumn of
1908 The measure provided first for educa-
tional qualifications Any male person of law-
ful age who has paid his poll tax may registei
and vote if he can read accurately or write ac-
curately from dictation a paragiaph of the
Constitution of the United States 01 of the State
constitution As a large percentage of negroes
in Georgia are illiterate, this resulted in bar-
ring a great number of them from the ballot
box In order, however, that this piovision
might not disfranchise white as well as colored
persons, there was provided, as an alternative
to the education qualification, a property qualifi-
cation by which any person owning 01 paying
taxes on $500 worth of property may legistei
and vote, whether illiterate or not As a fur-
ther safeguard to white voters, provision was
made that any person who fought in any of the
wais of tlie United States or of the Confederate
States, or a descendant of any such person, may
registei and vote, such registration to be made
before the year 1911, and any person so register-
ing is entitled to vote thereafter without comply-
ing with the educational requirements of the
suffrage law Finally, there was a blanket pro-
vision which gives the registrars of elections
^ discretion in admitting any applicant for regis-
' tration who is of good character and under*
stands the duties of citizenship The Legisla-
ture of 1909 passed measures furthei amending
the election laws and providing additional regu-
lations for primary elections and for the regis-
tration of voters Contributions "by corporations
for election purposes were prohibited State
officers and representatives to Congress are
nominated at primary elections The Legisla-
ture of 1913 passed" laws providing for the
election of United States senators under the
provisions of the Seventeenth Amendment
Other Constitutional and Statutory Prow-
— The legal rate of interest is 7 per cent
GEOBtHA
633
&EORCIA
and tlie rate allowed by contiact is 8 per cent
Judgments become outlawed in seven years,
notes in six years, and open accounts in four
years The chief causes toi divoice aie cruel
treatment, habitual intoxication, willful de-
sertion for tliiee yeais, and conviction for of-
fense involving moral tuipitude, carrying a
sentence of two years or longer rlhe sale of
certain narcotic drugs is prohibited Pensions
are provided for ex-Confederate soldiers and
widows The Legislature of 1911 cieated a
department of fish and game and also a de-
pal tnient of commerce and labor The same
Legislature passed a measure ci eating an in-
surance department On Jan 1, 1908, a State-
wide prohibition law went into effect See His-
toty, below
History. Georgia was originally part of the
vast domain of the Cherokee and Cieek Indians,
themselves the successors of a supenoi race,
whose ruined mounds still exist De Soto, in
1540, penetrated its interior, and Ribault, in
1562, visited its coast Though the region was
included in the grant to the Carolina proprietors,
the English did not occupy it, and their claim
was denied by the Spanish, who had already
worked its mines In June, 1717, the tract be-
tween the Savannah and Altamaha livers, extend-
ing westward to the Pacific Ocean, was granted
to Sir Eobert Montgomery to be held as a distinct
province under the title of the Margravate of
Azilia As it was not settled in the time re-
quired, it lapsed to the proprietors, from whom
the Bntish government purchased, in 1730,
seven-eighths of the territory, which it ceded by
the charter of June 8, 1732, to a body of trustees
organized for the purpose of "establishing the
Colony of Georgia in America" Before this —
February, 1732 — the remaining one-eighth had
been acquired from Lord Carteret Chief among
the trustees was Gen James Oglethorpe, Who
desired to found an asylum for the poor debtors
of England and for the Protestant refugees of
Europe. The government desired to defend the
Carohnas against the Spanish and Indians of
Florida and to divert from the Spanish and
French their trade with the Cherokees The
Colony was the only one of the original thai teen
to receive aid from the British government
Oglethorpe landed at Charleston, Jan 13, 1733,
and after negotiations with the Creek Indians
took up land on the site of Savannah, February
13 The rules for the Colony required land to
be held in tail male and on military service
The introduction of rum and of slaves was for-
bidden In 1733, 50 Jewish colonists arrived,
and these were followed in 1734 by Lutheran
refugees from Germany ( Salzburgers ) In 1736
a colony of Highlanders arrived, and with them
John and Charles Wesley, whose strict religious
discipline made them unpopular and shortly led
to their return to England In 1738 George
Whitefield founded the orphanage of Bethesda,
near Savannah Though generously aided, the
Colony did not flourish The system of land
tenures was oppressive, the scarcity of servants
hindered agriculture, and the absence of re-
strictions in South Carolina drew many settlers
there. In 1738 many colonists petitioned for
the introduction of slavery In 1740 Oglethorpe
led the troops of Carolina and Georgia in an
invasion of Florida, and in 1742, by his strategy,
drove orf a Spanish fleet that attacked tjxe forts
on the Altamaha Slavery was introduced in
1749, the system of land tenure was changed in
1750, and the first Provincial Assembly met at
Savannah in January, 1751 In 1752 the charter
was surrendered, and Georgia became a loyal
province In 1753 the first General Assembly
met at Savannah
Well governed and geneiously treated by Par
liament, Georgia had little cause to aspire after
independence, but St John's Parish sent a dele-
gate to the second Continental Congress in
March, 1775, and its example was followed by
the other parishes In 1778 the British cap-
tured Savannah and in 1779 Augusta and Sun-
buiy An attempt by the Americans and French
to retake Savannah was unsuccessful (Octobei,
1779), and it was held by the enemy till 1782
The first State constitution was framed in Feb-
ruary, 1777, and on Jan 2, 1788, the Fedeial
Constitution was ratified A second State con-
stitution was adopted in 1789, and a third in
1798, when the importation of slaves was for-
bidden, and the boundaries of the State were
defined as extending to the Mississippi on the
west and the St Mary's Rivei on the south
The capital was moved to Louisville in 1795
and to Milledgeville in 1807 The enmity of
the Indians had been aioused eaily in the his-
tory of Georgia, fiom 1783 to 1790 theie were
troubles with the Creeks and the Cherokees, and
from 1790 to 1835 the lust tor Indian lands
was the chief force that shaped politics In
1802 the State ceded its territoiy west of the
Chattahoochee to the United States in return
for $1,250,000 and the promise that the Federal
government would undertake to extinguish
peaceably all Indian titles within the State of
Geoigia. Large cessions were made by the
Creeks to the United States in 1814, after they
had been defeated in a sanguinary war, and the
territory of the lower Cherokees was acquired
in 1817 In 1825 the Creek Indians relinquished
to the United States all their lands within the
limits of Georgia, and Governor Troup, pro-
ceeding on the theory that the inherent title of
the Commonwealth in the land had thus been
freed from all incumbrance, ordered the survey
of the relinquished territory The Indians, how-
ever, repudiated their agreement on the ground
of fraud, and this led to a conflict between
the Governor and the national administration
(1826), in winch the State successfully defied
the power of the general government After the
same manner the Georgia Legislature m 1827 ex-
tended the criminal junsdiction of the State
over a part of the lands held by the Cherokees,
thus asserting the incompatibility of an Indian
commonwealth existing within the limits of the
State with the sovereign power of that State
The Supreme Court, in 1832, declared all such
laws void, but its decision was disregarded by
the State authorities The Creeks were expelled
in 1832, and in 1835 the Cherokees ceded to
the United States all of the disputed territory,
removing from the State in 1838
The Whig party was always strong in Georgia,
and when the secession movement broke out
there was a powerful Unionist element in the
State The radical party, however, prevailed,
and, on Jan 19, 1861, a convention p^sed
an ordinance of secession by 208 votes against
89 During the war the State bore more than
its share of misfortune (For' military opera-
tions in Georgia, see CIVIL WAR ) Great com-
mercial depression was followed, by actual desti-
tution In 1863 there was want in northern
Georgia, and in, 1864 the northwestern part
634
GEORGIA
of the State was laid waste, and scores of
thousands were living on government bounty
At the end of the war it was estimated that
four-fifths of the public wealth had been de-
stroyed. The State was under military rule
until June, 1865. On October 30 a conven-
tion of delegates at Milledgeville repealed the
ordinance of secession, on November 7 the
war debt of the State was repudiated, and a
new constitution adopted, and on December 5
the Legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amend-
ment In 1866, however, the Legislature refused
to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, and by
the reconstruction acts of Maich, 1867, Georgia,
came once more under military rule A consti-
tutional convention assembled in December, 1867,
and in April 25, 1868, a new constitution was
adopted by popular vote The Legislature chosen
at the same time complied with the demands of
the reconstruction acts and elected United States
senators In July General Meade declared civil
government restored, but as the Legislature
afterward expelled its colored members on the
ground of mehgibility and failed to ratify the
Fifteenth Amendment (1869), the State was
again excluded from Congress, and again sub-
jected to military rule, under which the expelled
negroes were reseated, and the Fourteenth and
Fifteenth amendments ratified (February,
1870) Georgia's representatives in Congress
were not admitted till January, 1871 During
this period trouble was caused by the Ku-Klux
Klan (qv )
Business activity recommenced immediately
after the wai, and, owing to its splendid re-
sources, the State prospered in spite of a long
period of misgovernment Under the wasteful
administration of Rufus B Bullock, Governor
from 1S68 to 1871, the public debt was increased
from $5,000,000 to $16,000,000, the larger part
of this debt was contracted through the fraud-
ulent indorsement of railroad bonds, which the
State later repudiated Before 1880 charges
of embezzlement were frequently brought against
public officials, in particular against the State
treasurers Legislation during the period was
concerned in great measure with railway affairs,
the railroads for the most part being under
government control After 1880 economic devel-
opment became especially marked as manufac-
tures of cotton, iron, steel, and oil spread over
the northern part of the State, and the mining
of coal grew to large proportions The Cotton
Exposition of 1881 and the Cotton States and
International Exposition of 1898, both held at
Atlanta, testified to the prosperity of the State.
The division of races continued clean-cut, and
though there was no disposition among the better
class of whites to hinder the negro in the exer-
cise of his civil rights, political equality was be-
grudged Kim, and social equality absolutely
denied. In 1891 the Legislature decreed that
separate public conveyances be provided for
whites and for negroes, and in 1897 the ap-
pointment of a negro as postmaster was made
impossible by public opinion.
In national politics the State was Democratic
throughout the nineteenth century, except in
1840 and 1848, when it cast its electoral vote for
the Whig candidate. In State politics Georgia,
since 1874, has been uniformly Democratic, the
Republicans having scarcely participated in
most of the State elections From 1890 to 1898
the Populist party was powerful in the State,
and this influence was continued when m 1904
the People's party nominated Thomas E Wat-
son, a former Congressman from Georgia, for
President In the first decade of the twentieth
century the Democratic party was divided by
dissensions caused by diffeiences on State and
local questions Hoke Smith, formeily Sec-
retary of the Interior in President Cleveland's
cabinet, was elected Governor in 1906 The
Governor takes his seat when the Legislature
convenes in the year following the year of his
election, and Mr Smith became Governor on
July 1, 1907 On August 6 of that year he
signed a prohibition bill which foibade the
sale of liquor in the State after Jan 1, 1908
There was much opposition to the enforcement
of this law, especially in Atlanta, where ef-
forts were made to secure injunctions to pre-
vent its enforcement These, however, failed
Governor Smith was elected on a platform which
promised drastic reforms in the operation of
railways in the State The Legislature in 1907
increased the State Railroad Commission to five
members instead of three, with the object of
securing a majority of members who were not
dominated by railroad interests The Legisla-
ture passed severe measures affecting railways,
and the attempted enforcement of these led to a
conflict between State and Federal authorities
(For a discussion of this, see STATE RIGHTS )
The measure providing for the elimination of
the negro vote, which Governor Smith strongly
supported, is noted above in the section Govern-
ment On July 9, 1907, Augusts 0 Bacon was
unanimously reelected to the United States
Senate Primary elections were held on June
3, 1908, to nominate candidates for Governor.
Governor Smith was a candidate for renomma-
tion, but was defeated by Joseph M Brown
The defeat of Governor Smith was generally at-
tributed to his policy in the enforcement of the
prohibition law, to the opposition of the business
and railroad interests of the State, to his atti-
tude on other State questions, and to the panic
of 1907. Mr Brown had been a member of the
State Railroad Commission and had been dis-
missed by Governor Smith In the national elec-
tion held on ISTov 3, 1908, William J Bryan re-
ceived 72,350 votes, William H Taft 41,692, and
Thomas E Watson (Populist) 16,965 In the
vote for President the Republicans showed an in-
crease of about 50 per cent in the number of votes
cast, compared with those cast in 1904 Gover-
nor Brown was inaugurated on June 26, 1909,
and on July 6 of that year Alexander S Clay
was unanimously reelected to the United States
Senate In the Democratic primaries for the
nomination of Governor held on Aug 23, 1910,
Mr Smith defeated Governor Brown for the
renomination The issues in this campaign
chiefly related to pro-posed amendments to the
law disfranchising negroes Governor Brown
favored the repeal of certain provisions of this
law On the same date primaries were held for
Representative to Congress, and a notable result
was the defeat of Congressman L F Livingston,
one of the oldest members of the House in point
of service. His defeat was attributed to the
fact that he had supported Speaker Cannon in
the fight on the rules in the House contrary to
the wishes of his pao-ty in the State The State
election held on October 5 resulted in a decisive
victory for Mr Smith At this election three
constitutional amendments were adopted Sena-
tor Clay died on ISTov 13, 1910, and Governor
Brown appointed Joseph M. Terrell, a former
GEORGIA
63S
governor, to fill out the unexpired teira Mr
Smith was inaugurated Governor on July 1,
1911, and on July 12 he was elected United
States Senatoi to succeed Senator Clay This
brought about a unique situation Mr Smith
was desirous of carrying into effect several im-
portant measures as Governoi, but on his
(Smith's) election to the Senate Mr Terrell
resigned He held that his office ended auto-
matically with the election of Governor Smith,
but tendered his resignation in order to remove
all doubt Governor Smith refused to accept
the resignation, holding that Mr Teriell was
still Senator until he (Governor Smith) quali-
fied, and that he had no intention of so doing
until the session of the Legislature came to an
end Senator Terrell refused to serve, and in-
deed, as he had been stricken with paralysis,
•was physically unable to return to Washington
During the remainder of this session of Con-
gress, therefore, Georgia had a single representa-
tive in the Senate On the convening of the
Sixty-second Congress Governor Simtn was
sworn in as Senator The election of Governor
Smith to the Senate made it necessary to hold
another election for Governor Joseph M Brown
was again a candidate, and in the primaries held
on Dec 7, 1911, he was successful He was
maugmated on Jan 25, 1912 A presidential
primary election was held by the Democrats in
May, 1912 Underwood received 71,410 votes,
and Wilson 57,267 On August 21 of that year
John M Slaton was nominated for Governor for
the teim beginning July 1, 1913 In the same
primary Senator Bacon was renominated At
the national election held on Nov 5, 1912, Wil-
son leceived 93,171 votes, Roosevelt 22,010, Taft
5190, and Debs 1014 The Democrats elected all
the Representatives in Congress (For an ac-
count of the serious railroad strikes occurring
in this year, see STRIKES ) Senator Bacon died
on Feb 14, 1914, and Goveinor Slaton appointed
W S West to serve until the election of his
successor The State has 12 Representatives in
Congress Prior to 1910 it had 11
COLONIAL GOVERNORS
John Reynolds
Henry Ellis
James Wright
Archibald Bulloch (President of Georgia)
Button Gwmnett " "
Wilson Lumpkin
William Schley
George R Gilmer
Charles J Macdonald
George W Crawtord
George W B Towns
Howell Cobb
Herschel V Johnson
Joseph E Brown
James Johnson
Charles J Jenkins
Gen T H Ruger
Rufus B Bullock
Benjamin Conley
James M Smith
Alfred H Colquitt
Alexander H Stephens
Henry D McDamel
John B Gordon
William J Northen
William Y Atkinson
Allen D Candler
Joseph M Terrell
Hoke Smith
Joseph M Brown
Hoke Smith
Joseph M Brown
John M Slaton
N E Hams
Hugh M Dorsey
Thomas W Hardwick
1754-57
1757-60
1760-76
1776-77
1777
STATE GOVERNORS
John A Truetlen
John Houston
John Mai tin
Lyman Hall
John Houston
Samuel Elbert
Edward TeUair
George Matthews
George Handley
1777-78
1778-79
1782
1783
1784
1785
1786
1787
1788
UNDER FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
George Walton
Edward Telfair
George Matthews
Jared Irwin
James Jackson
David Emanuel
Josiah Tattnall
John Milledge
Jared Irwin
David B Mitchell
Peter Early
David B Mitchell
William Rabun
Matthew Talbot
John Clark
George M Trotip
John. F
Democratic-Republican
1789-90
1790-93
1793-96
1796-98
1798-1801
1801
1801-02
1802-06
1806-09
1809-13
1813-15
1815-17
1817-19
1819
1819-23
1823-27
,____ . , 1&27-29
George R Gitoaer National Republican (later Whig) 1829-31
VOL. IX— 41
GEOBG-IA
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
Military
Republican
Demociat
1831-85
1835-37
1837-39
1839-43
1843-47
1847-51
1851-53
1853-57
1857-65
1865
1865-67
1867-68
1868-71
1871-72
1872-77
1877-82
1882-83
1883-86
1886-90
1890-94
1894-99
1899-1903
1903-07
1907-09
1909-11
(July 1-Nov 15) 1911
1911-13
1913-15
1915-17
1917-21
1921-
Bibliography Jones, The Ihstoty of Georgia,
to 1783 (Boston, 1883) , Stephens, War between
the States (Philadelphia, 1879) , Evans, Histoi y
of Georgia (New York, 1903) , Colonial Records
of the State of Georgia (Atlanta, 1904- ) ,
George White, /Statistics of the State of Georgia,
701 pp (Savannah, 1849), id, Historical Col-
lections of Georgia, 745 pp (New York, 1855) ,
Stevens and Wright, Georgia, Historical and
Industrial (official publication of State Agri-
cultural Department, 955 pp , Atlanta, 1901),
Bulletins of the Geological Survey of Georgia,
1S94 to date, R M Haiper, "A Phytogeographi-
cal Sketch of the Altarnaha Grit Region of
the Coastal Plain of Georgia," in Annals New
York Academy of Sciences, vol xvii, pp 1-414,
plates 1-28 (1906), McElreath, Treatise on
the Constitution of Georgia (Atlanta, 1911) ,
McCallie, UandbooL of the Mineral Resources of
Georgia, (ib, 1911), McPherson, Government of
the People of the State of Georgia (New York,
1913) , Brooks, History of Georgia (Philadel-
phia, 1913), Derry, Story of Georgia (Chicago,
1913)
G-EOBGflA, STB Air or GULF OF. The mam
section of the arm of the north Pacific Ocean
which separates Vancouver Island from the
mainland It lies between Vancouver on the
west and British Columbia on the east (Map
British Columbia, D 5) It averages perhaps
25 miles in widtji and 250 miles long and is
comparatively deep, having soundings of over
1000 feet It receives the water of the Fraser
Elver (qv ) and some smaller streams and
communicates with the open ocean by Queen
Charlotte Sound in the north and by the Strait
of Juan de Fuca in the south
GrEOHGrlA, UNIVERSITY OF An institution
of higher education, chartered in 1785 and for-
mally opened at Athens, Ga, in 1801 Its
government is vested in a board of trustees ap-
pointed by the Governor At the outbreak of
the Civil War the faculty and most of the
students joined the Confederate army, and the
institution remained closed until 1866 The
proceeds of the sales of lands received by Georgia
under the United States Land Grant Act of
1862 were -transferred to th$ university in 1872,
and the university, which in its inception was
designed as a classical school, has, since the
close of the Civil War, broadened its scope and
GEORGIA BARK
636
GEORGIANS
in 19H comprised Franklin College, the State
College of Agriculture, the Giaduate School,
the Law Department, the Pharmacy Depart-
ment, the North Georgia Agncultui al College,
at Dahlonega , the Medical College, at Augusta ,
the School of Technology, at Atlanta, the Normal
and Industrial School for Girls, at Milledge-
ville, the State Normal School, at Athens, the
South Georgia State Normal College, at Val-
dosta, and the Industrial College for Colored
Youths, at Savannah, which includes a well-
equipped trade department The total attend-
ance, including 677 preparatory students, in
1914 \vas 4864 The library contains about
45,000 volumes, and the university owns 18
buildings At Athens the running expenses of
the university are partly defrayed by an annual
State grant of $52,500 The chancellor in 1914
was D C Barrow, LLD
GEORGIA BARK See PINCKNEYA
GEORGIA HAMSTER. See GOPHER
GEORGIAK, or IBERIAN, or GBUSINIAN LAN-
GUAGE The principal language of the Caucasian
group of dialects This family of languages is
divided into North and South Caucasian — the
former group comprising Abkhasish, Avansh,
Kasikumuk or Lak, Arkish, Hurkanish, Kurin-
ish, Udish, Tchetchentsish, and Thuhish, and the
latter division consisting of Georgian itself, Min-
grelish, Lazish, and Suanish The Caucasian
languages, which are, broadly speaking, agglu-
tinative in type, although they show inflection
in many instances, are comparatively poor in
vowels, but they abound in difficult combinations
of consonants, especially of gutturals and sibi-
lants The noun and the verb are highly com-
plicated, and the North Caucasian distinguishes
in gender between the six categories of animate
and inanimate, rational and irrational, mascu-
line and feminine The number system in most
of the dialects is vigesimal The Georgian is
the only Caucasian dialect that has developed a
literature, it begins with a translation of the
Bible in the eighth century, though some au-
thorities maintain that there was a version made
as early as the fifth century This literature,
within a modified Armenian script, is quite
considerable in extent and includes poetry, ro-
mance, history, and theology Among the more
important works are the epics B&ramiani and
Rostomiani, and the prose romances Vistami-
am and Darejamam — the former by Sarg of
Thmogvi and the latter by Mosi of Khoni The
Georgian literature reached its highest devel-
opment during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries
Bibliography The best general outline of
the Caucasian languages, including Georgian, is
that of Fnedrich Muller in Grundnss der
Spr&Ghwi&senschaft, vol in, sec 2 (Vienna,
1887) Consult also, Erckert, Die Sprachen ties
kaukasischen JStammes (Vienna, 1895) , Brosset,
Elements de la grammmre giorgi&rme (Paris,
1836), Dicfaonnaire gdorffien-russe-frangais (St
Petersburg, 1840 ) , Leist, Q-eorgische Dwhter
verdeutscht (2d ed, Leipzig, 1900), id, Das
georgische Volk (Dresden, 1903), Bark, Bei-
trhqe zur kMukawschen Sprachwissenschaft (Kon-
i&sberg, 1907) , Th. Kluge, "Studien zur ver-
fleichenden Sprachwissenschaft der kaukasischen
prachen," m vol xii of Vordera&i&tische Ge-
sellschaft Mitt&dungen (Berlin, 1907) ; Dirr,
Uefter die Klassen (Geschlechten) m den kau-
Icasischen Sprachen (Leiden, 1908)
G-EORGIAET (jSr'jan) ARCHITECTURE
The style of architecture in England prevailing
during the reigns of the four Georges (but
especially of the first three, 1715-1820), and
corresponding to the Colonial style in the United
States It was a development from the Italian
or Palladian style, introduced by Inigo Jones, in
the direction of special adaptation to English
requirements, in which it lost much of the dis-
tinctive quality of the Italian prototype, but
gained, on the other hand, in freedom and
picturesqueness of detail and never fell into the
extravagances and bad taste of much of the
contemporary Italian work Hawksmoor, James
Gibbs (who designed St Martin's-m-the-Fields,
London), Colin Campbell, the Adam brothers,
Sir William Chambers (architect of Somerset
House, London), Robert Taylor, and George
Dance, are among the most notable architects of
this period The style was especially successful
in domestic architecture and interior decoration
and was the natural and logical source of in-
spiration for American Colonial design To the
churches of Wren ( q v ) and Gibbs ( q v ) espe-
cially, American architecture owes the models of
many churches built between 1750 and 1820
The Georgian style disappeared during the period
of artistic deaith of the early nineteenth century
m England, to be followed by the Gothic and
Gteek revivals Consult A E Richardson, Mon-
umental Classic Architecture in Meat Bntain
and Ireland (London, 1914) , F E Walhs, The
Georgian Period (3 vols , Boston, 1898-1902) ,
G H Polley, The Architecture and Purnitwe of
the American Colonies during the Eighteenth
Century (2 vols, ib , 1914),
GEORGIAN" BAY An eastern extension of
Lake Huron in the Province of Ontario, Canada,
about 120 miles long and 60 miles wide, and with
depths exceeding 300 feet in the southwest sec-
tion (Map* Ontario, C and D 3) It contains
thousands of islands, the largest of which, Grand
Mamtoulm, partly separates it from Lake
Huron The entrance to the bay is by a, chan-
nel, 20 miles wide, south of this island
GEORGIANS The Georgians, or Kartveh-
ans, form the southern group of peoples of the
Caucasus, which includes the following stocks,
whose languages appear, though in part only
distantly related, to have had a common origin
(1) the Georgians proper, or Grusians, with the
Khevsurs, Thushes, Pshavs, and other mountain
tribes, the Imers, the Gurians, etc , (2) the
Mmgrelians, with the Lazes, Abkhasians, etc ,
(3) the Suanitians, or Swans, of Kutais
Physically the Georgian peoples are of the white,
not the yellow, race, but rather mixed, the
Georgians proper being br achy cephalic, the Imers
and Mingrehans more or less dolichocephalic,
the Imers, too, have a less oval face, but Pan-
tiukhoff (1893) considers them to represent best
the primitive Georgian race, while Ripley (1899)
takes the Mingrehan as typical of this group
The physical beauty of the men and women of
the Georgians proper has long been famous, but
Chantre (1885) and after him Ripley style it
"a perfectly formal, cold, and unintelligent
beauty, in no wise expressive of character w
Like the Circassians, the Georgians furnished
slaves and women for the harems of Turkey,
Egypt, etc The ugliest and most degenerate
representatives of the group are to "be found
among the Suanitians, with whom goitre and
cretinism prevail to a considerable extent The
Georgians have resided in their present habitat
4000-5000 years, and tne human r$ma)ns found
GEORGIAN SEMES
637
GEOTROPISM
PLANTS
in the caves of Kutais suggest a longer period
for man's existence in this region Some au-
thorities, however, think that at the time of
their appearance here the primitive Geoigiana
were already somewhat cultured by earlier resi-
dence farther south m contact with ancient
Aiyan or Semitic civilizations m Asia Minor
Later on the Georgians seem to have furnished
copper, antimony, etc , to these same civilized
centres Some hold that the primitive inhabit-
ants of the region about Lake Van (the authors
of the Vannic inscriptions and the possessois of
a certain amount of indigenous culture) and the
so-called Mitani were of the Georgian stock
The Georgians proper are the best-known sec-
tions of the group Russian intermixture ap-
pears to have stimulated to a certain degree the
poetical and general literary genius of this
people Besides the matenal about the Geor-
gians in Von Erckert's Der KauJcasu? und seine
Volker (Leipzig, 1887), and Chantre's Re-
ch&rches anthropologiques dans le Caucase (4
vols , Lyons, 1885-87), reference may be made
to Leistfs Georgische Dichter verdeutscht (Leip-
zig, 1887) , Wardrop's The Kingdom of Georgia
(London, 1888) 3 Leist's G-eorgien Natur, fat-
ten und Beuohner (Leipzig, 1885) , etc
GEORGIAN SEBIES, See CUMBRIAN SYS-
1EM
GEORGIAN VERSION. See BIBLE
GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
An institution for scientific education, founded
in 1888 at Atlanta, Ga, It forms a part of the
University of Georgia The special features of
the school include a hospital with a medical
corps which cares for the physical welfare of
the students, a Y M C A building, the centre
of student life, in which two secretaries are em-
ployed, and an athletic field for the physical de-
velopment of the students The school has one
of the best equipments for electrical, mechani-
cal, and civil experimental laboratoiies in the
South Being in the centre of the industrial
South, the students have the advantage of in-
spection in the plants of various manufac-
turers The total number of students m all
departments of the school in 1914 was 1002,
and of these 712 were in the academic depart-
ment The instructors numbered 62 The school
has no endowment, and the value of the college
grounds and buildings in 1914 was about $750,-
000 The annual income amounts to about
$140,000 The library contains about 13,000
volumes The president in 1914 was Kenneth
J Matheson, AM
GEORGICS, jdr'jiks A didactic poem by
Vergil (qv ), begun at the suggestion of
Msecenas and dedicated to him It is an agri-
cultural work in four books, one of the most
important of the writings of the Geoponici
(q v ) The first book treats of the cultivation
of the fields, the second of trees, the third of
horses and cattle, and the fourth of bees Around
these subjects Vergil collected all the experience
of the old Italians and associated them with
great beauty of style and illustration The
poem is in hexameters and represents the poet's
most perfect work in versification It was com-
posed between 37 and 30 BO Consult. Sellar,
Virgil (2d ed, Oxford, 1883), Glover, Studies
m Virgil (2d, ed , New York, 1912), Royds,
T\Q Beasts, Birds, and Bees of Vvrgvl (Oxford,
1914) ,
GEOSYNCLiLNE, js'd-s&rtdftu The name
given to a great trouga-^hapied fold in the
earth's crust, similar to a synclme (qv ), but
of larger amplitude and affecting the strata to
profound depths The name was introduced by
J D Dana, who inferred the existence of such
structural depressions from the extensive de-
velopment of sedimentary stiata in some of the
present mountain ranges Ihe Appalachians,
e g , involve 40,000 feet of Paleozoic rocks , the
Kocky Mountains 60,000 feet or moie of sedi-
ments, and the Alps and Himalayas exhibit
equally extensive deposits Accumulations m
continuous series of this kind lead to the in-
ference that they were laid down on a subsiding
sea bottom, the underlying platform gradually
yielding by flexure to the load As the area of
sedimentation is always close to the shoie line,
the depression must have the form of a long
nairow trough The period of subsidence may
be terminated finally by a crustal movement in
the reverse direction which leads to folded moun-
tains, the geosynclme marking a zone of weak-
ness along which the crustal stresses find relief
GE'OTETF'THIS (Neo-Lat, from G-k w, gc,
earth -f- revdis, teuthis, cuttlefish) A fossil cut-
tlefish bone, found in the Upper Liassic beds
of England, Germany, and France Its form is
that of a flat, thin wedge Its chief mtei est lies
in its frequent association with the petrified ink
bag of the same animal This ink bag has been
hardened to a glistening black mass, which can
be dissolved and used for water-color drawing
in much the same manner as is the modern
sepia See CEPHALOPODA, CUTTLEFISH, SEPIA,
SQUID
GEOTBOPISM TN ANIMALS See TKOPISM
GEOTROPISM: (jfe-Gt'ro-piz'm) IN PLANTS
(from Gk 777, ge, eaith + rpoTntj, tropf, a turn-
ing, from rpeTreLv, trepem, to turn) The sensi-
tiveness of plant organs to gravity The at-
traction of the earth acts as a stimulus to which
the organ responds in a manner comparable to
that exhibited in hehotropism, chemotropisin,
etc Different organs respond to this stimulus
in different ways Primary roots ( i e , those
originating from the embryo itself) are posi-
tively geotropic They normally grow with their
tips directed towards the centre of the earth
If placed in any other position, they bend so
FlG 1 POSITIVE GEOTROPISM
Root of pea a, with terminal portion marked into aonea
1 millimeter long and laid horizontal, &, the same 'after six
hours, c, the same after 24 hours The tlwd fco seventh
zones have grown most in length The curvature Is not
usually so sharp, but aU growing zones bead,,
that the axis pf the growing por^j$n» regains its
normal direction In these organs the receptive
(lor perceptive) region fetva-ther extreme tip,
GEOTBOPISM IN PLAHTS
638
while the active or curving region lies 2 or 3
millimeters back of the tip. The attraction of
gravity sets up a disturbance (the nature of
which is not yet certainly known) in the re-
ceptive region, and this is propagated backward
FlG 2 NEGATIVE GEQTROPISM
Radical leaves of owon with basal growth, which have
erected themselves from the horizontal, because growth on
underside is accelerated by gravity
through the intervening cells to the region of
curvature Here the disturbance causes an al-
teration in growth such that the side of the root
directed upward grows more rapidly than the
other side, thus producing a curvature which
ultimately directs the tip downward again (Fig
1) Many other plant organs besides primary
FlG 3 :NEGA.TTIE GEOTBOPISM
e, a shoot of Tradescant%nt pinned to cork by lowest mter-
node in a horizontal posture* has erected its tip, because the
growth of the base of each ratetnode has been accelerated by
the stimulus of the gravity, b, a longitudinal section through
the growing region of an internode after induced growth
roots are positively geotropic. Among these are
the»rhizoids (qv ) of many lower plants, stalks
of certain fruits and fruit clusters, many ae'rial
roots, etc
The primarv shoots of most plants are
0EOTKOPISM I2ST PLANTS
apogeotiopic (negatively geotropic)— ~I e , they
normally direct then tips away from the centre
of the^eaith This kind of sensitiveness is
called apogeotiopism, or negative geotiopism
(Fig 2) In such organs the leceptive region
is not so well marked off from that of bending
as in roots It may extencT throughout the whole
growing region Also any region where growth
is taking place has the power of curving under
this influence The response is similar to that
in roots, but in shoots the region where growth
is accelerated is on the underside when placed
horizontal In certain regions where growth has
ceased it may be renewed under the influence of
geotropic stimulation, and curvature may then
ensue Examples of this are found in the ma-
ture joints of grass stems, also in those of the
common Wandering Jew (Tradescantia) These
bend sharply when placed horizontal, in which
position they are stimulated by gravity (Fig 3) .
Many organs, such as ordinary foliage leaves,
lateral branches, lateral roots, rhizomes, run-
ners, etc , usually show another form of response
to this stimulus Their normal position is hori-
zontal, and, if displaced, they return to this
position by bending This tendency is dependent
on diageotropism The stalks of certain flowers,
such as those of narcissus and pansy, are diageo-
tropic, so that the flower faces laterally In
dorsiventral organs, e g , many leaves, diageo-
tiopic response may consist of two movements
— a curvature which results in bringing the main,
axis into the horizontal plane, and a torsion of
the whole organ which brings its two surfaces
into their normal relation to the surface of the
earth
Still another form of geotropic curvature is
shown by the growing regions of twiners, like
the hop (Fig 4),
morning glory,
and bean If the
tip of the stem
of such a plant
be directed up-
ward, gravity will
exert an influ-
ence upon it
which results in
the acceleration
of growth along
one side This
produces a lat-
eral nodding But
as soon as the
tip begins to nod,
the region of ac-
celerated growth
migrates to the
flank The apex
is thereby swung
to the right or
left, describing
an irregular
circle, clockwise
or counterclock-
wise, according-
i _ 4-t,- „ 1 oT j-ipuio- »j wilier, uuc u.up vuu.e,
to the plant, showing low coils first formed, and
What determines the retarded development of the
these directions uPP^lea-ves After Werner.
is not known It differs among species of the
same family or the same genus, and in some eases
even in the plants of the same species The ten-
dency to respond is termed lateral geotropism,
and it is on account of this property that such
plants are enabled to twine about a support.
FlO 4 LATEBAL GEOTBOPISM
Tip of a twiner, the hop vine,
GEPHYREA
639
GERALDINI
All geotropically sensitive organs may be con-
strained to grow an a horizontal direction, in
spite of the stimulus of gravity, if they are
slowly rotated on a horizontal axis by means of
a clmostat (qv ) In order to produce bending
the stimulus must affect the oigan in a one-sided
manner When a plant is rotated on the clino-
stat, all parts are successively directed towaids
the centre of the earth, for equal periods of
time Hence there is as much tendency to bend
in one direction as in another, and the resultant
growth is uniformly accelerated on all sides
Geotropism only in part determines the final
position of subterranean plant organs Hydro-
tropism, chemotropism, traumotropism, etc , all
have their effect, and the final position is the
resultant of all these reactions The position of
aerial organs is determined largely by geotrop-
ism and heliotropism ( q v ) It is difficult to
analyze any response and tell to what factor it
is due This can be done best by the use of the
clmostat, varying the position of the axis ac-
cording to the needs of the experiment See also
APOGEOTROPISM , DIAGEOTROPISM.
GEPHYREA, je'-fir'S-a (Neo-Lat nom pi T
from Gk yeQvpa, gephyra3 bridge) A class of
Annulata, containing certain marine worms de-
void of segmentation in the adult condition, and
the larvae of which are typical trochospheres
The class includes Sipunoulus, Echinus, Bonellia,
and a few other forms
GEPIDJE, j&p'i-dS A people of Gothic affini-
ties, who in the third century lived on the shores
of the Baltic, near the river Vistula According
to legend, they advanced southward with the
Goths and established themselves in what is
now the western part of Hungary They were
subjugated by Attila (qv ), but after his death
rose and drove out the Huns They were de-
feated by Theodoric the Ostrogoth King in 488
and in 566 or 567 they were conquered by the
Lombards After this the name disappeared,
the remnants of the nation being swallowed up
by the Avars Consult Hodgkin, Italy and her
Invaders, vols i~v (London, 1885-95)
GEPPERT, gey pert, KARL EDTIARD (1811-
81). A German classical scholar He was born
at Stettin and was educated at Breslau, Leipzig,
and Berlin, where he was professor from 1846
until his death His works include Ueb&r die
Aiissprache des Latewischen im altern. Drama
(1858) , Ueber den Ursprung dor Homenschen
0-esange (1840), a polemic directed against
Ritschl, Die altgriecJusche Buhne (1843), and
editions of plays of Plautus ( q v ) — the Gap-
twi (1859), the Truculentus (1863), the Posnu-
lus (1864), the Epidicus (1865), and the
Casino, (1866), and editions of other classics
His researches concerning the Roman stage,
especially the plays of Plautus, aie valuable,
and several public performances of the comedies
TrinummuSj Mencechmi, and Rudens were or-
ganized by him
GERA, ga'ra (OHG Geraha) The capital of
the German Principality of Reuss (younger
branch), situated on the White Elster about 44
1 miles east-southeast of Weimar (Map Ger-
many, E 3) It is well laid out, having been
almost entirely rebuilt since a fire in 1780
The old houses are very conspicuous, and many
of them have cellars cut into the rock One of
the oldest and most prominent buildings is the
Rathaus, erected in 1073-76, on the site of the
old thirteenth-century building The churches
are of comparatively recent construction. The
palace of the prince, the theatre, and the post
office are noteworthy buildings Gera has a
gymnasium, a trade school, and a textile school,
also a library with 19,000 volumes The manu-
facture of woolens, introduced from Flanders at
the end of the sixteenth century, is important,
amounting to more than $14,000,000 annually
Much is exported to the United States Other
manufactures are carpets, carded wool, leather,
dyestuffs, castings, gloves, sewing machines,
books, lithographed woik, harmonicas, ma-
chinery, brick, leather, tobacco, ]ewelry It has
large nurseries There is also an extensive
trade in oil, spirits, and drugs Pop , 1900,
45,640, 1910, 49,276, principally Protestants
Gera is first mentioned under its present name
in the twelfth century, when it belonged to the
abbey of Quedhnburg It passed to the house
of Reuss at the beginning of the fouiteenth
century
GERACE, ]d-ra'cha A city in the Prov-
ince of Reggio di Calabria, south Italy, 60
miles northeast of Reggie, beautifully situ-
ated near the Ionian Sea, on a slope of the
Apennines (Map Italy, F 5) It consists of
the lower town, or Manna, and the upper town,
1570 feet above sea level, and 5% miles away
from the Marina About 2 miles southwest of
the Marina are the ruins of the ancient city
Locn Epizephyrii (see LOCBIS), founded in 683
B c , famous for its laws, attributed to Zaleucus,
and celebrated by Pindar and Deznosthenes for
its wealth and cultivation of art, the rums are
now concealed by an orange grove In the ca-
thedral, which was rebuilt after the earthquake
of 1783, are some ancient columns There are
iron and coal mines, blast furnaces, and marble
quarries, and the soil of the district is rich,
producing grain, olives, and grapes, the last
of exquisite quality Near by are a number of
warm sulphur springs Pop (commune), 1901,
10,595, 1911, 11,009
GERAINT, ge-ranf A kmght in the Arthu-
rian legends He appears in the Malnnogion
romance, G&raint the son of Erbm, the source of
which is Chrestien de Troyes's Erec et Emde,
and in Tennyson's idyl Geraint and Enid
GER'ALD DE BAR/BL See GIBALDUS DE
BARKT
GERALDINE, jer'al-dm, THE FAIB The lady
to whom the Earl of Suriey's sonnets are ad-
dressed, now identified with Lady Elizabeth
Fitzgerald, daughter of the ninth Earl of Kil-
daie, and, at the time the poems were begun
(1537), only nine years old
GERALDINl, ja'ral-de'ne, ALESSANDBO (1455-
1525) The first Roman Catholic Bishop of
Santo Domingo He was born at Amelia, Italy,
was educated as a soldier, and in 1475-76 served
with the Spanish army against Portugal In
Spain he took holy orders, became a friend of
Archbishop Mendoza, of Toledo, and by him was
introduced to the court of Castile, where he
became tutor to the royal princesses His in-
fluence at court is said to have obtained for
Columbus his first interview with Ferdinand
and Isabella He was engaged at various times
on important diplomatic missions, both for the
papacy and for Spain, and held in succession
several Italian bishoprics In 1520 he became
the first Bishop of Santo Domingo, where he
lived for the remainder of hus life and exerted
his power and influence to mate$ amen els for the
ruinous policy that had marked Spanjsb. rule.
He wrote a valuable narrative of his voyage to
GEBANBO
640
GEBABD
America, and a description of Santo Domingo,
in his Itineranum ad Regiones sub Equinoctiali
Plaga Oonstitutas (1631), and several religious
treatises
GrEBANDQ, MARIE JOSEPH DE. See DEGE-
BANDO
GEBA'iNTA'CEJE See GERANIUM
G-EBA^IUM (Lat, from G-k i&paviov, gera-
nwn, crane's-bill, from ^epct^os, geranos, crane)*
A genus of dicotyledonous plants, the type of
the family Geramacese, of which the most im-
portant genera are Geranium, Pelargonium, and
Erodium The genus includes nearly 200 species,
widely distributed in temperate regions, about
70 species occurring in North America. A dozen
species are indigenous to- Great Britain, of which
number the stinking crane's-bill, or herb Kobert
( G&ramum robertianum) , is a common weed
It is a low, spreading herb, with deeply divided
leaves and small flowers, and has been used
medicinally as an astringent It is also found
in parts of the United States Alum root
(qv ), a North American species, with flowers
of considerable beauty, is the most valuable
medicinally of all the species It is very astrin-
gent and abounds in tannin, a character which
belongs to some extent to many species of the
genus The common name, "crane's-bill," is
given to many of the species of Geranium, on
account of the long-beaked fruit, which in.
splitting aids in scattering the seeds Geranium
tuberomm, of southern Europe, and Geranium
disseetum, the wild carrot of Australia, produce
edible tubers The species of Geranium are not
extensively cultivated, the plants so widely
grown under that name being species of the
genus Pelargonium, of which there are about
200 species, natives of South Africa and Aus-
tralia These plants are prized on account of
the colors of the flowers and the shape and
marking of the leaves Many hybrids have been
produced, and there is hardly a better-known
window plant. They are easily propagated by
cuttings, requiring a light, rich soil and good
drainage A number of species produce tuberous
edible roots, as Pelargonium tnste, of the Cape
of Good Hope The leaves of Pelargonium
aceto&um and Pelargonium peltatum are acid
and edible Two species of Erodmm (Era-
dium ciGutcw mm and Ei odium moschatuwi,
known as Alfilaria) occur abundantly over a
large extent of the Pacific coast region, where
they are considered valuable forage plants, since
they spring up rapidly after rains and furnish
excellent pasturage, and are leadily eaten \\hen
green by all kinds of stock When dry, thev be-
come very brittle, and are of little value They
seldom attain a height sufficient to admit of
being cut for hay These tv\o species have
become naturalized in the eastern United States
A related species (Erodium cygnonum] is con-
sidered one of the most valuable forage plants
for the drier portions of Australia
GERABB, zha'r^r', BALTHASA.R (155S-84)
A French religious fanatic, born at Villafons,
Franche-Comte Under the name of Frangois
Guion he entered the service of William of
Orange, and on July 10, 1584, assassinated him
as the Prince was leaving his palace at Delft Ge-
rard was put to death by quartering two weeks
later His family was ennobled by Philip II
GKERABD, O&CILE JULES BASILE (1817-64)
A French traveler, better known as "Gerald the
Lion-Killer " His adventures in Algeria were
chronicled in La chasse aiiv lions (1855) and
Gerard le tueur des hons (1858) In 1863 he
started on a tour of exploiation in West Africa,
wheie he was drowned in 1864,
GERARD, CO-NKAJ) ALEXANDKE (1720-90) A
French diplomat, brother of Ge"rard de Rayneval
( q v ) , born at Massevaux, Upper Alsace He
entered the diplomatic service and served as
secretary of the French Legation at Mannheim
from 1753 to 1759, and Secretary of the French
Embassy at Vienna from 1761 to 1766 In July,
1766, he was recalled to Paris to become Secre-
tary of the Council of State and chief clerk in
the Bureau of Foreign Affairs Early in 1778,
under instructions from Vergennes, he con-
ducted the negotiations with the American rep-
resentatives, Franklin, Deane, and Lee, which
resulted in the signing of the two treaties with
the United States on Feb 6, 1778, by which
France openly sided with the struggling
Colonies In March, 17783 he sailed to America
with D'Estamg's fleet, as the first accredited
Minister from France to the United States This
post he held until superseded by Luzerne in
September, 1779 His activity in America con-
sisted chiefly in subsidizing writers — of whom
Thomas Paine was the best known — to create
a sentiment favorable to a closer French alliance
and in influencing members of Congress who
received "gifts" from him His communica-
tions to Congress were mostly oral addresses
delivered at secret sessions He received the
degree of LL D from Yale, and on his return to
France was made Councilor of State
GHEBABJ), ETIEWNE MATTEICE, COUSTT (1773-
1852) A marshal of France, born at Damvil-
liers, in Lorraine As a volunteer of 1792, he
served under Dumouriez and Jourdan and after
the Peace of Campo-Fonmo (1797) went to
Vienna with Bernadotte as a colonel and became
his chief of staff in 1805. His gallantry at
Austerhtz (1805) and Jena (1806) made him
brigadier general On the morning after Wa-
gram ( 1809 ) he was made Baron of the Empire
He fought in Spain and in Russia, and practi-
cally gamed the victory at Bautzen (1813) for
Napoleon, who made him Count &n£ general of
division During the campaigns of 1814 he com-
GERARD
641
GOERABD DE RAYNEVAL
manded at La Rothiere and Montereau After
the Fust Restoration lie was named Grand Cross
of the Legion of Honor, and Chevalier of St
Louis, and received various high appointments
On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Gerard
joined him and fought splendidly under Grouchy
at Ligny (June 16, 1815) Had his advice been
followed, Grouchy would have gone more quickly
to the aid of Napoleon on the 18th of June, and
Waterloo might have been averted Napoleon
made him a peer of France just after his return
After the Second Restoration Gerard was obliged
to leave France and did not return till 1817
He was elected a member of the Chamber of
Deputies in 1822-24 and reelected in 1827, took
an active part in the revolution of 1830, and
commanded the troops appointed to maintain
order in Paris In the same year Louis Philippe
appointed Gerard Minister of War, a post which
he resigned soon after In the following year
he was made marshal of France and given the
command of the expedition to Belgium, in which
he distinguished himself by taking Antwerp m
December, 1832 In 1835 he succeeded Marshal
Mortier as Grand Chancellor of the Legion of
Honor In 1852, the year he died, he became a
senator under the Empire
GERARD, FRANCOIS PASCAL, BABON (1770-
1837) A French historical and portrait painter
He was born in Rome, March 4, 1770, and in
1782 came to Paris with his father, an employee
of the French Ambassador in Rome He first
studied sculpture under Pajou, but soon took
up painting under Brenet and later under David
(qv ) and became one of his most famous
pupils In 1789 he received the second Roman
prize for his picture "Joseph Recognized by his
Brothers" (Anger Museum) In 1795 his
"Blind Behsarms," now at St Petersburg, at-
tracted much attention Of his remaining clas-
sical subjects tlie best known are "Psyche
Kissed by Cupid" (1798), in the Louvre, the
"Three Ages" (1806), now in the Museum of
Naples, "Homer" (1814), and "Daphnis and
Chloe" (1824), also in the Louvre He also
painted large historical canvases, among which
are the "Battle of Austerhtz" (1810) and the
"Entrance of Henry IV into Paris" (1817), in
the Museum of Versailles Both of these paint-
ings are well known through engravings The
former was commissioned by Napoleon, who
thought highly of Gerard; the latter brought
him the title of Baron, and appointment as
court painter to Louis XVIII He had been
Chevalier of the Legion of Honor since the
foundation of the order and a member of the
Institute since 1812 Among his other famous
paintings are the "Pestilence at Marseilles"
(Marseilles) and the "Coronation of Charles X"
(Versailles)
But none of these historical works rise much
above the dead level of the Classical school
Gerard is remembered now chiefly for his por-
traits of the celebrities of his day, with their
rich backgrounds, which he remtroduced into
art The earlier show strong characterization
and sympathetic handling, but the later ones are
theatrical and exaggerated The best are per-
haps those of the painter Isabey and of hie
daughter (in the Louvre), of Mademoiselle Bro-
gniart (Baron Pichon, Pans), and of Madame
Recamier. He also painted portraits of Moreati,
Talleyrand, Napoleon (Dresden), and two of
Josephine, the Empress Marie Lcmise, and the
King of Rome^-300 in all Many of them are
at Versailles He died in Paris, Jan 11, 1837,
Consult his biography by Lenormant (Paris,
1846) , Adam, Les ceuvres du Baton Frangois
G&ard (ib , 1852-57), Henri Gerard, Cor-
respondance de Frangois Gerard (ib, 1867), and
Lettres adressees au Baron Frangois Gerard
(ib, 1S86) , Muther, History of Modern Paint-
ing (New York, 1907)
GERARD, je-rard', JAMES WATSON (1867-
) An. American jurist and diplomat He
was born at Geneseo, N Y , and gi aduated from
Columbia University in 1900 and from Columbia
Law School in 1902 He was chairman of the
Democratic campaign committee of New York
County for four years, and served as major of
the National Guard of the State of New York for
four years From 1908 to 1911 he was as-
sociate justice of the Supreme Court of New
York In 1913 he was appointed by President
Wilson Ambassador to Germany In 1914 he
was Democratic candidate for United States Sen-
ator from New York
GERARD, JEAN IGNACE ISADORE. See GBAND-
VILLE
GERARD, ie-rard', JOHN (1545-1612) An
English herbalist and surgeon He was born
at Nantwich, Cheshire, and after spending some
time in traveling settled m London For more
than 20 years he acted as superintendent of the
gardens of Lord Burghley, Secretary of State to
Queen Elizabeth, and had a considerable repu-
tation as barber surgeon, becoming master of
the company in 1608 In 1596 he published a
catalogue of plants cultivated in his own garden,
1039 in number, inclusive of varieties of the
same species The following year appeared his
well-known Herball, an adaptation of the Stir-
pium Historice Pemptades of Rembert Dodoens
(1583, 2d and 3d eds enlarged and improved,
published by Thomas Johnson, 1633 and 1636)
Linnaeus named the genus Gerardia in honor of
Gerard
GERARD, ROSEMONDE See ROSTAND, R G
GERARD DE INTERVAL, zha'rar' do nJtr'val'
The name adopted by Gerard Labrunie (1808-
55), a French poet, dramatist, novelist, and mis-
cellaneous writer, born in Paris. He was a
conspicuous member of the famous Romantic
cenaele of Victor Hugo and Theophile Gautier
His translation of Faust, produced in 1828,
gained Goethe's approval, and was in part
adopted by Berlioz for his symphonic legend,
La damnation de Faust His short stories, Les
^ttummes and Oontes et faeces (1852), suggest
a mind veiging on insanity, his Scenes de la
me onentale (1848-50) rank among the most
brilliant pages in French of exotic and vividly
imaginative description His Le voyage en
orient (1889) has often been reprinted Gerard's
Works were collected IB five volumes (1868)
He died by suicide Consult Tourneux (Paris,
1888) and Gauthier-FemeTes, G$rard de Nerval
(ib, 1906)
GERARD DE RAYNEVAL, de ra'n'-val',
JOSEPH MATHIAS (1746-1812) A French dip-
lomat, brother of Conrad Alexandre Gerard
(qv), born at Massevaux, Upper Alsace. He
entered the French diplomatic service in 1767 as
charge* d'affaires at Ratisbon and was promoted
to a similar position at Danzig in 1769 In
1782, while Franklin, Jay, and Adams were ne-
gotiating with the French and English repre-
sentatives at Paris for the conclusion of peace
in Ainenca, Vergennes secretly dispatched Ge-
642
G-EKBEB.
rard de Eayneval to London to patch up diffi-
culties between Spam and England The Amer-
ican commissioners got wind of the mission, and
Jay and Adams became convinced that Ver-
gennes was dealing falsely with them, and that
he was arranging a secret treaty with England
to restrict their western boundary, fishery
rights, etc This belief led them to break off
the three-cornered negotiations and, contrary to
the instructions of Congress, to conclude a pre-
liminary treaty of peace with the Butish rep-
resentatives without further consultation with
Veigennes. From 1783 to 1792 Gerard de
Eayneval was Minister to England and con-
ducted numerous negotiations during this criti-
cal period \\ith great tact and ability He lived
in retirement during the rest of the Revolution
and after it engaged in journalism and the study
of history and international law, on which he
wrote several works of value, such as Institu-
tions du droit de la nature et des gens (1803)
Consult Masson, Le departement des affaires
etrangeres pendant la revolution (Paris, 1877)
GEBARDMEK., zhA-rar'mar' (Fr, Lake of
Gerard, named m honor of Gerard of Alsace,
who built a tower on the shore of the lake about
1070) A pretty mountain town, capital of a
canton in the Department of Vosges, Fiance, on
the GSiardmer Lake, about 33 miles by rail from
Epinal (Map- France, 1ST, M 4) It has a large
trade in the well-known "gerome" cheese, and
has some manufactures of 1m en Owing to its
picturesque position in the Vosges, it is well
patronized as a summer resort and is the usual
starting point of excursions into the mountains
Pop, 1901, 9104, 1911, 10,421
G-EIRABDO DALLE 3STOTTI, ja-rar'do dal'la
ndt'te See HONTHOBST, GEBAED VAN.
GERABD THE GREAT. See GEOOTE
GEBABDTJS MAGNUS. See GEOOTE
GERARDT, zhe-rar'de', JEAK (1877- ).
A Belgian violoncellist, born at Spa When only
seven, years of age, he began the study of the
violoncello under Richard Bellmann In 1885
he entered the Conservatory at Verviers, where
his progress was so phenomenal that he left the
institution in 1888 as a finished virtuoso He
made his debut in the same year in London at a
concert at which both Paderewski and Ysaye ap-
peared Although a boy m years, his playing
even then was that of a master With extraor-
dinary success he then concertized m Belgium,
Holland, Germany, France, and Eussia. In 1899
he visited the United States for the first time,
and here he appeared not only as a soloist, but
also as an ensemble player with such artists
as Ysaye, Kreisler, Hofmann, Marteau, and Go-
dowsky While on his fifth visit to the States,
during the season of 1913-14, the chamber music
concerts given by the trio consisting of Gerardy,
Ysaye, and Godowsky were among the notable
events of the year.
GKEBASA, jer'a-sa (Lat, from Gk Tepacra)
A city of Palestine in Roman times, situated
among the mountains of Gilead, about 20 miles
east of the Jordan, a like distance north of
Philadelphia, 22 miles from Pella, and 6 miles
north of the Jabbok It is now called Jerash
and has been identified by Sir George Grove
with Eamoth-gilead It is well watered by an
unfailing stream which empties into the Jabbok
Gerasa is first mentioned as having been cap-
tured, about S3 B c. by Alexander Jannaeus of the
Maccabsean line It was rebuilt by the Romans
in 65 B c Under Vespasian it was captured by
Lucius Annuls, plundered, and burned It was
a member of the Decapolis (qv) and in the
time of the Antonmes (138-180 AD) was one
of the most important cities of Syria In early
Christian times it was the seat of a bishopric,
but subsequently sank into decay The ruins are
beautiful and extensive Great portions of the
wall are in good preservation, and many columns
are still standing on their pedestals There are
remains of buildings and a triumphal arch
Photographs of the rums were published by the
Palestine Exploration Fund in 1867 It is
hardly possible to connect Jerash with the
"country of the Gerasenes" mentioned in certain
accounts as the scene of one of Christ's mnacle&
See GERASENES, COUNTBY OF THE
GERASENES, geVa-senz', COUNTRY OF THE
The scene of the miracle of Jesus m connection
with the legion of demons and the herd of swine
(Matt vni 28-34, Mark v 1-20, Luke vm
26-39) The name of the people (American
Standard Revised text) is variously given as
"Gergesenes" in Matthew, and "Gadarenes"
in Maik and Luke — the best readings, fol-
lowed by the Revised Version, seeming to be
"Gerasenes" in Mark and Luke and "Gadaienes"
m Matthew "Gergesenes" in Matthew is pos-
sibly due to Origan's suggestion that it should
be substituted for "Gerasenes," the town Gerasa
being too far removed from the scene, while
he knew of a town Gergesa on the eastern shore
of the lake, to which he thought the name should
be conformed It is of course impossible to refer
the miracle to the neighborhood of Gerasa, the
modern Jerash ( See GERASA ) The most prob-
able identification is with the modern Kersa, or
G-ersa> a ruined village on the east side of the
Sea of Galilee, directly opposite Magdala (M-
Me^del) and just south of the WMy Es-Semak.
The topographical conditions of this locality,
which are unique for the eastern shore, satisfy
in a significant way the requirements of the nar-
rative This town may have been popularly rec-
ognized as included in the larger district of
Gadara, which was the principal city of that
region If so, this would account for the reading
"Gadarenes" in Mark and Luke
GEBBA See JERBA
GEBBEB, geVber, EBNST LUDWIG (1746-
1819) A German musical lexicographer. He
was born at Sondershausen, a son of Heinrich
Nikolaus Gerber, court organist in that city
After studying law at Leipzig he devoted him-
self more exclusively to music, and succeeded to
his father's position in 1775 For 10 years he
was engaged in collecting material from every
part of Europe for his celebrated H^stor^sch-
'bwgraph^sc'hes Lecsikon der Tonkunstler (1790-
92),, which work, though out of date, has never
been excelled in Germany and still furnishes
valuable material to those engaged in musical
research A supplementary edition was subse-
quently published under the title Neues Eis-
torisch-bwgraphisches Leacikon der Tonkunstler
(4 vols, 1812-14) (Berber's extensive collec-
tion of books and musical manuscripts was
purchased by the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde
of Vienna and furnished the nucleus of the large
library afterwards formed by that society.
0ERBEB, JOHAOTT GOTTFRIED HJSOTRICII
(1832-1912) A German engineer He was
born at Hof, Bavaria, and was educated at
Nuremberg and Munich. He built the bridge
across the Isar at Grosshesselohe, and designed
many large bridges in south Germany The so-
643
GEBHABB
called "• cantilever system/' the germ of which
may be seen in the labors of Pope, Canfield,
and otheis, was patented by him under the name
of "Trager mit freischwebenden Stutzen," and
first practically applied by him at Regnitz The
publications of Gerber include Die liheiribruche
l>ei Maine (1863), Die Isarlruoke ~bei Grtoss-
hesselohe (1859), Das Paulische Tragersystem
(1859), Trugei mit treihegenden Stutepunkten
(1870)
GERBER, KAEL FBIEDEICH WILIIELM VON
(1823-91) A German jurist and statesman,
born at Ebeleben and educated at Leipzig and
Heidelbeig He was professor at Jena, Erlan-
gen, Tubingen, and Leipzig, assisted in the codi-
fication of the German commercial and marine
laws, and m 1871 became the successor of
Falkenstein as Minister of Education in Saxony
In 1891 he was appointed President of the Saxon
ministry New laws on education weie enacted
during his administration, and the relation be-
tween the Catholic church and the state was
more clearly defined His System des deutschcn
Privatrechts (1848-49; 17th ed , 1895) is the
standard authority on that subject With
Jhermg he founded, in 1856, the Jahr'bucher
fur die Dogmatik des Prwatrechts
GERBERT, zhar'bar'. See SYLVESTER
GERBERT, geVbert, MAKTIN, BAKON VON
HORNAXJ (1720-93) A Roman Catholic prelate
and writer on Church music He was born at
Horb on the ISTeckar and leceived his education
chiefly at the Jesuit School of Freibuig in Breis-
gau He joined the Order of the Benedictines
in the monastery of Samt-Blaise in 1737, became
priest in 1744, was s^on thereafter appointed
professor of theology, and was chosen abbot in
1764 From 1759 to 1762 he traveled m Ger-
many, Italy, and France, chiefly with a view
of obtaining access to the old collections of musi-
cal literature contained in the libraries of the
monasteries In 1774 he published at Saint-
Blaise De Oantu et Musica Sacra, in 1777,
Monumenta Veteris Liturgice Alemanmcce, four
parts, and In 1784, in three volumes, Scriptores
Ecclesiastici de Musica Sacra, a collection of
the principal writers on Church music from the
third century till the invention of printing
This work has been of very great importance
for the history of music, by preserving writings
which otherwise might either have perished or
remained unknown He is also the author of
Codex Epistolans Rudolphi I (1772) and His-
tona Nigrce Silvcs Ordinis Sancti Benedicti
(1783-88) He died at Samt-Blaise, May 3,
1793 Consult his life by Misard (Paris,
1867)
GERBI, jeVbi, GERBA, jeVba See JEBBA
GERBIL, igr'bil (from Fr gerbille, from
Neo-Lat Gerbillus, dim of gerbua, variant of
jerboa, from Ar yarbu, flesh of back and loin).
Any of several ratlike rodents inhabiting Africa,
Asia, and southern Russia About 50 species
are known, forming a subfamily, Gerbillmse, of
the rat family (Muridse), characterized by
tufted tails and long and powerful hind limbs,
giving them much the appearance of jerboas
(qv) and enabling them to progress in long
leaps with great rapidity. They live under-
ground, in extensive connected burrows They
are fawn-colored, very lively, emit an offensive
odor, and are extraordinarily prolific Well-
known species are the Egyptian gerbil (G-er-
lillus wgyptiacus) and the East Indian gerbil
wdicus), whuch is strictly nocturnal
and often colonizes in or near cultivated fields,
where it does serious damage to giain ciops
GERBO'A See JEEBOA
GERCKE, ger'ke, ALFKED (1860- ) A
German classical scholar, born in Hanover and
educated at the univeisities of Bonn and Beilin
He taught in the Beilin Luisengymna&ium in
1886-88, was privatdocent at Gottmgen in 1890-
03, professor at Greifswald in 1805-1000 and
lectoi of the university in 1908, and after 1909
professoi at Breslau He wrote on Seneca,
Seneca- 8 iudien (1895) and Studia Annceana
(1900), Gnechisohe Litter at urgcschichte (1898,
3d ed , 1911-13), Geschichte der gnechisch-
ronnschen Philosophy (2d ed , 1912), Methodil
(1910), and, with Norden, Einleitung in die
Altertumswissenschaft (1910-11, 2d ed , 1912
et seq ) , EntsteJtung der Aeneis (1913)
GERFALCON, jer'fa'k'n See GYRFALCOKT
GERGOEHSTE, zhcr'gon', JOSEPH DIEZ (1771-
1859) A French mathematician, bom at
Nancy, France In 1792 he was enrolled in the
Army of the Moselle and took part in the battle
of Valmy He attended the aitillery school at
Chalons, was appointed lieutenant, and joined
the French army campaigning in the Pyrenees
When his legiment returned to Nimes, he was
appointed professor of mathematics at the Ecole
of that city In 1816 he accepted the chair of
astronomy at Montpelher and in 1830 the posi-
tion of rector of the Montpelber Academy He
was* one of the founders of modern proactive
geometry and the first to enunciate the principle
of geometric duality From 1810 to 1831 he
published the journal Annales de MatMmatiqms
or the Annales de Gt-ergonne
GERGO'VIA The chief city of the Arverni,
modern Gergovie, attacked unsuccessfully by
Julius Caesar in 52 B 0.
GEUHAK.D, ANDBEAS. See HYPEEIUS
GERHARD, ggi'hart, BDTJAED (1795-1867)
A German classical archaeologist He was born
in Posen, and after studying at Breslau and
Berlin took up his residence at Bieslau in.
1816 The reputation he acquired by his Lec-
tiones ApolloniancB, published in the same year,
led soon afterward to his appointment as pro-
fessor at the Gymnasium of Posen On resign-
ing that office m 1819, on account of weakness
in the eyes, he traveled in Italy and in 1822
took up his residence in Rome, where, to prose-
cute his archaeological studies, he remained un-
til 1837 In that year he received an appoint-
ment as archaeologist in the Berlin Museum In
1844 he became professor in the university and
member of the Koyal Academy During his long
stay in Italy he cooperated in Platner's Besohrei-
ftung der Stadt Rom and in 1829 was one of the
leading spirits in the foundation of the Insti-
tute di Cornspondenza Archeologica, now the
Imperial German Archaeological Institute, of
which he was vice secretary Gerhard's great
service to archaeological study was in the publi-
cation of important groups of monuments and
in promoting an orderly classification Such
a worker was much needed at this time, when
the excavations at Vulci and elsewhere in
Etruria increased so suddenly the mass of early
vases and other small objects For artistic
beauty and style Gerhard had little perception,
his interest was largely antiquarian, and it is
characteristic of him that he was attracted by
the Etruscan art, generally of little interest to
the artist His writings are widely scattered
m the volumes of the Archaeological Institute,
GERHARD
644
GERHARDT
tlie Berlin Academy, and various periodicals
Many of these are collected in the Gesammelte
academische Alhandlungen und kl&ine Schriften
(Berlin, 1866-68) Among his larger works
are Rappoito intorno i vasi Volcenti (1831) ,
Antike Bildwerke (1827-44), Auserlesene grie-
ehtsehe Vasenfolder (1839-58), still the best
single collection of Greek vases , a publication of
selected vases from the Berlin collection, Gne-
chische und etruskische Trinkschalen (1843),
Ettuskische und campamsche Vaseribilder
(1843), Apuhsohe Vasen (1846), Trwkschalen
und Gefasse (1848-50) Etruslische Spiegel (4
Yois , 1843-68, 5tli vol by Klugmann and Korte,
1884-97) With Panofka he prepared a cata-
logue of the Naples Museum in 1828 and in
1836 one of the antiques in the Berlin Museum.
Though Gerhard's G-rtechische Mythologie ( 1854-
55) is still valuable, his mythological vvork, as
well as his interpretation of works of art, suf-
fers from his overestimate of the importance of
the mysteries and their symbolism Consult
Jahn, Eduard Gerhard, em Lebensaoriss (Ber-
1m, 1868), and Sandys, A History of Classical
Scholarship, vol in (Cambridge, 1908)
GERHARD, JOHANN (1582-1637). One of
the ablest and most learned German exponents
of Lutheran orthodoxy He TV as boin at Qued-
hnburg, Oct 17, 1582 In his fifteenth year
he came under the personal influence of Johann
Arndt (qv ), author of Das uahte Chnstentwn,
and resolved to study for the Church Soon
after entering the University of Wittenberg
(1599) he began to \vaver in this determination
and ultimately interested himself for two years
in the study of medicine, but in 1603 resumed
his theological studies at Jena, and m the
following year received a new impulse from Wm-
kelmann and Mentzer at Marburg Having
graduated and commenced lecturing at Jena in
1605, he m 1606 received and accepted the Duke
of Coburg'a invitation to the supermtendeney of
Heldburg and mastership of the Gymnasium,
soon afterward he became general superintend-
ent of the duchy, in which capacity he was much
and usefully engaged m the practical work of
ecclesiastical organization until 1616, when lie
found a more congenial sphere in the senior
theological chair at Jena, where the remainder
of his life was spent and where he died, Aug 17,
1637 He was a prolific writer His most
famous works are Loot Communes Theologici
(1610-22) and his Sacred Meditations (1606),
which have been translated into several lan-
guages (English, by Wmterton, 1631, many edi-
tions). His life was written m Latin by
Fischer (Leipzig, 1723) and in German by
Boettclxer (Dresden, 1858)
GERHARD, WILLIAM PAUL (1854- ).
An American sanitary engineer, born in Ham-
burg, Germany After graduating from the
Polytechnic School, Carlsruhe, Baden, he spent
one year as a civil engineer in his native
city, was for several years m St Louis, Mo,
assisted Col George E Waring (1881-83), ed-
ited Building (1885-86), and was sanitary en-
gineer on the staff of the State architect of New
York (1892-99) His publications include
House Drainage and Samtary Plumbing ( 1881 ,
10th ed, 1002), The Disposal of Household
Wastes (1890) , Theatres (safety, etc ) (1900) ,
The Sanitation of Publio Buildings (1907),
Modern Baths and Bath Homes (1908) , Guide
to Sanitary Inspections (4th ed , 1909),
Bcvmtation and Sanitary Engineering (1909) ,
Flies and Mosquitoes as Garners of Disease
(1911)
GERHARDT, ger'hart, DAGOBERT VON (pen
name, Gerhard von Amyntor) (1831-1910) A
German soldier, poet, and novelist, born at Lieg-
nitz After attending the university he entered
the Prussian army and advanced to the rank of
major He was severely wounded in the assault
upon the fortifications of Duppel during the
Danish War of 1864 and in 186T was employed
by Moltke on the geneial staff at Berlin ^He
served in the Franco-German War (1870-71)
He has become known m literature rather late
m life and then chiefly through his numerous
novels, such as Das list Dul (1882) , Em Prol-
lem (1884), Vom Buohstalien stwn Geiste
(1886) , Gerke Svtemvnne (3d ed , 1890) , Durch
Nacht sum Licht (1887), Die Gis Moll Sonate
(1891) , Em Eampf urn Gott (1902) , and the
sketch, Erne modeine Abendgesellsohaft, treating
of the Jewish question (3d ed , 1881)
GERHARDT, EDUAED (1813-88) A Ger-
man architectural painter, boin at Erfurt He
was at first a lithographer, then studied archi-
tecture in Cologne, and under Semper in Dres-
den, but in 1837 took up painting at Munich
He continued his studies (1848) m Italy, Spam,
and Portugal Summoned afterward to Lisbon
to instiuct the princes of the royal family, he
returned m 1851 and settled in Munich He
excelled in depicting Moorish architecture, his
oil paintings and water colors being of equal
merit, as may be judged by "The Palace of the
Inquisition a-t Cordova" (1863), "Lion Court
in the Alhambra" (1861), cflnterior of St
Mark's, Venice" (1864), all in the New Pmako-
thekj and by "The Alhambra by Moonlight,"
"The Generalife," "The Comarea Tower," and
two views of Venice, all m the Schack Gallery,
Munich
GERHARDT, ELENA (1883- ) A dis-
tinguished German heder singer, born in Leip-
zig, Nov 11, 1883 Although she had been a
precocious child and sung at many school enter-
tainments, her voice was not systematically
trained until she entered the Leipzig Conserva-
tory in 1899, where she studied under Marie
Hedmont till 1903 In that year she leaped
into fame at one bound, when she made her
deimt in Leipzig in a recital with Arthur ]STikisch
at the piano Because of her extraordinary
success she was practically forced, against her
own inclination, into opera She appeared as
Mignon and Charlotte (Werther) at the Leip-
zig Opera, eight times in each r61e, and then
decided to abandon the stage to devote herself
entirely to concert work Before long she was
acknowledged as one of the world's greatest
heder singers, all Europe paid homage to her
art In 1912 she made her first tour of the
United States, appearing with signal success
in numerous recitals and with the principal
orchestras The demand for her services was
such that in the following season she had to
make a second American tour
GERHARDT, KAEL PBIEDBIOH (1816-56).
An eminent French chemist, born at Strassburg
At the age of 15 he was sent to the Polytechnic
School at Carlsnihe,, where his attendance at
Walchner's lectures ferst awakened in his mind
a taste for chemistry After two years he re-
moved to Leipzig, witere he attended the lec-
tures of Erdmann, wtueh seem to have developed
w him a passim for questions of speculative
chemistry. On his return home he reluetantty
GffiRHAKDT
645
GKEBICATJL1?
entered upon the business of his fathei, who was
a manufactuier of chemical products, but in his
twentieth year he enlisted in a regiment of chas-
seurs He soon, however, found military life
as insupportable as a commercial career He
therefore purchased his dischaige and set out
for the laboratory of Giessen, where he worked
under Liebig's direction foi 18 months In 1838
he arrived in Paris and there was cordially wel-
comed by Dumas In the laboratory of the
Jardin des Plantes he soon commenced, "jointly
with Cahours, his important researches on the
essential oils In 1844 he was appointed pro-
fessor of general chemistry in the faculty of
sciences at Montpelher About this time he
published his Precis de chimie organique In
1848 he resigned his chair and returned to Paris,
in order to follow out uninterruptedly his spe-
cial investigations, and in that city he estab-
lished, between the years 1849 and 1855, in
successive memoirs, his views of series and his
theory of types It was there, also, that he
gave to the scientific world his researches upon
the anhydrous acids and the oxides In 1855
he was made professor of chemistry at Strass-
burg and corresponding member of the Academy
of Sciences of Pans All his ideas and his dis-
coveries are embodied in his Trait e de chimie
organique (4 vols , 1853-56) He had hardly
completed the correction of the last proof of this
great work when, after an illness of only two
days, he died Consult Grrmaux, Charles (3-er-
hardt sa vie, son oziwre, so, correspondance
(Pans, 1900), and Ostwald, Grosse Manner, vol
i (Leipzig, 1909). See CHEMISTBY, AVOGADRO'S
RULE
GKEHHARDT, PAULUS, or PAUL (1607-76).
After Luther, the greatest of German hymn
writers He was born in Saxony, studied at
Wittenberg, and became pastor at Mittenwalde
In 1657 he removed to Berlin, but retired in
1666, rather than enter the union with the Re-
formed church, and in 1669 removed to Lubben,
where he died in 1676 He was an active sup-
porter of the Lutherans in their controversies
with the Reformed churches Among- his most
familiar hymns are "0 sacred head once
wounded" (Eng trans by J W Alexander),
"Commit thou all thy griefs/' and "Jesus, Thy
boundless love to me" (English trans by John
Wesley) Consult the critical editions of his
hymns by Bachmann (Berlin, 1866) and Goe-
deke (Leipzig, 1877) , his life by Langbecker
(Berlin, 1841), Kelly, GerJiardt's Spiritual
Songs (London, 1867). The first collection of
his hymns appeared in 1667
GEHHAR'DTJS MAG'NTTS See GROOTE
GEBHABT, EMANUEL VOGEL (1817-1904).
An American minister of the German Reformed
church He was born at Freeburg, Pa, and
was educated at Marshall College and at the
Mercersburg Theological Seminary After act-
ing1 as president of Heidelberg College, in 1851
he became professor of theology in the Theo-
logical Seminary at Tiffin, Ohio, whence he was
called to the presidency of Franklin and Mar-
shall College in 1855, where he also lectured
on mental and moral philosophy In 1868 he
was appointed professor of philosophy at the
Reformed Church Seminary, Lancaster, Pa He
edited Rauch's Inner Life and, for several years,
the Meroersburg Review, and wrote Philosophy
and Logic (1858) and Institutions of the Chris-
tian Religion (1891)
G-EUHQH, geVho, or GEBHOCH VON REICH-
EBSBERG, ger'hoK ion HK'eis-beiK (1003-1169)
A German theologian, bom at Polling, near
Weilheim, Bavaria In 1132 he was appointed
by Archbishop Conrad to the chief jurisdic-
tion of the canonry of Reieher&bcig, and he
became conspicuous as a reformer of the in-
stitution His De Investigation Antichtisti
severely criticizes the ecclesiastical conditions
of Ins time and is historically \aluable m
its bearing upon the Second Crusade His
unfinished "Commentary on the Psalms" and
most of his works are published in Migne's
Patrologia Jatina, vols cxcm and cxciv (Paris,
1844-80) , and the most important by Sackur
in Monument® Germanics Histonca (Hanover,
1897) Consult the biography by Nobbe (Leip-
zig, 1881)
G-EUI (ga'rt) AND FREKI, fra'ke The
wolves of Odin ( q v ) They lie at his feet as
he is sealed on his throne in Valhalla, ready
to feast with his chosen heroes Odin himself
needs no food, so he gnes all the meat that is
set before him to his wolves
G-EBICATTLT, zhA'iS'ko', JEAN-LOUIS ANDRE
THEODORE (1791-1824) A French painter, the
first leader of the Romantic school in its revolt
against the tyranny of classicism of David
Ge'ricault was born at Rouen, Sept 26, 1791
The family moved to Paris soon afterward, and
the boy entered the Lycee Louis-le-Grand He
left this school in 1808 He first entered the
atelier of Carle Vernet (qv), and in 1810
he went over to the atelier of Gue"rin, but
there was never any artistic sympathy between
master and pupil Much of his time was spent
in Versailles, where he found the stables of the
palace open to him, and where he gained his
knowledge of the anatomy and action of horses
At the Salon of 1812 Gericault exhibited one
of the best known of his pictures, "A Cavalry
Officer on Horseback" (now in the Louvre),
which created an immediate sensation His
"Wounded Cuirassier" was exhibited in the
Salon of 1814, but was not especially successful
Gericault in a fit of disappointment entered the
army and served for a time in the garrison of
Versailles In 1817 he went to Italy and, after
a month in Florence, settled for two years in
Rome The work of the Italian masters affected
him powerfully, that of Michelangelo appealing
especially to his temperament The productions
of this period are perhaps the most vigorous of
his entire career They are mainly in the form
of drawings, of which many have been preserved
The finest of these are a series of studies for a
picture which he intended to paint of the horse
race in the Corso during Carnival The paint-
ing called the "Raft of Medusa" (now in the
Louvre) has come to be deemed one of the most
powerful productions of the French school At
the exhibition of 1819, however, it was placed
too high and was received very coldly Ge'ri-
cault carried the picture to England, where he
exhibited it at a shilling admission, realizing'
20,000 francs During his stay in England
Ge'ricault associated much with Charlet, the
lithographer and caricaturist, and while in Eng-
land he painted his "Race for the Derby %t Ep-
som" (Louvre), his last great painting;' sT!iere
are many of his powerful sketches and studies
in the Louvre, the Rouen Museum^ and other col-
lections throughout Europe, and a number of
his lithographs are preserred in the Cabinet des
Estampes, Paris He also> modeled bronzes and
wax sketches, the fines* of 'those surviving being
GEBICKE
646
GffiKLACHE
an anatomical study of a hoiae G£ricault s
temperament was too vivid and sympathetic to
tolerate the formal and conventional The reali-
ties of his time appealed to Inm too intensely
10 peimit his mind to rest upon the unrealities
of the Classical school
Soon after his return to Pans in 1822 Gen-
cault was injured by a fall from a horse and
spent the rest of his life in extreme distress
He died in Pans, Jan 18, 1824 Consult Blanc,
Histoire des peintrea de I'eoole frangais (Paris,
1865), Clement, Oemcault Etude biograpfaque
et critique (ib, 1868), Biownell, French Art,
Classic and Contemporaty (New York, 1901),
Muther, History of Modern Painting (London,
1907).
GEBICKE, ga'rik-6, WILHELM (1845-1925)
A German orchestral conductor He was "born
at Gratz, Austria, and early gave evidence of a
strong musical temperament In 1862 he en-
tered the Vienna Conservatory, where he studied
under Dessoff Leaving the conservatory in
1865, he became kapellmeister of the theatre at
Lmz and m 1874 received the appointment of
second kapellmeister of the Vienna Court Opera,
of which Hans Riehter (qv) was first kapell-
meister On the retirement of Biahms from the
eondtictorship of the Gesellschaf tsconcei te in
1880, Gericke succeeded him and became also
the conductor of the Singveiein His fame as a
conductor, and particularly as a dnlhnastei, in-
duced the Boston (Mass ) Symphony Orchestia
to secure him as its leader From 1S84 to 1889
he held the baton of the organization and suc-
ceeded in placing it in the front rank of the
world's gieat orchestias In 1889 he retained
to Vienna and to the leadership of the Gesell-
sehaftsconcerte (Nikisch succeeding him m Bos-
ton), but resigned again in 1895 Three years
later he once more took charge of the Boston
Orchestra and retired in 1906 He has pub-
lished many works for the orchestra, besides
much pianoforte and chamber music
GrEllIGr, JOHN LAWBENCE (1878- ). An
American university professor, born at Colum-
bia, Mo , where he graduated from the University
of Missouri in 1898 He studied also at the
University of Nebraska (PhD, 1902) and in
Pans (1903-05), taught in the summer sessions
of the universities of Missouri (1889) and Ne-
braska (1901), and was instructor at the latter
institution in 1901-03 and at Williams College
m 1905-06 At Columbia University he was
lecturer, tutor, instructor, and assistant pro-
fessor of Romance languages and Celtic between
1906 and 1911, when lie became associate pro-
fessor of the same subjects He was assistant
editor of Edgren's Italian Dictionary (1902)
and became associate editor of the Romanic Re-
www and contributor to the New International
Yearbook and to the NEW INTERNATIONAL EN-
CYCLOPEDIA,
G-EBTNTG-, gating, ULRICH (c 1440-1510) A
Swiss printer He was one of the printers
called by Gulllaume Fiehet, then rector of the
Sorbonne, to put up the first printing press ever
used in France In this he was assisted by
Michel Friburger and Martin Crantz
GEBIN'-IiAJ'OIE, ggr'an-la'zhwa', ANTOTNE
(1824-82) A Canadian novelist and poet He
was born in Yamachiche, Province of Quebec,
and was educated at Nicolet Seminary While
studying law, he became connected with La
rve (Montreal), of which journal he was
chief editor (until 1847) In 1848 he was
admitted to the bar He was one of the
founders, and for several years president, of
L'Institut Canadien In 1852 he became one
of the French translators in the Canada Legis-
lative Assembly and subsequently assistant par-
liamentary libiarian He \\as a contubutor,
both m piose and verse, to several peiiodicals,
puncipally to Les Soirees Canadiennes, of winch
he vas one of the directors, and Le Foyei Cana-
dien, of which he was one of the founders and
also one of the editors He died at Ottawa
His publications include Le jeune Latour,
•tragedie en trois actes (1844) , Catechisme poli-
iique (1851), Jean Rward, le defriclieur cana-
dien (1862-64)., Dies ans d'histoire du Canada,
ISW-oO (1888), a luminous study of the period
in which responsible government was established
See CANADIAN LITEKATTJBE
GEKIZIM, ggrl-zimu See EBAL AND GERIZIM
aEKXACH, geVUo, EENST LTJBWIG VON
(1795-1877) A Prussian statesman, born in
Berlin He became one of the leaders of the
Piussian High-Church party, and was president
of the Magdeburg Superior Court from 1844 to
1874 In 1849 he was one of the founders
of the Neue Preussische Zettung (the Kreus-
zeitunff], in \shich he freely expiessed his ultra-
conservatne views Elected to the Prussian
Upper House in 1849, he was until 1858 a leader
of the extreme Right He published a pamphlet,
Die Annexionen und der norddeutscJie Bund
(1866), denouncing the annexations of 1866 and
the exclusion of Austria from the German Bund
He \\as killed by a carriage Consult the bio-
graphical material (Schwerm, 1903) edited by
Jakob von Gerlach
CKEBLACH, FBANZ DOROTHEAS (1793-1876)
A Swiss historian and classical scholar, born at
Wolfsbehringen, near Gotha, and educated at
Gottingen He was professor at the University
of Basel from 1820 until shortly before his
death and during the greater pait of that time
occupied also the position of chief librarian at
that institution He was distinguished chiefly
for his pedagogical ability His works include
a German translation of Livy (1856-73), with
an introductory volume entitled Die Q-eschicht-
schreiber der Romer von den fruhest&n Zeiten
lis auf Orosius (1855) , and editions of Tacitus'
0-ermania (1835), Sallust (1823-31), Lucilms
(1846), and Nonius Mareellus (1842)
GKERLACH, OTTO VON (1801-49) A Ger-
man theologian He was born in Berlin, studied
law at Heidelberg and Gottingen and theology
at Berlin, preached for a time m the latter city,
and became court chaplain in 1847 With hia
brothers, Ernst Ludwig von Gerlach (qv ) and
Leopold von Gerlach, he was an upholder of
orthodoxy in Prussia He wrote a commentary
on the Bible (1841, often reprinted, and pub-
lished in a Swedish version) and was commis-
sioned by Frederick William IV to study Eng-
lish Church organization
GKEKLACHE, zhar'lash', ADBIEN DE (DE GOM-
MERY) (1866- ) A Belgian naval officer,
scientist, and explorer His field work began in
1895 as a member of the expedition to Jan
Mayen and southeast Greenland He was the
leading spirit in the organization of the Belgian
Antarctic expedition, which he commanded in
1898-99, in the Belgica It was the first expe-
dition to pass a winter within the Antarctic
circle, and among its discoveries were Danco
Land, Gerlache Strait, and other parts of
Palmer Land, continent of Antarctica. Beset by
GERLACHE
647
GERMAN"
the pack, the Belgica drifted for 11 months
across areas largely unvisited, its explorations
covering the Antarctic Ocean between 70° to 72°
lat S, 85° to 103° long W In 1901 he led a
zoological expedition to the Persian Gulf In
1907 he accompanied the Duke of Orleans in
his explorations of the sea off the coast of noith-
east Greenland Gerlache's principal publica-
tion is Quin&e mois dans VAntarctique (Paris,
1902) He was vice president of the Belgica
Commission and later was appointed curatoi in
the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels
GERLACHE, ETIENNE CONSTANTIN, BARON
DE (1785-1871) A Belgian statesman and his-
torian, born in Luxemburg He studied and
practiced law in Paris In 1824 he was elected
deputy from Liege to the Second Chamber of
the States-Genei al At the time of the revolu-
tion of 1830, as president of the committee ap-
pointed to revise the constitution, he advocated
complete political and religious hbeity and op-
posed the Due de Nemours on the ground that the
latter's election implied a sort of annexation to
France fie was head of the deputation sent
to offer the crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg In 1831, as President of the Chamber
of Representatives, he received the oath exacted
from the King by the constitution, and the
following year was appointed first president of
the Court of Cassation, which position he held
until 1867 In 1843 he received the title of
Baron He was one of the Catholic leaders, and
after early radicalism became more and more
conservative Gerlache was also widely known
as a writer. His Histoire du royaume des Pays-
Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830 (1839) attacks
the Dutch government and praises Catholic or-
thodoxy Besides some works on contemporane-
ous history, he published Salluste et quelques-
uns des principauo) historians de I'antiquite
(1859). His collected works were published in
six volumes (Brussels, 1874-75) by Thomssen,
with a biographical sketch Consult the biogra-
phy by Juste (ib, 1870)
GKEBXAWD, gSr'lant, GEORG KARL CORNELIUS
(1833- ) A German geographer and eth-
nologist, born at Cassel and educated at Mar-
burg and Berlin In 1875 he was appointed
professor of geography and ethnology at Strass-
buig and in 1900 became director of the earth-
quake observatory in that city His works in-
clude Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvolker
(1S68), Atlas der Ethnographic (1876), "Die
Zukunft der Indianer" (in the Globus, 1879) ,
"Atlas der Volkerkunde," in Berghaus, Physi-
lahsoher Atlas (7th part, 1891-92), / Kant,
seine geographische und antht opologisohe Ar-
leiten (1905) , Mythus von der Smtflut (1912)
GERM See BACTERIA, DISEASE, GERM
THEORY OF
GERMAIN", jer-man', GEORGE SACKVILLE,
VISCOUNT SACKVILLE (1716-85) An English
soldier and politician He went to Westminster
School and in 1731 accompanied his father, the
Duke of Dorset, to Dublin on his appointment
as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Sackville, as he
was called up to 1770, was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, and in 1737 was commissioned
a captain in the Sixth Dragoon Guards Pro-
moted lieutenant colonel of the Twenty-eighth
Foot (1740), he served with his regiment under
Cumberland in Flanders, being wounded at Fon-
tenoy in May, 1745 He was made $- colonel in
1746 During his father's second term as Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland (1751-56) Sackville was
his puncipal secretary and Secretary of War
for Ireland, and sat in the English and Irish
Commons In 1758 he took part in the expedi-
tion to Samt-Malo (France) and in the same
year accompanied the third Duke of Marlborough
as second in command of the English troops
sent to Hanover to aid Prince Ferdinand of
Brunswick in his operations against the French
Sackville succeeded to the Butish command
after the death of Marlborough, but for his re-
fusal to obey Ferdinand's orders at the victori-
ous battle of Minden (August, 1759) he was~
dismissed from the army and leplaced by his
rival Gianby Charges of cowardice brought
against him were not pioved at a court-martial
in 1760, but, his dismissal being approved on
the ground of insubordination, he was declared
unfit for military command, and his name was
erased from the rolls of the Privy Council by
George II Sackville's political career had begun
in 1741 with his election to represent Dover in
Parliament, and he continued as a member of
the House from some constituency until 1761,
when he was chosen for three constituencies
and sat for Hythe In 1763, after George III
became King, his name was restored to the list
of privy councilors, and he began to take part
in the debates in Commons as a supporter of
Lord North The first actual mark of favor
shown him was his appointment as Vice Treas-
urer of Ireland, a position he held during 1765-
66 In 1769 he was declared by some, without
much leason, to be the author of the Junius
Letters (See J Jaques's History of Junius,
1843 ) He assumed the name of Germain in
1770, after the valuable estate of Dray ton and
£20,000 had been left him by Lady Elizabeth
Geimain (1680-1769), a friend of Dean Swift
and the widow of Sir John Germain ( 1650-
1718), an English soldier of fortune From
1775 to 1779 he was Lord Commissioner of
Trade and Plantations, and Secretary of State
for the Colonies until the resignation of Lord
North in 1782 In charge of the actual con-
duct of the war in America, he did much to em-
bitter the Americans against the mother coun-
try by his advocacy of harsh measuies, by the
employment of continental mercenaries and In-
dians, and by his continued opposition to all
propositions looking towards peace In 1777
he planned the invasion of Canada and Bur-
goyne's campaign, which turned out so badly
After the fall of the North ministry he was
cieated Viscount Sackville (1782) and retired
from public life
GERMAIN", SAINT See GEBMANUS, SAINT
GERMAN, J EDWARD (1862- ) An
English orchestral composer Ho was born at
Whitchurch m Shropshire and after preliminary
instruction under local teachers became a stu-
dent at the Royal Academy of Music, where he
studied from 1880 until his graduation in 1887
as an associate, the rank of fellow being granted
him in 1895. In 1888-89 he was director of
music at the Globe Theatre, London After that
he devoted his entire time to composition He
wrote an operetta, The Rival Poets (1886), two
symphonies, considerable chamber music, and
incidental music to several of Shakespeare's
plays, as Richard HI, The Temp&st, ttomeb arid
Juliet, As 'You Like It, and ftewry VIII, by
which he has become best known He has also
brought out operas Merry England (1902), The
Pringess of Kensington (1903), and Tom Jones
(1907).
GEBHAK" BAPTIST BRETHREN 648
GKEBMAJSTDER
BAPTIST BBETHKEN. Now
known as CHUKOTI OF THE BRETHREN (qv )
GERMAN BAPTISTS. See BAPTISTS
GERMAN CATHOLICS The name given to
a sect which originated in Germany in 1844 and
had a shoit existence In that year Johannes
Czerski (qv ) undeitook to found the Christian-
Apostolic Catholic Congregation at Schneide-
muhl in Posen. The confession of faith drawn
up hy Czeiski rejected certain doctrines and
practices of the Roman Catholic chuich, but re-
tamed the Nicene Cieed, the seven sacraments,
and pia^er foi the dead, it declared the Bible
the only' sure source of Christian faith In the
same month and yeai Johannes Ronge (qv)
uttered his protest "against the exhibition of the
holy coat (qv ) at Tre\es, and the following year
was called to take charge of a large German
Catholic congregation at Breslau Ronge's con-
fession of faith was far more radical than that of
Czerski and had a decided rationalistic tendency.
The movement spread with remarkable rapidity,
and many similar congregations were formed.
In March, 1845, a conference was held at Leipzig
and an organization effected Among the promi-
nent members of this gathering was Robeit Blum
(qv) The movement was forbidden in Aus-
tria and Bavaria By the end of 1840 there
were 60,000 German Catholics, more than half
of them in Silesia A second council TV as held
at Berlin in 1847, at which liberal and lational-
istic tendencies weie still more maiked The de-
cline of the association was due to two causes —
the actne part which many of its members took
in politics, and the continual controversy be-
tween the adherents to the rationalistic con-
fession of Ronge and those who preferred the
more evangelical one of Czerbki After the revo-
lution of 1848 it rapidly went to pieces In
1850 it was united with the Free Congi egations
(qv). In 1863 Ronge and Czerski attempted
to revive the movement by the Religious Reform
Union. It is now practically dead. Consult,
Gunther, BibliotJiek der Bekenntmssschnft&n, d&r
deutschkathohschen KwcTien (Jena, 1845);
Bauer, Q-eschwlvte der Grundung und Foribildung
d&r deutschLathohschen Kwcfae (Meissen, 1855) ;
Kampe, Wesen ties Deutschkathohcwmis (Tu-
bingen, 1850) , Findel, Der DeutschkathoUci&mus
wi Sachsen (Leipzig, 1895).
GERMAN COLONIES At the outbreak of
the Great War in 1914, the German Colonies, or
so-called protectorates, were Togoland (acquired
in 1884), Kameiun (1884), German Southwest
Africa (1884), German East Africa (1885),
German New Guinea (1884), German Samoa
(1900), and the territory of Kiaochow (1897)
German New Guinea included Kaiser -Wilhelms-
land, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the Ger-
man Solomon Islands, while administratively
attached to it were the Micronesian Islands ac-
quired in 1899, viz, the Caroline, Pelew, Mar-
shall, and Mananna islands (except Guam).
Total area, 1,140,115 square miles, total popula-
tion 13,258,000
The overseas dominions of Germany were at-
tacked at the very beginning of the war and all
of them were conquered before the war was over
Togoland was captured in a campaign which
lasted just three weeks It was surrounded on
three sides by hostile territory and the British
controlled the sea The initial campaign was
'itegjupi on Aug. 7, 1914, amd on August 28 the
€terwan governor surrendered the colony Kame-
ram presented a much more difficult problem
Although surrounded by hostile country its vast
size presented a huge obstacle In 1914 and 1913
the Germans successfully repelled the Allied
invasions Eaily in 1916, French, Belgian, and
British columns closed in and compelled the
surrender of the government The campaign
against Geiman Southwest Afuca really began
when Luderitz Bay was occupied on Sept 18,
1914 Swakopmund was seized on Jan 14, 1915
From these two points an attack was directed
against Windhoek, the capital Tins was entered
May 12, and on July 9, General Botha received
the surrender of the colony at Grootfontein
The most important German colony in Africa
was German East Africa Its capture gave the
Allies considerable trouble In 1914 the Gei-
mans repulsed every effort of the British to in-
vade it In September, 1915, the Allies began
a detei mined campaign The Belgians, French,
British, and Portuguese advanced on all sides
All the seaports fell into the hands of the
Butish Fleet It was not until Nov 14, 1918,
however, that General von Lettow-Vorbeck
finally suirendeicd
The Geiman possessions in the Pacific fell an
easier prey to the Allies than those in Africa
Shortly after Japan's entiance into the wai she
began a land and sea attack on Kiaochow
(Aug 27, 1914), Germany's possession in China
Land foices captured Tsmgtao 011 November 7,
and Kiaochow was in Allied hands An expedi-
tion fiom Australia and New Zealand captured
Geiman Samoa on Aug 30, 1914 On its rctiun
fiom Samoa the British squadron captured
Herbeitshohe, the capital of the Bismarck
Archipelago, and, on September 27, took pos
session of the town of Friedrich Wilhelm in
Kaiser-Wilhelmsland (German New Guinea)
During September and October Australian and
Japanese expeditions seized the remaining Ger-
man possessions in the Ladrone, Marshall, and
Caroline Islands
The Peace Conference, which closed the war
decided not to return any of the colonies to
Germany The final disposition of them (in the
form of mandates) was as follows in German
East Africa the legion between Lake Victoria
and Lake Tanganyika was given to Belgium,
the rest to Great * Britain, German Southwest
Afiica to the Union of South Afuca, Togoland,
two-thuds nearest Dahomey to France, the rest
to Great Britain, Kainerun, mostly to France,
a small strip near Nigeria to Gieat Britain, in
Oceanica all islands north of the Equator were
given to Japan, all islands south of the equator
to Australasia Japan received Kiaochow and
Shantung in Asia For further details see
SUPPLEMENT
GEHMAIT'DEB from Fr germandrte, Sp
camedrtSt cemedreo, from Lat chamcedrys, wall
germander, from Gk xa/jcu'fyvs, chamaidtys^
germander, from xa^cai, cfta-mcw, on the ground
-f- 6pv$, drys, oak), Teucnum A genus of nu-
merous and widely distributed species of plants
of the family Labiatse The common germander,
or wall germander (Teumum chamcedrys } , often
found on ruined walls in Great Britain, has
probably been introduced from the south of
Europe It is a small, almost shrubby peren-
nial, with, wedge-ghaped, ovate, serrate leaves,
and whorls of large reddish -purple flowers It
is bitter, somewhat aromatic, and w&s formerly
much used in medicine, particularly as a prin-
cipal ingredient in a once famous gout medi-
cine called Portland powder Similar medicinal
virtues were a&cnbed to Tewonum lotrys, a
small annual species common on dry hills in
GEKMAN EAST AFRICA
649
GERMAN EAST AFBICA
Germany, having aiomatic fragrance and yellow
flowers Cat thyme (Teucrium marum) , a na-
tive of the south of Europe, abounds in a pun-
gent volatile oil, has a camphor -like smell, and,
like catmint and valerian root, is greatly rel-
ished by cats It is often used as a sternuta-
tory Two species are rather abundant in the
United States — wood sage, or American ger-
mander (Teucnum canadense ) , in low ground
in the eastern part of the United States, and
Teuerwm, occidentals in the West
GrEBMAN EAST AFBICA The largest and
most important former colonial possession of
Geimany It lies on the east coast of Africa,
from lat 1° S to about 11° to 40' 8, and from
about long 29° E to 40° 40' E, with a coast
line of 620 miles It is bounded on the north
by British East Africa, on the east by the In-
dian Ocean, on the south by Portuguese East
Africa and British Central Africa, on the south-
west by Rhodesia, and on the west by Belgian
Congo The area is estimated at 384,170 square
miles — almost double the size of Germany
The small island of Mafia, off the coast, also
belongs to the colony
Topography and Hydrography Bordering
the ocean, the region is a narrow coastal plain
formed by sedimentary strata and coral lime-
stone Behind the jungle-covered plain rises a
wide plateau, extending to Tanganyika, from
3000 to 4000 feet in height and comprising over
90 per cent of the country It is surmounted in
the east by the hills and mountains of Usam-
l-aia, Useguha, Usagara, and other districts,
which extend south to the Rufiji River and in-
land about 300 miles This mountain region,
borne of whose peaks are 6000 feet high, is in
the northern part well watered, "well wooded,
and fruitful, and its drainage reaches the In-
dian Ocean through the Pangani, Rufu, Wami,
and Bufiji rivers, while in the south the coun-
try is almost a desert West of the mountains
is a wide steppe region, dry and poverty-
stricken, shut off by the mountains from the
moist southeast trades of the Indian Ocean The
tlmsty steppe merges gradually into the high
fertile plain of Umamwesi, south of Victoria
Nyanza On the west border of the colony the
plateau is broken by the cleft of the Great Rift
\alley (qv ) and also by vertical displacements
which have raised the strata west and north of
Lake Nyassa into mountains of considerable
elevation, some peaks of the Livingstone Moun-
tains reaching 6000 to 9000 feet The lofty vol-
canic mass of the Mfumbiro Mountains lies on
the northwest boundary In the north the pla-
teau is intersected by a number of subordinate
rifts and has been the seat of volcanic activity
Mount Kilimanjaro, an isolated volcanic peak,
rising to a height of 19,720 feet, is the culminat-
ing point of Africa
Climate The climate is tropical and un-
healthful, especially along the coastal plain,
where malaria prevails On the coast there are
two rainy seasons — from the middle of March
to the end of May and from the middle of Oc-
tober to the middle of December; in the interior
there is only one rainy season, from Noveniber
to the end of April The mean annual tempera-
ture is about 78° F in the coast land, and con-
siderably above that in some parts of the in-
terior
Agriculture, Commerce, etc Agriculture
and cattle raising are the chief occupations of
the settled natives Millet is grown in most
parts, while wheat,, sesame, tobacco, and rice are
confined to certain localities Bananas are cul-
tivated chiefly on the coast The German gov-
ernment furthered agricultural development by
establishing experiment stations and planta-
tions among the highlands of the northeastern
part of the colony, to which the German planta-
tions were almost wholly confined Nearly all
European vegetables thrive in some of these high
districts Hundreds of thousands of coffee
shrubs have been reared on the German planta-
tions, the crop thrives, and exports are in-
creasing The tobacco crop is rapidly increas-
ing, but it is of poor quality and is sold only
to the natives and Arabs Cotton is exported,
but sugar and copra are more important The
collecting of India rubber makes steady progress
In 1912 there were 43,617 cattle and 41,647 sheep
and goats owned by Europeans, and 3,950,250
cattle and 6,398,300 sheep and goats owned by
natives The chief exports are rubber, copra,
ivory, vegetable fibre, and coffee, while the im-
ports consist mostly of provisions, textiles, hard-
ware and iron, and rice The imports increased
from 23,806,000 maiks, and the exports from
12,500,000 markb m 1907, to 38,659,000 and 20,-
805,000 in 1910, and 50,309,000 and 31,418,000 m
1912 The trade, about half of which was with
Germany, passes chiefly through the ports of
Dar-es-Salaam, Bagamoyo, Pangani, Kilwa, Lmdi,
Mikindam, and Tanga The colony had regulai
steam communication with Germany and Bom-
bay The three boundary lakes are navigable by
steamers The main roads are good throughout
the colony The Usumbara Railway, from Tanga
to Muhera (219 miles), is open to traffic The
Tanganyika Railway, from Dar-es-Salaam,
reached Kigoma (about 740 miles), on Lake
Tanganyika, in February, J914 The chief ports
are connected by telegraph with Zanzibar and
inland points and through the latter with the
African transcontinental line
The native population in 1913 was estimated
at 7,659,898, other non-Europeans, as Arabs,
Indians, etc, living mainly on the coast, were
estimated at 15,000 The white population, Jan
1, 1913, was 5336, of whom 4107 were Germans
The natives are of the Bantu race The seat of
government is Dar-es-Salaam (qv )
History. German colonization on the east
coast of Africa began in 1884, when an expedi-
tion sent by the German Colonization Society
(established in the same year) secured by treaty
the territories of Useguha, Nguru, Usagara, and
Ukami This movement was made in secret on
account of the enormous influence which Great
Britain exercised over this territory In 1885
the German East Africa Company ^ame into
existence, and during 1885-86 succeeded in ex-
tending its dominion along the coast from
Somaliland to the mouth of the Rovuma, with
the exception of the territory around Mombasa,
then in the possession of the British By the
Anglo-German agreement of 1886 the northern
boundary of the colony was fixed, and the domin-
ions of the Sultan of Zanzibar on the mainland
reduced to a narrow strip along the coast. The
southern boundary of the colony was -fixed in
1887 By a second agreement with Great Brit-
ain, in 1890, the Territory of Vitu, then, yntim
the German sphere of influence, was exchanged
for Helgoland (qv ), in the Forth Sea. The
Sultan of Zanzibar renounced his claim to all
his mainland possessions for the sum of 4,000,000
marks ($952,000), and from Jan. 1, 1891, the
colony remained under the control of tVe Ger-
man government till it was lost in the war Con-
GERMAN EAST AFRICA CO.
650
GEBMA1STIA
suit Beichard, Dentsoh Ostafnka (Leipzig,
1898) , Stulilmann, Handwerk and Industrie in
OstafnJca (Hamburg, 1910) , Fonck, DeutscK
OstafriAa (5 vols , Berlin, 1907-10), Brode,
British and German East Africa (New York,
1911) See GERMAN COLONIES, SUPPLEMENT
GERMAN EAST AFRICA COMPANY.
See EAST AFRICA COMPANY, GEBMAN
GERMAN EMPIRE. See GERMANY
GERMAN EVANGELICAL PROTESTANT
CHTJRCH The name given collectively to a
number of independent German churches in the
United States, mostly west of the Alleghany
Mountains No general organization of these
churches has been instituted, hut a union of
ministers has been formed, which is called the
German Evangelical Protestant Ministers' Asso-
ciation of North America This body is of
comparatively recent origin, although some of
the churches whose ministers are affiliated with
it are old It is founded on the basis of the
principles of the United church of Prussia of
1817 Its purposes, as set forth in its published
organs, are to furnish a worthy representation
of the German Evangelical Protestant church m
North America, to promote the association of
the ministers, for mutual assistance, advance-
ment in knowledge, and greater practical effi-
ciency for their work and for the benefit of their
congregations, and to secure the pieservation of
the independence, while promoting the connec-
tion, of the German Evangelical Protestant con-
gregations and ministers The doctrinal prin-
ciple of the union is the gospel of the Lord Jesus
Christ, the interpretation of which is left to the
judgment of the believer, enlightened by the
Christian idea The association is composed of
three district associations — those of Cincinnati,
of Pittsburgh, and the Western District Asso-
ciation— and is under the management of a
central board, or Behorde, consisting of a presi-
dent, a, treasurer, a secretary, and three trus-
tees The congregations have no part in it It
maintains an orphans' home and a home for
the aged near Pittsburgh, aids in the support
of the Protestant orphans' homes in Cincinnati
and St Louis, and assists other benevolent in-
stitutions when required. The periodical organ
of the association, the Kirchenzeitung, is pub-
lished monthly at Pittsburgh and Cincinnati.
A periodical for youth, the Cbristhcher Jugend-
freund, is published semimonthly The book
list of the publishing house at Cincinnati com-
prises a hymn book and a small number of books
of elementary religious instruction, devotional
books, and the Protestantischer VoUcskalender
In 1914 the number of ministers in the associa-
tion was about 60, some of them having charge
of two or more congregations; and the number of
members in the congregations was about 35,000
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF
NORTH AMERICA, THE A Church organ-
ized Oct. 15, 1840, when six German minis-
ters doing missionary work in Missouri and
Illinois met at Gravois Settlement, Mo, and
formed the German Evangelical Association of
the West Most of its early ministers had been
ordained in the Evangelical church of Prussia,
some had been sent out by the Basel and other
missionary societies, and a large number of the
members of their congregations had been at-
tached to the United Evangelical church in
their native land Other Evangelical unions
Were organized in other parts » of the country
and m time were united with this one — the
German Evangelical Church Association of Ohio
m 1858, the German United Evangelical Synod
of the East m 1860, and the Evangelical Synod
of the Noithwest and the United Evangelical
Synod of the East m 1872 As these unions
were effected, the name of the church was
changed to Evangelical Synod of the West in
1806, and the German Evangelical Synod of
North America in 1877 The doctrinal position
of the church, as denned in the declaration m
its constitution (sec 2), is that it "considers
itself a part of the Holy Christian Church, and
as such does acknowledge the Holy Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments as the only true
and infallible guide of faith and life, and ac-
cepts the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures
given in the symbolical books of the Lutheran
and Reformed churches in so far as they agree
In all points of difference the Evangelical
Church refers to and abides by the words of
the Holy Scriptures, availing itself of that
liberty of conscience which, as a component part
of the basis of man^s ultimate responsibility to
God Himself, is the inalienable privilege of every
believer " The chief governing body is the Gen-
eral Synod, which meets every four years and
is composed of pastoral, lay, and teacher dele-
gates, chosen by the district meetings The
church is divided into 20 districts, which have
charge of local affairs, with officers respon-
sible to the General Synod or its president The
districts are the Atlantic, Indiana, Iowa, Kanv
sas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska,
New York, North Illinois, Ohio, the Pacific,
Pennsylvania, South Illinois, Texas, West Mis-
souri, Wisconsin, Colorado, Washington, and
the Mission The work of home missions is
carried on under supervision of the various
district boards and the General Board for Home
Missions and is aided by the Church Extension
Fund. The denomination maintains foreign
missions in India, where the communicants and
adherents number about 3500 The church
property was valued in 1914 at nearly $14,000,-
000, and over $1,000,000 is spent annually for
the maintenance of churches The official or-
gans are Der Fnedensbote and The Messenger
of Peace, both published at St Louis Formerly
nearly all the publications were issued m the
German language, but in recent years the pub-
lications have been printed in the English lan-
guage also The denomination sustains Elm-
hurst College at Elmhurst, 111 , and the Eden
Theological Seminary at St Louis Charitable
institutions are maintained for orphans, super-
annuated ministers, and the widows and orphans
of deceased ministers Nine institutions are
engaged in deaconess work on the Kaiserswerth
model. In 1913 the communicants of the denom-
ination numbered 25,894, the churches 11,026,
and the ministers 1038 In addition to the
publications mentioned above there are printed
at St Louis the Theologuches Nagazin, the
Evangelical Herald) and a number of children's
and Sunday-school periodicals
Consult. Schory, G-eschichte der deutschen
evangehschen Synode von Nord-Amerika (St
Louis, 1 889 ) , Behrendt, Die Heidenmissim der
deutschen evangelischen Synode von Nord-Amer-
ika (St Louis, 1901) , Carroll, Religious
Denominations in the United States (New York,
1912)
GERMA'NIA. An opera by Franchetti
(qv ), first produced at Milan, March 11, 1902,
in the United, States, Jan 22, 1910 (New York).
GEBMANIA
65I
GEBMAKIA
GEB,MA/inA The general name under
which the Romans designated a great part of
modern Germany and, in addition, two dis-
tricts respectively in the east and in the ex-
treme north of Gaul, called Germania Superior
(or Prima) and Germania Inferior (Secunda)
Germany proper was styled Germania Magna,
Germania Transihenana (beyond the Rhine),
or Germania Barbara The boundaries of the
region comprehended undei these designations
were the Rhine and Celtic Gaul on the west,
on the east, the Vistula and the Carpathian
Mountains, on the south, the Danube, and on
the north, the sea, which was divided by the
Cimbric Chersonesus (Jutland) into the Ger-
man and the Suevic (Baltic) seas Archaeologi-
cal evidence, such as the discovery of Baltic
amber in Mycenae, points to veiy early com-
munication between Germany and the Mediter-
ranean lands (See also PYTITEAS ) The first
occurrence in connection with the history of the
people of Germania with which we are ac-
quainted was the appearance of warlike tribes
of Cimbri and Teutones in the present Styria,
where they defeated the Roman consul Papmus
in the year 113 BC Eleven years later these
tribes again came into collision with the Roman
arms, but the result was their signal defeat by
Marius The names "Germanr" and "Germania"
do not seem to have been appellations in use
among the people themselves (consult Csesar,
Be Bello G-alUco, 11, 4, Tacitus, Germanic,, 2),
and it is probable that the Romans borrowed
them from the Gauls, who, it would seem, ap-
plied the name "Germam" at first to the group
of nations that first invaded Gaul by crossing
the Rhine and later to all the peoples beyond
the Rhine The name "Germani" has been con-
nected with a Celtic root meaning "to shout",
the Germani would thus be "Shouters " They
accompanied their attacks on their enemies by
loud cries When Julius Cscsar opened his
Gallic campaigns (58 BC), he found the Ger-
manic nations of the Triboci, Nemetes, and
Vangiones in possession of the districts lying
between the left bank of the Rhine and the
Vosges, while he even encountered a rival pre-
tender to the supremacy of Gaul m the person
of Ariovistus, the leader of the Suevic tribe
of the Marcomanni (qv , see also SUEVI)
The Germanic peoples west of the Rhine were
reduced to subjection by Caesar with the rest of
Gaul, while the Tencterl and the Usipetes, who
had invaded Belgium, were driven, together with
the Sicambri, across the Rhine to their former
settlements by the victorious general, who for
the first time (55 B c ) led a Roman army into
Transrhenic Germany The quiet which CSB-
sar's victories had secured in the Rhenish dis-
tricts was again so seriously disturbed by the
Usipetes and several of the neighboring tribes in
the year 16 BC that Augustus, who had
hastened to Gaul on the outbreak of disturb-
ances, saw that stringent measures must be
adopted to l^ep the Germans in check and sent
Drusus ac e&e head of eight legions into Ger-
many (See DRUSUS, 3 ) The first step of
the Roman general was to dig a canal ("fossa
Dru&iana") from the Rhine to the Yssel, by
which the Roman galleys could sail from the
heart of the continent to the ocean, and so suc-
cessful were his measures that in the course of
four campaigns he had carried the Boman arms
as far as the Albis (Elbe), subdued the Frisu.
Batavi, and Chauci in the north, and defeated
VOL IX. — 42
the Catti of the Moenus (Main) districts
Drusus, who died 9 BC, began the senes of
forts, bridges, and roads which were completed
and extended under succeeding commanders
The attempt made by Varus, under the direc-
tion of Augustus, to introduce the Roman pro-
vincial forms of administration into Germany
brought, however, a sudden check to the ad-
vance and consolidation of Roman power, for
the tribes of central Germany, indignant at
this attempted subversion of their national in-
stitutions, ranged themselves under the leader-
ship of Arrnmius (qv ), a chief of the Cheiusci,
who organized a general revolt The result of
this movement was the destruction, in the Saltus
Teutoburgiensis in 9 AD, of the three legions
commanded by Varus and the subsequent loss
of all the Roman possessions between the Weser
and the Rhine The news of this disastrous-
event threw the city of Rome into consterna
tion Germanicus, who was sent foith in 14 AD
to restore Roman supmnacv, would probably
have again wholly sub]ugated the Gei manic
tribes had he not been recalled bv Tiberius in
the midst of his victories Fiom this time
forth the Romans ceased their attempts to con-
quer Germany and contented themselves with
repelling the incursions which the tribes made
on their frontiers and endeavoring by their in-
fluence to foster the intestine disturbances
which were perpetually geneiatcd through the
ambition and jealousy of rival leaders, such as
Armmius, Marbadius, and the Goth Catualda
After the murder of Armnnius by his own
people, the power of the Cherusci declined,
while the Longobards (see LOMBARDS) and Catti
began to asseit a recognized preponderance
among the neighboring tribes Occasional en-
counters took place between the people of cen-
tral Germanv and the legions who guarded the
well-protected Roman boundaiy line, which ex-
tended from the Rhine to the Taunus and
thence to the Danube (see LIMES ROMANUS,
SAALBUBG) , and from time to time the Batavi
and other warlike tribes of the north and north-
west, who, like them, had been brought into
partial dependence on the Romans, rose in
formidable insurrection, but after Trajan had
restored order and strengthened the forts, peace
remained undisturbed in the north till the be-
ginning of the third century, while, with the
exception of the sanguinaiy war of the Mar-
comanni and Quadi under Marcus Aurehus
which began about the year 166 AD, there was
a similar absence of hostilities in the south
During this period important towns sprang up
in Germany See AUGSBURG, BONN, COLOGNE,
SPEYER, STBASSBURG, TKIEE
With the third century the tide of war
turned, and the Romans were now compelled to
defend their own empire from the inroads of
the numerous Germanic tribes, foremost among
whom stood the powerful confederacies of the
Alemanni and the Franks In their track fol-
lowed, during the next two centuries, successive
hordes of the Vandals, Suevi, Heruli, Goths,
and Longobards, who soon formed for them-
selves states and principalities on the rmns of
the old Roman provinces From, this period
almost down to the establishment of the West-
ern Empire in the person of Cha^lewa^e, the
history of Germany is a blank 7 but the condi-
tion of the country when he entered on the
possession of his German patrimony showed
that since the retirement of the Romans the
OEBMANIA
652
lesser tribes had become gradually absorbed in
the larger, for on his accession the land was
held by a few great nations only, as the Saxons,
Frisians, Franks, Swabians, and Bavarians,
whose leaders exeicised sovereign power within
their own territories, and, in return for mili-
tary services, parceled out their lands to their
followers
The knowledge which we possess of the habits
and government of the ancient Germans is prin-
cipally derived from Caesai's Commentaries on
the Galhc War and the G-ermania of Tacitus
According to the Roman historians, the Ger-
mans were a people of high stature, fair com-
plexion, and red or yellow hair, endowed with
great bodily strength* and distinguished for an
indomitable love of liberty The men delighted
in active exercises and the perils of war, and
the women, whose chastity was without re-
proach, were held in high esteem Each master
of a family had absolute power over those of
his household Their habitations were generally
separate and surrounded by their several stalls
and garners, for, although there were villages
whose inhabitants made common use of the
fields and woods surrounding them, the Germans
seem to have preferred isolated and detached
dwellings to aggregate settlements Towns and
cities they long regarded with aversion, as
inimical to personal freedom In regard to
their political organization it would appear that
several villages formed a k4hundred," several
hundreds one "gau," and several gaus one
"tribe " In each tribe the people were divided
into four classes — nobles, freemen, freedmen or
vassals, and slaves The king or chief was
elected from among the nobles, but his power
was very limited, and the government of the
several tribes seems to have been democratic
rather than monarchical
The religion of the Germans, which is shrouded
in great obscurity, was based upon myths of
the creation of the world, and the existence of
gods having the forms* and the attributes of a
perfect humanity The different tribes had all
their special gods or demigods, who were often
their own leaders or chiefs, to whom the at-
tributes of the god to whose worship they were
most partial were ascribed. It is generally
said that the Germans had neither temples nor
statues Both Csesar and Tacitus expressly
affirm this Tacitus himself (Annales, i, 51)
mentions a templum, of a goddess Tamfana, or
Tanfana, among- the Marsians, but templum
may here mean only a consecrated grove At a
later period we find Christian missionaries ex-
horting the Germans to change their pagan
temples into Christian churches, while we also
read of the destruction of pagan idols Never-
theless, the religion of the Germans was mainly
carried on in the open air in groves and for-
ests and on heaths and mountains Although a
priestly order also existed among the Germans,
each master of a household performed religious
services for himself and his family within his
own homestead A knowledge of the will of
the gods and the events of the future was sought
by divination, from observations of the flight
of birds, the rushing of waters, and other sim-
ilar signs, in the interpretation of which women
were thought to be especially skilled Belief
in a future life, and in an abode after death
for those who had deserved well in this life,
was cherished among the Germanic races, who
had a strong faith m retributive justice, whose
sway they believed would be extended over the
gods by involving them in a universal annihilat-
ing conflict as the punishment of their evil
deeds, after which a new world was to arise,
guarded by a pure and pei feet race of gods In
addition to the highei deities the Germans peo-
pled eveiy portion of space with a class of sub-
ordinate beings who pervaded the earth, air, and
water, in the shape of elves, nixies, kobolds,
dwarfs, and giants The Roman accounts of an-
cient Germany are summarized and discussed by
Stubbs in his Constitutional History of Eng-
land, vol i (6th ed, 3 vols , Oxfoid, 1897)
Consult also Kingsley, The Roman and the
Teuton (London, 1887), Henderson, History
of G-ermany, vol i (2 vols, New York, 1902),
Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme
(Munich, 1837, new ed , Gottmgen, 1904),
Dahn, Urgewhiohte tier germamschen und ro-
rmamschen Voller (Berlin, 1880-89) and Die
Xomge der Getmancn (Munich, 1862) , and
the article "Germania" in Lubker, ReallemJwn
des klassischen Alt&rtums (8th ed, Leipzig,
1914)
GERMAN'ICirS CJ2E7SAB (15 BC-19 AD ).
A distinguished Roman general He was the son
of Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (see
DRUSTTS, 3) and Antonia, daughter of Marcus
Antonms and niece of Augustus He was
adopted in the year 4 AD by Tiberius, whom
he accompanied in the war waged against the
Pannomans and the Dalmatians for the purpose
of securing the German frontiers after the de-
feat of Varus (qv3 see also ARMINIUS, GEB-
MANIA) After having been consul in 12 AD,
he was appointed in the following year to the
command of the eight legions on the Rhine.
On the death of Augustus, in 14 AD, the sol-
diers revolted, demanding higher pay and a
shorter period of service Germanicus hastened
from Lugduniim (Lyons), to remind them of
their duty. The soldiers urged him to seize the
supreme power, but he refused He, however,
granted their demands, though his colleague,
A Csecma, secretly massacred the ringleaders
at night Germanicus now led the legions over
the Rhine below Wesel, attacked the Marsi
during a nocturnal festival, and destroyed their
celebrated precinct of Tanfana (see GERMANIA)
In 15 AD he made a second inroad into Ger-
many Proceeding from Metz into the country
of the Catti ( q v ) f he destroyed their chief town
of Mattium (Maden, near Gudensberg) On
his return his assistance was implored by the
ambassadors of Segestes (always a firm ally
of the Romans), who was besieged by his son-
in-law, Armimus (qv.), the conqueror of Varus
This was at once given, and Thusnelda, the
heroic wife of Armimus, fell into the hands of
the Roman general Armimus, burning with
anger and shame, now roused the Cherusci
(qv ) and all the neighboring tribes to war
Germanicus, in consequence, commenced a third
campaign. He separated his army into three di-
visions The main body of the infantry was led
by Csecma through, the country of the Bructeri,
the cavalry under another general marched
through Friesland, while Germanicus himself
sailed with a fleet through the Zuyder Zee into
the German Ocean and proceeded up the river
Ems, where he joined the others. The united
divisions now laid waste the country in the
neighborhood of the Teutoburg Forest, and, gath-
ering up the bones of Varus and his legions,
which liad lain there for six years, buried tjtieja
GERMANIUM 6
with solemn funeial honors A victory gained
by Arminius induced Germanicus to make a
hasty retreat, during which he lost pait of his
fleet in a tempest Caecina, who retreated by
land, sustained seveie los&es at the hands of the
pui suing Germans Before the fleet of 1000 ves-
sels, which Germanicus had built at Batavia,
was equipped, he was recalled ovei the Ehme
in 16 A D by news of the beleagueiment of the
recently acquired fortress of Ahso on the Lippe
The Germans were repulsed, and the funeial
mound in the Teutoburg Forest, which they
had thrown down, was again erected Germani-
cus now sailed with his fleet again into the Ems,
pressed foiward to the Weser, which he crossed,
and completely oveithiew Arminius in two bat-
tles. Nevei theless, he resolved to retuin, and
on his way again lost the greater part of his
fleet in a violent storm In order to prevent
this mishap from giving courage to the Germans,
he once more, m the same year, marched into
the country of the Marsi and dispatched his
lieutenant Silius against the Catti Tiberius
now recalled him and bestowed upon him the
honor of a triumph, in which Thusnelda ap-
peared among the captives As Tacitus explains
it, to rid himself of Germanicus, whose popular-
ity seemed to render him dangerous, Tiberius
sent him, in 17 AD, with extensive authority,
to settle affairs in the East, at the same time
appointing as Viceroy of Syria Gnocus Calpur-
mus Piso, who everywhere counteracted the in-
fluence of Germanicus However, he arranged
matters without much difficulty in Asia Ger-
manicus died at Epidaphne, near Antioch, Oct
10, 19 AD His friends charged that he had
been poisoned, at Tiberius' orders, by the wife of
Piso, modern scholars incline rather to the be-
lief that he died a natural death He was deeply
lamented by both the inhabitants of the prov-
inces and the citizens of Rome, whither his ashes
were conveyed, and deposited by his wife, Agrip-
pma (qv ), in the mausoleum of Augustus
Agrippma herself and two of her sons were put
to death by order of Tiberius, her third son,
Gaius (afterward the Emperor Caligula), was
spared Of the three daughters who survived
their father, Agrippma became as remarkable
for vices as her mother had been for her virtues
Besides his splendid generalship, Germanicus
was conspicuous for his magnanimity, benevo-
lence, finely cultured understanding, and per-
sonal purity of life He wrote several works of a
rhetorical character, which have been lost, but
of his poetical works we possesses an epigram,
a version of the Ph&nowiena of Aratus ( q v ) ,
and fragments of a work of the same character,
entitled Dwsemeia,, or Prognostica, compiled
from Greek sources Germanicus' literary re-
mains were first published at Bologna, in 1474.
The latest edition is that of Breysig (Berlin,
1867). Consult, for extensive bibliography, the
article "lulms, 26," in Lubker, Realle&ikon des
Uas&ischen Alteiiums (8th ed, Leipzig, 1914),
and Schanz, Q-eschichte tier romisoher Littera-
tur, vol 11 (3d ed, Munich, 1913)
GERIO/NTUM. A chemical element dis-
covered by Winkler in 1886 Ita discovery had
been predicted by Mendele'eff in 1871, on the
basis of the periodic law (qv.), and the fulfill-
ment of the prediction was characterized by
Winkler as "an eminent extension of the chemi-
cal horizon, a mighty step forward in the do-
main of knowledge " Meadeldeff had named his
to be discovered element elui&^ofm, OB account
53 GERMAN LANGUAGE
of its close relationship to the elements of the
silicon group He predicted that, when dis-
coveredj the new element would be found to have
an atomic weight of about 72, as a matter of
fact, germanium (symbol, Ge) has an atomic
weight of 72 5 Mendele'eff predicted that eka-
silicon would form two oxides — a monoxide and
a dioxide, as a matter of fact, geimanium foims
the oxides GeO and Ge02 Accoidmg to Men-
deleeff, ekasilicon would form a tetaachloiide,
which would be a volatile liquid, boiling at about
90° C and having a specific gravity of about
19, germanium foims a tetiaehloride, GeCl4,
•which boils at 86° C and has a specific gravity
of 1 887 The dioxide of ekasilicon would, accoi fl-
ing to Mendeleeff, have a density of about 4 7 and
would form a feeble acid, germanium dioxide
has a density of 4 703 and forms a feeble acid
The metal ekasilicon itself would, MendeleefF
predicted, be readily obtained by reducing its
oxides and would have a specific gravity of
about 55, metallic geimanmm is easily ob-
tained from the oxide by i eduction with nascent
hydrogen and has a specific gravity of 5 469
Thus Mendeleeff's forecast of the physical and
chemical propeities of germanium wa& fully cor-
roborated by experimental disco veiy
GERMAN" TVY, Hermana, fflabia A cling-
ing plant often seen in house 01 garden cultuie,
indigenous to southern Africa, but also occurring
in Europe and cultivated in the United States
in rockeries to some extent It bears clusters
of small greenish-yellow flowers, and the stems
grow 8 or 10 feet long It is well adapted to
window culture See IVY
GERKA3ST LANGUAGE A sister language
of English and Frisian, these three together
constituting what is generally called the West-
Germanic, or West-Teutonic, division of the
Germanic group of the Indo Germanic languages
German, as a general term, includes both the
High and Low German dialects But, High Ger-
man being the literary language and the lan-
guage of the educated classes, the term "Ger-
man" i& frequently used as equivalent to "High
Gei man "
Area of the German Language The area of
the German language is not identical either with
that of the German stock or that of the German
Empire Thus, in the larger part of eastern
Germany (the country east of the rivers Elbe
and Saale), the German-speaking population is,
as far as the race is concerned, largely of Slavic
or, in some cases, Baltic origin In this region
the boundary between Slavs and Germans has
been subjected in course of time to various
changes At the earliest historic period (at the
time when Tacitus wrote his Germanta) east-
ern Germany was held by Germanic tribes
Later on, probably in the sixth century ATX,
began the inroad of the Slavs, who by the mid^
die of the eighth centuiy had succeeded in crowd-
ing the Germans back even beyond the left
banks of the Elbe and Saale From the time ol
Charlemagne to the present date the Slavoniza-
tion of the East has been followed by its Ger-
manization, or rather re-Germ amzation Ex-
cept among the Wends or Lusatio-Sorbs aroutod
Cotbus in Brandenburg, and the Lithuanians, jfr
the northeastern corner of JJast Prussia*, Cffer-
man is now spoken throughout thd&e parts ot
Prussia which constituted the kingdom at the
time of the accession of Frederic!; the Great
(1740). It is only by n%any<o| the geograph-
ical names (including stich fkiniliar names as
LANGUAGE
654
LANGUAGE
Poznerama, Silesia, Berlin, Danzig, Dresden,
Leipzig, etc ) that the former extent of the
Slavic settlements in Germany may still be
tiacecL Towards the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, however, when m 1772, 1793, and 1795 —
under Frederick the Great, and his successor,
Fredeiiek William II — the Kingdom of Poland
was divided between Russia, Austria, and Prus-
sia, a new lot of Slavic inhabitants, and this
time mostly of Polish extraction, fell to Prussia
(which already possessed a large Polish popula-
tion in Silesia) as its share in the partition,
with the result that at present Polish is the
mothei tongue of about one-tenth of the whole
population of Prussia
If we tuin to other parts of Germany, we meet
with Danes in the northern portion of the Prus-
sian Distiict of Schleswig, which until 1864 be-
longed to Denmark, and with Frenchmen m
the western portion of the Reiciisland of Alsace-
Lorraine,, which was letaken from France after
the War of 1870-71
Of the 64925,993 inhabitants of the German
Empire retuined in the census of 1910, upward
of 4,200,000 were entered as speaking foreign
languages Of this number, nearly 3,330,000
weie Poles (including Kassubs and Mazuis),
107,000 Czechs and Moravians, 93,000 Wends,
106,000 Lithuanians, neaily 224,000 Fiench,
141,000 Danes, 80,000 Dutch, 66,000 Italians,
and 20,000 Frisians
German is the vernacular of almost the \\hole
of Luxemburg, of the greater pait of Switzer-
land, and of portions of Austria-Hungary In
Luxembuig the German-speaking population in
1910 amounted to 221,000 (out of a total popu-
lation of 259,891), in Switzerland to 2,599,154
(or 69 per cent of 3,741,971) , m Cisleithan
Austria the census of 1910 states the German-
speaking population at 9,950,266 out of a total
population of 28,571,834, in Hungary at 2,037,-
4S5 out of a total population of 20,886,787
Kussia, too, has a German element of some
importance There are many German settle-
ments in the southern Russian provinces, one of
them, founded in 1768 (between Kamyshin and
Volsk on the Volga), consisting of 173 villages
and covering an area not much smaller than
that of the Kingdom of Saxony. German has,
moreover, from the thirteenth century on been
the language of the educated classes in the Bal-
tic provinces of the Russian Empire (i e , in
Courland, Livonia, and Esthoma), As regards
the numerical strength of the German element,
the latest accessible statistics are those of 1883,
in, which they are reckoned as forming 1 5 per
cent of the population of European Russia If
we apply this ratio to the official figures of
1912, when the population of European Bussia
exclusive of Poland and Finland was stated at
122,551,000, the number of German inhabitants
would amount to about 1,800,000
Outside of Europe the largest number of G-er-
mans is found in the United States, whose
German-born population amounted m 1910 to
2,501,333 For the city of New York alone the
census of 1910 gives the German-born popula-
tion as 278,137 In addition to these we have
the Pennsylvania Germans, or Pennsylvania
Dutch, whose dialect is still the vernacular of
many distncts in the State of Pennsylvania An
exact count of the Pennsylvania Germans has
apparently never been made Their number is
by no means identical with that of the Penn-
sylvanians of German descent There is a large
German population in Brazil and Argentina, as
well as in Canada and other parts of the British
Empire, and there are many Geimans scattered
in all parts of the world
Altogether German is nowadays spoken by
about 80,000,000 people German thus ranks
third in number among the four leading lan-
guages of Europe — the first being English, the
second Russian, and the fourth Fiench
Our figures for German do not include the
Dutch language For although Dutch, from a
linguistic point of view, represents the Low
German branch of the Franconian dialect, it has
developed a htoiary language of its own and
therefore is to be regarded as a separate lan-
guage In like manner Flemish is left out of
consideration
On distribution, consult Kiepert, Ueber&icKts-
karte dcr Verbreitung der Deutschen w Europa,
(Berlin, 1887), Nabert, JKarte der Verbreitung
der Deutschen in Europa (Glogau, 1891, in 8 sec-
tions) , id , Das dcutsche 8prachgebt&t in Eu-
topa, (Stuttgart, 1893), Hubner, G-eographiscJi-
st&tistische Tobellen aller Lander der Erde (51st
ed, Frankfort, 1902)
The German Dialects From the earliest
times German has been divided into several dia-
lects Of course, these dialects must not be re-
garded as representing a corrupted form of the
written language On the contrary, they are — m
Germany, as elsewhere — the natural and genuine
offshoots of the language, whereas the written
language repiesents one of their number arti-
ficially restrained in its natural development
It is only by drawing constantly on the dialectic
vocabulary and by adapting itself more or less
to the grammar of the living dialects that the
written language succeeds in sustaining its
vitality
Except in the territory formerly held by the
Slavs, the distribution of the German dialects
has within the last 1000 yeais undergone few
changes, and a map of the Old High Geiman
dialects may be brought up to date with com-
paratively slight alterations There is little
doubt that dialectic differences were originally
the outcome of ethnographical divisions of the
German tribes, and since as early as the third
century AD we meet with tribal unions, such
as the Alemanni, the Franks, and the Saxons,
we may date back to this time the origin of the
corresponding dialects At fiist the drffprences
between these dialects were slight, but in the
course of several centuries they became more
pronounced
One event m the history of the German lan-
guage is in this respect of special importance —
the second, or High German, shifting of con-
sonants This second shifting is similar to the
first, which had occurred several centuries ear-
lier, so similar, indeed, that the formula known
as "Grimm's law" ( q v ) applies, with slight
modifications, to the second as well as to the
first shifting There are, however, some im-
portant differences First, while by the first
shifting three classes of sounds (the tenues,
mediae, and aspirates) were concerned, the sec-
ond is limited to only two classes, the tenues p, t,
fc, and the raedise 1), d, g Second, while the
first shifting is essentially the same in all Ger-
manic languages, the second, or High. German,
shifting vanes from dialect to dialect In some
of the dialects the shifting of the tenues and
mediae is almost as systematic as in the case of
the first shifting, whereas in others it is con-
655
LAHGTOAG-E
fined to only a few among the six consonants
concerned
The second shifting began in the seventh cen-
tury AD It started from the Alps in the most
southern region of the German temtory and
spread with unbroken force over the Alemannic
and Bavarian dialects It then advanced, with
diminishing energy, farther north into the Fran-
conian territory, making its entiy from the
southeast and progressing from theie along the
Mam and Rhine rivers. By the time it had
reached Cologne most of its eneigy was spent,
and soon afterward, after crossing the 51st de-
gree of latitude, it came to a stop entirely,
without reaching the northern Fianconian or the
Saxon dialects
As a result of the second shifting, we have a
clearly denned division of the German dialects
into three main groups (the second having va-
rious subdivisions), according to the degiee in
which they have been affected by the shifting
I Upper G-erman — The dialects in which the
second shifting has been carried out to its full
extent They are divided into (1) Alemanmc
(west of the river Lech) and (2) Bavarian
(east of the Lech) The Alemannic is again
subdivided into (a) South Alemannic in Switzer-
land and in the southern districts of Baden and
Wurttemberg, (6) Alsatian, (c) Swabian The
subdivisions of the Bavarian are (a) Upper
Bavarian and Austrian, which constitute the
main body of the Bavarian dialect , ( & ) the dia-
lect of the Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalg) in
northern Bavaria, west of the Bohemian Forest
It may be noted that the German dialects spoken
in Hungary (especially in the Transylvanian
Saxon Land) belong to the Midland, not to the
Upper German type It may be inferred from
their dialect that these Germans are immigrants
from western Germany, and that most of them
came from the lower Rhine
II Midland German — The dialects which
have been affected by the shifting in a lesser
degree Among these are
(1) East Franconian (the dialect of the old
Duchy of Francoma Orientalis), which is of
special interest, as it exhibits the shifting in the
forni in which it has found its way into the
literary language of Modern German. The ten-
ues t and p are shifted in Modern German in
two different ways, to is and pf respectively, both
at the beginning of a word and after consonants
(eg, Eng to = Ger &&, Eng heart = Ger Her®,
Eng penny = Ger. Pfennig, Eng stump = Ger.
Stumpf), and to zz (= Mod Ger ss) and ff af-
ter vowels (eg, Eng eat = Ger essen, Eng ape
= Ger Affe) The tenuis k is shifted to cJi after
vowels (eg, Eng make = Ger. machen), while
it remains unchanged when initial (eg, Eng.
can = Ger kann) . The dental media d is always
shifted to t (eg., Eng deal = Ger Teil, Eng
side = Ger Seite), whereas the labial and the
guttural mediae are not affected by the shifting
North of the East Franconian we find-
(2) The Thurmgian dialect, which by the
colonization of the former Slavic territory has
spread to the east over what is now the Kingdom
of Saxony, and the Prussian Province of Silesia,
giving rise there to the Upper Saxon, or Misnian
( Meissmsch) , and to the Silesian dialects At an
earlier date Thurmgian apparently differed but
little from East Franconian But in course of
time the differences have become more pro-
nounced, especially so if we compare the Upper
Saxon and Sile&lan with the Franconian dia-
lects Thus, it is characteristic of the Saxon
dialect that it has almost lost the distinction
between voiced and voiceless consonants, so that
at present the medise 6, d, g, are not distin-
guished in pronunciation fiom the tenues p} t, k
West of Thurmgian and East Franconian theie
follows
(3) Rheno-Franconwn (the dialects of the
former Franconian Hhenensis, of the Palatinate
of the Rhine, and of the larger part of Hesse)
It is chiefly from the dialect of the Palatinate
that the Pennsylvania German in America has
developed The shifting differs from that of East
Franconian and Modern German, especially in
that initial p and initial d have not been shifted
(eg, Eng pipe = Penn Ger paife, Mod. Ger
Pfeife, Eng deal = Penn Ger del, Mod Gei
Teil) Still moie limited is the shifting in
(4) Middle-Francoman (the dialects spoken
along the banks of the Moselle and of the Rhine
from Coblenz to Dusseldorf) Middle Franco-
nian is charactei ized by the fact that * is kept
— in accordance with Low Geiman — in a few
pionominal forms, while otheiwise it is shifted
to si or ss9 as in High Geiman We find, theie-
fore, e g , in Cologne et, dal, wat = Eng it, that,
what, but 80 = Mod Ger zu,, Eng to, and
weiss = Mod Ger weiss, Eng white
The Upper German and the Midland German
dialects are both comprehended under the term
"High German," in distinction from the remain-
ing group, the "Low German "
III Low German — The dialects which have
not been reached by the second shifting These
include not only the Platt, or Platt-deutsch, in
northern Germany, but also the dialects of Bel-
gium and Holland (with the exception, of course,
of the French and the Frisian districts of the
Low Countries) We have two divisions
(1) Low Franconian, or the German dialects
in the northeastein corner of Rhenish Prussia,
and the adjoining Flemish and Dutch dialects m
Belgium and Holland.
(2) Low Saacon, or the Low German dialects
of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Hanover, Brunswick,
Holstein, Mecklenburg, and the Prussian prov-
inces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, and East and
West Piussia It is to be noted that east of the
Elbe, in the former Slavic territory, the Low
German has (except in Holstein, Mecklenburg,
and Pomerania) generally undergone a mixture
with Midland German dialects
The lack of the shifting is, of course, merely
a negative critenon, and if we comprehend Low
Franconian and Low Saxon under one group,
we ought not to overlook the fact that the former
was at an earlier date more closely connected
with the Franconian dialects in Midland Ger-
many Its vocalism is, in fact, to this day
nearer to that of High German and of the Mid-
land German dialects than to that of the Low
Saxon
Low Saxon is subdivided into two distinct
dialects, Northern Saxon (or Low Saxon proper)
and Westphaban, the latter including in ad-
dition to the Prussian Province of Westphalia,
also the northern portions of Waldecfc and
Hesse, the whole of Lippe, and part of south-
ern Hanover (eg., Osnabruck) The principal
difference between the two lies in the fact that
in the Westphalian dialects we find a rather
complicated vocalism, and generally an abun-
dance of diphthongs, whereas Northern Saxon
has few diphthongs and altogether a very sim-
ple vowel system (
LAHCHJAGE
656
GERMAN LAHGXTAGE
For a complete list of grammatical tieatises
and dictionanes on the Geiman dialects down to
1890, consult Mentz, Bibho graphic der deutschen
Munda? tenforschung (Leipzig, 1892) , for a
briefer list, Kauffmann, in Paul, Grundmss der
germamschen Philologie, i (2d ed , Stra&sburg,
1901-09) Other works of bibliographical im-
portance are Behagel, Geschichte der deutschen
Sprache (3d ed , Strassburg, 1911) , Weise, Un-
sere Mundarten, ihr Wet den und ihr Wesen
(Leipzig, 1910), Reis, Die deutsclie Mundarten
(Berlin, 1912) , Seemuller, Deutsche Mundarten
(2 paits, Vienna, 1908) As to poems, fic-
tion, etc , written in these dialects, there is no
later attempt at a bibhogiaphy than the one
made by Carl H Heirmann, in his Bibhotheca
G&t manwa, (Halle, 1878). Collections of speci-
mens from the various dialects aie Firinemch's
Germamens Volkerstimmen (3 vols. and appen-
dix, Berlin, 1841-66), very complete and inter-
esting, and Welcker's Dwlehtgedichte (2d ed,
Leipzig, 1899), a smaller anthology, Kluge,
Urgermamsch (Strassburg, 1913) is important
for the early history of the language
A dialect map of the earlier periods is found
in Piper's Verbreitung der deutschen Dialekte
fas um das Jahr 1300 (Lahr, 1880) For the
modern dialects, the maps by Breiuer, in Brock -
haus's Konversations-Lexicon, vol. iv (new 14th
ed , Leipzig, 1901, art "Deutsche Mundarten"),
and by M Maurirnann, in Meyer s Kontetsa-
tions Lexicon, vol iv (5th ed, Leipzig, 1894, ait
"Deutsche Sprache"), will be found the most
serviceable A compiehensive dialect map of
Germany v^ as undertaken many years ago by G.
Wenker After the first numbei had appeared
(Strassburg, 1881) the plan of the work was
changed so as to give a separate map to the
dialectic forms of a single word. In its present
form this Spraohatlas will probably not be pub-
lished, but the single maps are deposited in
manuscript in the Royal Library of Berlin. By
January, 1902, the number of finished sheets
(each three forming one map) amounted to no
less than 610, This work has originated a new
method for the cartography of living dialects.
The dialect map in Paul, Grundriss der german-
ischen Phtlologie (2d ed , Strassburg, 1901),
should be consulted, and also F. Wrede, Deutsche
DialeMg&ographie, Benchte und Btudien uber 0.
Wenkers Sprachatlas des deutschen Reiches
(Marburg, 1908) , Wenzel, Btudien zur Dialekt-
geographie der sudhchen Oberlausite und Nord-
bohmen (ib, 1911), Hommer, Studien zur dia-
lektgeographie des Westerwaldes (ib, 1910)
Old and Middle High German. In the his-
tory of High German three main periods are dis-
tinguished Old High German, from the eighth
century to about 1100, Middle High German,
from about 1100 to 1500, Modern German, from
about 1500 to the present time. These periods
apply both to dialects and to the literary lan-
guage It is, however, only in Modern German
that the literary language has become distinctly
separated from the dialects In Middle High
German we have only the beginnings of a lit'
erary idiom, while in Old High German there
is no trace of a common written language in
distinction from tne dialects The dates given
are meant only to fix roughly the beginning
and the end of each period. There is, in fact,
W distinct break in the development of the High
German language, but rather a gradual transi-
tSLoki, from one period to the other
Old High German is characterised especially
by the pieseivation of full \owels in its inflec-
tional endings, eg., nimu, neman, tagum, hano,
hamn, zungun
In Middle High German these vowels are uni-
formly weakened to e, so that, eg, the above
words appear in the following form nime,
nemen, tagen, hane, hanen, zungen Traces of
this weakening appear first in the Franconian
dialect and become moie general towards the
end of the eleventh century Many instances
of full vowels, however, in inflectional endings
are still found in the Middle High German lit-
eiatuie of the early twelfth century, so that the
period from about 1080 to 1150 may be regarded
as a transition period from Old High German
to Middle High German
There is, as has been stated, in Middle High
German no generally accepted literary language
as one is found in the written language of Mod-
ern German Thus, Heinrich von Veldeke's lan-
guage points as clearly to the Low Franconian
dialect as does Hartmann von Aue's to the
Swabian But, on the other hand, in the case
of Wolfram von Esehenbach, who was born in
the Franconian portion of Bavaria, it is difficult
to determine how far he used his own dialect
and how far he gave the preference to the Swa-
bian. Most of the leading poets of this period
lived in that part of Germany where the Upper
Geiman dialects were found, especially in Alsace,
Swabia, Bavaria, and Austria Hence it is only
natural that theie should have developed in
southern Germany a tendency to a ceitain uni-
formity in the written language as to gram-
matical forms and literary expression This
does not mean that the Middle High German
poems belonging to this group entirely lost
their local coloring, it means only that their
language rose to a certain extent above the level
of the dialects, m that certain dialectic pecul-
iarities were avoided, while others were appar-
ently regarded as unobjectionable The fact, in
any case, remains that in the works of Hart-
mann von Aue, Gottfried von Strassburg, Wal-
ther von der Vogelweide, and also in the Nibe-
lungenhed and Gudrun, we find essentially the
same language If we were to identify this
language with a single dialect, we should prob-
ably call it Swabian, though it has been recently
proved that it omits several of the salient fea-
tures of the Swabian dialect of this period It
must therefore be regarded as the literary form
of the Swabian dialect, risen to the rank of the
literary language of southern Germany gen-
erally, though it appears with slight variations
m the different provinces
The period of "classical" Middle High Ger-
man— in other words, the time of the hegemony
of literary Swabian — comes to an end in the
latter half of the thirteenth century Fiom
about 1250 we have a transition period, during
which the leadership is gradually passing to the
Midland German dialects.
Convenient helps to the study of Old High.
German are Braune, Abriss der althochdeut-
sohen Grammatik (3d ed , Halle, 1900) , Wright,
Old High German, Primer (Oxford, 1888), and
Braune, Althochdeutsches Lesebwch (5th ed?
Halle, 1902) The most complete Old High Ger-
man dictionary is Graff, Althoahdeutsoher
SprachscJ^tz (7 vols., Berlin, 1834-46) This
excellent work is unfortunately arranged accord-
ing to roots, but the seventh volume contains
an alphabetical index by Massmann
There are numerous Middle Higji German
GERMAN
657
grammars and readers, eg, Wright, Middle
High German Primer (2d ed , Oxford, 1899),
Paul, MitteUiochdeutsche G-rammatik (5th ed ,
Halle, 1900) , Michcls, Mittelhochdeutsches
Elemental buck (Heidelberg, 1900) , Wemhold,
Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik (2d ed , Pader-
born, 1883), id, Mittelhochdeutsches Lesebuchj
Meyer, Mittelhochdeutsche UebungsstucJce ( Halle,
1909) The standard dictionanes of Middle
High German are Benecke, Mittelhochdeutsches
Wottetbuch, ed by Muller and Zarncke (3 vols ,
Leipzig, 1854-66) , Lexer, Mittelhochdeutsches
ffanduortetbuch (3 vols, ib , 1872-78), id,
Mittelhochdeutsches Taschenworterbuch ( 6th ed ,
ib, 1901)
Modern German. It is characteristic of the
liteiaiy language of Modern German that it is
based on the Midland German rather than on
the Upper German dialects The points in which
it differs from the Middle High German "Litei-
ary Swabian" are especially these (1) the
MHG long vowels i, iL9 & (the latter spelled lu
in MHG ) have been changed to the diphthongs
ei, au, eu, e g , MHG min = M Ger mein,
MHG Ms = M Ger Haus, MHG. hmte —
M Ger heute, (2) the MHG diphthongs ie}
uo, ue, have been changed to the long vowels,
i (spelled le), u, «; eg, MHG spiegel = M
Ger Spiegel (i e , spigel] , MHG muot = M Ger
Mut, MHG behueten — M Ger behuten; (3)
the MHG short vowels a, e, i, o, ut have been
lengthened in stressed "open" syllables (le, in
stressed syllables ending m a consonant), eg,
MHG name — M Ger Name (pron name),
MHG nemen = M, Ger nehmen, MHG gebliben
= M Ger geblieben, MHG oben = M. Ger oben
(pron oben}, MHG uber = M Ger uber (pron
nber) , (4) initial 5 has passed into s (spelled
sch) before I, m, n, w, eg, MHG slagen = M
Ger sclilagen, MHG smerze = M Ger Schmerz,
MHG smden = M Ger schneiden, MHG suaere
= M Gei sohwer, (5) the difference in the
strong preterit between the stem vowel of the
singular and that of the plural is generally dis-
carded, eg, MHG. ich bleip, wir bUben — M.
Ger ich bheb, wir blieben, MHG ich half, wir
hulfen = M Ger. ich half, wir half en There
are in addition to these diifeiences many others,
but those mentioned stand first m importance
In almost every case we are able to trace the
origin and the spread of these changes in the
Midland German dialects for a long time before
they were mcoiporated in the literary language
Of special interest is the diphthongization of
Middle High German i, u, u, in that this was
originally an Auatro-Bavanan peculiarity, which
spread from Bavaria and Austria over east
Franconia and from here over the neighboring
Midland German districts
The history of the Modern German written
language may be traced back to the middle of
the fourteenth century, when, under the Em-
peror Louis the Bavarian (1314-47), the Im-
perial Chancery adopted German instead of
Latin in its official documents There existed
at this time in the different parts of Germany
several Kan&leisprachen, or official languages
The mutual intercourse between the various cen-
tres furnished the basis for greater uniformity,
and it is only natural that the language of the
Imperial Chancery should have gained a pre-
dominating influence. The dialect adopted by
tbe Imperial Chancery was essentially that of
Imperial court, wliicli at tibe time of the
emperors (1347-1437) ^as stationed
at Prague It was accordingly a dialect whose
consonant! sm was East Franconian, and in
which the Middle High Geiman long vowels i,
u, ft had been replaced by the Austi o-Bavarian
diphthongs ei, an, eu The adoption of this dia-
lect by the Imperial Chancery led to its intro-
duction, in the second half of the fifteenth cen
tury, into the chanceries of the neighboring
principalities of Saxony and Thuringia A
further step was its adoption, between 1480 and
1500, by the Meissen and Saxon municipalities
and courts and by the univeisities of Leipzig
and Wittenberg. By 1500 it had become, in
Saxony and Thuringia, not only the generally
accepted official language, but was also largely
u&ed in private correspondence and as the writ-
ten language among the educated classes
The popular belief which ascribes to Luther
the foundation of the Modern German literary
language is not well founded When, in 1522,
Liithei published his tianslation of the New
Testament, he simply made use of a wntten lan-
guage which was by this time pretty firmly
established Luthei's own woids beai witness
to this, for he says in his Table Talk (chap
Ixix) "I have no paiticulai language of rny
own in German, but use the common German
language so that both High and Low Germans
may understand me I follow the language of
the Saxon Chancery, which all the princes and
kings m Germany take as their model, all the
free Imperial cities and all the courts of princes
write according to the Chancery of the Saxons
and of om prince Hence it is the most com-
mon German language Emperor Maximilian
and the Elector Frederick, Duke of Saxony, have
thus united into one fixed language the Ger-
man languages of the Roman Empire " This
much is true, that Luther's tianslation of the
Bible, his catechisms, his hymns, and his nu-
merous pamphlets were largely instrumental in
spreading this language from midland Germany
over the whole of the German Empire and in
overcoming the obstacles which for a long time
militated against its acceptance as the written
and literary language of all Germany The lat-
ter result was achieved in the course of the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries, when first
(between, about 1550 and 1600) northern Ger-
many, afterward southern Germany, and finally
Switzerland, joined the movement It is hardly
before about 1750 that the literary language
can be said to have received its present form
Bibliography General works Manacorda,
Germama filologicaj guida, bibliografica per gli
studiosi e per gli insegnanti di lingua e lettera-
tura tedesca con circa 20,000 indic&aioni (Cre-
mona, 1909) , Breul, Handy Bibliographical Guide
to the Study of German (London, 1895) , Strong
and Meyer,. History of the German Language
(ib, 1886), Pietsch, M Luther und die hoofa
deutsche Schriftsprache (Breslau, 1883) , Bur-
dach, Die JBmigung der neuhochdeutsohen Schrvft-
spraehe (Halle, 1884) , Kluge, Von Lwthef bis
Leasing (3d ed , Strassburg, 1897)
GJIAMMABS (a) Historical, Grimm^ Deut-
sche GrammatiTc (4 vols , rev ed , Berlin, 1H70-
78) is rather a comparative grammar of the
Teutonic languages, Wilmanns, D&i&ts&he 'Gramr
moMo, vols i and 11 (2d ©d, Stva&ftturg,' 1897-
99 ) , vols 111 and iv have not y&t a£peAi00dt ( b )
Practical Blatz, WeuhoGhdewttycfoe ^cfonmatik
(2 vols, 3d ed, Karlsruhe, 1890-^6) r Sanders,
Worterbuch der Hau^t^e^^e^iffk&itm, <$m? deui-
schen Sprache (24th edy Serlta, 1$92), a
GffiBM&N LANGUAGE
658
LAWGHJAGffi
mar in alphabetical order, Wright, Historical
(let man Gramma) (London, 1907) , Mozei, Eis-
torisch-grammatisch Emfuhrung in die fruh-
neuhocJt deutschen Schtiftdialelte (Halle, 1909) ,
Sutterlm, Grundtiss dei deutschen Spraohlehie
(3d ed, Leipzig, 1911), Thomas, A Practical
Qetman Gtammat (New Yoik, 1905) , Bier-
wirth, The Elements of German (ib, 1900),
Harris, G-erman Lessons (Boston, 1892)
DICTION ABIES (a] Historical and etymolog-
ical Grimm, Deutsches Worterbuch (Leipzig,
1S54 et seq.) , will consist of 16 volumes (counted
as \ols i-xm), of which 14 have appeared (the
last dated 1911) , Sanders, Worterbuch dei deut-
when Sprache (3 vols , ib, 1860-65), the Er~
ganzungswoi tci buch der deutschen Sprache (Ber-
lin, 1885), by the same author, is a supple-
ment to the preceding } Moment-leociKon und
Ftemdworterbuch (new ed , ib , 1909); Heyne,
DeutscJies Worterbuch (3 vols , Leipzig, 1890-
95) , id, Deutsches Worterbuch, Kleine Ausgabe
(in 1 vol , ib , 1896), A-Hgemeines verdeutscJi-
endes und erklarendes Fremdworterbuch (19th
ed, Hanover, 1911), Schulz, Deutsches Fremd-
worterbuch (Strassburg, 1910-11), Kluge, Ety-
mologisches Worterbuch de? deutschen Sprache
(7th ed, Strassburg, 1910, Eng tians of the
4th ed , London, 1891 ) , Weigand, Deutsches Woi -
zerbuch, ed by Hut (2 vols, Giessen, 1909-10)
(b) Practical Plugel, Universal English- 0-e man,
and German-English Dictionary (4th ed , 3 vols ,
Brunswick, 1891), and Muiet, Encyclopedic
English-German and Gei man-English Dictionary
(2 vols, Berlin, 1908), are the two most corn-
pi eltensive Enghsh-Geiman dictionaries Other
works are Flugel-Schmidt-Tanger, Dictionary of
the English and German Languages (8th ed,
Brunswick, 1909), and the new edition, by
Schrfter, of Grieb's English- G-erman and German*
English Dictionary (10th ed , Stuttgart, 1898-
1902; all the editions of Grieb previous to- this
one are antiquated) , Sattler, Deutsch-JUnglisches
8achi&5rterbuch (2 vols, Leipzig, 1904-05).
Among the one-volume dictionaries the one by
Weir (CasselFs New German Dictionary, Lon-
don, 1888, identical with Heath's New German
Dictionary, New York, 1906), and Whitney-Ed-
gien, Compendious German and English Diction-
ary (ib, 1905), deserve special mention For
etymology, besides the work of Kluge mentioned
above, Hirfc's Etyniolagie der neuhochdeutschen
Bprache (Munich, 1909) should be consulted
Spelling and Pronunciation. Germany has
an orthographical problem of her own, although
a less complicated one than England and Amer-
ica, The spelling of Modern German had be-
come pretty well settled in the latter half of
the eighteenth century, when Gottsched (Deut-
sche Sprachkunst, Leipzig, 1748) and Adelung
(Anu/eisung zur deutschen Orthographic, ib ,
1788) were the chief authorities, and there were
only slight changes (due especially to the gram-
matical works of J Chr. A Heyse) in the early
nineteenth century. More recently, however,
when, the works of Jakob Grimm and his fol-
lowers had led to a better understanding of the
history of the German, language, and when
phonetics had became an essential element in
the study of grammar, a more radical reform
than that attempted by Heyse was advocated
by many scholars Opinions, however, differed
as to whether tlie reform should rest primarily
on an historical or a phonetic basis The un-
certainty in orthographical matters was on the
increase, and in 1876 the Prussian government
decided to call to Berlin a conference of German
philologists, principals of schools, and pubhsh-
eis This confeience had no immediate piacti-
cal outcome though its transactions were instru-
mental in dealing the way for subsequent icgu-
lations Foui years later the Prussian Minister
of Instruction (Von Puttkamer) intioduced in
the Prussian schools a uniform spelling, the
rules for which are contained in the Regeln und
Wortcn erzeichnisse fur die deutsche Rechtschrei-
bung (Berlin, 1880) This Preussische Schvl
w tfwgt aphie, however, could only mean a tem-
porary solution of the difficulty Its mles were
often (eg, as to the use of th and *) compli-
cated and generally of such a character as to
satisfy neither the conservatives nor the advo-
cates of reform It became finally necessary for
the Prussian government to call at Berlrn in
1901 a second conference, in which the southern
German states and the Austrian and Swiss gov-
ernments were also represented The result
is the revised edition (Neue Bearbeitung] of
the above-mentioned Regeln und Wortervevzeich-
nisse (Berlin, 1902) The new regulations are
simpler than the former ones, although they im-
ply more radical changes They have been in-
troduced in both German and Austrian (and also
Swiss) schools and have at the same time been
adopted by most of the leading newspapers
There is every piospect that for all practical
purposes the problem of spelling has been suc-
cessfully solved for a long time to come
With the pronunciation of Geimaii the case
is difierent Neither has there been nor is
there at present, a generally recognized stand-
ard pronunciation, so that in this respect the
union of northern and southern Germany is not
yet perfected In southern and midland Ger-
many the difference between the literary lan-
guage and the dialect is not fundamental enough
for the two to be treated as different languages.
We find, therefore, that the pronunciation even
of cultuied people is almost always more or
less tinged by their native dialect The Swa-
bians, the Swiss, the Austnans, and the Saxons
are, as a rule, easily recognized by their pro-
nunciation In northern Germany the Low
German dialects and the literary idiom are re-
garded as different languages But as High
Geiman here has been for several centuries the
language of the educated classes, it has again
developed local peculiarities and dialectic dif-
ferences of its own.
It is claimed by many that the language of
the theatre — which, if not entirely so, is, on
the whole, uniform throughout Germany — must
be regarded as dialect-free and as the standard
pronunciation This contention, however, is con-
tradicted by others, who maintain that the pro-
nunciation of the stage, while essentially south-
ern German, is partly based on arbitrary regu-
lations, and that it has no legitimate claim to
the position of a standard pronunciation out-
side of the theatre It is not very likely that
the question of pronunciation will be satisfac-
torily settled within the present generation
Bibliography Verhandlungen der ortho-
graphi^chen Konferen& in Berlin (Berlin, 1876) ,
Wilmanng, Die Orthographic in den ftchulen
Deutschlands (2d ed , Berlin, 1887) ; Hempl, Ger-
man Orthogra-phy and Phonology, part i (Boston,
1897) , Duden, Orthographisches 'Worterbuch der
deutschen Spraclie (8th ed., based on the new
regulations, Leipzig, 1907) , Siebs, Deutsche
Buhnenaussprache (8th, and 9th ed, Cologne^
GERMAN LITERATURE
659
G-ERMAW LITERATURE
1910) Other works of value aie the following
Kluge, Unset Deutsch, Einfuhrung in die Mut-
terspi ache (2d ed , Leipzig, 1910), Delbruck,
SynLretismus, ein Beittag Qut germamschen
liasuslehi e ( Strassburg, 1907), Gutjahr-Piobst,
Die Anfange der neuhochdeutschen Schrift-
spiache vor Luther (Halle, 1910) , Ladendoii,
Histonsches Schlagiooi terbuch ( Strassburg,
1906) , Lambeit, Handbook of German Idioms
(New York, 1910) , Buttner, Die deutsche
"Staatssptache" (Greifswald, 1909), Uhl, Ent-
stehung und EntwicJdung unset er Muttersprache
(Leipzig, 1906) Foi style and versification see
Engel, Deutsche Stiltiunst ( 10th ed , Vienna,
1911), Kaufmann, Deutsche Metrik (new ed
by Vilmars and Giein, Mai burg, 1907) , Saran,
Deutsche Vetsuslehre (Munich, 1907) , Unser,
Ueber den rhythmus der deutschen Preset (Frei-
burg, 1906) For Low Geiman, consult Grinime,
Plattdeutschc Mundarten (Leipzig, 1910), and
Giube, Plattdeutsohes Wortcrbuch (Berlin,
1908) , Biaune, Ueber die Eimgung der deut-
schen Ausspmche (Heidelberg, 1904) , Dent,
Deutsche Laute (London, 1909), a chart of
sounds, Piquet, Piecis de phonetique historique
de I'allemand (Paris, 1907) , Vietor, Deutsches
Lesebuch in Lautschnft (Leipzig, 1911) , Gross-
mann, Practical Guide to G-erman Pronunciation
(New York, 1910) , Vietor, Die Aussprache des
Schriftdeutschen (7thed, Leipzig, 1909)
GERMAN LITERATURE First Period
(600-800). German literature, as distinct from
such Teutonic literature as the Gothic Bible
translations of Ulfilas, begins after the triumphs
of the great migiation and the conquest of the
Empire Forces that had been engaged in the
struggle for dominion turned, about the year
600, to the glorification of the nation's heroes,
almost at the same time that similar conditions
were forming the Anglo-Saxon epic in England
But these songs of warrior gods and heroes are
now wholly lost, except a few late recorded
fiagments, such as the Hildebrandslied Then,
with the segregation of the High Germans and
their partial conversion, literary activity was
largely absorbed by the Church and its interests
and from having been national became general,
catholic That there must have been a consider-
able body of German poetry in this period, both
in Upper and Lower Germany, is made probable
by allusions m Latin authors The central fig-
ures around whom the saga cycles gathered were
Ermenrich ( Ermanancus ) , a Gothic king of
the fourth century, Theodoric the East Goth,
Attila the Hun, the Burgundian G-unther (Gun-
dicarius), and, probably a little later and
farther to the north, Siegfried, whom some,
however, have thought possibly identical with
the Armmius who defeated the Roman legions
under Varus All these sagas, or elements from
them, seem to have been connected with one
another before the close of the first period The
number of these epic songs was sufficient to sug-
gest to Charles the Great the possibility of col-
lecting them, and he gave orders to that effect.
Of the result no trace has survived
Second Period (800-1100) General Charac-
ter— The new temper shows itself in visions of
judgment (Muspilli), lives of saints, epic gos-
pel narratives (Heliand), or the gospel harmou
nies of Otfned, with an occasional monastic ex>
cursion into the political field (budwigsUed)
But already under the Ottos the national spirit
was reviving, and Frederick Barbarossa made
the people once more conscious of a national
mission that found a literary impulse in eon
tact with the culture of the West and South
through military expeditions and of the Eabt
through the Cmsades This appears fiist in the
religious epics of the eleventh century (Judith,
Exodus), legends of the various Marys, and
episodes in the life of Christ Geiman liteia-
tuie of this peiiod hardly equals in interest or
literary value that produced in contemporary
England or Prance, but there are signs, especially
at the close of the eleventh century, of a lefin-
ing of the national taste
Of political ballads we have first the Ludwigs-
hed, written late in the ninth century to cele-
brate a victory of Louis III over the Normans
and a song celebrating the reconciliation of
Otto I and his brother Henry, and there are
also clear traces of others on the romantic
adventures of the rebellious Duke Einst of
Swabia, a popular hero for his resistance to
Conrad II A long Latin epic on Walter of
Aquitania (the Walthanuslied) , telling of his
flight with his bride fiom the court of At-
tila and his combat with King Gunther at
Worms, attests a German ongmal In all
these the native spmt dominates, as the old
pagan supeistitions do in a few songs, such as
the Merseburg incantations But, as is natuial,
the chief survivals of the writings of this time
are from the poems with which churchmen
sought to supplant the older sagas and to tame
the national spirit Best of these is the Low
German or Old Saxon Heliand (Saviour), writ-
ten m alliterative verse, apparently by a Saxon
and at the request of Louis the Pious The gos-
pel narrative is followed, but Christ becomes a
German prince, the disciples are His thanes,
and the local color is often naively Teutonic
Obfried's Knst, with the same theme, is High
German and therefore more sophisticated, moie
didactic also It is the first German rhymed
verse The Muspilh, which is Bavarian, is of a
more independent fancy in its apocalyptic vision,
it retains the allitei ation of the saga epic and
mingles Christian and pagan elements in a way
that strikingly illustrates the popular reli-
gious conceptions of High Germans of the ninth
century The most noteworthy German writer
in Latin of this period was Notker Labeo (died
1022), a philosophic monk of Saint-Gall, a trans-
lator of Aristotle and Boethius The first
and second periods are usually called Old High
German
Third Period (1100-1300) General Charac-
ter*— The effect of the Crusades was twofold
They revived epic memories of Charlemagne and
Roland and of the triumphs of Alexander The
response in Germany was immediate Before
1130 there was a Rolandshed and an Alexander-
lied Tales of German adventure soon followed
(Bother, Her&og, Ernst, Orendel) Political, in-
tellectual, and literary horizons widened together
under the rule of Frederick II, and German lit-
erature blossomed into its first classical period.
Growing ever more self-conscious, more national,
during the closing years of the twelfth century,
it greets us on the threshold of the thirteenth
with its Iliad, the Nibelungenhed, and its Odys-
sey, the Gudrun In these folk epics the people
speak, meantime the court cirele is $*ivi&|£ us
the philosophic epics of Wolfram von BsAen-
Tbacli, the popular poetic tales of Gained of
Strassburg and Hartmann von AU6, the stirring
political songs of Walther von der Vogelweide,
and the melodious chorus of the Minnesingers.
GERMAN LITEBATTJE-E
660
GERMAN LITERATURE
The forerunners of these couit poets wcie Lam-
brecht, Conrad, and Heinnch von Veldeke Their
successors show a rapid decline due to overpro-
duction and artificiality Literature begins to
yield in interest to history, form to matter 3 and
lyric poetry follows close in the wake of the epic
decline, so that by 1300 chivalrous love poetry is
dead m Germany There is in the treatment of
the chivalric epics the same confusion of per-
sons and their dates that is indicated m the re-
mains of the earlier period It was an age of
awakening that found its first strong national
voice in Heinrich von Veldeke, and it is not by
chance that the recognition of his poetic primacy
is associated with the Whitsuntide of 1284, when
70,000 German knights gathered at Mayence as
guests of Barbarossa at the knighting of his
sons That event was an epoch in the national
life, and the place that Vel leke won there by his
Eneide marked no less an epoch in German
heroic veise But from this time Latin sources
of inspiration proved less congenial than the
Franco-Celtic, and from that time the court
epic deals prevailingly with legends of Arthur,
of the Grail, and of Charles the Great.
The masterpieces of the third period are em-
braced within 30 years (from 1190 to 1220).
Here is found the work of Hartmann von Aue
(q.v.), Gottfried von Strassburg (qv), Wol-
fram von Eschenbach (qv ), and Walther von
der Vogelweide (qv.) Here, too, belong the
popular epics Gudrun (qv) and the Xibelun-
genhed (qv) The outburst was natural and
spontaneous, all classes shared in it The
Helderibucli, compiled and m part written m the
fifteenth century by Kaspar von der Rhon, is
but a woiking over of the epic wealth of this
earlier period And among the Minnesingers
the great Walther had worthy though unequal
compeers in Heinrich von Morungen, Reinmar
der Alte, and Gottfried von Neifen. Beginning
in imitation of the troubadours, they attain
soon to a genuine expression of lyric emotion,
and to originality of form which is sometimes
artificial, but seldom without witness to a sense
of beauty and a keen appreciation of melody,
which is as surprising in the suddenness of its
diffused manifestation as it is in the speed of
its decline.
With the second quarter of the thirteenth cen-
tury artificiality gains the upper hand in Ulrich
von Liechtenstein (died 1255), and vulgarity in
Neidhard von Reuenthal (died 1240), and in
Tannhauser (died 1270) the dignity of lyric
poetry is sacrificed wholly to a rather coarse
spirit of comedy The seriously minded express
themselves didactically Here, again, the best
are first. Freidank's Bescheidenh&it, the Walsehe
Oast of Thomasin von Zirclaere, show a lofty
ideal of morality not without a touch of en-
thusiasm Their successors — Reimar von Zweter,
Hemnch Fruenlob, Hugo von Trimberg, the
anonymous collection D&r Winslecke, and the
didactic S.ri&g awf der ~Wwrtburg, a supposed
tournament of poets of an earlier age — all tend
to the commonplaces of "proverbial philosophy "
This change marks a shifting in social ideals
Ebaghthood had become less important, knights
less able, perhaps less willing, to be patrons of
song. The Minnesingers (qv.) are becoming
Meistersmgers (qv). Nuremberg, a trading
city, is to become the literary centre, and to
to poetry the commercial and economic
by which, ifc had won political recognition,
-begins to claim a place in the sermons of
Brother Berthold (died 1272), of Regensbuig,
the greatest orator of the century, and codes of
local law, Sachsensptegel and Schwabenspiegel,
aie formulated in the mother tongue
Pourth Period (1300-1624) In Germany as
in France the fourteenth centuiy shows a shift-
ing in political life that is reflected in literature
Its beginning is aristocratic, at its close it is
as distinctively bourgeois, though artificial still
This shifting is maiked by the rise of the free
cities and their literary guilds and Meistersing-
ers This is the century also of the founding
of the first five German universities — Prague
(1348), Vienna (1365), Heidelberg (1387),
Erfurt (1392), which exist to-day, and Cologne
(1388), since abandoned — whose influence was
more favorable to scholasticism than to literary
art Life grew more serious, more realistic
The drama is its chief field (Hans Sachs) So-
cial and political satire is cultivated (Remhart
der Fuchs) Didactic poetry (Sebastian Brant)
and prose nairative (Ululenspiegel} are often
crassly realistic The scholarship of Germany
expresses itself chiefly in Latin "This whole
period, extending into the seventeenth century,
produced no poetic work of art that could satisfy
even elementary demands m purity of foirn"
(Scherer )
In prose, on the other hand, the early four-
teenth centuiy counts three great pieachers —
Meister Bckhart (died 1328), Heinrich Suso
(died 1366), and Johannes Tauler (died 1361) —
mystics all Eckhart was distinguished for the
boldness and originality of his speculations,
Suso for his chivahous, if not quixotic, devotion
to transcendental truth, Tauler for the sanity
of his sanctity All found readers, and each in
his way helped to prepare Germany for the
Reformation and for Luther Nariative prose
chronicles were now written in German and lay
open to all readers The Limburg Chronicle
(1336-98), the Alsace Chronicle (1386), and
the Thurmgian Chronicle (about 1430) have
some literary as well as historical significance,
and suggest the gradual preparation of Germany
to welcome and use the invention of printing
With it came the revival of classical studies.
New univeisities were founded in the course
of the fifteenth century at Rostock, Greifswald,
Tubingen, and Leipzig The Humanists, though
they wrote almost wholly in Latin, become a
force to be reckoned with in German culture
The restlessness of the people under the tyranny
of princes and the abuses of the Church is wit-
nessed by swarms of little tales in prose and
verse, Volksbucher, miracle plays, Shrove Tues-
day plays (Fastnachtsspiele) , and polemic sa-
tire, of which the most striking examples are
Thomas Murner and Geiler von Kaysersberg,
both popular preachers In such a period Em-
peror Maximilian's (died 1519) attempt to re-
vive the taste for romance by the autobio-
graphic Wets&kunig and by Theuerdan7c (writ-
ten at his suggestion by Melchoir Pfintzing)
was foredoomed to failure
The literature of the Reformation period in
its intensity of purpose sacrifices all charm and
grace of form. It is a literature of combat, di-
rect, trenchant Luther's Bible is its great mon-
ument To this literature Germany owes the in-
estimable advantage of a common speech. Ulrich
von Hutten is the satirist of the Reformation in
verse and dialogue, ardent, bold, an enthusiast of
political and religious emancipation* He was
chief among the authors of the cleverest satire of
GERMAN LITERATURE
661
GERMA3ST LITERATURE
the period, the Epistolce Obsouroium Virorum
Allied to Hutton in aim, but with greater scholar-
ship, was Johannes Fischart, translator of Rabe-
lais, with whose spirit he had a strong affinity,
preferring prose to poetry as a vehicle of thought
and molding words to his purpose with singular
freedom Other prose writers of the sixteenth
century were the artist Duier (q_v ) , the
historians Thurnmeier (died 1534), Sebastian
Franck (died 1545), and the Swiss Tschudi
(died 1572) , the Catholic theologian Agricola
(died 1566), more noted for his collection of
German proverbs, the Protestant Reformer
Zwingli (died 1531) , and later the successors
of the religious mystics, Johann Arndt (died
1621) and Jakob Boehme (died 1624)
In poetry the sturdiest figure of the Reforma-
tion period is Hans Sachs (qv ), who, as well
as Fischart, wrote secular verse also Reineke
Puchs was imitated by Rollenhagen in Der
Froschmeuseler The drama was very widely
cultivated as a means of polemic and popular
appeal alike by the Catholics and Reformers, the
Humanists and the vulgar The noblest poetic
expression of the time is, however, its religious
lyric Many hymns of Luther, a few of Hans
Sachs, Nicolaus Hermann, Paul Bbers, and
Philip Nicolai, still survive in popular use.
These hymns were second only to Luther's Bible
m their appeal to the national heart
Fifth. Period From Opitz to Klopstock ( 1624-
1748) The recreation of literature after the
Thirty Yeais3 War was begun in the pedantic
spirit of Opitz by a literary society of university
men, chiefly at first in Hamburg and Leipzig
The names that emerge from the general medi-
ocrity are those of the religious poet Gerhardt
(1607-76), the novelist Grimmelshausen (1625-
76), and towards its close the critic Gottsched
(1700-66), whom this period leaves engaged in
a controversy with the heialds of the new
period, Bodmer (1698-1783) and Breitmger
(1701-76) at Zurich, as to whether French or
English poets were the more worthy of imita-
tion, since it was admitted that one must imi-
tate somebody This period closes, or rather the
classical period begins, with the publication of
the first cantos of Klopstock's Messias (1748)
The Thirty Years' War deferred the develop-
ment of the national consciousness which the
Reformation had promised For political or
social aspirations the conditions were unfavor-
able, as they were also to the spread or even
the maintenance of culture It was natural
that men of a literary cast of mind should take
refuge in the consolations of pietism and should
express their emotions in religious lyric Be-
sides Gerhardt the chief Protestant hymn writers
of the seventeenth century are Johann Hist ( died
1667), Joachim Neander (died 1688), and
Louise of Brandenburg, wife of the Great Elec-
tor (died 1667) The best Catholic lyrist is the
Jesuit Friednch Spee, whose work belongs to
the war period, for he died in his prime m 1635
Secular poetry either sinks into vulgarity or
loses touch with the people through academic
affectations First of the pedantic academics
was the Fruchtbrmgende Gesellschaft, formed on
the Bella Cruscan model under the patronage of
Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau (1617) This found
fashionable imitation* and even in bourgeois
Nuremberg the Pegnitzschafer displaced! the an-
cient order of Master singers in popular regard.
The first noteworthy poets to arise in these
academic schools were wecklierlm (died 1653)
and Opitz (died 1639) The appearance of the
latter's prosodical treatise, Von der deutschen
Poeterei (1624), is sufficiently epoch-marking to
form the staiting point of a period It was the
trusted guide of several generations of veise
makeis Among his followers, the Silesian
school, the chief are Paul Fleming (died 1640)
and Andreas Gryphms (died 1664), who ex-
tended the principles of Opitz to the drama and
was first to introduce the "regular ' five-act
tragedy to Germany To the Silesian school
may be assigned also the epigrammatist Logau
(died 1655) and the psalmist Joachim Rachel
(died 1699) The Low German humorist Lau-
remherg (died 1659) may be named also, and
Philip von Zesen (died 1689), who founded in
Hamburg an academic literary association,
Deutschgesmnte Gesellschaft, to cultivate lin-
guistic purity
The fiist Silesian school, the punsts, was
succeeded by a second, the euphuists, or better,
"Marimsts," disciples of the extravagant Italian
stylist Marmo The fir&t impulse to this aber-
ration came from Nuremberg and the Pegmtz-
schafer Its notewoithy names are Hoffmanns-
waldau (died 1679) and Lohenstem (died
1683) A little later French influence asserts
itself, and Boileau finds disciples of his Art
poGtique in Camtz (died 1699), Besser (died
1729), and Kbnig (died 1744)
Of the prose of this period Grimmelshausen's
Simplicissimus (1668) has almost alone as-
serted successfully a right to live But besides
this satirical novelist of the Thirty Years7 War
may be named Moscherosch (1601-69), for his
imitation of the satires of Quevedo, the his-
torians Sigmund von Birken and Gottfried
Arndt, the Persian traveler Olearms, the eccen-
tric Protestant pastor Schupp, and the priest
Abraham a San eta Clara, and the voluminous
but unreadable romance writers, Buchholtz, Von
Ziegler, and Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick,
to be followed by multitudinous "Kobmsonaden,"
in imitation of Defoe's masterpiece
As before the Reformation, so at the turn of
the century, it is the preachers and religious,
metaphysical, or pietistic thinkers who give the
first promise of intellectual revival With the
pietists Spener (1635-1705) and August Her-
mann Francke (1663-1727) comes Leibnitz
(1646-1716), the brilliantly original philoso-
pher, who wrote as well in German as in French
or Latin More prosaic was his disciple Wolf
(1679-1754), who wrote m German, and the
popularizer Thomasms (1655-1728), editor of
the first German magazine and commendable for
his successful agitation against the juridical
persecution of witchcraft Meantime Nature
was timidly reasserting her rights in poetry in
the epigrams (1697) of Wermgke, and the
lyrics of Gunther (1695-1723), while Brookes
(1680-1747) directed the attention of his coun-
trymen from the French to the English poets by
precept and by example He translated Thom-
son's Seasons A revival of classical studies
may also be noted, but it is to England that
the literary youth of Germany is looking at
the close of this fifth period
Sixth. Period From the Me&sias to tjie tijeajtfa.
of Goethe (1748-1832) The refgp of Frederick
II represents a progress in German letters and
aesthetic taste that is hardly paralleled in his-
tory. When he came to the throne (174Q),
Herder ( 1744-1803 ) , Goethe
SotuHer (1759-1805), an£ jlgftebter
UTERATtTIlE
662
GERMAN" LITERATURE
were not yet born, Wieland (1733-1813) was
a child of seven, Leasing (1729-81) a boy of 11,
Klopstock (1724-1803) a youth of 16, Gellert
(1715-69) a young man of 25 When he died
(1786), Leasing had closed his epoch-making
career, Wieland, Herder, and Klopstock had
passed their zenith, Goethe had completed the
first period of his unchallenged mastery, and
Schiller was becoming his worthy compeer
Here, as in the third period, a revival of na-
tional pride led to a revival of national liter-
ature The Seven Years' War made Prussia a
i allying point of German national feeling, such
as had not existed for centuries
Notewoithy poets contemporary with the
youth of Klopstock are the descriptive, didactic,
and scientific Haller (1708-77) and the genial
narrative and lyric verse writer Hagedorn
(1708-54) The Leipzig school of criticism, led
by Gottsched (1700-66), continued its conserva-
tive protest alike against the Anglophile school
of Zurich, headed by Bodmer (1698-1783) and
Breitinger (1701-76), and the amiable and pop-
ular Gellert (1715-69), chief representative of
the younger writers of Leipzig Noteworthy
among the forerunners of the classical period
are the satirist Rabener (1714-71), the epi-
grammatist Kastner (1719-1800), the essayist
Cramer (1752-1807), imitator of Steele, and
C. F Weisse (1726-1804), first to make success-
ful literary appeal to German youth and child-
hood
The new literal y life is first fully felt in
Gleim's (1719-1803) Lteder &ines pteussischen
Grenadiers (1758) Associated with Glenn in
what is known as the Halle school were Hz
(1720-96) and Gotz (1721-81), the literary
connection with these of the poet of nature,
Ewald von Kleist (1715-59), of Ramler (1725-
98), a martial lyrist, of Holtz (1748-76), and
of the idyhst Gessner (1730-87), is less inti-
mate The religious lyric tradition is meantime
continued by Von Zinzendorf (1700-60)
Klopstock meantime gave copious utterance
to the subjectivity and sentimentalism of his
generation, but did more for poetic technique
than for public taste The whole tendency of
Frederick's influence, direct and indirect, was
to turn away from sentimental enthusiasm and
pietistic mysticism towards realistic study and
practical activity This appears strikingly in
the popular philosophic movement, which de-
rives in part from the French encyclopedists,
but more from Shaftesbury and Locke Its
leaders were Moses Mendelssohn (1729-86) and
Friednch Nicolai (1733-1811), both of Berlin,
with whom it is convenient to associate Thomas
Abbt (1738-66), Georg Sulzer (1720-79), and
Johann Engel (1741-1802) Among the popu-
lar historians Moser (1720-94) deserves note,
and in art criticism Johann Wmckelmann
(1717-68) and Christian Gottlieb Heyne (1729-
1812)
All these belong in their cast of mind to the
forerunners of the classical generation The
full force of the inspiration and emancipation
that came from the triumphs of Frederick II
to the German literature that he affected to
despise first appears clearly in the development
of the genius of Wieland (1733-1813), who m
educating Duke Karl August of Weimar gave
0ie new literature a genial home and kindly
fostering Meantime the sterner spirit of Les-
was breaking down and building up in
the drama, philosophy, and religion.
The authors and scholars of Weimar and the
neighboung Jena entered into his labors through
Herder (1744r-1803), while the young Goethe
bi ought hither the fresh sap of the springtide of
"Stoim and Stress" to be clarified and strength-
ened before it was itself revivified by Italian
naturalism But the effervescence is in no way
confined to Weimar 01 to Lessing and Goethe
One feels it seething m the young Schiller, in
Lenz (1751-92), Burger (1747-94), Klinger
(1752-1831), Wagner (1769-1812), Leisewitz
(1752-1806), and in the multitude who thought
themselves geniuses of a Geme&eit Of caidinal
importance to the writers and the aesthetics of
the succeeding decade was Kant (1724-1804),
by his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), who, as
well as his successors, Fiehte (1762-1814),
Schellmg (1775-1854), Hegel (1770-1831), ri-
valed the writers of imaginative literature in
their claim on the attention of all serious minds.
With Goethe's return from Italy (1788) there
conies a movement towards classicism, order,
correctness, repose, or at least restraint In
inaugurating this Goethe continues the work of
Lessmg, and after six years wins the coopera-
tion of Schiller A classical school is formed,
\\hile around these play the chaiteied libertines
of genius, with Richter (1763-1825) as their
leader, and usher in the Romantic school, whose
rise and decline Goethe lived to witness The
history of this school resolves itself into a
struggle to turn the objective idealism of the
classicists into a subjective one, that set the
imagination to overcome reality To realistic
and plastic antiquity they opposed the fantastic
Middle Ages and the opulent fancies of the
East In philosophy this school substitutes the
mystic or ironical idealism of Fiehte and Schel-
lmg for the rationalism of Kant The leaders
here are the Schlegels ( q v ) , the Brentanos
(qv), Novahs (qv) (1772-1801), Von Armm
(qv) (1781-1831), Tieck (qv.) (1773-1853),
Eichendorff (qv ) (1788-1857), Fouqu4 (1777-
1843), Chamisso (qv ) (1781-1838), Hoffmann
(qv) (1776-1822), and on the borderland of
the movement the dramatist Heinrich von Kleist
(q v ) ( 1777-1811 ) , the Platonic theologian
Schleiermacher (qv ) (1768-1834), the novelist
Hauff ( 1S02-1827) , the patriot poet Uhland (q v )
(1787-1862), and the brothers Grimm Several
of these outgrew their romanticism, and when
Goethe died it had become more a thing of the
past than even the classic realism against which
it had rebelled Heine claimed justly to be at
once the last Romantic lyrist and the first of the
modern school Among the lesser writers of
the turn of the century there may be named the
once famous idyhst and still respected transla-
tor Johann Voss (1751-1826) , the poet Mathias
Claudius (1740-1815) , the sentimentalist Jung-
Stilling (1740-1817); the lyric imitators of
Schiller, Matthisson (1767-1831) and Salis-
Seewis (1762-1834), Platen (1796-1835) as
master of metrical technique, the popular and
prolific dramatists Iffland (1759-1814) and
Kotzebue (1761-1819), the philosophical sen-
timentalist Fnedrieh Jacobi (1743-1819), Wer-
ner (1768-1823), who earned transitory fame
for "tragedies of fate" and found imitators in
Mullner ( 1774-1829 ) , Houwald ( 1778-1845 ) ,
and even the young Gnllparzer (1791-1872),
the patriot poets Korner (1791-1813), Arndt
( 1769-1860 ) , and Ruekert ( 1788-1866 ) Among
the more distinguished literary scholars of the
period may be named the historians Spottier
GEBMAN LITEBATtFBE
663
0BB3KAN UTBBATITBB
(1752-1810), Johannes von Muller (1752-1809),
Sehlosser (1776-1861), Niebuhr (1776-1831),
and Von Raumer (1781-1873)
Seventh Period From Heine to Hauptmann
(1832-1900) This peiiod, though excluding
the earlier work of Heine, embraces that which
entitled him to be called "the contmuatoi of
Goethe " It was Heine that transferred into
the political and social field the activity of
Goethe in a literary one and perceived moie
clearly than any other in Germany the hollow-
ness of inherited social conditions In an age
of democratic upheaval he bore the banner of
revolutionary reform, and as he grew moie
lealistic he came moie in touch with the ques-
tioning dissatisfied spmt of an age that had
parted from its old ethical moorings and had
not yet found a new anchorage He was less pos-
itive therefore than Goethe, but "incomparably
the most important figure of that quarter of a
century that follows Goethe's death " ( Matthew
Arnold ) His influence can be seen in almost
every field, though what he wrought by lyric
poetry has come to be more and more the func-
tion of the novel and of drama The more note-
worthy poets of the generation preceding the
Franco-German War and the foundation of the
German Empire were Freihgrath (1810-76),
Von Dingelstedt (1814-81), Kinkel (1815-82),
Von Redwitz (1823-91), Anastasius Grun
(1816-76), Scheffel (1826-86), F W Weber
(1813-94), Simrock (1802-76), Jordan (1819-
1904), Bodenstedt (1819-92), Lingg (1820-
1905), Geibel (1815-84), Fontane (1819-98),
and the poet composer Wagner (1813-83)
Fiction m this period shows a blending of
that of Wieland, of Goethe, and of Schlegel
But from its beginnings it is, as a result of the
Fiench upheaval of 1830 and the Romantic
movement there, predominatingly social, espe-
cially after the German movement of 1848 The
"Young Germany" of 1833-35, begun by Wien-
barg, headed by Gutzkow, supported by Laube
and Borne, was essentially political With
Heine and the women Rahel Varnhagen, Bettina
von Arnim, and Charlotte Stieghtz it tended
to a strike for social freedom, for "the emanci-
pation of the flesh," and this is stiongly marked
m the earlier novels of Luise Muhlbach (1814-
73 ), Luise Ashton, Ida Frick, Ida Hahn-Hahn
(1805-73), Fanny Lewald (1811-89), and in
her youngei days Marlitt (1825-87). These
emancipationists make of the novel a political
pamphlet, though there was some reaction after
1848, fiction turning for a time from the po-
( htical to the purely literary field, and to the
historical novel, of which Alexis (1798-1871),
Spindler (1796-1855), Laube (1806-84), and
Scheffel (1826-86) were the chief representatives.
The serious drama in the period before the
Franco-Prussian War is best represented by
Gutzkow (1811-78), Laube (1806-84), Hebbel
(1813-64), Mosen (1803-67), and Heyse (1830-
1914) Melodrama is represented by Fnedricli
Halm (1806-71), Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-
68), and Salomon von Mosenthal (1821-77);
comedy by Freytag (1816-95) and Benedrx
(1811-73) The most distinguished critic of
the period is Gervinus (1805-71), its best-
known historians, Mienzel (1798-1873), Von
Ewald (1803-75), and later Mommsen (1817-
1903), Ranke (1795-1886), Droysen (1808-84),
and Elrnst Curtius (1814-96), The most re-
nowned scholars of this period were the brothers
Jakob (1*785-1863) and Wilhelm Grimm (1786-
1859) In formal philosophy its most distin-
guished names are Schopenhauer (1788-1860),
Lotz (1817-81), Ulnci (1806-84), Ueberweg
(1826-71), Schwegler (1819-57), Kuno Fischei
(1824-1907), and Von Hartmann (1842-1900)
In the generation following the Franco-Pius
si an War antiquarian fiction was cultivated by
Ebeis (1837-98), while the tradition of the na-
tional and political novel was continued in the
•work of Dahn (1834-1912) and Fieytag (1816-
95), Meyer (1825-89), Gottschall (1823-1909),
and a numeious gioup of minor writeis among
whom Spielhagen (1829-1911) is chief Ro-
manticism is continued m G Keller (1819-90),
Storm (1817-88), and Marlitt (1825-87), and
the naturalistic movement makes itself felt in
Heyse (1830-1914), Wilbrandt (1837-1911),
Sudermann (1857- ), Paul Lmdau (1839-
), and m its extreme foim in Mauthner
(1849- ), King (1817-1901), and Kretzer
(1854- ), while Jensen (1837-1911) and
Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach (1830- ) rep-
resent a psychologic school, and in Aloisia
(Lola) Kirschner (1854- ) and Baroness
von Suttner (1843-1914) the social and demo-
cratic interest is again obvious As an olfahoot
of this last, \ve have the village fiction ot Auer-
bach (1812-82), Anzengrubcr ( 1839-89), Roseg-
ger (1843- ), and Raabe (1831-1910) Ex-
otic sensation is cultivated by Francos (1848-
1904) and Saeher-Masoch (1835-95), and urban
humor by Stinde (1841-1905) and Eckstein
(1845-1900) The most powerful writers of
fiction during the period are Heyse, Dahn, Ebner-
Eschenbach, C F Meyer, and Freytag
The patriotic lyrists of the new Empire were
many One may note Geibel and Redwitz,
Becker (1828-91), and Jensen (1837-1911)
More detached from politics are Heyse and
Baumbach (1840-1905) and the peasant poet
Johanna Ambrosius (1854- ) The epic tia-
dition is continued by Julius Wolff (1834-1910),
and intransigent innovation in epic form is
attempted by Bhebtreu (1859- ), Holz
(18G3- ), Heimich Hart (1855-1906), and
Ins more talented brother Julius (1859- )
In historical drama, besides Heyse, Wilden-
bruch (1845-1909), Greif (1839-1911), and Wil-
brandt (1837-1911) were striking writers, m
melodrama, Ganghofer (1855- ), and for
the peasant drama, Anzengruber (1839-89)
Comedy, largely French in technique and com-
mercial m spirit, was cultivated by I/Arronge
(1838-1908), Paul Lmdau (1839- ), Blu-
menthal (1852-1912), and the late-awakened
genius of Moser (1825-1903) The national pa-
triotic drama was represented by Wildenbrueh
(1845-1909) The greatest of modern German
dramatists, democratic and somewhat socialistic
in tendency, naturalistic in technique, are Su-
dermann (1857- ) and Hauptmann (1862-
), but Halbe (1865- ), Fulda (1862-
), Schmtzler (1862- ), and Hofmanns-
thal (1874- ) are also well known Among
lyric poets Lihencron (1844-1909), Dehmel
(1863- ), George (1872- ),Busse (1872-
), and Agnes Miegel (1879- ) Lave be-
come prominent Among novelists are ixp ibe
noted Isolde Kurz (1853- ), Heleme Babied
(1859- ), Clara Viebig (I860- •), Von
Polenz (1861-1903), Frenssen (1863- ), Ri-
carda Huch (1867- ),' Zatm (1867- ),
BartBch (1873- ), and Jlaan (1875- )
Bibliography Of histories of German litera-
ture in German, the n^si readable is Scherer
GERMAN MEASLES
664 GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA
(10th ed, Berlin, 1905, Eng trans, London,
1906) Consult also Baitels, Geschichte der
deutschen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1902) , Kober-
stem, Giundnss zw Geschichte der deutschen
Nationalist eratur (5th ed , by Von Bartsch,
Leipzig, 1872-74), more compendious Wacker-
nagel (2d ed , Basel, 1879-94) is valuable for
its copious refeiences, and Kurz (Leipzig, 1876)
for its illustrative extracts German poetry is
fully treated by Gervmus, Geschichte der deut-
schen Dichtung (5th ed , Leipzig, 1874), Goe-
deke, Grunduss der GescMchte der deutschen
Dichtung (Dresden, 1384-1900) For special
periods, see Uhland, Geschiehte der altdeut-
schen Poesie (Stuttgart, 1865), Hettner, Lit-
teraturgeschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts (4th ed ,
Brunswick, 1879-95) , Julian Schmidt, Ge-
sohichte der deutschen Litteratur von Leibmt&
fas auf unsere Zeit (Berlin, 1886-96) , Haym,
Die romantische Sohule (ib, 1870), Gottschall,
Deutsche Nationalhtteratur des 19 Jahrhun*
derts (7th ed , Breslau, 1901), Stern, Die
deutsche Nationallitteratur vom Tode Goethes
lis zur Gegenwart (4th ed , Marburg, 1900),
Prolss, Das junge Deutschland (Stuttgart,
1892) , id, Geschichte des neuern Dramas (Leip-
zig, 1880-83) , Meyer, Die deutsche Litteratur
des 19 Jahrhunderts (Vienna, 1901), Vogt and
Koch, Geschichte der deutsoher Lrftetatur (2
vols , 2d ed , Leipzig, 1904), Holzke, Zwanzig
Jahre deutscher Litteratur (Biunswick, 1905) ,
A. Biese, Deutsche Litter atw geschichte (3
vols., Munich, 1912) Among later English
histories the translation of Scherer is still the
best, but Francke, History of German Litetature
as Determined ~by Social Forces (4th ed , New
York, 1901), shows critical originality Briefer
histories are Bostwick and Harrison, Outlines
(London, 1883) , Sellss, Critical Outlines (trans,
ib , 1884), Wells, Modern German Literature
(ibj 1895), Bossert, Hisioire de la litterature
Memande (Paris, 1901) , Thomas, History of
German Literature (New York, 1909) , Robert-
son, A History of 0-erman Literature (London,
1902) ; id, Outlines of the History of German
Literature (New York, 1912) ; Stroebe and Whit-
ney, Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur (ib,
1913) Heller, Studies in Modern German Lit-
erature (ib , 1905), Taylor, Studies in German
Literature (ib, 1879); MacCallum, Studies in
High German and Low German Literature (Lon-
don, 1884) , and Lessing, Masters in Modern
German Literature (New York, 1912), are oc-
casionally useful Brandes, Main Currents in
19th Century (new ed , 6 vols, New York, 1906),
i& a careful and accurate study
GERMAIN" MEASLES; ROTHELN, RUBELLA.
Sometimes also called French measles and false
measles The disease is an acute infectious ex-
anthem, characterized by mild fever, enlargement
of the lymph glands of the neck, a rose-colored
rash of variable distribution, sometimes resem-
bling the eruption of measles, in other cases
simulating that of scarlatina The infection is
a mild one and not dangerous to life ordinarily,
although occasionally malignant cases have jbeen
recorded Since its discovery by Hoffman, in
1740, De Bergen in 1752, and Orlow m 1758,
many authors have disputed its existence as a
clinical entity, classing it as a modified form of
measles ( q v ) It is now, however, accepted as
a distinct disease Rubella occurs in epidemics,
principally among children It may be trans-
mitted by direct contact or by fomites, but the
contagious principle has not been isolated The
incubation period is from 14 to 20 days Treat-
ment is limited, as a rule, to keeping the patient
in bed, on a light diet, and administering a mild
febrifuge, such as spirits of nitious ether, and
laxatives
GERMAN METHODISTS Sec EVANGELI-
CAL ASSOCIATION
GERMAN MILTON, THE A title occasion-
ally given Klop stock (qv ), author of the Mes-
sias
GERMANO, jar-ma'n6, SAN A city in south
Italy, the name of which was changed in 1871
to Cassino (qv ) (Map Italy, F 5)
GERMAN OCEAN See NORTH SEA
GERMAN PLATO, THE A name given to
Friednch Heinrich Jacobi
GERMAN POLITICAL PARTIES. See
POLITICAL PARTIES, Germany
GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH See
REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, GER-
MAK
GERMAN SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS.
See paragiaph on Baptists, German Seventh-
Day ', under BAPTISTS
GERMAN SILVER. A popular term de-
scribing the alloys of copper, zinc, and nickel
It is not a compound, but consists of mixed
crystals, the f i eezmg-pomt curve falling regu-
larly fiom that of nickel to that of copper It
was oiignially made at Hildburghausen, Ger-
many, and had the composition of copper 40 4
parts, nickel 31 6 parts, zinc 25 4 parts, and
iron 2 6 parts As this alloy came into more
extensive use, different pioportions of the in-
gredients "were used As an alloy intended to
replace silvei, it is made of copper 50 parts,
nickel 25 parts, and zinc 25 parts When an
exceedingly malleable alloy is desired, the pro-
portion of nickel is reduced to 20 parts, and that
of zinc mci eased to 30 parts A tough and
malleable alloy is made of copper 60 parts, nickel
20 parts, and zinc 20 parts German silver is
harder than silver and takes a high polish It
is used as a substitute for silver in making
castings — eg, for bells, candlesticks, and es-
pecially as a foundation for plated ware It
must, however, be remembered that German sil-
ver is readily attacked by weak acids, like vine-
gar, and that its use at table, unless properly
coated, may give rise to poisoning The smaller
units of the coinage of various countries have
been largely struck from a Gei man-silver alloy,
at times containing silver Certain parts of
typewriters having hard and constant usage are
made of a German-silver alloy containing a small
percentage of aluminium Packfong, an alloy 4
made by the Chinese, is of similar composition
GERMAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA, The
oldest colony of Germany (Map Africa, F 7)
Fronting on the west coast of Africa, it is
bounded by Portuguese West Africa (Angola)
on the north, by British South Africa on the
east and south, and by the Atlantic Ocean on
the west Estimated area, 322,000 square miles
The coast line is about 950 miles long, and al-
most at its middle is the British port of Walfish
Bay, which with the adjacent territory (area,
430 square miles) forms a part of Cape Colony
(qv)
Topography Three natural regions are rec-
ognized— the coastal region, the highland, and
the Kalahari Waste> the western part of which
is in the German territory The winds (south-
east trades), which are largely from the land,
make this an almost rainless area The coast
GERMAN1 SOUTHWEST AFRICA 66s GEBMAU SOUTHWEST AFRICA
is bolder ed by a belt of sand about 10 miles
wide, behind which uses a barren steppe from
40 to 50 miles in width This valueless coastal
zone is succeeded by the wide belt of highlands
extending from north to south, rising at many
points to an altitude of from 3000 to 6000 feet
and culminating in Omatako Mountains (8800
feet) The eastein part of the highlands slopes
giadually to the Kalahari Deseit (qv), with
which it meiges. Thiee harbors aie of com-
meicial importance — Walfish Bay, which belongs
to Great Britain, .Angra Pequeua, and Swakop-
mund (the mouth of the Swakop Rivei), which
is the haibor most important foi German inter-
ests, because it is thiough the valley of the
Swakop that the highland — the valuable part of
the country — may most easily be reached The
only perennial risers are the Cunene and Ku-
bango, on the northern boundary, and the
Orange, on the southern boundary The climate,
except in the extreme north, is healthful The
highlands are warmer than the coast, and al-
though the uplands are very dry, there are
many thundei storms in the waimer part of
the year, when the stream beds nil and the
parched valleys for a short time are green with
verdure
Agriculture Many European field crops and
vegetables may be grown along the streams and
near the wells where the farmers procure water
foi their tilled lands While the white popula-
tion (on Jan 1, 1913, 14,830, of whom 12,292
were German) is still small, it is laiger than in
all the other German colonies together and in-
cludes over 1000 Boers Cattle raising is the
chief industry of the white immigrants and the
natives In 1913 the live stock included 205,643
cattle, 543,347 sheep, 516,904 goats, 15,916
horses, 13,618 mules and asses, 11,194 karakul,
7772 swine, and 709 camels
Gold is known to occui, and copper mining is
carried on, in 1912, 27,500 tons of copper ore
were exported Diamonds are found in the
neighborhood of Luderitzbucht, production in
1912, 766,465 carats
The commerce of the colony is so far of small
importance The exports, chiefly guano from the
coast, cattle, skins, hides, copper ore, and os-
trich feathers, increased from 32,396,000 maiks
in 1907 to 44,344,000 in 1910 and then declined
to 32,499,000 m 1912 The imports, principally
foodstuffs, iron and iron products, textiles, beer,
tobacco, etc , increased from 1,616,000 marks in
1907 to 34,692,000 in 1910 and 39,035,000 in
1912 All but a small part of the trade, which
passes chiefly through the port of Swakopmund,
is with Germany The transportation facilities
are limited In the interior the bull cart is the
chief means of transportation A main road
runs from north to south and is connected with
the coast Though the means of communication
are inadequate, German Southwest Africa has
nearly as much railway as German East Africa,
Kamerun, and Togo togethei At the end of
1913 there were in operation 2104 kilometers
(1307 miles), divided among four lines the
Otavi Hallway, 671 kilometers (417 miles) ,
Swakopmund- Wmdhuk Railway, 382 kilometers
(237 miles) , Northern Railway, 006 kilometers
(314 miles), Southern Railway, 545 kilometers
(339 miles) There are internal telegraph lines,
and communication with Europe is effected by
means of the .Cape and Mossamedes cable, which
touches at Sw^akopmimd J^ regular steamship
line connects $wakopmund and Hamburg Wmd-
huk, the seat of government, and Otavi are
among the most promising settlements
The administration is in the hands of a gov-
einor, assisted by distuct officers In 1913 a
legislative assembly, half elective and half ap-
pointive, was established Prior to the late
native upnsing there was a colonial army of
800 men, exclusively Germans, in the eaily part
of 1906, about 14,500 men weie engaged in sup-
pressing the rebellion, but a large number were
later withdrawn, in 1913 the police and mili-
tary force consisted of about 3000 men Tor
the year 1913-14 the budget balanced at
32,791,672 marks, of which colonial receipts
amounted to 18,164,832, and Imperial subven-
tion 14,626,840, in addition, loans for ex-
traordinary expenditure amounted to 21,350,000
marks The native population in 1913 was esti-
mated at only 81,000, other non-Euiopean popu-
lation, 3000, whites, 14,830, of whom 12,292 were
German The natives are sharply divided from
one another by the topogiaphic aspects of the
intenor Bantu tribes (Ovampo, Herero, and
others, the Herero being gieatest in number and
power) inhabit the mountain regions of the
north, Damara the central pait, and Hottentots
the southern plateaus (N"ama Land) A spaise
population of Bechuana and Bushmen dwell on
the plains of the Kalahari Desert
History. In 1883 the German merchant
Ludentz, of Bremen, established a trading sta-
tion at Angra Pequena (now Luderitzbucht) and
secured by purchase the surrounding territory,
which he named Ludentzland, and which he
ceded to the German government in 1884 By
treaties with the native chiefs the German gov-
ernment obtained territorial and mining eon-
cessions in the interior, and by treaties with
Portugal and Great Britain in 1886 and 1890
respectively, the northern, eastern, and southern
boundaries of the colony were fixed By 1898
German supiemacy had been practically estab-
lished over the entire territory In the fall ot
1903 the Bondelzwarts, a Hottentot tribe in the
southern part of the colony, rose in rebellion
They were pacified in January, 1904, but the
removal of German troops from the north was
followed by a formidable uprising of the power-
ful Herero nation Geiman colonists were mas-
sacred, and the existence of the colony was seri-
ously threatened Reenforcements were hastily
brought from Europe, and in August, 1904, a
concerted attack was delivered on the Herero
forces concentrated in the Waterberg region
The natives were dispersed, and the struggle
enteied the guerilla stage In October, however,
the Hottentot tribes of the south, pined by
Herero fugitives, declared war against the gov-
ernment, and for a year, under their chiefs Mo-
renga, Witboi, Hendricks, and Morris, more than
held their own against the Germans, who were
hampered by the extremely difficult nature of
the country and the lack of water and transpor-
tation facilities The war lasted through 1905
and into 1906. Up to March of that year the
cost of the war to Germany was more than $50?-
000 000 and nearly 2000 men dead and wounded,
while 14,500 troops were still engaged in the
colony Tl^e sanguinary nature of th0 contest
appears from the report that of the Herero na-
tion, estimated at 100,000 , before the war, only
11,000 surrendered Of the rest some fled to
British territory, but the greater part had suc-
cumbed in the war or per Shed in the Kalahari
Desert In 1907 the war broke out again., when
THEOLOGY
666
THEOLOGY
Morenga escaped from Biitisli territory, where lie
was looked upon as a political refugee. He was
hunted down and finally killed This was piob-
ably the greatest step towards the complete sub-
jugation of the colony In 1908 diamonds were
discovered, and immediately a large crowd of
adventurers rushed in In 1909 over $5,000,000
worth of diamonds were shipped to Germany
In 1911-12 France and Germany nearly went to
war over the latter's African possessions, and
wai was only averted by the former's concessions
Geimany must now take an equal rank with
both France and England as an African power
Foi an account of the military operations conse-
quent upon the outbreak of the European war of
1914 see WAB IN EUROPE
Consult Von Bulow, DeutscJi-Sudwestafwka,
(Berlin, 1896) , Watermeyer, Deutsch-Sudwest-
afnka (ib., 1899) , Hermann, Viehzuoht und
Bodenkultur in SitdiwestafnJca (ib, 1900),
Scliwabe, Im deutscli&n, Diamanterilande (ib,
1909), Dove, Su&iuestafrica, (ib , 1913)
GEB1CAN" THEOLOGrY. As the theology of
the original home and chief seat of Protestan-
tism, and as a doctrinal system which has ex-
perienced great vicissitudes, German theology
has a peculiar interest and value to the his-
torical student
I The Foundation. The fundamental ele-
ment of the Kef ormation \\ as the spiritual change
of regeneration, out of which sprang the con-
ception of justification This was "by faith" be-
cause it had come in the midst of an experience
of real and living contact with God The Nicene
foundation was retained because it accorded
with the experience of the saving woik of Jesus
Christ The Augustiman anthropology was re-
tained because it explained the sense of help-
lessness in sin. The preaching of Luther may
be summed up as a preaching of Christ as a
living Redeemer by one who claimed a personal
experience of what he preached Melanchthon
began the process of teaching and formulating
the new theology at an early date (1520) By
the year 1530 a mature and well-balanced sketch
of the reformed doctrine was prepared for pres-
entation to the Diet of Augsburg This "Con-
fession" explicitly rejects those features of the
Catholic system which Protestantism (q.v )
united in regarding as errors and briefly gives
assent to the common doctrines of all Chris-
tian churches It is distinguished by the follow-
ing doctrines, justification by faith, obedience
to God's law, not required as a condition of
"meriting justification," but springing out of
faith; the Church, "the congregation of saints
and true believers", two sacraments, prevement
grace, the guilt and personal origination of
sin. The personal attitude of Luther towards
the Scriptures was quite free The canomcity
of any book was determined by its relation to
Christ The authority of the Scriptures he
lested upon the testimony of the Spirit. His
views of the bondage of the will were extreme,
and his doctrine of predestination absolute By
the time when the Formula of Concord was writ-
ten (1576), predestination was identified with
election to life alone Thus the tendency of
this theology was from life to doctrine.
II, The Period of Formal Orthodoxy. When
the main doctrine of the new system had been
determined, the attention of theologians was
naturally directed from the search after new
truths to the formulation, adjustment, and de-
fense of the truths already gamed This was
the more ne-cessaiy because of the foundation
of the Order of Jesuits especially established
to counteract Pi otestantism, among the first
members of which were accomplished theo-
logians and disputants, such as Bellarmine
Hence there arose a series of great constructive
Lutheran theologians, of whom the principal
weie Cahxtus, Calov, Johann Gerhard, Baier,
Chemnitz, Hunnius, Hutten, Quenstedt The
early portion of this period was also distin-
guished by the production of great hymns and
by veiy effective evangelical preaching But as
interest concentrated upon doctrine, the re-
ligious life began to wane The system also
underwent serious modifications The doctrine
of justification by faith lost its place as the
controlling element in the system The change
may be seen in the modification of the doctrine
of the Scriptures The freedom of Luther dis-
appears, the testimony of the Spirit is under-
valued, theories of divine dictation anse, and
finally the authority of the Church is sometimes
declaied to be enough to maintain the canon-
icity of a book The immense havoc wrought by
the Thirty Years' War completed the demoral-
ization of both religion and theology
III. Tke Period of Pietism Some theolo-
gians had protested against the scholastic tend-
ency of theology, but without effect It was
arrested by a remarkable revival of practical
religion, which spread over Germany This com-
menced through the instrumentality of Johann
Arndt, who published (Magdeburg, 1610), in 4
volumes, True Ghristia-mty — a book intended to
aiouse persons of all classes, but especially min-
isters and students, to practical and heartfelt
religion as well as to purify the corrupt morals
of the age. It produced a powerful impression
The movement thus commenced was greatly ad-
vanced by Spener (1635-1705) He established
religious meetings, called "colleges of piety"
This name led to the movement being called
pietism It spread rapidly through Germany
and at first without excitement or opposition
But as the effect increased, popular agitation
was awakened, and violent tumults arose which,
beginning in Leipzig, extended through the Lu-
theran chuiches in the different states of Eu-
rope From this time, in all cities, towns,
and villages where Lutheranism was established,
there appeared suddenly persons, of various
ranks and of both sexes, who declared that it
was their mission to uproot iniquity, spread
true religion through the world, and impart
to the Church of Christ wiser rules than those
which then prevailed, but without introducing
any change m the doctrine, discipline, or govern-
ment of the Lutheran church The University of
Halle, founded 1694, became the home and cen-
tre of pietism The orphan house, established in
that city by Francke, was one of its most effi-
cient instrumentalities, because a living proof
that it was able, not only to resist religious
error, but also to supply the gravest wants of
life. During the 30 years after the university
was founded, it educated 6000 theologians Its
Oriental college prosecuted diligently the study
of the biblical languages and sent out missions
to Mohammedans and Jews From Halle the
new life was diffused over Europe The larger
cities showed signs of reviving faith, and even
the universities, which, at first had violently op-
posed the movement, became ,its friends Pie-
tism was extended into Wurttemberg and the
University of Tubingen by the labors of Bengel,
THEOLOGY
667
THEOLOG-Y
the critic, exegete, and theologian of the move-
ment, and into Moravia by those of Zinzendorf ,
Zurich, Basel, Bern, and many other large
towns admitted it It went as far east as the
Baltic and as far north as Norway and Sweden
Many of the continental courts were influenced
by it The Reformed church was awakened,
England and the Netherlands received the new
movement with joy
The movement did not fail to stir up pro-
longed controversy between the pietists and the
theologians Among the results of this are to
be numbeied the historical labors to which the
mediating school turned its attention, in which
Mosheim bore a leading part Modifications of
oithodoxy weie also made in the direction of
curtailment, the guilt of ongmal sin was made
to depend upon consent to Adam's sin, inspira-
tion was weakened, justification was confounded
with sanctification , the Trinity, incarnation,
and atonement were regarded as mysteries which
it was useless to attempt to comprehend The
experimental proof of Christianity was more
and more abandoned, and an external, philo-
sophic proof substituted in its place The school
of Wolf sought to demonstrate Christianity
mathematically The idea of God was derive'd
from the light of nature, the holiness of God
in the presence of guilt proved the necessity of
the revelation of an atonement, if atonement is
possible and capable of being known Now it
is possible, and its predicates constitute the
critena of a levelation, to which criteria the
Seriptuies correspond The proof of the Scrip-
tures was later still more externalized The
argument began from the authenticity, gen-
uineness, and historical credibility, then were
inferred the sinlessness and miracles of Christ,
which are to be credited, then His promise to
the disciples of mspiiation, and then the author-
ity of the inspired Scriptures This is an
essential change from the method of the
Reformation
IV The Inroad of nationalism. 1 Its In-
cipient Advance — In the next generation the
fervor of pietism had abated The diligent
study of scriptural truth was exchanged for
passive assent to it Spener had endeavored to
unite reason and faith, but his followers, re-
nouncing reason, clung to faith alone. In this
way pietism unintentionally, but really, exerted
an influence against the orthodox system of doc-
trines by attaching great importance to the
Bible alone as opposed to creeds, and to the
witness of the Spirit as opposed to the written
word Zeidler, an eminent minister at Leipzig,
honoring the Bible, treated systems of doctrine
with contempt Some fervent mystics, in their
zeal for the "inner word," spoke lightly of in-
spiration and atonement Some insisted simply
on Christian love and morality, heedless of dan-
ger from the assaults of false teachers Koch
(1754) lamented the low esteem into which the
Bible had fallen among all classes of society
This pressure against orthodox doctrine at
home was strengthened by influences coming
from England and Holland, the force of which
may be estimated by the opposition at first made
to it as indicated "by the fact that, within 40
years, nearly 90 works were published against
various phases of unbelief 2 The Pernod of
Historical Criticism — At the middle of the
eighteenth century German theology was in a
rigid and shallow condition The contest be-
tween pietism and formal orthodoxy had ceased
VOL. IX — 43
The second generation of professors at Halle had
gone. The old defenders of oithodoxy had dis-
appeared Then the era of historical criticism
was ushered in New investigations were be-
gun, antiquity, literature, science, were dili-
gently explored, the circle of religious beliefs
was thrown open foi reexannnation On this
field also English deists had already been at
work In Germany, Semler of Halle led the ad-
vance, obscuring the old orthodox landmarks,
questioning the accuracy of the biblical text,
disputing the genuineness of many biblical
books, and undermining usages and doctrines
which hitherto all had lecerved The vigor of
critical examination thus awakened spiead rap-
idly among the universities and the clergy It
was employed on biblical criticism and exegesis,
Church history, and the histoiy of doctnne
To the authority of the Chuich Semler, indeed,
held fast, affirming that the symbols and forms
are useful in preserving external unity and uni-
formity He asseited that Christ and the
Apostles taught many things in meie accommo-
dation to the prejudices of the age The doc-
trines of the Bible Semlei vigoiously attacked
What he did at Halle, othci men did in different
parts of Germany It became manifest that
criticism, if left to itself, would produce only
destruction This compelled the search for
something that would avert the fall At the
opening of the nineteenth centuiy the Scrip-
tures, rationally interpreted, were still regarded
as teaching a rational religion But as the his-
torical exegesis had advanced, the chasm had
widened between the traditional and the ra-
tional sense The accommodation theory was
increasingly applied to every portion of the
Bible, and at length the mythical theory began
to appear Baur, in 1824, published a Hebrew
mythology of the Old and New Testaments, in
which the miracles were explained away as
merely natural events 3 The Connection of
Rat^onal1l&m with Philosophy — The work of
preparation for rationalism had at fiist been
prompted by the demands of what was called
"the sound human understanding", but after
the opening of the eighteenth century the aid
of philosophy also was sought Wolff proposed
a division of theology into natural and revealed,
and as natural theology could give the reason
for the facts which it affirmed, and revealed
could not, emphasis was put chiefly on the
former After the decline of Wolff's popularity
the criticism of Semler and his followers seemed
harmonious enough with the eclectic system
which for a time prevailed, for both the criti-
cism and the philosophy were in accordance with
the demands of "the sound human understand-
ing" But Kant's philosophy assailed both
Some of the rationalists, indeed, claimed it as
favorable to- them, others slighted it as unin-
telligible 3 but a few more discerning men saw
that the new would overturn the old When
the speculative systems of Fichte and Schelling
appeared, they despised the reasonings of "the
sound human understanding" and slighted the
best principles of rationalism as commonplace
and vulgar And rationalism, on its part,
shrinking back from the new atheism, wrote
strongly against it In the faith philosophy of
Jacobi the rationalists thought they could find
refuge Their scheme hitherto ha4 -allowed no
scope to sentiment and tile heart , A mere prob-
ability was its highest *wwd for tke essential
truths The systena of Jwolbi met this dif-
THEOLOGY
668
GEBMAH THEOLOGY
ficulty, since to the intellectual piobabihty it
added the ceitainty of feeling Therefore ^the
better class of rationalists ^elcoroed it With
this rose also the supernatural ist school, in-
cluding those A\ho denied the absolute rule of
reason in matteis of religion, and, though
many of them \\ere deficient m ie\eionee foi the
Bible, they weie at least travelers in an upward
path Hegel and his followers piofessed to pre-
sent the pure and final rendering of that which
Christianity gives in a popular for in — to vindi-
cate philosophically the Trinity, the atonement,
and the other doctrines of the orthodox creed,
and to lefute the rationalism which, had im-
pugned these mysteries This claim Strauss,
an his life of Jesus, utteily denied Treating
the Gospels as a nairative of merely natural
events, he asserted that Jesus was a devout
man, whose lehukes of hypocrisy led to his
death The wonderful works of beneficence and
po\vei with which the narrative was adoincd
were only fanciful inventions of His disciples,
which ultimately came to be regarded as facts
This historical Jesus Strauss strove to trans-
form into an ideal character, and affirmed that
the God man is to be looked for not m anv
one person, but in the human rac,e as a whole
V Return to Evangelical Doctrine As
the way for the prevalence of lationalism had
been opened through the decline of piactical le-
ligion, so the letmn to evangelical doctime
was effected by a revi\al of peisonal piety
While Semler -was subjecting the Bible to ration-
alistic criticism Klop stock wrote and published
his Messiah, which -was spread ovei every part
of Germany and among all classes, awakening
admiration and kindling devotion About the
same time Hamann, a young German, after
vainly seeking relief in folly and vice from the
effects of disappointment, retired to a remote
part of London, obtained a Bible, and read it
carefully With a revulsion of feeling he en-
tered at once on a new course His writings and
genius soon procured him friends in his own
country and gave him influence over the noble,
the gifted, and the rich, by which they, as well
as men of humbler life, were won to the Chris-
tian faith Herder, contemporary with both
KLopstock and Hamann, in his Spirit of Hebrew
Poetry^ gave attention particularly to the liter-
ary and human elements of the Bible as, in his
opinion, strengthening its claims to a divine
origin. He pointed out critically its poetical
beauties, not as if they were ornaments only,
btit as springing from the heart of the revela-
tion and forming an essential accompaniment of
inspiration While imparting elevated views
of the Scriptures, he labored also to exalt the
pastor, considering that his true place was by
the side of the old prophets, and that no man
was worthy of the office who neglected the par-
ticular care of souls He was himself, in many
respects, a model preacher. While the three
distinguished men above mentioned were in the
midst of their active work, Schleiermacher was
born, who has been called the greatest divine
of the nineteenth century, and to whose influence
for good scarcely any limit can be assigned
In his fifteenth year he was sent to a Moravian
school, whence he brought a personal devotion to
Christ His Discourses to Unbelievers of Culti-
vated Minds (1799) marked at once the opening
of a new century and of a new era in religion
In 1789 David Mendel was born of poor Jewish
parents — his father a peddler3 his mother an
intelligent and pious \\oinan At llambmg he
was assisted m acquiring an education and soon
A\on the respect of teachers and scholais by his
talents, while he excited also then muniment
by the oddity of his appearance and the awk-
A\aulness of his niamiei When Schleieimacher s
Discourses uei<? published, Mendel \\as one of
the multitudes awakened by them, and in 1806,
renouncing Judaism, he \vas baptized and took
the name Neander (a ne\\ man) He studied
theology at Halle, where Schleiermacher was his
favorite professor and deeply interested friend
In 1812 both teacher and pupil ^vere made pro-
fessors in the new uni\eraity at Berlin — the
former of theology, the latter of Church history.
In this position Neander woiked to the end of
his life and acquned, as a lecturei, *\ast le-
no\Mi Even Schleiermacher 's heareis were
limited m number \vhen compared with the
crowds that came fioni all parts of Germany
and the most distant Piotestant countries to
hear Neancler Many Roman Catholics also were
found in his classes All the great pieachers of
Germany became more 01 less enlightened by
his ideas His salutaiy influence on the le-
ligious condition of the country uas immeasur-
ably great, powerfully contributing to the over-
thiow both of rationalism and of dead foimahsm
and dialing multitudes of young men to em-
brace the vital doctrines of Christianity With
him lehgion ^\as nothing without Christ — not
only apprehended by the intellect, but also
kneel arid trusted with all the poweis of the
soul In his view sin was not only injurious,
but also involved guilt, and could be paidoned
only through the death and mediation of Christ
In *18 16 Tholuck entered the University of Ber-
lin, where he ^\as rescued from skepticism under
the instructions of Schleiermacher and Neander,
aided by the influence of a distinguished Mora-
vian f i lend In 1826 he became professor of
theology at Halle as the successor of Professor
Knapp," Tiho had sincerely but timidly resisted
the prevalent rationalism Out of 900 students
only five avowed their belief in the dmnity of
Christ, and all the piofessors, being ration-
alists, opposed Tholuck's appointment But the
number of young believers in Christ increased
year by year Many thousands of young men
became Christians under his instructions Ileng-
stenberg (1802-69) devoted his youth chiefly to
the study of philosophy and the Oriental lan-
guages, but, during a season of sickness and
sorrow, having turned with great ardor to the
spiritual teaching of the Bible, he became fully
convinced of the divine authority of evangelical
religion and of the excellence with which its
truths are expressed in the Augsburg Confes-
sion In 1826 he was made one of the pro-
fessors of theology at Berlin, and from that
time, for moie than 40 years, was a conspicuous
and earnest defender of Christian doctrine, as
based on the divine authority of the Scriptuies
Among his numerous writings may be men-
tioned, as having special influence Egypt and
the BooJts of MoseSj Commentary on the
Psalms, and The Qhr^tology of the Old Testa-
ment
VI The Xfast Half of the Nineteenth Cen-
tury Four general schools of thought may be
distinguished The first, proceeding from the
School of Schleiennacher and adhering to the
"union'1 (of the Reformed and Lutheran
churches m Prussia), may be called an evan-
gelical, conservative school, though in such
GEBHAN THEOLOGY
669
representatives as Dorner and Hothe exhibiting
a large degree of speculative independence Dor-
ner founded his system upon speculation rather
than upon exegesis Julius Muller was the next
important member of this school The second
school, the confessional school, was still more
conservative, rallying aiound the histouc confes-
sions of the Lutheran chuich It lose in the
circles in which the Lutheran piotest against
the "union" was most vigorously made Its
chief seat became the University of Eilangen,
where a series of able men defended it — Hailess,
Thomasius, Hoffmann, Frank, and Zalin Foi a
long time it was powerfully represented at Leip-
zig by Luthardt, ICahnis, Dehtzsch, and their
colleagues Thomasius, formed by Schleier-
macher and influenced by Hegel, embraced the
old Lutheran orthodoxy with great warmth and
sincerity He sought to develop its Christology
by the suggestion of the "kenosis" (qv ) Hoff-
mann was the great exegete of the school
Frank had more of the spirit of Luther than
the others and based his theology upon Chris-
tian experience, conceived as having its ulti-
mate element in the new birth Luthardt did
not sympathize with these modifications De-
litzsch, with others, formed the "New Lutheran"
party, which laid great emphasis on the doctrine
of the Church The third school takes its rise
from Baur and has adhered in various degrees
to the principles of Baur's historical criticism
(Hilgenfeld) or has gone over to a substantial
naturalism (Pfleiderer) It is most remarkable
that, while the second school has still a large
following among the pastora throughout Ger-
many, in academic circles the three all lost
their leadership and were almost everywhere
replaced by the members of the fourth school,
that of Ritsehl (qv) From about 1870 to
about 1900 the Ritschhan school was constantly
upon the increase Ritschl, having for a time
been an adherent of Baur, finally came to oc-
cupy a position of his own, which may be sum-
marily described as an effort to derive theology
from the principle of the divine love, with such
an emphasis upon the Christian life that ele-
ments of the doctrinal system not having evi-
dent connection, with this should be excluded
Purely speculative theology was regarded as
belonging to philosophy, not to religion The
essence of religion is a practical faith, issuing
in ethical and social life Eitschl was succeeded
at Gottingen by Schultz, his colleague, and the
school is represented at many places — at Bonn,
Bender and his son Otto Ritschl, at Strassburg,
H H Wendt, at Marburg, W Herrmann, at
Basel, Duhm At Leipzig, Gregory, who has
continued Tischendorfs work, is a Ritschhan
But the centre of the influence of the school is
now Berlin, where Kaftan represents the right
wing, approaching very close to evangelical
standards in his Dogmatik, and repairing most
of the defects and omissions of Ritsehl; and
Harnack the left wing, whose monumental his-
torical work has given him the acknowledged
first place in his department in the world As
defined by one of their own number, "the Ritsch-
han school is not a school, and embraces men of
quite widely different styles of thinking, being
united only in this!, that it demands that a
man 'shall love truth and seek that alone with-
out fettering prejudices All such it welcomes "
During the last decade a new school, the
ReUgtonsgeseUchtUclue, history of religion, has
arisen in Germany; largely from the Ritschhan
school It doeb not abandon the essential
Ritschhan positions, but designs to supplement
them The school aims to remove Christianity
from the isolation in which pievious theological
study has kept it and to inteipret it in the
light of the religions which influenced its oiigin
It wishes to make religion a po\\er in life
and to this end has popularized the results of
scholarship in series of small books, Popular
Tracts of the History of Religion and The Prob-
lems of Life, and in popular journals It agrees
with the Ritschhan school m basing religion on
experience rathei than upon theology or Church
authority While most of the work of the
school has been historical, Troeltsh is its repie-
sentative in systematic theology Its task will
be to work out what Ritschhanism did not
have, a philosophy of religion Meantime the
extieme rationalism of earlier years is lepre-
sented by the Monist League, which attempts
to popularize the ideas of Haeckel, and the ex-
tieme conseivatism by a revived conservative
movement which does not ignore the results of
modern scientific study, but still holds to an
objective levclation issuing in dogma
Consult Doinei, Histoiy of Protestant The-
ology (trans, Edmbuigh, 1871), which covers
the whole field, Landerer, Neueste Dogmenge-
schichte (Altenburg, 1881), beginning with
Semler, Frank, Oeschichte und Kntik der neu-
eren Theologie (Leipzig, 1898), beginning with
Schleiermacher, Lichtenberger, "History of Ger-
man Theology," in the Nineteenth Century
(New York, 1889) Nippold and Pfleiderer have
published valuable sketches of the theological
history of the nineteenth century
GKEBMAH" TINDER See AMADOU
aER'MAHTOWlSr A foimer suburb of
Philadtlphia, since 1854 included within the
municipal limits and now forming the twenty-
second ward (Map Philadelphia and vicinity,
D 3) It is about 5 miles to the north of the
centre of the city Its pictuiesque site, the supe-
rior character of its architecture, its beautiful
gardens, and the large public hbiaries lender it
a charming place of residence To the west is
the romantic gorge of the Wissahickon, to the
north is Chestnut Hill, with its fine villas
There is a large section occupied by manufac-
turing establishments Germantown was set-
tled in October, 1683, by a party of Germans,
four of whom in 1688 made the first formal
protest ever made m America against slavehold-
ing The first paper mill in America was
erected here in • 1690, and here also, in 1743,
the first American edition of the Bible in any
language was printed Germantown is chiefly
notable in history for the battle which was
fought here on Oct 4, 1777, between the Ameri-
cans under Washington and the British and
Hessians under Howe Washington opened the
engagement at daybreak on the 4th At first
his centre and left, under Sullivan and Greene
respectively, forced back the opposing British
and Hessians, and victory for a time seemed as-
sured, but Stephen, on Greene's right?, through
a dense fog, mistook the American left , centre
tinder Wayne for the enemy and opened fire,
while a body of English, who had taken relume
in a large stone house, the residence of Judge
Chew, in the rear, detained a part ©f the Ameri-
can forces Stephen's accident, cotfpled' with the
continual firing in the rear, threw we American
troops Into confusion, but Washington led them
from the field in perfect .order The British
GEKHAtfUS
670
GEItMANY
loss was 575 , the American, 673 Washington's
apparent audacity in attacking Howe so soon
after the battle of Brandywme ( q v ) gi eatly
encouraged the army and the people and, to-
gether with Gates's success at Saratoga, led
the hitherto wavering French court to foim an
alliance with the United States Consult
Seharf and Westcott, History of Philadelphia
(Philadelphia, 1884) , Camngton, Battles of
the American Revolution (New York, 1878) ,
Lossing, Field Book of the Revolution (ib,
1859) , Pennypacker, Settlement of Oermantoion
(Philadelphia, 1899), Jellett, Germantoion Old
and New ( Germantown, 1905) , Jenkins, Wash-
ington in Crermantoiim (ib, 1905) , Keyser, His-
tory of Old G-ermantoiLn (ib , 1907), Sachse,
Quaint Old G-ermantown (Philadelphia, 1913)
For a further descuption of Germantown, see
PHILADELPHIA
G-ERMA'KtrS, or GERMAIN, SAINT (c378-
448) Bishop of Auxerre He was born in
Auxerre, 100 miles south of Paris, of an emi-
nent family, and became learned in literature
and law and distinguished for eloquence He
was military governor of his native district,
afterward Bishop of Auxerre. On being chosen
Bishop (418) he separated from his wife, built
a monasterv, devoted his spaie property to the
poor, and thereafter lived a life of the severest
asceticism He visited England twice (430 and
447) for the puipose of combating Pelagiamsm,
and on the first occasion, shortly after Easter,
430, led the Britons against a plundering party
of Picts and Scots, teirifving them into a re-
treat by shouting "Alleluia," from which cir-
cumstance the event was called the "Alleluia,
victory." It was he who discovered the futuie
Eatron saint of Paris, Genevieve (qv.) His
.fe as told is romantic and in part miraculous
He died at Ravenna, Italy, July 31, 448 His
feast occurs on July 31 The Life attributed to
Oonstantius, but which may be by a later
writer, was put in verse by Heincus, or Herecus,
of Auxerre, and used by Bede ( q v ) in vol i
of his History. Consult Baring-Gould, Lives of
the Saints, vol 11 (London, 1874) ; Stephen
Langdon, "Life of St Germain," in No 9 of the
Lives of the English Saints (ib, 1844), also,
for his connection with St. Patrick, Barry, Life
of St Patrick (ib, 1905)
GKERMAST VEBSXOET. See BIBLE
GER^AMTT. An empire which takes in the
central part of Europe The main highways
between the north and south and the east and
west of Europe pass through it It is in closer
touch with most of the leading nations of Europe
than any other country, for it is bordered by
Russia, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, France,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark, and is
within a day's sail, across the North Sea, of
Great Britain Besides the land boundaries
formed by the seven, countries above mentioned,
it has a sea frontage of 1200 miles on the North
and Baltic seas — one-third of the entire fron-
tier The country extends east and west through
17° of longitude, or 750 miles, north and south
through nearly 9° of latitude, 47° to 56° N,
or about 600 miles. Its area is 208,825 square
miles, exclusive of the German portion of Lake
Constance (70 square miles) The German
Empire embraces the territory of the German
Confederation of 1815-66, with the exception
of the Austrian portions thereof (in a great
part of which the German language predom-
inates), as well as of Luxemburg and Liech-
tenstein, but with the addition of the Prussian
pi evinces of East Prussia, West Prussia, Posen
(not included in the old German Empire), and
Schleswig, and Alsace-Lori ame Capital, Berlin.
Topography. The southern two-thirds of Ger-
many is highland, the northern third is low-
land, a part of the low plain of Europe Three
topogiaphic forms piedominate in central Eu-
rope The most southerly is the high Alps of
Switzerland North of the high Alps are the
Mittelgebirge (secondary mountains), or high-
lands of Geimany Noith of the highlands is
the German low plain The highlands consist
in part of high plains, rolling or hilly areas,
and in part of shoit mountain chains or groups
of mountains, which extend from southwest to
noitneast or from southeast to northwest, seldom
from south to north Only a few summits
among these mountains exceed 3500 feet in
height The mountain systems inclose high
plains, as, e g , the plains of Bavaria and of the
middle Rhine basin This division of south
Germany by natural bairiers was a powerful
influence in separating the German people into
many different states, each having its own
government
The most northeily system of these mountain
chains has a geneial east and west direction,
roughly at light angles with the mountains
directly to the south It extends thiough the
middle of Germany and forms the boundary
between north and south Germany, or, in other
woids, between the highlands and the low plain
This zigzag boundarv \\all begins in the east
uith the Sudetic Mountains (including the
Giant Mountains, or Riesengebirge ) and is ex-
tended farther west by the Erzgebirge, the Fich-
telgebirge, and the Thuringian Forest The
valley of the Elbe is the only break in these 390
miles of boundary mountains Then comes the
wide gap formed by the Hessian upland, broken
only by the volcanic uplifts of the Rhon Moun-
tains and the Vogelsberg Through this break
in the barrier mountains flows the Weser to
the north In the west the boundary wall rises
again in the Taunus, around which is one of
the finest wine regions of Germany and, across
the Rhine valley, in the Hunsruck Outlying
elevations to the north of this wall in the middle
Weser and Rhine basins push the highlands a
little farther north in that region, and the
low plain in front of them is correspondingly
contracted The culminating feature of these
outliers is the Harz Mountains. The more
southerly of the highlands mountains comprise
among other chains or ridges the Schwarzwald,
or Black Forest, the Swabian and Franconian
Jura, and the Bavarian Forest. The Alps enter
in the extreme south A dominant mountain
mass west of the Rhine is constituted by the
Vosges Physiographically interesting is the
volcanic region, north of the Moselle, known as
the Eifel The highest point of land in the
Empire is the Zugspitze, in Bavaria, 9725 feet
in elevation
In sharp contrast with the broken and divided
character of the lands of south Germany is the
nearly uniform low plain of the north, which
merges on one side without any distinct natural
boundary into the plain of Russia, and on the
other into the lowlands of the Netherlands As
the course of the chief rivers shows, the whole
country slopes gradually north to the Baltic and
northwest to the North Sea,
On the sea frontage there are many
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20°
GERMANY
671
GERMANY
but few good harbors The shore waters aie
quite shallow, and large vessels are usually un-
able to approach the land except where the
rivers have worn a channel Most of the har-
bors therefore are at the mouths of rivers or
some distance inland on their banks Wherever
the sand dunes along the low North Sea do not
prevent the sea from breaking in, dikes have
to be built for the protection of the coast The
shores of the Baltic are higher, but the com-
mercial facilities they afford are much impaired
by a series of very shallow lagoons, called Haffs,
which have been formed by sand spits and bar-
rier beaches The islands are not important
Rugen, in the Baltic, is. the largest The Baltic
shore is outbuilding and is bordered by an
almost continuous line of sand dunes, but the
North Sea line is receding, the Frisian Islands
with their dunes representing the former coast
line The most important North Sea ports are
Hamburg, on the Elbe, and Bremen, on the
Weser, together with the subsidiary ports of
Bremerhaven and Geestemunde The puncipal
Baltic ports are Stettin, Danzig, Kiel, and
Lubeck
Hydrography. With the exception of the
southeastern part of Germany, through which
the Danube flows to the east, all the rivers
belong to the Baltic and the North Sea basins
The Rhine is the only river which binds together
the three great topographic forms — the high
Alps, the German highlands, and the low plain
It belongs to three countries — Switzerland, Ger-
many, and the Netherlands Commercially it is
the most important river in Germany, small
river steamers being able to ascend to Basel,
and small seagoing steamers to Mannheim The
Weser and the Elbe, the latter rising in Austria,
bind together the German highlands and low
plain The Elbe is second only to the Rhine in
commercial importance, being navigable through-
out the whole of its course in Germany. Along
its course are some of the most important silver
and coal mines, salt fields, sheep pastures, and
beetioot areas in the Empire Besides being
the greatest water commerce carrier through
central Germany from the south border to the
North Sea, it links Berlin, the capital and busi-
ness centre, with Hamburg, the chief port, by
the canals of the Havel and Spree river systems
The Weser is also of great importance in its
lower course. The Oder and the Vistula are the
chief Baltic rivers Both rise in Austria, have
only a short course in the highlands, and flow
mainly through the lowland The Oder is the
great wateiway of the rich mining and ma^iu-
facturmg district of Silesia, and of the wide
farming area around Frankfort-on-the-Oder,
with the canal leading to the Spree it is a high-
way for Berlin's commerce from southeast
Prussia to the port of Stettin The lower part
of the Vistula is German, but it carries a great
deal of Russian timber, grain, and fibres to
Danzig for export Among other important
streams are the Ems, flowing into the North
Sea, the Main and the Moselle, affluents of the
Rhine, the Pregel and Memel, flowing into the
Baltic, and the Saale, an affluent of the Elbe.
The rivers of Germany are naturally navigable
for nearly 6000 miles, are canalized for nearly
1400 miles and there are nearly 1500 miles of
canals Among the most important of the
canals are the Ludwigskanal in Bavaria, uniting
the Danube with the Main, and thus stipplving
a continuous waterway frdm the North to the
Black Sea, the system connecting the Memel
with the Pregel, that joining the Oder with the
Elbe, the Plauen Canal, connecting the Elbe
with the Havel, the Eider Canal, connecting
the Eider with Kiel, the Rhine- Rhone, and the
Rlune-Marne, in Alsace-Lorraine, the Doitmund-
Ems Canal, connecting the Rhine with German
ports and when completed with the other canals
making a waterway system from east to west
across the German lowland, the great Baltic
Sea or Kaiser Wilhehn Canal, begun in 1887
and opened for traffic in 1895, saving two days'
time by steamei between Hamburg and all the
Baltic ports of Germany, and several canals in
process of construction, notably the Rhine- Weser
Canal, which is to cost over $60,000,000 See
CANAL
The lakes of Germany are chiefly in two
groups, of which the smaller is in the southern
section, in the Alpine Foreland These lakes
are found only in regions once covered by gla-
cier ice, being rock basins, and their existence
is closely connected with the scouring action of
the ice sheet that descended from the Alps
during the great Ice age The larger group
extends over the northern lowland, with the
greatest number of lakes east of the Elbe, and
most of these weie formed by the dumping of
till across the valleys of streams during the
retreat of the continental ice sheet
Climate The temperature differences be-
tween the north and the south are not so great
as might be expected, because the elevation of
the south, much higher than that of the north,
counteracts the effect of the difference in lati-
tude The differences are greater between the
west and the east The Rhine lands are the
warmest, and the Baltic Sea lands the coldest,
parts of Gerniciny The business of the Baltic
ports is much impeded by ice in winter, while
the North Sea ports are less affected by this
impediment, though not quite free from it A
line diawn from Bremen to Munich divides Ger-
many into two sections climatologically On
the west the climate is much like that of France,
and mild winters and not excessively hot sum-
mers are the rule, but on the east the tempera-
ture assumes rapidly a more continental char-
acter, tempered by the close proximity to the
sea at the north, but rigorous in the interior.
The rainfall, owing to the nearness of the sea, is
usually sufficient for all forms of agriculture.
The Harz Mountains, far enough north to catch
the wet winds from the North Sea, have the
heaviest rainfall The annual lamfall is from
25 to 30 inches for most of north Germany,
but in the extreme south and west it exceeds 30
inches In the neighborhood of some o£ the
mountain ranges there are local increases of
precipitation to 40 inches and upwaid.
Flora. In early days Germany was full of
swamps and largely covered with forests Most
of the swamps have now been turned into fields
and pastures , but a fourth of the Empire is still
covered with forests which are cared for as as-
siduously as any field crop A third of the
forests are in leaf trees, the beech being most
prominent Two-thirds are in coniferous trees,
particularly pines and firs As the temperature
decreases from west to east, the leaf trees pre-
dominate in the west excepting in the sandy
low plain, and the comferae in the east. The
crowning glory of the German flora is these
woodlands
Germany has in the north the Baltic flora and
672
in the south the Alpine The two mingle in the
interior The elevation of the land also has a
stiong influence on the local flora, so that the
Alpine flora extends far to the north on the
mountain tops, and the Baltic flora penetrates
to the south in the valleys Moreover, on the
east the steppe floia penetrates from Russia, and
on the west the -west European flora penetrates
from France. Upward of 2200 flowering plants,
60 cryptogams, and 750 mosses are found in
Geiman territoiy In the south and west the
vine grows luxuriantly, and grasses flourish in.
the lowlands
The best farming: lands are in the warm, well-
sheltered &hme valley, with its rich alluvial
soil, where the vine is brought to an unusual
degree of perfection Many of the hill slopes
throughout the highland are terraced and culti-
vated, but the mountains are forest-clad, and
cultivation is chiefly confined to the plains and
valleys The soils differ in natural fertility, but
are better than those of the low plain of the
north The soil of most of the low plain is
poor and sandy, particularly in the centre and
east, and is kept in a state of high productivity
only by scientific tillage and fertilization
Fauna. Germany, because of its situation,
exposed to cold airs of the north and cut off
from the south by lofty mountains, has a de-
cidedly northern fauna, and the fastnesses of the
Harz and the mountains of Bavaiia, Saxony,
and Silesia have preserved several wild forms
extinct or nearly so elsewhere in Europe Thus
there may still be found there bears, wolves (oc-
casionally, along the Russian border), foxes,
martens, teasels, badgers, otters, wildcats, and
lynxes Fallow deer aie known only in a few
parks, but the roe and wild boar are obtainable
in many forests, and the elk still exists along
the Polish border. All these, together with the
Alpine chamois, are "preserved " The birds are
those of Europe, with the absence of several
semvtropical species common south of the Alps
Most of them are migratory and traverse the
Empire along two great * highways " One leads
to and from Africa along the Rhine-Rhone
valley and thence east m spring and west in
winter along the Baltic shore to and from north
Russia, the other follows the Danube valley to
and from Asia Minor and India Of the resi-
dent birds the most remarkable is the gieat
capercailzie of the eastern districts Eep tiles
are not as well represented in Germany as in
warmer and more diversified France and Italy,
and the adder is nowhere common One of its
frogs, called the "fire-bellied," is well known
Germany shares in the fish and fisheries of the
North Sea and possesses the larger part of the
south shore of the Baltic This inland sea seems
same thousands of years ago to have admitted
the ocean more freely, and then, as is shown by
prehistoric shell heaps, marine fishes, oysters,
and edible mollusks generally abounded in its
waters Kow there are few sea fisheries of con-
sequence in any part of the Baltic, which seems
to be growing- steadily shallower and fresher,
with consequent alteration of its biological char-
acter The rivers of Germany abound in fishes
of large variety, among which the salmon and
trout that ascend the larger streams from the
Baltic are prominent The Danube forms a
province of the Black Sea faunal district where
no salmon are found The carp family is largely
represented, and the catfishes (Siluridae) of
Germany are especially big, numerous, and
GEBMABTY
edible Insects are numerous, and bees are
raised in some provinces to an extent hardly
equaled elsewhere in Europe
Geology The suiface geological formations
of the northern plain are mainly Quaternary
sands and clays of alluvial glacial deposit, with
an occasional patch of firm Tertiary formation
emerging from it The great central highland is
represented by all the formations, but is chiefly
Mesozoic On the south border of the Quatei-
nary plain where the highlands begin, there are
in the region of the Weser highland nairow
transition bands of the Cretaceous and Jurassic
formations, which are replaced a little farther
south by the great central area of Tuassic
rocks On the west of the Wesei highland the
Quaternary formation of the north is replaced
on the south by a broader Cretaceous zone,
somewhat interrupted by the Quaternary, and
south of the Lippe m the region of the Ruhr
is a narrow belt of Dyasaic and coal formation
\vluch in the Sauerland highlands is replaced
by the extensive Devonian and Silurian areas
of the middle Rhine, and which extends far to
the westward into France These foiniations
are interrupted by patches of eruptive rocks
and Tertiary formations and are bordered on
the southeast directly on the Rhine by Tertiary
formations, which, however, are soon replaced
by the Quaternary, which characterizes the
uppei middle Rhine valley, and which mteriupts
the great Triassic area of central and south
Germany West of the Rhine the Quaternary
formations of the northern plain extend some-
what farther south than east of the Rhine, and
are bordered on the south by the Jurassic of
the Jura Mountains In the region of the
Black Forest on the east end of the Vosges
Mountains on the west of the Rhine valley are
extensive areas of old crystalline rocks In the
Harz Mountains the central area of Devonian
and Silurian formations is surrounded by a
narrow strip of Dyassic formation, which on
the south is replaced by the Triassic, until in-
terrupted in the Thurmgian Forest by recurring
Dyassic, Devonian, ana Silurian formations.
The great central Triassic area is bordered on
the south by the long Jurassic chain consisting
of the Swiss, Swabian, and Francoman Juras,
^lueh extend on the noith side of the Rhone,
the Aar, and the Danube from the Rhone to the
Mam Parallel to this chain and south of the
Aar and the Danube is the extended Tertiary
area of the Alpine Foreland and the Chalk
Alps, which is separated from the central Alpine
region of old crystalline rocks (Archean) by a
narrow border of Jurassic formation Germany
has been glacier-covered as far south as lat 51°
30' in the western and 50° 30' in the eastern
part
Mining The mining interests aie of great
importance, the mines and smelting works com-
bined having given employment to nearly
1,000,000 persons in 1912 Germany is the
third largest coal and second largest iron pro-
ducing country in the world, t}ie United States
leading in both, and Great Britain being second
in coal production The export coal trade is
steadily increasing The total yield of the
mines, exclusive of lignite, for 1905, was 121,-
298,167 tons, and m 1911 160,747,580 tons The
lignite production of 1911 was 73/760,867 tons
The value of the (coal product in 1911 was $393,-
000,000 and of lignite $45,000,000. Of this
amount, nine-tenths were produced in the Prus-
673
GERMANY
sian provinces of Westphalia, Silesia, and the
Ehme, and the remainder in Saxony, Bavaria,
and Alsace-Lorraine About one-sixth was pro-
duced in government minet, The steadily grow-
ing demand for fuel has greatly increased the
mining of brown coal (lignite), in spite of its
inferior quality, especially since the device of
making it up into bnquettes has enhanced its
heating qualities and lendeied it more con-
venient for storing and transportation than
before Of the total output of 73,760,867 tons
of brown coal in 1911 about four-fifths were
pioduced in the Prussian provinces of Branden-
burg, Saxony, and Hesse-Nassau The following
table shows the growth of the coal industry
since 1871
TEAR
Anthracite and
bituminous
Lignite
Metric tons
Metric tons
1871
29,400,000
8,500,000
1881
48,700,000
12,800,000
1891
73,715,700
20,536,600
1901
108,539,000
44,480,000
1905
121,298,000
52,498,507
1911
160,747,580
73,760,867
1913
191,511,000
87,116,000
The annual output of iron lias been steadily
growing, owing to the constantly increasing de-
mand for raw material from the iron and steel
woiks of Germany The output of iron ore in
1905 was 16,848,213 tons, and, in 1911, 23,800,-
000 tons, of winch nearly tin ee-f ourths was
produced in Alsace-Loi raine The output of
pig iron in 1913 was 19,292,000 tons Geimany
is rich in other ores, such as copper, zinc, lead,
bismuth, nickel, cobalt, etc , the bulk of which is
produced in Prussia The quantity of gold is
very small, but the silver mines ate peihaps the
richest in Europe, yielding about $8,000,000
worth of silver in 1911 More than one-half of
the silver is produced in Prussia Theie are large
deposits of rock and other salt and an abun-
dance of potash salts, which have contributed
greatly to the development of the chemical in-
dustry in Germany. Small quantities of
petroleum, asphalt, manganese, and sulphur are
found For a more detailed description, see
articles on GEOLOGY and MINING «
Fisheries. The German fisheries, while not
of very great impoitance so far as the number
of people engaged in them is concerned, have been
materially improved in recent years, and the
catch of the North Sea and Baltic amounts to
about $4,000,000 per annum Among the fish
of Germany the most generally distributed are
carp, salmon, trout, and eels The rivers con-
tain crayfish, pearl-bearing mussels, and pikes
Cod and herring are taken in the North Sea,
and the Baltic fisheries have some value The
exports of fresh fish are insignificant About
$20,000,000 worth of fresh fish, salted herrings,
and other preserved and dried fish are imported
annually. The fisheries employ about 35,000
persons, of which number approximately one-
half are engaged in the inland waters and the
remainder in sea and shore fishing
Agriculture Germany is no longer ttoe es-
sentially agricultural i country that it was in the
middle of the nineteenth century- At that time
fully 65 per cent, of th$ people were engaged in
agriculture In 1882 that imdmtry supported
42 per eant of the total population of the Em-
pire, 35 per cent m 1895, and 31 per cent in
1907, as shown by the occupation census of that
year The one-third of the population engaged
m agncultuie is no longer able to supply the
home demand, Germany having become a heavy
importer of food products and law material
Of the total area of 208,830 square miles, about
105,000,000 acies, 01 approximately 78 per cent,
was clasbed as farm land in the occupation
census of 1907 About 60 per cent of the fairn
land is under cultivation, the lemainder devoted
to meadows and sown pastures, fruits, and gar-
dens About 25 per cent of the total area is
foiest lands, and but about 7 per cent waste
lands, streets, etc
The land is cultivated with gieat care and in-
telligence, both in the rich and fertile liver val-
leys of the south and west as well as on the
less favoied plains of the north and east, and
produces every variety of grain and fruit com-
mon to a moderate climate Wheat, rye, barley,
and oats are laised in all sections of 'the coun-
try, corn is raised exclusively m the south,
while potatoes, as well as peas and beans, thrive
best in the north Flax and hemp succeed best
in the middle legionb, and this is also true of
the oleaginous seeds, rape, poppy, and caraway
Hops, with the exception of those produced in
the Prussian Province of Posen, are raised
mainly in the south, in Bavaria, Wurtternberg,
and Baden, and beetroot is grown in Prussian
Saxony, Silesia, arid Hanover, as well as in
Brunswick and Anhalt (For further details,
see the articles on those countries ) The culti-
vation of cereals and potatoes is the most im-
portant branch of agriculture The former sys-
tem of ' three-year rotation," in which the land
is pei nutted to he fallow every third year, has
been largely abandoned, and alternation of crops
accompanied by plentiful soil foods substituted
This has resulted in an increase of food produc-
tion in the Empire as a whole Among the
cereals rye piedommates, holding the place in
Geimanv that wheat does in the United States
In 1913, 16,035,347 acies were devoted to the
culture of rye, as compared with 11,095,338
acres under oats, 8,530,037 acres under potatoes,
4,935,432 acres under wheat, and 4,134,527 acres
under barley The progress of agriculture and
the relative importance of the various products
are shown in the following table
CHOPS
Tons yield
1880
Tons yield
1905
Tons yield
1913
Rye
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Potatoes
Hay, etc
4,952,000
2,059,000
2,076,000
3,700,000
19,400rOOO
29,142,000
9,607,000
3,700,000
2,922,000
6,547,000
45,042,000
37,230,000
12,222,134
4,655,156
3,073,254
9,713,698
54,121,146
29,154,194
Thus, while a great part of the agricultural
population was diverted to manufacturing and
commercial pui suits, the output of cereals was
increased during the last 32 years by from
50 to over 100 per cent Still, Germany is
obliged to import increasing quantities of grain,
especially wheat and corn, for it& own use
Germany produces large quantities of beets,
hops, and tobacco, the production q£ sugar beets
having made greater progress there than in any
other country, the activity of the government
in granting bonuses and otherwise encouraging
thje industry being acccnimfaWe for this growth.
674
GEHMANY
From 547,631 acres in 1882, the area under
that ciop increased to 737,742 acres in 1890,
to 1,155,958 acies m 1905, and to 1,369,062
acres m 1913 The principal beet-growing dis-
trict extends westward from Poland to the
legion about Brunswick In 1891 the area
under hops was 107,835 acres, in 1900 it de-
creased to 91,890 acres, and to 67,922 in 1913
The area under tobacco diminished from 59,944
acres in 1880 to 35,452 in 1913 The tobacco
crop declined from 52,197 tons in 18SO to 42,372
tons m 1890, to 31,877 tons in 1905, and to
10,671 in 1913 It is raised principally in the
region of the Rhine, in the valley of the Neckar,
and in the vicinity of Numnberg The vine is
grown along the Rhine and Moselle, in the
valleys of the Main and the Saale, in Lower
Silesia and Swabia In 1912 vines covered 272,-
265 acres, the value of the wine crop being about
$25,000,000 per annum The Rhine wines have
a world-wide fame Germany imports, however,
double the quantity of wines that it exports
The great increase in the productivity of Ger-
man agriculture is due to improvements in
methods of cultivation and the increasing use
of machinery
The distribution of agricultural land in Ger-
many is shown by the following statement of the
total number of agricultural mclosures (in-
eluding cultivated lands, meadows, pastures,
orchards and vineyards) cultivated bv one
household on June 12, 1907 numbei under 2%
acres 2730,000, between 2% and 25 acres,
2,300,000, between 25 and 250 acres, 675,000,
above 250 acres, 23,000 (these figures being in
round terms only) , total number of farms,
5,736,082 total acres in farms, 105,000,000
One striking feature of this statement is the
large number of very small farms, those under
25 acres forming 87 per cent of the number,
while those helow 2% acres were 47 per cent
of the total. At the other extreme the farms
and estates with an area of more than 250 acres
each constitute less than ys of 1 per cent of
the total The farms with an area of less than
five acres each, though constituting much more
than one-half of the total number, cover but
little more than one-twentieth of the total area
The large landowners possess about one-fourth
of all the agricultural lands, leaving about
three-fourths of the total area in the hands of
the three classes whose farms range from 5 to
250 acres As a considerable number of the
owners of the fourth class are peasants, it may
be said that about one-half of the agricultural
land of the Empire is in their hands, the land
parcels of less than five acres being owned by
workmen or people of small means, who use
them as garden plots The large estates are
the property of nobles and capitalists
About 85 per cent of the entire agricultural
land is cultivated by the owners, and less than
15 per cent by tenants About 40 per cent of
all the farmers cultivate their own land ex-
clusively, a little over 30 per cent cultivate
rented land, m addition to their own, the re-
nmming 30 per cent cultivate rented land ex-
clusively, the proportion of tenants has re-
mained about the same since 1882.
Stock Breeding The rich meadows on the
marshy plains of the north, the grassy mountain
slopes and valleys of the central regions and
the south, all afford excellent means for the
rearing of domestic animals, making the stock-
breeding industry important The scientific cul-
tivation of all kinds of fodder grasses has also
contributed greatly to the improvement and in-
crease of German live stock Sheep raising has
been on the decline for several decades, owing to
low prices of wool caused by Australian and
Argentine competition, but is still important in
Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg The best
breeds of horses are raised in Mecklenburg, Hoi-
stem, Hanover, and West Prussia, the Prussian
studs have a high reputation throughout Eu-
rope Cattle are raised chiefly m the rich
marshlands along the North Sea, and m the
fertile valleys and mountain slopes of Bavaria,
Wurttemberg, and Alsace-Lorraine The follow-
ing table shows the growth of the stock-breeding
industry
YEAR
Horses
Horned cattle
Sheep
Swine
1882
1895
1904
1912
3,114,420
3,367,298
4,267,403
4,516,297
15,454,372
17,053,642
19,331,568
20,158,738
21,116,957
12,592 870
7,907,173
5,787,148
12,174,288
13,562,642
18,920,606
21,885,073
Forestry The forest area of Geimany is
about 34,500,000 acres, the preservation and
cultivation of which receive much attention a,nd
is scientifically conducted The local supply of
timber, however, does not meet the demands
of the home market, and importation is neces-
sary The larger woods and forests in many
of the states belong to the government and are
under the care of special boards of manage-
ment, which exercise the right of supervision
and control over all forest land, whether public
or private About one-third of all the foiests
belongs to the various state governments, about
one-sixth is in the hands of the communes, the
crown forests occupy 675,000 acres, and the
remainder belong chiefly to private individuals
The states of Hesse, Baden, Bavaria, Saxony,
Wurttemberg, and Prussia are especially rich
in forests. See section on Flora,
Manufactures. The industrial progress of
Germany has been so marked in recent years
as to make that country second m all Europe
only to Great Britain as a manufacturing state
In 1910 nearly one-half the population was de-
pendent upon manufactures and mining for a
livelihood, as compared with 39 per cent in
1895 and 35 per cent in 1882 The growth in
the manufacturing industries may be illustrated
by the figures of production of certain leading
articles of manufacture or those used in manu-
facturing (see Mining), Germany has in recent
years taken second rank as a producer of pig
iron, her product now exceeding that of Eng-
land and being second to that of the United
States In 1897 the pig-iron production of the
three chief iron-producing countries was Ger-
many, 6,900,000 tons, Great Britain, 8,900,000,
United States, 9,700,000 In 1911 the product
was Germany, 15,200,000, Great Britain, 9,500,-
000, United States, 23,600,000 The number of
spindles m the cotton mills was, in 1887, 4,900,-
000 and, in 1905, 9,000,000 The export of
cotton yarns, "which amounted to $7,000,000 in
1900, was approximately $16,000,000 in 1912;
that of cotton piece goods, in 1900, $60^000,000,
in 1912, $105,000,000? woolen and worsted yarns
exported, m 1900, $14,000,000, in 1912, $21,000,-
000, woolen and worsted manufactures, in 189$;
$50,000,000, in 1912, $63,000,000 The quantity
of cotton exported to Germany from the United
GEBMANY
675
GERMANY
States, her chief source of supply, was, in 1892,
482,000,000 pounds, in 1902, 853,000,000, and,
in 1913, 1,222,000,000 According to the num-
ber of persons engaged, the most important in-
dustry is clothing, the next in order of im-
portance being the building trades and the
manufacture of foods, with over 1,000,000
workers each, if we put the third (metal in-
dustry) and fourth (machine and instrument
making) together, the combined metal industry
ranks second only to the clothing industry, next
to these,, and at the same time the most im-
poitant feeder of the German export trade, is
the textile industiy, which forms the oldest and
most important of the German industrial arts
The chief localities for the cultivation and prep-
aration of flax and the weaving of linen fabrics
are the mountain valleys of Silesia, Lusatia,
Westphalia, the Harz, and Saxony (for thread
laces) , while cotton fabrics are made pimcipally
in Ehenish Prussia and Saxony The same dis-
tricts, together with Pomerania and Bavaria,
manufacture the choicest woolen fabrics, includ-
ing damasks and carpets Since the formation
of the Empire the textile industries have made
lemarkable progress, and the German manufac-
tures now practically hold the home market and
export to South America, Australia, the East,
and even to England and the United States
The growth of the cotton industry can be judged
best from the increase of imports of raw cotton,
which amounted to about 10,000 tons in 1840,
71,000 tons m 1871, 403,000 tons in 1905, and
approximately 550,000 tons in 1912 Prior to
1871 the production of cotton goods in Germany
was less than that of France, but the transfer
of Alsace, a great cotton-manufacturing com-
munity, to Germany made its product of this
industry greater than that of France The ex-
ports of cotton manufactures from Germany
have grown from about $25,000,000 in 1886 to
approximately $120,000,000 in 1912, the ftguies
of the latter year including yarns as well as
finished goods Laces and embroideries have
also become an important feature of the cotton
industry and trade, the exports of machine-
made laces to the United States alone amount-
ing to nearly $5,000,000 annually Tlie silk in-
dustry and the manufacture of velvet thrive
especially in Krefeld, Barmen, and Elberfeld,
besides Berlin, Baden, and Aix-la-Chapelle
Great progress has been made both in the
quality and the quantity of the output, although
in the higher grades France still remains un-
excelled
Woolen goods are also largely manufactured
in Alsace, the Rhine provinces, Silesia, and
Saxony, the leading products being carpets,
shawls, table covers, hosiery, and furniture
covers, the export of woolens alone amounting
to about $70,000,000 annually.
The iron and steel manufactures of Germany
are among the most important in the world
The chief seats of this industry are Westphalia
and Alsace-Lorraine, the Pennsylvania of Ger-
many, next in importance are the district of
Aix-la-Chapelle, and isolated districts an Sax-
ony, Wurttemberg, Bavaria, and Hanover. Iron
and steel furnaces, steel mills for the manu-
facture of billets, rails, bars, plates, wire, and
other kinds of structural and railroad material
turn out thexr products in enormous and con-
stantly increasing quantities, not only for the
domestic markets, but also for distant coun-
tries, in competition with Great Britain and
the United States The number of workmen
thus employed increased from 164,000 in 1880
to 458,206 in 1904, or more than 179 per cent,
producing 2,571,000 tons in the former year
and over four times as much in the latter In
certain branches of the iron industry Geimany
excels the rest of the world In the hardware
industry the words "Made in Germany" branded
on an article are universally accepted as a guar-
anty of excellence This applies chiefly to
knives, scissors, needles, weapons, and instru-
ments of all kinds German scientific instru-
ments set the standard for precision and work-
manship The famous Krupp works, employing
over 70,000 workers in 1912, is the largest es
tabhshment in the world engaged m the manu-
facture of armor plates, heavy artilleiy pieces
and projectiles, boilers, engines, and all kinds
of half -finished products required in their manu-
facturing The shipyards of Danzig, Kiel, Stet-
tin, Hamburg, Bremen, and other seaports
furnish a supply of merchant and navy vessels
which occupy the highest place among the
navies of the world foi speed, durability, and
equipment The production of motoi cais and
boats in 1910 exceeded $25,000,000 in value
Germany is the largest beet-sugar-pi oclucmg
country, its share of the world's produce exceed-
ing 30 per cent The principal seats of this
industry are in Prussia, Brunswick, and Anhalt
The number of sugar factories increased from
311 m 1871 to 342 in 1912, while the output
increased from 263,000 tons in 1871 to 1,503,000
tons in 1904-05 and 2,632,000 tons in 1912
In the brewing industry Germany stands un-
rivaled The best beer is made in Bavaria,
numerous breweries, however, are to be found
all over the Empire Although the number
of breweries has been steadily decreasing, their
number in the beer-excise district (le, Ger-
many exclusive of Bavaria, Wurttemberg,
Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine) having been
11,564 m 1880 and 4204 m 1911, the pioduc-
tion in this district mci eased fiom 474,124,000
gallons annually during 1875-84 to 910,000 000
gallons in 1911, and in the entire Empire from
859,188,000 gallons annually during 1875-84 to
1,570,000,000 gallons in 1911 The number of
distilleries increased from 60,763 in 1895-96 to
67,236 in 1911, and the quantity of alcohol pro-
duced increased from 73,340,000 gallons to 80,-
122,000 gallons
In silver, gold, and jewelry work Augsburg
and Nuremberg dispute with Munich and Berlin
for preeminence, the manufacture of scientific
and musical instruments being also important in
these cities, while Berlin and Leipzig are among
the leading cities of Europe in respect to type
foundries, printing, and lithography In the
manufacture of rubber and gutta-percha goods,
glass and pottery ware, clocks, and carved
wooden specialties, Germany occupies a leading
position The chemical industry excels that of
all other countries, and the same may be said
of dyeing and bleaching works In 1907 tfoere
were 10,562 chemical plants employing 172,441
laborers Just as the technical progress made
by German industries in the last three or four
decades can be compared only with that of the
United States, so do their economic aspects re-
semble most closely those of the United States
The chief feature in common is the growing
concentration of industry In no other country
save the United States are the number and
power of large industrial organizations so great,
676
and at the beginning of 1906 there were no less
than 385 distinct associations for controlling
output and puces
The disposition to increase the size of manu-
facturing establishments rather than increase
the number is manifest in Germany as in the
United States The number of large establish-
ments has shown a much greatei pei cent of
increase than the number of small ones This
itas led to the omission from the German reports,
as in the case of the United States census, of the
household and neighborhood industries and ren-
ders difficult a measurement of growth as to
numbers of establishments, employees, or out-
put, except as to very recent years The num-
ber of employees in '"factones and similar es-
tablishments'' was repoited at 5,054,000 in 1903,
5,361,000 in 1904, and the "total population
engaged in manufactuies and mining" in 1910,
6,618,000
Railways Germany has the largest i airway
system in Europe, its railway density being sec-
ond to that of the United Kingdom The rail-
road industry employs half a million persons and
represents a capital investment of about $4,000,-
000,000 The first railway built in Germany
was the Ludwigsbalm, connecting the cities of
Nuremberg and Furth in Bavaria (<i distance
of about 4 miles) and opened for traffic 111
December, 1835 Trains began running on the
Leipzig-Dresden line in 1837, and Prussia built
the Berlin-Potsdam line in 1838 By 1846
only the minor states had no lines The rail-
ways at that time were, howevei, distributed
over the country in closely knit groups, each
centring around some large city, only in the
north were the lines connected During the
next 30 years railway construction was pushed
with great energy, with a view to covering the
old trade routes and important highways The
following table shows the growth of railways
from their inception until 1913
TBAB
Total
length of
railways,
miles
State luxes
Length in
miles
Private
lines oper-
ated by
the state
Private
lines pri-
vately
operated
Per cent
of state
lines to
total
,1835
1840
1850
1880
1900
1906
1913
4
341
3,753
20,627
30,454
35,509
39,065
29
1,299
1,040
28,052
32,283
36,139
311
2,634
90
4
312
2,143
7T591
2,587
3,227
2,900
85
346
504
92 1
909
921
The most interesting fact brought out by the
table is the increasing activity of the state in
German railway industry The German Empire
as such does not own, however, the railways,
the state lines being owned separately by the
various states Attempts to put the Imperial
government in possession of the entire railway
system have not been lacking, but thus far
they have all failed because of the separatist
sentiment, especially in the smaller southern
states At present each of the German states
has a railway system of its own, largely owned
and operated by the respective governments, a
small portion remaining in private hands
Prussia is the most important railway owner,
besides the Kingdom of Prussia only seven other
states own more than 1000 kilometers (621
miles), their respective lengths in 1912 being
as follows* Prussia and Hesse, 23,771 miles*
Bavaria, 5183 miles, Saxony, 2058 miles,
Baden, 1093 miles, Alsace-Lori aine, 1301 miles;
Wurttemberg, 1293 miles, Mecklenburg-Schwei in,
681 miles Thus Piussia controls the railway
situation by holding three-fifths of the entire
system, and the eight largest states of the
countiv have moie than 00 per cent of all the
railway lines The numbei of miles of railway
poi 1000 squdie miles of area is in Germany
188, Fiance 154, Austria 115, Netherlands 153,
Italy 99, United Kingdom 193, United States 85
Shipping and Navigation The shipping in-
teiests of Germany aie second only to those of
Great Butain and the United States, but while
the mei chant marine of the United States is en-
gaged mainly in the coasting trade, that of
Germany is engaged primarily in foreign com-
merce On Jan 1, 1913, the Geiman mei chant
maime (only ships of more than 1765 gross
tonnage being considered) comprised 3,153,724:
tons, of which 2098 steamers had 2,655,096 net
tonnage and 2752 sailing vessels had 498,228
net tonnage The mciease in the net tonnage
of the mei chant fleet from 1875 to 1911 was
173 pex cent, the steameis having gamed 1281
per cent The merchant maime of the Empue
employed 75,130 peisons in 1912, against 39,-
600 in 1881 and 40,400 in 1891 The number of
vessels entering and dealing German ports was
224,268 \\ith 60,134,000 tons in 1910, about
bO per cent of the total shipping was carried
in German bottoms, while 20 years before only
about 32 per cent of the total shipping was m
Geiman hands
The principal countnes participating in the
shipping of the German Empire are Great
Britain, with about 55 per cent of the total
foreign shipping of the country, Sweden, with
about 12ys per cent, Denmark, with nearly
12 per cent, Norway, over 8 per cent, the
^Tethei lands, over 4 per cent, and Russia, with
3 per cent The principal ports in the order
of their importance are Hamburg, Bremen,
Stettin, Danzig, Lubeek, Kiel, and Konigsberg,
the first of these ranking close to London and
New York in the amount of its shipping
Commerce The foreign commerce of the Ger-
man Empire is subject to the regulations of the
federal authorities, all of the states of the Em-
pire together with Luxemburg joining in the so-
called Zollverem, or customs union A few dis-
tricts in Baden and on the Switzerland frontier,
also the free haven of Hamburg, Bremen, Brems-
haven, and Cuxhaven, and Emden are still un-
mcluded Absolute free trade exists between the
members of the union, and a uniform tariff is
applied to all goods coming to any of the states
from foreign countries In fact, the commer-
cial regulations governing the customs union
are exactly like those applying to the commer-
cial relations of the individual States of the
United States, and of each of those to the
Federal government, with the single exception
that in the United States all customs duties
collected enter the Federal Treasury to be used
solely by the Federal government, while in the
German Empire the surplus over a certain
sum is distributed among the members of the
customs union in proportion to their population.
Germany is second only to Great Britain in
the volume of foreign trade Unlike the United
States^ but like Great Britain, Germany imports
more than it exports. In considering statistics
of German commerce it is necessary to distin-
guish between "general commerce/' which in-
cludes all imports and exports entering or lew-
GB&UCAN?
677
ing Germany, and "special commerce," which
includes only impoits from foreign countries
for consumption in Geimany and expoits of
German products The geographical position of
Germany in the middle of Europe favois a laige
transit trade, which swells the difference be-
tween "general" and "special" commerce to con-
siderably more than a quaiter of a billion dol-
lars a year The following table shows the
growth of special commerce since the foimation
of the Empire
TEAB
Imports
Exports
1872
1880
1890
1897
1900
1901
1904
1905
1912
$824,670,000
676,872,000
1,016,974,000
1,157,870,000
1,438,234,000
1,420,146,000
1,633,695,000
1,769,839,000
2,544,557,000
$593,096,000
708,288,000
811,580,000
901,068,000
1,131,214,000
1,132,642,000
1,265,074,000
1,390,348,000
2,131,718,000
Imports
Exports
Raw and partly manufactured materials
Foods and animals
Manufactures
Per cent
569
278
153
Per cent
257
100
642
The history of the commercial relations of the
German Empire with other countries may be
divided into three periods (1) that of free
trade, (2) the tariff period, and (3) the treaty
period During the first period, which lasted
from the foundation of the Empire to 1870, there
was a strong tendency to free trade, and duties
so far as levied affected only a small number of
articles, and that very slightly, being raised
mainly for revenue purposes In 1870 a new
customs tariff went into effect as the result of
prolonged agitation on the part of the joint
agricultural and industrial forces, who were
clamoring for the protection of home industries
That tariff has undergone numerous changes
since the year of its promulgation, but the most
important change — the one which marks the
third period, since 1891 — is that it has come to
serve merely as an abstract basis for German
foreign commercial relations, the real control-
ling factor being the tariff treaty or convention
with respective foreign countries The general
tariff is called autonomous to distinguish it
froi» the special or treaty tariff According to
existing methods every country which has a
commercial treaty with Germany — and this is
the case of neaily all tsountiies of importance —
enjoys the privilege of a much lower tariff than
the autonomous one, in consideration of recipro-
cal concessions made to German goods, but those
countneib winch make any discrimination against
German goods may be subjected to an additional
tariff, which may be several times the amount
of the autonomous tariff on all products enumer-
ated therein and a high duty on all gooas on the
free list The Tariff Law of 1902, which took
effect m March, 1906, increases the duties on
ceicals from 120 to 250 per cent, compared with
the autonomous tariff of 1879, on canned and
pieserved goods, between 50 and 360 per cent,
on machinciy and implements, between 60 and
110 per cent The new duties have been reduced
by treaties with the leading nations of Europe
and South and Central America, but no treaty
lias yet been concluded with the United States,
which, howevei, enjoys most favored nation
tieatment by special agi cement The chief
countries participating in German tiade are
Owing to the enormous industrial pi ogress
in the last few decades, Germany has become
an importer of foodstuffs and raw material and
an exporter of manufactured products Nearly
one- third of the total imports consists of food-
stuffs and other articles of consumption, raw
materials and partly manufactured for indus-
trial purposes constitute over one-half of the
total, manufactured commodities make up less
than one-fifth and are progressively diminish-
ing, the remainder consists of the precious
metals The principal articles of export are
textiles, half finished and finished metals, manu-
factured food products, chemicals, machines,
tools, and apparatus, coal, and leather goods
The exact proportions of the four great classes
of merchandise in the commerce of 1910 were as
follows
Per cent of total
Per cent of total
COUNTBY
imports into
exports from
Germany
Germany
1890
1900
1905
1910
1890
1900
1905
1910
United States
9 5
169
33 5
132
122
93
93
81
Great Britain
150
139
105
86
207
192
181
147
Russia
127
11 9
147
162
61
68
63
80
Austria-Hungary
France
140
62
120
5 1
104
55
81
54
103
68
107
58
102
50
11 1
73
Argentina
18
39
50
42
— .
14
23
25
British India
30
37
37
46
—
12
1 5
16
Belgium.
74
36
37
35
44
53
54
57
Netherlands
73
36
35
34
76
83
77
72
Italy
33
3 1
29
30
28
27
30
30
Switzerland
41
28
26
2 1
53
62
63
61
One of the most significant facts brought out
"by the table above is the high position of the
United States in the foreign trade of Germany,
In the commerce of the United States Geimany
stands next to Great Britain, occupying the sec-
ond place in imports and third in exports, send-
ing, in 1913, 1043 per cent of all imports and
taking 13 45 per cent of exports But while the
impoits from Germany to the United States have
risen only about 100 per cent as compared with
1891, the exports of the United States to Ger-
many increased more than 200 per cent during
that period, as the following table shows
TEAB
Exports to Ger-
many from the
United States
Imports from Ger-
many into the
United States
1891
1897
1901
1905
1913
1914
$92,795,000
125,246,000
191,780,000
194,220,000
331,684,000
344,794,276
$97,316,000
111,211,000
100,445,000
118,268,000
189,963,000
189,919,000
The moat important German imports from the
United States are cotton, coppei, lard, petro-
leum, lumber, wheat, maize, dried fru^tsv ma-
chinery, and meats. Up to about the year 1900
all classes of American imports showed -a rising
tendency, since then, however, a Decline has set
in m the importation of American food products,
excepting dried fruits, due in large part to the
fact that the United States hw less foodstuffs
for export than m earlier year®, while the im-
portation of those raw materials which are in-
dispensable to German, ^ndustry has continued
678
to increase Tlie following table shows the
movement of the leading American imports since
1897, and brings out clearly the reduction that
has set in of late years m the importation of
American food products due to the small supply
which the United States has for exportation
LEADING IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES
(Millions of dollars}
1897
1901
1904
1905
1913
Cotton
407
555
803
699
146 1
Copper
12 1
147
285
320
41 7
Petroleum
108
134
145
124
9 3
Lumber
3 5
39
63
85
9 1
Dried fruits
22
20
45
42
47
Lard
142
193
15 5
202
19 7
Wheat
75
393
63
23
121
Maize
15 1
195
46
127
37
Fresh meats
51
36
09
29
07
The United States supplies to Germany about
three-fourths of its cotton, nearly nine-tenths
of its copper, and almost the whole of its lard
importation The total value of exports from
the United States to Germany has grovtn from
$187,347,889 in 1900 to $331,634,212 in 1913 the
imports from Germany have grown from $97,-
347,700 in 1900 to $188,963,171 in 1913, the
excess of exports over imports from $89,973,189
to $142,721,141 In considering the balance of
trade, it should be noted, howevei, that it is
not really so unfavorable to G-eimany as it ap-
pears on the face of the export and import
figures The trade of America with Germany
is earned on in German vessels, and the fi eight
charges on American goods constitute no unim-
portant German asset against the United States ,
likewise the large sums paid annually by Amer-
ican travelers to German steamship companies
The principal imports of Germany in 1912 were
as follows.
government and subject to the orders of the
Chancellor of the Empire The stockholders are
lepresented by a general assembly, electing in
turn a central committee, which makes monthly
examinations of the afiairs of the bank, and
whose consent or advice is asked in certain
matters by the board of directois The bank
keeps on deposit all moneys intrusted to it by
the Impel lal Treasury and attends to all col
lections and disbursements on its account with-
out any compensation Nor are the financial
advantages derived by the government fiom
the operations of the bank limited to that alone
The profits of the bank aie distributed as fol-
lows first, an annual dividend of 3% per cent
on the capital stock of 180,000,000 marks ($42,-
840,000) is distributed among the stockholders,
second, 10 per cent of the remaining surplus is
added to the reserve fund, third, the lemammg
surplus is divided in the proportion of one-fourth
to the shareholders and three-fourths to the Im-
perial Treasuiy
The Imperial Bank of Germany is not the
sole bank of issue in the country At the
time of the enactment of the bank regulations
for the Empire, in 1875, 32 other banks were
authonzed to issue bank notes, the total un-
covered note circulation having then been fixed
at $9I,630,0003 of which $59,500,000 were al-
lotted to the Imperial Bank and the remainder
apportioned among the rest according to their
capital stock Since then the numbei of these
banks has gradually diminished, the allotment
of the bank-note issue of all such being trans-
ferred to the Imperial Bank In 1914 only the
following five banks still retained the right of
of dollars)
Agricultural products and foodstuffs
Mineral raw materials
Textile materials and manufactures
Base metal and manufactures thereof
Chemical and pharmaceutical products
Precious metals and manufactures thereof
Leather and leather goods
Machinery and electrotechmcal goods
Manufactures of wood
Books, statuary, and pictures
16410
2427
2012
1313
903
965
379
268
209
98
The principal exports of Germany in 1912 were
as follows
(Millions of dollars)
Agricultural products and foodstuffs 397 4
Base metal and manufactures thereof 390 1
Textile materials and manufactures 346 0
Machinery and elecfcrotechmcal goods 241 1
Chemical and pharmaceutical products . 195 2
Mineral raw materials ... . 180 7
Leather and leather goods . . . 120 3
Paper and paper goods . 52 4
.Firearms, clocks, and toys . 52 1
Precious metals and manufactures of . 49 8
For an account of the colonial commerce of
Germany, see Colonies in this article
Banking. At the head of the German bank-
ing system is the Imperial Bank (the Reichs-
bank) Founded in 1875 by an Act of the Ger-
man Reichstag, it has been ever since the lead-
ing bank of issue and, in addition to other
banking operations, has served as the depository
of the Imperial Treasury Although practically
a private stock company, its management is
rested in a board of directors appointed by the
Capital
stock
Authorized
note issue
Imperial Bank
Bavarian Bank of Issue
Saxon Bank
Wurttemberg Bank of Issue
Bank of Baden
Total
$42,840,000
1,785,000
7,140,000
2,142,000
2,142,000
$130,900,000
7,616,000
3,991,498
2,380,000
2,380,000
$56,049,000
$147,267,498
These banks may issue notes also in excess of
the allotments indicated above, but all such
amounts are subject to a tax of 5 per cent The
growth of the business of the Imperial Bank
from the time of its foundation may be seen
from the following figures the total amount of
all kinds of transactions had increased from
$8,734,000,000 in 1876 to $103,500,000,000 in.
1910 An important business carried on by the
Imperial Bank is that in connection with its
clearing-house department The latter was
founded in 1883, and the volume of clearings is
behind only those of the London and New York
houses, exceeding $4,760,000,000 per annum
Since its organization clearing houses have been
established in 22 other cities of Germany, the
more important being in Frankfurt, Stuttgart,
Cologne, Leipzig, Dresden, Hamburg, Nurem-
berg, Hanover, Mannheim, Dortmund, Elberfeld,
Breslau, Chemnitz, Munich, Berlin, Brunswick,
and Bremen In addition to the banks of issue
and the branch banks mentioned above, there are
about 400 other banks organized as stock com-
panies, whose total capital stock in 1910 ex-
ceeded $683,800,000, besides numerous private
banks, some of which, like the Eothschilds or
Bleichroder, are among the foremost banking
GEUHAITY
679
GERMANY
institutions of the woild There are also several
mortgage banks (Hypothekenbanken — credit
foneier) to minister to the wants of the agri-
cultural population, people's banks (Volks-
banken) or cooperative loan associations which
lend &mall amounts to needy artisans and owners
of workshops, and finally the Prussian Maritime
Association, for a description of which, as well
as of the most important Berlin banks, the
reader is referred to the paragraph on Banking,
under PRUSSIA Of savings banks there were
in Germany 3039, with 7186 branches, in 1911.
The number of accounts was 22,350,000, and the
aggregate deposits amounted to $4,241,000,000,
while the deposits in the postal savings banks
amount to over $1,000,000,000 In German
banking, as in German mdubtiy, there prevails
a strong tendency towards unification and con-
centration
Government. The constitution of the Empne
bears the date of April 16, 1871 It is a written
instrument and enumerates with considerable
detail the powers and relations of the different
organs of government It may be amended by
the Imperial Legislature, according to the usual
processes of legislation, except that 14 negative
votes in the Federal Council will defeat an
amendment, and that those provisions which
guarantee specific rights to individual states are
unamendable The Empire which this constitu-
tion created consists of 26 states, four kingdoms,
six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principali-
ties, three free cities, and Alsace-Loi rame, all
under the presidency of the King of Prussia, who
bears the title of Geiman Emperor (Art II) It
is not, however, a union of equals, for some of
the states enjoy specific privileges which do not
belong to others Of these, Prussia is the most
highly favored She has the heieditaiy right to
the presidency of the xinion, her Prime Minister
is the Chancellor of the Empire, her representa-
tion in the Federal Council is large enough to
prevent changes in the constitution without her
consent, she has the casting vote in case of a tie
in the Federal Council, and the chairmanship of
all the standing committees except one in that
"body Among the states upon whom special priv-
ileges were bestowed as inducements to enter the
union are Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden.
They are all exempt from Imperial excises on do-
mestic liquors and beer, while Bavaria and Wurt-
temberg have their own postal and telegraph
systems and, with certain restrictions, their
own military systems Bavaria, moreover, is ex-
empt from the operation of the Imperial laws
for the regulation of railroads except for pur-
poses of military defense and from the Imperial
law of residence and settlement Bavaria, Wurt-
temberg, and Saxony are entitled to seats in
the standing committees of the Federal Council
on Foreign Affairs and on Army and Fortifica-
tions, the chairmanship of the first-mentioned
committee belonging to Bavaria The constitu-
tion contains a guarantee that no state so priv-
ileged shall be deprived of its rights without its
consent (Art LXXVIII) The German Im-
perial government may be described as a fed-
eral representative system, containing democratic
and elective elements on the one hand and mo-
narchic and hereditary elements on the other
Its federal feature is shown in the constitutional
division of the powers of government between
the central government and the state govern-
ments and the marking out of a sphere of
activity for each. The elective and democratic
elements appear in the structure of the Reich-
stag, or National Diet, while the piesidency of
the Empire furnishes the monarchic and heredi-
tary features In regaid to the methods of gov-
erning, the Imperial rule is not parliamentary
in the sense of parliamentary government in
England, as there is no provision for a responsi-
ble ministry
For the purposes of legislation the constitu-
tion provides foi a national Parliament, the
Reichstag, representing the nation as a, whole,
and the Federal Council, or Bundesrat, repre-
senting the individual states The latter is, to
a ceitain extent, modeled after the old Diet of
the Confederation It is composed of delegates
chosen by the goveinments of the several states
that compose the Empue They are without
definite tenuie and are apportioned without
much regard to population, but accoidmg to the
artificial plan of the old confederation The
number of votes in the Bundesrat, or Federal
Council, is 61, of which Piubsia "has 17, Bavaria
six, Saxony and Wuittembeig four each, Baden,
Hesse, and Alsace-Loiiame three each, Bruns-
wick and Mecklenbuig-Schwerm two each, and
the other states one each The members have
the character of ambassadors and aie entitled
to the same privileges that are accoided the
diplomatic repi esentatives of foreign states
They vote according to instructions from their
governments, and uninstructed votes are not
counted In case a state has more than one
vote, the delegation from the state must vote as
a unit, but the entire vote to which the state
is entitled may be cast by a portion of its rep-
resentatives It is left to each state to prescribe
the qualifications of its lepresentatives in the
Federal Council The Imperial constitution and
the statutes, however, pi escribe a number of
disqualifications, most of which relate to the
holding of other incompatible offices at the same
time
The Reichstag consists of representatives
chosen for a tcim of five years by direct univer-
sal suffrage and secret ballot By universal
suffrage is meant the suffrage of all male citi-
zens who have attained the age of 25 years.
Those who aie in active military or naval serv-
ice, those who are subject to guardianship, or
who are bankrupt or insolvent, or m receipt of
poor relief, or condemned to the loss of civil or
political rights, are disqualified from the exer-
cise of the suffrage There are at present 397
members of the Reichstag, the number as well
as the character of the constituencies having
remained unchanged since 1874 Of these Prus-
sia has 236, or about three-fifths of the whole
number They are chosen by single district
ticket and are uninstructed A Law of May,
1906, provides for the payment of members
The power of calling, opening, ad-journing, and
proroguing both the Reichstag and the Federal
Council and of dissolving the former (with the
consent of the latter) is a prerogative of the
Emperor He must, however, call them annu-
ally, and in case of a dissolution he is bound to
order the elections within 60 days and call the
new Reichstag together within 90 days The
Reichstag is the judge of the elections and quali-
fications of its members and has power over its
own mteinal organization and procedure, ex-
cept that its sessions must be public There
are constitutional limitations, however, on the
power of the Federal Council in this respect*,
for the president is designated by the consti-
GERMANY
680
GERMANY
tution, and the membership of some of its im-
portant standing committees is determined by
the same authority So far as the initiation of
legislative measures is concerned, the two rep-
resentative bodies are theoietically on an equal-
ity At the same time it is the Fedeial Council
which initiates all important legislation In
the Federal Council each government repre-
sented may introduce measures, and it is made
the constitutional duty of the president to sub-
mit them to deliberation In the Reichstag the
initiation of measures is regulated by a rule of
the House
Unlike the French Parliament, the powers of
the German Imperial Legislature are enumer-
ated in the constitution They include the regu-
lation of foieign and intei state commerce, with
certain exceptions in the case of Bavaria and
Wurttemberg, the regulation of the monetary
system, the regulation of the criminal law, pri-
vate law and judicial organization and proce-
diiie throughout the Empire, the regulation of
citizenship, medical and veterinary practice,
the regulation of the customs and tlie excise
upon tobacco, salt, spirituous liquors, beer,
sugar, etc , the regulation of the military and
naval systems, the enactment of measures for
the execution of the laws, and the settlement of
constitutional conflicts within a state m ceitam
contingencies It will be seen fiom the eimmeia-
tion that the powei of the G-exman Legislature
extends to many subjects \\lnch in other states
having the federal system of government aie
left to the regulation of the individual states
As a general thing, the power of the Imperial
Legislature over these subjects is not exclusive,
but they may be regulated by the states in the
absence of Imperial legislation Moreover, in
the domain of interstate and foreign relations,
the individual states may conclude treaties
among themselves for the regulation of their
postal and telegraph communication, and even,
with foreign countries for the regulation of
matters of local concern, and to that end may
send and receive ambassadors There has never
developed a state's rights doctrine in. the G-er-
man Empire, for the reason that the federal
union was not the result of an agreement among
the states, as in America, but was called into
existence by war and coercion, on the part of
Prussia
The Imperial executive power is vested in the
King of Prussia, who is president of the union,
awl vho bears the title of German Emperor
(Art II). The succession is regulated by the
Prussian constitution, which makes the ciown
hereditary in the male branch of the royal house
by right of primogeniture and agnatic lineal
succession During the minority of the King the
regency is held by the nearest agnate, or, if
there be no such agnate, then the Prussian
Landtag shall choose a regent The King at-
tains his majority at 18 and is irresponsible and
inviolable As Emperor, he is vested with the
power of appointing and receiving ambassadors,
other public ministers, and consuls, of negoti-
ating- treaties, of waging defensive war, and,
with the consent of the Federal Council, offen-
sive war, of commanding the army and navy,
of promulgating the laws and supervising their
execution He has no veto on Imperial legisla-
tion In supervising the execution, of the Im-
perial laws, which are for the most part ad-
ministered by the state governments at their
own expense, he addresses himself, through the
Chancellor, to the state executives, and m case
of their refusal to carry out the Imperial will,
resort is had to federal execution — i e , force
is brought to beai upon the lecalcitrant state
(Art XIX) In the enforcement of the laws,
however, for the collection of the Imperial taxes
and for the regulation of postal and telegraphic
administration, the Emperor does not rely upon
the states, but acts through Imperial officials
He appoints all the officials in the Imperial serv-
ice and may dismiss them There is an excep-
tion, however, in the case of the Imperial judi-
cial officers, who are appointed by the Emperor
upon the nomination of the Federal Council, and
who cannot be removed by the Emperor In
addition to these poweis, which belong to the
president of the federal union as Emperor, he
has a series of important functions as King
of Piussia
The constitution requires that all the official
acts of the Emperor except those which relate
to the command of the army shall be counter-
signed by an officer called the Imperial Chan-
cellor, appointed by the Emperor and removable
at his pleasure (Ait XVII) By this act the
Chancellor assumes responsibility for the meas-
uie, thus insuring the irresponsibility of the
Emperor The Chancellor's responsibility, how-
ever, is not to the Legislature, but to the Em-
peior, for the parliamentary system of govern-
ment does not exist in the Empire If, there-
fore, the Reichstag refuses to pass *his measures
or votes a resolution of censure against him, he
does not resign, but continues to hold his office,
and if he thinks the action of the Reichstag is
not the will of the people he may request the
Emperor to dissolve it and order a new election
In recent years there has been a movement look-
ing to the establishment of ministerial responsi-
bility Several notable precedents have been
made. In 1908 Chancellor von Bulow resigned
soon after the Reichstag failed to pass his in-
heritance tax bill On Jan 30, 1913, a resolu-
tion of "no confidence" passed the Reichstag be-
cause of Prussia's attitude towards the Poles,
on Dec 4, 1913, another such resolution passed
the Reichstag on account of the conduct of the
military authorities at Zabern in Alsace The
Chancellor is president of the Federal Council
and has a seat in the Reichstag, where he
appears as the chief defender of the policy of
the government and the champion of its meas-
ures He is also the head of the Imperial ad-
ministration and supervises in the name of the
Emperor the execution of the Imperial laws To
aid him there are at present 13 departments of
administration, each under the control of a
secretary They are not his colleagues, but his
subordinates ; for there is no Imperial cabinet in
the sense in which the term is usually under-
stood A Law of 1878 authorizes the Chancellor
to appoint a responsible vice chancellor to aid
him when, from pressure of business or other
cause, he is unable to discharge his duties It
should also be noted that another important
organ of administration is the Federal Council y
in fact, the German commentators on the Im-
perial constitution treat it as an organ of ad-
ministration rather than as a chamber of the
Legislature Its most important administrative
functions are the formulation of rules for the
guidance of the administration, the preparation
of the ordinances necessary for the execution of
the laws, the issuing of decrees for the coercion
of recalcitrant states of the Empire, and & wld,e
GERMANY
681
GERMANY
participation in the appointment of Impenal
officials Under the last head may be men-
tioned the nomination of the judges of the
Supreme Court of the Empiie (Eeiclisgericht]
and the election of the members of the Imperial
Court of Accounts In spite of a democi atically
elected Reichstag, the German government is
essentially an autocratic one The Reichstag is
the voice, but not the will, of the German peo-
ple, hence its main function is meiely to cuti-
cize It is still in the protesting stage of par-
liamentary development, not unlike the English
House of Commons in the time ol the Stuaits
The piedommant body, then, is the Federal
Council, but this chamber is conti oiled by
Prussia, wheie the King is all but absolute, as-
serting openly the doctime of "divine light "
So it follows that while the Kaiser directlv
exercises little power, indirectly as King of
Prussia he completely shapes the policies of the
Empire The citadel of absolutism in Germany
is Prussia and for this reason the radical ele-
ments in Germany have turned then attention
to the democratization of Prussia
When we tmn to the judicial system of the
Empire, we find few provisions in the constitu-
tion which bear upon the subject — no provision
for a supreme court or inferior courts, no ap-
portionment of judicial power between the Em-
pire on the one hand and the states on the other,
according to the federal system of government,
and no guarantees of judicial piocedure such as
constitute so notable a featuie in the Constitu-
tion of the United States The only judicial
tribunal in the Empire which has a constitu-
tional basis is the Federal Council, which is
designated as a court for the settlement of pub-
lic-law controversies between states and of con-
stitutional conflicts within states, in both cases
when appealed to by one of the parties With
these exceptions everything relating to the or-
ganization, jurisdiction, and procedure of the
German courts is left to the regulation of the
Legislature, thus making the judicial system a
puiely statutory creation It was not until
1877 that the Imperial Legislature passed an
act for the organization of the courts (Oenchts-
verfassungsgesete) At the same time Imperial
codes of civil and criminal procedure were com-
pleted and, with the Imperial Judiciary Act for
the organization of the courts, went into effect
Oct lj 1879 An Imperial code of criminal law
was completed in 1870 and revised in 1871 and
1876, and more recently (1900) an Imperial
civil code was put in force
The result of all this legislation was the crea-
tion for the Empire of a uniform system of
courts organized upon Imperial plan, and apply-
ing the law, which is not uniform throughout
the Empire, according to a uniform system of
procedure — an achievement which has done much
to bring about the unification of the German
states The Imperial Judiciary Act of 1877
created a system of courts of four grades, the
lowest being the district court (Amtsgenoht)
This is a court of first instance for the trial
of petty civil and criminal cases When hear-
ing civil cases, the court is held by a single
•judge, in criminal cases the judge associates
with himself two laymen called Schoffen Next
above the district courts are the territorial
courts (Landesgerwhte) , consisting of from
three to five judges and divided into civil and
criminal chambers They hear appeals from the
lower courts and have, a more extensive original
junsdiction in civil and criminal matters For
the trial of important criminal cases jury
couits are constituted periodically in connection
with the terntorial couits They consist of a
bench of three judges and 12 jurors Next in
the hierarchy aie the superior couits (Olet-
lande&genchte ) , likewise divided into civil and
cuminal senates, the usual numbei of judges in
a cuminal senate being seven They have no
original jurisdiction, being exclusively couits of
appeal from the territonal courts At present
there aie 28 supenor couits in the Empire, 15
of which are in Prussia As a result of a special
piovision, Bavaria alone has an Oberstes Landes-
yencht of 15 judges, which has its seat at
Munich Standing at the top of the judicial
hieraichy is the Imperial Court (Iteichsgencht) ,
which has its seat at Leipzig in Savony It
is composed of foui cuminal senates and six
civil senates, with an aggiegate membership of
over 90 judges The judges ate appointed by
the Empeior, upon the nomination of the Fed-
eral Council Their tenxue is foi life, and they
are nieinovable by any authonty except the
court itself acting ab a disciplinary tnbunal
The Impel lal Court has no onginal jiuisdiction
in civil matters Itb appellate juiisdiction in
civil matters extends to cases appealed from the
superior couits, the consular couits, and the
Imperial Patent Office Administrative Court
The criminal junsdiction of the Imperial Court
extends in first and last instance to all cases
of high treason against the Emperor or the Em-
pire, to appeals in ceitain cases from the de-
cisions of the territorial courts and the jury
courts, and to appeals fiom decisions of the
consular courts
The position of the judiciary is one of abso-
lute independence of the administration The
judges can neithei be removed, transferred to
less desirable judicial stations, nor letired on
pension against their will All the judges (ex-
cept those of the Impenal Court), about 8000
in numbei, are appointed and paid by the gov-
einments of the states in which they discharge
their functions, and they are regarded as state
•judges, although their positions are created by
Imperial law, and their qualifications and duties
are prescribed by the same authority Unlike
the American, the German courts have no power
to declare either state or Imperial laws un-
constitutional
The Geimans — like the French, from whom
they have borrowed many legal institutions —
have attempted to separate the spheres of jus-
tice and administration and have accordingly
intrusted the decisions of administrative con-
troversies, not to the regular judicial courts, as
is done in the United States and England, but
to special tribunals called administrative courts,
composed partly of trained jurists and partly of
active administrators The judges of the Ger-
man administrative courts, unlike those ©f
France, however, have a position of independ-
ence and cannot be removed at the pleasure of
the Emperor, by whom they are appointed. The
most important Imperial administrative courts
are the poor-law board, the railway court, the
patent-office court, and the marine o^See If
conflicts of jurisdiction occur between the ad-
ministrative and judicial courts, the proper
forum is determined by the Imperial Court,
there being no provision for a tribunal of con-
flicts, as in France
Finally, it should be said that there la little
682
GERMANY
or no Imperial local government in Germany,
since the Imperial laws are for the most part
administered by the state governments under
the supervision of the Emperor The chief local
administrative activity of the Empue, therefore,
consists of such supervisory service as may be
necessary to insuie the strict enforcement of the
Imperial laws by the state authorities For
local government in Germany, see PEUSSIA
Finances The finances of the Empire re-
semble, in a general way, those of the United
States in that they embrace comparatively few
items of revenue and expenditure The Imperial
government cannot levy any taxes except cus-
toms and excise duties The bulk of its reve-
nues is, therefore, derived from these two-
sources Excise duties are levied on tobacco,
beer, liquors, salt, and sugar The post and
telegraph, both of which are owned and operated
by the government, the railways of Alsace-
Lorraine, and stamp taxes bring m some addi-
tional revenue, which is, however, insufficient to
cover the expenditures of the Empire The
deficit is covered by contributions from the sev-
eral states called "Matricular Beitrage," and
levied on each state in proportion to its popu-
lation Prussia is assessed more than 60 per
cent of the entire federal contribution
The chief items of expeiidituie are those for
the army and navy, which together absorb more
than a third of the entire expenditure The Im-
perial Treasuiy spends one-tenth of the budget,
and for the service of the debt of the Em-
pue stands the next largest item, exceeding
$54,000,000 per annum, or more than 5 per cent
of the budget The growth of the budget of the
Empire from its foundation is shown m the
following table
TEAK
Budget
State
contributions
1872
1882
1892
1902
1907
1913
$83,530,860
141,217,776
266,303,198
559,238,596
570,563,000
879,650,000
$23,002,224
24,582,782
77,762,692
135,882,054
68,483,000
62,196,560
The total debt of the Empire amounted in
1912 to $1,177,418,000, of which about 6 per
cent was unfunded. Of this, over one-half is at
the rate of 3 per cent interest, the remainder
chiefly $V2 per cent The first loan raised by
the Imperial government was for more than
$3,808,000 in 1877 The growth of the debt
since then has been as follows 1880, $51,897,-
804, 1890, $266,079,716, 1900, $547,043,000,
1905, $790,993,000; 1912, $1,177,418,000
Army* The German army, as organized in
peace, consists of 25 army corps, recruited as
follows in territorial military districts in the
Kingdom of Prussia, Baden, and Hesse, 16, the
Prussian Guard Corps, from the entire kingdom,
1 , in Saxony, 2 , in Wurttemberg, 1 , the Reich-
land (Alsace and Lorraine), 2, Bavaria, 3, in
all, 25 army corps and 1 permanent cavalry
division, which, with the active reserve troops,
amounts to about 1,250,000 combatants Adding
to this 750,000, the strength of the Landwehr
immediately available, Germany can mobilize at
once about 2,000,000 trained men In addition
there are about 1,500,000 partially trained, a
large number of garrison troops, and the Land-
stunn, or last reserve, which includes all the
able-bodied men not already called to the colors.
In the German aimy pi ovision for organizing
the corps into armies is made by assigning
corps to inspection distiicts, each of which is
provided with a headquarters and staff Nor-
mally 2 regiments of infantry (6 battalions)
form a brigade, 2 biigades a division, and 2
divisions an army corps There are 10 c3-""
however, which have 3 brigades To
squadrons of cavalry, to each aimy corps, 4
batteries of howitzers, a pioneer (engineer) bat-
talion, and a battalion of rifles (Jagci) are
also attached Cyclist companies, of which theie
are 18, are assigned as needed Field battenes
have 6 guns instead of 4, the number used in the
French and United States army battery rJhe
complete German division of 2 brigades has
about 14,000 combatants, the corps of 2 divi-
sions, 30,000 The division, increased in war to
3 brigades, gives 6 brigades to the war corps,
amounting in all to about 43,000 combatants, as
compared with 33,000 in the French aimy and
about 44,000 in the two divisions of the field
army of the United States
There is but one permanent cavahy division
In wai provision is made foi the immediate for-
mation of eight more from existing cavalry
brigades, regiments, and squadrons Stiength,
3 brigades of 2 regiments each, with 2 or 3
batteries of horse artillery— in all, 24 squadrons
and 8 or 12 guns The French army, on the
other hand, maintains 10 permanent cavalry
divisions
Unit of Organization Infantry — Four com-
panies to the battalion, 3 battalions to the regi-
ment, 2 regiments to the brigade, 2 brigades to
the division, with one of the divisions in a
corps having an extra battalion of sharpshooters
(Jagers, or Schutzen) The war-strength bat-
talion counts about 25 officers and 1000 rifles,
which gives for the war company about 250 as
compared with the American company of 142
men
Cavalry — Five squadrons to the regiment, 2
regiments to the brigade The German squadion
should not be confused with the American squad-
ron The former consists, on a war footing, of
6 officers and 172 men, the latter of 14 officers
and 363 men, divided into 4 troops One of
the five German squadrons composing a regiment
will probably be left at the regimental depot to
collect and train recruits to supply the four
squadrons in the field See CAVALBY
Field Artillery — Three batteries to the bat-
talion, 2 battalions to the regiment, 2 regiments
to the brigade, as in the United States army,
except that the American battery has only 4
guns, like the French, the German light battery
6 guns Horse batteries have 4 guns In
peace the batteries vary in strength from 4
officers and 102 men to 4 officers and 128 men
In war the battery counts 5 officers and 150
men, as compared with the American battery of
5 officers and 171 men. Each German battalion
in war has in addition a light ammunition col-
umn of 4 officers and 188 men
Foot Artillery — Organization varies greatly.
A typical formation is 4 batteries to the bat-
talion, 2 battalions to the regiment There are
24 regiments The heavy howitzer battalion
numbers 1230 officers and men, including light
ammunition train One battalion of these is
assigned to each corps in war. Each has 4
GEBIffiANY
683
batteries of 4 guns each Field and foot (for-
tress) artillery officers are on one list Fortress
artillery garrisons the land defenses Seacoast
fortifications are under the navy, with one or
two exceptions
Aeronautical Corps — Under the Law of 1913,
5 aeroplane battalions (17 companies) were
organized There are at present (1914) between
25 and 30 dirigibles The total personnel, 173
officers and about 4500 enlisted men
Technical Troops — It is necessary to consider
engineer and signal troops together if we wish
to make any comparison between these organiza-
tions and those of the United States Germany
divides troops of this class into pioneer troops,
and Verkerstruppen ( lit , communication troops ) .
The latter are further divided into railroad
troops, telegraph troops, aerostation and avi-
ation troops, automobile troops, etc The
18 companies of cyclists are included in the
strength of the infantry See ENGINEERS, CORPS
OF
Supply Train It consists of 25 battalions
Each battalion is composed of 3 companies and
a bakery detachment Strength, 631 officers,
10,961 enlisted men
Sanitary Troops — About 2300 officers and
4500 men, capable of required expansion in time
of war.
Veterinarians — Between 700 »and 800 Horses,
peace, 160,000
Officers — A noticeable feature of the German
Officer Corps is the large number of nonregi-
mental officers, about 3000, which makes it
possible to perform all administrative and staff
duties without depriving the line troops of their
officers, as in the American system
Neio Laws — The effect of the Laws of 1911,
1912, and 1913 will result, at the end of 1915,
in a considerable increase in the permanent
peace establishment and consequently in the
number of trained men available at the outbieak
of war The intent of the Law of 1913 was to
increase the annual number of recruits, the num-
ber of organizations, and the number of balanced
units, and to decrease the average age of the men
of the field army At the same time the "war
chest" was increased from $30,000,000 to $90,-
000,000 m gold and silver For the year 1914
the military budget amounts to about $300,-
000,000 The "war chest" is an additional
cash emergency fund in the form of go-Id and
silver
Total Peace Strength — It is estimated that
the progressive increase of the standing army,
provided for in the Law of 1913, will, in 1915,
result as follows 669 battalions of infantry,
550 squadrons of cavalry, 642 batteries of field
artillery, 55 battalions of foot artillery, 44 bat-
talions of engineers, 31 battalions of communi-
cation troops, 25 battalions of supply troops,
which, with miscellaneous small corps, staff,
etc, aggregate the following numbers in the
classes stated (the figures are given in round
numbers) 36,000 officers, 10,000 officials* 183000
one-year volunteers, 771,000 men, grand total,
835,000 for the standing army in peace m
1915
Total War Strength — The peace army raised
to war strength under the provisions of the
Law of 1913, by adding the active reserve, gives
about 1,250,000 trained combatants for the
initial mobilization, or first line army When,
to this is added 750,000 men composing the mo-
bile Landwehre, or second line army, there re-
VOL IX.— 44
suits a mobile force of trained men amounting
to approximately 2,000,000 In addition to this
force it is estimated that there are about
2,500,000 wholly or partially trained men for
home defense, made up of the second Ban of the
Landwehr, of garrison units, and of the Land-
sturm, 01 last reserve, giving a grand total,
for the defense of Germany, of at least 4,500,000
trained men Some estimates make this total
5,000,000, including untrained men France can
mobilize about 3,500,000 in all
Colonial Troops — At the outbreak of the Wai
m Em ope (qv ), 1914, there \\ere at Kiaochow
about 2700 marines and sailors, supplemented b-y
native troops Colonial troops, not included in
the army, 340 officers, 2250 noncommissioned oili
cers and men, 3830 native soldiois In German
Southwest Africa there was a German foice of
150 officers and 2000 men In addition there
were 600 native police with German officers
Administration — Under the constitution of
the Empire the Geiman Emperor is commander
in chief of all the foices To the Bavaiian
troops, however, the oath of fidelity is not ad-
ministered in time of peace Bavaria, Saxony,
and Wurttembcig have their own war ministers,
but are more or less subject to the contiol of
the Prussian War Office
Arms — The infantry uses the Mausei maga-
zine rifle, calibre 0311 inch, the cavalry, the
carbine of the same type Field and horse ar-
tillery use a Krupp gun firing a 3 5 -pound pro-
jectile The light and heavy field howitzers fire
30- and 94-pound projectiles respectively The
fighting strength of the German army, or the
initial mobilization, is estimated at 1,000,000
rifles, 80,000 sabres, 5500 field guns, France,
650,000 rifles, 60,000 sabres, 3000 field guns
Service — Military service is obligatory, with
certain exemptions Liability (Wehrpflicht)
commences at 17 and ends at 45, active seivice
'(Heerpflicht) begins at 20 Every boy who en-
lists before 20 has a liability of only 19 yeais
(1) Active service, first line army, is for 7
years, 2 with the colors and 5 in the reserve,
except in the mounted branches, in which the
periods aie 3 and 4 In the active reserve train
ing is for a pefriod, of not morei than 8 weeks twice
during the reserve period (2) Service in the
first Ban (calling out) of the Landwehr (land
defense), or second line army, is for 5 years
Training for from 8 to 14 days twice during
the period (3) Service in the second Ban of
the Landwehr for 7 years. No training during
this period Total service in the active army
and Landwehr, 19 years, from the age of 20 to
39 ( 4 ) Service in the Landsturm ( lit , land
uprising) composed of 2 Bans — first Ban, com-
posed of those between 17 and 39 svho have re-
ceived no military training, second Ban, com^
posed of all between the ages of 39 and 45,
whether trained or not This reserve is for
home defense, receives no training, and may be
called out only by Imperial decree, 01, in ease
of imminent war, by corps commanders or for-
tress governors One-year volunteers (amount-
ing to about 18,000), known as Bmjahrigfrei-
willigers, made up of educated young men who
pay their own expenses, are admitted and supply
the commissioned personnel for the reserve and
Landwehr troops The Ersatz (compensatory)
reserve is composed of the annual surplus of
those called to the colors They receive a cer-
tain amount of training 'Catholic clergymen,
if ordained before the 1st of April of the seventh.
GERMANY
684
GEBMAIfrY
year of their obligation, pass to the depot le-
serve, when they are exempt from drills Young
men born m the island of Heligoland before the
llth of August, 1890, are entirely exempt fiom
militaiy service
Frontier — Seaeoast and land frontier in all
amounts to about 4600 miles The country is
divided into 10 fortress inspection districts, each
including fortified places The names of the
districts and the fortresses on each aie as fol-
lows 1 Komgsberg Konigsbeig, Danzig, Pil-
lau, Memel, Boyen 2 Posen Posen, Glogau,
Neisse, Glatz 3 Berhn Spandau, Magdeburg,
Torgau, Kustrm 4 Mains Mainz, Ulm, Ra-
statt 5 Mete Metz, Diedenhofen, Bitsch 6
Cologne Cologne, Coblenz, Wesel, Saarlouis
7 Kiel Kiel, Friedrichsort, Cuxhaven, Geeste-
munde, Wilhelmsha\en, Swinemunde, 8. Thorn
Thoin, Grandanz, Vistula Passages, Dirschau
9 Strasslurg Strassburg, New Breisach 10
Munich Munich, Ingolstadt, Geimersheim
These are all connected by wire, and railways
are so located and operated as to concentrate the
army most efficiently at threatened points of
the frontiers,*
Kavy. Previous to 1848 none of the states
of northern Germany possessed naval foices
The blockade of the coast by Denmaik in that
year showed the \alue of a na\y, and Prussia
took immediate steps to organize one It giew
but slowly until the Sehleswig-Holstem War,
when the necessity foi an adequate force be-
came again very appaieut The growing Pius-
sian navy became the navy of the North Geiman
Confederation in 1806, and this in turn formed
the nucleus of the Imperial navy m 1871 It
was not until IS 82, however, that serious steps
were taken to greatly augment it. In that year
a definite building programme was adopted
This was supplemented by another in 1888
The increasing commerce and wealth of Ger-
many and the manifest desirability of a navy
commensurate with the interests of the nation
brought about the formation of the German
Naval League (which now has 3600 branches
and 1,100,000 members) and an energetic fight,
led by the Bmpeior, for a strong navy. This
fight resulted m the naval laws of 1898, 1900,
1906, and 1912, hereinafter mentioned After
1900 the growth of the fleet was very rapid.
The naval Act of 1900 is the real basis of the
existing fleet It embodied in definite legisla-
tion the future scheme of construction, providing
for the building and maintenance of a fleet of
38 battleships of the most powerful type and a
corresponding number of cruisers, torpedo craft,
and auxiliaries, as well as an extensive expan-
sion of the dockyards The estimated cost of
the fleet was $370,000,000, and of the dockyards
and other matters, $100,000,000 The Act also
provided for replacing the older ships when they
reached a certain age The Acts of 1906 and 1912
added materially to the force previously con-
templated. The total programme as defined in
1912 is to be completed in 1923 It provides
for 41 battleships, 12 battle cruisers, and 30
small cruisers for the fleet, and 8 laige cruisers
* In estimating the military strength of armies, either m
peace or in war, care must be taken, in consulting authorities,
to note which organizations are included and which are
omitted, whack are without staffs and what staffs are
without organizations* the size of the basic units m war
and in peace, whether officers, officials, administrative serv-
toep, colonial and native troops are considered, the charac-
ter and numbers of the several reserve quotas of trained
and partially trained men, and to what extent the latter are
available for war service
and 10 small ones for foreign service The ac-
tive fleet (High Seas Fleet) will consist of 1
fleet flagship, 3 squadrons of 8 battleships each,
8 laige and 18 small ci niseis, and such toipedo
ciaft as may be assigned (See table heieniatter
given ) The cost of the navy has giown with
its size In 1871 it was $6,000,000, in 1881,
$6,750,000, m 1891, $21,350,000, m 1901, $51,-
400,000 and the budget for 1914-15, passed be-
fore \var was foieseen, amounted to $117,000,000
As in the case of the army, the supreme com-
mand is vested m the Emperor, both m peace
and wai, and he alone presides over the whole
navy All questions upon -which the diffeient
bureaus or divisions of the navy are not agreed
aie leferred directly to the Emperor for his de-
cision The Emperor's principal aid is the In-
spector General of the Navy The department
is drvided into two administrative bmeaus —
the Imperial Navy Office, which deals with
everything that involves expense, and the Ad-
imialty Staff (Admiralstab), which deals with
everything that relates to command (including
the Naval Intelligence Office, plans of operation,
mobilization, tiaimng, etc ) Aside fiom the
chiefs of these bureaus, there are five other of-
ficeifa pei forming independent duties for which
they aie icsponsible to the Empeior alone
These aie the commander in chief in the
Baltic, the commander in chief in the North
Sea, the chief of the High Seas Fleet, the chief
of the Cruiser Squadron, and the Inspector of
Ti aming
The personnel of the navy has been greatly
increased since the beginning of the great war
of 1914 Previous to the mobilization, by the
provisions of the Naval Bill of 1914-15 it was
to consist of 3760 commissioned officeis and
75,468 men The line officers provided for were
2 grand admirals, 5 admirals, 12 vice admirals,
22 rear admirals, 379 captains and commanders,
and 1991 other line omcers The training ot
line officers consists of one year on a practice
ship, one year at the naval school (at Murwik
near Flenaburg), SIT months divided between th*
gunnery school, torpedo training ship, and the
marine infantry, and lastly one year's practice
training in the active fleet Engineer officers
(about 600 before the mobilization) are first ap-
pointed to enlisted men's ratings, but wear a
special uniform and are messed separately
They have first a three months' course of in-
struction in military matters, then nine months
on vessels of the High Seas Fleet, followed by
promotion to petty officer's rank, then two
years' service as petty officers in large ships and
destroyers, and one year at one of the engineer-
ing schools (Kiel or Wilhelmshaven ) , followed by
promotion to warrant officer, next, foui years'
training in practice work (usually about two
years of this in destroyers), and lastly one more
year at an engineering school, followed by pro-
motion (if qualified) to the rank of engineer
(corresponding rank of sublieutenant)
The enlisted force consists of the Fleet and
the Beewehr Every German must serve either
in the army or navy and cannot provide a sub-
stitute. The obligation commences at the age
of 20 and continues seven years — the first three
in active service and the remaining four in the
reserve, when the annual exercises or manning
of the fleet do not necessitate recall to service
Bach reservist is obliged to take two training
courseg of eight weeks during the reservist
period, At the end of seven years th& men entec
G-EHMAHY
685
the Seeioefa — in its first class for fhe yeais and
in its second class until they complete their
thirty-ninth year There is also an Etsats Re-
serve., composed of men who have not seived
from various causes, such as excess of numbeis,
domestic reasons, slight physical defects, etc It
serves to fill the vacancies in the complements
when mobilization occurs In addition to the
men serving their three years m the fleet theie
are otheis who have volunteeied foi longer
periods, and these include neaily all petty of-
ficers and other peisons who perform duties not
practicable for short-term men
On Nov 1, 1914, the German fleet consisted
of 16 battleships of the dreadnought type (3
otheis building), 22 older battleships, 3 battle
cruiseis (2 building), 9 aimoied cruisers, 39
cruisers and scouts (6 building), 152 destroyeis
(of these several lost — 12 others building), 36
bubmarmes completed (or nearly completed— at
least one boat sunk in action, several boats
building) The battle cruiser Qoeben and the
light cruiser Bi eslau have been sold to Turkey
and are not included in the foregoing state-
ment The latest reports concerning the naval
air craft give the number of airships as 5, or-
dinary aeroplanes and hydroplanes as about 60,
but, as such craft can be built rapidly, doubt-
less the numbers have been much increased
The beginning of the oigamzed air fleet was
made in 1912, and though the disastrous accidents
to LI and L2 (see MILITARY AERONAUTICS)
caused a temporal y setback, the development of
naval an ships was soon resumed, partly through
expenments with privately owned dirigibles, and
i evolving sheds for airships have been built at
Cuxliaven and elsewhere
The Geiman fleets were organized at the be-
ginning of the war as follows
HIGH SEAS FLEET
RESERVE FLEET
Flagship *Friedrich der
Istb 3 Squadron
(25cl-10gl2-22 k)
*0stfnesland
^Helgoland
*Thunngen
^Oldenburg
(19d-12gll-20k)
*Nassau
*Rhemland
Grosse, 25d, 10gl2, 22 k
3d b s Squadron
(13d-4gll-19k)
Schleswig-Holstem
Schlesien
Pommern
Hannover
Deutschland
Lothnngen
*Westfalen
3db s Squadron
(25d-10gl2-22)
*Kaiser
*Kaiserin
*Konig Albert
*Pr Reg Luitpold
(26 6d-10gl2-23)
t*Konig
t*Markgraf
t*Grosser Kurfurst
fNot completed August 1
Destroyers
7 flotillas, 12 boats each, 1
boat of each m reserve*
lst-055d~32k
2d -0 55d-32k
3d -0 64d~32k
5th -0 62d-3Qk
Preussen
Cruiser Squadron
(25d-10gll-30k)
Seydhtz
(23d-10gll~28k)
Moltke
(19 5d-8gll-28k)
Von der Tann
(28d-8gl2-30k)
Derflinger
8 unarmored C
(5d to 4d-27k to 28k)
Submarines
3 flotillas, 7 vessels each
1st -0 8d-17k-3t
2d -0 3d-12k-2t
3d -0 24d~l2k-2t
4tt and 5th, flotillas probably
formed since July 1 /
4th b s Squadron
(13d-4gll-18k)
Elsaas
Brandenburg
Wittelsbach
Zahrmgen
Schwaben
Mecklenburg
<16d-12g8 2-25k)
Blucher
(12d-4g8 2-23k)
Seharnhorst
Gneiaenau
(9 5-4g8 -21k)
Yorck
Boon
5th b s Squadron
(12d-4g9 4-18k)
Wettin
(Ild-4g94-18k)
Kaiser Barbarossa
K Karl der Grosse
K Wilhelm der Grosse
K Wilhelm II
K Friednch III
Cruiser Squadron
(9d-4gS 2-21k)
Fnednch Karl
Pnnz Adalbert
(9d-2g9 4~20k)
Prints Heinrich
(Ild-4g9 4r-18k)
Furst Bismarck
About 15 armored cruisers 2d to 4d, 18k to 21k
Two b s
Worth
Brandenburg
8 armored coast defense
vessels (4d-3g9 4~15k)
Unassigned
About 50 destroyers, prob-
ably mobilized in 4 flotillas
About 60 torpedo boats
Six protected cruiaers of 6000
tons used in training
(NOTE Displacements are given in thousands of tons,
thus, 12d is 12,000 tons, 5 5d is 5500 tons, 0 555d means 555
tons, 4gl2 means 4 12-inch guns con&titute the mam bat-
tery, 12gll means that 12 11-inch guns are the mam arma-
ment, 30k means 30 knots' speed, 3t means 3 torpedo tubes,
b s means battleship, a c , armored cruiser, c , cruiser,
des , destroyer, sub , submarine, * means dreadnought or
battle cruiser )
Geimany has thiee navy yards Two of them
are laige and splendidly equipped establishments
— one at Wilhelmshaven in the Jade estuary
and the other at Kiel Both aie fitted for re-
pairing or building ships of the largest size
Kiel has two dry docks (and one building) of
sufficient size to take any battleship, but they
are too shoit for battle cruisers Wilhelmshaven
has four dry docks (and one building) for
dreadnoughts, one of these capable, of docking
the largest battle cruisers The third nary
yard is at Danzig It is fitted only for the
building and care of small cruisers and torpedo
craft
The Imperial navy had no war experience
previous to the great war of 1914 In the wars
of 1864 and 1866 the navy of Prussia and of
the North German Confederation achieved noth-
ing There were no important naval operations
during the Franco-Prussian War, the navies of
both powers exhibited a lack of energy and ag-
gressiveness, the one single-ship action being a
drawn battle m which neither side received much
injury. See NAVIES
Money, Weights, and Measures. Gold is tke
single standard of value, silver being legal tender
only for amounts not exceeding 20 marks (lejs
than $5 ) The coming of money is in the hands
of the Imperial government The standard unit
is the mark, whose value is 23 821 cents Dinted
States gold The mark has 100 pfemajigs The
ol<i thaler is equivalent to 3 marks The pre-
v^iling coins are the gold 5^ 30, and 20 mark
liieces^ called the half crown, crown, and double
Wown respectively, the silver 1, 2, and 5 mark
pieces, and bronze corns ox smaller denomi-
nations.
The metric system lias feeen in vogue since
1872. ' " f
GERMANY
686
Colonies. At the outbreak of the War in
Europe (qv ), 1914, the German colonies, or so-
ealled protectorates, were Togo (acquired in
1884), Kamerun (1884), German Southwest
Africa (1884), German East Africa (1885), Ger-
man New Guinea (1884), German Samoa
(1900), and the territory of Kiaochow (1897)
German New Guinea included Kaiser-Wilhelms-
land, the Bismarck Archipelago, and the German
Solomon Islands, while administratively at-
tached to it were the Micronesian islands ac-
quired in 1899, viz ? the Caroline, Pelew, Mar-
shall, and Marianna islands (except Guam)
The following table shows estimates foi 1912
AEE\
POPULATION
Sq km
Sq m
Colored
White
Togo
Kamerun.
87,200
790,000
33,668
305,019
1,003,240
3,500,000
372
1537
Southwest Africa
835,100
322,432
87,770
14,816
East Africa
995,000
384,170
7,510,800
4,866
New Ginnea
Carolines, etc
240,000
2,476
92,664
956
| 609,200
1,278
Samoa
2,572
993
37,480
500
Eaaochow (1913)
552
213
192,000
4,470
Total
2,950,900
1,140,115
12,903,490
27,339
The German colonial system is that of a pure
dbsolutism administered through a centralized
buieaucraey Neither the natives noi the white
inhabitants of the colonies have any voice in the
fiscal or political administration of the tem-
tories The laws for the colonies are fiamed hy
the Imperial Parliament, and German citizens
residing in the colonies enjoy the same civil
rights as in the mother country The natives
are not regarded as German citizens, hut are
allowed to acquire citizenship "by naturalization
in accordance with the general laws regulating
such procedure A fundamental law in respect
to the administration of colonies was laid down
"by the Reichstag in 1886 and subsequently
amended m 1887 and 1888. The only exception,
whereby the native element is recognized in
the administration of colonial affairs, is in
the case of some of the districts where it was
thought advisable to placate the native chiefs
by making them the medium of communication
between the Imperial government and the native
population
The decision as to the budget for the pro-
tectorates is nominally vested m the Emperor,
though virtually it is xn the hands of the Gov-
ernor of the colony and his immediate subordi-
nates The revenue is derived from taxation,
sale or lease of public property., fees, and sub-
ventions from the home government^ There is
a house tax applicable to both Europeans and
natives The rate of the tax is expressed in
money, but the natives are allowed to offer prod-
uce or labor as the equivalent of the tax The
determination of the value of labor and natural
products is left to the local authorities, . thus
permitting the exercise of a good deal of arbi-
trary power by the colonial officers Moreover,
"measures are provided for the enforcement of
the tax, and for this purpose forced labor is per-
mitted " Experience has shown that the svstem
is productive of excessive hardships for the na-
tives and affords opportunity for the display of
great cruelty by the local officers The revenues
derived from the various sources in tne protec-
torates are, however, generally far from being
sufficient to cover the necessary expenses, and
the home government finds it necessary to grant
large subventions from yeai to year Extiaor-
dinary expenditures are generally met by loans
The excess of ordinary expenditure over the ordi-
nary, or colonial, revenue is covered by Imperial
subvention Colonial revenue and expendituie
respectively, for all the protectorates, have been
as follows, in millions of marks in 190 1, 7 82
and 3994, in 1903, 1010 and 4005 in 1904,
13 08 and 10115, in 1903, 1530 and 20468,
in 1906, 1821 and 10118, in 1909, 4263 and
6820, in 1910, 4872 and 82 43 , in 1911, 4799
and 97 13 The total estimated receipts for the
fiscal year 1914 were 157,538,000 msuks, made
up as follows colonial receipts, 60,027,000
marks, territorial debt, 7,905,000, Imperial sub-
vention, 31,961,000, loan, 57,600,000, "-econo-
mies" (in Iviaoehow), 45,000
Colonial Commerce — The combined imports
and exports of tne Geiman piotectoiates in-
ci eased fiom a value of 99,576,000 marks m
1902 to 193,101,000 in 1905, 254,692,000 in 1908,
and 435,440,000 m 1911 Imports and exports
have been as follows, in thousands of marks
1905
1908
1909
1910
1911
Imports
Africa
Pacific islands
Kiaochow *
Total
62,514
8,858
69,176
84,264
7,593
69,041
97,613
9,799
65,464
119,400
9,441
69,375
130,131
1?,OS1
U4.93S
140,548
160,898
172,876
198,216
257,150
Exports
Africa
Pacific islands
Kiaochow *
Total
23,438
4,398
24,717
37,726
8,724
47,344
58,264
11,350
54,732
82,643
18,199
60,561
81,579
16,416
80,290
52,553
93,794
124,346
161,403
178 290
+ With hinterland
Imports from and exports to Germany in 1970
amounted to 95,090,000 and 73,210,000 marks
respectively, in 1011, 104,826,000 and 73,818,000.
If we take into account the fact that the gieatei
part of German imports into the protectorates,
except Kiaochow, represents supplies sent there
by the government for the use ot its troops, offi-
cials, and public works, the value of the German
colonial trade becomes unimportant
Population. The following table shows the
area in square kilometers and in equivalent square
miles of the states of the German Empire, their
de facto population according to the censuses
of Dec 1, 1910, and Dec 1, 1905, the percentage
of increase fiom 1905 to 1910 and from 1S71
(the year m whicn the Empire was established)
to 1910, and the population per square kilometer
in 1910 dud 1871 Political status is indicated
thus L kingdom, g giand duchy, d duchy, p
principality, fc free city, r Reichsland (Imperial
territory) Under Prussia are shown the con-
stituent provinces, and under Bavaria are shown
Bavaiia proper (le, the eastern part) and the
detached ^Palatinate (west of the Ehine).
The only countries in the world exceeding
Germany in population are China, India, Russia,
and the United States Dunng the past cen-
tuiy German population has increased remark-
ably The average annual increase fiom 1816
to 1864 was 096 per cent, from 1864 to 1910,
109 per cent, from 1816 to 1910, 102 per
cent. The population in 1816 was 24,833,000,-
687
OEKKANY
in 1820, 26,294,000', in 1830, 29,520,000, in 1840,
32,787,000, m 1850, 35,397,000, m 1860, 37,747,-
000; in 1864, 39,392,000, in 1870, 40,818,000, m
1871, 41,058,792, m 1880, 45,234,061 (average
annual increase from 1871, 1 08 per cent) , m
1890, 49,428,470 (annual increase, 0' 89 per cent) ;
m 1900, 56,367,178 (annual increase, 131 per
cent) ; in 1905, 60,641,489 (annual increase, 1 46
per cent) ; in 1910, 64,925,993 (annual increase,
1 36 per cent) , in 1919, 59,857,283
The density of population per square kilometer
m 1910 was 12004 (equivalent to 3109 per
square mile) For the sake of comparison the
density per square kilometer in other countries
June 30, 1912, \\as 6(5,146,000, and of the Zoll-
gebiet (customs territory), 66,391,000, on June
30, 1914, 67,812,000 and 68,061,000
The foreign population at tlie 1900 census
was 778,737, 1905, 1,028,560 1910, 1,259,873
(of whom 542,879 female) Of the foreigneis
in 1910, subjects of Austria (with Liechtenstein)
numbered 634,983, Netherlands, 144,175, Russia
(with Finland), 137,697, Italy, 104,204, Swit-
zerland, 68,257, Hungary, 32,079, Denmark,
26,233, France, 19,140, United Kingdom and
colonies, 1S,<319, United States and possessions,
17,572, Luxemburg, 14,356, Belgium, 13,455
German subjects of non-Geiman blood exceed
STATES OP THE EMPIRE
AREA
POPULATION
INCR PEB C
POP SQ KM
Sq km
Sq m
1910
1905
'05-' 10
•71-'W
1910
1871
Prussia (k)
348,779 Q
134,663 9
40,165,219
37,293,264
77
627
1152
70 8
East Prussia
37,002 0
14,286 5
2,064,175
2 030,176
1 7
132
558
49 3
West Prussia
25,554 7
9,866 7
1,703 474
1 641,874
38
296
667
51 5
Berlin (city)
634
245
2,071,257
2,040,148
1 5
1507
32,664 5
13,951 4
Brandenburg
39,842 3
15,383 1
4,092,616
3,531,856
159
1009
1027
51 1
Pomerama
30,131 4
11,633 7
1,716 921
1,684,345
1 9
199
570
475
Posen
28,991 5
11,193 6
2,099,831
1,%6,637
57
326
724
547
Silesia
40,335 1
15,573 4
5,225,962
4,942,725
57
410
1296
92 0
Saxony
25,267 3
9,755 7
3,089,275
2,979 249
37
469
1223
833
S chleswig-Holstem
19,0188
7,343 2
1,621,004
1,504,248
78
551
852
550
Hanover
38,509 4
14,868 5
2,942,436
2,759,245
66
500
764
509
Westphalia
20,219 6
7,806 8
4,125,096
3 618,090
140
1324
2040
878
Hesse-Nassau
15,702 0
6,062 5
2,221,021
2,070,052
73
586
1414
892
Rhine Piovmce
27,000 2
10,424 S
7,121,140
6,436,337
106
990
2637
1326
Hohenzollern
1,142 2
4410
71,011
68,282
40
S3
622
574
Bavaria (k)
75,870 2
29,293 5
6,887,291
6,524,372
56
416
908
641
Bavaria proper
69,942 2
27,004 7
5,950,206
5,638,539
55
404
851
606
Palatinate
5,928 0
2,288 8
937,085
885,833
58
524
1581
1038
Saxony (k)
14,992 9
5,788 8
4,806,661
4,508,601
66
880
3206
1705
Wurttemberg (k)
19,507 3
7,531 8
2,437,574
2,302,179
59
340
1250
932
Baden (g)
15,070 3
5,818 6
2,142,833
2,010,728
66
46 6
1422
969
Hesse (g)
7,688 4
2,969 5
1,282,051
1,209,175
60
503
1668
1110
Mecklenburg-Schwerm Cg)
13,1269
5,068 3
639,958
625,045
24
147
488
425
S axe-Weimar (g)
3,6100
1,393 8
417,149
388,095
75
458
1156
792
Mecklenburg-Strelitz (g)
2,929 5
1,131 1
106,442
103,451
29
98
363
331
Oldenburg Cg)
6,429 1
2,482 3
483,042
438,856
101
526
751
493
Brunswick (d)
3,672 0
1,417 8
494,339
485,958
17
586
1346
845
Saxe-Meimngen (d)
2,468 3
9528
278,762
268,916
37
483
1129
762
Saxe-Altenburg (dj
1,323 5
5110
216,128
206,508
47
52 1
1633
1074
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (d)
1,976 8
7632
257,177
242,432
6 1
475
1301
890
Anhalt Cd
2,299 4
8878
331,128
328,029
9
628
1440
887
Schwartzburg-Sondershausen Cp
8622
3329
89,917
85,152
56
338
]043
779
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt (p
941 0
3630
100,702
96,835
40
333
1070
803
Waldeck (p
1,121 0
4328
61,707
59,127
44
98
550
502
Reuss Elder Line (p
3163
1221
72,769
70,603
3 1
614
2301
1425
Reuss Younger Line (p
8267
3192
152,752
144,584
5 6
716
1848
1078
Schaumburg-Lippe (p
3403
1314
46,652
44,992
37
455
1371
939
LiK>e (p
Lubeck (fc
1,215 2
2977
4694
1149
150,937
116,599
145,577
105,857
37
10 1
358
1235
1242
3917
915
1752
Bremen (fc
2564
990
299,526
263,440
137
1447
1,1682
4768
Hamburg (fc
4145
1600
1,014,664
875,149
15,9
1993
2,447,6
8168
Alsace-Lorraine (r
14,521 8
5,606 9
1,874,014
1,814,564
33
209
1290
1068
German Empire
540,857 6
208,825 2
64,925,993
60,641,489
71
581
1200
759
is here shown England, 2683 (United King-
dom, 1442), Belgium, 25207, Java and Ma-
dura, 22887, Netherlands, 17136, Japan, 139,
Italy, 12094 (about the same as the density of
Germany), Luxemburg, 10049, China proper,
78, Austria-Hungary, 76.0], France, 7382, Den-
mark, 70 75 , British India and native states,
6861; Portugal, 648, Spain, 3866, European
Russia (without Poland), 24, Russian Poland,
74, United States, 11 96 (the most densely popu-
lated States of the United States, Rhode Island
and Massachusetts, had a density per square
kilometer in 1910 of 196 5 and 162 respectively)
In Germany the density varies greatly, being
least m agricultural Mecklenburg-Strehtz(36 3) ;
in the industrial kingdom, of Saxony it is
3206
The estimated population of the Empire on
4,000,000, of whom over three-f oui ths aie Poles
Others are Czechs, Lithuanians, Wends, Danes,
French, Frisians, etc The Poles are found prin-
cipally in Posen and Silesia, th^ Czechs in Sile-
sia, the Wends in Silesia, Brandenburg, and
Saxony (Kingdom) , the Lithuanians in East
Prussia, the French in Alsace-Lorraine, the
Danes in S chleswig-Holstem The Poles retain
their ideal of nationality and are essentially a
hostile element in the Empire In 1910 Jews
numbered 615,021, of whom two-thirds are in
Prussia
Urban and Rural Population — - The increase
in Germany's population is largely urban. The
population in 1910 (64,925,993) was divided
among 75,939 communes ( Gemeinden ) Com-
munes with less than 2000 inhabitants are re-
garded as rural; these numbered 72,199, with
GEBMANY
6SB
GffiBMANY
25,945,587 inhabitants Communes with kfas
than 100 inhabitants numbered 15,013, with a
population of 822,406, communes with 100 to
499 inhabitants, 40,516, with a population of
10,250,420, communes with 500 to 999 inhabit-
ants, 11,686, with a population of 8,090,857,
communes with 1000 to 1999 inhabitants, 4984,
with a population of 6,790,904 The urban
communes, le, those having 2000 01 moie in-
habitants, nurnbeied, in 1910, 3740, with a pop-
ulation of 38,971,406 Communes with 2000 to
4999 inhabitants numbered 2441, with a popu-
lation of 7,207,770, communes with 5000 to 19,-
999 inhabitants, 1028, with a population of
9,172,333, communes with 20,000 and less than
100,000, 223, \\ith a population of 8,677,955,
communes with moie than 100,000, 48, with a
population of 13,823,348 The number of com-
munes in the seveial groups and their percentage
of population on total population are shown
below for various dates since the foundation of
the Empire
YEAR
Number
of com-
munes
Percent-
age on
total pop
Communes -with a population
1871
1,716
124
of 2000 to 4999
1890 1 1,997
120
1900 2,269
121
1910
2,441
112
Communes \vith a population
1871
529
112
of 5000 to 19,999
1890
733
13 1
1900
864
135
1910
1,028
14 1
Communes with a population
of 20,000 to 99,999
1871
1890
75
135
77
98
1900
194
126
1910
223
134
Communes with a population
1871
8
48
of more than 100,000
1890
26
121
1900
33
162
1910
48
21 3
Total, urban population
, 1871
2,328
361
1890
2,891
470
1900
3,360
543
1910
3,740
600
Communes with a population
of leas than 2000, rural
1871
1890
639
530
population
1900
73,599
456
1910
72,199
400
Po&en, 136,691, Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) , 156,-
143, Cassel, 153,196, Brunswick, 143,552,
Bochum, 136,931, Karlsruhe, 134,313, Lichten-
berg, 133,141, Krefeld, 129,406, Erfuit, 123,548,
Plauen, 121,272
Sex and Conjugal Condition — In Geimany, as
in most other countries not newly settled, the
number of females exceeds that of males In
1910, males numbered 32,040,166, and females
32,885,827, or 974 males to each 100 females,
there aie born about 106 boys to each 100 girls,
but the number of females is in excess on account
of the greater mortality and emigration among
males In 1910 unman led males numbered 19,-
516,340, and females 18,591,604, married, 11,-
608,028 and 11,621,685, divorced, 49,122 and
88,666 In 1910 and 1911 respectively marriages
numbered 496,396 and 512,819, bnths (includ-
ing stillbirths), 1,982,836 and 1,927,039, deaths
(including stillbirths), 1,103,723 and 1,187,-
094, excess of births, 879,113 and 739,945
living births, 1,924,778 and 1,870,720 The
following table shows, for vanous periods and
years, for each 1000 inhabitants m the num-
bei of marriages, 5 births (including still-
births), d deaths (including stillbirths), e ex-
cess of bnths over deaths, I living births, and
for each 100 births ^ the number of illegitimate
births, s the number of stillbirths
The figures show a remarkable decline in the
percentage of rural population Thus, while in
1871 the population of communes having 2000
or more inhabitants was 36 1 per cent of the
total and that of communes having less than
2000 inhabitants was 639 per cent, the urban
population in 1910 was 60 per cent and the
rural 40 per cent Communal population of the
larger German cities, according to the 1910 cen-
sus Berlin, 2,071,257 (Greater Berlin, 3,710,-
000) , Hamburg, 932,116, Leipzig, 626,267,
Munich, 607,592; Dresden, 551,697, Cologne,
516,527, Breslau, 514,765, Frankfort-on-the-
Mam, 414,576, Dusseldorf, 358,728, Nuremberg,
333,142, Charlottenburg, 305,976, Hanover,
302,375, Essen, 294,653, Chemnitz:, 287,807,
Stuttgart, 286,218; Magdeburg, 279,629, Bremen,
247,437, Konigsberg, 245,994, Stettin, 237,419,
Neukolln (formerly Rixdorf), 237,289, Duis-
burg, 229,483, Dortmund, 214,226; Kiel, 211,-
627, Mannheim, 206,049, Halle 180,843, Strass-
burg, 178,891, Berlm-Schoneberg, 172,823, Al-
tona, 172,628, Danzig, 170,337, Elberfeld, 170,-
195 , Gelsenkirchen, 169,513; Barmen, 109,214,
TEA.R3
m
6
d
e
I
i
s
1851-60
78
368
278
90
353
11 5
40
1861-70
85
388
284
103
372
115
41
1871-80
86
407
288
119
39 I
89
40
1881-90
78
382
265
117
368
93
37
1891-1900
82
373
235
139
36 1
91
32
1905
SI
340
208
132
330
85
30
1907
81
332
190
142
323
87
30
1909
78
320
181
139
310
90
29
1910
77
307
171
136
298
91
29
1901-1910
80
339
197
143
329
86
20
1911
78
295
182
113
286
92
30
Although the average annual increase of pop-
ulation in 1901-10 (141 per cent) was greater
than in the preceding decade (131), and al-
though the death rate declined from 218 in
1901 to 17 1 in 1910, the rate of population in-
crease in Germany appears no longer to be ad-
vancing The movement in the death rate (and
in the stillbiith rate) is similar to that of other
countries where modern medical science is widely
applied The movement in the birth rate re-
flects a condition normal in a population tend-
ing rapidly cityward Also, m a civilized com-
munity the birth rate shows, within certain
limits, an inverse relation to the diffusion of
artificial refinements The falling birth rate,
long conspicuous in Prance, has been, since
about the beginning of the present century, very
noticeable in Germany
Emigration Germany was long notable for
her large number of emigrants During the
eighteenth century and the early part of the
nineteenth Russia attracted many German emi-
grants, granting them various privileges, land,
and pecuniary aid During the latter century,
it is estimated, more than 6,000,000 people left
Germany, the majority of them for the United
States The largest emigration was in 1881,
220,902, in 1912 German emigrants numbered
only 18,545 Since 1897 there has not been
much fluctuation in the numbers of persons leav-
ing the country The total number of emigrants,
the rate of emigration |>$r thousand of ihe
689
GERMANY
population, and numbei of emigiants to the
United States have been as follows
TEAR
Total No
Rate
To United
States
1881
220,902
486
206,189
1891
120,089
241
113,046
1893
87,677
1 73
78,249
1895
37,498
72
32,503
1900
22,309
40
19,703
1905
28,075
47
26,005
1908
19,883
32
17,951
1910
25,531
39
22,773
1911
22,690
35
18,900
1912
18,545
28
13,706
Heligion At the 1900 census, Evangelicals
comprised about 62 5 per cent of the population,
and Roman Catholics 36 1 per cent, in 1010,
61 6 and 36 7 The proportionate distribution
of these bodies, which has changed but little
since the religious wars of the seventeenth cen-
tury, is characterized by a decided grouping
within certain definite limits, corresponding to
the states or to smaller political divisions, so
that in most localities one or the other sect is
strongly predominant Some changes in the
relative proportions of the two sects has taken
place in the large cities as a result of the
movement of population accompanying their re-
cent growth In general, central Germany is the
stronghold of Evangelicalism and the Rhine and
Danube regions of Roman Catholicism More
than one-third of the population of Prussia con-
sists of Roman Catholics, who are especially
numerous in Posen, Silesia, West Prussia, West-
phalia, and the Rhine Province The following
table shows the religious distribution of the
people according to the census of Dec 1, 1910
Lutheian and the Reformed, and the United
Evangelical church (dating from 1817 and at
fust established only in Prussia), formed by a
union of the Lutheran and Reformed bodies un-
der state auspices The laigest Evangelical de-
nomination outside of tlie Lutheian and Re-
formed bodies, that of the Baptists, numbeis
only about 30,000 members By its latitudina-
rjanism the Evangelical church lias retained
within its fold the followeis of many widely
diffeient schools of thought, from extieme
oithodoxy to rationalism At the end of the
nineteen tli centuiy the tendency towards ration-
alism in theology, which had !<*>ng been so piomi-
nent in Germany, was appaiently on the decline
In the last quartei of the centuiy a considerable
element of the labeling class in the large cen-
tres of population had become divoiced fiom
any church thiough the use of the socialistic
piopaganda, the defection varying in intensity
from passive mdilleience, growing out of the
belief that the church was in league with the
existing political ordei, to a ladical opposition
to all icligion Ihe Evangelical body has suf-
fered much moie severely from this "movement
than has the Roman Catholic, the piiebthood of
the latter organi/ation having been laigely suc-
cessful in checking the movement thiough then
activity in establishing Roman Catholic organ-
izations for laboring men The sccedeis from
the Roman Catholic church after the Vatican
Council of 1870 assumed the name of Old Catho-
lics, and this faction now numbers about 50,000
The Roman Catholics have concentrated then
forces until they have become politically the
strongest party in the Empire and have con-
sequentlv obtained certain advantageous con-
cessions The severe Prussian laws of 1873 di-
rected against ultiamontamsm, by attempting
CHRISTIANS
PER CENT
STATES
Evangel-
icals
Roman
Catholics
Others
Jews
Others
Evan-
gelicals
Roman
Catho-
hcs
Other
Chris-
tians
Jews
Prussia
24,830,547
14,581,829
189,887
415,926
147,030
6182
3631
047
104
Bavana
1,942,658
4,863,251
13,963
55,065
12,354
2821
7061
020
080
Saxony.
4,520,835
236,052
25,574
17,587
6,613
9405
491
053
037
Wtirttemberg
1,671,183
739,995
12,863
11,982
1,551
6856
3036
053
049
Baden
826,364
1,271,015
13,229
25,896
6,329
3856
5932
0.62
121
Hesae
848,004
397,549
6,707
24,063
5,728
66 15
3101
052
188
Mecklenburg-Schwerm
615,511
21,043
1,289
1,413
702
9618
329
020
022
Saxe-Weimar
393,774
19,980
841
1,323
1,231
9440
479
020
032
Mecklenburg-Strehtz
101,513
4,255
352
254
68
9537
400
030
0 24
Oldenburg
371,650
107,508
1,591
1,525
768
7694
222fi
033
032
Brunswick ,
464,175
25,888
1,774
1,757
745
9390
524
036
036
Saxe-Memmgen
271,433
5,233
610
1,137
349
97,37
188
022
041
Saxe-AItenburg
207,825
7,246
481
194
382
9616
335
022
OOQ
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
250,454
4,951
319
783
670
9739
193
012
030
Anhalt
315,262
12,755
1,087
1,383
641
9521
385
033
042
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
87,836
1,732
57
215
77
9769
1 93
006
024
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
Waldeok
99,210
57,857
1,288
2,858
S8
393
78
590
38
49
9852
9369
128
463
008
064
OOS
096
Reuss Elder Line
70,489
1,296
866
44
74
9687
178
1 19
006
Reuas Younger Line
147,272
3,498
779
375
828
9641
229
051
025
Sohaumburg-Lippe
44,385
715
1,314
230
8
9514
153
282
049
Lippe
143,961
5,936
193
780
67
9538
393
013
0,,52
Lubeck
111,543
3,968
276
623
189
9566
340
024
054
Bremen
259,688
22,233
1,290
1,843
14,472
8670
742
043
f062
Hamburg
929,758
51,036
4,255
19,472
10,143
91 63
503
042
1 92
Alsace-Lorraine
408,274
1,428,343
3,868
30,483
3,046
2178
7622
0*21
1 63
German Empire .
39,991 421
23,821,453
283,946
615,021
214,152
61 59
36 69;
044
095
The Evangelical church in Germany contrasts
With the Protestant church in America and
England in that it is not split up into numer-
ous rival factions The adherent^ of the church
are divided between the ttvo confessions, the
especially to limit and to control Roman Oathohc
education, were repealed in 1$$7, and religious
congregations — the Jesuits exempted — existing for
charitable or contemplative purposes are al-
lowed The different branches of the Christian
GEBMAHY
690
faith are subsidized by the individual states,
and in some the Jews also receive support See
EEFOBMATION.
Education Fiom almost the beginning of
modern times Germany has held the pumacy in
educational rank It has been distinguished
both for the general diffusion of knowledge and
for the superiority of its specialists in the va-
rious fields of learning Many of the names
most prominent m the pedagogical world are
Geirnan As early as 1642 Weimar had enacted
a compulsory educational law, and before the
middle of the century other places m G-ermany
had followed the- example At present every
child in the empire must attend school every
school day m the year (usually about 42 weeks)
for a penod which in most German states ex-
tends from the ages of 6 to 14 years The law
is enforced to the letter, and there are scarcely
any evasions As a consequence, illiteracy has
been practically eliminated
The early movement for the improvement and
extension of education was the result largely of
the efforts of the Church, which had almost ex-
elusive charge of educational matters. The first
systematic educational effort dates back to the
Carlovmgian schools attached to monasteries
and cathedrals Their methods prevailed with
some modifications through the Middle Ages
By the end of the fifteenth century common
schools were widespread in Germany The ec-
clesiastical conflicts of the sixteenth century
checked for the time educational progress, which
was successfully resumed aftei the cessation of
the religious wars. Fredeiick William I of
Prussia established at his own expense 400
schools for the common people, and his son,
Frederick the Great, was very active in further-
ing educational interests For the regulation
of schools he promulgated in 1763 an oider that
is considered the basis of the piesent German
system This order fixed a period for compul-
sory attendance, supplemented school support
from the state funds, and provided for the su-
perintendence of schools and regulations for the
selection of teachers A Law of 1794 held that
all public schools and educational institutions
were under the care of the state, at the same
time lecogmzing religious instruction under the
pioviso that children trained in one religious
faith could not be forced to take instruction in
another The educational system was revised
in 1854 and again m 1872 The interest so early
manifested has never been relaxed It was esti-
mated as early as 1840 that the pupils of Prus-
sia numbered one-sixth of the population.
Germany has been free from the bitter re-
ligious wrangles that have characterized the edu-
cational history of Fiance and of the United
Kingdom, for it was agreed almost without
question in Germany that there should be re-
ligious teaching. Schools are provided for
Catholics, Protestants, and Hebrews separately,
with teachers of the i espective faiths , or, if con-
ditions do not justify the establishment of sep-
arate schools, special arrangements are made
separately and at the state's expense for in-
struction on the subject of religion With the
growth of state aid and the centralization of
the school system, ecclesiastical authority has
been greatly lessened, but a large per cent of
the school inspectois are still the local pastors.
Ecclesiastical authorities inspect the religious
instruction given in the secondary schools, but
their r6le is only advisory.
The educational scheme in Geinmny is made
to conform closely to the existing social oider
and is strikingly difTeient m ariangement from
the American The classification lesultmg from
the recognition of religious differences has al-
ready been noted, but of still greater moment
are the diffeiences due to the distinction made
between the sexes and to the recognition of so-
cial classes There are, theiefoie, decided dif-
ferentiations between schools and a disregard
of coordination as the term is commonly un-
derstood in America The line of denial cation
between primaiy and secondary education in
Germany is thoroughly well defined. It is a
longitudinal differentiation established on a
basis of class distinction and ultimate desti-
nation of the individual — in the last analysis
determined purely by the financial standing of
the parents — rather than a latitudinal differ-
entiation, based upon age of pupils and sub-
•jects of mstiuction, with practical democratic
ideas as a foundation, wherein lack of financial
ability constitutes no insuperable barrier to the
realization of individual ambition In Germany
primary and secondary schools exist side by
side, the former being free schools and the latter
fee schools, although for the first three years
the subjects of instruction are exactly the same
in both If the financial status of the family
warrants the youth in aspiring to become a
member of the directing class in any field of
endeavor, the decision must practically be made
by the ninth year of the child's life, or the third
year of the school, at the time when the second-
ary school proper begins. Once beyond this
point, transition to the secondary school be-
comes practically impossible, and the elementary-
school pupil is thenceforth destined to be a pri-
vate, or at best an under officer in the great
vocational armies, he is cut off forever from
rising to a commanding position The schools
which admit to the greatest honors are thus
protected by their greater cost and are there-
fore entirely beyond the reach of the humbler
classes
Primary Education — The schools usually re-
ferred to as primary are known as the Volks-
schulen, which provide for the ordinary penod
of compulsory attendance Fees were foimerly
charged m the primaiy schools, as late as 1901,
0 3 per cent of the total income of these schools
being derived from this source, but to-day, save
for extremely lare instances, all this instruction
is free. Aside from the opportunity of transi-
tion at the end of the third or fourth year, the
course here does not coordinate with the courses
in the higher schools which lead to social pre-
ferment, and practically none of the pupils who
complete it take up the work in the secondary
schools The only further educational provi-
sion for these children — except the few selected
for normal students — are the Fortbildungs-
schulen, or continuation schools (part-time
schools for the youth of one or both sexes, fol-
lowing the close of the elementary school course,
and ordinarily covering the period from 14 to
17 years of age), and certain other vocational
classes The children who attend the Volks-
schulen are largely from the lower masses
Parallel with the Volksschulen, and doing ex-
actly the same type of work, are the Vorsxshulen,
or preparatory classes, attached to the regular
secondary schools By no means every second-
ary school has its preparatory classes, but where
found they operate on a basis of class distinc-
GERMANY
691
GERMANY
tion and serve to separate the cluldien of the
classes from those of the masses even from the
very first years of school It is perhaps un-
necessary to suggest that the Vorschulen are
fee schools The state supports no kindergarten
schools They aie maintained through private
agencies and are sometimes aided by the munici-
pality
Secondary Education — The secondary sys-
tem is built up with little r eg aid to the pri-
mary system It takes its form solely with
regard to the career for which it is intended
to prepare, the selection forced upon parents at
the end of the third year of the child's school
life determining to a very large extent the ulti-
mate caieer of their offspimg In the secondary-
school system of earlier centuries the ancient
classics held a dominant position, and an exten-
sive system of privileges admitting to social rank
had been based upon them and tended to give
them a peculiar persistence The schools in
which the classics still constitute the central fea-
ture of the course are called the Gymnasien, and
it is only by taking this course that admission
may be secured to many of the highest govern-
ment positions or the highest social recognition
reached. But the requirements of a practical
age have demanded greater and greater con-
cessions Changing conditions of modern so-
ciety brought about a reaction against the ex-
clusive classical basis of secondary-school cul-
ture As early as the middle of the eighteenth
century nonclassical schools ( Realschulen ) ,
wheiein modern languages, mathematics, and
science formed the backbone of the course, began
to come to the front For 100 years they made
slight headway,, and it was not until the last
half of the century just closed that these "mod-
ern" schools became relatively free for a greater
development First arose a differentiation of
type, with one school teaching Latin and the
other eschewing the classics altogether In 1882
these two innovations assumed a more decided
form, and since that time there have been
three well-defined lines of development in boys'
secondary education — the ultraclassical, rep-
resented by the Gymnasium, which offers both
Latin and Greek, the semiclassical, represented
by the Realgymnasmm, with Latin but no Greek,
and the exclusively modern, represented by the
Oberrealschule, wherein the classical influence
is entnely lacking, and in its place one finds
the more realistic subjects— living languages,
science, and mathematics — occupying the domi-
nant place The Gymnasium emphasizes purely
humanistic culture, the Oberrealschule stands
for exclusively "modern" studies, expressed by
the very convenient German term "Reahen",
while the Realgymnasium is a hybrid, occupying
the middle ground "between the two extremes of
•ultrahumamsm and ultrarealism Even under
such hard and fast conditions as those prevail-
ing in Germany, definite choice of a boy's life
career as early as nine years of age is exceed-
ingly difficult The so-called "Frankfort plan,"
introduced in }892, was devised to meet the sit-
uation This is simply a combination of the
Gymnasium and Realgymnasium courses in the
same school, wherein the work of the first three
years of the secondary school proper is common
Thus, the family is not compelled to choose be-
tween the two courses until the boy^s twelfth
year, or as late as the sixth year of school. A
recent modification practically makes it possi-
ble to t>osti)one the decision until two years
later, provided the boy is willing to do a little
extra work in either Latin or French, according
to the new course selected So populai has been
this device to avoid too eaily specialization that
more than a quarter of all the Gymnasien and
Realgymnasien in Piussia are now organized on
this basis
Each of the three types of nine-year secondary
schools has a short-course counteipart, six years
in length — the Gymnasium having its Progym-
nasium, the Eealgymnasium, its Uealprogym-
nasium, and the Oberrealschule, its Bealschule
This makes possible the extension of secondary
education to communities which are not in posi-
tion to support a full-course school. These six
types of schools — Gymnasium, Realgymnafeium,
Oberrealschule, Progymnasium, Realprogymna-
sium, and Realschule — constitute what are known
as "higher" schools, whose chief distinguishing
characteristic is that the pupils are eligible
for the one-year volunteer seivico privilege in the
army Completion of six years' woik in a recog-
nized secondary school, or passage of a special
examination in the case of pxipils of the non-
recognized secondary schools, brings the coveted
honor Such is the social prestige attached to
this privilege that parents willingly make the
financial sacrifice imposed upon the volunteer of
paying his entire expenses while in the army —
board, lodging, clothing, and equipment — a not
inconsiderable figure in the cavalry arm of the
service
Under the reform of 1901 the former domi-
nance of the classics has been largely broken
down, for now the three types of schools are
theoretically upon an equality The elaborate
system of privileges previously reserved exclu-
sively for the graduates of the Gymnasium has
now been thrown open to the graduates of the
other two types of secondary schools, i e , the
Realgymnasium and the Oberrealschule For-
merly free entrance to the university courses was
restricted to the Gymnasium pupils Now, in
Prussia, graduates of all three schools are on
practically equal footing, as far as competition
for the various privileges is concerned. For the
study of theology, however, the Gymnasium
course is still exclusively required Oberreal-
schulen graduates are also debarred from study-
ing medicine, unless they choose to make up the
required Latin by outside study No one of the
other German states is quite so liberal as Prus-
sia The relative importance of the different
classes of secondary schools in Germany is seen
in a statement of their number In 1911, the
numbers of boys' secondary schools, public and
private, were as follows 524 Gymnasien and 81
Progymnasien , 223 Realgymnasien and 63 Real-
progymnasien , 411 Realschulen and 167 Ober-
realschulen, and 218 "other" secondary schools
(i.e, with less than the full nine-year course),
almost entirely confined to the south Germte
states. The school population was GymnaMn,
160,237, Realgymnasien, 70,357, OberreaJjswiia-
len, 75,832, Progymnasien, 9509, Realprogymna-
sien, 7252, and Realschulen, 89,968
As in other continental countries, the second-
ary education of girls has lagged conlsiderably
behind that of boys Thanks to fee constant
agitation of a group of faithful women strug-
gling for the emancipation of tfeeir sex, the re-
form of 1909 placed girls'' secondary schools
upon a much more satisfactory basis, although
the government is still loth to expend money on
such an apparent luxury; for nearly half of the
692
GEKMAN?
girls* secondary schools in all Geimany were in
1911 under private control State regulations
are issued for their administration, however,
just as in the case of the boys' schools Second-
ary education for gills m Prussia is provided in
three types of institutions Lyzeum, a 10-year
course fiom 6 to 16 , Obeilyzeum, with a two-
year women's school course and a four-year
normal school course, and university prepaia-
tory school ( Studienanstalt ) , with *a six-year
course in the Gymnasium and Realgymnasium
divisions and a five-year course in the Oberieal-
schule division , all three substantially parallel-
ing the corresponding types among the boys'
schools Girls leave the Lyzeum at the close of
the seventh vear of the course to entei the
Gymnasium or the Realgymnasium division, and
one yeai later to entei the Oberrealschule divi-
sion Although girls are thus admitted freely
to the universities, the final decision as to
whether or not they will be admitted to a par-
ticular university class rests with the professor
in charge
Universities — -Germany has 21 universities,
the largest being Berlin, with 9806 pupils
(winter semester, 1912-13), Munich, 6759, and
Leipzig, 5351 (these figures do not include non-
matriculated students) The other umvei sities
are as follows* Bonn, Breslau, Freiburg, Halle,
Tubingen, Heidelberg, Grottingen, IMarbmg,
Strassburg, Wurzburg, Kiel, Komgsberg, Brian-
gen, Giessen, Greifswald, Munster, Jena, Ros-
tock All legal foimalities have been completed
which provide foi opening the University of
Frankfort on the Mam in October, 1914 "The
universities of Freibuig, Munich, Munster, and
Wurzburg have Roman Catholic faculties of
theology, Bonn, Breslau, Strassburg, and Tu-
bingen have mixed Catholic and Protestant
faculties, and the other universities are all
Protestant, University students are allowed an
extreme degree of liberty, in striking contrast
to the rigid discipline observed in the second-
ary schools Indeed, the spirit of freedom per-
vading the university life, as evidenced especially
in the great liberty enjoyed by the university
faculties m thought and speech, is apparently
an anomaly in a goveinment so strongly mili-
tary. Further reflection, however, will show
that presentation of monarchical ideals is suffi-
ciently safeguarded by the control exercised by
the Minister of Education over the appointment
of university professors Usually he designates
one of the thiee candidates presented by the
university senate, but it is quite within his
power totally to disregard these suggestions
and to select a candidate of his own choice.
Persons holding dangerous views in any field
are thus effectually eliminated The universities
are of equal rank and the entrance requirements
are the same, viz , the completion of the course
at a nine-year secondary school While the
universities are in theory noniespecters of per-
sons of social classes, they are in reality ex-
clusive, because tlie expense of university life
and of the secondary course preceding it tends
to limit the attendance to representatives of
the higher social classes.
Technical and Vocational Education — Just
as the ordinary schools are classified in three
large groups or degrees, so the vocational
schools, most of which are under the , Minister
of Commerce and Industry, all fall into one of
t three levels — lower, middle, and higher. Under
tins ministry the lowest group include^ the con-
tinuation schools, industrial and commercial,
the middle group, the middle technical and
tiade schools on the one hand and the secondary
commercial schools on the other, the higher
group, the colleges of commerce Laigely from
histoncal reasons, the highest of the technical
group, the technical colleges, still remain under
the direction of the Minister of Education,
while he likewise controls some of the second-
ary commeicial schools as well In addition
there are schools of agnculture, foiestry, brew-
ing, and the like, so that opportunity is offered
for vocational tiaimng along practically every
line The lo\\est or continuation schools (Fort-
bildungsschulen ) are part-time schools (com-
pulsory in 12 of the 26 states of the Empire) for
young" people from 13 or 14 to 16 or 18 years
of age, who have completed the elementary
school and ate aheady at uorh They hold the
youngster from four to eight hours per week
"(the number varying in the different states of
the Empire, and the time most irequently taken
from the working dav ) , and they aim to give
him simple theoretical training that shall have
a direct beaung upon his occupation, but that is
not designed to lift him above the position of
an ordinary artisan or woikman In this same
category are found the so-called mechanics'
schools (Handwerkerschulen) with their out-
of-work-hours classes for the improvement of
journevmen These latter schools are largely
maintained by guilds and corporations The
middle technical and trade schools are of va-
rious types — engineering schools, building-con-
struction schools, textile schools, schools for ar-
tistic trades, and simple trade schools for wood-
workers, glassworkers, photographers, and the
like This group is by far the most diversified
and the most difficult to classify They differ
from the schools of the lower group in that all
require some practical work already completed,
whereas the lower schools admit pupils who are
carrying on their trade paw passu The courses
vaiy in length from one to three years, and the
age limits range ordinarily from 18 to 25 years
and over They aim to give a kind of middle
and lower training for engineers and to turn
out jobmasters, second hands, and the like
Secondary commercial schools provide a kind of
middle commercial training and in some cases
offer courses which satisfy the requirements of
the one-year volunteer certificate. The third or
higher group consists of the technical colleges
and the colleges of commerce They furnish
the highest type of industrial or commercial
tiaimng, open the way to the highest state and
private careers, and prepaie the future leaders
in the general fields of industry and commerce
The technical colleges are the real scientific
schools of Germany, corresponding to the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology and similar in-
stitutions m America Each of these higher
technical schools or technical colleges specializes
in one or more of the technical professions —
civil, electrical, marine, and mechanical engi-
neeiing, architecture, forestry, metallurgy and
mining, navigation, shipbuilding, chemistry,
pharmacy, and general science Several of these
fields are treated in more elementary fashion in
the schools of the middle group The initiative
fqr, as well as the actual work connected with,
the foundation of the major part of the trade
schools of Germany has come from the various
tra$e organisations, industrial associations, or
the government of the community concerned.
GEBMAHY 65
Some of them owe then inception to puiely pn-
vate beneficence Even in the case of the ordi-
nary continuation schools, semipublic organiza-
tions have frequently taken the initiative, and
the schools have been taken over by the com
munity subsequently, after the pioneei work
has already been done The interest of the Ger-
man mdustual in effecting tiade-school work
has not been evanescent, but it has served to
keep him in close personal contact with its prog-
ress He has not been concerned with voca-
tional work in general, but with tiaming for
his specific business The result has been that
the schools always reflect the particular activity
of the community or at least of the immedi-
ate region Mining aieas have mining schools,
textile centres have textile schools, shipping
localities have schools which tend to develop
the maritime industries This cooperation
between school and mdustiy, which is com-
mon alike to commercial and industrial schools,
is one of the strongest and most helpful fea-
tures of the German vocational-school movement
Berlin is the largest of the technical colleges,
having had 2851 students (winter semester,
1912-13), but it is closely followed by Munich,
with 2766 The total enrollment at the 11 col-
leges (Aachen, Berlin, Breslau, Brunswick, Dan-
zig, Darmstadt, Dresden, Hanover, Karlsruhe,
Munich, and Stuttgart) was 16,418 Among the
colleges of commerce Cologne occupies the first
place with 2542 students (winter semester,
1912-13), of whom only 555 were matriculated
students The total number of matriculated
students at the six colleges (Berlin, Cologne,
Frankfort, Leipzig, Mannheim, and Munich)
was 2851, although 7637 represents the total
number profiting by the instruction of these
schools
School Administration — The German states
act independently in their school systems The
main important outlines of the respective sys-
tems are nevertheless almost uniform There
is much variation in details The Prussian sys-
tem is generally described as repi esentative
The control of the Prussian schools is through
the Department of Education, subject to the
limitations of the constitution and of precedent
The hedd of the department is a cabinet ofiicei,
known as the Minister of Religious and Educa-
tional Affairs The Minister is aided by a large
number of special councilors There are two
divisions for education in the department, the
first having charge mainly of the universities
and the secondary schools, the second of elemen-
tary education and the tiaming of teachers.
In each province there is a school board, of
which the president of the province is chair-
man The other members are proposed by the
Minister of Education and appointed by the
King This board supervises the most general
matters, such as questions concerning textbooks,
etc, and especially matters concerning the sec-
ondary schools The provinces are divided into
administrative counties (TCegierungen) , and these
again into districts, bobh the large and small
divisions having school boards These county
sichool boards concern themselves more particu-
larly with the common schools, although then
control is decidedly general in its nature^ being-
responsible for the execution of all school laws
and of all regulations that come down from the
higher authorities Below these county boards
are] the local authorities' — the municipal school
deputation m towns and cities^ and the school
3 GERMANY
committee in the rural districts The municipal
deputation may, and usually does, delegate a
portion of its authority to a smaller body called
the school commission, a group of individuals
having chaige of a single school The municipal
depxitation is quite conipaiable to the American
bchool board, save that it deals with the purely
exteinal aftairs of the schools and then mainte-
nance, having no control ovei the teacheis in
their professional capacity noi over the methods
and processes of instruction Such internal
ailans of the school aie under the absolute
domination of the cential authorities
Teachet s — No country is as particular as Ger-
many in the selection and pieparation of teach-
ers The teacher is an officer of the state and
enjoys a prominent social rank He is suie of
his position for life or, after a period of service,
of retirement upon a pension However, honor
is an important part of his compensation, for,
especially in the piimaiy schools, the salary is
meagre and occasions much complaint The
qualifications requited of teachois are about uni-
form in the diffeient states, and each recognizes
the ceitificates granted by the others The
piocess of selecting candidates for pumary teach-
ing begins with the children in the primary
schools, only the most promising pupils being
selected On leaving the primary school the
child takes a three-year course, especially de-
signed for preparation for the normal school
(seminary), where one year more of academic
work and three years of normal work are de-
manded, the student, if needy, being financially
assisted by the state By limiting the number
of preparatory schools the state can prevent the
creation of any serious overplus of teachers
The feature of religious devotion is prominent in
the seminaries — these being either Protestant or
Roman Catholic After finishing the seminary
the candidate receives a provisional appointment
and is only permanently accepted aftei demon-
strating fitness and passing a final examination
No country in the world sets such a high stand-
ard as Germany for the qualifications of the
secondary teacher He must be a graduate of
a nine-year secondary school, with at least three
yeais of university study, one year of prepara-
tion for the state examination, one year of peda-
gogical study (Semmarjahr), and finally a yeai
of successful practice-teaching experience Even
after having done this, and having passed all
the examinations required, he is only eligible
for appointment Once on the list of the pro-
vincial school board, he is practically suie of
a position, although he sometimes has to wait
several years before the opportunity arrives
This all lesults m a degree of academic and pro-
fessional preparation which is absolutely un-
known m England or America
School Funds — The method of the development'
of the school system has resulted in a compli-
cated and diveisified system of financial stop-
port Theie are geneially local taxes, whaeti it
necessary are supplemented by the state The
state fund is the largest souice, supply^ about
one-half of the expenses, while local taxation
supplies about one-fourth The (0Irarch and
Church societies are often important contributors.
Charities. The different German states, ex-
cept Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine have adopted
uniform systems ot poor law$, but there is no
centralized system of adraaiiaistration Each
poor-law district provide® for its own poor, a
residence of two years ktiingp the requisite time
GERMANY
to determine the place of settlement, although,
relief may be given by the local authorities of the
district m which the individual has temporary
residence, to be recovered from the community
in which the settlement of the individual is
fixed The distinction between public and pri-
vate charity is not closely drawn
Compulsory Insurance. The Empire has
played a very important part in providing for
the welfare of the masses and thus checking the
possibility of destitution, through the establish-
ment of compulsory insurance agamst accident,
sickness, and old age None of the other leading
nations has made provisions of so comprehen-
sive a nature for the benefit of the laboung
classes Insurance against sickness, the first
step taken, was first secured in 1883, followed in
1884 by the insurance agamst accident and in
1889 against old age Numerous benefit societies
conducting insurance features, already in ex-
istence, were recognized by the government and
allowed to act as agents in lieu of those ap-
pointed by the state, which subjected all such
organizations to a uniform system and control
The division of administration necessitates an
increased expenditure, and an attempt has been
made to centralize the entire administration of
the system in the hands of the state In the in-
surance agamst sickness two-thirds of the pre-
mium is contributed by the woikmen and one-
thud by the employer " In the insuiance against
accident the employer class is lesponsible for the
buiden of contribution but the relief to the in-
jured laboring man is taken from the sick fund
for the first 13 weeks, and it is only after the
expnation of that penod that the employer class
becomes liable Insurance against old age is
obligatory upon all laborers whose wages do not
exceed 2000 marks a year The premium paid
is- divided evenly between laborer and employer.
The receipt of the pension begins when the in-
sured reaches the age of 70. The amount ex-
pended in compensation in various forms under
these Insurance systems in 1910 was, in round
figures sick insurance, $100,000,000; accident
insurance, $50,000,000, invalidity and old age,
$62,000,000 The pensions paid are in propor-
tion to the wages received by the pensioner and
in case of invalidity and old age range from $40
to $90 per annum in case of disability or reach-
ing the age of 70 The sums paid in the accident
insurance system are also based on earnings and
in case of the death of the insured are paid to
his widow and children at rated proportional to
his earnings when employed
History. The history of Germany may be said
to begin with the year 843, when, by the Treaty
of Verdun, the vast Empire of Charles the Great
was divided into three parts among his grand-
sons (For the earlier periods, see GEBMANIA,
FEANKS, CHAELES THE GREAT, CABOLINGIANS ,
ETC ) In the partition of Verdun, Louis the
German (843-876) received the eastern poition
of the Frankish Empire, which included the
purely Germanic peoples Until 911 legitimate
or illegitimate Carolingians held the throne,
but their power was comparatively little and
depended almost wholly on their strength in
their own possessions Instead of a united Ger-
many there were several great German duchies
— Swabia, Bavaria, Francoma, Saxony, and
sometimes Lothanngia or Lorraine The last,
however, was debatable territory, independent
at first, it later was connected with its stronger
neighbor, Germany or France, as the case nnght
694 GERMANY
be At fust the Francomans and Saxons were
the strongest nations and supplied the rulers of
the German Kingdom Charles the Fat (876-
887), son of Louis the Geiroan, succeeded for a
brief time (884-887) in reuniting almost all the
old Fiankish lands undei his sway, but they
fell apart again after his death, and pait of
Germanv was ruled by Arnulf till 899 The last
Carolmgian King, Louis the Child, died in 911,
and the German punces elected as his successor
Conrad of Francoma (011-918) His leign was
a constant struggle to maintain his position
against his own nobles, while at the same time
he had to contend agamst Danish, Slavic, and
Hungarian invaders Just before his death he
sent the insignia of royalty to his most danger-
ous subject, Henry the Saxon (919-936), and
the latter was chosen King by the Franks and
Saxons After years of fighting and negotia-
tions Hemy the Fowler (as he was popularly
known) was lecogmzed by the Swabians and
Bavarians also Under him for the first time
it is possible to speak of a united Germany
He made Jus power respected by repulsing the
invaders who had been devastating the eastein
and northern poitions of the German duchies
The Sla^s and Danes were defeated, Lorraine
\\as conquered, and finally in 933, a great vic-
toiy was -won probably on the Unstrut, over
the Hungarians His son Otho I (936-973)
succeeded to a strong kingdom At the corona-
tion banquet he was served by the dukes of
Loiraine, Francoma, Swabia, and Bavaria Otho
restricted the powei of the dukes, checked re-
newed invasions of the Hungarians, defeating
them decisively at the Lech in 955, and organ-
ized an efficient administrative system In 951
he was called to Italy to aid one of the con-
tending factions there, in 961, after wresting
north Italy fiom Beiengar II, a descendant of
Charles the Great, he was crowned King of the
Lombards, and in 962 he received the Imperial
crown at the hands of the Pope, thus becoming
the founder of the Holy Roman Empire of the
German nation, which existed till 1806 (See
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE ) By his coronation
Italy and Germany became associated for long
centuries to come The lesults were in some
ways disastrous to both countries, but at the
time Otho, as Emperor, was the great power in
westein Europe In order to strengthen his
position, he negotiated a marriage for his son
with the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor
Otho II (973-983) died at the age of 28 and
left an heir of three, Otho III (983-1002) In
consequence of the extent to which the Im-
perial power was enlisted in the affairs of Italy
at this time, weakness and disunion were bred
m Germany Henry II (1002-24) left Italy to
itself for some years and devoted his reign to
strengthening the power of the King of Ger-
many He reformed the Church and employed
its officials in the service of the state He re-
pressed private wars and won the support of the
nobles by giving them greater privileges He
was the last King of the Saxon house
Conrad the Franconian, or Salian (1024-39),
was an able ruler, who added the Arletan realm
(see BURGUNDY) to the Empire His son and
successor, Henry III (1039-56), extended the
boundaries of Germany on the side of Hungary,
repressed the insolence and despotism of the
temporal and spiritual princes of Germany, and
gained the respect of his contemporaries by his
zeal for justice and his valor in the field. The
GERMANY
695
minority of his son and successor, Henry IV
(1056-1106), enabled the nobles to recover
much of their former power and to apply a
check to the fmther consolidation of the Im-
penal authority, which had been considerably
extended during the two preceding reigns
Henry's constant quanels with Pope Gregory
VII and the succeeding popes entangled him in
difficulties and mortifications which ended only
with his life, and which plunged Germany into
anaichy and disorder (See INVESTITURE )
With his son and successor, Henry V (1106-25),
the male line of the Franconian dynasty oecame
extinct, and after the crown had been worn
(1125-37) by Lothair of Saxony, Com ad III,
Duke of Francoma, inaugurated the Hohen-
staufen dynasty His leign (1138-52), in which
the civil wars of the Guelphs and Glubellines
(qv ) began, was distracted by the dissensions
of the gieat feudatories of the Empue, while
the strength of Germany was wasted in the
disastrous Second Crusade, in which Conrad
took an active part Frederick I (1152-90),
surnamed Barbarossa, Duke of Swabia, was, at
the recommendation of his uncle, Conrad, chosen
his successor, and the splendor of his reign
fully warranted the selection By the force of
his character Frederick acquired an influence
ovei the diets which had not been possessed by
any of his immediate predecessors, and during his
reign many impoitant changes were effected in
the mutual lelations of the great duchies and
principalities of Germany, while we now for the
fast time hear of the hereditary right possessed
by certain princes to exeicise the privilege of
electing the Emperor (See ELECTORS, GERMAN
IMPERIAL ) Unfortunately for Germany, this
great monarch suffered his desire to uphold the
Imperial authority in Italy to draw him away
from the interests of his own country, while his
participation in the Crusades, in which he per-
ished, was memorable only for the misfortunes
which it entailed on the Empne The interval
between the death of Frederick Baibarossa
(1190) and the accession of Rudolph I (1273),
the first Emperor of the Hapsburg line, was one
of constant struggle, internal dissension, and
foreign wars Individually the princes of the
Hohenstaufen dynasty were popular monarchs,
distinguished for their many noble and chival-
rous qualities, while one of the race, Frederick
II, was, after Charles the Great, perhaps the
most remarkable sovereign of the Middle Ages,
but their ambitious designs on Italy, and their
constant but futile struggles with the papal
power, were a source of misery to Germany
The territory in which the Holy Roman em-
perors of the time of Hohenstaufen exercised
their sway, or their overlordship, reached on the
v^est to the rivers Rhone, Sa6ne, Meuse, and
Scheldt (thus embracing a large strip of modern
France, Belgium, and the Netherlands), and ex-
tended on the east to the borders of Hungary
and Poland, including most of what is now Cis-
leithan Austria On the north it extended as
far as the Eider, and in the south nominal
limits of the Empire reached down into Italy
beyond Rome Henry VI (1190-97), son of
Frederick Barbarossa, attempted to make the
Imperial dignity hereditary in his family After
his death Philip of Swabia (1198-1208) and
Otho IV of Brunswick contended for the Im-
perial throne, the latter being recognized on
the assassination of his rival by Otho of Wittels-
bach With Frederick II (1215-50), the suc-
cessor of Otho IV, ended the glory of the Em-
pne, till it was partially revived by the house of
Hapsburg Frederick's* son, Conrad IV ( 1250-
54), the last of the Hohenstaufen (qv ), after
a brief and troubled reign, was succeeded by
various princes, who in turn, 01 in some cases
contemporaneously (the Great Interregnum, so
called), boie the Imperial title without exercis-
ing its legitimate tunctions or authority — Wil-
liam of Holland (1247-56), Alfonso the Wise
of Castile (1257-G2), Richard of Cornwall
(1257-72) This season of anarchy was termi-
nated at the accession oi Rudolph I (1273-91),
of the house of Hapsburg, who, by the destruc-
tion of the strongholds of the nobles and the
stringent enforcement of the laws, restored
oidei His chief efforts were, however, directed
to the aggrandizement of his house In 1276
he vanquished Ottokar II of Bohemia and forced
him to give up Austria, Styria, Cannthia, and
Carniola Ottokar, having renewed the struggle,
was defeated and slam on the Maiehfeld in
1278 ^See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY ) For the next
200 years the history of the Holy Homan Em-
pii e 'presents very few foatuies of interest and
may be buefly passed o\er Adolphus of Nas-
sau, who was elected to sticceed Rudolph
(1292), was attacked in 1298 by the son of the
latter, Albert I of Austria, who coveted the Im-
perial throne, and the war speedily ended in the
triumph of Albert The reign of this Prince
(1298-1308) is chiefly memorable as the period
in which the three Swiss cantons of Unter-
walden, Schwyz, and Uri were achieving their
independence, in 1309 they were recognized as
immediate vassals of the Emperor After the
murder of Albert the throne was occupied in
rapid succession by Henry VII (1308-13), of
the house of Luxemburg (whose dynasty ruled
for a century in Bohemia), and by the rival
emperors Frederick of Austria (1314-22) and
Louis the Bavarian (1314-47) Charles IV
(1347-78), the successor of Louis, of the house
of Luxemburg, was the successful candidate
among seven rivals Although lie was engrossed
by the interests of his heieditary possession of
Bohemia, he did not entirely neglect those of
the Empire, for which he provided by a written
constitution known as the Golden Bull (qv ),
issued in 1356,, which regulated the rights, privi-
leges, and duties of the Imperial electors and
the mode of election and coronation of the em-
perors The seven princes designated in the
Golden Bull as Imperial electors were the arch-
bishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne, the Duke
of Saxony- Wittenberg, the Margrave of Branden-
burg, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and the
King of Bohemia Charles's son Wenzel, or
Wenceslas (1378-1400), who was finally de-
posed, brought the royal authority into con-
tempt, from which it was scarcely redeemed by
Rupert of the Palatinate (1400-10) The reign
of Sigismund (1410-37), the brother of Wences-
las, is noteworthy in connection with the coun-
cils of Constance and Basel and the Hussite
wars With Sigismund the Luxemburg line
of emperors terminated In the person of Al-
bert II of Austria (1438-39), the house of
Hapsburg once more secured passessioft of the
Imperial throne, which, with slight interruption,
was occupied by them to the end, although the
crown remained elective After a brief reign,
in which he gave evidence oi capacity for gov-
erning, Albert was succeeded by his cousin,
Frederick III (1440-93), an accomplished but
696
GERMANY
avaricious and indolent pimce, whose chief ob-
ject seems to have been the aggrandizement of
the house of Austria
Aspirations to\\aids national unity had ap-
peared before this among the people of Germany,
but they ran countei to the spirit of feudal
anaichy, and to the family policy of the Haps-
burgs, vvho became by their marriage alliances
more and more involved in geneial European
affairs and less mteiested in those of Germany
The emperors could not be made, theielore, the
leaders of a national movement which sought
rather to realize itself, first through the Diet,
and then in alliance with the Lutheian Reforma-
tion (See REFORMATION ) Upon this conflict,
and upon the religious differences which grew
out of the work of Martin Luther and John
Calvin, the politics of the empire turned for
150 years. These tendencies developed under
Maxmilian I (1493-1519), during whose reign
an active agitation was earned on in the Diet
for reform (see AULIC COUNCIL, IMPERIAL
CHAMBER), while Luther's bold challenge m
1517 set into play giant forces of change which
were destined to * shape Geiman history for the
future At the same time the maniacs of
Maximilian, drew the Hapsburgs moie than ever
into interests outside of Germany The first
of these marriages, with Mary, heiress of
Charles the Bold of Burgundy (1477), added to
the Hapsburg possessions the gieat Burgundian
territories in the Lo\\ Countnes, the second,
with the daughter of Ludovico il Moro, Duke of
Milan (1494), threw the Impeiial house into
the stormy politics of Italy The marriage of
the son of the Emperor, the Archduke Philip,
with Joanna of Spain made that country, then
at the summit of its prosperity and powei, like-
wise a Hapsbuig possession in the person of
Maximilian's grandson, Chailes I of Spain, who
was elected Emperor m 1519 as Charles V
(1519-56). The energies of Charles were mainly
directed to the prosecution of the war against
France The Austrian possessions of the house
of Hapsburg were bestowed on his brother Fer-
dinand (from whom the present German-Mag-
yar-Slav monarchy of Austria-Hungary may be
said to date), the control of affairs in Germany
was left largely in the hands of the Imperial
chambers, the pressing need for reform received
little attention, and the spread of the Reforma-
tion was allowed to continue unchecked Luther,
it is true, was placed under the ban of the
Empire in 1521 , but at Speier, in 1526, the
Reformers gamed a notable triumph, and it was
not until the Diet of Augsburg, in 1530, that the
Protestants and the Emperor came to an open
breach. Danger from the French King and from
the Turka, however, prevented Charles from tak-
ing action against the recusant princes, and for
some 10 years after 1531 the Schmalkaldic
League ( q v ) of Protestant princes exercised a
preponderating influence in German affairs
Only in 1546 did th,e Emperor find an oppor-
tunity for turning on the Protestants, the
power of the Schmalkaldic League was broken
in the battle of MuMberg (1547), and the Prot-
estant leaders, John Frederick, Elector of Sax-
ony, and Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, were made
prisoners Charles was now supreme in Ger-
many, and it seemed for a moment as if he
would succeed in winning back the Protestants
into the Roman Catholic fold (See INTERIM,
Awgstiurff Interim ) But jealousy of his grow-
ing power caused Maurice of Saxony,
Duke of Mecklenburg, the Margrave of Branden-
burg, and William, the son of Philip of Hesse, to
league against him in alliance with the Fiench
King, Heniy II, who m 1552 wrested from the
jEmpne the bi&hopiics of Metz, loul, and Ver-
dun The Treaty of Passau iqv ), concluded in
the same year, confirmed by the Peace of Augs-
buig in 15 oo, granted to the Lutheian states the
light to establish the Protestant worship
Broken bv the uniform ill success of Ins policy,
C hailes laid down the government of the Nethei-
lands in 1555, and m the following year abdi-
cated the Spanish and Imperial thrones, being
succeeded m the empire by his biothei, Ferdi-
nand I (1556-64) The reigns of Ferdinand
and Maximilian II (1564-76) witnessed the
voiy rapid growth of the Counter Refoimation
(qv ) Profiting by the dissensions prevailing
among the Protestants, Roman Catholicism, is-
suing in renewed vigor from the Council of
Trent (1545-63), boldly challenged the pi ogress
of the Eeformed religion Rudolph II (1576-
1612) Vfas undei the influence of the Jesuits
and lent himself to the aggressive policy of the
Roman Catholic party In 1608 the Evangelical
Union was oigamzed under the leadership of
the Elector Palatine, and this was followed by
the foundation of the Roman Catholic League
in the following year Matthias (1612-19) was
le^s aggressive than his predecessor, but weak,
and let himself be guided by the extreme faction
of the Roman Catholic party The choice of his
cousin Ferdinand, a bitter enemy of the Protes-
tants, to be King of Bohemia, in 1617, was the
signal for the outbreak of a struggle that had
long been seen to be inevitable See THIBTY
YEARS' WAR
The Thirty Years' War (1618-48), which was
terminated in the reign of Ferdinand III ( 1637-
57), left the rural districts of Germany almost
depopulated, its trade and industries crippled,
the people burdened with taxes, and the Im-
perial power weakened by the concessions made
in the Peace of Westphalia to the autonomy of
the individual states Austria came to be re-
garded by the German nationalists as a foreign
powei, and the recognition of the Lutherans and
Calvinists as factois in the Empire broke down
the religious unity on which the mediaeval Em-
pire tested Already, under Henry IV, France
had adopted an anti-Hapsburg policy, rightly
regarding that house, with its vast possessions,
as the chief rival of France in European affairs
Richelieu (qv) carried on this policy vigor-
ously during the Thirty Years' War, in assist-
ing the Swedes and the Protestant princes
against the Imperialists, and the French arms
had a great share in forcing the Roman Catholic
powers to terms of peace When the growth of
the power of France in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries threatened the balance of
power in Europe, the Hapsburgs were naturally
drawn into the coalition against France. (See
Louis XIV, SUCCESSION WARS, War of the
ftpamsh Succession ) The Imperialist forces
under Prince Eugene of Savoy shared in the
victories which put an end to the aggressions
of Louis XIV, but the empire derived no sub-
stantial advantage, except in the limitation that
was put upon the growth of French predom-
inance The emperors during this period were
Leopold I (1658^1705), Joseph I (1705-11),
and Charles VI ( 1711-40}
The rise of Prussia now becomes one of tlie
most striking features in German affairs Since
697
G-EBMANT
the time of the Gieat Electoi, Fiedendc YViL-
liam (1640-88), the Margraviate of Branden-
burg had been acquiring increased importance
as a leading power among the Protestant ilei-
man states In 1701 the Elector Fredenc'k as-
sumed the title of King in Piussia and was so
lecognized by his overlord, the Empeior of the
Holy Roman Empne Thus, while still a vassal
of the Empeior, he took rank by vntue of his
royal title with the other independent sover-
eigns of Europe Prussia, by reason of its
rapidly increasing power, its Protestantism, and
the energy infused into its admim&tiation, came
to be the exponent of the Geiman national
spmt and of the enmity to Hapsbuig dom-
ination Frederick the Great (1740-80) was
the mighty representative of tliib idea The
long effort of the Emperoi Charles VI to secure
the guaianty of the Euiopean states for the
Pragmatic Sanction (qv), which \\as intended
to secuie the unquestioned succession of his
daughter Maria Theresa in the Hapsburg domin-
ions, did not prevent an active contest which
involved Europe m war (1740-48) (See SUC-
CESSION WABS, War of the Austrian Succession }
Austria was stripped of the greater part of
Silesia by Frederick the Great After an in-
terregnum Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria,
was raised to the Imperial throne as Chailes
VII in 1742 This was the first time in 300
years that the iion crown rested upon a non-
Hapsburg head Charles died in 1745 in the
midst of his unsuccessful war with Austria, and
the husband of Maria Theresa, Fiancis Stephen,
of the house of Lorraine, was elected his suc-
cessor, assuming the title of Francis I. The
peace which followed the War of the Austrian
Succession was of brief duration In 1756 Maria
Theresa renewed the struggle with Prussia in
order to recover Silesia The historical hostility
between England and France and between Aus-
tria and Prussia developed into a general Euio-
pean war, in which, by a sudden change of
alliances (called the diplomatic revolution),
Austria and France, with Russia, were ranged
against England and Prussia (See SEVEN
YEARS' WAE ) Prussia came out of this bloody
struggle with enhanced prestige, a recognized
military power of the first rank in Europe
The well-meant but injudiciously applied re-
forms of the Emperor Joseph II (1765-90) did
not strengthen the incongruous Austrian state,
and his attempts to restore the declining Im-
perial authority in Germany were frustrated by
Prussia
The French Revolution disturbed all previous
adjustments Austria, under the Emperor Leo-
pold II (1790-92) and his successor the Em-
peror Francis II, and Prussia, under Frederick
William II (1786-97), were for a time united
in resistance to the revolutionary propaganda
which threatened the thrones of Europe, but
were defeated by the French armies TJie advent
of Napoleon played havoc with the Germanic
system He succeeded in partially isolating
Austria and Prussia, by inducing many of the
west German princes to form the Confederation
of the Rhine and ally themselves with France
(1806) The only ally who supported him
through his entire period of success and mis-
fortune was the King of Saxony Francis TI
in 1806 laid down the title of JBColy Roman, Em-
peror, having previously assumed that of Em-
peror of Austria, which wns< symbolic of the
actual breaking up of the old order amd the
pieparation for a new Geimany When Napo-
leon had been overthrown, it was found, in spite
of the policy of conseivative leaction, to he
neithei possible nor desirable to restore the old
system The more than 300 semi-independent
states which had existed m the eighteenth cen-
tuiy had been consolidated by Napoleon into 3()
(see MEDIAPF) , a tact which was of much sei\icc
in pioiuoting Germany unity Pius&ia, which
had been dibmembeied by Napoleon and trodden
undeifoot, emeiged from the War of Liberation
rejwenated by the patriotism of its people and
strengthened by thoroughgoing reforms and wa^
pi f pared again to dispute precedence with Aus-
tria in the Germanic body Stem, Scharnhoist,
Fi elite, and Schleieimacher will always be ic-
nierabeied for the constructive ability and fore-
sight they displayed duimg this period It was
manifestly impossible to restore the old Imperial
arrangements, which had become worthless long
before they weie cast aside The Congiess of
Vienna (see VIENNA, CONGRESS OF), theiefore,
in 1815 instituted a, Germanic; Confederation
under the guaiantv of the European Powers
There was to be a federal diet, in which Austria,
was to have the piesideney Theie was no
national aimy or financial system The execu-
tive consisted in making one division coerce an-
othei if it refused to cairy out the la\\s
All of the German states were now disturbed
by agitations for constitutional government,
which were fought inch by inch by many of the
pimces The dominant spirit among the rulers
was that of reaction, and the control of affairs
was largely in the hands of the astute Austrian
Chancellor, Pimce Mettermch (q v ) Three
parties represented the contending ideas of gov-
ernment held in Germany after the Restoration
— the absolutists, among whom were found most
of the reigning families, including those of Aua-
tiia and Prussia, the paity of historic rights,
who had no faith in constitutions, but stood on
the traditional customs of the German people,
such as the assemblies of estates, and the con-
stitutionalists, liberal and moie 01 less demo-
ciatic, strongest in south Germany, where the
French influence had been most f<?H This liber-
alism was especially fostered among the students
in the universities (see BUBSCHEN^CIIAFT) and
was closely connected with the spirit of nation-
alism, which was rapidly gaining stiength, al-
though for a time it was kept within limited
bounds by the governments The chief obstacle
to national unity was now, as it had always
been, the obstinacy with which the princes clung
to their feudal status and to the independence
which had grown therefrom The problem had
been made simpler by the Napoleonic consolida-
tions, but the princes who remained were made
stronger by the same means Only the leader-
ship of some state that should be willing to
represent the aspirations of the people and
strong enough to coerce resisting states could
accomplish what the nationalists sought Ttus
rale was reserved for Prussia The revoiution-
aty agitation of 1830 was felt in Germany and
gave some impulse to the constitutional move-
ment, strengthened by the establishment of the
Zollverem (qv ), 01 customs union, due to the
initiative of Prussia, but it was not until the
more stirring year of 1848 that the forces of dis-
content and progress that had been at work in
spite of Mettermch's repressive policy really
showed themselves in their strength. On March
13 ^etternich was driven from power (See
GERMANY
698
AUSTBIA-HUNGABY ) A few days later a suc-
cessful popular rising took place in Berlin, and
at the same time Louis I of Bavaria was com-
pelled to abdicate In April there was a repub-
lican mstirrection in Baden, which, however,
was speedily suppressed In response to the de-
mand for a national parliament, such a body was
assembled at Frankfort (May 18, 1848, to May
13, 1849) (See VOBPABLAMKNT ) A provi-
sional national government was oigamzed undei
an Imperial a dimmer at or, the Archduke John
of Austria The Parliament, however, was di-
vided into factions, and a struggle between the
Austrian and Prussian paities ensued Austria
sought to bring its whole Empire into the new
organization, with a prepondei atmg voice in
affairs, which would have made the new Empire
non-German Prussia and the German nation-
alists objected and finally carried the day, choos-
ing the King of Prussia to be Emperor of the
Geimans (1849) Frederick William IV was
not equal to the great opportunity, and he re-
jected the proffered crown because it came from
the people and not from his peers, the Ger-
man princes. However, after signing treaties
with Saxony and Hanover, the King granted
a constitution, which was similar to the one
proposed at Frankfort The desertion of the
national cause by Prussia was followed by in-
surrections in the Palatinate, Saxony, and
Baden, \\hieh were rigoiously put down, mainly
by the arms of Prussia, and the opportunity for
the erection of a Geiman nation went by un-
til it should be recreated by the "blood and
iron" policy of Bismarck (qv ) The national
Parliament liaMng gone to pieces, Austria and
Prussia united in 1850 to lestore the old diet.
The two poweis now proceeded to establish the
old order in the duchies of Schleswig and Hoi-
stein, which had risen in revolt against Den-
mark- Prussia assumed the leadership in pro-
posing plans for reorganizing the Germanic
body, but could not harmonize its own ambitions
with, those of Austria. In 1858 Prince William
became Regent of Prussia and in 1861 succeeded
his brother as William I Imbued with the
conservative spirit of the Hohenzollerns, but
possessed of much sound sense, courage, and
patriotism, he met the existing situation in a
different spirit from that of his weak predeces-
sor Bismarck early became his chief minister
and remained at his side until his death The
latter saw the futility of all efforts at German
organization that had been previously made and
determined that the only way to the attainment
of the great ob]ect was for Prussia to force a
direct issue with Austria and fight it out as the
champion of Geiman nationality He held to the
doctrine that sovereignty could not be exercised
by two states over any one district The oppor-
tunity was found in the troubled affairs of
Schleswig-Holstem (q.v ) By the Convention of
Gfastem (Aug. 14, 1865) Austria and Prussia ai-
ranged a joint occupation of the duchies, against
the wishes of the smaller states represented in
the diet In this common administration, al-
though, the sphere of each powei was defined,
there was ample opportunity for the outbreak of
the old rivalry Austria sought to force the
hand of Prussia by referring the settlement of
the Schleswig-Holstem question to the Federal
Diet Prussia met this move by sending its
forces into Hoi stein, which had been under Aus-
trian occupation The Diet ordered the mobiliza-
tion of the Federal forces (June 14, 1866) . Prus-
sia at once began hostilities, having previously
formed an alliance with Italy against Austria
(See SEVEN WEEKS' WAR ) Piussia's prepared-
ness was shown by her prompt action in each
detail She ordered Hanover, He&se-Cassel, and
Saxony, which had adhered to Austna, to dis-
arm and at once invaded their temtones The
Saxon army reined through Bohemia, to effect
a junction with the Austrians, the Hanoverians
laid down their arms after a useless show of
resistance, and the Prussians, having secured
their base, declared war against Austria and in-
vaded Bohemia in three columns In the vigor-
ous seven weeks' campaign, whose brief dura-
tion has given its popular name to the war,
Austria met a succession of defeats, culminating
in the overwhelming one of Komggratz (July
3) By the Peace of Prague (Aug 23, 1866)
the dissolution of the old confederation was con-
summated Austria ceased to be a member of
the Germanic body, and Schleswig-Holstem,
Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and Frank-
fort were incorporated with Prussia, which nego-
tiated separate treaties with Baden, Bavaria, the
Grand Duchy of Hesse, Saxony, and Wurttem-
berg
The North German Confederation was now
constituted under Prussian leadership Bavaria,
Wurttemberg, and Baden allied themselves with
the new body, though they did not enter it
Their treaties with Prussia provided for an of-
fensive and defensive alliance, and acceptance of
Prussian leadership in case of war The Con-
stituent Diet of the new confederation met Feb
24, 1867, and proceeded to frame a constitution
which forms the basis of that of the present
Empire The aspirations of Prussia looked to
the completion of German unity by the addition
of the south German states and the establish-
ment of the paramount influence of the new
German state in European affairs Bismarck
was well aware that the consolidation of Ger-
many meant eventual war with Germany's an-
cient enemy (Prance), and he prepared for it
as thoroughly as he had for the conflict with
Austria War was narrowly averted in 1867,
when France sought to occupy Luxemburg as a
compensation for the teintorial acquisitions of
Prussia, and in 1869, when France showed un-
equivocally her desire to anne^ Belgium The
intention of Spam to seat a Hohenzollern prince
on the vacant throne offered an opportunity for
the quarrel which France was now seeking, and
the injudicious conduct of Benedetti, the French
Minister at Berlin, combined with the fatuous
insistence of the French Foreign Minister, Gra-
mont, upon an impossible apology from King
William, and the unscrupulous suppression by
Bismarck of a pacific section of King William's
reply thereto, stirred a feeling in both countries
that could only result in war, which was de-
clared by France, July 19, 1870 The French
expected to invade Germany, win over the south
German states, and march straight on Berlin
Instead they found the German army mobilized
on the frontier, and the south German states
loyal to their alliance A quick succession of
German victories was followed by the surren-
der of MacMahon's army and the capture of
Napoleon himself at Sedan (Sept. 2, 1870), the
investment of Paris, and the capitulation of
Bazame at Metz (October 27) While the
united armies of Germany were still besieging
Paris, King William, at Versailles, received
from the people of Germany, in pursuance ol
699
the decree of the Noith Geiman Diet of Dec
10, 1870, the title of German Emperor, heiedi-
tary in the Prussian dynasty (Jan 18, 1871)
On the 16th of April the constitution of the
Empire, which was substantially that of the
Noith Geiman Confederation, with the addi-
tion of certain special provisions for the south
Geiman states, was piomulgated By the
treaty of peace with France, signed on the 10th
day of May, at Frankfort on the Mam, Geimany
leceived the provinces of Alsace, with the ex-
ception of Belfort, and the German-speaking
part of Lorraine, including Metz and Thionville,
and an indemnity of five milhaids of francs
($1,000,000,000) See FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
The southern states had all entered the new
Empire The military preponderance of Fiance
on the continent of Europe was at an end Se-
cure in its position as a dominant power, the
new Germany was free to develop its national
genius But Bismarck's internal policy during
the first years of the Empire was not as success-
ful as his state-building process had been He
became involved m a conflict with the Roman
church, and this became the leading issue in
Imperial politics for six years, from 1873 to
1879 (See KULTURKAMPF ) The preponderat-
ing position of Germany in the afiairs of Eu-
rope was asserted at the time of the Russo-
Turkish Wai (1877-78), when the Congress of
Beilm was convened for the settlement of the
Eastern Question and German diplomacy pre-
vented Russia from making extensive territorial
gains m the Balkans After the attempts upon
the life of the Emperor in 1878, falsely attrib-
uted to Socialist teachings, all Socialistic agi-
tation was prohibited, while, to win over the
leform sentiment, the government undertook
legislation for the benefit of the working classes,
such as compulsoiy state insurance An exten-
sive system of canals was begun in 1886, includ-
ing the great Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, connecting
the North Sea and the Baltic, which was opened
June 19, 1895 As soon as. Austria had been
expelled from the Germanic body it became Bis-
marck's policy to cultivate friendly relations
with that country, as Germany's closest neigh-
bor and kin, and in 1883 the Triple Alliance
(qv ), comprising Austria, Germany, and Italy,
was formed, with the object of maintaining the
balance against France and Russia With an
expanding commerce and firmly believing in the
doctrine that "trade follows the flag," in 1884
Germany embarked upon her career as a coloniz-
ing power (See GERMAN EAST AFEIOA; GER-
MAN SOUTHWEST AFRICA, KAMEETJN ) Emperor
William I died in 1888 and was succeeded by
his son, Frederick III, a man of liberal tend-
encies, but who was then suffering from cancer
of the throat, dying in a few months. He was
succeeded by his son, William II Differences
very early developed between the Kaisei and the
great Chancellor, and an issue having been made
on the question of the renewal of repressive
measures towards the Socialists, Bismarek was
ordered to resign, and his resignation was ac-
cepted March 20, 1890 He was succeeded by
General von Capnyi (q v ) The Emperor him-
self, irritated by the failure of his plan for an
international labor conference, became a bitter
opponent of the Socialists After 1879 Germany
maintained a protective tariff, and duties were
considerably increased in several directions,
though the operation of the fixed tariff was
much modified by tariffs based upon reciprocity
treaties The development of G-eiman industry
and commerce checked the stream of emigration,
and the population has continued to increase
Capnvi letired fiom the chancellorship in 1894,
giving place to Prince Hohenlohe In the follow-
ing yeais the government gave paiticular atten-
tion to the development of a powerful navy to
keep pace with the lapid growth of foreign com-
merce William II actively piomoted the de-
velopment of an aggressive colonial policy in
various parts of the world In 1898 he seized
the pretext of the murder of two German mis-
sionaries in China to exact from that countiy
the cession of the port of Tsmg-tao in the Kiao-
chow peninsula and 50 square miles of adjacent
temtoiy, and to establish a sphere of influence
in Shan-tung, one of the richest Chinese prov-
inces He then attempted, following the Boxer
movement, to claim for Germany a predominant
role in the Far East (See CHINA ) Prince
Hohenlohe resigned the chancellorship in 1900,
partly because of disagieement with the Em-
peror's Chinese policy, and was succeeded by
Count, later Prince, von Bulow Economic
questions were in the foreground duiing the next
five years A new tariff law \\as enacted in
December, 1902, gieatly inci easing the duties on
foreign food products in accoi dance with the
demands of the Agrarian element The bill was
opposed by the Social Democrats, who charac-
terized the measure as an act legalizing "bread
usury" The Reichstag elections oi June, 1903,
were fought out on the tariff issue and resulted
in a signal triumph for the Social Democrats,
who increased their representation in the Reich-
stag from 56 to 81, taking second place after
the party of the Centre Their popular vote
rose from 2,107,000 to 3,010,000 as against
1,875,000 votes cast by the Centre The Agra-
rians, on the other hand, met with severe re-
verses To secure the support of the Roman
Catholic Centre the government in Maich, 1904,
amended the anti-Jesuit law so as to permit
members of the Society of Jesus to take up their
residence anywhere in the Empiie The key-
note to German foieign policy during this period
was a growing estrangement from Great Brit-
ain, which had its ultimate reason in commer-
cial rivalry and was fostered by the indiscreet
conduct of the Emperor at the critical period
preceding the outbreak of the South African
War, and the violent anti-British tone of the
German press during the progress of that strug-
gle In the Russo-Japanese War the German
government maintained an attitude of benevo-
lent neutrality towards Russia, but viewing
with alarm the growing friendship between
France and Great Britain, it took advantage of
Russian disaster in the Far East to test the
strength of the Anglo-French understanding by
antagonizing the policy of France in Morocco
(See FRANCE, Mo'BOCCO ) During the early
months of 1905 war with France seemed immi-
nent, but the Anglo-French agreement held fast,
as was shown in the international conference
which met at Algeciras in 1906 By this treaty
France, together with Spain, was given a protec^
torate over Morocco In 1904 an uprising broke
out m German Southwest Africa (qv) It
lasted over two years, and was suppressed with
difficulty Believing that the colonial policy
was a failure, the Reichstag refused to vote an
extra appropriation for colonial purposes and
was dissolved in 190"6. In the elections of the
following year the Kaiser's policy of Imperial
GERMANY
700
GEBMA3STY
expansion was decisively affirmed by tlie people
The Socialist representation was reduced from
81 to 43 seats, though their popular vote showed
an increase Austria's formal annexation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina (qv) in 1908 (prov-
inces of the Ottoman Empire first occupied in
1878) caused warlike preparations to be made
by Servia and Russia, but the announcement
that Germany would support her ally prevented
hostilities from occurring and enabled Austria
to maintain her action in the two provinces
and to prevent an extension of the Serbian rail-
load system to the Adriatic The Conservative
and landed interests predominated in the Reich-
stag, and the necessity of raising additional
revenue to meet the increasing military expendi-
tures was met by taxes levied chiefly on con-
sumption and but slightly on property and in-
come Von Bulow, together with the Left, which
for once cooperated with the government, was
opposed to this plan, and because of his defeat
by the Reichstag Von Bulow resigned and Von
Bethmann-Hollweg was appointed Chancelloi in
his stead The question of electoral reform
came up in Prussia during the year 1910, and
the ministry succeeded in passing a bill perpetu-
ating the three-class system, whereby 85 per
cent of the voting population elect only one-
third of the members of the Prussian Lower
House, the Landtag By a treaty in 1911 Rus-
sia and Germany came to an amiable agreement
as to their rights in the Near East — Germany's
sphere of influence to continue altfng the Bag-
dad Railway, while Russia's supremacy in
northern Persia and Kurdistan was acknowl-
edged It was in the same year that Germany
became embroiled in another controversy with
France over the question of Morocco Eng-
land supported France and compelled Germany
to acknowledge the supremacy of French claims
in Morocco, but in return France ceded to Ger-
many 112,000 square miles in the French Congo
The year 1912 marked the election of another
Reichstag. A determined effort was made on the
part of the Left, consisting of the Social Demo-
crats, Liberals, and Radicals, to break the "blue-
black ~bloc" which was composed of the Agrari-
ans, Catholic Centre, and Conservatives The
policy of the latter group as represented by the
Chancellor was a combination of an aggressive
foreign policy with a domestic system of pro-
tection to the landed and propertied classes
Despite the efforts of the Kaiser, who declared
the Social Democrats to be enemies to the Em-
pire, the Left made sweeping gains The popu-
lar vote of the Social Democratic party increased
to 4,238,000, and their representation in the
Reichstag totaled 110 seats The precarious
majority of the government in the Reichstag
was threatened when the Centre refused to
cooperate with the Chancellor because of the
refusal of the Bundesrat to remove the Jesuit
disabilities of 1872. The Bundesrat gave way,
and the Centre returned to the support of the
government The rapid increase m the cost of
the war armament necessitated the levying of
a special tax which was assessed on property
values and by a cumulative tax on incomes
The disturbances at Zabern in 1913 provoked
a storm of criticism of the military system of
the Empire, which, when coupled with the sig-
nificance of the Krupp exposures of that year,
showed the strong dissatisfaction of a large
class with, the militaristic organization of the
country
The industrial development of Germany since
the founding of the Empire has been one of
tremendous economic growth The discovery of
stores of coal and iron, the development of an
efficient system of industrial education coupled
with the encouragement given by the govern-
ment to industry, have all been factors in the
transition of Germany from a country of agri-
culturists to a nation that is chiefly character-
ized by manufacturing and by commerce
The political problems that exist are in a
large measure due to the failure to readjust the
political system to the changed economic life
Representation in the Reichstag is still based
on the apportionment made in accordance with
the population of 1871, since when the cities
have greatly increased in population, while the
rural districts have declined As a result, there
is a demand for reapportionment on the pait of
the Social Democrats, whose chief strength lies
in the underrepresented cities This, together
with the three-class system of public voting in
Prussia, and the proposition to make the Chan-
cellor responsible to the Reichstag, forms the
chief political topic of the day
The foreign policies of Germany have been
greatly affected by the creation of the Triple
Entente of Russia, England, and France, and
she has expended vast sums of money for the
building of a fleet and the maintenance of an
army Indeed the efforts of Germany, as the
head of the Triple Alliance (qv ), to become
the first power of Europe have probably been
the immediate cause of the race for armaments
which is so characteristic of Europe at the
present time. See POLITICAL PARTIES, Germany
For a detailed account of the operations of Ger-
many in the Emopean War of 1914 see the
article WAR IN EUROPE
Bibliography. Neumann, Das deutsche Reich
in geographischer, statistischer und topogra-
phtscher Beziehung (Berlin,, 1878) , Lermann and
Kirchhoff (eds ), Forschungen &ur deutschen
Landes- und Volkskunde (Leipzig, 1885 et seq ) ,
Daniel, Deutschland- nach semen physisehen und
poUtischen Verhaltmssen (ib, 1893-95), Tri-
nms, All-Deutschland in Wort und Bild (Ber-
lin, 1893-95) , Richter, Das deutsche Reich
(Leipzig, 1895) , id., BibUoteca, Oeographica
Gewnamce (ib, 1896-97), Daniel and Volz,
Geographische Charakterbilder, vol i ( ib ,
1898), Ratzel, Deutschland (ib, 1898), Kut-
zen, Das deutsche Land, revised by Steinecke
(Breslau, 1900) ., Kirchhoff and Hassert, Benefit
uber die neuere Litteratur zur deutschen Landes-
~kunde (Berlin, 1901), Delitsch, Deutschlands
Oberflachenform (Breslau, 1880) , Pepsius, G-eo-
logie von Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1887 et seq ) ,
Senft, G-eognostische Wanderungen in Deutsch-
land (Leipzig, 1894) , Foss, Das norddeutschv
Ttefland (Berlin, 1894), id, Das deutsche
Gebirgsland (ib , 1895), Thiele, Deutschlands
landioirtschafthche Khmatographie ( Bonn,
1895) , Drude, Deutschlands PflanzengeograpMe
( Stuttgart, 1898 ) , Partsch, Central Europe
(New York, 1903).
There is an immense literature on the German
ethnology, which must be studied in the writings
of Virchow, Andree, and many others, especially
G Herve, "Les Germams," in Revue Mensuelle
de I'Ecole d3 AntJiropologie (Paris, 1897) This
literature is well catalogued in the supplement
to Ripley's Races of Europe (New York, 1899),
and more minutely in the German serials Archw
fur Anthropoloffie (Brunswick, 1861 et seqr) f
GERMANY
70 1
CKEBMAtfY
Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft
in Wien (Vienna, 1878 et seq ) , and Zeitschnft
fur Ethnologic (Berlin, 1869 et &eq ), with its
appendixes
Consult also Hugo E Meyei, Deutsche Volks-
kunde (Strassburg, 1898), and Hans Meyer,
Das deutsche Volkstum (Leipzig, 1898) , Bailed,
"Deutschlands wirtschafthche Entwickelung seit
1870," in Jahrbucher fur Geset&gebung, Ver-
waltung und Volksioirthschaft im deutschen
Reich (ib , 1900), Die deutsche Volksioirth-
schaft am Schlusse des 19 Jahrhunderts (Ber-
lin, 1900), a concise summary of the 18 vol-
umes of the census of occupations taken in
Germany in 1895, published for the general
reader by the Imperial Statistical Bureau, As-
bach, Deutschlands gesellschaftliche und wwt-
schafthche EntwicLelung (ib , 1900) , Rauch-
berg, "Die Landwirthschaft im deutschen Reich,"
in vojl xv of the Archw fur soziale Gesetzgebung
und Btatistik (ib, 1900), based on the cen-
sus of 1895, Leisewitz, "Die landwirthschaft-
hche Produktion im deutschen Reiche und ihr
Verhaltniss zum Stande des bezughchen mlandi-
schen Bedarfs," in vol xxn of Jahrbucher fur
Nationalokonomie und Statistik (Jena, 1902) ,
Hube^, Deutschland als Industriestaat (Stutt-
gart, 1900) , Blondel, L'Essor indu<$triel et com-
mercial du peuple allemand (Paris, 1900), a
popular presentation of the industrial progress
of Germany, with comparisons with French con-
ditions, Kollmann, "Die gewerbliche Entfaltung
im deutschen Reiche nach der Gewerbezahlung,
vom 14 Juni 1895," in vol xxiv of Jahr'bucher
fur Geset&gebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirth-
schaft im deutschen Reich (Leipzig, 1900) ,
Rauchberg, "Die Berufs- und Gewerbczalilung
im deutschen Reich vom Juni 1895," m vols
xiv and xv of the Archiv fur sossiale Gesetzge-
lung und Statistic (Berlin, 1899-1900), a
scholarly study of the social and economic
grouping of the population of the German
Empire, based on the pievious German census,
Zimmeimann, Die Handelspohtik des deutschen
Retches vom Frankfurter Frieden l}is sur Gegen-
loart (Breslau, 1901), Lotz, Verkehrsentwick-
lung in Deutschland, 1800-1900 (Leipzig, 1900),
a popular presentation of the growth of rail-
ways and the part they play in Germany's in-
dustrial development, pieceded by a brief sketch
of the transpoi tation system of the Middle Ages ;
Wirth, "Banking m Germany," in vol iv of A
History of Banking in All the Leading Nations
(New York, 1896), Eberstadt, Der deutsche
Kapitalmarkt (Leipzig, 1901), a very thorough
survey of the capitalization of the entire Gei-
man industry and of the money market in its
relations to every field of industry, commerce,
banking, transportation, etc , Loeb, "The Ger-
man Colonial Fiscal System," Publication of the
American Economic Association, 3d senes, vol i
(New York, 1900), Ballod, "Die deutsch-anien-
kamschen Handel sbezieliungen," in vol xci or
the Beitrage zur neuesten Handelspohtik Deutsch-
lands (Leipzig, 1901), Lair, L'lmpenahsme
allemand (Paris, 1902), a history of the com-
mercial and industrial development of Germany
during the previous 20 years Consult also
Arndt, Deutschlands Stellung in der Weltimrt-
schaft (Leipzig, 1908); Shadwell, Industrial
Efficiency A Comparative Study in England,
Germany, and America (new ed, New York,
1909) ; Barker, Modern Germany (London, 1912) ,
Dawson, The Evolution of Modern Germany (ib ,
HISTORY For a brief treatment of German
history, consult Henderson, A Short History of
Germany (New York, 1908), a pioduet of mod-
em critical scholarship Bryce, The Hohj Roman
Empire (ib , 1892), is a luminous e^say that
must be studied to understand the political de-
velopment of Geimany and its relations with
the Holy Roman Empue One of the best guides
is Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte, ed by
Dahlmann-Waitz-Hei re (Leipzig, 1912) For
general history, consult the BiWiothek deutsche?
Geschichte, by Gutsche and 12 others (Stuttgart,
1876 et seq ), excellent, Lamprecht, Deutsche
Geschichte (12 vols, Berlin, 1891-1909), Geb-
hardt, Handbuch dei deutschen Geschichte (2
vols, Stuttgart, 1910), Nitzsch, Geschichte des
deutschen Volkes bis zum Augsburger Rehgions-
fricden (3 vols, Leipzig, 1892), Janssen," His-
tory of the German People, trans by Christie
(London, 1907) The history of Germanv m
medieval times is adequately treated bv Hen-
derson, Histoiij of Germany in the Middle Ages
(New York, 1894) , Fisher, Mediceval Empire
(2 vols, London, 1898), Stubbs, Germany in
the Early Middle Ages (New York, 1908) , id,
Geimany in the Later Middle Ages (ib 1908)
The following are standard works by some of
the foremost of Geiman historians on the mod-
ern period. Maicks, Germany and England
Their Relations in the Great Crises of European
History, 1500-1900, trans (London, 1900),
Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im neun&ehnten
Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1879-94) , Oncken, Das
Zeitalter der Revolution, des Kaiserreiches und
der Befreiungsknege (Berlin, 1890-92) , Bulle,
Geschichte det neuesten Zeit, 1815-71 (Leipzig,
1886-87) , ErdmannsdcJrffer, Deutsche Geschichte
vom westphalischen Fneden tis zum Regierungs-
antritt Friedrichs des Grossen, 1648-11J/0 (Ber-
lin, 1892-94) , Blum, Das deutsche Reich zur
Zeit Bismarck (Leipzig, 1893) Useful avail-
able books in English are Mallcson, The Re-
founding of the German Empire, 1848-1J (Lon-
don, 1893) , Muller, Political History of Recent
Times, 1816-15 (New Yoik 1882), translated
and brought down to 1881 by Peters, and written
with special reference to Germany , Murdock,
The Reconstruction of Europe (Boston, 1889),
Baring-Gould, Germany, Past and Present (Lon-
don, 1881)., Eltzbacher, Modern Germany (ib,
1905), Ashley, Modern Tariff History (ib ,
1904) , Andrews, Contemporary Europe, Asia,
and Africa (Philadelphia, 1902) , Cambridge
Modern History, vols x, xi, xn (New Yoik,
1903-12), Schierbrand, Germany The Welding
of a World Power (ib , 1907) , Perns, Germany
and the German Emperor (London, 1912) ,
Bernhardi, (Germany and the Next War (ib,
1912), Dove, Die deutschen Kolonien (4 vols,
Leipzig, 1000-13), Roberts, Monarchial Social-
ism in Geimany (New York, 1913) , Hurd and
Castle, The On man Sea Power (London, 1913)*
For Geiman diplomacy and government, consult
Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'JBwrope,
1814-18, vols i and 11 (Paris, 1891), Lowell,
Governments and Politics in Continental Eywope
(New York, 1896) , Howaid, The German Em-
pire (ib, 1906), Denis, La fondatwn de Vem-
pire allennand (Paris, 1906), Htfadlam, Bis-
marck and the Foundation of the German Em-
pire (New York, 1908) , Von Buibw, Imperial
Germany (ib, 1914), Hobbs, The World Wat
and its Consequences (New York, 1919) ; Berger,
Germany After the Armistwe (New York, 1920) ,
Young, New Germ<my (New York, 1920) , Clap-
T LLOEBHTE
702
GEBMINATIQH
ham, Economic Development of France and Ge/~
many (New Yoik, 1921) For detailed lefer-
ences on Geiman history, consult the bibliog-
raphies of Lavisse and Rambaud, Histo'ne
generate (Pans, 1893-1900) , Seignobos, Polit-
ical Histoiy of Europe since 1814 (New Yoik,
1900), and especially Dahlmann-Waitz, refened
to above See BISMARCK-SCHQNHAUSEN , CAT-
VIN, FREDERICK IT, THIRTY YEARS' WAR, ETC
GEBMAK" Y LLORENTE, B^r-man' e lyo-
ran'ta, BEBWARDO (1685-1757) A Spanish
paintoi, born at Seville He studied under his
father and Cristobal Lopez Pie painted tlio
poitiait of the Infant, Don Philip, with such
success that in 1717 he \\as called to Madiid b*
Philip V, who desired to make him couit
painter, but he declined the honor, preferring an
independent life In 1735 he was made a mem-
ber of the Academy of St Feidmand The
works of this artist, though inferior to those of
Murillo, yet resemble them in their correctness
of drawing and groupings, and in other coun-
tries they have- been sold as original Munllos
He so frequently painted the Virgin as a shep-
herdess that he was called the "Painter of
Shepherdesses" One of these paintings is m
the Church of San Ildefonso, Madrid, and an-
other in the Prado
GrERM CELL See CELL; EMBRYOLOGY
GrEBMEBSHEIMC, ger'mers-him A town in
the Bavaiian Palatinate, Germany, situated on
the Rhine, 9 miles southwest of Speyer It has
manniactuies ot piessed veast, creosoted block, or
n amenta! stone work, and beer, also much river
trade , and fishing is carried on Pop , 1%0, 5868 ,
UUO, 5S3S The Eomans had a station here
under the name of Vir»us Julu The French
nere defeated h^re by the Au^tnans in 1793
GrEB/MICIDE. See DISINFECTANTS
GERMINAL, shar'me-'nal' (Fr., relating to
buds) 1 The name for the seventh month of
the year in the French Republican calendar, from
March 21 to April 19 during the years I-III,
and from March 22 to April 20 during the years
VIII-XIII 2 One of the Rougon-Macquart
novels by Zola (1885)
GERMINAL rKTSITBRECTIOlSr. A name
given to the bread riots against the Convention
at Pans, which occurred on April 1, 1795 (12th
Germinal, Year III)
GERMINATION, jer'mi-na'shun (Lat gei-
mmatiOy from get mmat e, to bud, from germen
Dud) The process bv which a spore begins the
development of a plant body Technically, only
spores germinate, but this term has been ex-
tended to include the process by which the
embryo escapes from the seed The so-called
germination of the seed, however, is not true
germination, since zt is the escape of an embryo
which has already been germinated, and true
germination includes the very beginnings of the
young plant In the case of a seed, geimmation
begun by a fertilized egg has been checked, and
seed germination is the resumption of activity
and the escape of the young plant
The conditions of germination are uniform
In general, they are suitable amounts of water,
of heat, and of oxygen Naturally the range in
each one of these factors is very great, some
spores germinating in the presence of a com-
paratively small amount of water, or at a rela-
tively low temperature, while others need a
large amount of water or high temperature
Between these extremes there is every possible
combination of requirements Some spores ger-
minate almost immediately after they have been
transposed from the parent plant, -while others
may pass into a resting condition of greater
or less duration This difference in habit is
generally apparent in the different character of
GERMINATION
1 and 2, germination of pollen gram of pine, 3 and 4,
young embryo of buttercup, 5 and 6, first and last stages of
embryo of a fern
the spore wall, those spores which are to germi-
nate quickly having thin walls, and those which
are to pass into a resting condition having thick
walls Since the spore consists of a single cell,
the first evidence of geimmation is the activity
of the cell, which usually enlarges, and then
divides, resulting in a two-celled embryo One
01 both of the daughter cells then grow to ma-
ture size, and division then occurs In this
process of growth and division the spore wall is
bioken and the young plant emerges and con-
GEEMINATIO3ST
1, young prothallmm of a fein, 2, three stages m the
germination of a green alga, beginning with the spore (a) ,
3, young plants of a liverwort developing from spores within
the sporangium
tinues its development by drawing upon the
reserve food supply in the spore until it is able
to maintain itself
The early stages of germination liave at-
tracted a great deal of attention, under the
GERMINATION
703
GERMINATION
impression that they furnish proofs of the re-
lationships of groups Accordingly the order of
succession and the direction of cell walls have
been carefully noted In case the plant is a
complex one, after a certain number of cells
have been developed, the different regions of the
body begin to appear For example, in an
embryonic seed plant it would be impossible for
a time to tell what kind of plant is to develop,
but after a homogeneous cell mass of greater or
less extent is formed, the organs begin to appear
which determine the character of the plant
In the case of alternation of generations
(qv) the germination of the sexual spore
(fertilized egg) results in a sexless plant
(sporophyte) , while the germination of the
asexual spore results in a sexual plant (game-
tophyte) Among the heterosporous plants
(those producing two kinds of asexual spores),
i e , in certain fern plants and all the flowering
plants, the sexual plants (gametophytes) do
not escape from the spores which germinate
them For example, the pollen grain is a spore
which by its germination produces a male game-
tophyte, but this gametophyte is so much re-
duced that it is represented only by a few cells
or nuclei within the pollen grain The same is
true of the germination of the megaspore in
seed plants, which is retained within the ovule,
and which in its germination develops the so-
called endosperm, which is the female gameto-
phyte With the exception of heterosporous
plants, however, the germinating plantlet soon
escapes from the spore
In the so-called germination of the seed there
are numerous events which may be observed
Attention has been called already to the fact
that this process is not technically germination,
bat meiely the renewal of activity and the
escape of the young plantlet. Just how long
different seeds may retain their vitality in a
state of dormancy is not definitely known
GERMINATION
1, development of Botrydium (alga) from the egg, 2, seg-
mentation of egg of a brown alga, 3, a young fungus com-
ing from the egg, 4, young pro thallium of Equisetum
Some seeds have renewed activity after having
remained in4 a dried-up condition for many
years, but such stones as that the wheat taken
from ,the wrappings of Egyptian mummies has
been made to germinate arie myths. Seed ger-
mination results in freeing the embryo from the
seed coats, and in enabling it to establish itself
for independent living. The first conspicuous
change noted in the seed after the absoiption of
water is the softening of the contents, the solid
or insoluble starch, if that be the form of the
food storage, being converted by a process of
digestion into soluble sugar ready for transfer
Accompanying this change there is a marked
evolution of heat, so that if a large mass of
seeds is set to germinating, as in the process
of malting, the heat may become very evident
The first part to protrude from the seed is the
hypocotyl (qv ), the tip of which is thrust out
by the rapid elongation of its upper part This
protruding and rapidly elongating tip, which is
to develop the root, now rapidly increases in
length, and is very sensitive to the influence of
gravity and of moisture, responding by develop-
ing any curvature necessary to reach the soil
Penetrating the soil and beginning to put out
lateral branches, it secures the grip necessary
for the extrication of the other regions of the
embryo After some anchoiage has thus been
obtained the upper pait of the hypocotyl again
begins a period of rapid elongation, which re-
sults in the development of a cuive known as
the hypocotyl arch In the case of the germi-
nating bean this arch is the first structure to
appear above ground, and its pull upon the seed
is very apt to bring it to the surface Finally,
the arch m its effort to straighten pulls the
cotyledons out of the seed coats, and with them
the stem tip, the axis of the plant straightens
up, the seed leaves and sometimes other leaves
expand, and germination is over, for with roots
in the soil, and green leaves expanded to the
air and sunlight, the plantlet has become inde-
pendent. These details are not the same for all
seeds, for there are certain notable variations
For example, in the pea and acorn the cotyle-
dons are so gorged with food as to have lost all
power of acting as leaves, and are never extri-
cated from the seed coats In the cereals, as
corn, wheat, etc, the embryo lies close against
one side of the seed, so that it is completely
exposed by the splitting of the thin skin which
covers it In such a case the cotyledon is never
unfolded, but remains as an absorbing organ,
while the root extends in one direction and
the stem with its succession of ensheathing
leaves develops in the other.
The most recent investigations in reference
to germination have had to do with delayed
germination, especially of seeds, although the
same problem is present in the germination of
spores Many seeds and spores cannot germi-
nate immediately, the time elapsing before
germination varying widely, but often it is a
long period In many seeds it has been found
that the delay in germination is due to the ex-
clusion of water or of oxygen by the seed
coat. If such coats are punctured or abraded,
germination follows promptly In nature these
impermeable coats must become more or less
disintegrated before germination is possible.
Some seeds, however, do not germinate, even
when the coats have been removed entirely and
the embryo put in good germinating conditions
In these cases some change in the embryo is
necessary before growth can be resumed, and it
is this change that is called "after ripening."
The physiological (chemical) changes involved in
after ripening liave been investigated in the case
of certain seeds, and methods have been dis-
covered for shortening the after-ripening period.
GERHINIE LAOEBTETTX
704
The mechanical treatment of impermeable seed
coats and the chemical treatment for after
ripening have veiy important practical applica-
tions in shortening the period for the production
of certain crops
G-EBMINIE LACERTETTX, zhar'me n6' la'-
sar'te' A realistic romance by Edmond and
Jules de Goncourt (1865), in which the authors
aim to present, as they say, a "clime of love"
It was dramatized by Edmond de Goncourt, and
produced at the Odeon in 1889
GEBM-LATER THEORY Seer EMBRYOL-
OGY, Germ Layers
GERM PLASM. The kind of protoplasm
supposed by some embryologists peculiar to the
germinal pait of the ovum and regarded as
containing such chemical or molecular composi-
tion and properties as to determine the special
character of the lesulting organism. This sin-
gularity is supposed to be inherited and to con-
tinue from generation to generation See
BIOLOGY
GERM THEORY OE DISEASE See DIS-
EASE, GERM THEORY OF.
GER3STSHEIM:, gernsliini, FBIEDEICH (1839-
1916). A German composer. He was born at
Worms, and studied at Mainz (under Pauer),
Frankfort on the Main, at the Leipzig Conserva-
tory, and in Paris After conducting at Saar-
brucken (1861-65) he was called to the Conser-
vatory of Cologne, where he also conducted
several musical societies, and in 1873 was ap-
pointed to the leadership of the Maatschappij
concerts at Rotterdam. In 1890-97 he taught
at Stern's conservatory, and from 1890 to 1904
was conductor of the Stern Choral Society in
Berlin, one of the most prominent singing
societies of Germany His compositions include
four symphonies (Gm, Efc, Crn, Bb) , an over-
ture, Waldm&ister's Brautfahrtj a concerto for
piano, one for violin, and one for 'cello, seveial
large choral works, S alarms, Hafis, Wachterlied,
Das Grab im Bus&nto, Nornenhed, Phobus
Apollo; and a great variety of remarkable
chamber music
GKERO, ga'rd A German hero in the Nibelun-
genhed He is an historic character who, as
Maigrave of the Ostmark, in 939, conquered all
the Slavic tribes between the Elbe and the Oder,
and died m 965
GEROK, ga'rdk, KAKL (1815-90) A German
preacher and religious poet He was born at
Vaihingen, Wurttemberg, Jan. 30, 1815, studied
at Tubingen, became chief court preacher in
Stuttgart, 1868, and died there Jan 14, 1890
His sermons, and particularly his religious
poetry, were much admired The chief collec-
tion of the latter was entitled PalmUatter
(1857), Eng trans by Brown (London, 1869)
Consult his life by Braun (Leipzig, 1891) ; G.
Gerok (Stuttgart, 1892)
GKEBOME, zM'rdir/, JEAN-L&ON (1824-1904).
A French painter and sculptor, one of the most
eminent artists of the later nineteenth century
He was born May U, 1824, at Vesoul, Haute-
Saone, France His father, a goldsmith, en-
souraged the artistic tendencies of his son
Le*on?s copy of a picture by Decamps was seen
yy a friend of Delaroehe, which led to Gerome's
^ntering the atelier of that master m Paris, at
/he age of 15 Three years later he went with
Delaroehe to Rome With the exception of a
ew months with Gleyre, all Ger6me's early
.raining was received from Delaroehe He as-
jisted Delaroehe on his picture of "The Passage
of the Alps by Charlemagne/' now in the
Versailles Museum In 1847 Geiome was un-
successful in the competition for the Prix de
Rome, but the picture, a ''Greek Cockfight,"
now in the Luxembourg, which he exhibited at
the Salon of that year, was the sensation of the
day This picture was followed by the "Ana-
creon, Bacchus, and Cupid" (1848), now in the
Museum of Toulouse In 1850 he exhibited the
"Greek Interior," and in 1855 the "Age of
Augustus," an immense picture now in the
Museum of Amiens
All the most splendid qualities of the art of
Gerome appear in the great picture of "Morituri
te Salutant" (the 'Gladiators before Caesar"),
which was exhibited in 1859 In 1854 Gerome
visited the Danube provinces and Egypt, stop-
ping at Constantinople on the way He was
made a member of the Institute and professor
of painting at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in
1865, and won a medal of honor at the Uni-
versal Exposition of 1867 He was made Cheva-
lier of the Legion of Honor m 1855, Officer
in 1867, and afterward Commander
Gerome painted an enormous number of pic-
tures, which are largely held m the museums
of France. He is also well represented in Amer-
ican collections A partial list only can be
given He exhibited the "Phryne before the
Tribunal" m 1861 , "The Two Augurs" and the
portrait of Rachel in 1861, the "Cleopatra and
Caesar" in 1866, the "Slave Market" and the
"Death of Csesar" in 1867, and the "Promenade
in the Harem" in 1869 He painted the "Plague
at Marseilles" as a decoration in one of the
chapels of the church of Saint-Severm in Paris
Gerome exhibited his great picture "Polhce
Verso," companion to the "Gladiatois before
Csesar," in 1873 These two pictures weie con-
sidered by the painter himself his best works
Of his later pictures the most important are
"Son eminence gnse7' (1876, Boston Museum) ,
"Rex Tibicen," "Frederick the Great before the
Bust of Voltaire" (1876), "St Jerome" (1878),
"Slave Market in Rome" (1884), "Great Bath
at Biusa" (1885) The Metropolitan Museum,
New York, possesses three of his works, as does
also the Vanderbilt collection, including "Louis
XIV at the Grand Conde " The Walters Gal-
lery, Baltimore, possesses his "Christian Mar-
tyrs" (1803-83), and a replica of the very
popular "Duel aftei the Masquerade," the first
rendering of which is in the Chantilly Museum
Gerdme was an exceedingly skillful and intelli-
gent painter, but he depended for his effects on
his perfect drawing and grouping, his technique
is hard and his color often cold.
At the Exposition in Pans in 1878 Ger6me
made his de*but as a sculptor of the first rank
with a bronze reproduction of the central group
of the "Polhce Verso." The best of Ge"r6rae's
later work is m sculpture The most character-
istic is a series of bronze equestrian statuettes,
among which are "The Entry of Bonaparte into
Cairo" (Luxembourg Gallery), "Frederick the
Great," and "Tamerlane " His seated statue
"Tanagra" and a tinted marble bust of Sarah
Bernhardt are in the Luxembourg Museum. In
1902 he completed "L'Aiglc expirant," a bronze
monument for the battlefield of Waterloo, and
the "Game of Ball " Consult his biography by
Her ing (New York, 1892) , Claretie, P&intres et
sculpteurs contemporaans (Pans, 1884) ; Cook,
Art and Artists of Our Time, vol i (New York,
1888) , Low, "Ge>ame," in Van Dyke,
GERONA
7<>5
GERRY
French Masters (ib, 1896), Guillemin, Etude
sur le peintre et sculpteur Jean Leon- Gerome
(Besangon, 1905)
GER03STA, iia-ro'na A town of Tilrlac, Lu-
zon, Philippines, on the Manila and Dagupan
Railroad, 9 miles north of Tailac Pop , 1903,
13,615
GERONA, Ha-ro'na An episcopal city, the
capital of the province of the same name, Spain,
52 miles northeast of Barcelona, situated at the
junction of the rivers Onar and Ter (Map
Spain, G 2) Built at the foot and on the slope
of two hills, the fortified Monjuich commanding
the city, it comprises two parts, the city proper
on the side of the Hill of the Capuchins, with
the narrow, dingy streets of a mediaeval town
(which nevertheless has the finest architectural
features), and the modern suburb, El Mercadel,
in the plain below The rivers Guell and Galh-
gans empty into the Onar, the foimer "just north
of the city, while the latter flows through it, and
many of the houses are built directly on the
river's brink — a circumstance that has caused
the floods, particularly those of 1762 and 1829,
to be extremely disastrous Gerona still retains
part of its old walls, but its cfiief attractions
are in its churches The noble Gothic cathedral
(begun in 1312), one of the finest in Spam,
standb on the site of an earlier church dedi-
cated in 1038, the nave, 73 feet in width, is the
widest Gothic vault in the world Also note-
worthy are the fourteenth-century church of
San Felix and the Romanesque church of San
Pedro There are a large poorhouse, a hospital
in connection with which is an insane asylum, a
theatre, and two public libraries, the provincial
library having over 13,000 volumes The citadel
serves as a state prison The manufactures of
the city comprise paper, cotton and woolen
goods, machinery, cork, and in the vicinity coal,
iron, copper, and lead are mined There are
also mineral springs Pop, 1900, 15,668, 1910,
17,416
Gerona, the ancient Gerunda of the Auscetam,
is one of the oldest cities of Spain, its origin
being ascribed to the tenth century B c , though
it appears first in history during the Punic
Wars In the Middle Ages it was known also
as Gironda The town submitted to the Moors
in 717 and in 797 came finally into the posses-
sion of the Frankish borderers, who for a time
ruled it in the name of their kings Subse-
quently it passed into the possession of the
counts of Barcelona It was erected into a
dukedom about the middle of the fourteenth cen-
tury, and in 1414 into a principality for the
eldest son of the King of Aragon Gerona played
a part in the War of the Spanish Succession,
suffering severely with the rest of Catalonia
It became celebrated for the stubborn fighting
qualities of its inhabitants Its crowning ex-
ploit was achieved in 1809 in the Spanish War
of Liberation, when it held out from June 8 to
December 10 against the French, who had in-
vested it in 1808, yielding only when its citizens
succumbed to famine and disease
GERON'IMO (c 1834-1909) A chief of the
Chmcahua tribe of Apache Indians His native
name was Goyathlay (the yawner), and Geron-
imo is only a Mexican nickname He was born
in New Mexico, near old Fort Tulerosa In
1876 with other chiefs he fled to Mexico rather
than be removed to San Carlos, 4*12., with the
other dhiricahua But he was caught ancj, taken
to Arizona In 1882 he led a raid into Sonora,
but surrendered to General Crook During
1884-85 there was an attempt to stop the Indian
manufacture of intoxicants, and Geroninio with
a band of hostile Indians terrorized a great part
of New Mexico and Arizona and some of Sonora
and Chihuahua Against them, early in 1886,
General Sheridan sent Gen George Crook In
March a truce was made, and at a conference
between Crook and Geronimo terms of surrender
were agreed upon Before they could be cairied
out, however, the Indians escaped to the Mexican
mountains, and General Crook was superseded
in command by Gen Nelson A Miles General
Miles immediately began an active campaign
against the Indians He followed them into the
mountains until at length Geronimo was glad to
accept the terms offered by General Miles, which
provided for the deportation of Geronimo and
his leading followers to Fort Pickens, Fla Later
they were taken to Alabama and then to Fort
Sill, Okla Consult Geronimo's Story of His
Life, Taken Down and Edited ly 8 M Barrett
(New York, 1906), and articles on the campaign
against him in the Journal of the "United States
Cavalry Association (Fort Leavenworth), vols
xix and xxi
GERONTE, zha'rtot' In French classical
comedy, a type of the old man The character
appears especially in Corneille's Le menteur} in
MoliSre's Le wie'decin malgre lui and Les four-
beries de Scapin, and in Kegnard's Le youeur,
Le retour imprevu, and Le legataire unwersel
In the Menteur the character has dignity and
restrained emotion In the Medecin malgre lui
and the Fourleries he has become purely a gro-
tesque dupe, miserly, obstinate, and credulous.
GEROUSIA, je-roo'shi-a (Tepovata, from
ytpwv, geron, old man) The Council of Elders3
or Senate, at Sparta, corresponding somewhat to
the Athenian Boule (qv ) Consult Gilbert,
(7tee7c Constitutional Antiquities, Eng trans
(London, 1895)
GERRESHEIM, ger'es-him A town in the
Rhine Province, Prussia, a western suburb of
Dusseldorf, taken within the city limits in 1909
It is an industrial centre of growing importance,
with extensive glass, wire, rivet, and silk fac-
tories, and other manufacturing establishments
Its Romanesque parish church dates from the
thirteenth century Pop , 1905, 14,431
GERRY, ger'ri, ELBEIDGE (1744-1814) An
American statesman He was born at Marble-
head, Mass , July 17, 1744, the son of a mer-
chant. He graduated in 1762 at Harvard, where
three years later he took a master's degree and,
abandoning his original intention of entering the
medical profession, became a successful merchant
in his native town In May, 1772, he entered
upon his long political career as a member of
the General Court of Massachusetts, and here
immediately identified himself with the Patriot
party, particularly as represented by Samuel
Adams, with whom from this time forward he
was closely associated in opposition to the arbi-
trary measures of the British ministry. He
was appointed by the Legislature, with Itancock
and Orne, a member of the Committee of Corre-
spondence, and m 1774 and 1775 was a promi-
nent member of the Massachusetts Provincial
Congress, by which, after the battle of Lex-
ington, he was charged with procuring a supply
of gunpowder for the Province, Late in X775
he introduced a bill, passing on November 10,
for arming and equipping ships for aggressive
service against the ~
b.e British mercantile and
GKEBRY
706
GKEBBYMAlSrDER
military manne This bill, says Gerry's bi-
ographer, Austin, was "the first actual avowal
of offensive hostility against the mother country
which is to be found in the annals of the Revo-
lution," and the ufiist effort," as well, "to es-
tablish an American naval aimament" Samuel
Adams spoke of it as 'one of the boldest, most
dangerous, and most important measures
in the history of the New Yorld, the commence-
ment of a new maritime and military power "
In 1776 Gerry was elected to the Continental
Congress, in which he served for the next four
years, during which time he took an active part
in seeming the passage of many measures of
importance, was a member of various important
committees, and in particulai was conspicuous
as a vigorous advocate of the Declaiation of
Independence, which he signed He was also
prominent as a member of three committees
appointed (in Septembei, 1776, July, 1777, and
November, 1777) to visit Washington's camp on
behalf of Congress, and more especially as a
member of a, standing committee for superin-
tending the treasury, of which he was for some
time chairman, and which exercised a vntual
control over the finances of the country through-
out the Revolutionary War. He was accused,
but apparently with little justice, of support-
ing, or at least countenancing, the Conwav Cabal
( q v ) in its efforts to displace Washington ,
and in 1779, as head of the tieasmy board, came
into conflict \\ ith Gen Benedict Arnold, some of
whose accounts he had refused to audit In.
February, 1780, he withdiew from Congress ow-
ing to its refusal to record the yeas and nays on
a question of older raised by him, and the
Massachusetts General Court, to which he ap-
pealed, sustained him in his position On his
return to Massachusetts he was elected a mem-
ber of both the Upper and the Lower House in
the first Legislature under the new State Con-
stitution, and accepted a seat in the latter
In 1783 he resumed his seat m the Continental
Congress, which he retained for three years, dur-
ing which time he was a member of the com-
mittee appointed, in 1783, to consider the defin-
itive treaty of peace, was chairman of each of
two committees appointed to choose a suitable
location for a national capital, and again took
a prominent part in the initiation and discussion
of financial measures He was also conspicuous
in 1784 as an opponent of the Society of the Cin-
cinnati He again became a member of the Lower
House of the State Legislature in 1785, declined
an appointment to the Annapolis Convention
(qv ) in 1786, and in 1787 was sent as one of
the Massachusetts delegates to the Constitu-
tional Convention at Philadelphia, where he was
Eromment as an opponent of the Constitution as
nally adopted, refusing, along with Randolph
and Mason, to affix his signature His chief
objections, as stated by himself, were, fcthat there
is no adequate provision for a representation of
the people, that they have no security for the
right of election, that some of the poweis of the
Legislature are ambiguous and others indefinite
and dangerous, that the Executive is blended
with and will have an undue influence over the
Legislature, that the judicial department will
be oppressive., that treaties of the highest im-
portance may be formed by the President, with
the advice of two-thirds of a quorum of the
Senate, and that the system is without the
security of a bill of rights " After the organiza-
tion of the government he was elected one of the
representatives of Massachusetts in the first and
second Congresses under the Constitution Sub-
sequently he remained in retirement at Cam-
bridge until 1797, when, war with France ap-
pearing imminent, he was sent, along with
Marshall and Pinckney, on an important mission
to the French Directory The envoys, unable to
secuie official lecogmtion, were forced to sub-
mit to various indignities and humiliating re-
buffs, while disgraceful propositions weie made
to them by Talleyrand and his secret agents,
and Marshall and Pinckney soon left in disgust
Gerry, however, being the only Republican on
the commission, and therefore being, presum-
ably, more favorably disposed than his colleagues
towards the French government, remained foi
some time longer, at the request of Talleyrand,
but accomplished nothing (See X Y Z CORRE-
SPONDENCE ) For thus remaining he ^vas acri-
moniously attacked by the Federalists upon his
return to the United States He was several
times defeated for Governor of Massachusetts,
but was successful in 1810, and in 1811 was
reelected His administration was fiercely criti-
cised by the Federalists on the giound of its
alleged partisanship, and color was given to the
charge by the enactment by the Republican
Legislature of a law, which Gerry signed, but
of which he seems to have disapproved, for re-
districting the State m such a manner as to
annihilate the Federalist majorities in several
counties (See GERRYMANDER ) From 1813 un-
til his death he was Vice President of the
United States He died suddenly on his way to
the Capitol, N"ov 23, 1814 Consult Austin,
Life of Elbridge Gerry, with Contemporary
Letters (Boston, 1828-29)
GERRY, ELBBIDGE THOMAS (1837-1927)
An American lawyer and philanthropist, born in
New York City, a grandson of Elbridge Gerry
( q v ) He graduated at Columbia College in
1857 During his practice as a lawyer he ap-
peared in some important cases and accumulated
one of the finest libraries of works on juris-
prudence in America In 1867 he was a member
of the State Constitutional Convention Pie be-
came prominently connected with numerous re-
formatory and benevolent organizations, and in
1874 founded the Society for the Prevention of
Ciuelty to Children, of which he was president
in 1876-1901, until 1809 he was vice president
of the American Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals In 1886-88 he was chair-
man of the New York State commission which
substituted electrocution for death by hanging
He was commodore of the New York Yacht Club
in 1886-93, and was a director in several large
trust companies With A F Currier he wrote
Corporal Punishment for Certain Forms of
Crime (1895)
GEERYMAETDEB, geVrl-man'der A word
belonging to the political vocabulary of the
United States and used to denote an unfair di-
vision of the electoral districts in a State, made
in the interest of one of the political parties
The word was coined in 1812, though the practice
was m use as early as the beginning1 of the
eighteenth century At that time the Federalist
and Republican parties in Massachusetts were
nearly evenly balanced m numerical strength,
but the Republicans took advantage of a tem-
porary majority in the Legislature to divide the
State into new senatorial districts in such, a
manner that "those sections which gave a large
number of Federalist votes migjht be brought
G-EKS
707
into one district Previously each county had
constituted a senatorial district, and the power
of rearranging old districts 01 creating new
ones, bestowed on the Legislatuie by the State
constitution, had nevei been exeicised El-
bridge Gerry ( q v ) was at that time Governor,
and thiough his signatuie, though he seems not
to have wholly approved the measuie, the woik
of the Legislature became a law The form of
one of the districts into which Essex County
was divided was somewhat like that of a mon-
strous animal, and when some one suggested that
it looked like a salamander, the name "gerry-
mander" was given to it instead The passage
of the law caused a great outcry from the
Federalists, and early m 1813, this party having
again secured a majority and elected a Governor
(Caleb Strong) to succeed Gerry, the law was
lepealed The device, however, has since been
repeatedly used in various States For an ac-
count of the origin of the term, consult Dean,
"The Gerrymander," in the New England His-
torical and Genealogical Register, vol xlvi (Bos-
ton, 1892), and Griffith, The Rise and Develop-
ment of the Gerrymander (Chicago, 1907)
GERS, zhar An interior department in the
southwest of France, formerly portions of the
provinces of Gascony and Guienne (Map
France, S , E 5 ) Area, 2428 square miles
Pop, 1901, 238,448, 1911, 221,994 While the
surface is hilly, its highest point does not ex-
ceed 1300 feet Its principal rivers are the
Gers, the Adour, Save, Ginione, and Bayse Over
24 per cent of the surface is devoted to the cul-
tivation of the grape, from which large quanti-
ties of brandy and wine are manufactured The
brandy produced in this department is known as
Armagnac and is considered as second only to
that of Cognac Wheat, oats, and flax are ex-
tensively grown The cattle-raising industry is
important, and there is a brisk trade in turkeys
and geese Capital, Auch
GEBSATJ, ger'sou A health resort of Swit-
zerland, situated in the Canton of Schwyz on
the north bank of Lake Lucerne ( Map Switzei -
land, C 1) Its situation is very picturesque
and its equable and mild climate makes it a
very desirable winter resort for invalids, while
in summer it is a crowded and popular tourist
resort For four centuries after 1390 Gersau
was entirely independent, forming the smallest
republic in Europe At the formation of the
Helvetic Republic in 1798 Gersau became a part
of the Canton of Waldstatten, and was subse-
quently (1803) incorporated with the Canton
of Schwyz Pop, 1900, 1887, 1910, 1821
GER'SHOM, or GEK/SHON A name given
to two individuals in the Old Testament 1.
The first-born son of Moses and Zipporah, ac-
cording to Ex 11 22, xvni 3 In Judg xvm
30, Gershom, or Gershon, is said to be the father
of Jonathan, the priest officiating at the sanctu-
ary of Dan (see HIGH PLACE), and the son of
Manasseh or Moses The only difference be-
tween these two names when written with the
Hebrew characters is the letter nun While
Manasseh is found in many manuscripts, most
frequently the nom is put above the line, and in
some cases it has been added by a later hand
Most of the ancient versions read "Manasseh",
but some manuscripts of the Greek version and
the Latin Vulgate read "Moses." It Is therefore
difficult to determine what the original reading
was. Evidently the priesthood at Dan traced
its origin either to Manasseh or to Moses, or to
both at different peiiods As the 13 cities as-
signed to the Levitic clan of the Gershomtes
were all in eastern Manasseh, Issachar, Asher,
and Naphtah (Josh xxi 27, 33), it is possible
that the Gershonite priesthood at Dan considered
itself of Manassite ongin, and even that the cult
in this place was once devoted to the divinity
who afterwaid became the eponymous hero of
the tribe of Manasseh A claim to Mosaic de-
scent would then be a later development Another
•view is that the suspended nun is a device to
gloss over the unpleasant fact that a grandson
of Moses was priest at a temple where a Yahwe
image was worshiped The priestly legislation
knows of no sons of Moses in the priesthood 2
The fiist-born son of Levi, according to Ex vi
16, Num 111 17, 1 Chron vi 1, 16, xxni 6 In
reality this Gershon is the eponym of a Levitic
family in the Persian and Greek period In the
sketch of the tabernacle in the wilderness, the
Gershomtes are the carriers of curtains, cover-
ings, screens, and hangings belonging to this
movable sanctuary In the narrative of David's
reign they figuie as musicians belonging to the
family of Asaph It is probable that the Ger-
shomtes furnished some of the musicians as well
as some of the janitors for the second temple
Whether they were descendants of the Gershon-
ites who once were priests at Dan is not certain,
but it is quite probable
G-ERSOiKr, zhaVsSN', JEAN CHABLIEK DE
(1363-1429) An eminent French scholar and
divine He was born at Gerson, in the Diocese
of Rheims, Dec 14, 1363 He entered the Uni-
versity of Paris, and studied theology under the
celebrated Pierre d'Ailly Here he rose to the
highest honors of the university and, when only
32, to its chancellorship (1395), having acquired
by his extiaordinary learning the title of "the
Most Christian Doctor" He did much for the
reform of the university During the contests
which arose out of the rival claims of the two
lines of pontiffs in the time of the Western
Schism (qv ) the University of Paris took a
leading part in the negotiations for union, and
Geison was one of the most active supporters
of the pioposal of the university for putting an
end to the schism by the resignation of both the
contending parties He visited the other uni-
versities, in order to obtain their assent to the
plan proposed by that of Paris But although
he had the satisfaction to see this plan carried
out in the Council of Pisa (1409), it failed to
secure the desired union In a treatise inscribed
to his friend Pierre d'Ailly, he renewed the
proposal that the rival pontiffs (now not two,
but three, since the election of John XXII at
Pisa) should be required to resign, and in the
new council which met at Constance in 1414 he
was again the most zealous advocate of the
same expedient of resignation It is to him
also that the great outlines of the plan of Church
reformation, then and afterward proposed, are
due (See CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF ) But his
own personal fortunes were marred by the ani-
mosity of the Duke of Burgundy and his ad-
herents, to whom Gerson had become obnoxious,
and from whom he had already suffered much
persecution, on account of the boldness witn
which he had denounced the murder of the Duke
of Orleans To escape their vengeance he was
forced to remain m exile, and he retired from
Constance (1418) in the disguise of a pilgrim,
to Rattenberg, in Bavaria, -where he composed
his celebrated work, De Comolatione lT'heolog^<JBi
GEBSOH
708
GEHSTER
in imitation of that of Boethius, De Consola-
tione Philosophic? , later he went to Neuburg
Tt was only after the lapse of two years that he
was enabled to return to France and take up his
residence in a monastery at Lyons, of which his
brother was superior He devoted himself m
this retirement to works of piety, to study, and
to the education of youth He died in Lyons
July 12, 1429 His works fill five volumes in
folio Among the books formerly ascribed to
him was the celebrated treatise De Imitatione
Christi; but it is no longer doubtful that the
true author is Thomas a Kempis (qv ) The
best and most complete edition of his works is
by Dupm (Antwerp, 1706) Consult his life
by Schwab (Wurzburg, 1858) , Jadart (Rheims,
1882), Keynolds, Ea?ly Reprints for English
Read&rs John Get son (London, 1880), Bess,
Zwr Geschichte des Komtanzer Konzils (Mar-
burg, 1891) , Creighton, History of the Papacy,
vols i and 11 (London, 1882)
GERSON, ger'son-y', WOJGIECH (1831-1901)
A Polish historical painter, born at Warsaw
He began Ins studies at the School of Art, and
continued them at the Academy of St Peters-
burg, and under L6on Cogniet in Paris Sub-
sequently appointed professor in his native city,
he exercised a far-reaching influence upon the
promotion of art in Poland as the master of
many of the distinguished Polish painters of the
day, and as the founder of the Art Society m
Warsaw He was a member of the St Peters-
burg Academy Among his highly valued pic-
tures, noted for thoughtful conception and high
finish, may be mentioned "Conversion of the
Slavs to Christianity in the Tenth Century",
ftQueen Hedwig in the Castle at Cracow",
"Count Casimir the Righteous", "Copernicus in
Rome", "Haughty Queen Rixa of Poland," be-
sides many other episodes from Polish history
GERSOiKTIDES, ger-son'i-dez, or L^osr DE
BAGNOLS (c.1288-1344) A distinguished Jewish
philosopher, physician, astronomer, and com-
mentator, known in Jewish literature as Levi
ben Grerson He was born in Aries, of a family
of scholars He made many accurate observa-
tions in astronomy, and wrote commentaries on
parts of the Bible. His best work is called
Milkhamoi Adonai, "Wars of the Lord," and is
a daring philosophical treatise Though his
philosophy is based on that of Maimonides, it
passes beyond tins writer m various points His
works gamed a reputation among Christian
scholars, and certain portions were translated
into Latin by order of Pope Clement VT (1342).
He died at Perpignan. Consult Joel, Lem ben
Gerson als Religionsphilosoph (Breslau, 1862),
and Winter and Wunsche, Judische Litteratur,
vol. ii (Treves, 1894).
GEBSOPPA (ggr-soj/pa) FAIXS. The
finest falls in India on the Sharawati River, 30
miles southeast of Honawar at the mouth of
the river on the west coast. It consists of four
falls known as the Great, the Roarer, the
Rocket, and the Dame Blanche, or White Lady,
names descriptive of their general features They
descend on three sides of an immense chasm 600
feet wide, the Great Fall leaping down 829 feet
into an enormous pool 132 feet deep.
GERSTACKER, ger/stek-§r, FBIEDRICH ( 1816-
72) A German romancer of adventure Born
in Hamburg, May 10, 1816, the son of an opera
singer, and left early an orphan, he came to the
United States in 1837, and for seven years wan-
dered over the country supporting himself as
a jack of all trades and for some time as a
hunter In 1843 he returned to Germany and
turned his experiences to profitable account in
the widely popular Btreif- und Jagdzuge (1844) ,
Die Reguiatoren in Arkansas (1845) , Die Fluss-
mraten des Mississippi (1848) , and many other
volumes of similar character In 1849 Gerstacker
came again to America and visited also Poly-
nesia and Australia, basing on this voyage his
Tahiti, and an Australian story, Die leiden
Straflmge, both of which are among his best
v/ork In 1860 he went to South America, and
in 1862 accompanied Duke Eniest of Saxe-
Cobuig-Gotha to Egypt and Abyssinia In 1867-
68 he revisited the United States, traveling also
in Mexico, Ecuador, Venezuela, and the West
Indies, and he gave a vivid account of his ex-
periences in Neue Reisen (1868), and in several
novels, Die Misszonare (1868), Die Blauen und
die Oelben (1870), and others Gerstackei's
gifts of description are very considerable, his
character drawing is vivid and realistic, his
style straightforward and unstudied Many of
Ins stories have been popular in English transla-
tions He died in Biunswick, May 31, 1872 His
collected works appeared in 44 vols (1872-79)
GEHSTACKER, KARL EDUABD ADOLF (1828-
95) A German zoologist He was born and
educated in Berlin, where in 1857 he was ap-
pointed lecturer on zoology at the university and
director of the entomological collection in that
institution During the last 20 years of his life
he was professor of zoology and director of the
zoological museum at Greifswald His princi-
pal works include- Entomographien (vol i,
1858) , Zur Morphologie der Orthoptera Amphi-
liotioa (1873) , Die Wander heuschrecJce (1876) ,
and Der Color adokafer (1877)
GEHSTENBERG, ger'sten-berK, HEINKICH
WILHELM VOK (1737-1823) A German poet,
dramatist, and critic, born at Tondern (Schles-
wig) He was educated at Jena, entered the
Danish army, became a captain of cavalry in
1763, and in 1766 was retired from the service
on half pay In 1771 he resigned, in 1775 was
appointed Danish consul at Lubeck, and from
1785 to 1812 was legal director of the royal
lottery at Altona He is known for three works
of important influence m German letters His
Gedicht eines Skalden (1766) introduced into
German literature a revival of Norse mythology
His tragedy Ugohno (1768), based on Dante,
sympathetically criticized by Lessing, attracted
much attention and was one of the earliest
"Sturm und Drang" dramas His Briefe uoer
Merkwurdigkeiten der Litteratur (1766-70)
contributed much in German towards a just
estimate of Shakespeare, and by its complaint
against the reigning formality in German litera-
ture indirectly helped to prepare the way for the
"Sturm und Drang" A collection of his Ver-
mischte Schrifteny edited by himself, appeared
in 1815
GERSTER, gSr'ster, ARPAD GETZA ( CHARLES )
(1848-1923) An American surgeon He was
born at Kassa, Hungary, graduated in medicine
at the University of Vienna m 1872? and was
assistant surgeon in the Austrian army in
1872-73. He served after 1878 as surgeon at
the German Hospital and after 1879 at Mount
Smai Hospital (both in New York City) ; was
professor of surgery at the New York Polychmc
in 1882-94, and became professor of clinical
surgery at Columbia University In 1911-12
he was president of the American Surgical As-
GEBSTEB
•709
GEBVASE OE CANTEBBUBY
soeiation He is authoi of contributions to
medical journals and of Rules of Aseptic and
Antiseptic Surgery (1888, 3d ed , 1890)
GEBSTEB, ETELKA (MME GARDIKI) (1855-
1920) A Hungarian singer, born at Kaschau
After studying at the Vienna Conservatory
under Maichesi she made her debut in 1876 as
Cilda in Rigoletto, subsequently singing with
great success in Marseilles, Genoa, and Berlin
In 1877 she married Pietro Gardim In 1878
(and again in 1883 and 1887) she made a tour
of the United States, and also sang in the
principal European cities In 1896 she opened
a singing school m Beihn Aftei 1905 she was
connected with the Institute of Musical Art in
New York Citv
GEBSTNEB, gerst'ner, FKANZ ANTON vow
(1793-1840) An Austnan engineer, a son of
Franz Josef von Gerstner (1756-1832) He was
born and educated at Prague, and in 1818 was
appointed professor of practical geometry at the
Polytechnic Institute,. Vienna He went to Eng-
land several times to investigate railroad build-
ing in that country, especially the road from
Liverpool to Manchester, which was at that time
in course of construction In 1823-24 he made
the plans of the Budweis-Lmz (horse-power)
Kailroad, the first to be constructed on the con-
tinent of Europe (opened 1832) He built the
road from St Petersburg to Tsarskoye-Selo, and
organized other railroads in Russia In 1838
he visited America, wheie he examined the rail-
roads then either built or building m the United
States Two yeais after his sudden death in
New Yoik City a description of his American
tour was published by his wife under the title
Beschreibung emer Reise durch die Vereinigten
Staaten von Nord-Amemka (1842) A similar
work, but more technical in character, embody-
ing the investigations of Gerstner in America,
was edited m 1842 by L Klein, under the title
Die inneren KommumLationen der Vereimgten
Staaten von Nord-AmeriLa, an interesting work
in two volumes on the means of communication
then existing in the United States
GEB'TBUDE 1 A Belgian saint (626-59),
whose fete is celebrated on March 17. She was
the daughter of Pepm of Landen and Ida of
Aquitame Dagobert I urged her to marry him,
but she refused and, taking the veil, became
abbess of Nivelles in Brabant A number of
churches in Belgium are dedicated to her She
is a patron of travelers, especially by sea, and
is held to give protection from rats and mice
and fever She is represented in art with, rats
and mice about her 2 Saint GEBTEUDE of Eis-
leben (1256-1311), called Gertrude the Great,
entered the convent of Helfta when 5 years old
and became a great student Her mystical
visions began m 1271, and from that time she
gave herself particularly to the study of the
Scriptures Her visions she describes m Lega-
tus Diwmce Pietatis and the seven flocercitia
Spyritualw (1662), often reprinted Her fete
is kept on November 15
GEBTBUDE OF WYO'MING A pathetic
and graceful, though not flawless, poem by
Thomas Campbell, which appeared in 1809
GEBTJSALEMIOI LIBEBATA, ja-roo'sa-
lem'imt le'ba-ra'ta (It, Jerusalem Delivered)
A famous poem by Torquato Tasso, published
at Venice, 1580> m 16 cantos, the narrative of
real and fictitious events connected with the
First Crusade and the deliverance of Jerusalem
under Godfrey of Bouillon English translations
were published by Fairfax m 1600 and by James
in 1865 and 1884
GEBUZEZ, zha'ru'za', ( NICOLAS) ETJG&NE
(1799-1865) A French critic, born at Rheims
He was the nephew of Jean Geruzez (1763-
1830), the author, and held the chair of elo-
quence at the Sorbonne for 19 vears Besides
contributions to the best journals of the time,
he wrote a number of valuable critical woiks,
such as Histoire de V eloquence politique et teli-
gieuse en France au XlVeme, XVeme et XVIeme
siecles (1837-38) , Essais d'histowe litteraire
(1838), Histoire de la httetature frangaise
depuis <$es engines yusqu'a la Revolution (1852) ,
Histoire de la httcrature franchise pendant la
Revolution (1859) , Melanc/es ei pensees (18S6)
GEBVAIS, zhar'va', ALFRED ALBERT (1837™
1921). A French admiral, born at Provins
After serving in the Ciimean, Chinese, and
Franco-German wars, he was appointed captain
m 1871 In 1884 he became chief of staff in the
Naval Department at Paris He became rear
admnal m 1887, vice admiral in 1892, and com-
manding admiral of the Mediterranean squadron
in 1896, and in 1900 commanded the canal
squadron which received the Czai at Dunkirk
GEBVAIS, FRANCOIS Louis PAUL (1816-79)
A French paleontologist, born m Pans He
graduated there as doctor of sciences and of
medicine, and m 1835 was appointed assistant
to Blamville, professor of comparative anatomy
at the Paris Museum In 1841 he became pro-
fessor of zoology and comparative anatomy in
the Faculty of Sciences of Montpellier, in 1865
professor at the Sorbonne, Paris, and in 1868
professor of comparative anatomy at the Mu-
seum of Natural History He was appointed a
correspondent of the Institute of France in
1861, and elected a foreign member of the
Geological Society of London in 1875 He early
began the study of the "msecta aptera" of
Lmnseus, particularly the myriapods, and pre-
pared the Histoire naturelle des insectes apteres
(1844-47), comprising volumes three and four
of the Suites a Buffon begun by Walckenaer
It is, however, for his researches concerning the
Tertiary mammalia that he is best known. In
this field his most important contributions are
his Histoire naturelle des mammiferes (1854-
55) and Zoologie et paleontologie generates
(1867) The Rccherohes sur les mammiferes
f ossicles de I'Amerique Mendionale (1855) should
also be mentioned
GEBVASE (jer'vaz) OF CAN'TEBBTJBY
(ni41-?1210) An English chronicler He be
came a monk of Christ Church, Canterbury, in
1163, and sacristan in 1193, and seems to have
spent all the rest of his life there His earliest
known work is a Tractates de Combustione et
Reparatione Cantuanensis Ecclesice, being an
account of the conflagration of 1174, and of the
subsequent process of rebuilding, written prob-
ably in 1185 This was followed by Imagm&fao
Oervasii Quasi Contra Monachos Cantuanensis
Ecclesice, and other treatises containing a de-
tailed relation of the clerical disputes at Canter-
bury Gervase's Chronica of the times of Stephen,
Henry II, and Richard I, probably begun about
1188, brings the history down to the.death of the
last-named King His Actus Ardhtepiscoporum
Cantuanensiuin comes down to the death of Hu-
bert Walter in 1205 His Ge$t& Ji&gum extends
from Brutus to 1210, and is continued by other
authors to 1328 In addition, he wrote a
Mappa Mundi, a survey Of tfee counties of Eng-
GHHRVASE OP TILBUBY
710
CffiSEXXSCHAFX
land Gerva&e died, probably, veiy soon after
1210 All of Ins works have been edited by
Stubbs, in two volumes, Rolls Series (1879-80)
The preface contains a full account of his life
GEKVASE OF TXI/BUBY (fl c 1175-1215)
A medieval writer on histoucal and philosophi-
cal subjects, born probably at Tilbuiy in Essex,
England He seems to have been brought up in
Italy, and to have studied and taught at Bo-
logna He was at Venice m 1177 when Frederick
I and Alexander III met He was at the Eng-
lish court about 1183, and later went to Sicily
In 1190 he was at Salerno He entered the
seivice of Otho IV, who made him Marshal of
the Kingdom of Aries, and to whom he dedi-
cated his only extant work, the Otia ImpenaUa.
This was written about 1211-1214, and is di-
vided into three parts In the first Gervase
discusses the events in the early chapters of
Genesis, the origin of music, etc , in the second
he treats of history, geography, and politics, in
the third, of marvels The last is exceedingly
valuable for the light it throws upon the beliefs
of the age This work was published in Leib-
nitz, S^ptores Rerum Brunsv^censmm (2 vols ,
Hanover, 1707-10) Consult Molmier, Les
sources de Vhistmre de France (Paris, 1903)
GERVEX, zhar'va', HENRI (1852-1913). A
French genre and portrait painter, born in
Paris He was the pupil of Cabanel, Brisset,
and Fromentm, and first exhibited in 1873 His
uSatyr Playing with a Bacchante" (1874) is
in the Luxembourg After this date his works
were more often of contemporary life These
include "Communion at the Church of the
Trinity", "The Lady with the Masque", "Rolla,"
a fine nude, excluded from the Salon of 1878,
"The Return from the 'Ball", and "Dr Pean at
La Salpe*triere," a realistically treated scene in
an operating room, one of the first works in this
genre to be represented in modern art. In this
as in all his works, the technique is excellent,
the color quiet and harmonious, the handling of
light very skillful With Blanchon he produced
four decorative paintings of civil subjects for
the mayor's office of the nineteenth arrondisse-
ment His portraits are notable, particularly
"The Picture Jury" (1885) and the portrait of
Madame V de la B , both m the Luxembourg
He received the cross of the Legion of Honor in
1SS9 In 1900 he exhibited "The Coronation of
Nicholas II at the Kiemhn," and in 1913 was
elected to the Academy des Beaux-Arts to suc-
ceed Aime* Morot
GEBVILLE-BEACHE, jeVvel'-rci'ash',
JEANNE ( 1882-10 15 ) A French dramatic mezzo-
soprano, born at Orthez, France She received
her first musical instruction from her father
and local teachers In 1899 she studied with
Rosine Laborde m Paris, m 1899-1900 with
Pauline Viardot-Garcia and Jean Criticos She
made her de*but as Orphee, in Cluck's opera, at
the Opera Comique in Paris in 1900 In 1902
she sang at the Theatre de la Monnaie in Brus-
sels From 1904 to 1906 she appeared as guest
in London and throughout France, from 1907
to 1910 she was one of the principal artists of
the Manhattan Opera House in New York, m
1911-12 of the Chicago Opera Company, appear-
ing also as guest with the Boston Opera Com-
pany In 1913-14 she was a member of the
National Opera Company of Canada During
1910 and 1912 she made extended concert tours
of the United States At the premiere of
Pell&as et M^hsande she created the part of the
Queen Her voice was a rich mezzo-soprano
which she used with rare skill Her repertoire
included Italian, Trench, and German operas In
1908 she was married to Dr Gibier-Rambaud, the
director of the Pasteur Institute at New Yoik
GERVTinTS, ger-ve'nus, GEOBG GOTTFRIED
(1805-71) A German historian and literal y
ciitic He was born at Darmstadt, May 20,
1805, studied, after some years devoted to com-
mercial pursuits, at Giessen and Heidelberg,
taught at Frankfort, and became professor at
Heidelberg m 1835 and at Gottingen in 1836
He had already printed some historical work of
minor value, but now began the publication of
what came at last to be known as his Geschichte
der deutschen Dichtung (1835-42, 5th ed , 1871-
74) (the first attempt at a scientific tieatment
of the subject), which has passed through many
editions In 1837 he, in common with six other
liberal professors, lost his chair by a protest
against the suspension of the Hanoverian Con-
stitution, was banished, and traveled for a time
m Italy In 1844 he received a call to Heidel-
berg as professor Some years were now given
to political writing in pamphlets and periodicals
in the interest of constitutional liberty, but the
failure of liberal hopes in 1848 brought him back
to literature He wrote four volumes on Shale-
speare (1849-50) , a liberal and veiy influential
G-eschichte des neun&ehnten Jahrhunderts (8
vols, 1853-66), Handel und Shakespeare
(1868), and Handel's Orat orient eat e ulersetzt
von Oermnus (1873) He died at Heidelberg,
March 18, 1871, deeply dissatisfied with the man-
ner in which Prussia had brought about the
unification of Germany Consult G ft Ger-
vmus Leben: von ihm selbst (Leipzig, 1893)
GEHWIG, ger'viK, ROBEET (1820-85) A
German railroad engineer, born at Karlsruhe
and educated at the Polytechnic Institute in
that city In 1866 he projected the railroad
through the Black Forest, and completed that
difficult piece of engineering, with its numerous
tunnels, in seven years From 1872 to 1876 he
had charge of the building of the St Gotthard
Railroad, which, together with Beekh, he had
planned He afterward was appointed director
of construction for the railways of Baden
GEBYOET, je'ri-Sn, or GEKYONES, jfi-rt'o-
nez (Lat, from Gk. Tvjpv&v) In Greek mythol-
ogy, the son of Chrysaor and Calhrhoe, a giant
with three heads and three bodies, the ruler of
the western island Erythia (see HESPEBIDES),
where he kept a great herd of cattle They
were guarded by the herdsman Eurytion and by
a monstrous two-headed dog Orthros, both of
whom Hercules slew, together with Geryon him-
self, when he went to carry off the cattle as
one of his 12 labors On his return from this
expedition Hercules made his way into Italy and
to the site of Rome, there he slew Cacus and
so aided Evander
GESELLSCHAFT DEB OSTEHREICHI-
SCHEK MTTSIKFErETJETDE, ge-zel'shaft der
g'ster-rlK'ish-en moo-zek'from'de (Ger, Society
of Austrian Friends of Music) One of the
oldest orchestral organizations in Europe It
was the direct outcome of a festival concert
given in Vienna on NOT 29, 1812, in aid of the
sufferers from the war with France The work
performed was Handel's Timotheus, which was
received so favorably that the performance was
repeated December 3 Then Sonnleithner issued
a circular urging all persons interested in music
to form a society for the performance of larger
GBSELSCHAP
711
GffiSNEB
works Many lovers of the art responded, so
that in 1814 the statutes of the new society weie
approved by the Emperor Francis I At the
head of this organization was a "protector,"
who was always a nobleman The first pro-
tector was Beethoven's pupil, the Archduke Ru-
dolf In 1^35 the office of protector was abol-
ished, and a1 president elected, who for many
years was also a nobleman But in 1867 artistic
considerations led to the election of the citizen
Dr F Egger For the first five years the pro-
grammes consisted of oratorios, then mixed
programmes were substituted, and even choral
works were not excluded All members were on
an equal footing The conductor was chosen
by lot from among the members, many of whom
were amateurs Symphonies were performed in
a curious and inartistic manner, Italian arias
being interspersed between the different move-
ments until as late as 1846 Not before 1824
was a symphony (the Erotica) performed con-
secutively and in its entirety After 1840 the
artistic standard of the society declined Pro-
grammes were arianged with bad taste, the exe-
cution became careless, and new works and
composers were ignored The establishment of
the Akademie der Tonkunst in 1851 led to a
radical reform of the Gesellschaft, Hellmesber-
ger being then elected a conductor This am-
bitious and energetic musician filled the places
of amateurs by professional musicians, offered
artistic programmes, and brought the oichestra
to a high degiee of technical efficiency New
composers now also found a ready hearing This
work was continued by the new conductor, Her-
beck, who was elected in 1859, and ever since
its concerts have been among the musical events
of Vienna Among the conductois of the Gesell-
schaft have been Brahms and Richter Since
1904 Franz Schalk has been the conductor
Consult Perger and Hirschfeld, Oeschichte der
E K Oesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Wien
(Vienna, 1912)
GESEI/SCHAP, FBIEDBIOH (1835-98) A
German historical painter He was born at
Wesel and studied at the Dresden Academy, then
under Mmtrop and Bcndemann in Dusseldorf,
and from 1866 to 1871 in Home, where he gave
his special attention to the monumental fresco
paintings of Raphael and Michelangelo. In Ber-
lin he became more widely known by his com-
petitive designs for the decoration of the Kaiser-
haus in Goslar (1877), and attained celebrity
with his mural paintings in the Ruhmeshalle
'Hall of Fame) in Berlin, executed in 1882-90,
and representing in numerous ideal figures "A
Roman Triumphal Procession," "War," "Peace,"
"Walhalla," and "The Reerection of the German
Empire" He also designed three stained-glass
windows in the Dankeskirche at Berlin, and
painted a frieze in the Berlin Academy of Arts
In 1882 he was elected a member, and in 1884
senator, of the Berlin Academy, and received the
title of professor Consult Donop, Friedrich
Oeselschap und seine Wandgemalde in der Ruh-
meshalle (Berlin, 1890), and his biography by
Von Ottingen (ib, 1898)
GESENITJS, ge-zThe'-us, WILHBLM (1786-
1842) One of the greatest German Orientalists
and biblical scholars He was born at Nord-
hausen and educated at the Gymnasium of his
native town and at Helmstedt and the Univer-
sity of Gottingen After having been for a short
time teacher in the psedagogium at Helmstedt,
he became, in 1806, a theological repetent, or
tutoi, m Gottingen, and in 1809 was appointed
professor in the Gymnasium of Heihgenstadt
In 1810 he received a call to Halle as assistant
professor of theology and was made full profes-
sor in the following year In 1820 and again in
1835 he tiaveled extensively, making investiga-
tions in various libraries In 1827 he was
called to Eichhorn's position at Gottingen, but
declined the call In 1810-12 he published a
Hebrew and Ohaldaio Dictionary of the Old
Testament In 1813-14 appeared his Ee'brai-
sches Elementarbuch, consisting of a Hebrew
giammar and a reading book, which were also
published separately This dictionary and
grammar, as they have been successively revised
and translated (14th ed of the lexicon ed by
Buhl, 1905, 27th ed of grammar ed by Kautzsch,
1902), are still standard books of reference, not
only throughout Germanv, but also in Gieat
Britain and America Of Gescmus' numerous
other writings, the following may be mentioned
Kritische Qeschichte der hebraischen Rptaclie
und Schiift (1815) , De PentateucJn 8amautani
Ongine (1815), a translation of the prophet
Isaiah with commentary (1820-21) , Ausfuhr-
liches grammatisch-kntisches LcJw gebuude der
hebraischen Spiachc (1817), and BcuptincB
Linguceque Phoenicia? Monumenta quotquot
supersunt (3 vols , 1837) His largoi lexicon of
the Hebrew language, Thesaurus Philologus
Critwus Lingua Hebrccce et Chaldcece I7etens
Testamenti (3 vols, 1829-58), which would un-
doubtedly have been his greatest achievement,
but which was interrupted by his death, was
completed in 1858 by E Rodiger Gesenius'
great merit was his placing the study of Semitic
languages on a sound philological basis. His
method of interpreting the Old Testament was
rationalistic Both Semitic philology and bibli-
cal exegesis have advanced far beyond the point
to which he carried them, nevertheless, his
methods and principles underlie much of the
work that has been done since his time and that
is still being done Consult Hayne, Gesemus,
eine Erinnerung fur seine Freunde (Berlin,
1842)
G-ESHTTH, ge'shur 1 An Aramsean State,
east of the Jordan, probably in the southern part
of modern Jaulan Its noithern neighbor was
Maacah According to 1 Chron 11 23, the latter
took certain villages belonging to the Israelitish
clan of Jair in Bashan In Deut in 14, Joshua
xn 5, Geshur and Maachah are said to border
on the territory of Og of Bashan It is not im-
possible that Ishbaal, the son of Saul (c 1033-
1026 BC ), held possession of Geshur (2 Sam
II 9, Pesh , Vulg ) , though it was subsequently
independent Many scholars hold that it was of
this Geshur that Talmai, David's contemporary,
was King. 2. In Josh xin 2, and 1 Sam xxvn
8, a Geshur is mentioned, but it seems to have
been situated in southwest Palestine This
Geshur was attacked by David from Ziklag As
Talrnai also occurs as the name of a Hebronite
giant (Judg i 10), and Maacah as the name of
a concubine of Caleb (1 Chron n 48), it is
possible that King Talmai of Geshur >(2 Sam
III 3), whose daughter Maacah became David's
wife and Absalom's mother, may hare belonged
to this southern clan <
GKBS3TEB, geVner, ABRAHAM (1797-1864).
A Canadian geologist, born in Nova Scotia He
studied medicine in London and took his degree
in 1827. Eleven years later he became geologist
of the Province of Nova Scotia. In 1846 he
QESNER
712
CKESSNEB
made experiments on burning oil distilled from
petroleum and in 1848-51 on asphalt and other
natural products from Trinidad The result \vas
the discoveiy of an illuminating oil capable
of being burned in lamps and distilled from
cannel coal and bituminous shale To this he
gave the name of kerosene, which was later ap-
plied to other mineral oils used for illuminating.
In 1852-62 he lived in New York City, where he
established two extensive manufactories of the
oil In the latter year he returned to Halifax,
where he died His writings are Treatise on
Coal, Petroleum, and Other Distilled Oils
(I860), Remarks on the Geology and Miner-
alogy of Nova Scotia , and Geology of New
BrunswicJ* and Prince Edwavd's Island, articles
on "The Gypsum of Nova Scotia," vol v, "Ele-
vations and Depressions of the Earth in North
America," vol xvii, and "Petroleum Springs in
North America," vol xvm, in the Journal of
the London Geological Society 3 and, in its Pro-
ceedings, vol iv, a "Geological Map of Nova
Scotia "
GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691-1761)
A distinguished German classical scholar, born
at Roth, near Ansbach He studied at the Uni-
versity of Jena, and in 1714 published a work
on the Philopatris ascribed to Lucian In 1715
he became librarian and associate rectoi at
Weirnar; in 1729, rector of the Gymnasium at
Ansbach, and in 1730, rector of the St Thomas
School at Leipzig, where he was associated with
Johann A Ernesti and Johann Sebastian Bach
On the foundation of the University of Gottm-
gen he became professor of rhetoric and subse-
quently librarian also He did much to bring
about a revival of the study of Greek in Ger-
many and used his influence to induce the Ger-
man universities to base their instruction in
Greek and Latm on the classical authors He
published editions of Quintihan (1738), Pliny
the Younger (1739), Claudian (1759), and the
Scriptores Rw, Rustwce (1735) , but his greatest
work is the Novus Linguae et Eruditwms Ro-
manes Thesaurus (1749). Consult- Ernesti,
Narratio de Gesnero (Leyden, 1762) , Sauppe,
Gottmger Professoren (Gotha, 1872) , Pohnert,
J M Gessner und sein Verhaltniss sum Philan-
thropamsmus und $ ' euhumanismus (Leipzig,
1898); Sandys, A History of Classical Scholar-
ship, vol. ni (Cambridge, 1908)
GES3STEB,, KONEAD VON (1516-65). A Swiss
naturalist, born at Zuiich He studied Greek,
Latin, Hebrew, and medicine at Zurich, Strass-
burg, Bourges, Paris, Montpelher, and Basel, at
the last place taking his medical degree He re-
turned in 1541 to Zurich as professor of physics
and practiced in that city as physician until his
death from the plague Gesner collected and de-
scribed animals and plants with the greatest zeal
throughout his entire life and wrote volumi-
nously on many subjects His most important
^ork is ffistoria Animalmm ( 1551-58) , in which
lie intended to describe every known animal
The first book treats of viviparous, the second of
oviparous quadrupeds, the third of birds, and the
fourth of aquatic animals The fifth book, on
serpents, and the sixth, on insects, he left in-
complete. He was preparing a description of
all known plants at the time of his death.
Gesner was the most important naturalist of his
age He performed the useful work of bringing
together all that was known of animals and
Dlants, including those of the recently discovered
•ountries in the New and the Old World, and,
although he made no attempt to arrange them
in a natural system, his work, together with the
similar work of Aldrovandi (qv ), formed the
basis for the fruitful investigations and gener-
alizations of the two following centuries
G-ESNEHACE-^E, ggs'ner-a'se-e (Neo-Lat nom
pi , named in honor of Konrad von Gesner ) A
family of dicotyledonous plants, mostly herbs or
shrubs, comprising about 80 genera and nearly
1000 species, natives of tropical and subtropi-
cal countries The family is associated with
Scrophulariacese and Labiatce, and several other
families, to form the great order Tubiflorales,
which is the great assemblage of hypogynous
Sympetalse ( q v ) No representatives of Ges-
neracose are natives of the United States
GESSI, jes'se, ROMOLO (1829-81) An Ital-
ian explorer, born at Ravenna After serving in
the Austnan army he was sent as an officer in
the service of Egypt to the Sudan, where Gordon
employed him to explore the upper Nile and
the Albert Nyanza, which he sailed completely
around (1876) Accompanied by Matteucci, he
tried to enter the country of the Gallas, but
without success In 1879-80 he put down the
insurrection raised by Suleiman in southern
Darfur and became Governor of the Province
of Bahr-el-Ghazal After Gordon's resignation
Gessi Pasha refused to work under Raouf and
resigned (1880) He died at Suez, of malarial
fever, May 1, 1881, and left a volume descrip-
tive of his adventures, Sette anni nel Sudan
egiziano (1891, Eng trans, London, 1892)
GESSLER, ges'ler An Austrian official in
the forest cantons of Switzerland, according to
traditions connected with William Tell ( q v )
His oppressive edicts and wanton cruelty so
enraged the inhabitants that a conspiracy was
formed against him, and he was shot by Tell
in a narrow pass near Kussnacht He is a
wholly legendary character
GESSSTER, gSs'ner, LUDWIG (1828-90) A
German jurist He was born at Axthausen and
was educated at Halle, Heidelberg, and Berlin
He held important positions in the German min-
istries of War, State, and Foreign Affairs, and
wrote on marine and international law Das
Recht des neutralen Seehandels (1855) , Le droit
des neutres sur mer (1865, 2d ed , 1876) , Zur
Reform des Kriegs-fteereohts ( 1875 ) , "Die
Staatsvertrage im allgemeinen/3 in Holtzen-
dorff's Handbiich des VoUterrechts, vol. 111
(1887)
GESSITER, SALOMON (1730-88). A Swiss
poet, painter, and etcher, very popular in his
day as a writer of prose idyls He was born
in Zurich, April 1, 1730 His first noteworthy
poem, Lied eines Bchweizers an sein bewaffnetes
Madchen ( 1751 ) , was followed by the prose poem
Daphnis (1754), Idyllen (1756), and, most fa-
mous of all, Der Tod Aleh (1758), which he
called * a sort of idyllic prose pastoral " Gess-
ner's work is throughout insipidly sweet and
monotonously melodious, yet it exactly suited
the taste of a generation nursed on Rousseau
The idyls had a European influence and ap-
peared in seven languages He died in Zurich,
March 2, 1788 Gessner's Works were frequently
published, last m 1841 There is a French
translation in three volumes (1786-93) Gess-
ner's Life, by Hottinger, appeared in 1796, his
Correspondence with his Son in 1801 For
Gessner's literary influence, consult Texte, J J.
Rousseau and Literary Cosmopolitanism (New
York, 1897).
GESTA BOMANOUTTM
713
GESTTTBE
GESTA ROMAETORUM, jes'ta rS'ma-no'rum
(Lat, The Deeds of the Romans) The title of
one of the most popular collections of anecdotes
in the later Middle Ages The stories are writ-
ten in Latin and supposedly are based on Ro-
man history, though in fact there is very little
actual history contained in them Probably at
an eaily date there were collections of stories
taken from Roman history and used as illustra-
tions for sermons These stories were then put
together for the express purpose of being moral-
ized and finally appeared under the title of
Gesta Romanorum Morali&ata, or something
similar Many manuscripts have come down,
the three earliest editions we have were printed
between 1472 and 1475 and contained altogether
181 stories, which had originated, according to
Oesterley, in England at the end of the thirteenth
century The stories are short and destitute of
rhetorical ornament, and usually have neither
dialogue nor tragic incident Then attractive-
ness lies in their childlike simplicity The stories
were very widely read, were translated into many
languages, and have been used by many later au-
thors, although not always directly Chaucer,
Gower, and others owed considerable to these
simple stories Shakespeare's King Lear may
be based upon one of the tales in the Gesta
Romanorum, and a part of the Merchant of
Venice may come from the same source Schiller's
Der Gang nach dem Eisenhummer and other ex-
amples from the German might be given The best
critical edition is that of Oesterley, Gesta Ro-
manorum (London, 1894) and G-esta Roman-
orum., trans from the Latin by C Swan (2 vols ,
New York, 1905), which contains a bibliography
GESTATION", jgs-ta'smin (Lat gestcutioy from
gestare, frequentative of gereie, to carry) The
term applied in physiology to the period that
intervenes in the mammalia between impiegna-
tion and the bringing forth of the young The
length of gestation and the number of young
produced at a birth vary extremely in different
mammals, but usually stand in an inverse ratio
to one another Thus, in the larger Herbivora,
as, eg, the elephant, the horse, the ox, and the
camel, the female seldom produces more than
one at a time, but the period of gestation is
long, while in the smaller ones the progeny is
numerous, but the period of gestation is only a
few weeks In the elephant the period of gesta-
tion extends over 21 or 22 months, in the
giraffe it is 14 months, in the dromedary it is
12 months, in the mare upward of 11 months,
m the tapir, between 10 and 11, in the cow, 9,
and in many of the larger deer, somewhat more
than 8 months In the sheep and goat the
period is 5 months In the sow, which produces
a numerous litter, the period is 4 months In
the Rodentia the progeny is numerous and im-
perfectly developed, and the period of gestation
is comparatively short, in the beaver, one of
the largest of the order, it is 4 months, in the
rabbit and liare, from 30 to 40 days, in the
dormouse, 31 days, in the squirrel and rat, 4
weeks, and in the guinea pig, 3 weeks or less
The young of the Carnivora, like the young of
the Kodentia, are born with their eyes closed and
in a very immature condition, and even in the
larger Carnivora the period of gestation is far
shorter than in the larger Ruminantia or Paehy-
dermata; it is 6 months in the bear, 108 days in
the lion (the period in this animal is stated by
Van der Hoeven at 3 months) , 79 days in the
pjmna, 62 to 63 days in the dog, the wolf, and
the fox, and 55 or 56 days in the cat Of the
Marsupialia, gestation in the kangaroo lasts 39
days, in the opossum 26 days Of the Quadrii
mana, the period of gestation lasts 7 months
m the monkey, which bears one, rarely two,
young at term Of the Cetacea, the whale's nor
mal pregnancy lasts 10 months Domesticated
animals breed oftener than those in a wild con
dition Wild pigeons breed twice, domesticated
pigeons six or more times a year
In women, the accepted period of gestation is
275 davs from insemination, or 280 days (on an
average) fiom the last day of the previous
menstruation In a young mother the first preg-
nancy may be much shorter than succeeding
pregnancies Pi elongation of gestation to 300
days is possible, counting from the last men-
strual flow French law admits the legitimacy of
a child born 300 days after the sepaiation of the
parents, Scottish law allows 10 months, English
law allows the lapse of 11 months between
the death or departure of the husband and the
birth of a legitimate child, in the United States
it was decided, in the case of the Commonwealth
v Hoover, Clark (Pa ) 514 (1846), that a child
born 313 days after the absence of the father
began was not necessarily A bastard See
BASTAED
GESTE, zMst, CHANSONS DE See CHANSONS
DE GESTE
GES'TTTBE, GESTURE LANGUAGE A
gesture may be defined as an expressive move-
ment, whether mimetic, pantomimic, or atti-
tudinal, which is used to convey some thought
or emotion, and we may speak of the whole
body of gestures as constituting a gesture lan-
guage The study of gesture has so far been
confined chiefly to mimetic and pantomimic
expression, though a beginning has recently
been made in the investigation of bodily atti-
tudes (See EXPRESSION, EXPBESSIVE "MOVE-
MENTS ) There is much evidence m favor of the
view that gesture language is the most primi-
tive, as well as the most natural and universal,
of all languages Moreover, it is possible to
trace a direct connection between gesture and
speech Indeed, since the latter is, fundamen-
tally, movement of the vocal organs, speech may
be said to have been originally gesture, the sound
being at first purely accessory, and only later
becoming the medium of communication But
words are far better adapted than gestures to
the manifold requirements of language, and par-
ticularly to the expression of abstract thought,
so that gesture, in civilized races, has largely
fallen into abeyance, and its scientific study
would scarcely be possible were there not remain-
ing a few instances in which gesture language
has retained something of its original value.
The first of these sources of study is the
gesture language of the unmstxucted deaf-mute
The finger alphabet used by instructed deaf-
mutes is, of course, not a natural gesture lan-
guage, it is derived from the written letters,
and is a highly artificial product The same
thing may be said of any sign language which
is intended to conform to a spoken language,
such, as, eg, that invented by the Abbe Sicard,
who attempted to construct a language of signs
m which there should be a sign for every word
of the spoken language, to the word order of
which the gesture order should likewise con-
form Similarly, the accidental or merely sug-
geative signs peculiar to families, one member
of which happens to be a mute, are likely to
GESTURE
714
G-ESTTJBE
be influenced by other and normal members of
the family The most favorable condition for
the development of the natural gesture is found
in institutions in which a numbei of mutes
are brought together, and in which they are
allowed to communicate freely with one another
without outside influence Under these circum-
stances there develops a type of gesture char-
acterized by naturalness and by fieedom from
convention or tradition
The second form of gesture language is that
of the North American Indian Unlike that of
the deaf-mute, this language took shape with-
out outside influence, and throughout many
generations The Indian possessed in fact two
languages, a spoken and a gesture language, the
two might be used together or, if circumstances
so demanded, either could be employed alone
At night, when the gesture could not be seen,,
speech was chosen , during the day, if on the
hunt, or if safety demanded silence, communica-
tion was by gesture Since, moreover, the Indians
were divided into many races, each one with a
spoken language of its own which was incom-
prehensible to the other, and since races fre-
quently split up into tribes, and a tribe might
develop a dialect which presently could not be
understood by other tribes of the same race, it
came about that, whenever two tribes or laces
met for trade or treaty, gesture language was
resorted to as the common medium of communi-
cation Naturally, then, gesture language was
of great importance and reached a high degree
of development The gestures of the deaf-mute
are renewed with every generation, those of the
Indian weie passed on from one generation to
the next — with the result that many of them
are now so wholly conventional that the Indian
himself cannot explain the relation between the
symbol and its meaning
Still a third form of gesture, and one de-
veloped tinder different cultural conditions, is
to be found m southern Europe The gesture
language of the Neapolitans is the best known
It is doubtless of ancient origin, as evidenced
by early Latin writers, and by antique works
of art in which are depicted gestures similar to
those of the present time Gestures may still
be seen on the streets of Naples which were
used in the days of Augustus The reason for
the continued employment of the gesture by these
southern Italians is piobably twofold Italy
has for centuries been flooded with strange lan-
guages and dialects, so that gesture serves
here, as in the case of the American Indian, to
furnish a common language, and again gesture,
as a means of expression, is suited to the tem-
perament of the people At all events, the ges-
ture language of the Neapolitans shows the
effects of long centuries of convention and tra-
dition, and has reached the highest stages of
development
A fourth and last form of gesture language,
one which in comparison with the others is
purely conventional, occurs in cases where a
society for some reason renounces speech and
employs another form of communication to take
its place An example is found in the sign lan-
guage of the Cistercian monks who, except in
religious exercises, were vowed to silence Since
these recluses developed no more signs than were
necessary for their daily occupations, their ges-
tures are relatively few in number; but they
are sufficient to make possible a comparison
with the other forms of gesture language The
system is characterized by ge&tmes of two
kinds some aie ''natural," and are therefore
similar to the gestures of the uninstructed deaf-
mute, others are abitrary and peculiar to the
society As a whole, the gesture language of
the Cistercians gives the impression of a con-
struction from fragments of natural gestuies,
and suggests a logical rather than a psychologi-
cal foundation
We have, therefore, three types of gesture lan-
guage the natural language of the deaf-mute,
which has only a limited range , the more highly
developed languages of the Neapolitan and of
the American Indian, which show the influence
of tradition, and, finally, the relatively arti-
ficial language of the Cistercian monks All,
however, are alike in that they have the natuial
gesture as a starting point, the differences re-
sult from manner of growth or of expansion
The Indian would have little trouble in under-
standing the deaf-mute, but he could compre-
hend the gestures of the Neapolitan only in
part, on the other hand, he \\ould learn the
conventional gestures of the Neapolitan much
more easily than the artificial gestuies of the
Cistercian, because the former ha\e a more
directly psychological origin
From all this it is clear that in gesture lan-
guage the various dialects, if we may so dis-
tinguish the different developmental forms,
rather reflect differences of social condition
and tradition than illustrate the kind of vaiia-
tion which is shown by ordinary speech The
question arises, then, as to the possibility of
an etymology of gesture which shall be com-
parable with that of speech We may, evidently,
refer a given sign to some other and original
gesture whenever in the course of social evo-
lution the sign or its meaning has undergone
some demonstrable change In so far the two
etymologies are comparable, but in other re-
spects the etymology of gesture is essentially
diffeient from that of speech The latter ends
when the "root" is discovered, but in gesture
the search really begins when the original ges-
ture is known, we must seek to explain the
psychological meaning of this gesture and to
determine its place among the expressive move-
ments Now, the two fundamental forms of
gesture aie the demonstrative and the repre-
sentative, and these are also the fundamental
forms of expressive movements The demon-
strative form has, in its evolution from expres-
sion of feeling to gesture language, remained
essentially unchanged The representative form,
however, divides first into two subfonns the
depictive, which is purely imitative, and the
characteristic, which is more free and more ar-
tistic. Later, a third subfoim appears, de-
rived from the others, which we may designate
as the symbolic
The great antiquity of the demonstrative
gesture is grounded in the psychological condi-
tions of its origin When the object concern-
ing which communication is to be made lies in
the visual field, the use of the forefinger in
pointing is the simplest, the most certain, and
the most unequivocal means of calling attention
to it, a means employed without reflection, out
of the immediate intent to communicate The
child uses it for the first beginnings of com-
munication, and it is fundamental to every
type of gesture language The pointing gesture
serves to indicate not only objects, but also per-
sons and spatial relations, if the person com-
GESTURE
715
GrESTUBE
mumcating wishes to indicate himself, he points
to the pit of his stomach, he designates "you"
by pointing to the person addressed, while the
spatial ideas "up," "down," "right," "left,"
"back," and "front" are all indicated by point-
ing in the appropriate directions Later the
personal gesture is expanded to indicate parts
and functions of the body, "eye" is suggested
by pointing to that part, and "seeing" is sug-
gested by first pointing to the eye and then
making a pointing movement outward into
space Later also develop the demonstrative
gestures for the size of objects, the right hand
held out flat with the palm down, and then
raised towards the level of the shoulder, sig-
nifies "great", if the hand is depressed, the
gesture means "small " Finally, a spatial ges-
ture is made to serve symbolically for a tem-
poial idea, thus, pointing forward means
"future," and pointing backward signifies
"past" The developed forms of the demonstra-
tive gesture tend to pass over into the repie-
sentative form Thus, if the object of conversa-
tion is not piesent, some attribute of it may be
pointed out in another object which is present,
or recourse may be had to characterization
"red" is indicated by pointing to the lips,
and the Cistercian signifies "wine" by touching
his nose
The representative gestures are simply a
further development of the imitative expressive
movements, and of their two forms, the depic-
tive and the characteristic, the former always
remains purely imitative The depictive ges-
ture, again, appears in two varieties the de-
lineating, which may be described as "drawing
a picture in the air", and the plastic, so called
because the plasticity of the hand permits the
imitation of solid objects The delineating is
the earlier type, it predominates in the natural
gesture language of the deaf-mute, while in
later development the hand makes quick plastic
movements to repiesent moving objects To
illustrate the deaf-mute represents "house" by
placing the two open hands together, tip to
tip and at right angles, thus making a icof
and gable, the Cistercian signifies "church" by
first making the sign for house, and then mak-
ing the sign of the cross above the roof The
gesture for "room" is the drawing of a rec-
tangle in the air, and an "mclosure" is a circle,
to represent "garden" the circle is first drawn
and then the thumb and forefinger are held to the
nose as in the act of smelling a flower "Smoke"
is an upward spiral movement of the forefinger
to represent the rising clouds of smoke, if the
smoke rises from a house, the gesture for smoke
is added to that for house The sign for "ram"
is a plastic gesture made by holding up the two
limp hands with the fingers pointing down
Mimetic movements are sometimes combined
with delineating gestures, eg, "sleep" is sug-
gested by placing the head, with eyes closed,
on the right hand, "death" is the gesture for
sleep followed by a pointing sign to the ground
The "characteristic" form of the representative
gesture reproduces only some attribute or aspect
of the object Thus, the deaf-mute gesture for
"woman" is the ha'nd placed upon the breast,
that for "child" is made by rocking the right
elbow m the hollow of the left hand, another
and very old gesture for "child" is produced by
placing the forefinger in the mouth, this is sup-
posed to signify either sucking or silence The
use of mimetic in connection with plastic char-
Vot IX— 46
acteristic gestui es also appears , e g , the pursed
lips, with forefinger held up, indicate "be still"
or "warning "
At its highest development the gesture be-
comes symbolic As a symbol, however, it differs
from the word, in that the latter symbolizes
both concrete and abstract ideas, while the ges-
tui e symbolizes only abstract ideas Further-
more, the word has always been a symbol, the
gesture becomes a symbol only as the result of
evolution In many cases this evolution may
easily be traced We have already seen that
the pointing gesture, which at first \\as used to
indicate objects in the field of vision, latei came
to designate spatial relations, and still latei
temporal ideas, and it is also evident that as
the representative gestui e becomes characteristic
it is tending in the direction of the symbolic
A complete development of this sort is seen
in a Neapolitan gesture winch originally meant
"bull " The gesture is produced by extending
the first and fourth fingers while the two mid-
dle fingeis aie held down by the thumb, the
hand thus represents the homed head of the
"bull " Latei, however, this gesture came to
mean "strength," the puncipal characteristic of
the bull, still later it was employed to symbolize
"danger," and finally to express the wish "to be
protected from danger " But not all symbolic
gestures are denved in tins way, the ongmal
gesture may itself be changed to express an ab-
stract idea Thus the gesture for "to talk" or
"to speak" IB made by first touching the lips
with the index finger, and then pointing out into
space If, now, this movement is straight for-
ward, it signifies "straight talk" or "truth",
the gestui e, as yet unchanged, has become sym-
bolic When, however, it is desned to express
"untruth" or "lie," the line of movement from
the lips is no more straight forward, but oblique
Mimetic movements are also combined with
pantomimic in symbolic gestui es, a Neapolitan
gesture of this kind is that showing "mistrust,"
although it originally meant "warning" or
"have a care " The gesture consists in drawing
down the lower lid of the left eye, as if to
say to the person upon whom the gaze is di-
rected, "keep your eyes open " The facial ex-
pression of strained attention intensifies the
gesture, or if the expression be that of a
smile or laughter, the meaning changes to that
of slyness or craftiness
So much must suffice for the classification and
analysis of gesture language It now remains to
discuss its grammar and syntax As regards the
former, we may say roundly that gesture lan-
guage has no grammar , there are no nouns, verbs,
prepositions, or articles, no adjectives or con-
nectives, no nominative, accusative, or dative
cases The same gesture may be made to fit into
any one of a number of grammatical categories.
For example, the gesture for "lie" does duty for
"a lie," "to he," "lying," and "lied", and the
sign for "sleep" may be subject or object, verb
or adjective, present, past, 01 future tense It
is clear, on the other hand, that a gesture may
be used in the logical sense as subject, object,
verb, or adjective, and that in a series of ges-
tures, corresponding to a sentence in speech, we
may regard one gesture as subject, another as
object, etc An examination of gesture narra-
tive from this point of vieV shows that the
syntax of gesture is governed by a single prin-
ciple, every gesture must be intelligible either
in itself or by reference t© the preceding gesture.
GETA
716
Prom this principle it follows ( 1 ) that the sub-
ject precedes attribute, and (2) that the object
precedes action If, then, tne deaf-mute desires
to express the ideas contained in the sentence
"The angry teacher struck the child," he will
first make the gesture for "teacher," then that
for "angry," then that for 'child," and finally
the sign for "struck" — "teacher, angiy, child,
struck" Save in certain limiting cases these
two orders are sufficient for any demand of syn-
tax which may be laid upon the gesture language
Consult Tylor, Anthropology (New York,
1880) , Researches into the Early History of
Mankind (Boston, 1878), Wundt, Volk&rpsy-
chologie (Leipzig, 1911 )3 Elemente der Volker-
psychologie (ib 9 1913), Mallery, "Sign Lan-
guage (Philadelphia, 1885) , Sittl, Die Oeoarden
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
(Washington, 1879-80) , Jono, La mimica degli
antichi investigates nel gestire Napoletano
(Naples, 1832) , Clark, The Indian Sign Lan-
guage (Philadelphia, 1885) , Sittl, Die Gebarfen
der Griechen und Romer (Leipzig, 1890) , Hacks,
Le geste (Paris, 1892) , Hannand Damniien,
L'Ant de se faire ecouter La diction et le geste
(ib, 1902) See EXPRESSION, SIGN LANGUAGE
GETA, je'ta, SEFTIMHTS (189-212 AD.) A
son of Septimius Severus and brother and col-
league of Caracalla Upon his fathei's death he
was proclaimed Emperor, with Caracalla, but in
the following year was murdered by centunons
at the instigation of his bi other
CrET^E, ie't5 (Lat, from Gk Perou, Getai)
An ancient warlike people, closely akin to the
Daci (see DACIA), who figure in the wars of
the Greeks and the Romans. At the dawn of
history they inhabited the country which is now
called Bulgaria Here Darius Hystaspis en-
countered them in his Scythian expedition
Shortly before the time of Alexander the Gieat,
who warred with them, the bulk of the nation
had migrated northward across the "Danube.
They spread over a wide region, extending from
the Black Sea to the plains of Hungary The
Getae south of the Danube, m Moesia, were united
in a powerful realm in the time of Csesar, but
this state had only an ephemeral duration, the
Roman power becoming supreme in these re-
gions The Getse, as an independent people, dis-
appear from histoiy about the close of the first
century AD At the time of the great migration
of nations they appear to have been absorbed by
the Goths, with whom they came to be errone-
ously identified The Getse are often mentioned
in the literature of the Augustan era as savage
and unconquerable foes
aETHSEMAlSTE, gSth-sSm^-nfi (Aramaic,
from gath, a wine press + shemen, oil } A
small farm or estate on the Mount of Olives,
about % of a mile from Jerusalem, and sepa-
rated from it by the ELedron valley Attached
to it was a garden, or orchard, a favorite resort
of Jesus and His disciples (Luke xxii 39, John
xvin 1, 2), and the scene of the agony on the
night before His passion (Matt xxvi 36-47;
Mark xiv. 26-42, Luke xxn 39-46) The spot
pointed out to modern travelers as the site of
Gethsemane is admitted to be near the real
location, although some think it too near Jeru-
salem to be Gethsemane itself. It is a place
about 150 by 140 feet, inclosed by a stone wall,
and contains eight very old olive trees, which
are popularly supposed to have existed in the
time of Jesus, though they cannot be traced far-
ther back than the sixteenth century. The gar-
GOETTYSBUBG
den was given its present form by the Francis-
cans in 1848, but a "Grotto of the Agony" is
shown a little distance to the north, and is
reached by a passage from the forecourt of the
church of the Vn gin's Tomb The tradition is
quite continuous back to the time of the Bordeaux
pilgrim (333 AD) and Eusebius Consult Con
der, Bible Places (London, 1897), Thomson,
The Land and the Book, vol 11 (New York, 1880-
81), Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels (Ox-
ford, 1903) , George Adam Smith, Jerusalem
(London, 1908)
GETTY, get'ti, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1819-
1901) An American soldiei, born in George-
town, D C Upon graduation at West Point in
1840 (with Sherman and Thomas), he was com-
missioned second lieutenant in the Fourth Ar-
tillery He served on the frontier during the
Canadian border troubles, and, with rank of
brevet captain for gallantry at Contreras and
Churxibusco, fought in the Mexican War In
the Civil War he served with the Army of the
Potomac m the Virginia Peninsular campaign,
and from the siege of Petersburg to the Confed-
erate sui render at Appomattox, and rose to the
lank of bievet major general of volunteers for
sei vices at Winchester and Fisher's Hill In
1866 he became colonel of the Thirty-seventh In-
fantry, in 1877 commanded forces on the Balti-
more "and Ohio Railway stiike, was a member of
the Fitz John Porter court of inquiry, in 1882
was transfeired to the Fourth Artillery, and m
1883 was retired
GETTYSBURG, g&t'tiz-bftrg A borough and
the county seat of Adams Co , Pa , 35 miles
(direct) southwest of Harnsburg, on the West-
ern Maryland and the Gettysburg and Harris-
burg railroads (Map Pennsylvania, G 8) It is
situated among picturesque hills in a fertile
agricultural country and is the seat of a Lu-
theran theological seminary, founded in 1826,
and of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College
(Lutheran), organized in 1832 The industrial
establishments comprise shirt, furniture, and
wrapper factories, a brick plant, planing mills,
and a foundry The borough is governed under
a charter of 1853, which provides for a burgess,
elected every three years, and a unicameial coun-
cil Pop, 1900, 3495, 1910, 4030 Laid out in
]780, Gettysburg (named after Gen James
Gettys, its 'founder) was made the county seat
m 1800 and was incorporated as a borough m
1806. One of the most noted battles of the Civil
War was fought here, July 1-3, 1863, a Federal
army under General Meade defeating the Con-
federates under General Lee (See GETTYSBURG,
BATTLE OF ) The entire battlefield has been in-
cluded in a national park, the sites of particulai
actions being marked by monuments, of which
there are now over 500 On Cemetery Hill
stands the National Cemetery, 17 acies in area,
dedicated by President Lincoln on Nov 19, 1863
In it there are 3629 graves, 1630 of unknown
dead. From the brow of the hill rises a battle
monument surmounted by a statue of Libeity
and with typical basal figures of War, Peace,
History, and Plenty
GETTYSBURG-, BATTLE OF The most im-
portant and most hotly contested battle of the
Civil War in America, fought July 1-3, 1863,
at Gettysburg, Pa , between the Federal Army of
the Potomac, numbering about 82,000 men, under
General Meade, and the Confederate Army of
Northern Virginia, numbering about 73,000 men,
under General Lee After the battle of Chancel-
GETTYSBURG
717
GETTYSBURG
lorsville (May 2-4) the two aimaes stood for
some weeks facing each other across the Rappa-
hannock at Fredencksburg, Va , Genei al Lee
taking advantage of the interval to reorgam/e
his army and divide it into three coips, each of
three divisions, which he placed undei Long-
street, Ewell, and A P Hill respectively This
accomplished, and his army being sufficiently
rested, he decided upon the invasion of Pennsyl-
vania, hoping by this bold plan to draw Hooker,
where he threatened Harrisburg Hooker fol-
lowed along the east bank of the Rappahannock
about the middle of June, and on the 25th and
26th crossed the Potomac at Edwards Feiry
On the 28th he was superseded as commander
of the Army of the Potomac by Geneial Meade,
who soon selected a field of battle along Pipe
Creek, on which, if possible, to concentrate his
foices and meet the Confederate army On the
afternoon of June 30, however, Buford, with a
GETTYSBURG (July 1st p.m.)
then commanding the Army of the Potomac, In
pursuit, to defeat the Federal army on Northern
soil, to threaten and perhaps capture Washing-
ton, to secure the support or at least recognition
of Trance and England, and to bring the war to
a close, forcing from the North a recognition of
the independence of the Confederacy. On June 3
he began to move, and by June 26 each of the
three corps had crossed the Potomac into west-
ern Maryland, Ewell having passed over about
10 days earlier and having entered Pennsylvania,
force of Federal cavalry, occupied McPherson's
Ridge, beyond Seminary Ridge, west of Gettys-
burg, and here, at about eight o'clock on the fol-
lowing morning, he came in contact with Heth/s
division of Hill's Confederate corps, the whole
Confederate army having been ordered by Gen-
eral Lee to concentrate at Gettysburg Though
considerably outnumbered, he stubbornly held
his ground for two hours, until the arrival of
General Reynolds at the head of the First Corps
of the Federal army, which was reenforced about
GETTYSBURG
718
GETTYSBURG
1 PM by the Eleventh Corps under Geneial
Howard, the Federal troops now occupying
ground noith as well as west of Gettysburg
At about one o'clock, also, General Swell ar-
nved with a part of his corps, the rest coming up
cluiing the afteinoon, and took command on the
Confederate side At about 4 p M the Confeder-
ates advanced, drove the Federals fiom the field,
and occupied {he giound thus vacated The Fed-
Geneial Howard, General Doubleday had been
in command During the night and the follow-
ing day almost the whole of each aimy was
brought upon the field, though Pickett'h division
of Longstieet's corps did not arrive until towards
night on the 2d The Fedeial position foimed
a long convex line, beginning at Gulp's Hill and
ending at Round Top, Geneial Sickles, with the
Third Corps, occupying ground somewhat in ad-
CPETTYSBTTHG (July 3d p.m.)
erals, under Hancock, who had superseded How-
ard by Meade's orders about 3 30 p M , took up
a strong position on Cemetery Ridge and Gulp's
Hill (south and southeast of Gettysburg), which
they quickly fortified Both sides had suffered
heavily during the day in killed and wounded,
and the Confederates took several thousand pns-
oneis The Federals sustained their severest loss
in the death of General Reynolds, who was killed
instantly by a Confederate sharpshooter late in
the morning Thereafter until the arrival of
vance and to the north of Little Round Top, his
line following roughly the angle foimed by the
junction of the Emmitsburg Road and the cross-
road leading therefrom to the Taneytown Road,
east of the Federal position, and being "refused"
towards Devil's Den At the ciossing there was
a peach orchard, and between the crossing and
the ridge along which the Federals were in-
trenched there was a wood north of the road and
a wheat field south of it The Confederate posi-
tion, on the other hand, formed a much longer
GETTYSBtTBG 7
and thinner concave line, with Longstieet in
command on the right, A P Hill in the centre,
and Ewell on the left Lee, against the em-
phatic advice of Longstreet, who wished to ma-
noeuvre the Federals out of their position and in-
terpose the Confederate aimy between Meade
and Washington, resolved to attack, and issued
ordeis, accoidingly, to Longstreet on the right
and Ewell on tin* left, the foimer being expected
g GETTYSBTTBG
line, along Cemetery Ridge The Confederates,
however, were unable to carry Round Top and
Little Round Top, the points of gieatest stra-
tegic value on the Federal left Dm ing the en-
gagement Sickles was wounded, and General
Meade added the Third Corps to the command
of General Hancock In the defeiibe of Little
Round Top, winch Warren had caused to "be oc-
cupied in time to repel the Confedeiate attack,
G-ETTYSBTTRG (July 3d a.m.)
SCALE OF MILES
ABOVE SEA LEVC1.
to make the principal assault The operations
on the right did not begin until about 4PM
on July 2, though, according to many Southern
writers, Longstreet should have delivered his
attack early m the morning, when there would
have been a much greater cnance of Confederate
success. When made, however, the attack was
vigorous and spirited, and after a fierce conflict
the angle at the peach orchard was broken in,
and the Federals were forced to abandon their
advanced position and fall back upon their main
two able Federal generals, Weed and Hazlett,
were killed, and another, Vincent, was mortally
wounded On each side the losses were exceed-
ingly heavy Late in the afternoon, after an
artillery duel lasting about an hour, Early and
Johnson, both of Swell's corps, led their divi-
sions against the Federal right, Early assaulting
Cemetery Hill and Johnson Culp's Hill Early,
with whom Rodes, commanding the other divi-
sion of Swell's corps, failed properly to cooper-
ate, attacked with great vigor and succeeded in
GETTYSBURG
720
GECILINCX
breaking a line of infantry on the slopes and
overrunning the Eleventh Corps and Kickett's
reserve batteries, but was finally driven back,
the Federals at this point thus preserving the
integrity of their line Meanwhile Johnson had
met with more success at Gulp's Hill, whose de-
fenders had been greatly reduced in numbei in
order to reenforce Sickles on the Federal left,
and gained a substantial foothold, which he held
overnight, but from which he was driven before
noon on the following day
On the night of the 2d Meade held a council
of war, in which it was decided to hold the Fed-
eral airny in the position then occupied and
await further attack On the morning of the
3d Lee ordered Longstreet to send Pickett for-
ward to assault the Federal centre as soon as
the Confederate artillery should have silenced
or noticeably weakened the artillery on the
other side At 1 P M began a terrific artillery
duel, the Confederates concentrating most of
their fire from about 150 guns on Cemetery
Kidge, and the Federals answering with about
70 guns, under the direction of Gen. Henry J.
Hunt, chief of artillery in the Army of the
Potomac After about an hour and a half the
Federal artillery, though not seriously dam-
aged, ceased firing to save ammunition and pre-
pare for the Confederate attack This silence
being misconstrued by the Confederate officers,
Pickett's division, numbering altogether about
5000, moved forward, supported on the right by
Wilcox, with about 5000 men, and on the left
by Pettigrew, also with about 5000, to attack
the Federal centre on Cemetery Kidge, under the
immediate command of General Hancock The
charge was one of the most magnificent known
in military history. Advancing steadily in three
columns, in face of a destructive aitillery fire,
the Confederates promptly filled up the great
gaps cut into their lines by the Federal shells,
and encountered unflinchingly, after they had
passed beyond the Emmitsburg Road, a terrific
fire of canister and an enfilading cannonade from
a battery on Little Round Top When within
about 300 yaids of the Federal line, they met
the musketry fire of the Federal infantry, which
had been previously withheld Pettigrew's ad-
vance was utterly demoralized, while Wilcox
dropped behind, veering, somewhat bewildered,
to the right Pickett's men, nevertheless, pressed
on, and in a hand-to-hand conflict carried the
first Federal line, but weie soon driven back
and were finally forced in rapid retreat, their
ranks being enveloped by pursuing Federals, back
to the Confederate lines As many as two-thuds
of Pickett's immediate command, according to
some writers, were killed, wounded, or captured.
Of his three brigade commanders, Garnett was
instantly killed, Armistead, who had penetrated
farthest, was mortally wounded; and Kemper
was severely injured. On the Federal side, Gen-
eral Hancock was badly wounded, and many able
officers were killed. Meanwhile, on the Federal
right, Gregg defeated the Confederate General
Stuart in a spirited cavalry engagement, and on
the Federal left, General Farnsworth was killed,
while making a cavalry charge, under General
Kilpatrick's orders, against Longstreet's ad-
vanced skirmishers Both armies rested during
the 4th, but on the ensuing night, under cover
of the darkness and a heavy rain, Lee began his
retreat towards the Potomac, which he crossed
on the night of the 13th, without having been
attacked by the pursuing Federal army Dur-
ing the three days' battle the Federal army lost
3072 killed, 14,497 wounded, and 5434 captured
or missing, the Confederate aimy, according to
official reports, which, howevei, have been called
in question, 2592 killed, 12,709 wounded, and
5150 captured or missing The battle has been
regarded as the turning point of the Civil War
Consult Official Records, vol xxvn, parts i, 11,
and in, Johnson and Buel, Battles and Leaders
of the Giml War, vol in (New York, 1887) .
Doubleday, CJiancellorsville and Getty sbuig (ib,
1882) , Comte de Paris, Battle of Gettysburg
(new ed, Philadelphia, 1912), id, History of
the Ciiil War in America, vol 111 (ib , 1875-88) ,
Drake, Battle of Gettysburg (Boston, 1891), a
popular account, Longstreet, From Manassas to
Appomattox (Philadelphia, 1896), Swmton,
Twelve Decisne Battles of the War (New York,
1867) , Pennypacker, General Mcade (ib , 1901) ,
Bache, Life of General Geotge Got don Meade
(Philadelphia, 1897) , Long, Memoirs of Robert
E. Lee His Military and Personal History (New
York, 1886) , White, Robert E Lee and the
Southern Confederacy (ib , 1897) , Walker, Gen-
eral Hancock (ib , 1894), Nicolay and Hay,
AbraJiam Lincoln A History, vol vii (ib , 1890) ,
Goodnow, "Ihe Battle of Gettysburg," in the
Annual Report of the American Historical Asso-
ciation for 1S95 (Washington, 1896), Alexander,
Military Memoes of a Confederate (New York,
1907) , Steele, American Campaigns (Washing-
ton, 1909) , Ropes, The Story of the Civil War,
part m (New York, 1913)
GEULINCX, Ge'links, Fr pron. zhS'laNks',
ABNOLD (1625-69) A Dutch philosopher He
was born at Antwerp, studied theology and phi-
losophy at Lou vain, and afterwaid remained
12 years as a successful lectmcr and teacher of
the classics and the Cartesian philosophy For
some reason not certainly known, but supposed
to have had connection with his intended mar-
riage and his attacks upon scholasticism, he
was compelled in 1658 to leave Louvain and went
to Ley den, where he became a Protestant, was
married, endured many hardships due to pov-
erty, and in 1665 was helped by an influential
friend to the position of extraordinary piofessor
in the university. Entering into this work with
great zeal, he continued in it until his death
He was distinguished among the followers of
Descaites, and his writings contain germs of
thought that were independently developed by
Spinoza and Malebranche He gave special at-
tention to the doctrine of the relation between
the soul and the body Descartes had alieady so
separated extension and thought that only in the
teeth of logic could he maintain against Gas-
sendi the possibility of any interaction between
them. Geulmcx was more consistent Accepting
from Descartes this separation, he maintained
that interaction was impossible, for one cannot
be the author of any state of which one is un-
conscious, for man's very nature is conscious-
ness But a man is not conscious of the mech-
anism by which bodily motion is produced, hence
he is not the author of bodily motion Body and
mind are like two clocks which act together, be-
cause at each instant they are adjusted by God
A physical occurrence is but the occasion on
which God excites in the soul a corresponding
mental state Geulmcx thus originated the the-
ory of occasional causes (See OCCASIONALISM )
But this theory compelled a further advance.
God, who is the cause of the union of body and
mind, is the sole cause in the universe. Ho fact
0EITM 7:
contains in itself the giound of any other The
existence of the facts is due to God, their se-
quence and coexistence are also due to Him He
is the ground of all that is Apart from God the
finite being has no reality In this Geuhncx led
the way for Spinoza This occasionalistic view,
carried out consistently, of course leads to the
doctrine that we cannot know extended reality
directly, but have merely an idea of it, occasioned
in us by God Geulincx's main works were
De Virtute et Primis eyus Proprietatibus (1C65,
10 years later a posthumous edition appealed
under the title IVoJ0i eea.vr6v) , Logica- suis fun-
damentis restituta (1662) , Methodus Inveni-
endi Argumenta (1663) , Metaphysica Vera et
ad Mentem Peripateticam (1691) A complete
edition of his works in three volumes has re-
cently been published by Land (The Hague,
1891-93) Consult Grimm, Arnold Geulinca?
Hrkenntnisstheorie und Occasionalismus (Jena,
1875) , Land, Arnold Geulincso und seine Philo-
sophie (The Hague, 1895), Pfleiderer, Arnold
Geuhncw als Hauptvertreter der occasionahsti-
schen Metaphysik und Ethik (Tubingen, 1882) ,
Van de Haeghen, Geulincx Etude sur sa vie, sa
philosophie et sesf outrages (Ghent, 1886), also
the histories of philosophy by Wmdelband, Hol-
ding, and Falekenberg
GEUM, je'uni (Lat, herb bennet, avens). A
genus of plants of the family Bosaeese Two
species are common natives of Great Britain
and also found in the United States, common
avens, or herb bennet ( Geum urbanum ) , an herb
about 1 to 2 feet high, and watei avens (Geum
nvale) , about 1 foot high. Both of these species
have the radical leaves interruptedly pinnate and
lyrate and the cauline leaves teinate, but Geum
urbanum has erect yellow flowers, and Geum
nvale has nodding flowers of a purplish hue
The former grows in hedges and thickets, the
latter in wet meadows and woods and sometimes
even in alpine situations. Both are aromatic,
tonic, and astringent, and aie employed to re-
stiam mucous discharges and in cases of dysen-
tery and intermittent fever. The root of Geum
nvale is used also in diseases of the bladder
The root of Geum urbanum has when fresh a
clovelike taste and is used to flavor ale, for
this purpose it is gathered m spring before
the stem grows up Geum nvale is a common
plant in the United States as far west as Mis-
souri. The chocolate root (Geum strictum) of
North America has some reputation as a mild
tonic It was once employed in the United States
in diseases of the bladder It much resembles
the British species in its leaves and has erect
flowers, like those of Geum urbanum. Many of
the species are very hardy and aie used in orna-
mental plantings One group has plumose styles
that are very attractive after the petals have
fallen Geum chiloense, a native of Chile, is one
of the best of this class The genus is mainly
represented in the cooler regions of the two
hemispheres
GEVAERT, ge-vart', FBAKQOIS AUGUSTS
(1828-1908) One of the foremost of musical
savants. He was born at Huysse (Belgium),
and received his first musical education at the
Conservatory of Ghent He became organist of
the Jesuit church there (1847) In the same
year he won the Grand Prix de Rome (q.v.),
but received permission to postpone his journey
for two years In 1849 he began his career as
an operatic composer, writang in all 12 operas
He traveled and studied in Italy, Spain, and
I GEYSER
Geimany (1850-52) In 1853 he settled in
Paris, where he lived until 1871 (after 1867 as
the dnector of the Grand Opera) In 1871 he
succeeded Fetis ( q v ) as director of the Conserv-
atory at Brussels From this time on he de-
voted himself to research woik on the history oi
music His first literary work was Leevboel
van den Gregonaenschen &ang (1856) In 1863
appeared Traite d' instrument at ion, completely
rewritten in 1885 This is now the recognized
standard (Ger trans by Riemann2 1887) Ge-
vaert's other important works are Histoire et
theone de la musique de I'anttquite (1875-81) ,
Cours complet de I3 orchestration (1890), Les
engines du chant liturgique (1890), in which
he attacks with weighty arguments the tradition
of Gregory I (See PLAIN CHANT ) A continu-
ation of this is La melop6e antique de I'eghse
latine (1895) He wrote, with Vollgraff, Les
problemes musicaucc d'Anstote (1899-1902).
GEVELSBERG, ga'vels-berK A town in the
Prussian Province of Westphalia, 28 miles east
by north of Dusseldorf It has several fine mon-
uments to Kaiser William I and Frederick III
It manufactures iron and steel wares, healths,
gas stoves, scie\vs, and machinery Pop, 1900,
13,499, 1910, 18,938
GEWANDHAtTS-COITCERTE, ge-vant'hous
kSn-t&5r/te The name of a famous concert in-
stitute in Leipzig The word Geiuandhaus signi-
fies a cloth merchants' hall, and these concerts
were so called because, for want of a suitable
hall, they were held in such a building Their
beginning dates back to 1743, when Doles began
a. series of subscription concerts which he con-
tinued until 1756, when they were interrupted
by the Seven Years' War J A Hiller revived
the concerts m 1762 under the name of Liebha-
'berkonzerte. The orchestra, which originally
consisted of but 16 performers, was increased
to 30. In 1781 the burgomaster Karl Muller,
together with 11 others, organized a board of
directors and opened subscriptions for a series
of 24 conceits to be given every season At pres-
ent the orchestra consists of "about 70 perform-
ers, and 20 regular subscription concerts are
given Besides these, two benefit concerts are
arranged annually — one for the orchestra pen-
sion fund, the other for the poor When, in
1835, Mendelssohn assumed the conductorship of
the Gewandhaus concerts, they soon rose to such
fame and importance that for a time Leipzig was
the centre of music not only of Germany, but of
all Europe Among the eminent conductors have
been Doles, J. A. Hiller, Mendelssohn, F Hiller,
Gade, Rietz, Remecke, Nikisch Consult E.
Kneschke, Die ISOjahnge Geschichte der Leip-
ziger Gewandhaus-Konzerte (Leipzig, 1893)
GEYIKHA.lt See DINEIK.
GEYSER, gi'zer (Icel Gey sir, name of a fa-
mous hot spring in Iceland, from geysa, gjosa,
to gush) An eruptive thermal spring A true
geyser has an underground passage communi-
cating with a source of water supply and,f usually
terminating at the surface in a basin built up
by a deposition of sinter Froni the surface
vent eruptions of hot water accompanied by
subterranean rumblings take pla^e at more pr
less regular intervals In tfee powerful out-
bursts the water is shot upward 'with a loud
roar to a height of 100 tot or more, this dis-
play continues for a brief time and then sub-
sides until the next period of activity The oc-
currence of geysers is lumted to regions of recent
volcanic activity, where hot springs and mud
722
G-EZEB
springs are accompanying phenomena The gey-
sers of Iceland have been known for many cen-
turies, while those of Yellowstone Park and of
Noitli Ibland, New Zealand, \vere discovered
only in the last centuiy The most prominent
examples m Iceland are the Great Geyser, the
Little Geyser, and the Strokhr, the first has a
pipe neaily 10 feet in diameter and empts at
intervals of a day or moie, hurling the water
like an immense fountain to a height exceeding
100 feet In Yellowstone Park there are at
least 70 eruptive geyseis, and nearly 3000 vents
of mud volcanoes, fumaroles, and hot springs,
most of which occur in four basins The sur-
face is covered with terraces and elevations sur-
rounding the openings, beautifully ornamented
with snowy deposits of silica Among the most
remarkable of these geyseis are the Giant, which
throws a column of water 5 feet in diameter
to a height of 200 feet, playing continuously
for an hour and a half, Old Faithful, which
spouts with great regularity every 65 minutes,
sending the water to a height of 125 feet,
Castle Geyser, issuing from a chimney 12 feet
high, Excelsior, which has a basin 200 feet in
diameter and spouts at intervals of eight years,
the Giantess, which is said to throw a column
20 feet in diameter, the Beehive, and the Giand
Geyser The terraces of Rotomahana, New Zea-
land, once rivaling those of Yellowstone Park,
were destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 1S86
The investigations of Bunsen in the geyser
region of Iceland, confirmed as they were by
laboratoiy experiment, have been generally ac-
cepted by geologists as affording a satisfactory
SECTION" OF GETSEK
explanation of the origin and activity of erup-
tive thermal springs By seepage from the sur-
face the geyser tube (a) is filled with a column
of water, which at a considerable depth receives
heat from buried lava flows or other volcanic
sources When the temperature in the lower
part of the tube is raised to such a point that
the water boils in spite of the superincumbent
column, a portion of the water is changed into
steam and by expansion causes an overflow at
the surface Thus relieved of pressure, a large
quantity of water flashes into steam and elects
the whole column violently into the air If the
circulation of the waters be impeded by throwing
stones into the geyser tube, the eruption can
often be hastened Geysers in many cases were
originally hot springs, from which they have
gradually developed by building and extending
their tubes Hot alkaline spimgs cany silica in
solution, which is readily pi capitated along the
path of the flowing ^ater, as the tube becomes
longer, the difference in temperatuie between the
upper and lowei poitions mci eases, until suffi-
cient to cause an eruption In course of tone
geysers must lose their activity and again be-
come hot springs, or the flow of water may be
entirely checked by structural changes in the
tubes Consult United States Geological Svi-
vey of the Territories, 5th and 6th Annual Re-
ports (Washington, 1872-73), Bunsen, On the
Intimate Connection Existing Between the
Pseudo-Volcanic Phenomena of Iceland (Lon-
don, 1848) , Malfroy, On Geyser Action at Ro-
torua, (1891), Hague, The Geology of the Yel-
lowstone National Park (Washington, 1904)
See GEOLOGY
GEYSEBITE, gi'zei-it A name given to a
variety of opal that occurs in concretionary
deposits around the geyseis of Iceland, New
Zealand, and in the Yellowstone Park It fre-
quently occurs in white or giayish porous sta-
lactitic or filamentous foims that are sometimes
of great beauty Varieties that are compact-
massive or scaly-massive in appearance aie
sometimes found" The mineral consists essen-
tially of silica, with horn 9 to 13 per cent of
•vtatei
GEYTEB, Gi'ter, JAN ( JULIUS) DEI (1830-
1905) A Flemish poet, born at Lede His
works are distinguished by a largeness of vision
and vigorous, expressive language They in-
clude Drie menschen van de uneg tot ^n het
graf* Een epos uit on&en tijd (1861) (incom-
plete) , G-euzenlied (1872) , Remaart de t?os, a
charming version of the old poem (1874),
Vlaanderens Jcunstroem (1877), De Wereldin
Schoolcantate (1878), De Rijn (1882), and
the epic Kei&er Karel en het ri,fe der Neder-
landen (1888), his masterpiece
GKE'ZjEBr. An ancient Canaamtish city Ac-
cording to Josh x 33, King Horam of Gezer
fought against the invading Hebrews and main-
tained its independence (ib, xvi 10) Gezer
(Gaz-ri) is mentioned frequently in the Tell el-
Amarna letters, King Yapahi complains to the
King of Egypt of the dangerous advance of the
Hebrews (Habin) In the time of Solomon
(c 993-953) the city was recaptured by the
King of Egypt and given to the King of Israel
as his daughter's dowry (1 Kings ix 16) It
became an important fortress in the days of the
Maccabees (1 Mace iv 15, ix 52, xm 43 et
seq , xiv 7, 34, xv 28, 35, xvi 1, 19, 21)
Simon bualt a palace at Gezer (Gazeia), and
John Hyreanus lived there It became an episco-
pal city of Palsestma I (Gadara), and the Cru-
saders under Baldwin IV here (Mont Gisart)
defeated Saladm in 1177 The excavations car-
ried on by the Palestine Exploration Fund, un-
der the leadership of Macalister, at Tell Jezer,
near Abu Shizsheh, not far from Ramleh, the
modern site of the city, have revealed five mam
epochs in its history Two of them are earlier
than the Israehtish occupation The lowest
stratum contains cave dwellings, with flint Im-
plements, the Canaamtish stratum above this
is rich in Egyptian seals, rings, and other orna-
ments The High Place, with its sacred stones,
or mazzeboth, and its clay vessels containing
the bodies of children, is of great interest A
stone with the inscription "boundary of Gezer"
makes the identification certain Consult. Mac*
GEYSERS
CASTLE GEYSER AND CRYSTAL SPRING (UPPER)
NORRIS GEYSER BASIN (LOWER)
GFBOBEB,
723
GHAZAL
ahster, Bible Side-Lights from the Mound of
Gezer (London, 1906} , id, The Excavations at
G-ezer (ib , 1912), id, A History of Civilization
in Palestine (Cambridge, 1912) , Vincent, Ca-
naan d'apies r exploration recent e (Pans, 1907)
GIFBOIIES,, g'-fie-rer, AUGUST FRILDRICH
(1803-01) A Geiman historian He was born
at Calw, Wurttembeig, and much against his
own inclination was put to studying theology
afc the University of Tubingen and kept at it
till the age of 22 After tiavelmg in Switzer-
land and Italy, he became tutor in theology at
Tubingen in 1828 and in 1830 secured a position
in the National Library at Stuttgart His abil-
ity was very gieat and his energy inexhausti-
ble, and the works he now put forth received
and deserved great attention His whole life
manifested a steady evolution from liberal
Protestantism to Ulti amontane Catholicism
During the writing of his Philo und die judisch-
alcttandi inische Theosophie (1831) and the
Gf-eschichte des Urctiristentums (1838) his views
on Christianity underwent a radical transforma-
tion During the publication of G-ustav Adolf
und seine Zeit (1835-37) he changed his point
of view, and while at work on his Allgemeine
Kirchengeschichte (1841-46), embracing the
history of the Christian Church to 1305, he be-
came convinced of the wrongfulness of the Ref-
ormation and the truth of the Catholic position
He was called to the chair of history in the
Catholic Univeisity at Freiburg in 1846, showed
himself an enemy of Prussia at the Frankfort
Parliament (1848-49), and became a vigorous
champion of the Catholic faith, which he em-
braced in 1853 He died July 6, 1861 Besides
the works already mentioned, he wrote Urge-
sohichte des menschlichen Geschlechts (1855),
Papst Gregor VII und sein Zeitalter (1859-61) ,
Geschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts (1862-74),
Zur Oeschichte deutscher Volksrechte (1866) ,
Byzantvnische Geschichten (1872-74) The last
three works were published by Weiss after the
death of the author
GHADAMES See G-ADAMES
GHARA, gur'a. The name of the Sutlej,
the easternmost of the five rivers of the Punjab,
below its confluence with the Beas The Ghara
unites with the Chenab, which has collected the
waters of the Jhelum and the Ravi, to form the
Pan-pad, which carries the drainage of the Pun-
jab into the Indus See SUTXEJ
GHARDAYA, gar-di'a See GARDAIA
GHA'RIAL, or GHARIYAL See GAVIAL.
GHATS, gats The name (see GIIATS below)
applied to two converging ranges of mountains,
or scarpments, which run parallel with the east
and west coasts of the peninsula of India, hence
known as the Eastern and Western Ghats
The Western Ghats stretch from the south
side of the Tapti to Cape Comorm (Map India,
B 5) Though they are generally far more con-
tinuous and distinct than the Eastern Ghats, yet
they are sharply divided by the gap of Palghat-
cheri, 16 miles wide, the northern section meas-
uring 800 miles In length and the southern 200
Their general elevation appears to vary from
about 3000 feet to fully 7000 feet The peak
of Dodabetta, in that portion of the Western
Ghats known as the Nilgms, is 8760 feet above
sea level The opposite faces of these mountains
differ remarkably from each other Seaward,
almost perpendicular precipices, to speak gen-
erally, sink at once nearly to the level of the
sea, at a distance ranging from 40 to 70 miles,
but at one place approaching within 6 miles.
This maritime strip, more particularly towards
the south, especially under the influence of the
southwest monsoon, presents that singular fea-
ture of stagnant shallow lakes known as
the "Backwaters " ( See COCHIN ) Landward,
there is a gradual slope to the Eastern Ghats,
which appear as hills near the eastern escaip-
ment of the Deccan, a distance of from 50 to
150 miles from the Bay of Bengal (Map India,
C 6) The mam pait of the eastern range ex-
tends, -with an average height of 1500 feet, from
near Onssa to Coimbatore At Coimbatore a
spur ridge connects them with the Western
Ghats just north of the gap of Palghatchcri
GHATS (Hmd ghat, step, Skt ghatta, quay,
fiom gliatt, to touch, connected with gharsh,
to rub ) , or, as usually written, GHAUTS Struc-
tures along the banks of rivers, erected to af-
ford easy access to bathers They are peculiar
to northern Hindustan and line the river banks
in most of the great cities, more especially
those situated on the Ganges A ghat consists,
in geneial, of a broad quay, foimmg the essen-
tial part of the structure, with one or moie
broad flights of steps leading to a long, lngh
building, fronting the river and serving for the
protection of loungers from the sun's rays The
uniformity of the long lines of steps is broken by
small projections, often crowned by kiosks,
which relieve the eye Though the Ganges, be-
ing the sacred river, is par excellence the river
of ghats, one of the most beautiful in Hindu-
stan is that at Maheswar, on the Nerbudda,
and though Benares prides itself upon possess-
ing the greatest number of ghats, it is almost
rivaled by "Ujjain and other cities Consult
Fergusson, Histoiy of Indian and Eastern Ar-
chitecture (rev ed , London, 1910), and Havel,
Indian Architecture (ib , 1913)
GHAVERS See GIIEBERS
GHAZAI/, or GHAZEI/ (Ar, love poem,
from ghazila, to be affectionate) An Oriental
ode It was a favorite form of lyrical compo-
sition among the Persians and corresponds in
some respects to our idea of the sonnet The
ghazal consists of from 5 to 16 or 17 couplets,
written in the same metre and according to
fixed rules of rhyme The opening couplet has
its two lines rhyming with each other, and this
rhyme is repeated in the second line of each
succeeding couplet, which gives to the ghazal
a uniformity that approaches monotony accord-
ing to Western, but not Eastern, standards of
taste In the last two lines or couplet royal,
called makta or khatimah (close), the poet in-
troduces his own name as a signature or envoy
Certain departures from these formal rules are
found As to subject, the buiden of the ghazal
is generally the praise of the poet's sweetheart,
or his despair at her indifference, the beauty of
the spring, the blush of the rose, the song of
the nightingale, or the "joys of wine and convfri-
ality. Among the Persian poets, Hafiz (>q/v ) is
the most famous writer of ghazals, and a num-
ber of these have, so far as the form is con-
cerned, been successfully rendered into English.
Mention, e g , may be made of Leaf's Versions of
Hafiz (London, 1898), Payne's translation into
English verse (ib, 1901), and Le Gallienne's
Odes from the Divan (ib, 1905) The German
poets Platen, Ruckert, and Bodenstedt have very
skillfully adapted this form of composition in
their "Ghaselen/" On tbe latter, consult Remy,
Influence of India and Persia on German Poetry
GHAZALI
724
(New York, 1901) For other poets who wrote
in this form of verse, consult Browne, Literary
Sistory of Persia (ib , 1906)
GHAZALI, ga-za'le, ABU HAMID MOHAMMED
IBN MO'HAMMED AL TUSI AL SHAJFl'l AL (1059-
1111 AD). One of the most original thmkeis
and possibly the greatest theologian in the Mos-
lem world He was born at Tus in rlhorassan
and belonged to the family of Ghazala He
studied theology with the Imam al Haramam
in Nishapur until 1085, when he went to Bag-
dad, He received an appointment as professor
at the IsTizamiya in 1091, but in 1095 he resigned
ins position in order to travel He lived in
Damascus and Jerusalem, where he visited the
church of the Holy Sepulchre, and made his pil-
grimage to Mecca in 1097 After several years
of scholarly retirement he was appointed to a
chair at Nishapur in 1105, but after some time
returned to Tus and entered a Sufi convent,
where he died iri 1111. Ghazali submitted the
philosophical views and to some extent the re-
ligious doctrines held among Moslems at his
time to a searching criticism This criticism,
however, was not wholly negative, lie never
abandoned certain fundamental positions of
Moslem dogma and of the scholasticism which
he attacked He was not a skeptic, nor a
radical like Abu3! Ala al Ma'am (qv ) It was
his desire to revive the religious life in Islam by
bringing It back from scholastic speculation,
and the intolerance and strife of rival sects, to
a simple interpretation of the Koran, a whole-
some fear of coming judgment, love of Allah,
and fellowship with all believers The practical
tendency of his preaching, his great eloquence,
the subtlety of his thought, the warmth of his
religious feeling, and the mysticism so mani-
festly giving him spiritual satisfaction, made
his influence deeply felt He was called "the
restorer of the faith," and al Suyuti said of him,
"If ihere could be another prophet after Moham-
med, it would surely be al Ghazali " There are
about 70 works of G-hazali known to be pre-
served in manuscript form in various libraries,
but few have been critically edited, printed, or
translated One of his most important books
Ihya 'ulurn al din ( Revival of the Heligious Sci-
ences) has been printed at Bulak and Cairo, but
only parts have been translated by McDonald in
Journal of the Royal Astatic Society (London,
1901-02), his Religious Attitude and Life in
Isl&m (Chicago, 1909), and m Hastings, Dic-
tionary of Religion and Ethics, 11, 677 et seq.
(New York, 1910), and a summary given by
Asm Has Makasid al falasifa (Tendencies of
the Philosophies) has been published in part
by Beer, and there is a Latin translation made
by Gundisalvi (Venice, 1506). The continua-
tion of this work, the famous Tahafut al fala-
sifa (Destruction of the Philosophies), which
called forth so spirited an answer from Averroes
(qv ) and had so great an influence on Jewish
and Christian thought, has been printed in Cairo
and Bombay, but only parts have yet been
translated by De Boer, Carra de Vaux (Museon,
vol xvm), and Asin The Risala al kudsiya
has been translated by Bauer under the title
Die Dogmatik al-Ghamli's (Halle, 1912) An
eschatological study, al Durra al fakhira, has
been published and translated by Gautier under
the title La perle precieuse de G-hazali (Geneva,
1878). Ghazah's important spiritual autobi-
ography Munkidh mm al dalal (Deliverance
from Error) was printed at Constantinople,
1876, and translated by Barhier de Meynard
Consult McDonald, "Life of al Ghazali," in Jour-
nal of American Oriental Society (Boston, 1899) ,
id , Development of Muslim Theology (New York,
1903) , id, Aspects of Islam (ib, 1911) , id, in
Eneyklopcedie des Islam (Leyden, 1914) , Miguel
Asm Palacios, Algazel, dogmatica, moral, as-
cetica (Saragossa, 1901) , Can a de Vaux, 0-asali
(Paris, 1902), Schmolders, Essai sur les ecoles
philosophiqucs che& les Aiabes (ib, 1842), De
Boer, Die Widerspruche der Philosophic Nach
al G-hasmh und ihr Ausgleich durch I~bn Rosnd
(Strassburg, 1894) , Brockelmann, Geschichte
der aiabischm Literatur, i (Weimar, 1898) ,
Broyde, in The Jewish Encyclopedia (New
York, 1903) , Nicholson, A Liteiary History of
the Arabs (London, 1907), Strecken and
Horten, m Die Religion in Geschichte und Qe-
genwart (Tubingen, 1910)
GHAZAIST KHAN", ga-zan' Kan See MONGOL
DYNASTIES
GHAZI (ga'zg) MOHAM7TVCEI) See SHAMTL
GHAZIPTTR, ga'ze-poor' The capital of a
district of the same name in the United Prov-
inces, British India It extends for 2 miles
along the left bank of the Ganges and is 44
miles northeast of Benares (Map India, E 4)
The climate is hot and humid Large quantities
of roses are grown m the vicinity for the manu-
facture of rose water and attar of roses Ghazi-
pur is the opium depot for the United Provinces,
and the large government factory occupies more
than 45 acres, employing 3500 hands during the
busy season Its chief objects of inteiest are
the remains of Chahal Situn, or Palace of
Forty Pillars, mounds of masonry, a mud fort
along the river front used as the customhouse,
and a fine marble statue of Lord Cornwalhs,
who died here in 1805 Pop, 1901, 39,429,
1911, 22,165
GHAZNI, gaz'ne", or GHIZNI, giz'ne" A city
in the southeastern part of Afghanistan, over
92 miles southwest of Kabul, situated on the
river Ghazni at an altitude of 7280 feet (Map
Afghanistan, N" 6) It is surrounded by a mud
wall and derives considerable commercial im-
portance from its position on the route between
Persia and India, which latter is entered by
the Gomal Pass It has a caravan trade m
fruit, wool, and skins Pop , once 10,000,
now probably not more than 4000 It is of
great strategic importance, is walled, and has
an old castle in the highest part of the town
A short distance from Ghazni are the ruins of
Old Ghazni, once one of the finest cities of
Asia, and capital of the Ghazmvides (qv).
Ghazni was taken by the English under Lord
Keane in 1839 and under General Nott in 1842
GHAZNI VIEES, gaVni-vidz A celebrated
Mohammedan dynasty of 21 rulers, named from
their seat in Ghazm ( q v ) In the height of its
power it possessed an empire extending from the
Tigris to the Ganges and from the Sihun, or Syr-
Darya, to tlie Indian Ocean The founder of the
line was ALP-TIQIN, a freedman of Nasr I of
the Samani dynasty, who ruled over Ferghana,
Kashgar, and Turkestan Alp-Tigm, born m
880, was appointed Goveinor of Khorassan In
962 he took possession of the fortress of Ghazni
and for 15 years successfully withstood the
Samani (qv ). On his death, in 976, his slave
SABUK-TiGisr, who had become his son-in-law,
was unanimously chosen as his successor H>
was distinguished for prudence and valor as well
as for humanity and justice. By him the king-
GHAZETIVIDES
725
GHEBERS
dom was extended from the Indus to Khorassan
and from the Gulf of Oman to the Syr-Darya,
or Sihun His invasion of India from the north-
west was the first attempted by a Moslem and
is important 111 that it pointed the way into
Hindustan Sabuk-Tigm died in 997 and was
succeeded by his younger son ISMAIL The elder
son, MAHMTJD YAMIN UD-DATJLAH, the most fa-
mous of the dynasty, who had been appointed
Governor of Mshapur in 994, hearing of his
father's death, hastened to Ghazni He deposed
Ismail and assumed the reins of government in
999, with the title of Sultan He was a devout
Moslem and vowed that every yeai should see
him wage a holy war against the nonbelievers
In the year following he took complete posses-
sion of Khorassan and in 1001 commenced a
series of at least 16 destructive inroads into
Hindustan On the 8th of Muharram (27th of
November) he defeated Jaipal, King of Kabul
and Lahore, near Peshawar, with immense
slaughter In 1006, while on his second expedi-
tion to India, he was recalled by the news that
Ilak Khan of Kashghar, who in 999 had con-
quered the Samani, was ravaging Transoxania
In 1007 and 1009 Mahmud made his third and
fourth expeditions into Hindustan and each
time carried off an immense booty in money,
jewels, and slaves. Returning to Ghazni, he
made a liberal distribution from his treasures
among the poor and the ministers of religion
Within the next few years he reduced Ghur,
Jurjistan, and Khwarezm In the winter of
1025-26 he was engaged in his last expedition
against the Hindus, the famous expedition
to Somnath in southern Gujarat, where he ob-
tained an enormous booty In 1029 he con-
quered Irak, but on April 30 of the following
year he died at Ghazni, aged 63 years At this
time the Empire of Ghazni was at the summit of
its glory Mahmud of Ghazni was a great con-
queror and a patron of learning, but his fanati-
cism and greed are dark blots on the short-lived
empire which he founded as the first foreign
dominion over India Lacking in constructive
statesmanship, he only attempted to attain out-
ward order and security, so that his poorly
united kingdoms began to fall asunder soon
after his death He was succeeded by a younger
son, MOHAMMED, who in October of the same
year was compelled to resign the sovereignty to
his younger brother, MASUD I This prince was
m 1040 signally defeated by the Seljuks (qv ),
who had taken possession of Khorassan Though,
an able and warlike prince, misfortunes crowded
thickly around his declining years He was de-
posed in 1040 and murdered after a few months
of imprisonment During his reign the Seljuks
took possession of Balkh, Khorassan, Khwar-
ezm, Herat, and Irak The sovereigns who in
succession reigned in Ghazni were MAUDTJD
(1040-48), MASTJD II (1048), BAHATJD-DIN ALT
(1048), ABD TJE-RASHID (1049-52), TTTGHBIL,
the usurper (1052), and FARBUKH-ZAD (1052-
59) In their reigns there is little besides inter-
necine quarrels of Ghazni, and the encroachments
of the Seljuks on the west and north The reign
of Farrukh-zad, however, shed a bright lustre
over the expiring glory of fthazni, for the Seljuk
prince, Baud, who thought to take advantage of
tie dissensions at Ghazni and marched against
it, was signally defeated by Ntish-Tigm, the
general of Farrukh-zad Encouraged by this
victory, the Ghaznmde forces marched into
Khorassan and regained that province, On
news of this second defeat, Alp-Arslan (qv)
was sent by his uncle Tughril Beg (Togrul Bey)
to stop the progress of the Ghaznivides In the
battle which ensued, fortune changed sides, and
Nush-Tigm was totally defeated. A treaty of
peace was then concluded Farrukh-zad was
succeeded by IBRAHIM (1059-99), in whose reign
there was to a certain extent a revival of the
glory of the Ghaznivides, MASUD III ( 1099-
1114), SHIRZAD (1114-15), ARSLAN (1115-18),
and BAHRAM (1118-52) During the reign of
this last prince the Ghun, a tribe inhabiting
the mountainous country of Ghur in Afghanis-
tan between Ghazni and Herat, began to make
inroads upon the territory of Ghazni and, grow-
ing bolder by success, attacked and took the
capital itself, driving Bahram across the Indus
But on the retreat of part of the Ghun to their
own country, Bahram retook his capital and
put to death the Ghuri prince, Saif ud-Dm Sun
Learning this, the bi other of the pimce, Ala ud-
Din Husain, hastened fiom Ghur and, having
defeated Bahram, gave up Ghazni to be pillaged
by his followers Bahram was thus driven a
second time across the Indus in 1149 and died
in the following year His son KIIUSEU SHAH
(1152-60) succeeded him and took up his resi-
dence in Lahore The many attempts which he
made to repossess himself of Ghazni and
the surrounding territory were unsuccessful
KirusKU MALIK (1160-86), the twenty-first and
last monarch of the dynasty, occupied himself
in the first part of his reign (1160-66) m ex-
tending and consolidating his Indian possessions,
but subsequently his whole energies were re-
quired to repel the attacks of Shihab ud-Din
Mohammed, Prince of Ghur, who, having con-
quered all the territory west of the Indus, now
sought to drive the race of Sabuk-Tigin from
their last possession In 1184 Lahore was all
that remained to Khusru Malik, and the taking
of that city by the Ghur prince in 1186 put an
end to the power of the Ghaznivides Consult
Lane-Poole, Mediceval India- under Mohammedan
Rule (London, 1903)
GHAZZALI See GHAZALI
GHEBEBS, ge'berz or ga'bgrz, GABERS,
GTJEBEBS, G-H AVERS (Turk ^aur, or
Ghaur) The adherents in Persia of the ancient
religion founded or reformed by Zoroaster As
worsliipers of Ormazd in Iran, they correspond
to the Parsis or Zoroastrian exiles in India
This small band, 8000 or 10,000 in number,
stands with the Parsis to-day as the sole rep-
resentatives of the faith of the Prophet of
ancient Iran
The name Gaber, G£ber, GhSber, or Gueber, as
infidel, is familiarly applied to the fire worship-
ers in Persia, eg, in Moore's Lalla, Rookh and
in Byron's "Giaour" The origin of the name
is open to discussion It is commonly explained
as a derivative from the Arabic Kafir, which is
applied as unbeliever to all non-Mohammedans,
and is supposed to have been given first to the
Persian Zoroastrians by their Arab conquerors
in the seventh century A B ThiTa explanation is
doubtful on phonetic grounds A second sug-
festion seeks to trace m gotier a tribal name or
esignation as implied in the name Kkab&r of
the Talmud (Yebam 63 b , Gitt 17 a, etc ), and
in Origen, Contra Gelsum, 6291, who mentions
Kabirs or Persians and declares that Christian-
ity has borrowed nothing ftom them If a
guess might be hazarded, one might be tempted
to connect the word with the Pahlavi or Middle
GHEE
726
GHENT
Persian gabra, found also in Aramaic, m the
sense of 'man/ which is applied to the Zoroas-
trians in the form Mog-gabra, or 'Magian man',
and then assume a generalization in the sense
of 'people, gentiles/ witli the derogatory sig-
nificance of unbeliever, infidel, pagan, heathen,
as in the Gentiles of the Bible Another name
applied by the Mohammedans to this sect is
Atas-parast, or 'fire-worshipers' , or again
Ma}ust cfrom the Magi/ their ancient priest-
hood; or also F&rsi, ie, Parsi, from Pars or
Pars, the name of the Province of Persia They
designate themselves, however, as Beh-Dinan
(those of the Good Faith)
The vicissitudes and misfortunes of these fol-
lowers of the ancient Persian creed through
history have been many and varied Passing
over the earlier history, to be dealt with in other
aiticles, the battle of Nehavend (c641 AD),
and the final conquest of Iran by Islam, wrought
a complete change in the religious tenets of
Persia The creed of Ormazd and of Zoroaster
sank before the rising crescent of Allah and his
Prophet, the Avesta gave place to the Koran,
and the teachings of Mohammed were adopted
by the Persians generally Only a few sought
freedom to worship Ormazd through flight and
exile in India; these formed the later sect of
the Parsis (qv) The small remnant that
chose both to abide by their ancestral faith and
to remain in their old home met with persecu-
tion and oppiession So great, in fact, have
been the trials of these devoted Zoroastrians for
their faith that within the last 200 years they
have dwindled down from 100,000 to a mere
handful of representatives that still preserve the
early creed Through hardships they have been
reduced largely to poverty and ignorance, but,
thanks to the efforts of their well-to-do brethren,
the Parsis of Bombay, and the more liberal
government of modern Persia, their condition
has been greatly ameliorated within the last
generation. Most of them that exist to-day
are to be found in Yezd and Barman, a few
also in Teheran, Ispahan, Shiraz, Urumiah, or
about the eternal fire of the naphtha wells of
Baku But, scattered as they are, they have
still kept alive in Iran the spark of their fading
worship there, and they still maintain a high
reputation for honor, uprightness, morality, and
obedience to law that chai aeterizes their more
fortunate Parsi brethren in India, and they
may rightly claim their title to being men
of the "Good Faith." Consult Browne, A Tear
amongst the Persians (London, 1893) , Sykes,
Ten Thousand Miles m Iran (ib, 1902) , Jack-
son, "Die iranische Religion," in vol 11 of the
Grundnss der iramschen Philoloyie (Strass-
burg, 1904). See AVESTA, PAESIS, PERSIA,
ZOROASTER.
GHEE, ge" (Hind ghZ, from Skt ghrta, clari-
fied butter, pp of ghar, to drip) A kind of
clarified butter used in many parts of India and
the East, prepared from the milk of buffaloes
or cows The fresh milk is boiled for an hour
or more, it is then allowed to cool, a little
curdled milk added, and the, curdled mass
churned. When the butter begins to become
rancid, which is usually the case after a few
days, it is boiled till all the water and curd
have separated The fat is then removed, salted,
often a little sour milk and some aromatic herbs
added, and put into closed pots to be kept for
use It is said to keep for years when carefully
prepared The natives of many parts of India
use it extensively, not only as a food, but in
medicine and in religious rites Its strong odor
and disagreeable flavor are not attractive to
Europeans
GHEEL, gAl A well-known Belgian colony
for the insane, 26 miles east-southeast of Ant-
werp (Map Belgium, C 3) It is a fertile spot,
inhabited and cultivated by 10,000 or 11,000
peasants, in the midst of an extensive sandy
waste, called the Campme
Historically Gheel is noted as having been
the spot where a woman of rank, said to have
been of British origin, was murdered by her
father in consequence of her resistance to his
incestuous passion Pilgrims, the sick, the sor-
rowful, and the insane, visited the tomb of the
Christian virgin, the last were restored to san-
ity and serenity Dymphna became the tutelar
saint of those stricken in spirit, a shrine rose
in her honor, which now for 10 centuries has
been consecrated to the relief of mental disease
and has collected ai ound it hundreds of lunatics,
chiefly of the poorer classes Formerly the
afflicted underwent a sort of novitiate in a
building adjoining the church, where they were
chained to the wall, and subsequently passed
under the mausoleum of their patron, but
now there do not appear to be any other than
the ordinary ministrations of the church to
which the patients belong resorted to as
treatment
About 1300 insane persons are lodged with
the citizens of this community, or with 1000
heads of families, and are controlled and em-
ployed by them Until recently this colony was
merely a psychological curiosity, but the ab-
surdity of treating all cases alike, and in-
dependently of medical aid, led to the insti-
tution of a medical staff, the erection of a
hospital, and the introduction of many salutary
alterations in the relations between the insane
and their custodians, in classification and super-
vision Consult Duval, G-heel (Paris, 1867),
Brandes, Die Irrencolomen (Hanover, 1865) ,
Kuedy, Gheel (Bern, 1874) ; Pilgrim, "A Visit
to Gheel," in American Journal of Insanity
(Utica, N Y, 1886), Jehffe, "A Visit to
Gheel/' in Medical News (Philadelphia, 1904).
GHEGA, ga'ga, KAEL VON (1800-60). An
Austrian civil engineer, born in Venice. After
being engaged in hydraulic engineering and in
the construction of mountain roads in northern
Italy and the Tirol, he spent several years in
investigating railroads in the United States and
upon his return was intrusted with several im-
portant projects, such as the celebrated Sem-
meringbahn He originated a number of im-
provements in railroad construction and wrote
many important works on that subject, among
which may be mentioned Uelersicht uber die
Hauptfortschntte des Eisenbafinwesens 1840-50
(3d ed , 1853) and TJeber nordamerikamschen
Bruclceribau und Berechnung des Tragungsver-
moqens der Howesohen Brucken (1845)
GHENT, gent (Fr Gwd, from OFlem Gend]
The capital of the Province of East Flanders,
Belgium, and one of the most important cities
of the country, situated at the confluence of the
Lys with the Scheldt, 31 miles northwest of
Brussels (Map- Belgium, B 3) It is intersected
by a number of streams and canals spanned by
more than 200 bridges The older portion with
its narrow streets and gabled buildings bears
a decidedly Flemish aspect and possesses numer-
ous buildings of great historical interest, the
0KEHT
72-7
G-HENT
newer part of the city is well laid out and
modern in its architectuie Ghent is about 8
miles in circamference and contains extensive
gardens and promenades The chief ecclesias-
tical building is the cathedral of St Bavon,
with its unpretentious Gothic exterior and
splendid interior The crypt dates from 941,
the last part of the building was completed only
in 1554 Besides the architectural beauty of its
interior and its age, the cathedral is famous for
its art treasures, among which are included the
famous "Adoration of the Lamb" by the brothers
Van Eyck, and one painting by Rubens Near
the cathedral stands the belfry, a square tower
375 feet high surmounted by a gilded dragon
and containing a chime of 44 bells It was
begun in 1183 The church of St Nicholas, the
oldest in Ghent, was begun in the tenth cen-
tury, but the larger part was constructed at
the beginning of the thirteenth. It is built in
the early Gothic style and has an unfinished
tower with 10 turrets The church of St
Michael, dating from the fifteenth century, is
built in Gothic style and contains a number
of fine pictures, including the "Crucifixion" by
Van Dyck.
The secular buildings of Ghent are also of
great architectural beauty and historic interest
The town hall, of which the northern facade
was constructed in 1518-33 and the eastern
facade in 1595-1622, is regarded as one of the
finest specimens of Gothic architecture in Bel-
gium The Palais de Justice, completed in
1846, is also an imposing building with a Corin-
thian portico, and a bronze statue of Metdepen-
ningen in front The Institut des Sciences,
completed in 1890, is one of the largest public
buildings of Ghent and contains the lecture
rooms and laboratories of the university (see
GHENT, UNIVERSITY OF) Ghent has a number
of old guild houses and about 20 monasteries
Among the squares of the town the most note-
worthy is the Marehe" du Vendredi, which has
been the scene of the most important events in
the history of the city It has a bronze statue
of Jacob van Artevelde in the centre and a
huge cannon, known as the Dulle Griete, in the
northwest corner In the northeastern part of
the city is situated the nunnery of Grand
Be"gumage, founded in the thirteenth century
It is surrounded by walls and moats, and with
squares, church, and small houses, presents the
appearance of a town in miniature The old
castle, or Oudeburg, constructed in the tenth
century, was once the residence of the counts of
Flanders and after a century of service as a
factory has come into the possession of the city,
which has restored it to its former appearance
At the head of the educational institutions
of Ghent is the university, with xts four facul-
ties of philosophy, law, natural sciences, and
medicine It has an attendance of about 500
students in these four departments, its library
contains about 300,000 volumes, and there are
collections of coins and copper engravings The
laboratories of the university and the faculty of
natural sciences have been transferred to the
Institut des Sciences, opened in 1890 Besides
the university, Ghent has a Gymnasium con-
ducted by the Jesuits, a seminary, an academy
of painting, a conservatory of music, and several
schools for manual training There are also
two theatres, an art museum, botanical and
zoological gardens Q-ihent has decreased some-
what in industrial importance since the fif-
teenth century, when it was one of the chief
centres of the textile industries of Europe It
has still a considerable number of linen, woolen,
and cotton mills, cotton-printing works, lace
factories, tannenes, sugar refineries, cement
works, breweries, etc Among the chief prod-
ucts of Ghent are flowers, which aie exported
all over Europe Communication facilities are
excellent and commerce is still of considerable
magnitude, the exports consisting chiefly of man-
ufactured goods and agricultmal pioducts The
tonnage of vessels enteung the port was, in
1893, 478,233, in 1903, 772,631, in 1911, 1,022,-
309 Ghent is the seat of a court of appeal, a
commercial court, and a number of consular
representatives Pop, 1880, 131,431, 1900,
160,949, 1910, 164,650, 1912, 167,177
Ghent is mentioned in history as early as the
seventh century About the year 868 Baldwin
Bras-de-fer, the first Count of Flanders, built
a fortress here as a defense against the North-
men Under the counts of Flanders, Ghent con-
tinued to prosper and grow until in the four-
teenth century it was able to send 20,000 men
into the field The wealth of the citizens of
Ghent, and the unusual measure of liberty which
they enjoyed, encouraged them to le&ist with
arms any attempt to infunge upon their pe-
culiar rights and privileges This readiness to
arm in their own defense is exemplified in the
struggles in which Jacob and Philip van Arte-
velde (qqv) played a memorable part For
many years Ghent maintained a vigorous but
unavailing resistance against the dukes of Bur-
gundy, who sought to be recognized as counts
of Flanders In 1540 the city, having ventured
to defy the Emperor Charles V (a native of
the place), was terribly chastised In the vari-
ous wars in the Netherlands, Ghent suffered se-
verely For 20 years, from 1794, Ghent belonged
to France and was the capital of the Depart-
ment of the Scheldt The town was occupied by
the Germans after the fall of Antwerp in 1914
(see WAE IN EUROPE) Consult Gheldorf, Bis-
toire de la ville de Gand (Brussels, 1846) ,
Pirenne, BithograpMe de Vhis^re de Belgique
( Brussels, 1902 ) , for works on separate periods
and events, Fris, B^bUogra,pMe de Vkistoire de
&and yusqu'ti a fin du quinw&me sidcle (Ghent,
1907)
GHEKTT, TREATY OF A treaty between the
United States and Great Britain, whijch ended
the war between the two countries known as the
"War of 18 fe " The American negotiators were
John Qumcy Adams, James A Bayard, Henry
Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatm
Of these Bayard and Gallatm had been sent to
St Petersburg m 1813, to join Adams in
action upon Russia's offei of mediation, under
express instructions to secure a stipulation
against impressment Russia's good offices were f
declined by England, while the termination of
the Napoleonic wars so altered conditions that
the American commissioners were given less
stringent instructions both as to impressment
and as to the fisheries The British representa-
tives were Lord Gambier, Henry Goulburn, and
William Adams After prolonged negotiations
the treaty was signed by the respective com-
missioners on Dec 24, 1814, was ratified by
the United States Senate on FeJ> 17, 1815, and
was formally proclaimed by President Madi-
son on the following day Its main provisions
were (1) restoration of all territory, places,
and possessions taken by either party from the
G-HEBTT
728
GKHERABDI BELLA TESTA
other during the war, except certain islands,
(2) Art. IV provided for the appointment of a
commission to decide to which, of the two
powers, according to the boundaiy stated in
the Treaty of 1783, certain islands in and near
Passamaquoddy Bay belonged, and the commis-
sion failing to come to a decision, the subject
was to be referred to some friendly sovereign or
state, (3) Art V-VIII provided for commis-
sions to settle the line of boundary as described
in the Treaty of 1783 — the commission to settle
the line from the river St Croix to where the
forty-fifth parallel cuts the river St Lawrence
(called the Iroquois, or Cataraqua, in the
treaty) , another to determine the middle of the
water communications from that point to Lake
Superior, and a third to adjust the limits from
the water communications between Lakes Huron
and Superior to the most northwestern point of
the Lake of the Woods, and (4) Art IX bound
both parties to use their best endeavors to
abolish the slave trade, as being "irreconcilable
with the principles of humanity and justice "
The treaty failed, however, to speak of the im-
pressment of American seamen, the chief cause
of the war, or of the claims of the United
States to participate in the Newfoundland fish-
eries, recognized In the Treaty of 1783, or of
the question as to British and American naval
forces on the northern lakes, or the rights of
neutrals All these questions, especially that
as to the fisheries, became the subjects of much
subsequent negotiation * 'Perhaps at the mo-
ment the Americans \\ere the chief losers, but
they gained their greatest triumph in referring
all their disputes to be settled by time, the
final negotiator, whose decision they could safely
trust" In 1910 the "American Committee for
the Celebration of the One Hundredth Anniver-
sary of Peace Among English-Speaking Peoples"
was formed Theodore Eoosevelt was appointed
honorary chairman Similar committees were
appointed in England, Canada, Australia, and
the city of Ghent* Delegates from all these com-
mittees met in New York, May 5-9, 1913, and
decided to commemorate the century of peace
by erecting monuments and memorials, by es-
tablishing exchange professorships in British-
American history, and by rewriting the history
of the period impartially For a brief account
of the negotiations at Ghent, consult Henry
Adams, History of the United States, vol ix
(New York, 1891) For a bibliography of the
subject, consult Babcoek, The Rise of American
Nationality (ib , 1906)
GHENT, UNIVERSITY OF A Flemish univer-
sity, founded by King William I of Holland in
1816 It was housed in the town hall until
1820, when the old Jesuit college was remodeled
for its use At the time of the revolution of
1830 the university was seriously crippled by
the suppression of two of its four faculties, in
1835, however, these were restored Various
special schools have been, from time to time,
merged in the university, which now has facul-
ties of philosophy, science, law, and medicine.
In 1913 the students numbered 1253, including
272 foreigners As in Liege, the institution
is maintained by the state The libraries of
the city and university are combined in one
collection, containing over 350,000 volumes, es-
pecially rich in the history and literature of
the Netherlands; there are also many valuable
manuscnpts
GHENT, WILLIAM JAMES (1866- ). An
American writer on social topics, born at Frank-
fort, Ind He was for a time connected with
several trade papeis in New York and was
thereafter a contributor to the Independent and
other periodicals In 1899 he was hteraiy
campaign manager foi Samuel M ("Golden
Rule") Jones, of Toledo, and in 1911 he became
secretary to Victor L Berger (qv ) His pub-
lications include Our Benevolent Feudalism
(1902) , Mass and Class (1904) , Socialism and
Success (1910)
GHERAHDESCA, ga'rar-des'ka. An Italian
family of Tuscan origin, prominent in the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries Their large
territorial possessions lay between Pisa and
Piombino In the thirteenth century the counts
of Gherardesca exercised a preponderating au-
thority in the Republic of Pisa and were at first
pi eminent Ghibelhnes, and enemies of the Vis-
conti of Milan, who headed the Guelphs The
most celebrated of this family is Count Ugohno
della Gherardesca, whose name and fate have
been invested with undying interest by Dante
in the Inferno (Canto 32) Count Ugohno, ac-
cording to Ghibellme accounts, was possessed of
a lawless ambition and a subtle unscrupulous
spirit Allying himself with the Guelph forces
of Florence and Lucca, he compelled the Pisans
in 1276 to restore him his territories, of which
he had been deprived m 1274 No sooner was
he reinstated in his possessions than he began
to devise anew ambitious schemes The war of
the Pisans with the Genoese afforded him the
opportunity he desired In the battle of Meloria
(1284) Ugohno is said to have contrived the
defeat of the Pisans He was, however, named
captain general for 10 years On account of
his cruelty and vindictiveness a conspiracy was
formed against him, headed by his former sup-
porter, Ruggieri, the Archbishop of Pisa In
July, 1288, with two sons and two grandsons,
he was thrown into the tower of Gualandi (the
Tower of the Seven Streets), where they all
perished by starvation, their dungeon has since
borne the name of the Tower of Hunger Con-
sult Sismondi, History of the Italian Republics
(New York, 1870), and G del Noce, Ugohno
della Gherardesca (Rome, 1894)
GrHEEAUDI, ga-rar'de*, BAHOROFT (1832-
1903) An American naval officer He was
born in Jackson, La, served as midshipman in
the navy from 1846 to 1850, and entered the
Naval Academy m 1852 During the Civil War
he commanded successively the Chocorua and
the Poit Royal of the West Gulf Blockading
squadron and with the latter vessel pursued the
Confederate gunboats Morgan, Games, and
Selma, during the battle of Mobile Bay (Aug
5, 1864) After the war he attained the rank
of rear admiral in 1887, commanded the
Brooklyn Navy Yard (1887-89, 1893-94), and
in 1893-94 was commander m chief of the North
Atlantic squadron He was in charge of the
Columbian international naval parade and re-
view in New York harbor in 1893 and was vice
commander of the New York Military Order of
Foreign Wars He was retired from active
service m 1894
GHERABDI DELLA TESTA, ga-rar'dg
della tes'ta, COUNT TOMMASO (1818-81). An
Italian dramatic writer, born at Terricciola
(Province of Pisa) He studied at the Univer-
sity of Pisa and fought against Austria in 1848
He wrote poems, works of prose, fiction, and
more than 40 comedies, some of whiclir are
GKHEBKIN
729
GHIBEB.TI
political satires They were very successful,
for the dialogue is witty and at the same time
natural Among them are CogU uomim non si
soherza, 11 vero ~blasone, II sistema di Giorgio,
and 11 padighone delle mortelle His writings
weie published as Teatro Gomico (1856-66,
complete ed , 1872-83) He also wrote political
veise in Gmsti's manner Consult Rassegna
Navionale, vol in (Florence, 1882), and Martini
in Nuova Antologia, vol Ixvn (Rome, 1897)
GHERKIN" See CUCUMBER
GHETTO, get'to (of doubtful etymology, pos-
sibly from It l)or ghetto, little town, dim of
borgo, town) A Jewry Originally the name
"ghetto" was applied to the quarters set apart
for Jews in several cities of Italy and Bohemia,
but it is now popularly used of the part of any
city where Jews are numerous Both the name
and the thing originated in Rome, in the time
of Pope Paul IV, who first compelled the Jews
to dwell within an inclosure set apart for them
on the left bank of the Tiber, between Ponte
Sisto and Ponte San Bartolommeo, and forbade
their appearance outside of that quarter unless
the men wore a yellow hat and the women a
veil of the same color, to distinguish them from
Christians This ghetto was removed in 1885.
Other celebrated ghettos of renaissance Italy,
where Jews dwelt perforce, were those of Flor-
ence (dating from 1570) and of Padua (dating
from 1603) Many of the great cities of Europe
and America have each a ghetto, or perhaps
more than one, where only Jews dwell, or where
they predominate, though Jews now inhabit
these ghettos from choice and not by compul-
sion The ghetto has come frequently into
literature from Goethe}s Dichtimg nnd Wahrheit
to Zangwill's tales of London's Jewry and the
Jewish tales of a talented group of American
story-writers who picture life and character
in New York's ghetto Consult Philipson, Old
European Jewries (Philadelphia, 1894), Asch,
Bilder aus dem Ghetto (2d ed, Berlin, 1907),
Hapgood, Spirit of the Ghetto (Philadelphia.
1909)
GHI See GHEE
GHIBELLOTES, giT/el-lmz or -lenz. See
GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES
GHIBERTI, ge"-bar't£, LOKENZO (1378-1455)
A Florentine goldsmith, and one of the chief
sculptors of the early Eenaissance He was the
son of Cione di Ser Buonaccorso and Madonna
Fiore, a lady of distinguished Florentine fam-
ily"" His mother left his father soon after his
birth, but Lorenzo found a foster father in the
goldsmith Bartolo Ghiberti, with whom she
lived, and who married her after her first hus-
band's death He adopted the lad and taught
him his art, but Lorenzo was more drawn to
painting, which he studied, perhaps under Ghe-
rardo Starnini Fleeing from the pestilence in
1400, he went to Rimmi, where he decorated a
room of the palace of Carlo Malatesta He re-
turned to Florence, notwithstanding the induce-
ments offered by Malatesta, in response to a
letter from his stepfather, in 1401 The Mer-
chants' Guild had decided to adorn the baptistery
with two new bronze doors, and the signory
invited all the artists of Italy to compete.
Among the competitors of Ghiberti were Bru-
nei leschi, Jacopo della Quercia, and Niccold
d'Arrezzo The subject to be presented was a
bas-relief of the "Sacrifice of Isaac"
Ghiberti was much aided by the counsel of
his adopted father, who criticized his designs
and submitted them to competent citizens and
sti angers before the final one was cast The
judges weie unable to decide betwen Ghiberti
and Brunelleschi Both of the winning designs
are preserved in the Museo Nazionale, Florence,
and Ghiberti's certainly appears superior in
both composition and line Recognizing this,
Brunelleschi generously withdrew, and on Nov
14, 1403, the commission was awarded to his
rival
The doors were not completed ,and set up until
April 14, 1424 Ghiberti made use of a number
of assistants, among whom we find Donatello
and Michelozzo, and was much aided by his
stepfather. Twenty of the panels represent
scenes fiom the "Life of Christ," four are de-
voted to the "Fathers of the Church," and four
to the "Evangelists " These representations ful-
fill the highest demands of relief and, considered
as reliefs, stand higher than those of the more
celebiated east poital Among the best of the
panels are the "Annunciation," the "Raising of
Lazarus," the "Kiss of Judas," the "Birth of
Christ," the "Purification of the Temple," and
the "Youthful Christ Teaching" The figures
of the "Evangelists" and of the "Fathers of the
Church" are dignified and admirably draped,
especially St Matthew All of the reliefs show
reminiscences of the Gothic, especially in the
fEirments, but the ornamentation is antique
he corners of the panels are decorated with
heads of prophets and sibyls
The north portals gave such satisfaction that,
on Jan 2, 1424, Ghiberti received an order for
the east gate — the famous "Paradise Portals "
The subjects foi these were selected from the
Old Testament by Leonardo Bruni, the Chan-
cellor of the Republic, but the designs were by
Ghiberti himself The technical skill displayed
in handling relief is most remarkable, the com-
position is faultless, and sometimes four differ-
ent subjects are handled in the same fashion
and yet without conflict In some panels there
are as many as 100 figures, with architectural
and landscape backgrounds.
Among the finest reliefs are the first, repre-
senting in one panel the "Creation of Adam,"
the "Creation of Eve," the "Fall of Man," and
the "Expulsion from Paradise " In these the
groups of angels accompanying the Creator are
especially beautiful Another fine panel is
"Moses upon Sinai," in which we see the ex-
pectant, terrified throng of the Israelites below,
among whom is the famous group of a "Mothei
and her Children" Equally beautiful are the
24 statuettes of prophets and other scriptural
personages, by which the panels on each portal
are surrounded Theie are also heads of proph-
ets and sibyls at the angles of each relief, among
which are two especially interesting ones, rep-
resenting Ghiberti and his stepfather The door
frame is carved with tasteful Renaissance orna-
mentation of foliage and animals
While executing these two great works, Ghi-
berti found time for others Among these were
two fine bronze reliefs for the font of the bap-
tistery of Siena (1417-27), representing epi-
sodes from the "Life of John the Baptist" Be-
tween 1432 and 1440 he also designed the bronze
shrine of St Zenobius, in the cathedral of
Florence, the front of which contains a beau-
tiful relief of the "Saint Restoring a Dead
Child to Life," and the back six angels m re-
lief He also designed a grave slab for Leonardo
Dati, who died in 1423, in Santa Maria Novella,
GHIBEBTI
730
GHIKA
and two others in Santa Croce, all of which are
much defaced by treading
Ghiberti's chief strength, however, was in
relief woik on a small scale Accordingly we
find in him the most celebrated goldsmith of
his day None of his works as a goldsmith sur-
vives, but in his second Commentary he himself
mentions the principal examples In 1419 he
made for Pope Mai tin V a mitre, covered^with
leaves of gold, among which were many different
figures, and a cope button, adorned with a figure
of Chust He made another mitre in 1439 for
Pope Eugemus IV, containing precious stones
worth 38,000 ducats and surmounted by figures
of Christ and the Virgin with angels He also
set an antique intaglio, belonging to Giovanni
de' Medici, between the wings of a golden dragon
crouching in a bed of ivy leaves
In statuary Ghiberti was less successful He
executed but three statues in bronze, all of
which adorned the facade of Or San Michele
"John the Baptist" (1414) is the earliest ex-
ample, quite in the style of the first portal,
"St Matthew" (1420-22), cast with the aid of
Michelozzo, looks like a Roman orator, * St
Stephen33 (1428) is the finest of all, simple in
treatment and graceful in line
Ghiberti also figured as an architect He is
mentioned in the record of 1520 as an associate!
of Brunelleseln in building the cupola of the
cathedral at Florence, but if we may believe
Vasan, he solicited this position and peipetually
annoyed his colleague by his endeavors to steal
his plans Brunelleseln feigned illness, and Ghi-
bertfs incompetency became appaient Whether
or not this story be true, Ghiberti's Treatise on
Architecture, which survives in manuscript
form, certainly shows incompetency As a de-
signer for glass painting, he had greater suc-
cess Some of the finest glasses in the cathedral
in. Florence were carried out after his designs
by Bernardo di Prancesco, including those of
the chapel of St Zenohius, the middle window
of the facade, and one in the drum of the cupola.
As a citizen of influence, Ghiberti was selected
chief magistrate of Florence and presented by
the signory Tilth a faim near Settino, in recog-
nition of his services as an aitist He died
Dec 1, 1455, and was buried in Santa Croce
His son and pupil, VITTORIO, was a sculptor
and goldsmith of note, who assisted his father
in the second door In 1454 he made a design
for the tapestry of the tribuna of the Palazzo
della Signoria and in 1478 a bronze reliquary
for the cathedral Among Ghiberti's other
pupils and assistants were Michelozzo, Lam-
berti, and Antonio Pollajuola
Bibliography. Ghiberti himself wrote a work,
the Oommentaru, or commentaries on the art
of Florence, in which he did ample justice to
himself It is preserved in manuscript form m
the Bibhoteca Magliabeechiana, Florence, and is
best edited by Frey, Sammlung ausgewahlter
Biographien Vasans (Berlin, 1886), and by
Schlosser (ib , 1912) The other chief source
for his life is the biography in Vasari, Lives of
the Painters (10 vols , New York, 1912) There
is no satisfactory modern biography of Ghiberti
Consult, however Perkins, Tuscan Sculptures)
vol i ("London, 1867) *, Scott, Qhiberti and
Donatella (ib, 1882), Rosenberg, "Lorenzo Ghi-
berti," in Dohme, Kunst und Kunstler Italiens,
vol i (Leipzig, 1878), Perkins, G-hioerti et son
ecole (Paris, 1897) , Raymond, La sculpture
florentme (Florence, 1898-99) , Freeman, Ital-
ian Sculpture of the Renaissance (London,
1901 ) , Venturi, Stoma dell3 ai te itahana, vol
vi (Rome, 1908)
G-HXKA, ge'ka A princely family which ga\ e
a number of hospodais to Moldavia and Wai-
lachia The founder of the house was Geozge
Gluka (1600-64), an Albanian by birth, who
through the favor of his compatriot, the Grand
Vizier Mohammed Kmprili Aga, was raised to
the dignity of Hospodar of Moldavia in 1658,,
and for a brief peiiod (1660) was also Ho&po-
dar of Wallachia His son, Giegory Ghika,
ruled in Wallachia from 1660 to 1664 and from
1672 to 1674 and leceived from the Empeioi
Leopold I the title of Prince of the Holy Roman
Empire Of subsequent membeis oi the family
those calling for special notice are Alexander,
Gregory, and Jon, though the family as a whole
has been active in Rumanian affairs and always
associated with the Liberal and Nationalist
party
ALEXANDER GHIKA X (1795-1862) became
Hospodar of Wallachia in 1834 He founded
schools for pumary instruction in eveiy village,
lightened the buidens of the peasantry, began
the enfianchisement of the gypsies, and assisted
in the organization of a national party known
as Young Rumania Russia, took alaim and
gradually, under her influence, a twofold oppo-
sition was excited against him, on the pait both
of the extreme Liberals and of the old boyars or
landed propnetors, who formed the Conserva-
tive party and were his personal enemies After
many intrigues he was removed from his office
in 1842 He died in 1862 Consult Bibesco,
De la situation de la Valachie t>ous V adminis-
tration d'Alescandre G-hiLa (Brussels, 1842)
GREGORY GHIKA (1807-57) was one of the
chiefs of the Liberal opposition in Moldavia
under the Hospodar Michael Sturdza ( 1834-49 ) ,
whose selfish policy was subservient to the de-
signs of Russia In 1849 the Sultan appointed
him Hospodar of Moldavia Hampered duung
a part of his tenure by the Russian occupation,
he was able to accomplish much when f i eed from
this impediment He organized a good police
system, augmented the effective force of the
militia, founded schools for superior and second-
ary instruction at Galatz, Hush, and elsewhere,
promulgated an administiative code — the first
great step towards the reform of abuses — in-
creased municipal resources, and at his own
expense built aqueducts and printed important
historical manuscripts He brought abouf a
radical reform of the penitentiary system, the
abolition of serfdom (1855) and of the censor-
ship of the press (1856), and the establishment
of foreign merchant companies for the naviga-
tion of the Pruth and the Sereth (1856) He
encouraged the growth of a spirit of unity
among the peoples of Moldavia and Wallachia
In 1856 Gregory was superseded in his office and
went to reside in France He committed sui-
cide, Aug 26, 1857, at Meudon He left three
sons, the youngest of whom was Rumanian
Minister to Constantinople and died in Paris in
1902
JON GHIKA (1817-97), a nephew of Alexander
X, was born at Bucharest and after studying
at Pans (1837-42) became, in the latter year,
professor ot mathematics and political economy
at the University of Jassy Having become a
member of the national party which opposed
the establishment of Russian domination in
Wallaehia, he was one of the leaders of the
GHIBERTI
BRONZE DOORS OF THE BAPTISTERY, FLORENCE
GHIKA
731
GHXKLAETDAIO
revolution of June, 1848, which resulted in the
overthrow of the Hospodai, George Bibesco He
was sent by the short-lived provisional govern-
ment as diplomatic lepiesentative to Constan-
tinople, wheie his exceptional abilities gained
him the favor of the Sultan, who in 1856 made
him Pimce of Samos He returned to Wallachia
in 1857, served in the Ministerial Council under
Prince Alexander John Cuza, and was twice
Premier under his successor, Prince Charles of
Hohenzollern (1866-67 and 1870-71) From
1876 to 1881 he was Vice President of the
Senate From 1881 to 1889 he was Ambassador
at London He died at Bucharest, May 4, 1897
Consult Dora d* Istria, GJi Albanesi in Rumema
storia dei pnncipi Ghika, nei secoh XVII- XIX
(Florence, 1873)
GHIKA, HELENA See DORA D' ISTRIA.
GHILA3ST, or GILAN, ge-lan' A border
province of Peisia, occupying a narrow strip of
land between the north slope of the Elburz
Mountains and the Caspian Sea (Map Persia,
C 4). Its area is estimated at 5000 square
miles The coast land is swampy and over-
grown with thick forests winch wild and fero-
cious animals inhabit, while the, southern part
partakes of the character of the Elburz region
The climate is moist and unhealthful The
well-watered and fertile coast land produces
rice, cotton, tea, tobacco, peaches, figs, and other
southern fruits In the more elevated regions
grain is grown and cattle are reared Silk and
oil of loses are produced extensively The popu-
lation, estimated at 200,000, is made up of the
aboriginal Iranians, with Kuidish and Turkish
immigiants They speak either a Persian dia-
lect, termed Gileki, or Tat, which is a pure
Iranian tongue In religion they are mostly
Mohammedans and belong to the Shnte sect
The principal town is Resht (qv )
GHILZAIS, gel-zVez A tribe of Pathan
stock in eastern Afghanistan (qv), Aiyan by
language Consult Ratzel, The History of Man-
kind (3 vols , London, 1898)
GHIULANDAIO, ger'lan-da'yS A family of
Florentine painters Their real family name
was Bigordi, and the name Ghirlandaio or
GiiHandaio (garland maker) was first given
to TOMMASO BIGORDI, a goldsmith, because of
his skill in fashioning silver wreaths used in
ladies' headdresses His son DOMENICO (1449-
94 ) , the chief member of the family, was born
in Florence and brought up in his father's trade
He studied painting and mosaic under Alesso
Baldovinetti and was also influenced by Castagno
and Verrocchio ( q v ) . The earliest record of
his activity is in 1475, when we find him em-
ployed in the Vatican library at Rome The
works executed there have been lost His fresco
"Call of Saints Peter and Andrew," in the Sis-
tine Chapel, was painted in 1481-82 It is,
perhaps, the best of the fifteenth-century paint-
ings of the Sistine Chapel, being excellent in
composition, with good landscape and perspec-
tive, the color is unattractive His frescoes in
the Capella Fina, in the Collegiate Church of
San Gimignano, treating the "Life of St Fina,"
were completed, for the most part, before 1475
They are especially remarkable for the modesty
and grace of the female iigures. The frescoes
in Ognisanti, Florence, finished m 1480, show
the painter fully developed Of these only two
paintings survive, the "£ast Suppeu" and "St
Jerome " The former is probably the ,best rep-
resentation of the subject painted in the fij-
VOL IX— 47
teenth century and far excels his later fresco
of the same subject in San Marco His "St
Jerome" is a companion piece to Botticelli's "St
Augustine" Fiom 1481 to 1485 Domemco was
occupied 111 the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, which
in point of historic decoration was long the
iival of the Sistine Chapel at Rome Of all its
frescoes only Ghirlandaio's suivive, and of
these the decorations of the chapel have been
spoiled by restoration His "St Zenobms En-
tlnoned" in the Sala dell' Orologio is a grand
architectural composition
On Dec 15, 1485, he completed his master-
piece, the frescoes of the Sassetti Chapel in
Santa Trmita, Florence The figures of the
donor and his family on either side of the altar
are comparable in the dignity of their realism
with those of the Ghent altar by the Van Eycks
(qv ) The frescoes repiesent scenes from the
life of St Francis and show the decided influence
of the same subject bv Giotto in Santa Croce
The heads aie nearly all portraits, and the
scenes are set amid \iews of Florence This
work is better in coloi and in technique than any
other of his productions Then followed the fres-
coes m the Tornabuoni Chapel, Santa Maria
Novella, finished in 1490, which, though lack-
ing in decorative qualities and crowded in com-
position, are his most celebiated works Here,
too, are figures of the donors, in lunette above
is God the Father surrounded by the patron
saints of Florence Below them arc the "An-
nunciation" and the "Baptist" on either side,
typifying the subjects of the frescoes repre-
sented, i e , the "Legend of the Virgin" and
the "Life of John the Baptist " On the vaulted
roof are frescoes representing the "Four Evan-
gelists " The frescoes contain an almost in-
credible number of portraits in the fashionable
contemporary costume of the day 21 of the
Tornabuoni and Tornaquinci families, the
donors, and among other celebrities of the day,
Pohziano, Marsilio Ficino, and the fair Ginevra
Benci
Domemco's easel pictures are not of equal
importance, his art was more adapted to monu-
mental fresco Among his chief easel pictures,
all of which are painted in tempera, are the
altarpiece of the Sassetti Chapel (1485), now in
the Uffizi, "Coronation of the Virgin" (I486),
in the Palazzo Pubhco, Narm, the circular
"Adoration of the Kings" (1487), m the Uffizi,
and the altarpiece of Santa Maria degh In-
nocenti representing the same subject The
latter is one of his best works A dignified
work is the "Virgin Enthroned," now in the
Uffizi The altarpiece of Santa Maria Novella
(1490) is divided between Berlin and Munich,
and his last easel picture, "The Visitation"
(1491), completed by David GhirlancUup and
Mainardi, is in the Louyre Mention , should
also be made of his portrait heads, of which
the best known are those of an "Old Man, and
Boy," in the Louvre, Giovanni Bicci de Medici,
in the Uffizi, Giovanna Tornabuoni, in the Mor-
gan collection, New York, and several figures
01 popes
Domemco passed practically all his* life in
Florence, where he died Jan. 11, 1494. He was
the painter par excellence of Florentine life
His paintings are, in fact, genre m the guise of
religion. His art represents the highest techni-
cal development of realism in the century He
united in himself in a remarkable manner all
the tendencies of Florentine art, ancient and
732
GHOSTS
modern, Masaccio, even Giotto, having influenced
him From the purely technical side he was
one of the greatest painters that Floience ever
pioduced Although somewhat lacking in orig-
inality, he excelled in composition, was a fine
draftsman, and, for Florence, an excellent color-
ist, but he lacked the one thing essential to a
painter of the highest rank, viz, genius
DAVIDE (1452-1525) and BENEDETTO GHIR-
LANDAIO (1458-97), brothers and pupils of Do-
memco, assisted their brother, but painted no
independent works that survive The mosaic
of the "Annunciation" over the first north portal
of the cathedral of Florence is the work of Do-
menico and Davide Among Domenieo's other
pupils were his brother-in-law Bastiano Mai-
nardi, Francesco Granacci (qv ), and, for a
brief time, Michelangelo.
RIDOLFO (1483-1561), sou of Domemco, was
11 years old when his father died, but received
his artistic education m his father's studio,
which was conducted by Granacei and Davide
Ghirlandaio He assisted the former in some
of his works, but about 1503 he came wholly
under the influence of Leonardo da Vinci (qv )
and painted a number of excellent works, which
are hardly to be distinguished from Leonardo's
In fact, paintings formerly attributed to the
latter, like the "Annunciation" in the Uffizi,
the "Goldsmith" in the Pitti Palace, and the
portrait of an "Old Man," in Palazzo Torregiam
(Florence), are by Ridolfo His best woiks of
this character are the "Coronation of the Vir-
gin3' (1503), in the Louvre, and the altarpiece
of San Jacopo in Ripoli (1505), and the "Be-
trothal of St Catharine " Somewhat later he
came under the influence of Raphael, as may be
seen in his excellent portrait of an "Old Woman"
(1509) in the Pitti Palace He is reputed by
Vasari to have assisted Raphael in the draper-
ies of the "Belle Jardiniere," but to have re-
fused an invitation by him to settle at Rome
His most ambitious works are the "Coronation
of the Virgin," the altarpiece of the cathedral
of Prato, the "Virgin Adored by Saints," altar-
piece of San Pietro Maggiore, Pistoia, and two
scenes from the ' Life of St Zenobms," in the
Uffizi. In later life his profession degenerated
into a trade , he employed a large number of as-
sistants, and his work became mannered and stiff
Bibliography. The chief sources are Vasai i,
Lives of the Painters (10 vols , New York,
1912); Crowe and Cavaleaselle, History of
Painting m, Italy (London, 1903) , Egger, Godeos
jBscurw£ensi$, ein- Skiztsenbuch aus der Werkstatt
Domemco Ghirlandajos (Vienna, 1906) The
principal monographs are by Stemmann (Biele-
feld, 1897); Hauvette (Pans, 1908), Davies
(London, 1908) Consult also Layard, Domen-
ico Ghwlandajo and his Fresco of the Death of
St. Francis (ib,, 1860)
GHISLAI3ST, ges'laN'. See MERODE, FRANgoiS
XAVTJEE
GHISLAIN", Louis ALBERT See BACLER
D'ALBE
GHISIiANZONT, gSs'Ian-zo'ne, ANTONIO
(1824-93) An Italian singer and author, born
at Lecco. He was a singer in the Milan theatre,
and when he lost his voice became a journalist,
founded the satirical paper l/'Uomo di Pietra
(1857), and was editor of the G-azzetta Mu&i-
cale He wrote a number of excellent opera
librettos, among them that of Verdi's Aida, and
several novels, including G-U artisU da teatro
(1865) and Le donne brutte (1870).
GHIZEH, or GIZEH, ge'ze An Egyptian
village on the left bank of the Nile opposite
the island of Roda and about 3 miles from
Cairo Although now fallen into decay, it is
said to have once contained magnificent palaces
which in latei times the Mameluke pimces used
as a summer residence, and it was a place of
some importance in the Middle Ages Near
Ghizeh is the \iceiegal palace, originally built
for a harem, which in 1889 became the reposi-
tory of the great collection of Egyptian antiqui-
ties removed in that year from Bulak The
collection has recently been transferred to Cairo
The great pyramids (qv ) he about 5 miles
west of Ghizeh For the work of the British
School of Archaeology at Ghizeh, consult Flinders
Petrie, (Hseh and Rifeh (London, 1907)
G-HIZWI, giz7ne See GHAZNI
GHO'GRA See GOGKA
GHOE/y gor See EL-GHOE
GHORKAB, g6r'kar (Pers gorkhar, wild
ass) The name in western India and Beluchis-
tan for the local variety of the Asiatic wild
ass, which differs from the kiang in being some-
what paler, less reddish in color, and having
a bioader dorsal stupe See KIANG
GHOST DANCE. See WOVOKA
GHOST MOTH A moth (Eepialus humuh)
very common in many parts of Great Britain,
and of which the caterpillar, known as the
Cotter," often commits great lavages in hop
plantations, devouring the roots of the hop It
feeds also on the roots of the nettle, buidock,
and some other plants This moth belongs to
a family (Hepiahdse) often called swifts from
their rapid flight The male ghost moth is en-
tirely of a satiny-white color above, the female
yellowish with darkei markings, both sexes are
brown on the underside They are to be seen
flying about in the twilight, not unfrequently in
churchyards, from which circumstance, and from
the white color of the males and their sudden
disappearance in the imperfect light, they de-
rive their name The caterpillar, which is some-
times 2 inches long, is yellowish white, with
scattered hans. It spins a large cylindrical
cocoon among the roots on which it has been
feeding and theie becomes a chrysalis The
family is represented in North America by spe-
cies harmful to the alder and other trees
GHOSTS (AS gast, OHG geist, Ger G-eist;
ultimately connected with Olr goet, wound, Skt
hedas, wrath) The spirits of the dead as mani-
fested to the living The belief in ghosts is
one of the earliest of all religious phenomena
and forms the foundation of many concepts and
practices in cults from the most primitive faiths
to the most highly spiritual It is found in
one form or another at all ages and among all
peoples To such an extent does belief in ghosts
prevail that one school of comparative religion
(see RELIGION, COMPARATIVE), of whom Her-
bert Spencer and Julius Lippert are the chief
representatives, has sought to find the origin
of all religion in ghost cults This view must
be regarded, however, as an erroneous, because
one-sided, theory, but the importance of ghost
worship as a religious factor cannot be denied,
and it is certainly one of the main sources of
religious belief Its chief development is found
in the widespread existence of ancestor worship,
as will be explained It is also the foundation
of all eschatology ( q v ) , or belief in future
life The notion of survival of a certain mys-
terious part of man, which may be called con-
i;'' : •
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X
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I
o
ai
I
h
z
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o
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733
GHOSTS
veniently the soul, is found at a very early stage
in religious development Whether this belief
is, and always has been, univeisal is a problem
which may be insoluble While many observers
deny the existence of ghost belie! <as well as of
all religious concepts among ceitam extremely
primitive peoples, as the Andaman islanders, a
prudent skepticism lenders one distrustful of
their conclusions, for it may be stated as a
general fact that religious beliefs aie particu-
larly liable to concealment and to misinterpre-
tation This reticence may be due either to
lack of method or to misunderstanding on the
part of the investigator, 01 to a fear enter-
tained by the individual questioned lest the
knowledge gained from him may be used to
his hurt
The ghost concept in its most primitive form
seems to be developed as follows The phenome-
non of dreams is one of the starting points
According to the reasoning of the primitive
mind, the self, while the body is unconscious
and inert, wanders to places familiar or even
unknown, experiences pleasure and pain, con-
verses with friends perhaps dead, and performs
other actions which have no connection with the
body It is therefore a dangerous thing, in the
belief of many savage tribes, to wake a sleeper
suddenly, lest his soul may not return in time.
Among some peoples the soul is even supposed
to assume a visible shape, as that of a mouse,
which comes from the sleeper's mouth From
sleep and dreams the savage proceeds by anal-
ogy to death To him the distinction between
slumber and death is one of degree rather than
of kind, and it is well known how universal is
the belief that sleep and death are near akin
As m slumber the soul left the body for a time,
but returned to it, so in the long sleep, as the
primitive mind regards it, of death, the soul is
supposed to remain near the body This belief,
eg, is found even in such developed faiths as
Parsiism and Mohammedanism, while other re-
ligions, as the ancient Egyptian, teach separate
phases of the soul, one of which, like the Egyp-
tian ka> remains near the corpse As it is ob-
viously impossible to keep a corpse from dis-
solution, and as the progress of decay renders
the body more and more uninhabitable for the
spirit which has left it, the soul, or the ghost
as it may now be called, becomes a source of
much anxiety to the kinsmen and other friends
of the dead It must be borne in mind as has
been stated in the article on demonology ( q v ) ,
that in primitive religion the element of terror
is one of the most important factors and at first
exercises a far greater influence than hope The
ghost is, then, more terrible than was the man.
whose body it had animated. It is no longer
limited by bodily restrictions, it can traverse
space with infinite speed, and may be invisible
Fortunately, and somewhat curiously, the ghost,
like demons generally, is rather stupid and is
also bound by certain limitations Upon such
an apparently flimsy foundation, which is, how-
ever, logical to the primitive man, are built a
complicated system of mortuary customs (qv.)
and the concept of immortality The ghost,
which, as has been said, delights to hover around
its earthly home, is not a cheerful companion
to the living and must therefore be kept away
This is accomplished by various methods, as by
building a new hut for the survivors, or, more
easily, by carrying the corpse out by a hole
broken in the side of the duelling, which is sub-
sequently walled up The ghost is then unable
to find its way back, and the house is safe fiom
its invasion. The superstition here noted still
survives The so-called haunted houses and
haunted rooms are cases m point and it is im-
portant to note that it is the malignant ghosts,
chiefly those who have been involved in murdci
or other evil acts, which especially linger around
the scene of their earthly activities Ihe benefi-
cent ghost plays but a small pait as compared
with the maleficent one To aveit the influence
of maleficent ghosts, who have already been con-
sidered under the title "demonology" (qv),
various forms of sacrifice and magic are *?m
ployed These ceremonies have as their piimary
object the satisfaction of the ghost's wants
These needs are conceived as being piactically
the same as they are on eaith Thus, the bow
and arrows are laid with the warrior, a woman's
jewelry is buried with her, and a child's toys
rest beside its body Tt was also common in
many places, notably in Dahomey and Polynesia,
to sacrifice slaves to attend their master in the
spirit world, while among the ancient G-eimans
liorsos and even wives (as in the Indian suttee)
were often slain at the funeral pyie It is also
probable that to the wish to appease ghosts
many of the elaborate mourning customs of
primitive peoples may be traced Under this
category come such acts as shaving the hair,
cutting the flesh, fasting, neglect of the toilet,
use of unbecoming clothing, and the like It is,
of course, true that at a comparatively early
time the development of civilization rendered
mourning for the dead an act of affection and
not of fear, but it is hard to believe that the
savage who put to death the aged members of
hi&> tribe was moved by any high ideals in the
beginning of mortuary customs In line with
mourning are the offerings of food, drink, cloth-
ing, and, as in China, of money to the deceased
Thus is evolved one of the most widely spread
of all cults — ancestor worship Gradually be-
side the malignant ghost the benignant one ap-
pears, and by a process quite as natural The
interest which the father during his lifetime
feels in his family is logically continued after
his death, when the social life becomes more
stable It is also proper that his sons should
be the ministers of this cult, and this explains
the imperative necessity felt among many peo-
ples for sons If a man dies sonless, his ghost
will lack care, and the ancestor cult therefore
exercises a far-reaching influence on early family
life As already noted, however, this worship
has its limitations Even among civilized races,
except in the comparatively rare instances where
genealogical tables are constructed, men seldom
know the names of their ancestors further back
than the fourth generation Translating this
into terms of primitive life implies that the
ghosts of remote ancestors perish, or become
absorbed into a vague spirit world This leads
to the conclusion that all men do not necessarily
become ghosts, or at least have but an evanescent
ghosthood It may be stated as generally true
that only those men survive after deatfy. as
ghosts who have been so remarkable for some
reason or other as to command special attention
while living This is clearly shown by the
development of the immortality concept in
Judaism (See BSOHATOLO^T.) .Not in ances-
tor worship alone does tKe ghotffc play an im-
portant part Many phenomena in nature wor-
ship (qv ) and in the various aspects of totem
GHOSTS
734
aiACOMOTTI
ism (qv), including tree wor&lup and serpent
worship, are explicable only by the ghost cult
On the other hand, ghost woiship is deeply
influenced by magic (qv ), especially in the evo-
lution of the concept of the benignant ghost, to
which allusion has already been made Magic
is, in its simplest teims, a means of control
over supernatmal powers As the belief m
magic increases, and as by implication its power
increases, the ghost becomes less and less an
object of fear, and in the same degree becomes
more and more a beneficent spirit, until it is
evolved in many instances into a guardian angel
or some like concept In this \vay the ghost idea,
may be tiaced from the primitive belief in life
after the death sleep, the care foi such life and
the avoidance of its ill will, the superhuman
and generally malignant nature of that life, and
its evanescence in the lapse of years, down to
the benignant ghost, controlled at first bv magic,
which often acts as a guardian spirit, while the
immortality concept, at first individual and tem-
porary, finally becomes universal and eternal
Consult: Spencer, Principles of Sociology (3d
ed, 2 vols,, London, 1885) , Campbell, Notes on
the S$mt Basis of Belief and Custom ( Bombay,
1885) , Jastrow, The Study of Religion (New
York, 1902) , O'Donnell, G-liosily Phenomena
(London, 1910) , See also DEMONOLOGY, ESCIIA-
TOLOGY, MAGIC, MORTUARY CUSTOMS, RELI-
GION, COMPARATIVE, SUPERSTITION, TOTEMISM,
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
GHOSTS One of the most thrilling and
powerful of Ibsen's dramas (1881) It shows
the consequences of inherited evil, the ghosts
that return, and gives a gloomy pictuie of the
mevitableness of fate Oswald Alvmg, son of a
vicious father, whose past had been concealed,
lapses into idiocy at the end, after entreating
his mother to poison him when the foreseen
doom shall have overtaken him*
GHURI, goo'r& A Mohammedan dynasty
which received its name from Ghur, a rugged
district of Afghanistan Ten monaichs are in-
cluded in this line, and their power lasted from
about 1148 to about 1215 AD In 1148 ALA
UD-Dift- HUSAIN and his brothers, SAEF UD-DiN
SUEI and BAHA XJD-DIN SAM, attacked and cap-
tured GhazBi (see GHAZNIVIDES ) , which was
placed under Saif ud-Dm This prince was de-
feated by Bahrain, Shah of Ghazni, in the follow-
ing year and was hanged He was succeeded by
Baha ud-Dm as ruler of Ghur, who died within
the year, and was followed m turn by Ala ud-Dm,
the "World-burner," who again captured Ghazni
in 1155 His path was marked by slaughter
and destruction, the only thing he was said
to have spared in the city being the tomb of
Mahmud, the idol of Moslem soldiers He died
in 1161 and was succeeded by his son, SAIF
UD-DiN MOHAHHED, who was followed two years
later by his cousin, GHIYAS UD-DiN In 1173
the most famous prince of the line, MOHAMMED
G:auBr, who was to be the conqueror of northern
India, captured Ghazni, which had been lost,
and began his career as a warrior He took
Lahore from Khusru Shah, the last of the
Ghaznivides, in 1179, and captured it again
seven years later Mohammed's early attempts
to conquer India were not successful, and he
was severely defeated by the Rajah of Delhi and
Ajmere, at JSTarain, between Delhi and Ambala,
in 1191. In the following year the tables were
turned, the Rajah was defeated and captured
near the scene of his previous victory and put
to death In 1193 Delhi was captured, and
the Hist, or Turkish, dynasty of Delhi Sultans
was founded there by MOHAMMED GHTJKI The
Sultan continued his conquests, defeating the
Mahaiajah of Kanoui in 1194, thus extending
his dominion beyond Benares Within 10 years
his slave, Qutb ud-Din, had reduced Gujarat
and Mohammed Bakhtyai had subdued Oudh,
Behai, and Bengal In 1206 Mohammed Ghuri,
who kept his court at Ghazni in Afghanistan,
was assassinated while asleep in his tent on
the banks of the Indus and was succeeded by
his nephew, GHIYAS -ao-Dm MAHMTJD As so
often happened at the death of an Oriental
conqueror, the Empire was broken up, and the
dead Emperor's slave, QUTB UD-DiN, was crowned
Emperor of Delhi at Lahore and began a career
of conquest, extending his sway to the Biahma-
putra River The leigns of the Ghun dynasty
after Mohammed, comprising GHIYAS UD-DiN
MAHMTJD (-1206-10), BAHA TJD-DIN SAN (1210),
ALA TTD-DIN UTSUZ (IZIO-I5), and ALA UD-DiN
MOHAMMED (1215), are entirely without in-
terest Consult Lane-Poole, Mediceval India
wider Mohammedan Rule (London, 1903)
GHYCZY, gi'tsi, KALMAN (1808-88) An
Hungaiian statesman, bom at Koxnorn He
was elected to the Diet in 1843 and in 1848 ap-
pointed Undei secretary of State to De2.k in the
Ministry of Justice, succeeding him as Minister
in September of that year In 1861 he was
elected a deputy and became President of the
House In 1865 with Tisza he formed the
Left Centre party He opposed the compromise
of 1867 with Austria, but in 1874 accepted the
appointment of Minister of Finance in the
Bitt6 ministry He was again chosen Piesident
of the House of Deputies m 1875, but retired
from public life in 1879
(HACOMELLI, zha/kd'meFle, HECTOR ( 1822-
1904) A French illustrator, engraver, painter
of birds and insects, and collector He was
born in Pans of Italian parentage He was a
draftsman of exceptional talent, and his draw-
ings and water colors (gouaches) of birds, in-
sects, and flowers, which were his specialty,
have rarely been equaled in delicacy of execu-
tion and poetic charm Among the most cele-
brated of these are his illustrations for
Michelet's L3Oise<m (1867) and L'Insecte
(1876), for Theunet's Sous lois (1883) and
Nos oiseau® (1887), besides several original
suites for magazines, and his series of initials
and marginal drawings, in particular for the
Dor£ Bible He published in 1862 Buffet, son
ceuvre hthographique et ses eaux-fortes Gia-
comelh possessed one of the finest existent col-
lections of nineteenth-century prints
GIACOMETTI, )a'k6-met'te, PAOLO (1816-
82) An Italian dramatist, born at Novi
Ligure He studied law in Genoa, after the
success of his play Rosilda became a playwright
and wrote more than 80 works of varying seri-
ousness and literary value For several years
he was author to a strolling troupe of players,
under contract to supply yearly a fixed number
of plays His most important drama is the
tragedy Sofocle (1860) The larger number of
them, all rapidly written,, are built around a
moral or political theme Mistori, Rossi, and
Salvmi made many of them great successes.
His Works were published in Milan (8 vols,
1859-66)
GIACOMOTTI, zM'k6'mo'te', FJ&LIX HENBI
(1828-1909) A French historical and portrait
GIAFAE
735
painter, born at Qumgey (Doubs) He studied
at the Eeole des Beaux-Arts and under Picot
In 1854 he won the Prix de Rome Besides
religious and principally mythological subjects,
both of which he treats with equal finish and
grace — the latter often with a touch of sensu-
ality— he also painted excellent portraits His
principal works include "The Rape of Amy-
mone" (1865, until recently in the Luxembourg
Museum) , "Agrippina Leaving the Roman
Camp" (1864, Lille Museum), "Christ Blessing
the Children" and "Christ m the Temple" (both
in Samt-Etienne du Mont, Paris) , "Apotheosis
of Rubens and of Painting" (1878, ceiling piece
in the Luxembourg) , "Centaur and Nymph",
decorative painting in the chapel of St Joseph,
Notre Dame des Champs, Paris, portraits of
Edmond About and the Princess Montholon
(Rouen Museum)
G-IAFAB;, ja'far The companion of Harun-
al-Rashid, the Caliph of Bagdad, in the Arabian
Nights
GIA3STIBELLI, ja'ne-bel'le-, or GIAMBELLI,
FEDEKIGO (c!530~?) A famous military engi-
neer He was born at Mantua and, after serv-
ing for some time in Italy, proceeded to Spain
and offered his services to Philip II, but abruptly
quitted Madrid, and after residing some time at
Antwerp, where he acquired a high reputation
as a mechanician, passed over to England and
entered the service of Queen Elizabeth, who
granted him a pension During the War of In-
dependence in the Netherlands, Alexander, Duke
of Parma, generalissimo of the Spanish forces,
laid siege to Antwerp in 1584, whereupon Eliza-
beth commissioned Giambelli to proceed to the
assistance of the inhabitants On his ai rival he
found that the Spaniards had built a vast bridge
across the Scheldt, interrupting all communica-
tion with the sea, by which alone the city could
get provisions or help Early in 1585 Giam-
belh carried out a plan for blowing up the struc-
ture by floating down rafts laden with vast
quantities of Explosives against it, which were
to be set off by means of a mechanical con-
trivance The ponderous structure was par-
tially blown into the air, and 1000 men — among
whom were some of the best Spanish officers —
were killed This achievement, however, was
rendered unavailing by the failure of the Dutch
admiral to relieve the town, and by the wonder-
ful energy of the Duke of Parma, as well as the
want of unity among the citizens, and Giam-
belh was obliged to return to England Here
he was employed at the time of the threatened
Spanish invasion in fortifying the coast line and
the Thames, which he did in a very skillful man-
ner When the Armada appeared in the Chan-
nel, it was Gianibelli who proposed and carried
out the plan of sending fire ships into the midst
of the enemy, who remembered too well Giani-
belli's "hell burners" of Antwerp to await their
coming, and fled Gianibelli died probably in
London The date of his death is not known
GIAN1NT, jan'n&j LAPO DEI RICEVUTI An
Italian poet of the thirteenth century, a citizen
of Florence and a notary He was the friend
of Dante and Guido Cavalcanti, and one of those
who perfected the ^sweet new style" of idealis-
tic love poetry Although a, minor poet in the
group, his work is marked by warmth of feel-
ing and vigor of imagination Of his verse there
remain 12 ballate, two canzoni, and a doubtful
sonnet Consult G, Tropia> Rime di Lapo Gianni
(Rome, 1872) , Bossetti, Dante and Ms Girde
(London, 1874), Gabrielh, ' Lapo Gianni e la
lirica predantesca," in Rassegna italiana (Rome,
1887) , E Lamina, Rime di Lapo Gianni (1895)
GIAlOrCOTE, jan-no'na, PIETEO (1676-1748).
An eminent Italian historian, born May 7, 1676,
at Ischitella, in the Neapolitan Province of
Capitanata He early distinguished himself as
a lawyer at Naples and soon accumulated suffi-
cient means to enable him to devote considerable
time and energy to historical research Early
in life he had conceived the idea of wilting a
history of the Kingdom of Naples, and now in
his villa adjoining Naples he labored for 20
years at this, his greatest historical work, which
he published in 1723 m four volumes, under the
title of Storm civile del regno di Napoli This
valuable and comprehensive work not only treats
of the civil history of the kingdom, but also
contains learned and critical dissertations on
the laws and customs and the administrative
history of Naples, from the most remote times,
tracing the successive working of Greek, Roman,
and Christian influences on the legislative and
social institutions His severe strictuies on the
spuit and practices of the modern Roman Cath-
olic church so enraged the ecclesiastical party
that Giannone was denounced and anathema-
tized by the church The fanaticism of the
lower classes was aroused by the calumnies
leveled at the writer, who was finally excom-
inumcated by the Archbishop of Naples and
forced to take refuge first at Venice and later
at Vienna and other places His history was
condemned as heretical and libelous by the Pope
and put on the Index Giannone, however, was
granted a small pension by the Emperor Charles
VI In 1734 he was deprived of this income
and removed to Venice, whence he was expelled
after being favorably received at first and forced
to seek shelter in Geneva There he composed
his famous diatribe, entitled II triregno, against
the papal pretensions, and proclaimed his adop-
tion of Calvmistic doctrines Shortly after, an
emissary from the court of Turin induced Gian-
none to enter the Sardinian States, where he
was immediately arrested, and conducted to the
fortress of Turin He passed the long years of
his prison life in the pursuit of his chosen stud-
ies and retracted his change of religious opinions
(1738), a step which in no way unproved his
condition He died a prisoner in the fortress,
March 7, 1748, after an incarceration of 12
years His Opere postume (Lausanne, 1760)
and his Opere wedi,tef edited by Mancmi (Turin,
1859), complete the list of his historical works
An English translation of Jhis History of "Naples
appeared in London (1729-31). Consult Pier-
antoni, Autobiografia di Pietro G-iannone, i suoi
tempi e la sua pngionia (Rome, 1890), and
Giannone, Lo sfaatto di Pietro Giannone da
Venestia (ib , 1892)
GIANNOTTI, jan-nOfte, DONATO (1492-
1573) An Italian historian, born in Florence.
He grew up in the Republican regime which
followed the flight of the Medicis from that
city (1494). Upon their return (1530) he left
Florence and lived most of the remainder of his
life m Venice in the service of Cardinal Ridolfi,
in France attached to the suite of Cardinal
de Tournon, and in Home as secretary of briefs
( 1571 ) . He resembles Machiavelli in his thought
and has the merit of having exactly described
the forms of the governments about him and
of having examined them more critically than
other historians of his time, The most im-
GIANT DESPAIB
736
GIANTS
portant of his works are Delia repubUca
de Veneziani (1540), Delia republica fio?en~
tina (1721), Vita di Niccolo Gapponi (1620),
Discoiso delle cose d' Italia His Opere poli-
ticlie e letteratie weie published with a biog-
raphy by Vannucci (Floience, 1850) Consult
Tassm, G-iannotti, sa vie, son temps et ses doc-
trines (Paris, 1868), and Sanesi, La vita e le
opere di Donato G-iannotti (Pistoia., 1899)
GIANT DESPAIB See DESPAIB, GIANT
CHANT FAIRY PLOWEH See COOPERIA
GIANT KILLER See JACK THE GIANT
KILLER
GIANT KNOTWEED. See SACIIALINE
GIANT, or SPEAK, LILY (Doryanthes ex-
An Australian plant of the family Ama-
ryllidaceae, with flower-
ing stem 10 to 14,
sometimes 20 feet high,
bearing at top a clus-
ter of large crimson
blossoms The stem is
leafy, with the largest
leaves near the root
This plant is found
both on the mountains
and along the seacoast
of New South Wales
and Queensland It is
of splendid beauty
The fibre of its leaves
has been found to be
excellent for ropes
Other species, as Dory-
anthes palm en and
Doryanthes guiJfoylei,
are fibre plants of simi-
lar habit They yield
a large quantity of
white elastic fibre that
is especially adapted to
cordage, mats, etc It
has also been success-
fully used for making paper
GIANT PO"WDEB See EXPLOSIVES
GIANTS (OF geant, yaiant, Fr. geant, from
Gk 7/705', gig as, giant) Adult human beings
over normal size In each race of mankind
there is a standaid of average height for men
and for \\omen, and this lule extends to castes
and crafts as well as to civic and uiban popu-
lations This shows how much more powerful
the race has become than the individual Tall
parents often have short children, and vice
versa, but the breed is uniform The following
table will show the average stature of men
among the so-called gigantic races
Race Height
in inches
Scottish, of Galloway 70 5
Scottish in general 69
Livomans 69
Irish 68 5
Norwegians 68 5
English 67 5
Polynesians 68-69
Sikhs, Punjab 68
Fulahs of Sudan 69
Kafirs 68
Cheyennes 69
Patagonians 69
Between the Akkas, a dwarfish negio people
in the foiests of Central Africa (height, 53
inches), and the Scottish farmeis of Galloway,
there is a difference of 175 inches, and this
difference is about the same as that between
the average height of the whole human race and
GIAJST LILY
the tallest gia-nts The Wahuma of East Africa
are credibly repoited to average 72 inches or
more in height, and statuies of 78 inches cer-
tainly occur among them with remarkable fie-
quency, however, no exact statement can be
made as to their mean height until the publica-
tion of Dr Czekanowski's measurements
The question is still mooted among ethnolo-
gists whether these differences in racial stature
are due to nature or to nurture Doubtless both
causes have always been at work It was be-
lieved among the ancients that the first men on
the earth were tall and mighty and that they
degenerated both in vigor and longevity In
contrast with this is the attempt to prove that
the first men weie dwarfish, and that the
modern races of short stature are only sui-
vivals of the first men living on the outskirts of
civilization
The term "giant" is applied also to abnormally
tall individuals among the different peoples of
the earth For convenience' sake it has been
restricted to individuals above 200 centimeters
(79 inches) in height Stories are common
among the lower civilized peoples, as well as
among savage tribes, to the effect that men
have lived who measuied 15 feet in height
Og, King of Bashan, is said in Deuteronomy
(in 11) to have been the last of the giants
His bedstead of iron was 9 cubits, or between
11 and 13% feet, in length Pliny mentions the
name of an Arabian giant who measured 9%
feet and also speaks of two others who were 10
feet in stature Allowance is to be made, as in
all other cases, for the imagination of the nar-
rator The following list of men whose real
height is well known shows that it is possible
for individuals to go far beyond the average of
the human species, which is 65 inches
Magrath, Bishop Berkeley's giant
Patrick Cotter (1761-1804) or O'Brien
Charles Byrne, Insh giant
Topmard's Kalmuck
Wmkelmaier, Austrian (died 1887)
Topmard's Fmlander
Inches
92
99
100
100
103
112
It is conceded on the part of medical men
who have studied the subject with great care
that men of extraordinary stature have feeble
viability Giantism is often associated with
acromegaly (qv), but is most frequently pro-
duced by excessive growth Bishop Berkeley's
experiment is interesting in this connection,
since the excessive height of the man was due
to special feeding Natural giants or dwarfs,
however, are abnormal, accompanied with steril-
ity and other weaknesses
The word "giant" does not always refer to
persons of tall stature or large size, but in
mythology and folklore the title is given to
men of great strength or speed or prowess It
is these physical heroes that form the connect-
ing link between the mythic world and the -world
of sense It is only a short distance across a
narrow boundary to the province of the Jotuns
and Titans and other giants of the imagination
The Nephilim and Goliaths of the Bible are
only a little way from Heracles and Typhoeus.
The Cyclops Polyphemus has his legendary par-
allels among all peoples.
It has been suggested that the old-time and
still-existing belief that mankind has degenei-
ated, the excavation of great fossil bones in the
superficial layers of the earth's crust, the dis-
covery by explorers in the last four centuries of
GIANTS
737
G-IABBE
the taller races of the earth, whose height was
exaggerated by the terrors of being in a strange
countiy — all these combined to fix the belief in
the real existence of gigantic races
Giants in Gieek mythology aie variously con-
ceived, either as the sons of Gsea, Earth
(Hesiod), 01 as a wild race of aborigines of
enormous statuie and proportionate strength
(Homer) But neither poet refers to that tre-
mendous conflict between the giants and the gods
\vhich, though subsequent to the ovei throw of
the Titans by Zeus, was often confounded with
it Their mothet Earth had made them pi oof
against all weapons of the gods, and their final
defeat was due to the prowess of a mortal, Heia-
cles They were stiuck down and buried under
islands and mountains, especially volcanoes
The Enceladus and Typhoeus aie associated
with Etna In the colossal sculptuies of the
altar at Pergamum, in Asia Minor, the greatest
representation of the G-igantomachia in ancient
times, the giants appeal in various shapes, some
human, some monstrous, snake-footed, and
winged
The tradition about the Cyclops shows simi-
larly diverse forms The earliest legend makes
them three in number, sons of Heaven and
Earth, belonging to the race of the Titans, an<}
yet helpers of Zeus in his struggle against their
family Each, of them had one round eye in the
centre of his forehead, and this element appears
to be constant in the changing phases of the
myth In the Odyssey, howevei, they are gi-
gantic and lawless shepherds living in Sicily,
whose fertile soil produced for them of itself
the fruits of the field They were cannibals as
well, and scoffers at Zeus Polyphemus is de-
scribed as the strongest among them and loses
his single eye in the encounter with Odysseus
Later they become the assistants of Vulcan at
his forge under Etna, or on the Liparian Is-
lands, and tradition ascribed to them the work,
equally suitable to their great strength, of build-
ing the massive walls of Argos, Tiryns, and
Mycense
Consult Tarufii, Delia macrosomia (Milan,
1879) , Bollmger, Ueber Zwerg- und Riesen-
wuchs (Berlin, 1884) , Wemhold, Die Riesen des
germanischen My thus (Vienna, 1858) , Meyer,
Die 0-iganten und Titanen in der antiLen Sage
und Kunst (Berlin, 1887) See further bibli-
ography in the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon-
Q-eneral's Library (Washington), under "Dwarfs
and Giants", Tylor, Early History of Mankind
(London, 1878), id, Primitive Culture (ib,
1891) , Launoy and Roy, Etudes biologiques sur
les geants (Paris, 1904) , Wohlgemuth, Riessen
und Zwerge in der altfran&osischen erzahlenden
Dichtung (Tubingen, 1906) , Ranke, Der Mensch
(Leipzig, 1912)
GIANTS, BATTLE OF THE A term used of
the battle of Melegnano (Marignano), fought
on Sept 13-14, 1515, between the allied French
and Venetian armies and the Swiss allies of the
Duke of Milan, in which the latter were de-
feated The name originated with Trivulzio,
who said that the 18 battles which he witnessed
were as child's play compared with this combat
of the giants See MELEGNANO
GIANT'S CAUSEWAY. A promontory on
the coast of Antrim in the north of Ireland A
great outpouring of basalt took place here in
the Tertiary period, and the edge of the intruded
rock masses was subsequently dissected by ero-
sion, leaving a line of perpendicular cliffs, some
of which are 300 feet high Upon cooling the
basalt assumed a columnar stiucture, to which
is due the characteristic appearance of the
Causeway The close-fitting columns have geo-
metrical outlines, usually hexagonal, and are
divided into sections of equal length that articu-
late by means of convex and concave joints
The diameter of the columns langes from 20 to
30 inches The Causeway is divided into three
portions — the Little Causeway, the Middle Cause-
way, and the Giand Causeway The last has
a width of fiom 60 to 120 feet and extends out
to sea foi about 500 feet, forming a natural
platform which can be traversed on foot Many
of the neigliboung cliffs exhibit the same co-
lumnar structure One group of columns, fiom
its peculiai arrangement, has been named the
Saint's Oigan There are many other interest-
ing and picturesque localities in the vicinity,
including the Amphitheatre, surrounded by cliffs
350 feet high, Chimney Point, a lofty mass of
rocks, and Pleaskm Head In tins vicinity the
castles of Dunsevciick and Dunluce, now in
rums, aie perched on the top of isolated eiags
GIANT'S DANCE An old name (Chorea
gigantutu) for Rtonehenge, suggested by a legend
concerning that place, which was later super-
seded by a second tale, related by Geoffrey of
Mon mouth, causing the old name to fall into
comparative disuse See STONETIENGE
GIANTS' KETTLES A popular name for
deep cavities or potholes occurring in , surface
locks They aie common in the glaciated regions
of North America and Europe, especially on the
coast of Noiway, and are formed at the present
time beneath the glaciers of the Alps During
the summei months the melting ice gives rise to
glacial streams that run down the surface and
escape into the crevasses The erosive powers
of the moving waters^ carrying sand and stones,
aie diiected by the ice passages against the
locky floor, into which deep cavities are worn
Giants3 kettles are formed also in nonglaci-
ated legions by watei falls and rapids, wherever
streams move ovei locks with sufficient velocity
and cairy along the necessary cutting materials
Although they aie commonly only a few feet
in diameter or in depth, they occasionally at-
tain much larger sizes, at Little Falls, N Y,
the Mohawk River has carved out in a hard
syenite kettles that measure from 50 to 75 feet
across
(HANTS OF GUILDHALL See GOG AND
MAGOG
GTAOTJB, jour A Turkish word, corrupted
from the Arabic k&flr (unbeliever), and applied
by the Turks to all who reiect Mohammedanism,
especially to European Christians Though at
first used exclusively as a term of reproach, its
signification has been since modified, and now it
is frequently employed merely as a distinctive
epithet Sultan Mahmud II forbade his subjects
to apply the term "Giaour" to any European
See GHEBEBS
GrIAOUE, THE A narrative poem by Lord
Byron, published in May, 1813 Originally only
400 lines in length, it was enlarged the same
yeai to 1400 It is a fragment of a Turkish
tale of a slave, Leila, who was thrown into the
sea Her murder was avenged by her lover, a
young Venetian, the Giaour of the title It
contains the well-known lines on Greece, begin-
ning, "He who hath bent him o'er the dead "
GIARRE, jar'rt A rapidly growing city in
Sicily, on the eastern slopes of Mount Etna,
GIAVEttO
738
GIBBON
thiee quarters of a mile \\est of its port, Ri-
posto, and IS miles north of Catania (Map
Italy, E 6). The commercial importance of
Giaire is due to its exquisite wines Pop (com-
mune), 1901, 26,000, 1911, 21,611
GIAVENO, ja-va'no A city in north Italy,
on the left bank of the Sangone, 20 miles
west of Turin It markets fruit, wine, potatoes,
mushrooms, chestnuts, wood, and coal, and has
cotton and jute factories Pop (commune),
1001, 10,795, 1911, 11,756
GIB, gib, ADAM (1714-88) A Scottish anti-
burgher leader He was boin at Castletown,
Perthshire, April 7, 1714 He entered the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and while still an under-
graduate cast his lot with Ebenezer Erskme
(qv ) and others of the Secession church (See
PRESBYTERIANISM ) He was licensed to preach
in 1740 and the following year was ordained
minister of the large Secession congregation of
Bristo Street, Edinburgh, where he soon at-
tained a position of prominence In 1742 he
caused some stir by the publication of an invec-
tive entitled A Warning against Countenancing
the Ministrations of G-eorge Whitefieldj and in
1745 he was almost the only minister of Edin-
burgh who continued to preach against rebellion
while the troops of Charles Edward were in
occupation of the town When the dispute con-
cerning the burgher's oath broke out in 1747
(see BUEGHER AND ANTIBUEGHEK ) , Gib became
a leader of the minority in the antibuigher
synod It was chiefly due to his influence that
it was agreed by this ecclesiastical body to
summon to the bar their burgher brethren and
finally to depose and excommunicate them for
contumacy From 1753 (when, after protracted
litigation, he was compelled to leave the Bristo
Street Church) till within a short period of his
death, he preached regularly in Nicolson Street
Church, which is said to have been filled every
Sunday with an audience of 2000 persons. He
died in Edinburgh, June 18, 1788 Among his
works were The Present Truth, a Display of
the Secession Testimony (1774) , Sacred Con-
templations (1786) ; and many other works
dealing with the Secession Consult McKerrow,
History of the Secession Church (Edinburgh,
1848)
GIBABAr He-ba'ra An important seaport
town of Cuba, situated on the north coast of
the Province of Santiago de Cuba, about 25
miles north by east of Holguin, with which it
is connected by rail (Map Cuba, J 5) It has
a fine haibor, protected by a fort at the en-
trance, and carries on a large trade in fruit,
especially bananas, and corn The vicinity pro-
duces also tobacco, sugar, and coffee, and is en-
gaged to some extent in stock raising Timber
xs abundant in this region. The town has mili-
tary and civil hospitals Pop , 1907, 6170
GIBBES, gibz, ROBERT WILSON (1809-66)
An American historian and scientist, boin in
Charleston, S C He graduated m 1827 at
South Carolina College (Columbia) and in 1830
at the Medical College of South Carolina
(Charleston) and from 1827 to 1835 was assist-
ant professor of chemistry, geology, and miner-
alogy in the former institution In 1852-60 he
edited the Weekly Banner and the Daily South
Carolinian, and twice he held office as mayor of
Columbia During the Civil War he was sur-
geon-general of South Carolina At the burning
of Columbia, in 1865, he lost valuable collec-
tions of minerals and fossils In addition to
many medical articles in various periodicals,
notably one on "Typhoid Pneumonia" in the
American Journal of the Medical Sciences
(1842), and a volume Cuba for Invalids (1860),
he published a Documentary History of the
American Revolution, Consisting of Letters and
Papers Relating to the Contest for Liberty,
Chiefly in South Carolina (3 vols , 1853-57)
GIBBON, gib'un. (Fr, of unknown origin)
An East Indian anthropoid ape of the sub-
family Hylobatinse, the more generalized of the
two families of the higher apes, the other being
Pongiidse and including the orangs, gorillas, and
chimpanzees The gibbons are of a smaller
size and more slender form than the simians,
and their arms are so long as almost to reach
the ground when the animal stands in an erect
posture, there are also naked callosities on the
buttocks The head is well formed, while the
lower jaw is remarkable for the great develop-
ment of the chin The
canine teeth are long
The gibbons are inhab-
itants of forests, their
long arms enabling
them to swing them-
selves fiom bough to
bough, which they do
to wonderful distances
and with extreme agil-
ity They cannot move
with ease or great ra-
pidity on the ground,
yet when they make the
attempt they walk more
uprightly than any
DENTITION OF GIBBON
Teeth of upper and lower
jaws, left side, i, incisors,
c, canines, p, premolars,
m, molars
other ape, stretching out their arms on each
side, or even more frequently overhead, to bal-
ance themselves, with the hands hanging from
the wrist They never creep on all fours, and
they sleep at night curled up in a ball In
captivity they display gentleness and a high
degree of teachability and learn to eat all sorts
of cooked food, though their natural diet con-
sists mainly of fruit and birds They have
various loud cries, expressive of different emo-
tions Their rollicking morning choius, a long-
drawn-out ascending series of wa-hoos, is one of
the most startling sounds of the Oriental jungle
There are two genera, Hylobates, with about
a dozen species, and Biamanga or, as it is now
called, Symphalangus, containing only one, the
siamang (qv ), which differs from the type m
having the first and second digits of the hind
foot united as far as the second joint None of
the gibbons is of large size The common white-
handed or lar gibbon (Rylolates lar) , black,
with a border of gray hair around the face, is
found m some parts of India and in more eastern
regions The active, or long-armed gibbon (Hy-
locates agilis), found m Sumatra, is particu-
larly remarkable for the power which it dis-
plays of flinging itself from one tree to another,
clearing at once, it is said, a distance of 40
feet. The wow- wow (Hylolates leuciscus) is a
gibbon found in Java The hoolock, or wa-wa
(Hylolates hoolock), is a native of the north-
eastern part of India and the neighboring parts
of Assam The fossil genus Pithecanthropus
(q v ) had much resemblance to gibbons
Consult Hartmann, Anthropoid Apes (New
York, 1886) ; Haeckel, Aus Insulinde (Bonn,
1901) , Elliot, A Review of the Primates (New
York, 1913) See APE, HOOLOOK,
and Plate of ANTHBOPOID APES,
GIBBON
739
GIBBON
GIB'BON, EDWARD (1737-94) The historian
of the Roman Empire, eldest son of Edward
Gibbon and Judith For ten He was born at
Putney on the Thames, April 27 (0 S ), 1737
Of his five brothers and one sister none survived
infancy The story of his life Gibbon told in
his autobiography, published after his death
under the title Memoirs of my Life and Writ-
ings (1796) Like most thinkeis, his actions
are inseparable from his thoughts and the
growth of his mind He spent a sickly child-
hood in occasional lessons and desultory read-
ing and discussion with his mother's sistei, a
woman of strong understanding and warm
heart, whom he calls "the mother of my mind,"
and to whose kindness he ascribes not only the
bringing out of his intellectual faculties, but
the preservation of his life, in these critical
early yeais Though his education was inter-
rupted by illness, he read enormously From
various tutois and schools he passed to Magda-
len College, Oxford (1752) Here he spent 14
idle months, the chief result of which was that
in his incursions into controversial theology he
became a convert to the Catholic church and
found himself shut out from Oxford His
father then placed him under the care of David
Mallet, poet and deist, by whose philosophy
Gibbon was "rather scandalized than reclaimed "
He was then sent to Lausanne, in Switzerland,
to board in the house of M Pavilliard, a Cal-
vinist minister, who judiciously suggested books
and arguments to the young Gibbon and had the
satisfaction of seeing him reconverted to Protes-
tantism m the course of 18 months (1754)
Subsequently his mature meditations led him
away from all religions With M Pavilhard,
whom he greatly respected, he lived for nearly
five years. It was here that he began and car-
ried out those private studies which, aided by
his enormous memory, made him a master of
erudition without a superior and with hardly
an equal Here, also, he fell in love with Su-
sanne Ourehod, the beautiful and accomplished
daughter of a humble minister at Grassy, who
afterward became Madame Necker, the mother
of Madame de Stael Gibbon's father disap-
proved of this "strange alliance," and Gibbon
yielded to his fate.
Returning to England in 1758, he continued
his studies with some interruptions At the
request of his father he finished a little work
in French, begun at Lausanne, and published it
under the title Essai sur I'etude de la litUra-
ture (1761, Eng version, 1764) In 1759 he
became a captain in the Hampshire militia and
afterward major and colonel The militia being
disbanded, he revisited the Continent, crossing
the Alps and going on to Rome, where first came
to him the thought of his great work His plan,
onginally circumscribed to the decay of the city,
grew, by years of reading and reflection and
delay, to embrace the Empire On the death of
his father (1770) Gibbon came into possession
of a comfortable fortune, settled in London
(1772), and at once began writing the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire In 1774 he
joined the famous Literary Club of Dr John-
son and entered Parliament, where he sat "a
mute" for eight years. In 1776 the first volume
of the History was published, and its success
was^ immediate Indeed, the reputation of the
author was established before the religious
world had time to consider and attack the fa-
mous fifteenth and sixteenth chapters, in which,
while not denying the "convincing evidence of
the doctrine itself" and "the ruling providence
of its great Author," Gibbon proceeds to account
for the rapid giowth of the early Christian
Church by "secondaiy" or human causes He
proceeded with the history, publishing two
more volumes in 1781 Two years later he re-
turned to Lausanne, where the great work was
completed The last three volumes weie pub-
lished m 1788 In 1793 he returned to England
to visit his friend Lord Sheffield, whose wife had
just died While in London, Gibbon died, Jan
16, 1794, and was buried among the Sheffield^
in the church at Fletchmg in Sussex Under
the direction of the Royal Historical Society
the centenary of his death was commemorated
m London, November, 1894
It is not easy to characterize, in a few or in
many phrases, a man of so gigantic and culti-
vated an intellect The Decline and Fall is one
of the greatest achievements of human thought
and erudition It is virtually a history of the
civilized world for 13 centuries, during which
paganism was breaking down and Christianity
was taking its place r\ he new facts which have
come to light since Gibbon's time have shown
that he was mistaken on many points, but the
truth of his picture in the main has never been
successfully impeached The \vork also pos
sesses style No one to-day would imitate, if
he could, the balanced structure of Gibbon's sen-
tences But in Gibbon, as in the Elizabethan
writers, the charm lies precisely in this stately
march of phrase and sentence Byron rightly
called Gibbon "the lord of irony " Of this char-
acteristic of his genius, which gives piquancy
to his style, the historian himself was aware,
and he claimed to have learned it from Pascal,
whose Provincial Letters he read almost every
yeai After all, Gibbon is at his best where he
is most himself, as in the dignity and measured
melancholy of his autobiography
Lord Sheffield published Gibbon's Miscellane-
ous Works (2 vols, 1796, 5 vols , 1814). The
autobiography contained therein was pieced to-
gether from six different manuscripts, with
omissions and some additions These six manu-
scripts have been published by a grandson of
the elder Lord Sheffield (London, 1896) Ex-
cellent editions of the Memoirs have also been
edited by 0 F Emerson (Boston, 1898), by
Hill (London, 1900), and by H Morley (New
York, 1914). All editions of the Decline and
Fall have been superseded by that of Bury (7
vols, ib, 1896-1900, new ed , 1909-12) Con-
sult also The Letters of Gibbon, ed by Prothero
(ib, 1S96), and J. A C Morrison, Cfibbon
("English Men of Letters," New York, 1901)
GIBBON", JOHN (1827-96) An American sol-
dier He was born m Holmesburg, Pa , gradu-
ated at West Point in 1847, served in the Mexi-
can War, at the city of Mexico and Toluca, in
1847-48, and was assistant instructor of artil-
lery at West Point in 1854-57, and quartermas-
ter there m 1856-59 During the Civil War
he was chief of artillery in General McDowell's
division from October, 1861, to May, 1862, was
promoted from the rank of captain in the regu-
lar army to that of brigadier general of volun-
teers on May 2, 1862, participated in the sec-
ond battle of Bull Hun and in the battles of
South Mountain and Antietam,, commanded a
division in the Army of the Potomac during
the Rappahannock campaign, from November,
1862, to June, 1863, being wounded at Freder-
740
GIBBONS
icksburg on Dec 13, 1802, commanded the Sec-
ond Army Corps in the battle of G-ettysbuig,
where he was seriously wounded, and then was
commander of the Twenty-fourth Coips, in the
final campaign of General Giant On June 7,
1864, he became ma]oi general of \olunteeis,
and on March 13, 1865, was brevetted bugadier
general and ma] or general m the icgulai dimy
Mustered oxit of the volunteer scivice in Jan-
uary, 1866, he reenteied the regular aimy as
colonel in July, commanded seveial Western
posts, led the Yellowstone expedition against
Sitting Bull in 1876, \\a& wounded in the en-
gagement of Big Hole Pass, Mont , with the Nez
Perces on Aug 9, 1877, and commanded suc-
cessively seveial departments in the West In
1885 he became bugadiei general and put do-un
riots in Washington Terntoiy against the Chi-
nese He was retired in 1891 Gibbon published
The Artillenst's Manual (I860, 2d ed , 1863)
GIBBONS, gib'unz, ABIGAIL ( HOPPER) (1801-
93) An American philanthropist, daughter of
Isaac T Hopper (qv ) She \\as bom in Phila-
delphia, taught school there and in Ne\\ Yoik,
and in 1833 married James Sloan Gibbons
(qv) She greatly assisted her father m the
foimation of the Women's Prison Association
and of the Isaac T Hopper Home foi dischaii>ed
prisoners Dm ing the Civil Wai she lendeiod
valuable seivice in the Fedeial camps and hos-
pitals On account of her piomnienee as an
Abolitionist hei home in New York was sacked
in the riots of July, 1805 She helped found in
New Yoik an infant asylum (1871) and a diet
kitchen (1873) Consult hei Life by her daugh-
ter, S H Emerson (New Yoik, 1897)
GIBBONS, ALFRED ST HILL (1858- ),
A British explorer, boin in Lancastei In 1895-
96 he made extensive exploiations on the upper
basin of the Zambezi River In 1898 he as-
cended the Zambezi from the mouth to Lialui
an Barotseland, explored the basins of the Oka-
vango (Kubango) and the Chobe, and, return-
ing to Lialui in August, 1899, set out north-
ward across the head streams of the Zambezi
and by way of Lakes Mweru, Tanganyika, Rion,
and Albert Edwaid Nyanza to Lado on the
Nile, which he reached in May, 1900 He wiote
Exploration and Huniing \n Central Africa
(1898), TJie "Nile and Zambesi System as
Waterways (1901), Africa from South to
through Barotseland (1904)
GIBBONS, CHARLES (1814-85) An A
can lawyer, born in Wilmington, Del He ^as
admitted to the bar in 1838 and for seveial
years was a member of the State Senate, of
which he served as President m 1847 He was
a founder of the Union League, whose constitu-
tion he formulated, was chairman of the first
Republican State Committee, and during the
Civil War represented the United States gov-
ernment an a special commission for the argu-
ment of prize cases in the Federal courts of
Philadelphia
GIBBONS, SIB GEORGE CHEISTIE (1848-
) A Canadian lawyer and administrator
He was born at St Catherines, Lincoln Co,
Ontario, and was educated at Upper Canada
College, Toronto He studied law and in 1869
was called to the Ontario bar, of which he be-
came a leader He was a Liberal in politics
In 1905 he was appointed chairman of the
Canadian section of the International Waterways
Commission, which office he filled until Novem-
ber, 1911 He was largely instrumental in
effecting the negotiation of the Intel national
Waterways Treaty with the United States in
1909
GIBBONS, GHINLING (1648-1721) An Eng-
lish sculptor and wood caivei, of Dutch origin
He was probably boin at Rotteidam and studied
undei unknown masteis He attracted the at-
tention of Evelyn (qv ), the diarist, who m-
tioduced him to Charles 11 He was master
caiver in \vood to the cro\\n fiom Charles II to
Geoige I His first important gioup in wood
was a "Crucifixion," after Tmtoietto's famous
picture, which was followed by his "Stoning of
St Stephen," for the King, now at Wyvenhoe
Paik, Essex Another large carving of his is in
the Ducal Palace at Modena Gibbons was much
employed by Sir Christopher Wien (qv ) in his
chuiches, and in particular carved the choir
stalls of St Paul's Cathedial and the wood-
work of the libraiy of Trinity College, Cam-
budge He executed many carvings tor the
King in the palaces of Windsor, Whitehall, and
Kensington, and particulaily important are the
carvings at Chatsworth, made foi the Duke of
Devonshne, at Petwoith, and at Belton House
Ihe wooden throne at Canterbury Cathedral,
executed with gieat delicacy and skill, is also
bv his hand He also essayed sculpture in
bionze and marble, but not •with the same suc-
cess, as is shown by his marble statues of
Charles II in the Royal Exchange and Chelsea
Hospital and by the bronze statue of James II
at Whitehall His work is particulaily famous
for the splendid groups and festoons of flowers,
fruit, game, etc , in life size, and veiy true to
natuie
GIBBONS, JAMES, CARDINAL (1834-1921)
An American Roman Catholic prelate He was
born in Baltimore, July 23, 1834, and received
his early education in Ii eland, the former home
of his family, to which he was taken in infancy.
Returning to Maiyland at the age of 17, he
puisued his studies for the priesthood at St
Charles's College and St Mary's Seminary He
•\\as ordained in 1861 and after a few months of
service at St Patrick's, Baltimoie, was placed
m charge of St Bridget's Church, Canton, just
outside the city Aich bishop Spaulding soon
discerned his gifts and bi ought him to the
cathedral as secietaiy and soon made him chan-
cellor In 1868 he A\a& made Vicar Apostolic of
North Carolina, and to fulfill the duties of the
office he was consecrated Bishop His success-
ful administration of this difficult work earned
him piomotion in 1872 to the see of Richmond,
Va , and his five years theie were also marked
by notable development of the church's activity
m many directions Appointed in 1877 Coadju-
tor with right of succession to Archbishop Bailey
of Baltimore, then in failing health, later in
the same year he succeeded to the see, gaining
with it the title "Primate of the United States "
In right of this office he presided over the im-
portant deliberations of the Third Plenary
Council of Baltimore in 1884, whose successful
issue was largely due to him In recognition
of all these sei vices, as well as of the growing
importance of the Amencan branch of the
chuich, he was created Cardinal by Leo XIII
in 1886 , but his elevation made no difference in
the simple, unostentatious kindliness which had
long endeared him to all who knew him, without
as well as within his own communion Bishop
Curtis, formerly of Wilmington, Del , was ap-
pointed to assist him in 1896 His best-known
•741
GIBBS
%vork is The Faith of our Fathets (1871) , others
are Our Christian Heritage (1889) and The
Ambassador of Chnst (1S96)
GIBBONS, JAMES SLOAN (1810-92) An
American author and philanthropist, born in
Wilmington, Del From 1835 he was active in
New York City as a banker and a wntei on
financial subjects A friend of Wendell Phillip b,
William Lloyd Garrison, and other notable
Abolitionists, he rendeied much aid to their
cause, being a member of the executive com-
mittee of the Ameiican Anti-Slaveiy Society
and a suppoiter of the Emancipator and Stand-
ard He opposed Gamson's radical disunion
policy In 1863 his house in New York City
was sacked on account of its illumination in
honor of the Emancipation Proclamation In
1862 he published in the New York Even-
ing Post his famous war song, "We aie com-
ing, Father Abraham, three hundred thousand
strong" He began the movement towards the
preservation of forests in the United States
He wrote The Banlts of New York (185S),
The PulliG Debt of the United States (1867),
and other works, some under the pen name
Robert Morris His wife, Abigail, was a daugh-
ter of Isaac T Hoppei
GIBBONS, ORLANDO (1583-1625) A cele-
brated English organist and composei In his
boyhood he served as a chorister at King's Col-
lege, Cambridge, in 1604 was appointed or-
ganist of the Chapel Royal and in 1623 of
Westminster Abbey He is one of the most im-
portant composers in the history and evolution
of English music, his services and anthems still
being regularly sung in all the cathedrals and
important churches of Great Britain His com-
positions were the earliest engraved musical
works in England His madrigals, "Dainty
Sweet Bird," and "The Silver Swan," are among
the best of their kind and have always been
popular, while the anthems, "Hosannah to the
Son of David," "Almighty and Everlasting
God," and "0 Clap Your Hands Together," are
reckoned masterpieces of scientific writing in
the fugue form, combined with, exquisite melody
He died of smallpox, caught while taking part
in the marriage services of Charles I, for which
ceremony he had composed the music His two
brothers, EDWAED (c 1570-c 1650), organist of
Bristol Cathedral, and ELLIS (?-c!650), organ-
ist of Salisbury Cathedral, were also musicians
of wide repute, and his son, CHRISTOPHER GIB-
BONS (1615-76), succeeded in 1660 to both of
his father's positions at the Chapel Royal and
Westminster Abbey
GIBBS, gibz, ALFRED (1823-68). An Ameri-
can soldier, born in Sunswick, near Astoria,
L I, a brother of Oliver Wolcott Gibbs He
graduated at West Point in 1846, served as sec-
ond lieutenant in the Southern campaign under
Scott during the Mexican War, and was brevet-
ted first lieutenant and captain From 1848 to
1856 he was aid-de-camp to Gen Persifor F.
Smith in Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, and Cali-
fornia, was wounded in an engagement with the
Apache Indians at Cooke's Spring, N M , on
March 8, 1857, and from 1858 to I860 was em-
ployed in the recruiting service On May 13,
1861, he became captain He was captured by a
Texan force in July, 1861, was paroled, and was
not exchanged until August, 1862 He took an
active part in various cavalry operations in Vir-
ginia, particularly under Sheridan in the Shen-
andoah valley, was promoted to be brigadier
general of volunteers in October, 1804, and com-
manded a cavaliy brigade in Grant's final cam-
paign against Lee On March 13, 1865, he was
brevetted colonel and brigadier general and ma-
jor general in the tegular army He was mus-
tered out of the volunteer seivice on Feb 1,
1866, and until his death at Foit Leavenwoith,
Kans , was on fiontiei duty at various Westein
posts as ma] 01 of the Seventh Cavaliy
GIBBS, JAMES (1082-1754) A Butish ar-
chitect, boin at Aberdeen After an apprentice-
ship m Holland he studied in Rome under Cailo
Fontana In 1709 he retuined to London, wheie
lie won the friendship of Sii Chnstophei Wren,
by whom he was powerfully influenced If is
most noted works were the churches m London
of St Mary-le-Strand (1714-17) and St Mar-
tin's-m-the-Fields (1722)— -the latter especially
a prototype of many American Colonial churches ,
and at Oxford the famous ciicular Radcliffe
Libraiy (1737), but he also designed many
other edifices HP was the author of A Bool
of Architecture (1728), The Rules /o? Drawing
the Several Parts of Architecture (1732), and
Bibliotheca Radclifflana (1747)
GIBBS, JOSIAII WILLARD (1790-1861) An
American philologist He was born at Salem,
Mass, graduated at Yale in 1809, and was a
tutor there from 1811 to 1815 In 1824 he be-
came professor of sacred literatuie, an appoint-
ment which he held until his death Among his
publications are a translation of Storr's Essay
on the Historical Sense of the New Testament
(1817), a translation of G-esemus' Hebrew Lexi-
con of the Old Testament (1824), and Philologi-
cal Studies (1857) He was a contributor to
Prof William C Fowler's English Language in
its Elements and its Forms (1850) and to
Webster's Unabridged Dictionary
GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD (1839-1903) An
American physicist, born at New Haven, Conn
He graduated at Yale in 1858 (PhD 1863),
was a tutor there for three years, and afterwaid
studied in Paris, Berlin, and Heidelberg In
1871 he was appointed professor of mathemati-
cal physics at Yale He was elected a member
of the National Academy of Sciences and of tho
Hoyal Society of London, was a vice president
(1886) of the Ameiican Association for the
Advancement of Science, and was awarded the
Rumford medal of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences for researches in graphical
and analytical methods in thermodynamics
His writings include numerous papers on mathe-
matical physics, and Elementary Principles in
Statistical Mechanics (1902)
GIBBS, (OLIVER) WOLCOTT (1822-1908). A
distinguished American chemist He was born
in New York City, graduated at Columbia Col-
lege m 1841 and at the College of Physicians
and Surgeons in 1847, and subsequently studied
medicine and the physical sciences in Germany
From 1863 to 1887 lie was Kumford professor
at Harvard and lectured on science as applied
to the useful arts During the Civil War he
was an active member of the Sanitary Commis-
sion and in 1873 went as one of the commis-
sioners to the Vienna Exposition He is the
author of many papers on chemical science in
the American Journal of Science He was presi-
dent of the National Academy of Sciences in
1897 Dr. G-ibbs carried out many original
investigations in physics and chemistry Hib
researches on vapor densities, on the platinum
metals, and on the ammonia-cobalt bases were
GIBBSITE
742
GIBHALTAIt
important The Wolcott Gibbs laboratory of
physieochemical research, at Harvard Univer-
sity is named after him
(HBBS'ITE An aluminium hydrate, cjystal-
hzmg in the monoclmic system, but usually
found in niammillary crusts and stalactitic
shapes It is commonly white, grayish, or yel-
lowish Gibbsite is found in small deposits,
often associated with limonite, also with the
bauxite of Geoigia and Alabama Gibbsite is
an unimportant ore of aluminium
(HBEAH, giVs-a (Heb, (hVali, hill) The
name of several places in ancient Palestine, the
chiet of ^hich was G-ibeah of Benjamin, or
Gibeah of Saul It was north of Jerusalem and
south of Ramah and was the scene of the story
of the Levite and his concubine (Judg xix—
xsi ) It was the home of Saul and probably his
birthplace (1 Sam x 26) Two sons and live
grandsons of Saul are said to have been exe-
cuted here in revenge for a slaughter of the
Gibeonites by Saul Gibeah of Benjamin has
been identified with the modern Tillage of Tell
el-Ful, about 4 miles north of Jerusalem
GIBEL, gib'el (Ger, sort of chub, Fr gibel ;
possibly connected with Ger G-iebel, gable , OHG
gebal, head, gibilla, skull, Gk Ke<j>a\ri, kephale,
head), or PBUSSIAN CARP, A small caip (Cy-
pnnus g^belw} without barbels, common m
some paits of continental Europe and in Eng-
land It differs from the crucian in having a
forked tail and is an excellent table fish See
CARP
GrIBEOIN", gib'5-0n (Heb Gib* on, hilly). An
ancient city of Palestine, northwest of Jeru-
salem, at the tune of the conquest by the Is-
raelites inhabited by the Hivites (Josh ix.
3, T ) . By means of a stratagem the Gibeonites
secured a promise of friendship from Joshua
The deceit was afterward discoveied, but the
letter of the promise was kept, the Gibeonites
heing condemned to be "hewers of wood and
drawers of water for tlie congregation," and
when the five kings of the Amorites attacked
Gibeon, Joshua went to its assistance (Josh ix.
3-x 7) It was during the battle fought on
this occasion that "the sun stood still and the
moon stayed, until the people had avenged them-
selves upon their enemies," according to the
testimony of a song preserved in the collection
called Befer ha yashar, or 'Book of the Brave/
quoted and approved by the historian in Josh
x. 8-14. Saul almost exterminated the Gibeon-
ites (2 Sam xxi 1-5) Gibeon was the scene
of a battle between David's forces and those of
Ishbaal (2 Sam. 11 12-32), and at "the great
stone which is in Gibeon" David's general,
Joab, treacherously slew the other general,
Amasa (2 Sam. xx. 4-10). The city had its
chief importance as the seat of a lamah (high
place), called m 1 Kings in 4 "the great high
place " At the beginning of hia reign Solomon
sacrificed there 1000 burnt offerings, and Yahwe
appeared to luzn in a dream by night ( 1 Kings
in 4-15) Gibeon is identified with the modern
village of el-Jib, about 5 miles northwest of
Jerusalem
GIBRALTAR, jib-ral'ter, ffp, pron He-bral-
tar', A town and fortress, constituting a British
colony, on the rocky promontory of Gibraltar,
forming the eastern horn of the Bay of Algeciras,
or Gibraltar, on the south coast of Andalusia,
Spain, at the eastern end of the Strait of Gib-
raltar, at the entrance to the Mediterranean
(Map Spam, C 5). It was captured by the
British forces under Sir George Booke, July
24, 1704, and was ceded to Great Britain by the
Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 It stands opposite
the Spanish town of Algeciras, 6 miles distant
on the west side of the bay, with which it has
steam-feiiy communication several times daily
Owing to its important strategical position, it
is called the "Key of the Mediterranean " The
sandy isthmus connecting the promontory with
the mainland is neutral territory, it lies so low
that fiom the sea Gibi altar has the appearance
of an islet The Spanish town of La Linea de
la CoucepCiOn, practically a suburb of Gibraltar,
on the mainland, fronts the isthmus and the
neutral ground, the Spanish boundary being
maiked by a double line of sentry boxes The
population of La Linea (commune) in 1910 was
30,005 The promontory, or "Rock of Gibral-
tar," is composed of gray primary marble Its
length is 2% miles, its greatest breadth about
% of a mile, and its gieatest elevation 1439
feet The area of Gibraltar is 1% square miles
Although it has a barren and uninviting aspect,
aloes, cacti, palmitas, capers, and asparagus
grow zn the crevices, and there are grassy
wooded glens in certain parts, where partudges,
pigeons, woodcocks, and fawn-colored Baibary
apes are to be found There are several natural
caves in the rock, of which St Michael's, with
an entiance 1100 feet above the sea, is the
largest The north, east, and south sides of the
promontory are so steep and precipitous as to
be almost inaccessible, the north and northwest
sides are honeycombed by fortified artificial gal-
leries The town and harbor on the west aie
protected by batteries and forts rising fiom the
base to the summit of the rock Modern guns
of the most formidable pattern have replaced
the old armaments The haibor is formed by
three separate moles, known as the North, the
South, and the Detached moles The North
Mole runs westward about 2900 feet and then
southward, having a total length of over a
mile The South Mole extends from the shore
northwesterly 3660 feet The Detached Mole,
2717 feet long, is situated between the other
moles, forming a breakwater and leaving at
either end a passage foi vessels The water
area of the harbor is 440 acres There are three
large graving docks for naval purposes and a
small dock available to merchant vessels of
light draft
The town, divided by the Alameda park into
two parts, although irregularly laid out, con-
tains several fine public buildings The houses
are built in terraces and for the most part aie
of Spanish architecture There are an Anglican
cathedral, four Roman Catholic churches, and
hospitals The water supply depends on the
rainfall, which is stored in a system of huge
tanks The climate is the warmest in Europe,
but is healthful, the former unsanitary condi-
tions having been removed by modern methods
The colony is self-supporting, the revenue in
1912 being £105,738 and the expenditure £81,613,
but the garrison is maintained by the British
government Gibraltar is a free port except as
to alcoholic liquors and tobacco It is also an
important coaling station The tonnage of ves-
sels entered and cleared was over 11,700,000 in
1911, of which over 7,100,000 British The legal
currency is British, but Spanish money is also
in circulation There is no legislative body or
executive council The Governor, who is also
the general commanding the garrison, exercises
r>
a:
<c
o:
DQ
u.
O
GIBRALTAR
743
GIBSON
both executive and legislative functions The
civil population, according to the census of
1891, was 19,100, 1901, 20,355, 1911, 19,580
(9228 male, 10,358 female) In 1911 the mili-
tary population was 5340, naval, 441, total
population, 25,367 Estimate for 1913, 23,572
The inhabitants are laigely of Spanish and Ital-
ian descent, but include Britons, Jews, and
Moois Among the civil population the hnth
rate is about 20 and the death rate about 15
Gibraltar (the Phoenician Alube and Gieek
Calpe) and Abyla (the Sierra Bullones near
Ceuta, Morocco) are the classical "Pillars of
Hercules," which were crowned by silver col-
umns erected by the Phoenician mariners to
mark the limits of navigation After 711 the
rock was named Jebel-al-Tarik (Hill of Tank,
whence its modern name), after the Arab chief
Tank ibn Ziad, who built a fortress on the
promontory, part of which still exists In 1309
Gibraltar was taken by the Castihans, but was
regained by the Moors in 1333 and held until
1462, when it finally passed from their posses-
sion In 1502 it was annexed to the Spanish
crown After the sacking of Gibraltar by Bar-
bar ossa, the Algerine, in 1540, extensive works
were built by command of Charles V In 1704
it was captured by a combined Dutch and Eng-
lish force under Sir George Rooke and the Prince
of Hesse-Darmstadt, fighting for the Archduke
Charles of Austria, but it was unscrupulously
taken possession of for the crown of England by
the British admiral The Treaty of Utrecht
(1713) ceded the fortress to Great Britain The
most impoitant event in its subsequent history
is the famous siege of three years, seven months,
and twelve days, extending from 1779 to 17S3,
which bristled with exciting incidents Com-
munications with Spain were closed on June 21,
1779, and a strict blockade was established by
the Spanish, fleet, the strength of the besieged
force at this period was 5382 men, under General
Eliott, the Governor Twice the garuson was
almost reduced to starvation, being temporarily
relieved in the face of great opposition — on the
first occasion by Admiral Rodney, who added
1000 to the defenders, and on the second occa-
sion by Admiral Darby Iij July, 1782, the
Due de Crillon took command of the combined
naval and land forces of France and Spam em-
ployed in the siege and made preparations foi a
supreme effort Additional batteries were con-
structed on the land side, and 10 enormous and
presumedly invincible floating batteries were
constructed by the Chevalier d' Argon Covered
boats to disembark 40,000 troops were also pre-
pared The formidable attack commenced on.
September 8, and continued until the 13th,
when, by the expedient of red-hot balls, the
British destroyed the floating batteries and re-
pulsed their enemies, of whom over 2000 were
killed The British casualties were 16 killed
and 68 wounded The signing of the prelimi-
naries of peace put an end to the siege in Febru-
ary, 1783 In 1830 a Charter of Justice was
given to the people and the inhabitants were
granted civil liberty. Consult Drinkwater,
History of the Siege of Gibraltar (London,
1785, new ed , 1844) , Mann, History of Gibral-
tar (ib, 1870), Field, Gibraltar (New York,
1889) , Boyle, Gibraltar (British Empire, Ser v,
London, 1902) ; Spilsbury, Journal of the Siege
of Gibraltar (ib, 1908), Lang, Gibraltar and
the West Indies (New York, 1909).
GIBBALTAB, STRAIT OF (Lat. Fretum Her-
culewm ) A narrow passage connecting the At-
lantic Ocean with the Mediterranean Sea and
separating Spam fiom Moiocco (Map Europe,
C 5) Its length is about 40 miles, and its
\\idth varies fiom about 9 miles at the west
entrance to about 13 miles at the east entrance
A channel, 5 miles wide, through the centie of
the Strait has a depth of 1000 feet A continual
central curient enters from the Atlantic, and
tidal currents ebb and flow along the European
and African shores It has been demonstrated
that there exists a west-flowing undercurrent
•which carries off the surplus waters of the
Mediten anean
GIBEAILTAE, OF AMERICA A frequent
name for Quebec, because of its position and
strong foitifications
GIBSON, gtt/son, CHAELES DANA (1867-
) An American illustratoi He was "born
at Roxbury, Mass, Sept 14, 1867 The first
eight years of his life were spent in Boston
Later his home was in Flushing, LI He
studied at the Art Students' League, New York,
and under Samt-Gaudens In 1S86 he made his
de*but as an artist for the periodicals In 1889
he went to Pans and was enrolled at Julian's
studio Returning to New Yoik, he was active
as an illustrator foi Life, the Centwy, Bcrib-
ner's, Harper's, and other magazines The
publication of his drawings in album form
greatly increased his popularity In 1893-94
he was again m Paris, m 1895-96 in London,
in 1898 in Munich Gibson is one of the great-
est living masters of black and white His
method is original and has been frequently imi-
tated, but never equaled It combines dainti-
ness with boldness and is characterized by free
insistence on live and brilliant high lights
He has a strong feeling for the beautiful, the
dramatic, and the humorous His types, while
not numerous, are well characterized He ex-
cels in depicting well-bred American society,
and is the creator of the fascinating, liaughty,
egotistic (i American Girl," so popular in, modem
illustrations His subjects are taken from the
boulevards, byways, theatres, clubs, law courts,
music halls, parks, and crowds in stations His
published works include London, as Seen l>y
C D Gilson (1895-96), Pictures of People
(1896), People of Dickens (1897), Sketches
and Cartoons (1898) , Sketches in Egypt (1899) ,
The Education of Mr Pip (1899) , Americans
(1900) , A Widow and her Friends (1901) , The
Social Ladder (1902), Our Neighbors (1905)
Among the books illustrated by him are Anthony
Hope's Prisoners of Zen da and Rupert of Hen-
zati, R H Davis' s Soldiers of Fortune, and
Robert Grant's Art of Living From 1900 to
1905 he devoted himself almost wholly to car-
toons for Life and Collier's Weekly In the
latter year he gave up illustrating and went to
Europe to study color painting, in which he
achieved real success, but he lias since returned
to New York and resumed illnati ation
GIBSON, EDMUND (1669-1748) Bishop of
London and an authority upon canon law He
was born at Bampton, entered Queen's College,
Oxford, in 1686, and in 1692 published an edi-
tion of the Sawon Chronicle, with a Latin trans-
lation, indexes, and notes This was followed in
1693 by an annotated edition of the De Institu-
tions Oratona of Qumtihan and in 1695 by a
translation of Camden's Britannia, "with addi-
tions and improvements/1 in the preparation ol
which he had the assistance of several other
GIBSON
744
GIBSON
scholars The year preceding he had taken holy
orders and became chaplain and librarian to
Thomas Temson, Archbishop of Canterbury
In 1703 he became lector of Lambeth and in
1710 Archdeacon of Suirey In the discussions
which arose in the reigns of William and Anne
lelative to the rights and privileges of the Con-
^oeation, Gibson took a very active part and in
a series of pamphlets warmly advocated the
light of the Archbishop to continue or prorogue
that assembly The controversy suggested to
him the idea of those researches which resulted
in the Code® Juris Ecclesice Anghcance In 1716
Gibson was consecrated Bishop of Lincoln,
whence he was, in 1723, translated to London,
whore for 25 years he exercised an immense in-
fluence, being the authority chiefly consulted
by the court on all ecclesiastical affairs Among
the literary efforts of his later years the prin-
cipal were a series of Pastoral Letters and the
Preservative against Popeiy (1738), a compila-
tion of numerous contioversal writings of emi-
nent Church of England divines, dating chiefly
from the period of James II He died at
Bath, Sept 6, 1748
GIBS03ST, JOHN (1790-1806) An English
sculptor He was born at Gyfnn, near Conway,
Noith Wales, and at an early age was appren-
ticed to a cabinetmaker in Liveipool When
10 yeais old he was employed in the marble
\vorks of Francis, at Liveipool, where his talents
gained him the patronage of William. Roscoe,
\vho not only became his fiiend, but also secured
him pecuniary aid In 1817 he made his way
to London, and in the same year he went to
Rome, bearing a letter of introduction from
Lord Brougham to Canova He entered the
atelier of Canova, also studying under Thorvald-
scn, and remained in Home £7 years, executing
in that city most of his important works
In 1819 he executed his first commission, a
e^roup of "Mars and Cupid," for the Duke of
Devonshire, now at Chatsworth Under the in-
fluence of Canova and Thorvaldsen his work
became thoroughly classic, and he excelled in
portraying ideal Greek subjects of youthful
beauty Among the most famous of these are
the "Sleeping Shepherd Boy," his first work at
Rome, and "Hylos Surprised by Nymphs"
(1826), the lattei in the National Gallery,
London, and especially his statue of "Venus
with the Turtle," one of his latest works, which
he himself considered his best. In this statue
and in others he made use of the polychromy
of the Greeks, as he conceived it He was so
thoroughly wedded to Gieek art that when com-
missioned to make a portrait statue of Queen
Victoria he would do it in no other wise than
repiesent her in classical draperies and with
sandals In the palace of Westminster he carved
the group in which the Queen is represented
leading the allegorical figures of "Clemency"
and "Justice" The only religious subject he
portiayed was "Christ Blessing the Little Chil-
dren " His best work in the round was the
"Hunter and Dog" His classical tendencies in-
terfered with his success in portrait statues
Among the best known of these are the colossal
statue of Huskisson (1844), in Liverpool, and
two other statues of the same statesman, Sir
Robert Peel, in Westminster Abbey, and George
Stephenson, in Liverpool Gibson was a man of
kindly life and character and notoriously ab-
sent-minded. His only pupil and most intimate
friend was Harriet Hosmer, the American sculp-
tress He died in Rome, Jan 27, 1866 Con-
sult his Life by Lady Eastlake (London, 1870),
which also contains his autobiogi aphy, and
Carr, Essays on Art (ib, 1879)
GIBSON", JOHN MONEO (1838^1921) A
British Presbyterian clergyman, born at Whit-
horn, Scotland He went to Canada in 1855,
graduated in 1862 at Toronto University, and
in 1864 at Knox College (theological), Toronto,
and in 1864-74 was pastor of the Erskme
Church, Montreal, and in 1868-74 lecturer in
Hebrew and Greek exegesis at Montreal Theo-
logical College He was pastor of the Second
Presbyterian Church, Chicago, in 1874-80, and
then of the St John's Wood Presbyterian
Chuich, London, England In 1891 he was
elected moderator of the Presbyterian church
in England, and in 1897 president of the na-
tional council of Free churches He wrote
The Ages before Moses (1879), The Founda-
tions (1880), The Gospel of Matthew (1890)
in the "Expositor's Bible", The Unity and Sym-
metry of the Bible (1896) , From Fact to Faith
(1898) , The Glory of Life (1900) , Apocalyptic
Sketches (1901), Ptotestant Principles (1901),
Devotional Study of Holy Scripture (1904) ,
The Inspiration and Authority of Holy Scrip-
ture (1908)
GIBSON, SIB JOHN MOBISON (1842- )
A Canadian administrator He was born near
Toronto and was educated at Toronto Univer-
sity, wheie he graduated with the highest honors
in 1863 and afterwaid took a law course He
practiced his profession in Hamilton, where he
became one of the leaders of the provincial
bar Entering politics in 1879, he was a Liberal
member of the Ontario Legislature almost con-
tinuously from that year until 1905 In 1889-
96 he was Provincial Secretary in the adminis-
tration of Sir Oliver Mowat (qv ) , in 1896-
99, Commissioner of Crownlands in the ad-
ministration of Sir Arthur Sturgis Hardy
(qv), and in 1899-1905, Attorney-General in
the administration of Hon George William Eoss
( q v ) He early manifested an active interest
in military matters, served in the militia dur-
ing the Fenian raid of 1866, lose to the rank
of lieutenant colonel in 1895, and was brigade
commander in 1905-09 While he was a mem-
ber of the Legislature he procured the passage
of laws restricting the liquor traffic, reorganiz-
ing the Ontario insurance system, conserving
fish and game resources, and for the protection
of neglected and dependent children In 1908-14
he was Lieutenant Governor of Ontario In 1912
he was knighted.
GIBSON, MABGABET DTJNLOP (nee SMITH)
( 9-1920 ) A British Orientalist, born in Ayr-
shire With her sister, Mrs Agnes Smith Lewis,
she visited Palestine several times (especially
after 1886, when her husband, James Young Gib-
son, translator of Cervantes, died) In 1892 they
discovered and photographed the Syriac palimp-
sest of the Gospels in the Sinai The two sisters
gave the site in Cambridge for Westminster
Theological College (Presbyterian), opened in
1899 Mrs Gibson received honorary degrees
from Heidelberg, St Andrew's, and Dublin
universities She wrote How the Oodesc was
Found (1893), Aprocrypha Sinaitica (1896),
Horce Semitioce (190'3 et seq), The Commen-
taries of Isho'dad (1911), Syriac and English
Commentaries on Acts (1913)
G-IBSON", KAOTELL LEE ( 1830-92) An Amer-
ican soldier and legislator He was born at
GIBSON
745
GIB
Spring Hill, Ky , and graduated at Yale ( vale-
dictorian) in 1853 and at the law school of the
University of Louisiana (now Tulane Univer-
sity) in 1855 Admitted to the bar, he went to
Europe and studied at Berlin and at Madud,
where he was attached to the American Lega-
tion In 1856 he returned to Louisiana, where
he was engaged in sugai planting until the
outbreak of the Civil Wai Enlisting as a
private in the Louisiana volunteeis, he was
rapidly promoted, was appointed colonel of the
Thirteenth Louisiana Infantry, and commanded
a brigade at Shiloh, where he led four unsuc-
cessful chaiges on the famous "Hornets3 Nest"
He fought in the battles of Perryville, Murfrees-
boro, and Chickamauga, and was promoted
brigadier and major general He participated
in the battles during Johnston's retreat from
Dalton to Atlanta, at the battles of Jonesboro
and Nashville, and in the Mobile campaign,
where he successfully defended Spanish Fort
against General Canby Aftei the war he be-
gan the practice of law in New Orleans He
was elected to Congress in 1872, but was not
seated On his second election, in 1874, how-
ever, he was seated and remained in the House
of Representatives until 1883, after which, until
his death, he was a member of the United States
Senate, where, as in the Lower House, he worked
for the improvement of the Mississippi River
and the establishment of the Mississippi River
Commission He was president of the boaid
that administered the fund for Tulane University
and a trustee of the Peataody Fund A selec-
tion from his speeches in the Senate was pub-
lished in Washington in 1891
GIBSOET, THOMAS MILNEH- (1806-84) An
English statesman The only son of Major Mil-
ner Gibson, he was born at Port of Spam, Trini-
dad, West Indies, Sept 3, 1806 He was first
educated at Dr Cogan's Unitarian School, Wal-
thamstow, where Benjamin Disraeli was his
classmate He entered at the Charterhouse
School m 1819 and in 1830 received the B A
degree at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1837
he entered Parliament as C'onsei vative member
for Ipswich, but became a Liberal and resigned
two years later He assumed the surname of
Milner-Gibson by royal license in 1839 After
unsuccessful attempts to reenter Parliament, he
was returned for Manchester in 1841 In 1846
Lord John Russell made him Privy Councilor
and Vice President of the Board of Trade As
president of the Association for the Repeal of
Taxes on Knowledge, his crusade against the
excise on paper, the advertisement duty, and the
newspaper stamp duty, resulted in the repeal of
these taxes in 1861, and Milner-Gibson was the
recipient of a public testimonial At the out-
break of the Crimean War he identified himself
with the "Peace Party" of Cobden and Bright
His views were distasteful to his constituency,
and he was unseated in 1857, but the same year
was returned for Ashton-under-Lyne, which he
represented till 1868, when his defeat at the
general election led to his retirement from polit-
ical life with a pension of £2000. From 1859
to 1866 he was president of the Poor-Law Board,
and President of the Board of Trade with cabi-
net rank He was an enthusiastic yachtsman,
senior member of the Royal Yacht Squadron,
and also an elder brother of Trinity House He
died an board his yacht at Algiers, Feb 25, 1884.
GIBSON, WILLIAM ^1788-1868). An Ameri-
can surgeon, born in Baltimore, Md He gradu-
ated at Princeton in 1806 and at the University
of Edinburgh in 1809 In 1815 he fought with
the Allies at Waterloo From 1819 to 1855 he
was professor of surgery in the University of
Pennsylvania He was the friend of Lord Byron
and of many noteworthy English and European
surgeons He published Principles and Practice
of Suigery (2 vols , 1824), once widely used
and Rambles in Europe (1839) Consult Gross,
Lives of Eminent American Physicians and
Surgeons of the Nineteenth Century (Phila-
delphia, 1861)
GIBSON, WILLIAM (1849-1914) A Cana-
dian capitalist and legislator He was born
at Peteihead, Scotland, and was educated at
the Peterhead Academy Coming to Canada in
1870, he engaged in business and became a suc-
cessful lailway contractor, wealthy, and a direc-
toi 111 various industrial and financial corpora-
tions He handled some of the most important
lailway contracts in Canada, including the ma-
sonry on both sides of the St Clair River Tun-
nel, the Sarnia poitals and their approaches,
and the enlaigement of the Victoria Jubilee
Bridge, Montreal In 1891-1900 he was a
Liberal member of the House of Commons and
in 1900 was appointed chief Liberal "whip" foi
that body In 1902 he became a member of the
Dominion Senate.
GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON (1850-96)
An American illustrator and author, born at
Sandy Hook, N J He studied at Washington,
Conn, and afteiward at the Polytechnic Insti-
tute, Brooklyn His career as an artist began
with illustrations of botanical drawings for the
American Agriculturist and Hearth and Home,
also for Harper's Magazine and the Art Journal
Gibson's di awing are very correct and minute
in detail, and in water color he used a few
tints exquisitely His subjects include the in-
terpretations of woodland beauties and of
flowers and insects His art is pervaded with
the accuracy of the lover of scientific fact, and
he was a successful lecturer on botany He was
authoi and illustrator of the following publica-
tions Gamp Life in the Woods (1882) , High-
toays and Byways (1883), Happy Hunting
Grounds (1886) , Sharp Eyes (1892), Our Edi-
ble Toadstools and Mushrooms (1895) , Eye
Spy (1897) He made the illustrations for
E P Roe's Nature's Serial Story and was one
of the illustrators of Picturesque America A
memorial exhibit of his works was held at the
National Arts Club, New York, m 1900 Con-
sult Adams, W H. Gibson (New York, 1901)
GICHTEL, giK'tel, JOHAWN GEOBG (1638-
1710) A German mystic He was born in
Regensburg and was a lawyer by profession
In 1664 he came under mystic influence, ex-
perienced visions, and thenceforth devoted him-
self entirely to a Society for Christian Edifica-
tion His teachings brought him frequently
into conflict with the authorities Banished
from his native town, he betook himself to Hol-
land, where the same experience was repeated
After 1668 he lived at Amsterdam He founded
an order whose members called themselves "An-
gelic Brethren" because they renounced mar-
riage He made the first collected edition of the
writings of Jakob Boehme (Amsterdam, 1682).
His own writings appeared in a collected edi-
tion at Ley den in 1722, and his biography, in
connection with Boehme's, was written by Har-
less (Leipzig, 1882)
GID, gtd (from giddy}, or STDRDY A disease
GIDDINESS
746
GIDDINGS
of sheep, caused by the presence of the lai\a of
a tapeworm, Multiceps multiceps (Tcenia coeiw-
? us] in the brain Before the life history of
this parasite was discovered the laiva was
known as Goenwus cerebrahs, which sometimes
attains the size of a hazelnut It floats in a
watery fluid inclosed in a membranous sac
Should the larva be eaten by a dog, it develops
in the dog's intestines to a vermifoim parasite,
and produces eggs which, being voided by the dog
in the detached segments, may be picked up
by the sheep while grazing The hard shell of
the egg is digested off, and a minute embryo
liberated, which bores its way through the walls
of the digestive tract, and finally into a blood
vessel and reaches the brain by way of the blood
stream Coyotes may also serve the same office
as the dog in the life cycle of the worm The
afflicted sheep staggers when moved, turns
stupidly around almost in one spot, usually
towards the side upon which the parasite lies,
and loses flesh because these conditions inter-
fere with food prehension The parasite and
its sac may generally be safely removed by plac-
ing the sheep, with its feet tied, on a table or
bench, searching for the softened portion of the
skull, which generally overlies the hydatid, lay-
ing back a flap of skin, and introducing the
trochar and cannula, and, when the sac is deep-
seated, cautiously withdrawing it with the help
of a small syringe Protected by a leather cap
and simple water dressings, the wound speedily
heals In preventing the spread of this disease,
which is especially common in low, damp pas-
tures, and among sheep from 6 to 20 months
old, it is desirable to burn the heads of affected
sheep, otherwise they may be eaten by dogs m
which the immature tapeworms would develop
to the adult egg-laying form Consult M. C
Hall, "The Gid Parasite and Allied Species of
the Cestode Genus Multiceps," United States
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal
Industry, Bulletin 125 (1910), id, "Some Im-
portant Facts in the Life History of the Gid
Parasite and their Bearing on the Prevention
of the Disease," United States Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Circular
159 (1910), id, "Methods for the Eradication
of Gid," United States Department of Agricul-
ture) Bureau of Ammal Industry, Circular 165
(1910)
GIDIHNESS See VEBTIGO
GIBDINGS, gid'dingz, FBANKLIN HENBY
(1855- ) An American sociologist and
economist, born at Sherman, Conn He gradu-
ated at Union College (1877) and engaged m
newspaper work, writing on politics and eco-
nomics for the Springfield Republican and the
Springfield Daily Union In 1888 he was ap-
pointed lecturer in political science at Bryn
Mawr, where he was subsequently advanced to
the chair of political science, and in 1894 he
became professor of sociology at Columbia Uni-
versity From 1892 to 1905 he was a vice
president of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science His principal works are
The Modern Distributive Process (in collabora-
tion with J B, Clark, 1888) , The Theory of
Sociology (1894), Principles of Sociology
(1896), The Theory of Socialization (1897),
Elements of Sociology (1898), Democracy and
Empire (1900), Inductive Sociology (1901),
Descriptive and Historical Sociology (190G)
The working principle by which he seeks to ex-
plain the fundamental sociological phenomena
13 psychical in its nature — "consciousness of
kind" in his earlier works, "like response to
like stimuli" in the Inductive Sociology In
this he diffeis ladically from the school of con-
temporary writers, who seek to explain sociolog-
ical facts in terms of the environment His
later works are characterized by the ingenious
application of statistical method to sociological
material See SOCIOLOGY
GIDBI3STGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864) An
eminent American legislator, prominent as a
"Constitutional" Abolitionist in the antislavery
struggle He wTas bom at Tioga Point (now
Athens), Pa, Oct 6, 1795 His early life was
spent in Canandaigua, N Y , until hi& parents
lemoved to Ashtabula County, Ohio, where he
afterwaid resided He enlisted as a soldiei in
the War of 1812 and served for a few months
m the protection of the Westein Eeserve against
the Indians, then taught school, studied law,
and in 1821 began professional practice at Jef-
ferson In 1826 he was sent to the State Legisla-
ture and m 1838 to Congress The slavery agi-
tation had already begun, and Giddmgs became
a forceful advocate of the abolition of slavery in
the District of Columbia and the national Ter-
ritories He supported the efforts of John
Quincy Adams to maintain the right of petition
and in fact seized upon every opportunity to
develop a public sentiment hostile to slavery
On Feb 9, 1841, he delivered a powerful speech
upon the Indian War in Florida, insisting that
it was waged in the interest of slaveiy While
the excitement caused by the Creole case (qv )
was at its height, he introduced in the House of
Representatives a series of resolutions declaring
that the slaves, having simply asserted their in-
defeasible right to liberty, were guilty of no
crime, and that as soon as they left the juris-
diction of Viigmia they became free The res-
olutions created a tumultuous excitement, and
Giddings was censured by vote of the House for
presenting them He thereupon resigned his
seat, but was reelected by a very large majority
He was kept at his post by successive reelections
until 1859, thus completing a continuous service
of 20 years Until 1848 he was a member of
the Whig party, supporting its principal meas-
ures, but maintaining his independence in all
matters relating to slavery He did much to
develop those views with regard to the relation
of slavery to the national government which
afterward became the basis of the Republican
party He took a prominent pait in the strug-
gle to prevent the extension of slavery to the
territory wrested from Mexico by the War of
1846-47, and in resisting the adoption of the
Compromise of 1850, especially the reenactment
of the Fugitive Slave Law ( q v ) He was also
conspicuous in the debates which preceded the
repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854 and
in the great struggle by which Kansas was made
a free State On May 8, 1856, while addressing
the House, he suddenly fell to the floor in a
state of unconsciousness He soon revived, but
his former strength was never fully restored
On Jan 17, 1858, he fell again in the same way
and for a time was supposed to be dead He
again rallied, however, but was compelled for a
time to leave his post In 1861 he was ap-
pointed Consul General for the British North
American Provinces, with headquarters in Mon-
treal In 1843 he wrote a series of political
essays signed "Pacificus," which attracted wide
attention A volume of his speeches was pub-
GIDE
747
GIERS
lished in 1853 He also wrote The Exiles of
Florida (1858) and The History of the Rebel-
lion Its Authors and Causes (1864) Consult
Buel, Joshua R G-iddings (Cleveland, 1882),
and, more particularly, Julian, Life of Joshua
R biddings (Chicago, 1892)
G-IDE, zhed, CHARLES ( 1847- ) A French
political economist, born at Uzes (Gard) From
1874 to 1880 he was professor of junsprudence
at Bordeaux, in the latter year became profes-
sor of political economy at Montpellier, and in
1898 professor at the University of Pans and
the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees He was a
leader in the movement towards "Christian So-
cialism" oiganized by French Protestants, and
in his writings expresbed the views of the classi-
cal French school of economics He became
Chevahei of the Legion of Honor His publica-
tions include Du droit d' association en matiere
rehgieuse (1874) , Principes d'economie politigue
(1884, 13th ed, 1911) , Etude sur I' Act Torrens
(1886); La Cooperation (1900, 3d ed , 1910),
Les societes cooperatives de consommation
(1904, 2d ed, 1909), La separation des eglises
de I'etat (1905), Economic sociale les institu-
tions du progres social au debut XX siecle
(1905, 4th ed , 1912), Cours d'economie poli-
tique (1909, 2d ed., 1911), and, with Charles
Hist, Histoire des doctrines economiques (1909).
G-IDEL, zh£'del', CHARLES ANTOINE (1827-
1900^ A French author, born at Gannat (Al-
lier) He was a professor successively at the
Lycee Henri IV, the Lycee Louis le Giand,
and the Lycee Condorcet His most important
work is the Histoire de la litterature frangaise
(1874-91). His Etude sur Saint-Evremond
(1866) received the Prix d'Eloquence from the
Academy
GIDEOiN", gid'e-on (Heb. Q-id'onj perhaps con-
nected with gada', to fell) A Hebrew warrior,
also called Jerubbaal and once (2 Sam xi 21)
Jerubbesheth According to the biblical nar-
rative, Gideon delivered the Hebrews from the
oppression of the Midianites and became one of
the "judges" of Israel, and his son Abimelech
was made "king" in Shechem (Judg vi-ix)
Gideon and Jerubbaal are supposed by many
scholars to be two distinct personages On this
assumption Gideon belongs to the western sec-
tion of Manasseh, Jerubbaal to the eastern, or
perhaps to the tribe of Gad The stories re-
garding these heroes, after being confused in
the minds of the people, are thought to have
been combined by successive narrators into a
single tale In the case of both heroes the
opponents against whom they contend success-
fully are Midianites According to the original
Gideon narrative, these Midianites choose the
harvest time as the most favorable moment of
attack, when they are certain of reaping a iich
booty Gideon at Ophrah receives the summons
through Yah we to gather his clansmen in order
to resist the expected attack of the nomads
Warriors of Ephraun join with those of Manas-
seh, and the march is begun to Mount Gilboa,
beneath which the Midianites are encamped
Gideon approaches the camp stealthily and, en-
couraged by hearing one of the Midianites re-
lating to his fellow a significant dream, returns
to the Hebrew camp With the war cry "the
sword of Yahwe and of Gideon" the Hebrews
rush upon the Midianites, who are utterly routed
,and flee to the distant slope of Abel Meholah
They are followed by the victorious Hebrews,
who succeed in capturing two of the princes of
Vnr TT — 48
the Midianites, Oreb and Zeeb, and their heads
are brought to Gideon In the original Jerub-
baal story the hero, residing at Jazer, is repre-
sented as pioeeeclmg with 10 members of his
household at night against the Midianites and
inflicting a slaughter upon them In levenge
the Midianites tuin against Jerubbaal's biethren,
slay them, and go on plundering and killing
far to the north Jeiubbaal now gathers 300
warnois of his clan around him and, after en-
during many hardships on the road, finally en-
counters the Midianites at Karkor By means
of a stratagem he surprises and throws the
Midianites into a panic, the result of which is a
complete defeat of the marauders Jerubbaal
captures the two kings of Midian, Zebah and
Zalmunna, and puts them to death In the
legendary amplification of this narrative Jeiub-
baal is recognized as King by his people, and
since, as a worshiper of Yahwe, it seemed dis-
tasteful to later editors that he should have a
name which contained Baal as an element, the
name is inteipreted and modified as though it
indicated "opposition to Baal" (Judg vi 32),
and m one instance (2 Sam \i 21) is disguised
by substituting lesheth for it (See BAAL ) In
general, however, the name "Gideon" is quietly
substituted for "Jerubbaal " The similarity of
the two stories no doubt was one element which
led to their confusion in the minds of the people,
but the combination is essentially the work of
narrators who aimed at reconstructing the past
from the point of view of zealous devotees of
Yahwe In the course of the narratives stress
is laid on the fact that the oppression of the
Midianites is a punishment sent because the
people had fallen away from Yahwe, while
Gideon is represented as a devoted worshiper of
Yahwe, who at the risk of his life destroys
the Baal altars in his town (Judg vi 25-32)
Consult the chapters on Gideon-Jerubbaal in
the Hebrew histories of Stade, Kittel, Guthe,
Wellhausen, and the commentaries on the Book
of Judges by Studer, Bachmann, Moore, and
Budde, also Niebuhr, Studien zur G-eschichte
des alten Orients, vol i (Berlin, 1894) , Budde,
Richter und Samuel (Giessen, 1890) , Kittel,
fttudien &ur hel)raischen Archaologie (Leipzig,
1908)
GIEHBJL, gerl, EMMY (1837- ) A
German writer of juveniles, born in Regensburg,
daughter of the Bavarian Minister of Finance
Von Aschenbrenner In 1858 she married
Rudolf Giehrl, and after his death, in 1876,
began writing for children, often under the
pseudonym of "Tante Emmy " She brought
out for more than 30 years a Kinderkalendar
In 1894-99 a collected edition of her stories for
children appeared in 15 volumes She also pub-
lished Ertnnerungen aus m&iner Jug end (1899)
and Mewie Lieder, was wh in funfgig Jahren
singe (1913).
GIERS, gerz, NIKOLAI KARLOVITCH DE (1820-
95) A Russian statesman He served for some
years in the Asiatic Department of the Ministry
of Foreign Afiairs and was sent as Minister Pleni-
potentiary to Teheran in 1863, to Bern in 1869,
and to Stockholm in 1872 After his marriage
into the family of Prince Gortchakov the latter
made him his adjunct In 1882 Giers succeeded
tae Prince as Minister of Foreign Affairs, hav-
ing meanwhile shown himself an astute diplo-
mat in the negotiations with Great Britain on
the Afghan boundary question, and in this posi-
tion he distinguished himself by his wise con-
GIES
748
GIPFOBD
servatism and the maintenance of peaceful re-
lations ^ith other European powers
GIES, gez, WILLIAM JOHN (1872- ) An
American" biological chemist, born at Reisters-
town, Baltimore Co, Md He graduated from
Gettysburg College m 1893 and studied also at
Yale (PhD, 1897), Bern, and Woods Hole,
Mass A member of the faculty of Columbia
University after 1898, he became in 1907 pro-
fessor of biological chemistry, he was appointed
piofessor of physiological chemistry m the New
York College of Pharmacy m 1904 and in
Teacheis College (Columbia) m 1909, and
prominently identified himself with the New
York Botanical Gardens Besides much edi-
torial woik, especially for vanous scientific
societies, his writings include Biochemical Re-
searches (4 vols , 1903-09), Text-Book of
General Chemistry (1904), Text-Book of Ot-
game Chemistry (1905, 1909); Laboratory
Work in Biological Chemistry (1906).
GIESEBRECHT, ge'ze-breKt, FRIEDBICH WIL-
HELM BENJAMIN VON (1814-89) A celebiated
German historian, born m Berlin He puistied
historical studies at the University of Beilm
as a pupil of Leopold von Ranke In 1857 he
was appointed professor of lustoiy at Konigs-
berg and in 1862 accepted a cali to Munich
His Oeschichte der deutschen Kaiset zeit (vol
i, 1855-vol vi, 1895), a monumental undertak-
ing for which the Berlin Academy awarded
him the prize established by Fuedrich Wilhelm
IV in recognition of distinguished service to
German history, is marked in the eailiei vol-
umes by much attractiveness of presentation and
tin ough out by a mmute and exacting investiga-
tion of souices Consult a memorial oration by
Riezler (Munich, 1891)
GIESELEB, ge'ze-ler, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG
(1792-1854) One of the greatest of Church
historians He was born March 3, 1792, at
Petershagen, near Mmden, Westphalia, where
his father was a clergyman He was educated
at Halle and m October, 1813, entered the army
as a volunteer during the War of Liberation
In 1818 he was appointed to the directorship of
a newly instituted gymnasium at Cleves and
published his Historisch-kritischer Versuch uber
die Entstehung und die fruhesten SchicLsale der
schrifthchen Evanffehen In consequence of this
publication he was called, in 1819, as professor
of theology, to the University of Bonn, which
had been established but shortly before It was
m this place that he began his great work on
Church history, of which three volumes appeared
during his life, and two more after his death,
under the editorship of E. K, Redepennmg
(Bonn, 1823-52, 3 vols, m 8 parts, 4th ed of
first four parts, 1844-48, 2d ed of fifth part,
1849, posthumous ed , vols. iv and v, 1854-55,
Eng. trans , Edinburgh, 1846, 5 vols , with addi-
tions by H B Smith, New York, 1855-80, 5
vols ) Vol. vi (1856) contains his Dogmenge-
schichte In 1831 Gieseler was called to a chair
in Gottingen Besides numerous contributions
to periodicals and publications on contemporary
questions, he edited Euthymius Zygabenus, Nar-
ratio de Bogomilis (Gottingen, 1842), as well as
Petrus Siculus, Eistona Manichceorum sen
Paulicianorum (Gottingen, 1846) He died at
Gottingen, July 8, 1854 For his life by Rede-
penning, consult vol v of his Kirchengeschichte
(vol i of the Eng trans by Smith)
GIESSBACH (g&s'baK) PALLS A pictur-
esque cataract of Switzerland, in the Bernese
Obeiland, falling into Lake Brienz (qv ) It
consists of se^en cascades formed by the Giess-
bach stiearn duiing a descent oi 980 ieet from
its source in the Sclrwarzhorn The laigest cas-
cade has a fall of 190 feet
GrIESSElSr, ges'sen A town of Hesse, capital
of the Province of Upper Hesse, situated at the
confluence of the Wieseck and the Lahn, 41
miles by rail north of Fiankfoit (Map Ger-
many, C 3) It has a number of fine modern
chinches, an old Rathaus, a bariacks, and a
university The univeisity, founded in 1607,
\\as lemoved to Marburg in 1625 and reestab-
lished at Giessen m 1650 It has four faculties
(1533 students in 1013), a library of 261,747
volumes (1913), founded m 1617, a chemical
laboiatoiy ai ranged by Liehig (who was a pro-
fessor here ) , botanical gardens, and several in-
stitutes and collections Giessen has also a
teachers' seminary, a gymnasium, and a school
of agnculture The chief trade of Giessen
is in cigars and tobacco, employing moie than
3000 hands, also lamps, furnituie, safes, dyes
lacquer, varnish, machinery, metal products,
textiles, chemicals, musical instruments Pop ,
1900, 25,491, 1910, 31,153, chiefly Protestants
Giessen dates from the twelfth century
GIFFEN, glffen, SIB ROBERT (1837-1910).
An English statistician and economist He was
bom at Strathaven, Lanarkshire, and was edu-
cated at the parish school in his native town,
and at Glasgow College In 1860 he began news-
papei work as a leporter on the staff of the
Stilling Joumal In 1862 he obtained a posi-
tion on the London (rZo&e, which he occupied
until 1866, when he was engaged as assistant
to John Morley, on the Fortnightly Review
From 1868 to 1876 he was the assistant editor
and principal contributor to the Economist, under
the editorship of Walter Bagehot, and served
during part of the same time (from 1873 to
1876) aa city editor of the London Daily News,
for which he furnished the daily trade and finan-
cial article In 1876 he was appointed chief of
the statistical department of the Board of
Trade He continued to hold office after it
was merged, in 1882, with that of assistant
secretary of the Board of Trade Another
change in the organization of his department
was made in 1892, when he was appointed comp-
ti oiler general of the commercial, labor, and
statistical depaitments He retired in 1897
From 1882 to 1884 he was president of the
Statistical Society His writings include fre-
quent contributions to the leading journals and
magazines and the following publications
American Railways as Investments (1873),
Stock Exchange Securities (1878) , Essays in
Finance (1st series, 1879, 2d series, 1884), The
Progress of the Working Classes in the Last Half
Century (1884) , The Growth of Capital (1890) ,
The Case against Bimetallism (1892) , Economic
Inquiries and Studies (2 vols, 1904)
GIFFORD, gif'ferd, ADAM, LOED (1820-87)
A Scottish jurist and philanthropist, born in
Edinburgh He was admitted to the Scottish
bar m 1849, and in 1861 was appointed advo-
cate deputy and in 1865 sheriff of Orkney and
Zetland In 1870 he became a -judge of the
Court of Sessions, with the title of Lord Gifford
He gave by his will £80,000 to endow (the Gif-
ford) lectureships in natural theology at the
four Scottish universities — Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Abeideen, and St Andrews
, ROBEBT SWAIN (1840-1905) An
GUFFOBD
749
GIFT
American landscape painter and etcher He was
born on the island of Naushon, Gosnold (Mass ),
and studied in New Bedford under A van Beest,
a Dutch painter, from whom he acquired a
certain Dutch quality of style He later trav-
eled for purposes of study in Euiope and north-
ern Africa,, and was one of the first Americans
to choose subjects from those countries His
most characteristic landscapes, however, depict
the seashore 01 the moorlands They are well
constructed, solidly painted, and full of virile
sentiment, but unattractive in coloi He was
equally proficient in water colors and oils and
became a member of the New York Water Color
Society in 1865, making his home in New York
for three years In 1869 he visited California
and Oregon The Metropolitan Museum, New
York, possesses "Near the Coast" Other good
examples of his work are "After the Rain,"
" Coast of Vineyard Sound," and "Saltworks,
Dartmouth," exhibited at the St Louis Exposi-
tion (1904), "Cedar Tree Pasture and Ocean
Sand Dunes," exhibited in 1905
GIIiTOKD, SANFORD ROBINSON (1823-80)
An American landscape painter He was born
at Gieenfield, N Y, July 10, 1823, and studied
with the water-color painter John R Smith of
New York and was stiongly influenced by
Thomas Cole In 1851 he was elected associate
of the Academy and in 1854 Academician He
made a sketching tour through England and
Scotland in 1855, then went to Pans, and in
1856 he visited Belgium, Holland, Switzerland,
and Italy, spending the winter of the same year
in Rome The following year he spent in the
Abiuzzi, Naples, and Austria Returning to
New York at the beginning of the Civil War,
he enlisted in the Seventh Regiment He re-
mained with the army through the years 1862-
63 In 1866 he went 'west with Whittredge and
Kensett, and in 1868 he visited Greece, Syria,
Egypt, Turkey, and Italy Giffoid's pictures
are expressive of the poetic and ideal qualities
in landscape, they are rich and soft in color,
and m them, for the first time in the American
school, the interest is based entirely on artistic
problems Among the best are "Morning in the
Adirondacks" (1867), "San Giorgio, Venice"
(1878) , "Fishing Boats on the Adriatic", "The
Rums of the Parthenon" (1880), Coicoran Gal-
lery, Washington, "Tivoh" and "Near Pa-
lermo," in the Metropolitan Museum, New York
GrIFFOBD, WILLIAM (1756-1826) An Eng-
lish author He was born at Ashburton, Devon-
shire, in April, 1756 Left an orphan at 12,
he was first a cabin boy and then an apprentice
to a shoemaker Aided by a local surgeon who
had seen one of the boy's verses, he was sent
to Exeter College, Oxford, where he was gradu-
ated B A in 1782 He now traveled on the Con-
tinent for "many years" as tutor to the «ion of
Lord Grosvenor His first publication was the
Baviad (1794), a satire on the writers known as
'Delia Cruscans" (see DELLA CKUSCAN SCHOOL)
This was followed by the Mc&viad (1795), a
similar satire on some of the contemporary
dramatists, and by a savage attack on Dr John
Wolcot (qv), entitled An Epistle to Peter
Pindar (1800) Wolcot retaliated with the
feeble Out at a Cobbler In 1802 appeared a
translation of Juvenal, which Gifford had be-
gun at the university, and to which he now
prefixed an autobiography Giffortf, who had
gained the favor of Canning and his political
friends, edited the A.nti-Jacolin, in 1797-98,
and in 1809 he was appointed the first editor
of the Quarterly Review1 He was soon recog-
nized as one of the severest reviewers of the
time Having no sympathy with the new schools
of poets and critics, he attacked Hazlitt, Hunt,
Lamb, Wordsworth, Shelley, and especially
Keats, with great bitterness (Consult review
of Keats's "Endyrnion," in the Quarterly, April,
1818 ) He resigned from the Quarterly in
1824, having amassed a foitune of £25,000 He
died Dec 31, 1826, and was buried in Westmin-
ster Abbey Gifford is perhaps best known tc
scholars by his editions of Massinger, Ben Jon-
son, and Ford, and notes to Shirley used by
Dyce in his edition of the dramatist This
work, however, was not done very caiefully
The Baviad and the Mceviad are in British
Poets, ed by Frost (Philadelphia, 1838)
GIFT (AS, OHG. gift, from AS gifan, Goth
giban, OHG geb<m, Gei geben, to give) Gift,
in the broadest sense, includes eveiy gratuitous
transfer of property, whether real or personal,
and whether made orally, by deed, or by will
As a specific legal term, however, it is limited
to a present transfer of property without con-
sideration In this sense it is distinguishable
from a devise or legacy on the one hand (which
takes effect in the future, upon the giving
owner's death) and from a barter, a grant, 01
a sale on the other, in each of which transac-
tions a transfer is made upon a valuable con-
sideration. Gifts are divisible into two classes,
those causa mortis and those inter vivos The
first class has been discussed in the article on
DONATION ( q v )
It has been judicially declared that the ele-
ments necessary to the validity of a gift inter
vivos are the following (1) That the donor
must be competent to contract, (2) there must
be freedom of will, (3) the gift must be com-
plete, with nothing left undone, (4) the prop-
erty must be delivered by the donor and ac-
cepted by the donee, (5) the gift must go into
immediate and absolute effect If either of the
first two elements is wanting, the gift may be
avoided and the property regained by the donor,
because of his legal incapacity to transfer prop-
erty, or because he was the victim of fraud
duress, or undue influence In case, however,
all these essentials are present, the transfer
becomes irrevocable as between the donor and
donee Even then, if it leaves the donor in-
solvent it may be set #,side by his creditors as a
fraudulent conveyance (qv )
The third essential of a gift — that it must be
complete — distinguishes the transaction from a
promise to give A person makes a present of
his promissory note for $1000 to another Heie
is no gift, only a promise to give As a prom-
ise, it is unenforceable because there is no legal
consideration for it Had the donor presented
the donee with the promissory note of a thud
person, a gift would have been consummated
Whether the delivery to another of the donor's
check constitutes a gift of so much of his bank
deposit as is named in the check, or is to be
considered simply a promise to give, is a ques-
tion upon which the courts are divided The
weight of authority is m favor of the latter
view Any substantial act on the part of the
owner of property, tending to carry the gift into
effect, and to give the donee dominion over the
property so that he can appropriate it to his
use, will amount to a valid and effectual gift
Accordingly a savings-bank deposit may be e?
GIFTS
750
GIJOW
fectually given to another by delivering to the
latter the deposit book accompanied by an as-
signment, or by other acts which disclose the
donor's intention to presently pass title and
vest the donee with dominion over the fund
Oftentimes a transaction which fails of effect
as a gift is upheld by the courts as a declaration
of trust (qv ) in favor of the intended donee
This will not be done, as a rule, unless it is
apparent that the owner of the property actually
intended to create a trust
Delivery of the property, which constitutes
the fourth essential according to the judicial
statement above referred to, may be actual or
constructive, thus, if the property is already in
the donee's possession, it is sufficient if the par-
ties treat the property as thereafter owned as
well as possessed by the donee Neither does
the law require actual acceptance by the donee
in all cases* If the gift is wholly beneficial to
him, his acceptance will be presumed until evi-
dence of rejection by him is given But it is
in all cases essential that the possession of the
property, if a chattel, shall be vested in the
donee or, in lieu thereof, that a writing in the
nature of a deed or a bill of sale be delivered
to him In the case of real property a gift is
properly effected by delivery of a deed of
conveyance
The fifth requisite of a valid gift is that it go
into immediate and absolute effect The \\ords
of donation must be those of present, complete,
and final transfer to the donee Consult Kent,
Commentaries on- American Law (Boston,
1896), and the authorities referred to under
CONTRACT
GIFTS, CONDITIONAL See DONIS CONDICION-
ALIBUS.
GIFTT, ge'foo A prefectural town of Japan,
situated in the southern part of Nippon, 19
miles by rail from N agoya ( Map Japan, E 6 ) .
The chief products are silk and paper goods.
Pop., 1903, 40,168, 1908, 41,488
GIGANTTISM. See ACROMEGALY.
GIGA3STT01EACHIA. See GIANTS, PER-
GA1ION
GIG3STOTJX, zhe'nyoo', FRANCOIS E^GIS (1816-
82). A French landscape painter, born at
Lyons He studied art at Lyons and in the
Eeole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and with Dela-
roche In 1840 he came to the United States
and became a member of the National Academy
m 1851 He returned to *France in 1870 His
pictures are studies of nature in her more cheer-
ful aspects and made quite a sensation In New
York in the sixties They reflect the methods
of the French masters of his day and exercised
considerable influence upon the younger gen-
eration Among his productions are "Spring",
"The First Snow", "The Indian Summer",
"Niagara in Winter", "The Bernese Alps at
Sunrise", "Niagara by Moonlight", "Mammoth
Cave" (New York Historical Society) , and
"Winter Scene" (Corcoran Gallery, Washing-
ton) A number of his pictures are in private
possession in New York City
GIGOTJX, zhS'goo', JEAN (1806-94) A
French historical and portrait painter and il-
lustrator, born at Besaneon He was a pupil
of the Besangon Academy and the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts, Pans, and first exhibited in 1832
He soon became one of the strongest supporters
of Delacroix in his revolt against idealism His
best painting is "The Death of Leonardo da
Vinci" (1835), in the Museum of Besangon
It is a solidly painted, well-colored, realistic
conception of the scene These traits character-
ize his other works "The Death of Cleopatra"
(Bordeaux Museum) , "The Eve of Austeihtz"
(BesaiiQon Museum) , "The Capture of Ghent"
(Versailles) , "A Young Girl" (Compiegne Mu-
seum ) , and the portraits of Fourier and General
Dwermchi, both in the Louvie Reali&m is also
the dominant note in his religious paintings
in Samt-Germain-Auxerrois and Samt-Gervais
His drawings include GOO designs on wood for
an edition of (hi Bias His collection of draw-
ings and hthogiaphs was left to his native town
He wrote an interesting book, Causenes stir les
aitistes de inon temps (1855), full of anecdote
and art talk Pie received the medal of honor
at the Paris Exposition of 1889 and the cross of
the Legion of Honor in 1880
GIGTTE, zheg See JIG
GIHOUST, gi'hon, ALBERT LEARY (1833-1901)
An American physician, born in Philadelphia
Graduating in 1852 at the College of Medicine
and Surgery in that city, he remained for two
>ears as professor of chemistry and toxicology
He became an assistant smgeon in the United
States navy in 1855, surgeon in 1861, and. medi-
cal director in 1879 In 1895 he became senior
medical dnector of the navy and in the same
year was letired with rank of commodore He
designed the model hospital ship exhibited at
the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 and invented
an ambulance cot, adopted in 1877 under his
name, for use in the navy At various times he
was president of the American Public Health
Association, the American Academy of Medicine,
and the Association of Militaiy Surgeons of
the United States He wrote Practical Sugyes-
tions in Naval Hygiene (1871), and many
papers, repoits, and fugitive articles
GU6iN", iie-Hon' An important seapoit in
the Province of Oviedo, Spain, on the Bay of
Biscay, 20 miles by rail north -northeast of the
city of Oviedo (Map Spain, C 1) One of the
most flourishing towns of Asturias, its popula-
tion, has increased with the development of its
commerce and its growing popularity as a water-
ing place The town is well built, the more
modem quarters with wide, straight streets and
a number of new buildings, including markets,
and a toivn hall, but the old section towards
Santa Catahna Point is walled and has many
quaint mediseval buildings There are statues
in honor of Pelayo and Gaspar de Jovellanos, the
latter a native of Gi]6n, who in 1794 founded
the Instituto Jovellanos, which has a valuable
art collection and a library of 5500 volumes,
and the Campos Ellseos with a theatre, circus,
and extensive gardens Gijon has also a large
bull ring and fine promenades , the parish church
of San Pedro (fifteenth century) and the two
palaces are also interesting One of the old
ecclesiastical buildings has been converted into
a government tobacco factory which employs
1400 persons The manufacturing establish-
ments comprise also glass and pottery works,
foundries and machine shops, wire and wire-nail
factories, and petroletim refineries, soap, pre-
served foods, candles, and chocolate are made in
Grj6n The town, including a considerable area
that is chiefly mountainous, is the chief port for
the rich mining districts of Oviedo and carries
on an extensive export trade in coal, copper,
iron, and other minerals, lumber, and nuts
The coastwise trade is also important, and there
are large fisheries Increased railroad facili-
GILA MOISTSTEB
751
GILBERT
ties and improvements in the harbor have pio-
moted its commerce Pop, 1900, 47,326, 1910,
52,226 Gij6n is identified with the ancient
Gigia, or Gi]ia, though not on the exact site of
the Roman town Captured by the Arabs, it fell
into the hands of Pelayo after the battle of
Covadonga, in 722, and until neai the close of
the eighth century was the capital of the Astu-
rian princes The shattered "Invincible Ar-
mada" repaired here in 1588
GILA (e'la) MONSTER (after the Chla, a
river in Arizona) A poisonous lizard (Helo-
derma suspeotum) found in the sandy deserts of
Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas It is one of
the largest lizaids in North America, is closely
allied to the caltetepon (Heloderma hormdum)
of Mexico, a.nd is fat, inactive, and stupid It
is covered with bright orange and black pebble-
like scales, and, like snakes, it has grooved
teeth with large salivary glands at their bases
Its bite is injurious, though not often fatal to
man. Drs S Weir Mitchell and E F Heichert
found that the saliva injected into pigeons and
fowls was quickly mortal, but the experiments
of Dr Irwin of the United States army (1862-
G3 ) , of Dr H C Yarrow of the United States
National Museum, and of Samuel Garman, have
failed to substantiate the earlier conclusions, so
that the question of the poisonous nature of
this lizard is not definitely settled An illus-
trated monograph upon its anatomy was con-
tributed by Shufeldt to the Zoological Society
of London and printed in their Proceedings
(London, 1900) See HELODERMA, and Plate of
IGUANA AND OTHEB AMERICAN LIZARDS
GILA (he'la) RIVER. A river of the
United States, which, rising in the Sierra Madre
Mountains (qv ) in New Mexico, and, flowing
in a westerly direction across Arizona, joins
the Colorado about 120 miles above where the
latter empties into the Gulf of California (Map
Arizona, C 4) For the greater part of its
length, which is nearly 500 miles, the Gila flows
through mountain canons, the sides of which
are in many places so precipitous as to render
the stream almost unapproachable The lower
part of its course is through an open and com-
paratively level country, much of which is made
fertile by irrigation from the river Euined
edifices, one of which is three stories high and
in a fair state of preservation, broken pottery,
and traces of irrigation canals along its banks
show that its riparian dwellers of former times
were numerous and partly civilized About 200
miles from its mouth, in a productive portion of
the valley, is the reservation of the Pima and
Maricopa Indians
GILAN, g§-lan'. See GHILAN.
GILBERT, giFbert, AIRBED (1854- ) An
eminent English sculptor and goldsmith He was
born in London, the son of a distinguished musi-
cian, and studied under Boehm, at the South
Kensington Art Schools, and under Cavalier at
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris His indi-
vidual style was formed in Florence and Rome,
where he was profoundly impressed by the
"Renaissance sculptors Gilbert took rank as the
most original sculptor of the late nineteenth and
early twentieth century in Great Britain, and
his influence on the art of his native land has
been profound and wholesome He excels espe-
cially in the art of metal work, which he did most
to revive in England In this regard, as well as
in his sculpture, he has aptly been compared to
Benvenuto Cellini Like him he excels in deco-
ration, sometimes indeed to the detriment of his
sculpture, the effect of which is interfered with
by his love of ornament Although somewhat
minutely executed, his work abounds in color and
in rhythm He has an acute sense of beauty
and an imaginative fancy and exaggeratedly
high ideals, which have often caused him to
destroy fine creations His early sculptures,
which are chiefly ideal, include "Mother and
Child", "The Kiss of Victory" (1882), "Per-
seus" (1883, showing the influence of Florentine
sculpture) , "Study of a Head", "Icarus"
(1884), an admirable nude In 1888 he modeled
the seated statue of Queen Victoria for Win-
chester, perhaps the most remarkable work of
its kind in Great Britain His portraits, which
interpiet the spiritual as well as the physical,
include busts of Dr Joule (City Hall, Man-
chester), G F Watts, Sir Henry Tate, and
statues of Lord Reay (Bombay) and John
Howard at Bedford Among his monumental
works are the strikingly original Fawcett Me-
morial in Westminster Abbey, the less success-
ful Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Picca-
dilly Circus, London, the Caldecott Memorial
in the crypt of St Paul's , a memorial baptismal
font (1900) , and his greatest achievement, the
tomb of the Duke of Claience in Windsor
Chapel As a goldsmith, he pioduced many
beautiful works, including the epergne presented
to Queen Victoria on her Jubilee, chains, statu-
ettes, and other small objects Gilbert was
elected to the Royal Academy in 1892 and ap-
pointed professor of sculpture in 1900, but
resigned from the Academy in 1909. In 1897
he was made a member of the Victorian Order
He entered on a life of almost monastic seclusion
in Bruges Consult Hatton, The Life and Work
of Alfred Gilbert (London, 1903)
GILBERT, MRS ANNE HAHTLET (1821-
1904) A popular American actress She was
born in Lancashire, England, and in her youth
became a dancer In 1846 she was married
to George H Gilbert, with whom, after appear-
ing in many of the British theatres, she came
to America in 1849 Her first hit in a speak-
ing part was as Wichavenda in Broughman's
Pocahontas (1857) In 1869 she joined Daly's
company and became well known in the char-
acters of the odd elderly ladies of the stage,
such as Mrs Candour in The School for Scandal,
Mrs Hardcastle in She Stoops to Conquer, and
many others After Mr Daly's death she came
under Charles Frokman's management and later
became a member of Annie Russell's company
Mrs Gilbert published her stage reminiscences
in 1901 Consult W Winter, The Wallet of
T^me (2 vols, New York, 1913).
GILBERT, CASS (1859- ). A distin-
guished American architect, born at Zanesnlle,
Ohio, and educated at Massachusetts Institute
of Technology He began practice in 1883 His
greatest achievement is the Woolworth Building,
New York Among other buildings planned by
him are the Minnesota Capitol, at St Paul,
Essex County Court House, Newark, N J ,
Agricultural Building at the Omaha Exposition
(1897) , Brazer Building in Boston, New York
Custom House, Art Building and Festival Hall
at the St Louis Exposition, and the Central
Public Library, St Louis He also made the
general plans for the universities of Minnesota
and Texas and the Arkansas Capitol, and was
one of the architects of tie new Union Club in
New York He was appointed by President
GHLBEBT ?*
Roosevelt to the Council of the Fine Arts and
by President Taft to the Commission of Fine
Arts , was one of the founders, and a president,
of the Architectuial League, New York, and
president of the American Institute of Archi-
tects in 1908-09, and was elected a member of
the National Academy in 1908, and of the
American Academy of Arts and Letters m 1914,
besides receiving notable recognition abioad
G-ILBEKT, CHARLES BENAJAH (1855- )
An American educatoi, born at Wilton, Conn.
He graduated at Williams College in 1876 and
was principal of high schools at Mankato,
Winona, and St Paul, Minn , and Beaver Dam
and Oshkosh, Wis From 1889 to 1896 he was
superintendent of schools at St Paul, from 1896
to 1900 at Newark, N J, and from 1900 to
1903 at Rochester, N Y In 1903-04 he edited
educational publications He was president of
the National Association of School Superin-
tendents in 1897 and in 1897-1900 lectured
at Teachers College, Columbia University In
1906 he became lecturer on education in Western
Reserve University He wrote The School and
its Life (1906) and What Children &tudij ayid
Why (1913) He also compiled, or directed the
preparation of, American School Readers (7
vols.)? Arithmetic (3 vols ), Stepping Stone? to
Literature (8 vols ) , Stones of Heroes (6 vols ),
and other publications
GILBERT, CHARLES HENRY (1859- )
An American ichthyologist, born at Rockford,
111 He graduated from Butler University in
1879 and studied also at Indiana University
(PhD, 1883), where he taught in 1880-84, and
to which he returned, after several years at the
University of Cincinnati, to be professor of
zoology in 1889-91 After 1891 he was profes-
sor of zoology at Leland Stanford He was con-
nected with the United States Fish Commission
in 1880-98, and in 1902 and 1906 made im-
portant explorations for it, and for the Bureau
of Fisheries he conducted salmon investigations
in 1909-13 His publications include Synopsis
of the Fishes of North America, with David
Starr Jordan (1882) , The Deep Sea Fishes (of
the Hawaiian Islands) (1905), Lantern-Fishes
of Japan (1913) , and official reports and bulle-
tins
GILBERT, DAVID MCCONAUGHY (1836-1905)
An American clergyman and author, born at
Gettysburg, Pa He studied there at Pennsyl-
vania College and the theological seminary of
the Lutheran church and was ordained in 1860
a Lutheran minister He was pastor at Staun-
ton, Va., in 1859-63 and 1871-73, at Savannah,
Ga, in 1863-71, and at Winchester, Va , after
1873 In 1886 he was elected first president of
the United Southern Synod of the Lutheran
Church Among his publications are The Lu-
theran Church in Virginia, 1776-1876 (1876),
The Synod of Virginia Its History and Work
(1879), The Annihilation Theory Briefly Eas-
amined (1879)
GILBERT, gilbert, GBOVE KARL (1843-
1918 ) An American geologist, born in Roches-
ter, N. Y He graduated from the university
in that city in 1862 For several years he
studied geology and paleontology with Prof
H A. Ward, of Rochester, supplementing his
studies by field work with the Ohio Geological
State Survey in the capacity of assistant In
1871 he received an appointment to the United
States Geological Survey As assistant to Mapr
J. W Powell, the director of the Survev, he
2 GULBEBfl!
was engaged from 1875 to 1879 in mapping and
describing the geologv of portions of the Rocky
Mountain region Entering the service of the
United States Geological Survey in 1879, from
1889 to 1892 he was chief geologist He was
special lectuier at Cornell (1886), Columbia
(1892) , and Johns Hopkins (1895-96) In 1885
and 1886 he was president of the American So-
cietv of Naturalists, in 1899 president of the
National Academy of Sciences, and m 1892 and
1909 president of the Geological Society of
Arnenca One of the first to study the relations
between geological structure and surface fea-
tures, a branch of science now known as
physiography, he wrote Report on the Geology
of* the Henry Mountains (1877) , Report on the
Geology and JResowces of the Black Hills of
Dakota (1880), The Topogiaphic Features of
Lake Shoies (1885) Lake Bonneville (1890),
Introduction to Physical Geography (1902, new
ed , 1908), Glaciers and Glaciation (1904),
being vol 111 of the report of the Harriman
Alaska expedition
GILBERT, SIK HUMPHREY (?1539-83) An
English soldier and navigator He was born at
Compton, Devonshire, and was, on his mother's
side, a half brother of Sir Walter Raleigh He
was educated at Eton and at Oxford He saw
active service in Normandy under the Earl of
Warwick in 1563 as well as in the Irish cam-
paigns of 1566-70 In 1566 he pined Anthony
Jenkmson in a petition to the Queen regarding
a project for the discovery of a northeast pas-
sage to Cataia, and the year following he peti-
tioned alone regarding an attempt to find a
northwest passage In 1572 he was sent into the
Netherlands with a force of 1500 English volun-
teers to aid the Dutch After a futile cam-
paign he returned to England and spent the next
five yeais in retirement in "sundry profitable
and very commendable exercises" in literature
During this period he wrote the Discouise of a
Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia, produced
partly in support of his petition of 1566 The
Discourse, with some additions, was edited by the
poet George Gascoigne in 1576 In 1577 Gilbeit
published another treatise, suggesting a plan of
"repusals" against the King of Spam, and in
1578 he received a commission from Elizabeth,
which covered the privileges of discovery and
colonization An expedition was immediately
fitted out by Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh, but
was dispersed by the Spaniards off Cape Verde,
and the next four years were spent by the in-
defatigable adventurer m endeavors to raise the
necessary funds for another undertaking On
June 11, 1583, he sailed from Plymouth with
five ships, but the largest — a bark furnished by
Raleigh — returned to England after two days at
sea. Gilbert made his way across the Atlantic,
and on July 30 reached the coast of Newfound-
land, and determined to plant his colony near
the harbor of St John's, where he took posses-
sion of the country in the name of the Queen
This, the first English colony in America, was
made tip of broken-down gentlemen and seamen,
and the lawlessness of the community was beyond
Gilbert's control Arrangements were made to
return to England, whence Gilbert hoped to make
another attempt at colonization in the following
spring Meanwhile he explored the coast of
Newfoundland towards the south and lost his
largest ship on the shoals off Cape Sable or
Cape Breton Island Disregarding the advice
of his friends, he persisted in sailing m the
753
Squirrel, the smaller and less seaworthy of the
two lenaaining vessels A stoirn was encountered
off the Azores "On Monday, September 9th,"
leports Hayes, the captain of the other vessel,
the Golden Hind, "the frigate was near cast
away, yet at that time recovered, and giving
forth signs of -joy, the general, sitting abaft
with a book in his hand, cried out unto us in the
Hind 'We are as near to heaven by sea as by
land * That same night the watch on board the
Hind, observing that the fiigate's lights sud-
denly disappeared, cried out 'The general was
cast away/ which was too true, for in that
moment the frigate was devoured and swallowed
up in the sea " Consult Bourne, English Sea-
men under the Tudws (London, 1868), and
Markham, The Fighting Veres (ib, 1888) The
original narrative of his voyage is in Hakluyt,
English Voyages (ib , 1600, new ed , 1812,
Goldschmid, Edmbuigh, 1889). Consult also
Adams, English Heroes in the Reign of Elizabeth
(Edinburgh, 1902), and Slafter, Sir Humfrey
GyTberte and his Enterprise (Boston, 1903)
GILBERT, JAMES ELEAZEB (1839-1909) An
American Methodist Episcopal clergyman, born
in Alexander, 1ST Y , and educated at Genesee
College He was city editor of the Buffalo
Courier, associate editor of the Buffalo Chris-
tian Advocate, and editor of the Sunday School
Standard He also served as principal of pub-
lic schools at Buffalo and at Dayton, Ohio
Entering the ministry in 1872, he theieafter
held pastorates at Cincinnati, Ohio, Lexington,
Kv , Topeka, Kans , Milwaukee, Wis , Grand
Rapids, Mich , and Indianapolis, Ind He
founded the Kansas Methodist at Topeka, and
established the Teachers' Normal College at
Milwaukee In 1889 he organized and became
president of the American Society of Religious
Education He is author of Preparation foi
Church Membership (1903) , Religious Experi-
ence (1904), Biblical Doctrine (1904), Ameti-
can Methodism (1904)
GKTLBEUT, SIR JOHN (1817-97) An Eng-
lish historical painter, illustrator, and engraver
He was born at Blackheath, July 21, 1817 He
learned every technique possible for art expres-
sion— oils, water color, fresco, wood and stone
engraving, etching, carving, and drawing — and
was in the mam self-taught, except for a few
lessons in the use of color from George Lance
Gilbert gave most of his attention to illustra-
tion, m 1838 beginning with illustrations of a
book of nursery rhymes These were followed
by illustrations for the editions of the poets —
Cowper (1841), Pope, Burns, and others in-
cluded in Routledge's British Poets (1853) ,
Evangelme (1856) , Longfellow's Poems (1858) .
Scott (1857), Wordsworth (1859), Milton
(1864) His chief work was 829 illustrations
for Howard Staunton's edition of Shakespeare
(1856-60), the proofs of which are in the col-
lections of the British Museum He also il-
lustrated numerous religious books, novels, chil-
dren's tales, and anthologies
In 1843 he sent a few drawings to Punch, de-
signing the cover for that year, but for 30
years, following the establishment of the Illus-
trated London News in 1842, he was a constant
contributor, furnishing it about 30,000 wood-
cuts He also drew for the London Journal
In 1852 he was elected an associate of the Water-
Color Society and a full member in 1854 He
initiated the exhibitions of this society in 1862,
leading the way to a regular winter exhibition
Gilbert was made president of the society in
1871, on which occasion he was knighted His
oil paintings were exhibited at the Butish Insti-
tution and the Royal Academy, of which he was
appointed a member in 1876 Among the best
are "Rembrandt" (1867), "Naseby" (1873)
"Richard II Resigning the Crown" (Liverpool
Gallery) , "Doge and Senators of Science,3' and
seveial subjects from Don Quixote In 1893 he
presented to the nation a collection of his works,
which were divided among the galleries in Lon-
don, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester
To the Royal Academy he presented his sketch-
books His life was uneventful, his industry
was marvelous, as the prodigious number of his
drawings and paintings testifies He died at
Blackheath, Get 5, 1897 He was a great
draftsman and illustrator rather than a painter,
although he was a good colonst, with a fond-
ness for red, yet he often made his shadows too
black Consult Spielman, "Sir John Gilbert,"
in the Magazine of Art (London, 189S), and
Atkinson, English Artists of the Present Dai/
(ib, 1872)
GILBERT, JOHN GIBBS (1810-89) An
American comedian, whoso leal name \\as Gibbs
Born in Boston, he made his fir&t appearance
there at the Tremont Theatre, in 1828, as Jaffiei
in Venice Preserved His original aim was to be
a tragedian, but while on a tour through the
South and West, the success of Ins Sir Anthony
Absolute, Master Walter, etc , convinced him
that his true bent was for "old men" parts, and
he soon became the leading American actor in
that line of comedv In 1847 he had a success-
ful engagement in London From 1862 until the
close of Wallack's Theatre, New York, he was
connected with that house His most famous
role was that of Sn Peter Teazle in The School
for Scandal j his Sir Anthony, Old Dornton in
The Road to Ruin, and Lord Oglebv in The
Clandestine Marriage, were also noted Con-
sult Winter, "A Sketch of the Life of John
Gilbert," Dunlap Society Publications (New
York, 1890) , McKay and Wmgate, Famous
American Actors of To-Day (ib , 1896) , Carroll,
Twelve Americans Their Lives and Times (ib,
1893)
GILBEUT, SIR JOHN THOMAS (1829-98).
An Irish antiquary, born in Dublin. He re-
ceived his education at Bective College in Dub-
lin and at Prior Park College in Bath. His
antiquarian tastes developed early In 1855
he became one of the honorary secretanes to
the Irish Celtic and Arch geological Society and
took an active part in organizing the new public
record office at Dubhn, of which he was ap-
pointed secretary (1865-75) In 1855 he was
elected to the Royal Irish Academy, of which he
was librarian for a quarter of a century and
finally vice president He also held many posi-
tions of public trust In 1892 he received the
degree of LL D from the Royal University, and
in 1897 he was knighted Gilbert's researches
in the sources of Irish history are of the very
highest value Among his works are Historical
Essaijs on Tr eland (1851), Celtic Records and
Historical Records (1852) , History of the Gity
of Dublin (3 vols, 1854-59) , Ancient Histori-
cal Irish Manuscripts (1861) ? Public Records
of Ireland (1863), which consists of a letter ad-
dressed to the Lords Commissioners of the
Treasury on the condition of the public records,
and was followed by a work of a similar nature
entitled Records Revelations Resumed (London,
GILBERT
754
GILBERT
1864) , History of the Viceroys of Ireland
(1865), A Contemporary History of Affairs in
Ireland from 1641 to 1652 (1879-80, 4 vols ),
Account of Facsimiles of National Manuscripts
of Ireland (5 vols, 1874-84), Chartularies of
St Mary's Abbey, Dublin (2 vols , London,
1884), containing also the legister of its house
at Dumbrody and the Annals of Ireland^ His-
tory of the Irish Confederation and War in
Ireland, 1641-1649 (7 vols, 1882-91) , Calendar
of Ancient Records of Dublin (8 vols, 1889-
98), A Jacobite Narrative of the War in Ire-
land (1892) , Documents Relating to Iceland
(1893) , Grede Mihi, the Most Ancient Register
of the Archbishops of Dublin before the Refor-
mation, AD 1215 (1897) He also edited nu-
merous volumes of manusenpts of the Earl of
Charlemont (1891-94), of Trinity College
(1881), of the Earl of Fingall (1885), of Charles
Hahday (1897), and many others Consult Gil-
bert, Life of Sir John T Gilbert (2 vols, Lon-
don, 1905).
GILBERT, SIB JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901).
An English agricultural scientist, born at Hull
(Yorkshire), son of Joseph Gilbert (1779-
1852), a well-known Congregational minister,
and of Ann Taylor, the author, with her sister
Jane, of Original Poems for Infant Minds and
IRymns He studied at Glasgow University, at
University College, London, and at the labora-
tory of Liebig, University of Giessen, and in
1840-43 was successivelv assistant to Prof A.
T Thompson at University College and chemist
to a calico manufactory near Manchester In
1843 he became associated with Mr (later Sir)
J B Lawes (qv ) in the agricultural experi-
ment station established upon Lawes's estate at
Rothamsted (near St Albans, Hertfordshire).
He was director of the laboratory from 1843
until the death of Lawes m 1900 and then di-
rector of the station He was professor of
rural economy at Oxford m 1884-90 In 1860
he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society and
in 1882-83 was president of the Chemical So-
ciety, of which he had been elected a member in
1841 He traveled in the United States m 1882,
1884, and 1893 The combined services of him-
self and Lawes to the development of agricul-
tural chemistry, dating from the establishment
of the Rothamsted station, one of the first of
such institutions, have been epoch-making He
was knighted in 1893, 50 years after the begin-
ning of the Rothamsted experiments. In addi-
tion to a large number of essays prepared with
Lawes for the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the Journal of the Chemical
Society, the Transactions of the Royal Society,
and various other periodicals and reports, he
wrote Amount and Composition of the Raw and
Drainage Waters at Rothamsted (1882, with
Lawes and Warmgton) and Agricultural In-
vestigations at Rothamstedj England, during a
Period of Fifty Years (1895, Bulletin 22 of the
United States Office of Experiment Station)
GILBERT, LINDA (1847-95) An American
philanthropist She was born m Rochester, 1ST
Y , but when very young was taken by her par-
ents to Chicago, where she was educated in
St Mary's Convent She became interested in
the cause of prison reform, and through her efforts
libraries aggregating 30,000 volumes, and rang-
ing from 1500 to 2000 volumes each, were placed
in various prisons throughout the country She
was also instrumental in bringing about the in-
corporation of the Gilbert Library and Prisoners*
Aid Society, under the laws of the State of New
York, having for its object the impiovement of
prison discipline, the placing of selected libianes
in every prison and jail, the caie of pusoneis'
families when in need, and the assistance of
those discharged from prison The greater part
of her woik was done m her individual capacity,
the society, through lack of funds, having been
prevented fiom pioceedmg far with the work for
which it was organized
GILBERT, zhel'bar', Louis PHILIPPE (1832-
92) A Belgian mathematician, born at Beau-
ramg (Namur) He was a professor at the
University of Louvam, a member of the Royal
Academy of Belgium, and a correspondent of
the Institute of France His published works,
chiefly on pure mathematics and their history,
include a Gours de mecamque analytique (1877)
and Recherches sur les propmetes geometriques
des mouvements plans (1878)
GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH FLORENT (1751-
80) A French poet, born at Fontenay-le-Cha-
teau, Lorraine He had already written some
mediocre verse and a novel when he went to
Paris in 1772 He presented a poem at the
Academy, which was not well received He
wrote the satires Le dias-huitieme siecle (1775)
and Mon apologie (1778), some odes, and a few
days before his death his best-known poem,
"Adieux a la vie" He has been called the
French Juvenal and a French Chatterton, and
it was said that he died of want, but he was m
receipt of thiee pensions at the time Alfred
de Vigny made a hero of him in Stello His
complete works were first published in 1788, and
they have several times been reprinted — m 1882
by Lescure Consult Laffay, Le poete Gilbert
(Pans, 1898), and Schmit's "Notice" in Me-
moires de la Societe" d'Archeologie Lorraine, vol.
xl (Nancy, 1890)
GILBERT, glKbert, Rinros HENRY (1832-85).
An American physician and inventor After
graduating at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons in New York City, he began medical
practice at Corning, N Y At the outbreak of
the Civil War he became a surgeon in the
Duryea Zouaves (Fifth New York Infantry) and
rose to be medical director and superintendent
of the Central Railroad of New Jersey After-
ward he made a study of the rapid-transit prob-
lem in New York City, as a result of which he
devised the elevated railway, originally in tubu-
lar pneumatic form, but afterward more nearly
resembling the present system Under his di-
rection the Sixth Avenue Elevated Railway (in
New York City), then known as the Gilbert
Elevated Railway, was constructed In 1878
the management of the railway was assumed by
the Metropolitan Transit Company Charges of
fraud were subsequently made by Dr Gilbeit
against his associates, and much litigation
followed
GILBERT, SAINT See GILBEBTINES
GILBERT, WIIJDIAM (1540-1603) A distin-
guished English natural philosopher and physi-
cian, who has been teimed "the fathei of mag-
netic philosophy." He was born at Colchester,
of which town his father was lecorder He was
a member and subsequently fellow of St John's
College, Cambridge, was B A m 1560, MA in
1564, and MD in 1569 About the year 1573
he settled in London as a practicing physician,
joined the College of Physicians, and was ap-
pointed physician to Queen Elizabeth, The time
that he could spare from the duties of his pro-
GILBERT
755
GILBEHTOH
fession was employed in philosophical experi-
ments, particularly in relation to the magnet,
and in these he was assisted by a pension from
the Queen After holding various offices in the
College of Physicians he was finally elected its
president in 1600 At the death of the Queen
in 1603 he was continued in his office of court
physician by James I until his death, a few
months later Gilbert's death seems to have
taken place in London , but he was buried at Col-
chester, m the chuich of the Holy Trinity,
where there is a monument to his memory He
left his libraiy, globes, instruments, and cabi-
net of minerals to the College of Physicians
From his birthplace, he is generally designated
as Gilbert of Colchester His important woiks
are De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et
de Magno Magnete, Tellure, Physiologia Nova,
(1600), of which there are several editions,
and De Mundo Nostro Sublunan Philosophia
Nova (1651), published from a manuscript in
the library of Sir William Boswell The first
of these works has served as the basis of sub-
sequent investigations in terrestrial magnetism
and contained all the fundamental facts of the
science as they were known at that time Gil-
bert establishes the magnetic nature of the
earth, which he regards as one great magnet,
and discusses variations and the bearing of
magnetic phenomena on navigation He was
the first to use the terms "electric force," "elec-
tiic attraction/' and "magnetic pole/' and to
point out that amber is not the only substance
which, when rubbed, attracts light objects, but
that the same faculty belongs to the resms, seal-
ing wax, sulphur, glass, etc These substances
he termed "electrics," while the metals and other
material which would not exert the force of at-
traction upon being rubbed he called nonelectrics.
The publication of his treatise De Magnet e,
which was the first great work on physical
science to be published m England, will always
be regarded as constituting an epoch in the
history of magnetism and the allied sciences
Consult William Gilbert of Colchester, On the
Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies, and on the
Great Magnet, the Earth, trans, by Mottelay
(London, 1893), which, contains a biographical
memoir, also another translation with notes by
S P Thompsen, published by the Gilbert Club of
London (ib, 1900)
GILBERT, SIB WHLIAM SCHWENCK (1836-
1911) An English dramatist, best known for
the comic operas m which he collaborated with
the composer, Sir Arthur Sullivan He was
born in London and graduated at London Uni-
versity. From 1857 to 1862 he was a clerk in the
Privy Council office, in 1864 he was called to
the bar of the Inner Temple He had been a
contributor to Fun (for which he wrote his well-
known Sal Ballads) and to other periodicals
for several years, when in 1866 he wrote his
first play, a burlesque called Dulcamara It
was the first of a long list Among his comedies,
after such light pieces as The Merry Zwgara
and others, came The Palace of Truth (1870) ,
Pygmalion and Galatea (1871) , The Wwked
World ( 1873 ) y Sweethearts ( 1874 ) , Broken
Hearts (1876), Dan'l Druce and Engaged
(1877) In 1871 he and Arthur Sullivan began
to work together Their most famous pieces
are H. M 8 Pinafore (1878); The Pirates of
Penzance (1879); Patience, or Bunthorne's
Bride (1881), lolanthe (1882), The Mikado
(1885), The Gondoliers (1889). In 1891 Gil-
bert published a collection of his songs under
the title Songs of a Savoyard 'reprinted in
1897). The Mountebanks he produced in 1892
\uth Alfred Celher, His Excellency and The
Grand DuKe aie among later productions He
was knighted in 1007 Consult W Winter, The
Wallet of Time (2 vols , New Yoik, 1913)
GILBERT DE LA POBREE, zhel'bar' de la
po'ra', or, m Latinized form, GTLBEBTUS PORRE-
TANUS (1070-1154) A scholastic theologian
He was born at Poitiers, Fiance, 1070, educated
at Chartres, and became Bishop of Poitiers m
1142 He was accused of heresy regarding the
Trinity by Bernard of Clairvaiix and was tried
at Rheimfa ( 1 148 ) On promising to correct his
errors he was allowed to go free He was in-
fluential in introducing the Aristotelian philoso-
phy His chief works were a Commentary on
Boethms on the Trinity, and The 8 ess Prinoipns,
long used as a textbook of the Aristotelian
principles Both are printed in Migne, Patrol
Lat , Ixi v and clxxxvm Consult his life by
Berthaud (Pans, 1892)
GILBEBTINES, gil'ber-tmz An English re-
ligious order, founded about 1130 by St Gil-
bert, a native of Semprmgham in Lincolnshire
He first established a convent of seven nuns, be-
sides lay sisters, and presciibed for them the
Benedictine rule. He intended to place them
under the direction of the Cistercians, but when
(1147) this did not seem practicable he founded
a congregation of priests and lay brothers to
have the care of the nuns, while dwelling in a,
separate cloister To these he gave the lule of
St Augustine modified by Cistercian discipline
The foundation was confirmed by Eugenms III
m 1148, and at the founder's death in 1189 had
13 cloisters, of which nine were double It con-
tinued to nourish until the dissolution of the
monasteries Consult Graham, Saint Gilbert of
flemptingham and the G-ilbertines (London,
1901), and Gasquet, Henry VIII and the Eng-
lish Monasteries (ib, 1899)
GIL'BEBT ISLANDS An archipelago in
Oceamca, situated on the equator and between
long 172° and 177° E, southeast of Mar&hall
Islands (Map Austialasia, K 2) It consists
of 18 small inhabited islands, mostly atolls, cov-
ering a total area of about 166 square miles.
The largest of them are Tapiteuea, Arorai,
Nbnuti, Apamama, Maiana, and Maraki The
climate is favorable The chief product of the
group is copra The population, stated in 1911
at 26,871, is chiefly natives imperfectly civilized,
but including a number of converts to Christian-
ity, they are a Micronesian people, but with a
strong admixture of Polynesian, the source of
this contamination being identifiable on lin-
guistic grounds as Samoan Sixteen of the
islands form two groups designated Ni-Makm
and Ni-Peru, distant western outliers are Paa-
napa and Nauru, the site of extensive phosphate
digging, the latter a German possession The
group was first discovered by Saavedra in 1529
and rediscovered by John Byron in 1765 They
came into British possession in 1892 and are
administered by the High Commissioner of the
Western Pacific in Fiji through a resident
deputy Consult Kramer, Han/an, Ostmikro-
nesien und Samoa (Stuttgart, 1906) ; Elschner,
Carallogene-Phosphat-inseln (Hamburg3 1913) ,
Bingham, Gfalbertese-Ujnglish Dictionary (Bos-
ton, 1908)
GIL^EBTOW. A borough in Schuylkill Co ,
Pa., 4 miles west by south of Mahanoy City, on
GILBERTUS PORRETANUS
756
GILDEMEISTEB
the Philadelphia and Reading, and the Penn-
sylvania railroads (Map Pennsylvania, J 5)
It has extensive coal mines Pop, 1900, 4373,
1910, 5401
GILBERTUS PORRETANTTS. See GILBEBT
DE LA PORBEE
GII/BEY, SIE WALTER (1831-1914) A
British wine merchant and horse breeder He
was born at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire,
England, began life in an estate agent's office,
subsequently obtained a clerkship in a parlia-
mentary agent's office, and during the Crimean
War served in the convalescent hospital at the
Dardanelles Returning to London, he set up
a retail wine and spmt trade with his brother
Alfred in 1857 and thereby accumulated a large
fortune He was knighted in 1893 Gilbey was
president of the Shire Horse Society in 1883 and
1897, of the Hackney Horse Society from 1889
to 1904, and of the Eoyal Agricultural Society
in 1895 He published The Harness Horse
(1898) , Animal Painters in England f)om 1650
(2 vols, 1900) ; Thoroughbred and Other Pomes
(1903) , Hunter Sires (1903) , Poultry Keeping
(1904) ; Horses, Breeding to Color (1907) , Pig
in Health (1910), Sport in the Olden Time
(1912) , *Hounds in the Old Daijs (1913).
GIL BLAS, zhel bias See LE SAGE
GILBOA, gll-bo'a (perhaps an early coriup-
tion of Heb gib'ath habla'al, hill of Baal) The
biblical name of a range of hills on the eastein
side of the plain of Esdraelon ( q v ) Their
height varies from a few hundred to 2000 feet
The hills weie the scene of the death of King
Raul and his three sons, after their defeat by
the Philistines (1 Sam xxxi, 2 Sam i 6, 1
Chron x 1-8). The modern name of the hills
is Jebel Fuku'a
GII/BRETH, FRANK BUNKER (1868- ).
An American contracting engineer, born at Faii-
field, Me. He practiced in Boston from 1895 to
1904 and after that in New York City. He be-
came director of the Summer School of Manage-
ment for Professors of Engineering and Eco-
nomics Deeply interested m problems of effi-
ciency, he founded international museums for
elimination of unnecessary fatigue among
workers and introduced micromotion study and
processes for detei mining efficient methods of
work His publications include Field System
(1908), Concrete System (1908), Bricklaying
System (1909), Motion Study (1911), Primer
of Scientific Management (1912) , and, with his
wife, Time Study, the Science of Obtaining
Methods of Least Waste
GILCHRIST, gil'kiist, ALEXANDER (1828-
61) An English biographer, born in London
He studied law at the Middle Temple and was
called to the bar in 1849, but relinquished a
legal career for that of a man of letters His
contributions to the Eclectic Rewew, the Liter-
acy Q-azette, and the Critic were numerous. His
chief work is his Life of William Blake (1863).
Pie wrote also a Life of William Mty, RA (2
vols, 1855) He was a friend of D G Rossetti
and of Carlyle, to whom he was for many years
a next-door neighbor in Cheyne Row Consult
Memoir of Alexander Gilchtist, prefixed to the
second edition of the Life of Blake (London,
1880)
GILCHRIST, WILLIAM WALLACE (1846-
1916) An American organist, choral conductor,
and composer, born in Jersey City, N J He
studied music under Piofessor Clarke at the
University of Pennsylvania and afterward took
up the profession of teaching, in winch he wag
eminently successful Fiom 1873 to 1877 he
was choirmaster of St Clement s Church, Phila-
delphia, from which he went to Christ's Chuich,
Germantown, as oiganist and choirmaster In
1882 he joined the faculty of the Philadelphia
Musical Academy and in the same year won
the prize in composition at the Cincinnati Mu-
sical Festival with his Psalm XLVI, written
for solos, choius, orchestia, and organ Two
years before he had won the Mendelssohn Glee
Club (New York) prize, with the composition
Autumn Dreaming He was conductor of several
important Eastern choral societies, and his com-
positions, paiticulaily for the Chuich, are very
widely known Other important compositions
are Song of Thanksgiving, arranged for chorus
and orchestra, a cantata, The Rose (1887) ,
the Ode to the Sunf two symphonies in D and
C, and some chamber music
GILDAS, gil'das, or GILDTJS, gil'dus ( '<-
570) A British historian, known as St Gildas
the Wise According to Mommsen, he was born
at the end of the fifth or at the beginning of
the sixth century, ceitamly before 504 He
spent the last years of his life in Brittany His
De Excidio et Conquests Britannice was first
punted in London in 1525 and has been often
leprinted, both in England and 011 the Con-
tinent This work derives its value mainly
fiom the lack of other sources for the period
Gibbon has described Gildas in a single sen-
tence "A monk who, in the profound ignorance
of human life, has presumed to exercise the of-
fice of historian, strangely disfigures the state
of Butain at the time of its separation from the
Western Empire " His narrative extends from
the invasion of Britain by the Romans to the
author's own time The best edition of Gildas' s
work is by Mommsen, in the Monumenta Oer-
manicB Historica j Auctores Antiquissimi, vol xni
(Berlin, 1898) The introduction is excellent
For other editions and for secondary works, con-
sult Molmier, Les sources de I'histoire de France,
vol i (Paris, 1902) See NENNIUS
GILDED AGE, THE A story by Mark Twain
and Charles Dudley Warner (1873), satirizing
politics and society It introduces the typical
character of Col 'Mulberry Sellers
GILDEMEISTER, gll'de-mi'stgr, JOHANN
(1812-90) A German Ouentalist, born at
Klem-Siemen (Mecklenburg) He studied at
Gottmgen and Bonn, in 1839 he became lecturer
in Oriental languages and liteiatures at Bonn,
and in 1844 professor there From 1845 to
1859 he was at Marburg as professor of theology
and Oriental literature and in the latter year
accepted the chair of Oriental languages' at
Bonn His publications include Sexti Sentential
(1874), Esdia Liber Quartus Arabice (1877),
Idnsii Palcestina et Syria Aralica (1885) , and
an edition of the Meghaduta and Srugaratilaka,
(1840) of Kahdasa He was one of the found-
ers of the German Oriental Society
GILDEMEISTER, OTTO (1823-1902) A
German journalist and translator, born in Bre-
men From 1850 to about the time of his death
he was editor in chief of the Weser-Zeitung of
Bremen He is known for his German renderings
of Byron's complete works (1864-65, 5th ed,
1904) , of a number of plays of Shakespeare, in-
cluding the historical ones, for the Bodenstedt
edition, of Shakespeare's Sonnets (1871), Ari-
osto's Orlando Purioso (4 vols, 1882), Dante's
Divma Oommedia (1888, 3d ed , 1900).
GILDER
757
G-ILDERSLEEVE
GILDER, gil'der, JEANNETTE LEONARD (1849-
1916). An American journalist and critic, born
at Flushing, N Y She was connected from
1869 with various newspapers in Newark and
New York, was associated with her brother,
Richard Watson Gilder, in the editoiship of
Sciilmei's Monthly, now the Century, and was
joint editoi with her brother, Joseph B Gilder,
oi the Critic from 1881 to 1900, when that maga-
zine ceased publication, and she became associated
with Putnam's Magazine, a penodical taking
the name of its predecessoi of an earlier genera-
tion, of which duung its short life Joseph B
Gilder was editor Her publications include
Representative Poems ly Living Persons (1886) ,
Pen Portraits of Literary Women (1887)* Es-
says from the Critic (1882) , Authors at Some
(1889), The Autobiography of a Tomboy
(1900) , The Tomboy at Work (1904) In 1909
she began to edit The Reader, a guide for book
buyers, of which she was the propnetor
GILDER, JOSEPH BENSON (1858- ) An
American editor, brother of Richaid Watson
and Jeannette L. Gilder (qqv ) He was born at
Flushing, N Y , studied two years in the United
States Naval Academy, and for some time was
engaged in newspaper work in Newark, N J , and
New York City In 1881, with his sister, he
founded The Critic, later Putnam's Magazine, of
which he was coeditor foi many years He was
literary adviser to the Century Company (1895-
1902) , helped organize the Lniversity Settle-
ment Society of New York, in 1902-04 was
United States dispatch agent at London, and
in 1910-11 was editor of the New York Times
"Keview of Books" He edited James Russell
Lowell's Impressions of Spain (1899) , Andrew
Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth (1900) , The Ameri-
can Idea (1902), Addresses of John Hay
(1906), and with his sister, Essays from the
Ctitic (1882) and Authors at Home (1889)
GILDER, RICHAKD WATSON (1844-1909)
An American poet and editor He was bom in
Bordentown, N J, Feb 8 1844, the son of
the Rev William Henry Gilder, at whose semi-
nary in Flushing, L I , he was educated Dm-
ing the Civil War, while a student of law in
Philadelphia, he served as a private in Landis's
Battery at the time of the invasion of Pennsyl-
vania After some experience in editorial work
he, with Newton Crane, founded the Newark
Register and later was editor of Hours at Home
and afterward assistant editor of Scribner's
Monthly, into which the former was merged In
1881 he succeeded Dr Holland as editor in chief
of the latter under its new name of the Centuty,
a position which he held up to the time of his
death Mr Gilder took an active interest in all
public affairs, especially those which tend to-
wards reform and good government, and was a
member of many New York clubs He was one
of the founders of the Society of American Ar-
tists, of the Authors' Club, and of the Inter-
national Copyright League, also chairman of
the New York Tenement House Commission of
1894 He was first president of the New York
Kindergarten Association, vice president and
acting president of the City Club of New York;
president of the Public Art League of the
United States, a member of council of the Na-
tional Civil Seivice Reform League, a founder
of the Anti-Spoils League, and a member of the
American Institute of Arts and Letters His
work includes The New Day (1875), The Celes-
tial Passion, Lyrics, Two Worlds, The Great
Remembrance (these in one volume) , Fwe
Books of Song (1894) , For the Country (a se-
lection, 1897) , In Palestine, and Other Poems
(1898) , Poems and Inscriptions (1901) , In the
Heights (1905), and, a collection, A Boole of
MUSIG (1906)
GILDER, WILLIAM HENEY (1838-1900)
An American Aictic explorer, born in Philadel-
phia, Pa At the beginning of the Civil War he
enlisted in the Fifth New York Infantry (Dur
yea's Zouaves), was transferred to the Fortieth,
and was mustered out with the rank of captain
and brevet major In 1871-77 he was manag-
ing editor of the Newark Register and in 1878-
80 was second in command on the expedition of
Lieutenant Schwatka in search of the relics of
Sir John Franklin He accompanied the De
Long expedition on the Rodgets under Captain
Beriy and, after the burning of the vessel on
the westein shore of Bering Strait, made a mid-
winter journey of nearly 2000 miles across Si-
beria to telegraph to the government the news
of the disaster He afterward participated in
the seaich for De Long in the Lena Delta In
1883 he was in Tongking as a war correspond-
ent duung the French- Anamese War and in
1884 visited the region of the earthquakes in
Spain On his expeditions and travels he was
a coi respondent of the New York Herald He
published Schwatka' s Search Sledging in the
Arctic in Quest of the Frankhn Records (1881)
and Ice-Pack and Tundra (1883)
GILDEBOY, gil'der~oi The romantic hero of
a ballad preserved in Percy's Reliques, and a
veritable character, Patrick of the Clan Gregor,
in the annals of Perthshire, who was hanged as
a highwayman, with five of his companions, in
1638 It was his boast that he had picked Car-
dinal Richelieu's pocket, robbed Cromwell, and
hanged a judge
GrlLDERSLEEVE, gil'der-slev, BASIL LAN-
NEAU (1831-1924) A distinguished American
classical scholar, born at Charleston, S C He
graduated from Princeton in 1849 and then
studied in Germany at the universities of Ber-
lin, Bonn, and Gottmgen, receiving the degree
of PhD from Gottingen in 1853 Upon his
return to the United States he was professor
of Gieek in the University of Virginia fiom
1856 to 1876 j he was also professor of Latin
in 1861-66 Tn 1876 he became professor of
Greek at Johns Hopkins University, then newly
founded He undertook, in addition, the editoi-
ship of the American Journal of Philology, upon
its establishment m 1880, and by his own writ-
ings in this journal and m the Transactions of
the American Philological A vsociation, as well
as in his edition of Justin Martyr (New York,
1877), he made most valuable contribution to
the syntax of Greek and Latin and to the his-
tory of Greek literature. On his seventieth
birthday 44 of his former pupils, most of them
professors* in American universities, published
in his honor a collection of their papers, entitled
Studies in Honor of Basil L Gilder sleeve, an
octavo volume of more than 500 pages (Balti-
more, 1902) He published numerous works
A Latin Grammar (1867, 1894, 1899), a valu-
able edition of Persms (1875), an edition of
Pindar, famous foi its introduction (1885) ,
Essays and Studies Educational and Literary
(1890), Hellas and Hesperia (1909) Of very
great importance is his Syntax? of Classical
0-reek from Homer to Demosthenes, in collabora-
tion with C. W. E Miller (New York, part 1,
GILBEBSLEEVE
758
GILEAD
1900, part 11, 1911) He was elected president
of the American Philological Association in
1877 and again in 1908 and became a member
of the American Academy of Aits and Letters
as well as of various foreign learned societies
He received the degree of LLD from William
and Mary (1869), Harvard (1896), Yale
(1901), Chicago (1901), and Pennsylvania
(1911), DCL from the University of the
South (1884), LHD. from Yale (1891) and
Princeton (1899), LittD from Oxford and
Cambridge (1905).
GILDEKSLEEVE, VIRGINIA CROCHEBQIT
(1877- ) An American educator She was
born in New York City, attended the Brearly
(preparatory) School, graduated from Barnard
College (Columbia University) m 1899, and
obtained her doctor's degiee in 1908 She was
assistant in English (1900-03), tutor (1903-
05), instructor (1905-07), lecturer (1908-10),
assistant piofessor (1910-11), and professor of
English and dean (after 1911) of Barnard Col-
lege She became a member of various learned
societies She is author of Government Regu-
lation of the Elizabethan Drama (1908).
GILDER'S WHITE See CHALK
GrLD'HSTG (from gilc^ AS gyldan, from
gold) The ait of covering a suiface with a thin
layer of gold There are many processes of
gilding, varying with the nature of the sub-
stance to be gilded and the kind of effect de-
sired The different methods., however, may be
grouped under the three general classes of
mechanical gilding, chemical gilding, and en-
caustic gilding
Mechanical Gilding consists of applying gold
leaf directly to a surface which has been pre-
viously prepared by the application of a size
The gold leaf, being placed on the size while it
is only partially diy, adheres Various forms
of gold leaf, and various substitutes as well, are
used for gilding. There is the genuine deep or
reddish gold, pale gold, the paleness being due
to a silver alloy, silver leaf, afterward colored
or varnished to imitate gold, and "Dutch" leaf,
a copper alloy having an appearance similar to
gold. The gilding material is sold in "books,"
a gold book usually containing 24 leaves, 3
inches square Several different sizes are al^o
used, of which the commonest are "old gold
size," a mixture of litharge, linseed oil, and
ochre, and "water size," made by dissolving
isinglass in boiling water, and adding an equal
volume of spirits, and then stiaining the mix-
ture through silk Gilding may be applied in
this manner to wood, cardboard or paper, tex-
tiles, metals, masonry, or ivory When applied
to cards, papers, or textiles, the surface must
be rendered nonabsorbent by a preliminary sizing
of weak glue before the regular gilding size is
applied Before gilding a metal surface it must
be painted, to protect the surface from oxidation
and decay Metals, however, are rarely gilded
by the mechanical process. Masonry, before
being gilded, must be "satisfied" — i e , its porous
surface must be rendered waterproof by a solu-
tion of shellac and gutta-percha, in naphtha or
some other equally efficacious coating. In gild-
ing ivory a warm size is applied. Plaster of
Paris needs several preliminary coats of boiled
linseed oil before the gold size is applied. The
object of the preparatory treatment of all sur-
faces is, of course, to secure a smooth, impene-
trable, and permanent surface on which to lay
the gold leaf. The leaf is accurately cut the de-
sired shape and applied to the sized surface by
means of special tools After being carefully
brushed, to remove stray fragments, the gilding
is given a final coat of specially prepared var-
nish Glass is gilded by a special process The
gold sheet is made to adhere to the ~bacL of the
glass simply by moistening it with the breath,
the glass having been previously cleaned by a
preparation of whiting, rubbed off with silk.
The pattern is marked m reverse on the back,
and that part of the gold inclosed in the pat-
tern fixed by a coat of Brunswick black or other
size After this has thoroughly dried, the poi-
tions not included in the pattein are caiefully
rubbed off with wet cotton Where gilt orna-
ments are to be put on a japanned ground, they
are by one method painted with gold size, and
gold leaf afterward applied By another way
rather more than the space the ornament is to
occupy is wholly covered with gold leaf, adher-
ing with isinglass The ornament is then painted
on with asphaltum, which piotects the gold
beneath it while the superfluous leaf is being
washed away A little turpentine will then re-
move the protecting asphaltum so as to display
the gilt oinament
GILDTIS. See GILDAS
GILEAD, glKe-ad (Heb Wad, connected
with Ar jal'ad, hard, rough) A mountainous
district on the east side of the Jordan, whose
boundaries are variously conceived in different
portions of the Old Testament In general, it
includes the whole mountain region between the
Yarmuk on the north and the Arnon on the
south, the eastern boundaries being formed by
the desert table lands of Arabia (the plains of
Bashan), and the western by the Jordan In
spite of its name, Gilead is a beautiful and fiuit-
ful region The vegetation is luxuriant, espe-
cially in the central part round the brook Jab-
bok, where forests of oak and terebinth occur.
Gilead, in fact, is better provided with water
and woodland than any part of western Pales-
tine. It formerly produced gums and spices
The hills are not veiy high, and they have broad
summits almost like table lands The district is
well adapted for pasturage (Num xxxn 1)
Gilead was much exposed to Bedoum raids from
the east and other hostile attacks, and its his-
tory has much to do with wais The land was
conquered from Sihon and Og and handed over
to Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh
(Num xxi 21-26, Deut 111 16) These tribes
held it against the Midianites (Judg vm ),
Ammonites (Judg xi. 32, xn 3), and Syrians
(2 Kings ix 14), but finally lost it to the As-
syrians Tiglath-pileser captured the land and
carried the inhabitants captives (1 Chron v
26) Gilead is also interesting as forming a
refuge to which Absalom fled (2 Sam xin 38)
when fearing the anger of his father, while sub-
sequently, dunng the rebellion of Absalom, David
found an asylum there (2 Sam xvn 27-29)
It was in Gilead, likewise, that Ishbosheth, the
son of Saul, was proclaimed King by Abner (2
Sam. 11 8-9) The valiant men of Jabesh-
Gilead performed the last rites for the bodies of
Saul and his sons after the battle of Mount 'Gil-
boa (1 Sam. xxxi 11-13) Elijah sojourned
there (1 Kings xvn 1), and Jesus made visits
to this region In the wars of the Maccabees
Gilead played an important part, and tinder Ro-
man occupation its natural resources were
greatly developed Among the principal cities
were. Mahanaim, Succoth., Fennel, Mizpeh, and
GILES
759
GILES
Jazei , in latter times Pella and Geiasa A con-
spicuous mountain (perhaps the Jebel Osha)
was known as the mountain of Gilead (Gen
xxxi 21 et seq ) Consult Ohphant, The Land
of Gilead (London, 1880), and Merrill East of
the Jordan (New York, 1881)
GILES, jilz, HENRY (1809-82) An Irish-
American clergyman, lectuiei, and essayist He
was bom in County Wexford, Ireland, and was
educated in the Roman Catholic faith at the
Royal Academy at Belfast, but he afterward
joined the Unitarian chuich and held pastorates
at Greenock and Liverpool In 1840 he came
to the United States, where he soon became
known as a lecturer and essayist of considerable
force and originality He published Lectures
and Essays (1845) , Christian Thought on Life
(1850) , Illustrations of Genius in Some of its
Relations to Society and Culture (1854) , Hu-
man Life in Shakespeare (1868, revised, 1887) ,
Letters and Essays on Irish and Other Subjects
(1869)
GILES, HEEBERT ALLEN (1845- ) An
English Orientalist, educated at the Charter-
house He entered the China consular service
in 1867, was Vice Consul at Pagoda Island
(1880-83) and Shanghai (1883-85) and Con-
sul at Tamsui (1885-91) and Ningpo (1891-
93 ) , and was professor of Chinese at Cambridge
and (in 1902) first lecturer at Columbia Uni-
versity on the Lung Foundation Among liis
writings were Chinese without a Teacher (1872,
6th ed, 1908) , Chinese Sketches (1876) , Hand-
look of the Sioatow Dialect (1877) , Glossary
of Reference (1878, 3d ed , 1900), Historic
China (1882) , The Remams of Lao Tzu (1886) ,
Chinese-English Dictionary (1892, 2d ed , 1912)
and Chinese Biographical Dictionary (1897),
which received the Prix St Juhen of the French
Academy, Chinese Poetry in English Vetse
(1898), History of Chinese Literature (1901);
China and the Chinese (1902) , Introduction to
the History of Chinese Art (1905), Chinese
Fairy Tales (1911), The Civilization of China
(1911), Advei Sana Siwca ( 1 906-1 3 ) , China
and the Manchus (1912)
GILES, PETER (c!860- ) An English
philologist, educated at Aberdeen University, at
Gonville and Cams College, Cambridge, and at
Freiburg At Cambridge he became fellow of
Gonville and Cams in 1887, fellow and classical
lecturer of Emmanuel in 1890, university reader
in comparative philology in 1891, and master
of Emmanuel in 1911 He published an ex-
cellent Short Manual of Comparat^ve Philology
(1895), and wrote, especially on Greek linguis-
tics, for philological journals, etc
GILES, jilz, SAINT (Gk A.lyt8ua, Aigidios,
Lat JEgidws) A hermit of France and abbot
of a Benedictine monastery in the second half
of the seventh century He is said to have been
an Athenian of royal descent, from early years
distinguished for piety and charity Annoyed
by the publicity to which his reputation as a
holy man exposed him at home, he went to
Provence about 665 and took up the hermit life
in a solitary spot near the mouth of the RhSne,
living upon herbs and the milk of a hind which
came to his cell at stated hours Here he was
discovered by the King o± the Goths, who while
hunting followed the hind to the hermit's cave
Reluctantly ^Egidms consented that a. monastery
should be established at the place He became
its first abbot and held the office till his death.
Consult Kembry, Samt Gklles (Bruges, 1881).
GILES, WILLIAM BRANCH (1762-1830) An
American politician and legislatoi He was born
in Amelia Co , Va , was educated at Hampden-
Sidney and Princeton (1781), studied law with
Chancellor George Wythe, and practiced law
for several years in Petersbmg, Va In early
life he was a Fedeialist in politics, but associa-
tion with Jefferson's followers in his native
State caused him to change his views, and he
was elected to Congress in 1790 as a Republi-
can Duiing his career in the House, which
lasted until 1803, with the exception of the ses-
sion of 1799-1801, he was leader of the extreme
Republicans, with Edward Livingstone, Nathan-
iel Macon, Andrew Jackson, and a few others,
he voted against the adoption, after Washing-
ton's last message, of a complimentary vote ap-
proving his policies In 1791 he actively op-
posed the pioposition for the establishment of
the United States Bank In January, 1793, he
accused Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treas-
ury, of corruption, and when Hamilton vindi-
cated his acts, Giles piessed resolutions of cen-
sure, which the House refused to adopt In
1795 he led the opposition to the Jay Treaty
(qv.) In 1798 he was an earnest advocate of
the principles of the Viigmia Resolutions, join-
ing with Madison, Taylor, and Wilson Caiy
Nicholas in securing their adoption From 1799
to 1801 he seived in the Legislature of Virginia
He used the most bitter invectives m his de-
bates, declared that the nation was being un-
dermined by monarchical tendencies, and openly
charged the Federalist leaders with being in the
pay of Great Britain The Federalists detested
him thoroughly He succeeded Wilson Gary
Nicholas in the United States Senate in 1804 and
became at once the leading spokesman of his
party He was one of the leaders in the im-
peachment of Justice Chase (see CHASE, SAM-
UEL), but voted for his acquittal on a majority
of the charges, causing a breach which was never
healed between himself and John Randolph, the
principal manager of the impeachment trial
on the part of the House On the collapse of
the Burr conspiracy in 1807, Giles introduced
a bill for the suspension of the writ of habeas
corpus, and secured its passage in the Senate,
hut it was defeated, through the influence of
Randolph, in the House Another bill introduced
by him, which defined treason and provided
severe penalties, was superseded in the House
by a milder bill of Randolph's In December,
1808, he introduced his bill for tho strict en-
forcement of the embargo, which was intended
by the severity of its provisions to break down
the embargo entirely From 1809 to 1815 Giles
was active in the factional fights within his
party, and, with Samuel Smith and Vice Presi
dent George Clinton, formed the cabal that
eventually drove Gallatm from the cabinet,
hampered the Madison admimstiation by forc-
ing upon it Robert Smith as Secretary of State,
and by opposing its war policy and aiding the
Federalists almost disrupted the Union itself
Nevertheless, he was made chairman of the
Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in 1811,
in which position he was able to force upon
Madison several military measures Being ab-
solutely discredited as a party leader and dis-
trusted by his colleagues* he resigned his seat
in the Senate m 1815 He lived in retirement
until 1825, when he was an unsuccessful can-
didate for the Senate against John Randolph
In 1827 he became Governor of Virginia, an
760
GXLIA
office which lie held until shortly before his
death
GILES LAND See GILLIS LAND
GILPIL, gll'fll, REV MAYNARD The hero
of George Eliot's Mi Gilfil's Loie-titot i/
GILFILLAN, gll-fii'lan, GEORGE (1813-78)
A Scottish cntic and essayist He was born at
Comrie, a village in Peithslme, Jan 30, 1813
Educated at the Unuersity of Glasgow and at
the Divinity Hall of the Secession Budy (aftei-
ward the United Presbytenan chxiich), he was
01 darned, m 1836, to the School Wynd Church,
Dundee, where he remained till his death, Aug
13, 1878 His \voiks, in which he displayed
wide liteiary sympathies, are numeious Among
them aie JL Gallery of Litetanj Portraits (3
series, 1845, 1830, 1854) , The Bwds of the Bible
(1850) The Martyis of the Covenant (1852),
Hittoi y of a Man, in part autobiogiaphieal
(1851), Wight A Poem (1867), lives of Scott
(1870) and of Bums (1879) , and an edition of
the Btititfi Poets (1853-60) He did much to
promote popular education and was a successful
lecturer His Litetary Portraits were reprinted
in 1900
GILGAL, gil'gal (Heb , circle, referring to^the
circle of stones marking a sacred spot) The
name of an ancient city in the Jordan valley
between Jericho and the liver Accoiding to
Josh, iv, it was here that the Israelites fiist en-
camped after crossing the Jordan, and this place
is represented as their headquarters dining the
war for possession of Canaan Here the 12
stones fiom the Jordan are said to have been
erected, and all Israel was ciicumcised in this
sacred spot It occurs frequently in the histoiy
of Samuel and Saul Its importance as a sanc-
tuary is evident from the fact that Saul was
made King of Israel there, and that it is often
mentioned by Hosea, Amos, and Micah. It is
doubtful whether the same Gilgal is meant in
the story of Elijah and Elisha (2 Kings 11 1,
iv. 38) 5 the name is of such a character that it
may well be supposed that many places were
thus designated, but no convincing evidence has
been pioduced to show that the Gilgal of the
Jordan valley is not intended. In Josh xu. 23
the original reading does not seem to have been
Gilgal, but Gahl as the Greek version indicates
Gilgal is represented to-day by a mound called
Tell Jeljul, near Jericho/ Consult Guthe, in
Bibeht orterbuoh (Tubingen, 1903)
GILGAMESH, gll'ga-mSsh The name of the
hero in a Babylonian epic, laige portions of
which have now been found among the cuneiform
tablets constituting the "brick'3 library of King
Asurbanipal At nrst the name of the hero,
written ideographically, was provisionally read
Isrtubar (or Gishdubar), which simply repre-
sented the sound of the three signs iz (or gi<th),
du, and bar, with, which the name was written
The phonetic reading "Gilgamesh" was discov-
ered by T G Pinches in 1890 The Gilgamesh
epic consisted originally of 12 tablets and com-
prised about 3000 lines About half of it has
been leeovered. The epic is a composite pro-
duction, many of the stories told about Gil-
gamesh being attached to him merely because he
became the favorite hero of the Babylonians,
whose adventures acquired great popularity. In
the Gilgamesh epic dimmed historical traditions
and pure myth are represented in about equal
proportions He is a deified hero As a hero,
he is primarily associated with the South Baby-
lonian city Uruk (modern Warka), which he
conquers, as a god, he is a solar deity who is
introduced in incantations and hymns Gil-
gamesh is a hero of irresistible stiength and
among his adventures is a right against a
tyrant, Khumbaba, who is lepieseiited as dwell-
ing in a foitie&s situated in a grove of wonder-
ful giandeur Tins adventure piobably recalls
some historical event, but m the sixth tablet a
mythical element is intioduced Ishtar, the god-
dess of feitihty, has become enamored of Gil-
ganiesh and offeis herself to the hero, who, how-
ever, refuses her and adds insult to injury by
leprimanding the goddess for her cruelty to
her foimer lovers As a punishment, a mighty
bull is sent out by Anu, the god of heaven, to
kill Gilgamesh, but the latter successfully van-
quishes the bull Thereupon Gilgamesh is smit-
ten with disease and begins a long series of wan-
derings in search of healing This disease rep-
icsents the decline of the year, when the sun
( Gilgamesh ), removing itself from the earth
(Ishtar), is imagined to be deprived of its
former strength Associated with Gilgamesh is
anothei hero, Engidu, of whom, likewise, stories
weie current, some of which were transferred to
Gilgamesh Engidu and Gilgamesh become as-
sociates, and the former is also punished by Ish-
tai and eventually dies, whereas Gilgamesh ulti-
mately finds a remedy that at least partially
restores him In the course of his \vanderings
he has many adventuies He passes through
dangerous regions, encounters scorpion men and
lions before he reaches an ancestoi, Ut-napish-
tim, who has survived a destructive deluge, and
from whom Gilgamesh hopes to learn the secret
of eternal life and also to obtain healing from
disease When he at last encounters Ut-napish-
tim, the latter tells him the story of the deluge
( q v ) , and while Gilgamesh does not learn the
secret of immortality, he is healed of his dis-
ease and returns to Uruk
It was formerly supposed that Gilgamesh was
the counterpart of the biblical Nimrod, but this
theory has now been abandoned Gilgamesh
bears a certain relationship to Samson, and
phases of the Gilgamesh epic are thought by
Jensen and others to have passed on to the
Greeks and to have been embodied in the Her-
cules epic Again, in the legends which cluster
in the Orient around Alexander the Great, cer-
tain elements have been introduced which can
be traced back ultimately to the Babylonian tales
of Gilgamesh Consult Haupt, Das Ixibylomsclie
Nimrodepos (Leipzig, 1884-92), Jeremias, Izdu-
bar-Nimrod (ib, 1891), Jensen, Keihnschrift-
hche BiUwthek, vi, 1 (Berlin, 1900). id, Das
Gilgameschepos (Leipzig, 1906), Ungnad, in
Gressmann, Alt orient alische Te&te und Bilder
(Tubingen, 1909) , Kogeis, Cuneiform Parallels
to the Old Testament (New York, 1912) , Jas-
trow, Religion Balyloniens und Assynens (Tu-
bingen, 1902-12), id, Babylonian and Helrew
Traditions (New York, 1914)
GILIA ( Neo-Lat , named in honor of Felipe
Gil, a Spanish botanist) A genus of about 70
species of annual or biennial and a few peren-
nial herbs (mostly western) of the family Pole-
moniaceae The species have small, many-col-
ored, funnel-shaped or bell-shaped or sometimes
salver-shaped tfve-lobed corollas, and some of the
species have become popular in gardens, for
which purpose they are well adapted, since they
are hardy, prolific of bloom, sturdy, and of
simplest culture The seed is sown in any good
soil, usually where the plants are to remain.
GILIAKS ft
G-ilia tricolor is shown on Plate of CALIFORNIA
FLORA
GILIAKS, gil'1-a.ks A people of the northern
portion of the island of Saghahen, and the
coast and lowlands about the mouth of the
Amui and Liman They number some 4500 and
aie divided into thiee tribes, with at least two
chief dialects Physically they seem to be a
mixed people — one t^pe found among them le-
seinblmg more the Amo, the other the Tungus,
but generally they are brachycephahc, of average
height, and well built Then "nmmage regula-
tions and their bear festivals are of great inter-
est The Giliaks, who are a hunting and fishing
folk, have been influenced in their house-build-
ing and domestic arrangements by the Russians
and in the ornamentation by the Chinese Bun-
ton (1890) classes them with the Tchuktchis,
Korraks, Kamchatkans, etc , but Steinbeig, who
lived several years in this part of Asia, and Lau-
fer incline to place them as a people apait fiom
all others, in respect of language in particulai
Some include them in the so-called "Paleo-
Asiatics " The Giliaks possess a canoe of the
monitor form, which resembles that of the
Kootenay Indians of British Columbia The
Amur and the Kootenay rivers are the only
legions of the globe where this type is found
Besides the article of Deniker on the Giliaks
in the Revue d3 Ethnographic (Paris), for 1884,
the literature about them embraces Schrenck,
"Die Volker des Amuilancles, ' vol 111 of his
Reisen und Forscliungen in Amurland, 1854—56
(St Petersburg, 1881-91), Laufer, "Explora-
tions among the Amoor Tribes," in American
Anthropologist (New York, 1900) , and the re-
searches of Sternberg, continued by Weinstem
in the Verhantilungen der Berliner G-esellsohaft
fur Anthropologie for 1901.
G-ILIMEB See GELIMER
GILL, gil, or BBA3STCHIA, bran'ki-a (from
Dan gycelle, gill, Icel gybllnar, gills; connected
with Icel gil, Eng gdl> ravine) One of the
special respiratory paired organs of animals
which breathe oxygen dissolved in water The
lowest animals respire directly through the thin
body wall at all parts of the surface and conse-
quently require no special respiratory organs
In the higher animals, such as the mollusks, the
body has become of great size and has a thick
skin for protection, and the skin is often cov-
ered by a secreted cuticula or a shell Under
these circumstances oxygen cannot be taken in
at all parts of the body, and there must be
special organs for respiration, the essential fea-
ture of which is that they shall have a delicate,
permeable wall The gills are snch organs The
gills are, almost without exception, outgrowths
of the body wall, provided with a thin wall and
bathed by water. They contain blood spaces,
or blood vessels, which carry the oxygen from
the gills to the tissues and probably carry car-
bonic acid back to the gills to be excreted there
All gills, therefore, are physiologically alike,
but they are not all homologous We cannot
consequently describe them all from one point of
view, but shall have to consider them by classes
Gills have arisen independently in at least four
different phyla, and even inside a single phy-
lum the gills are by no means all related. We
shall consider in order the gills of worms, mol-
lusks, echmoderms, annelids, arthropods, and
chordates
Worms, Brachiopods, etc The flatworms,
roundworms, and rotifers respire over the
whole surface of the body, but in the Polyzoa
and Braehiopoda, in which the body is moie or
less incased in a shell, the tentacles, taken to-
gether,, form a lespnatory organ and may be
spoken of collectively a&> gills The tentacleb
aie thin-walled and hollow, and their cavities
communicate with the general body cavity, so
that the body lymph, may carry oxygen from the
gills to the tissues
Mollusks These massive animals have to
solve a much harder problem in respiration than
have the Seolecida In the lamellibrancliiate
the foot is surrounded by a double low of ten-
tacles These remain as distinct straight fila-
ments in a few genera, such as Nuculla, I<eda
Yoldw, and Solenomyaj but each filament is in-
flected, making a knee bend, so that each seiu"*
of filaments, 01 "gills," is double, as in Anomia,
Area, and the mussels (Mytihdae) The re-
flected pait of each filament may be united with
the basal part, and the free end of the lenected
filament may grow fast to the body or to the
mantle In the other lamellibranchs the adja
cent filaments aie united by uossbars, forming
a soit of network Each filament and connecting
bai is hollow blood couises through it and re
ceives oxygen fiom the water that lushes by it
on all sides The mechanism for bringing the
water to the gills is simple — water lushes into
the mantle chambei, bathing the gills and pene-
trating between the filaments as it goes in and
out In the shelled gastropods there is a pair
of gills on the right and left of the neck in a
few symmetrical species, but in most of the
spirally coiled species tliere is only one gill, and
that is on the left side The gill consists of a
finger-like process containing a vessel carrying
blood to the tip of the gill and one carrying it
from the gill In passing from the first to the
second vessel the blood is spread out over nu-
merous thin-walled plates, where it comes in con-
tact with the water In the naked gastropods
respiration occurs chiefly on the whole surface
of the body, hut sometimes by special finger-like
outgrowths In cephalopoda there are either
two or four gills, which lie in the mantle cavity,
projecting forward, and are fastened on both
sides The general arrangement is the same as
in tlie gastropod gill, but the capillary absorb-
ing sui faces are mnch increased in area
Echmoderms The respiratory organs in the
group of echmoderms are not all homologous,
for the most part they have the function, as it
were, by accident in the starfishes parts of
the outer skin are raised up to form thin-walled
papillae, which are believed to be respiratory
In the serpent stars the thin-walled pouches ly-
ing next the arms in which the sexual products
aie thrown serve also for respiration In the
sea urchins there is a gill at the base of each
interradius on the outer edge of the thin mem-
brane about the mouth The gill is merely a
thin-walled sac of the skin, into which the t>ody
fluids can flow In the sea cucumbers (Holo-
thnroidea) there are special, complicated respir-
atory organs called the respiratory trees They
arise from the lower end of the food canal, as
great branched sacs extending up into the body
cavity Water flows into these "trees" and out
of them at regular intervals The "trees" are
wanting in a few thin-walled sea cucumbers,
such as Synapta and a pelagic and a deep-sea
form
Annelids and Arthropods. The thick-
skinned fresh-water annelids need no gills, bat
762
GILL
the thick-skinned marine ones have usually
some special provision, for lespiration The
swimming feet often have a thin, broad lobe con-
taining blood vessels, and in a lew annelids there
are special filiform or branched outgrowths of
the feet, which aid in respiration Since the
Crustacea are thick-skinned, nearly all of them
have gills In the Lower Crustacea there are
respiratory plates (podobranchise) attached to
the legs, but in the higher forms these leg organs
form pyramidal masses with central efferent
and afferent vessels leading to and from the
hundreds of delicate papillse of which the gill
is composed The gills are so placed that the
blood leaving them goes directly to the heart.
The great gills are covered by a special shield,
the carapace
In the merostomes (king crabs, etc ), the gills
are broad, flat, and rounded sacs, like the leaves
of a book, forming a file of upward of 100 on
each of the gill-bearing abdominal legs In the
trilohites the gills form triangular expansions of
certain of the segments of many of the legs
behind the head
Insects The gills of insects whose nymphs
or larvse are aquatic are called "tiacheal" gills,
because they are permeated by fine air tubes,
they are long or flattened leaflike filaments at-
tached to the sides or end of the body Such are
the gills of the larvae of the caddis flies, and of
certain aquatic caterpillars (PataponyoB) , those
of the nymphs of May flies are broad and leaf-
like In the highly modified nymphs of certain
May flies (Bcetosca, and Prosopwtoma ) , the dense
masses of tracheal gills are entirely concealed
and protected by projections of the mesothoracic
segment, so as to form a true respiratoiy cham-
ber, to which the water gains access by minute
openings. Blood gills are described by Fritz
Muller as certain delicate and tubular processes,
into winch the blood flows, and which do not
contain tracheae Muller compares them with
the gills of Crustacea , they occur in case worms
The larva of Pelotrus, a beetle, has true blood
gills A few adult insects (Pteronarcy$> and
other Perlidse) have tracheal gills arising in
tufts on the underside of the thorax. In a
dragon fly (Euphcea) the gills of the nymph
are retained in the imago The nymphs of many
dragon flies breathe by rectal gills. Consult
Packard, Text-Book of Entomology (New York,
1898).
Chordata Gills in this group are at least
roughly homologous In all the lower aquatic
forms water is taken into the inouth and forced
out through slits in the neck The sides of these
slits, when the current is strongest, are beset
with filaments in which the blood circulates and
receives oxygen The gills may be covered, as in
most fishes, or they may stand out from the
sides of the body, as is the case in gilled Am-
phibia The latter position is a precarious one,
for the gills are often bitten off, but they can
be quickly regenerated. See ALIMBNTABY SYS-
TEM, EVOLUTION OF THE; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM,
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE
Pishes The lampreys, myxmoids, sharks,
and rays are termed fishes with ."fixed gills,"
because in them each supporting septum of the
anterior and posterior branchial mucous sur-
faces is attached to the pharyngeal and dermal
integument by its entire outer margin, and the
streams of water flow out by the same number
of fissures in the skin as those by which they
enter from the pharynx In the osseous and in
the ganoid fishes there are "free gills," the outer
border of the supporting branchial arch being
unattached to the skin and playing freely back-
ward and forwaid, with its gill surfaces, in a
common gill cavity, which has a single outlet,
usually in the foim of a veitical fissure In the
ABRANGEMENT OF A FISH'S GILLS
Fig 1 Diagram to show the arrangement of the gills in
a bony nsh, as seen in a horizontal section of the branchial
chamber on one side gc, gill cover, gs, gill slit, be, com-
mon branchial chamber, ba 1 to ba 4 first four gill-bearing
branchial arches, the first three having a double series of
branchial laminse, the fourth having only a single series,
6a5, rudimentary fifth branchial arch (" inferior pharyngeal
bone), which carries no gills, og, pseudobranchia or "oper-
cular gill," developed on the inner lace of the gill cover The
arrows show the passage of the water through the branchial
fissures and out by the gill slit Fig 2 Diagram ot a pair
of branchial laminae in a bony fish e, branchial arch trans-
versely divided, showing the external groove in which the
great vessels run, a, branchial artery, giving off branches
(Z>6) along the inner edges of the branchial laminae, c, bran-
chial vein, receiving branches (dd} from the outer edges of
the branchial laminse
myxmoids (see illustration under HAGFISH) six
or seven branchial sacs open on each side, and
their outlets are produced into short tubes,
which open into a longitudinal canal, directed
backward and discharging its contents by an
orifice near the middle line of the ventral sui-
face. Between the two outlets is a third larger
one, which communicates by a short duct with
the end of the oesophagus and admits the water,
which passes from that tube by the lateral ori-
fices leading into the branchial sacs These sacs,
which are developed from the oesophagus, and
which may be regarded as the simplest form of
piscine gill, have a highly vascular, but not a
ciliated, mucous membrane, which is arranged
in radiating primary and secondary folds, so as
to increase the
surface In the
lampreys there is
a further separa-
tion of the respir-
atory from the
digestive tract,
for each internal
blind duct com-
municates with a
median canal be-
neath and dis-
tinct from the
ossophagus.
In all the
higher fishes the
inlets to the bran-
chial interspaces
GILLS OF A PERCH
Gills and heart of the perch, ex-
posed by the removal of the gill
cover on the left side a, first of
the four bony arches which carry
the gills (6 6r), 6r, lower edges of
the gills on the nght side, h, heart
lie on each side of the gullet and are equal in
number with the interspaces, while, except in
the elasmobranchs, there is only one outlet on
each side These outlets vary extremely in size,
being relatively largest in the herring and
763
GILL
mackerel families, and smallest in tlie eels and
lophnd fishes, as the anglei ( q v ) The length
of time that diffeient fishes can exist out of
water depends on the modifications for retain-
ing watei in the branchial chambers As a gen-
eral rule, the chamber is laigest where the out-
let is smallest, as in the eels, blenmes, and loph-
joids, and these aie the fishes that survive the
longest out of water, except in such cases as the
climbing fish (qv ), in which the branchial ap-
paratus possesses complex labynnthic append-
ages The main object of the gills of fishes
being to expose the venous blood, in very thin-
walled vessels, to streams of water, the bran-
chial arteries rapidly subdivide into capillaiies,
which constitute a network in one layer, sup-
poited by an elastic plate, and coveied by a
tessellated but nonciliated epithelium This
coveiing and the capillary wall are so thin as
to admit fiee mtei change to take place between
the blood, loaded with carbonic acid, on the one
hand, and the aerated water on the other The
extent of respiratory surface is increased in
various ways, of which by far the most common
is "by the production of the capillary-supporting
plates from each side of long, compressed, slen-
der, pointed processes, extending, like the teeth
of a comb, but in a double row, from the convex
side of each branchial arch" The number of
•vascular plates or lamellae attached to each
branchial process has been estimated at 135 in
the carp, 700 in the eel, 1000 in the cod, 1400
in the salmon, and 1600 in the sturgeon
Amphibia. We now pass on to the considera-
tion of these organs in amphibians In the lower
or pei enmbranchiate members of this order the
gills exist permanently, but in the great majority
they are mere temporary organs In the newt
three pairs of external gills are developed, at
first as simple filaments, each with a capillary
loop, but speedily expanding and giving off loop-
lets The gill is covered with ciliated epithe-
lium, which loses the cilia before the absorption
of the oigan, and this takes place after a few
days of larval existence In the larval frog the
gills, which are on a simpler plan, diminish
about the fourth day and disappear on the sev-
enth The parts of the branchial framework
which support the deciduous gills never get be-
yond the cartilaginous stage. They thus readily
shrink and become more internal as the head
increases in size As the gills of the perenni-
branchiate amphibians in all essential points re-
semble those already described, it is unnecessary
to notice them See AMPHIBIA, DIPNOI,
GILL, zhel, ANDRE, pseudonym of Louis
ALEXANDRE GOSSET DE GUTNITES (1840-85) A
French illustrator, born in Paris His first
work appeared in La Lune and afterward ap-
peared in L'EcUpse He excelled in the carica-
ture of portraiture, and the best known of his
drawings are the series of "Our Contemporaries"
and "Our Deputies" He painted pictures that
were shown at the Salon and wrote plays that
were acted and verse that was often reprinted,
but his great reputation was as a caricaturist
of contemporary politics
GILL, gil, AUGTTSTUS HERMAN (1864- )
An American industrial chemist He was born
at Canton, Mass , graduated from Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1884, and received a
PhD from the University of Leipzig m 1890.
At the former institution he was assistant m
1884-87, instructor in 1890-94, assistant profes-
sor of gas analysis from 1894 to 1906, associate
IX- — *9
professor of technical analysis in 1900-09, atlcl
piofessor after 1909 He lectured at Welles-
ley College in 1892-93 He was president of
the New England section of the Amei ican Chemi-
cal Society \n 1903 He is authoi of Gas and
Fuel Analysis for Engineers (1896, 7th ed ,
1913), A Shott Handbook of Oil Analysis
(1895, 7th ed, 1913), Engine? oom Chemistry
(1907, 2d ed, lev and enlarged, 1913)
GILL, gil, SIR DAVID (1843-1914) A Scot-
tish astronomei, born in Abeideenshiie He
studied at the Univeisity of Aberdeen and in
1873-76 was director of the piivate observatory
of the Earl of Crawford (then Lord Lindsay)
at Dunecht (Aberdeenslure), ]n which capacity
he organized the transit of Venus exp edition
sent by Lord Lindsay to Mauritius In 1877 he
oigamzod and conducted an expedition to the
Ascension island for the puipose of determining
the solar parallax through observation of Mais
For the results of this expedition he was awarded
the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, and the Valz prize at the Academic des
Sciences of the Institut de France From 1879
to 1907 he was Royal Astronomer at the Cape
of Good Hope In 1882-83 he caincd out, with
Elkin, an investigation of remaikable acorn acy
into the parallaxes of nine of the chief southern
stars and in 1887 he undertook a second and
equally important series of parallax observa-
tions In 1885-96 he executed the geodetic sur>
vey of Fatal and Cape Colony and in 1897 or-
ganized the geodetic survey of Rhodesia His
success in photographing the great comet of 1882
led him to urge the desirability of the use of
photography in the preparation of catalogues of
the stars, and in 1885 he began the "Cape Photo-
graphic Durchmusterung," by which the survey
of the heavens carried out by Aigelander m his
"Bonn Dm chrausterung" was extended to the
south pole The publication of the results of
this great survey of the southern heavens, which
gives the positions of 454,875 stars, was com-
pleted in 1900 In that year lie was made
Watson gold medalist of the National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, DC In 1903 he was
awarded the royal medal of the Royal Society,
and in 1908, for the second time, the gold medal
of the Royal Astronomical Society He was
president of the British Association in 1907-08
and of the Institute of Marine Engineers in
1910-11 His writings include memoira on
"Hehometer Determinations of Stellar Parallax
in the Southern Hemisphere" and "A Determina-
tion of the Solar Parallax and Mass of the
Moon from Heliometer Observations of Victoria
and Sappho" (in Annals of the Cape Observa-
tory, vols vi and vn, 1896) He also wrote A
Determination of the Solar Parallax from Ob-
servations of Mars at the Island of Ascension
(in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, ib , vols xlvi and xlvui, 1881 and 1885)
and History and Description of the Royal 0~b-
setvatory, Cape of Good Hope (1913)
OILL, JOHN (1697-1771) A Baptist minis-
ter, distinguished for his knowledge of rabbinic
literature He was born at Kettering, North-
amptonshire, Nov 23, 1697 He spent a short
time at Kettering Grammar School, and con-
tinued his studies in private At an early age
he began to preach, and was ordained in 1718
In 1719 lie became pastor of a Baptist church
at Horsleydown, i,n Soutlnpark, in 1757 lie re-
moved to a new chapel in Camberwell, a Lon-
don suburb^ where fee remained till his death,
Get 14, 1771 Gill was a very voluminous au-
thor His greatest work was his Exposition of
the Holy Scriptures (New Testament, 1746-48,
Old Testament, 1748-63) He also wrote a
Dissertation- on the Antiquity of the Hebrew
Language, Letters, Vowel Points, and Accents
(1767), and many controversial works of merely
temporary interest He was a strong Calvimst
Consult his memoir by Ripon (London, 1816)
GILL, THEODOEE NICOLAS (1837-1914). An
American zoologist, born m New York City In
1865-67 he was librarian of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, in 1866-75 assistant librarian of the
Library of Congress, and in 1884 became pro-
fessor of zoology in Columbian (now George
Washington) University He was elected a
member of the National Academy of Sciences,
was appointed an associate in zoology in the
United States National Museum, and in 1896
served as president of the American Association,
for the Advancement of Science His writings,
chiefly on ichthyology, include Synopsis of
Fresh Water Fishes (1861) , Arrangement of the
Families of Mollusks (1871) 3 Catalogue of the
Fishes of the East Coast of North America
(1873, part i of the Report for 1871-72 of the
United States Commission of Fish and Fisher-
ies) , Bibliography of the Fishes of the Pacific
Coast of the United States to the End of 1879
(1882) , Principles of Zoogeography (1884) , The
Characteristics of the Family of Scatophagoid
Fishes (1891); Notes on the Tetradontoidea
(1892), Parental Care among Fresh-Water
Fishes (1906) He also prepared with Elliott
Cones Material for a Bibliography of ~North
American Mammals (1877, in vol xi of Hay-
den, Report of the United States Geological Sur-
vey of the Territories]
GILL, WILLIAM JOHN (1843-81) An Eng-
lish, military engineer and traveler, born at
Bangalore, India. He studied at Brighton Col-
lege and the Royal Military Academy (Wool-
wich), in 1864 was commissioned a second lieu-
tenant in the Royal Engineers, and m 1869-71
served in India From 1871 to 1876 he was in
England, on duty at Aldershot, Chatham, and
Woolwich In 1874 he contested Hackney, and
in 1880 Nottingham, both successfully His first
experience as a traveler was had in 1873, when
he accompanied Col Valentine Baker in a jour-
ney through Persia, during which he executed a
survey contributing much to geography In
1876 lie was transferred to Hongkong, and in
1876-78 traveled in China and Tibet This last
journey is the one for which he is best known
For the results of this journey, comprised prin-
cipally in a large map and m a memoir published
in the Journal of the Royal Geographical So-
ciety, he obtained the gold modal of that society
(1879) and that of the Pans Geographical
Society (1880) In 1879 he was appointed as-
sistant boundary commissioner on the boundary
between Russia and Turkey, newly established
by the Berlin Treaty He was in Egypt in 1881
on special service, and having been sent to cut
the telegraph wire which led from Cairo across
the desert to Syria, was murdered by Bedouins
at Wady Sahr He published The River of
Golden Sand (2 vols, 1880, new ed , 1883), a
popular account of his journey in Tibet and
China
GrlLLE, zhel, PHILIPPE EMILE PEAwgois
(1831-1901). A French dramatist. He was
born in Paris and at first studied sculpture,
but in 1861 he became secretary of the Lyric
Theatre He was on the staff of several
Parisian journals, notably the Figaro, for which
he began in 1869 to write the bibliographical
criticisms Some of these have been collected
under the title La lataille litteraire (4 vols ,
1889-91) He also wrote a number of librettos
and ballets and several comedies, such as Vent
du soir (1857, music by Offenbach), Le loeuf
Apis (1865, music by Delibes) , Les charton-
niers (1877), Yedda, a ballet (music by
Me"tra) , Lakme (1883, for Dehbes's music),
Manon, the book of Clatissa Harlowe for Bizet,
who died before completing the opera, and
Camille (1890) He published a volume of
poems, L'herbier (1887), and Memoires d'un
journaliste (5 vols, 1869-76) Gille married a
daughter of the composer Masse"
GILLEMC, gillem, ALVAN CULLEM (1830-75)
An American soldier, born in Jackson Co,
Tenn In 1851 he graduated at the United
States Military Academy, in 1851-52 served
against the Semmole Indians, and during the
Civil War was chief quartermaster of the Army
of the Ohio m the Tennessee campaign, was
appointed colonel of the Tenth Tennessee Volun-
teers in 1862, and from 1863 until the close of
the Avar, with rank of brigadier general of
volunteers, was active in Tennessee, where he
was adjutant general, and where, in a campaign
to protect the loyal mountaineers, he surprised
and killed the Confederate General John H Mor-
gan (Greenville, Sept 4, 1864) For bravery at
Marion, Va , he was brevetted lieutenant colonel
and for general services colonel in the regular
United States army At the reorganization of
the Tennessee State government towards the
close of the war he was vice president of the
convention (Jan. 9, 1865) for the levision of
the constitution, and sat in the first Legislature
elected thereafter Brevetted major general and
commissioned colonel, lie was in command of the
district (and subdistrict) of Mississippi in
1867-68, and was prominent in the operations
against the Modoc Indians in 1873
G-ILLE'ITIA (Neo-Lat , named in honor of
Arnold Gill, a German botanist) A genus of
perennial plants of the family Rosacese, natives
of the temperate parts of eastern Noith America
The roots are used m medicine as a mild emetic,
and in small doses as a tonic There are two
species which are often called Indian physic,
Gillenia trifoliata, also known as American
ipecac, Indian hippo, and drop wort, and Gillenia
stipulata, or bowman's root The plants of this
genus grow to a height of about 2 feet, and on
account of their giaceful foliage are often
planted in shrubberies
GILLESPIE, gil-Wpi, ELIZA MAKIA (known
also by her religious name, "Mother Mary of
St Angela") (1824-87). She was a cousin of
Thomas Ewing (qv ) After a conventual edu-
cation at Somerset, Ohio, and Georgetown, D C ,
she entered the Congregation of the Holy Cross
(1853), and in 1855 became mother superior of
the Academy of St Mary, then at Bertrand,
Mich , afterward removed by her to St Mary's^
near Notre Dame, Ind At the beginning of the
Civil War she organized among the sisters a
board of hospital nurses, which, with the centre
of work at Cairo, 111 , rendered effective service
in the care of wounded and sick Upon the
separation of her order in the United States
from the European body in 1869, she became
mother superior Consult the In Memonam,
Mother Mary (Notre Dame^ Ind, 1887).
GILLESPIE
765
GILLrKTGHAM
GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-48). A Scot-
tish Presbytenan clergyman and prominent
member of the Westminster Assembly He was
bom at Kirkcaldy, near Leith After a brilliant
career as a student at St Andiews University
he became domestic chaplain to Lord Kenrmire,
and in 1634 to the Earl of Cassilis While with
the Earl of Cassilis he wrote his first work,
A Dispute against the English Popish Gere-
monies Obtruded upon the Church of Scotland
(1637), which attracted consideiable attention,
and within a few months all available copies
were called in and bmned by order of the Privy
Council In April, 1638, soon after the au-
thority of the bishops had been set aside by the
nation, Gillespie was ordained minister of
Wemyss (Fife) by the Presbytery of Kirkcaldy,
and in the same year preached a sermon before
the General Assembly at Glasgow, pronouncing
so decidedly against royal interference in mat-
ters ecclesiastical as to call for remonsti ance on
the part of the Earl of Argyll, then Lord High
Commissioner In 1642 Gillespio was trans-
ferred to Edinburgh, but the brief remainder
of his life was chiefly spent in London Al-
ready, in 1640, he had accompanied the com-
missioners of the peace to England as one of
their chaplains, and in 1643 he was appointed
to the Westminster Assembly Here he took a
prominent part in almost all of the protracted
discussions on Church government His works,
which chiefly deal with the independence of the
Church m spiritual matters, were published in
Edinburgh (1843-48)
GILLESPIE, GEORGE DE NORMAJSTDIE (1819-
1009) A Protestant Episcopal bishop, born in
Goshen, 1ST Y He graduated at the General
Theological Seminary, New York City, in 1840,
and was ordained priest in 1843. He became
rector of St Mark's Church, Leroy, 1ST Y.
(1841), St Paul's Church, Cincinnati (1S45),
Zion Church, Palmyra, N Y (1851), and St
Andrews Church, Ann Arbor, Mich (1861) In
1875 he was made Bishop of the diocese of West-
ern Michigan, and in 1877 he became a member
of the State Board of Charities and Correction
His writings include The Communion of Saints ,
An Holy Priesthood, The Season of Lent
GILLESPIE, GEORGE LEWIS (1841-1913).
An American military engineer, born at Kings-
ton, Tenn He graduated at West Point in 1862,
and served with great gallantry throughout the
Civil War He was president of the Mississippi
Hiver Commission in 1885, and later was divi-
sion engineer on the Atlantic coast During the
Spanish- American War he was in command of
the Department of the East In 1901 he became
a brigadier general and chief of engineers, and
in 1904 major general, serving on the general
staff as assistant chief of staff. He was retired
in 1905
GILLESPIE, WILLIAM MITCHELL (1816-68)
An American author, born in New York City
He graduated at Columbia in 1834, and from
1845 was professor of civil engineering in Union
College A forceful and profound scholar, he
wrote Rome as Seen by a New Yorker (1845) ,
A Manual of Road-Malcing (1847 and often) ,
a translation of Comte's Philosophy of Mathe-
matics (1851), The Principles and Practice of
Land-Surveying (1855, 6th ed , 1858) , a posthu-
mously published Treatise on Leveling, Topog-
raphy, and Higher Surveying (1871, edited by
Staley) , and other works
GILLETT, jll-lSt', EZRA HALL (1823-75). An
American clergyman and author, born at Col-
chester, Conn He graduated in 1841 at Yale,
and in 1844 at the Union Theological Seminary,
and became pastor of a Presbyterian church in
Harlem, NY In 1868 he was appointed profes-
sor of political economy, ethics, and history in
New York University In addition to numeious
contributions to theological reviews, he pub-
lished the Life and Times of John Euss (1863-
64) , a History of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States (1864), The Motal System
(1874) , and other works
GILLETTE, WILLIAM HOOKER (1855- ).
An American actor and playwright He was
bom in Hartford, Conn , and studied in the uni-
versities of New York and Boston, while apply-
ing himself to the theatre He met with success
as an actoi in stock companies in the South and
West, as well as in Boston and New York, and
wrote a number of plays of great popularity,
to the presenting of which he latterly devoted
himself Among them aie Digby's Secretary
(1880, an adaptation from the German, which
was, by compromise, combined with Chailes
Hawtrey's play, The Private Secretary, from
the same source) , Esmeralda (1881) (in which
he collaborated with Mrs Buinett) , Held by the
Enemy (1886) , A Legal Wreck; Too Much
Johnson (1894), Secret Service (1895), Be-
cause She Loved Him So (1899), and Clarice
(1906) He is best known by his dramatization
of Sir Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes (1899)
and his acting of the chief character Consult
Hapgood, The Stage in America, 1897-1900 (New
York, 1901), Strang, Famous Actors of the
Day in America (Boston, 1900) , Clapp and
Edgett, Players of the Present (New York,
1S99) , Winter, The Wallet of Time (2 vols . ib ,
1913)
GILLIE, gil'li (Gael, Ir giolla, lad, man-
servant) A Highland attendant, a boy, page,
or menial, an outdoor servant, especially one in
attendance on persons engaged in hunting or
traveling Formerly, in Scotland, it was the
duty of a servant, called a gillie white-foot or
gillie webfoot, to carry his master over brooks
or watery places
GILLIES, gilliz, JOHN (1747-1836) A
Scottish historian and classical scholar He was
born at Brechm, in Forfarshire, and graduated
at Glasgow University A literary life in Lon-
don was interrupted for a time by travels on the
Continent, when he was tutor to the sons of
John, Earl of Hopetoun In 1793 Gillies was
appointed royal historiographer for Scotland
His History of Greece, its Colonies and Con-
quests (1786), long superseded, was his most
popular work, in its day it was of great value
He also wrote A History of the World from
Alexander the Great to Augustus (1807) and
published various translations, entitled Orations
of Lysias and Isocrates (1778), Aristotle's
Ethics and Politics (1797), and Aristotle's Rhet-
oric (1823)
GILLIIsTGHAM, gil'ing-am A town in
Kent, England, 1 mile east-northeast of Chat-
ham It has large dockyards, cement and brick
works It is the centre of a fruit growing dis-
trict noted for its cherries It has interesting
archaeological remains Gillingham fort was
built in the reign of Charles I The Jezreelites,
or the New and Latter House of Israel, have a
large temple and school at Gillingham, which is
their headquarters. The town was incorporated
in 1903, it is governed "by a mayor, 6 aldermen,
WILLIS LAHD
766
G-ILLBAY
and. 18 councilors The Royal Naval Hospital
was opened in 1905 Pop, 1901, 42,745, 1911,
52,252
GII/LXS (GILES) LAND An island to the
east of Northeast Land, Spitzbergen, in lat
80° 10' N, long 30° 32' E It was discoveied
in 1707 by a Dutch whalei, Cornells Giles, or
Gillis Occasionally seen, it was never vi&ited
until its exploiation in 1898 by Di A G Na-
thorst Being entirely ice-capped, it has been
called White Island and New Iceland
GILLISS, gillls, JAMES MELVILIJB (1811-
65) An American astronomer, born in George-
town, D C He became a midshipman in the
navy in 1827 He procured leave of absence in
1833, spent a year in scientific study at the
University of Virginia, and continued his studies
in Paris In 1836 he became assistant \n the
Bureau of Charts and Instruments in Washing-
ton, and two years later, in a small wooden
building belonging to the Navy Department,
organized the first working observatoiy in the
United States He was made a lieutenant in
1838, and for five years conducted at Washing-
ton astronomical observations of great value,
which were published by the government in
1846, containing the first catalogue of stars, and
being the first repoit of astronomical observa-
tions to be published in America In 1842-43 he
visited Europe to procure the equipment for the
new government observatory at Washington,
completed undei his dnection in 1845 He spent
the years 1848-52 in Chile, wheie he made ob-
servations for the determination of the solar
parallax, and studied the constellations of the
Southern Hemisphere He observed solar eclipses
in 1858 in Peru, and in 1860 on the northern
Pacific coast of the United States, and after the
departure of Lieut M F Maury at the outbreak
of the war, succeeded him as superintendent of
the National Observatory at Washington, a posi-
tion which he held until his death. Under his
control the observatory became one of the best
equipped 111 the world He became a captain in
1862 His publications include Astronomical
Observations Made at the Naval Observatory
(1846) , The United States Astronomical Expe-
dition to the Southern Hemisphere, lSff9-52 (4
vols, 1854-58) Consult Gould, Memoir, in the
Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy
of Sciences, vol i (Washington, 1877)
G-ILLIVARE. See LAPLAND
GILLMOBE, gil'mOr, INEZ HAYN*ES (1873-
) An American story writer She was
born at Eio de Janeiro, Brazil, and was educated
in Boston public schools, at the Boston Normal
School, and at Radcliffe College She married
Rufus Hamilton Gillmore in 1897 She was the
fiist secietary of the first College Equal Suffrage
League in America, and she became honorary
vice president of the Massachusetts Woman
Suffrage Association She is author of June
Jeopardy (1908), Maida's Little Shop (1910),
Phoebe and Ernest (1910); Janey (1911),
Pho3be, Ernest, and Cupid (1912) , Angel Island
(1914), and contributions to magazines
GIIXMORE, gil'mSr, QUINCY ADAMS (1825-
88) An American soldier and eminent military
engineer, born at Black River, Loram Co ,
Ohio Graduating at West Point in 1849, first
in his class, and assigned to the Engineer Corps,
he was assistant engineer in the building of
Fortress Monroe until 1852, when he became as-
sistant instructor of practical military engi-
neering at West Point Prom 1856 to 1861 he
was in chaige of the Engineer Agency at New
York, and in 1857-58 he was al&o in "chaige of
the fortifications in New YOIK hoiboi Duiir^
the Civil War he acted as duel engineei of the
Port Royal Expeditionaiy Coips in 1861-62,
was chief engineer at the siege of Foil Pulask),
Ga , from Febiuary to Apul, 1862, was in com-
mand dmmg the bombaidment and c.iptuie of
that fort, and on Apiil 28, 1862, A\as made
biigadier general of volunteers He then com-
manded successively the District of Westein
Virginia, the Fust Division of the Army of
Kentucky, and the District of Central Kentucky,
and on Maich 30, 1863, was bievetted colonel in
the regular army Fiona June 12, 18G3, to
April, 1864, he was in command of the Depait-
nient of the South, and from July 16, 1863, to
June 17, 1864, of the Tenth Army Coips, dui-
ing which time he conducted the land opeiations
against Charleston, S C, and paiticipated in
the battle of Dimy's Bluff, Va , and in the de-
fense of Beimuda Hundied In July, 1864, he
commanded two divisions of the Nineteenth
Army Corps in the defense of Washington and
the pursuit of General Eai ly ( q v ) On Mai eh
13, 1865, he vsas brevetted successively bn^a-
dier geneial and major geneial in the regular
army, and on Dec 5, 1865, he resigned fiom
the voluntcei seivice After the close of the
war he served as supei intending engineer of
fortifications on the Atlantic coast and was
in chaige of vaiious liver and haibor impi ele-
ments of importance He was piesident of the
Mississippi River Commission from 1879 to
1882, and became colonel of engineers in Feb-
ruaiy, 1883 In 1876, as one of the judges at
the Centennial Exposition, he piesented to the
Bureau of Awaids several reports He pub-
lished Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski
(1862); A Practical Treatise on Limes, Hy-
draulic Cements, and Mortars (1863) , Engineer-
ing and Artillery Operations against Charleston,
S. C , in 1863 (1865, supplement 1868) , Beton,
Coignet, and Other Artificial Stones (1871),
The Compiessive Strength, Specific Q-rauity, and
Ratio of Absorption of Building Stones of the
United States (1876) , and A Practical Treatise
on J?oac?9, Streets, and Pavements (1876)
CKCLIiOT, jil'dt, JOSEPH (1799-1873) An
English manufacturer of steel pens, born at Shef-
field lie first began the manufactuie of pens
in 1830, and gradually introduced impi ovements,
both in the pen itself and in manufacturing proc-
esses, until his pens came to be almost univer-
sally used He accumulated a large fortune, a
part of which he expended in getting together a
valuable collection of paintings
GILL-OVER-THE-GE.OUND. See GROUND
IVT
GILLRAY, gil'ra, JAMES (1757-1815) An
English caricaturist fie was born at Chelsea, m
July, 1757, of Irish descent, but little is known
of him until he became a student of the Royal
Academy, where he made a special study of art
designs He began as an engraver, and his first
works were two plates published in 1784, they
were illustrations for Goldsmith's Deserted Vil-
lage In 1792 he visited France, Germany, and
Holland, in the same year he published his well-
known caricature "John Bull and his Family
Landing at Boulogne,3' and the large plate after
Northcote, inscribed "La tnomphe de la li-
berte", ou Pelargissement de la Bastille" Gill-
ray has no rival as a cancaturist of the politics
and manners of the years 1779-1811 His car-
GILLS
toons repiesent the fashionable society at Vaux-
liall Gaidens, lords and ladies, singers, soldiers,
life at home, in the taverns, in the villages, and
in the poor quarter of London among the pa-
tient, struggling aitisans, but the most cele-
brated are those satirizing King George III and
Ins Queen, the Prince of Wales, Pitt, and Na-
poleon His comedy was produced by the strong-
est contrasts He was a masteily draftsman of
a vehement style and amazing fertility of fancy,
almost brutal and coarse at times, yet capable
of expressing the most delicate feeling and
beauty His caricatures numbei more than 12,-
000, and his last work is dated 1811 His death,
caused by intemperate habits, occuired in Lon-
don, June 1, 1815 A satire on an "Irish For-
tune-Hunter," or "Paddy on Horseback," is the
eailiest-known work, dated 1779, other political
cai toons aie "L'Assemblee nationale" or a
"Grand Cooperative Meeting at St Anne's
Hill'3 (1804), "A New Way to Pay the Na-
tional Debt" (1796), "Temperance Enjoying a
Frugal Meal" and a "Voluptuary under the
Honors of Digestion" (1792), "Anti-Saccha-
rites" (1792), and "A Connoisseur Examining a
Cooper" (1792) — the last two being fierce sat-
ires on the habits of the royal family Among
his social caricatures are "Two-Penny Whist",
"The Life of William Cobbett, Wntten by Him-
self," eight satirical plates (1809), "Elements
of Skating," four plates (1805), "Rake's Piog-
less at the University," five plates (1806)
Consult Buss, English G-taphic Satire (Lon-
don, 1874) , Wright, The Work's of James G-ill-
ray, with Story of his Life and Times (ib ,
1874), Everitt, English Caricaturists, (ib,
1885)
G-ILLS, gilz/ SOLOMON A ship's-mstrument
maker, in Dickens's Dom"bcy and Son, and a
great crony of Capt Edward Cuttle
GILLYFLOWER, -jiFi-flou'er (ME. gyllofer,
fjom OF gilofre, girofle, girofre, coirupted fiom
ML caryophyllum, from Gk /capuo^uXW, Isaryo-
phyllon, clove tree, from Kdpvov, karyon, nut +
<f>i>\\ov, phyllon, leaf, confused by popular ety-
mology with Eng. flower) A popular English
name for some of the crucifeious plants, prized
for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers,
as wallflower, stock, etc The clove pink, the
wild original of the carnation, is also called
clove gillyflower. The name is now used mostly
for species of the genera Oheiranthus and Mat-
thiola Species of the former furnish the differ-
ent varieties of wallflowers, and of the latter
the various kinds of stock See STOCK
GILMAET, gll'nura, AKTHUE (1821-82) An
American architect, born at Newburyport, Mass
After his graduation at Trinity College (Hart-
ford, Conn ), he became known as a lecturer on
architecture, and as a practical architect, whose
earliest important work was the Boston City
Hall From 1865 he was a resident of New
York City, where he designed the original build-
ing of the Equitable Insurance Company. The
original design of the State Capitol at Albany,
also, was his work, though it underwent ma-
terial alteration under other hands While a
citizen of Boston, he was prominent in his en-
deavors for municipal improvement
aiLICOT, ARTHtJB (1837-1909) An Ameri-
can educator He was born in Alton, 111 , was
educated in St Louis and New York, was en-
gaged in banking in New York from 1857 to
1862, and then removed to Massachusetts^ where
he gave his attention chiefly to education and
767 GILMAN
religious instruction, and in 1871 became editor
of the publications of the American Tract So-
ciety In 1876, together with his wife, he de-
vised a scheme foi the collegiate instruction
of women that developed into the Harvard An-
nex, of which he "was executive officei When in
1894 the Annex became Radchffe College, ho
was its regent for two yeais He founded, and
in 1SS6 became the directoi of, the Oilman
School for girls at Cambridge Besides con-
tributing to the magazines, he published First
Steps in English Literature (1870), Boston,
Past and Present (1873), Fwst Steps in Gen-
eral History (1874), Shakespeare's Morals
(1879), History of the American People
(1883), Tales of the Pathfinders (1881), The
Stoiy of the Saracens (1886), The Stonj of
Rome (1885) and Germany (190C, with Baiing-
Gould), and other volumes in the "Story of the
Nations" senes, The Discoiety and Explora-
tion of America, (1887), The Making of the
American Nation (1887) , The Story of Boston
(1889) , and edited various compilations
GXLMAN, CAROLINE HOWARD (1794-1888)
An American author, born in Boston She was
the daughter of Samuel Howard, and marnecl
the Rev Samuel Oilman Some of her \\orks
once enjoyed consideiable populaiity Among
them are Recollections of a l\ew England
Housekeeper (1835) , Recollections of a South-
ern Matt on (1836) , Poetiy of Traveling in the
United States (1838), Ruth Raymond (1840),
Verses of a Life Time ( 1849 ) , and, with her
daughter, Mrs Jervoy, Poems and Stones "by a
Mother and Daughter (1872)
GILMAlsr, CHABLOTTE PERKINS (I860- ).
An Ameiican lecturer and author, bom at Hart-
ford, Conn She married C W Stetson in 1884
and George PI Oilman m 1900 In 1890 she be-
gan giving lectures on ethics, economics, and
sociology, and writing for the magazines on
the same subjects She became known especially
for her interest in labor problems and for her
advocacy of woman's rights In 1914 a series
of lectures which she gave in New York City
on icThe Larger Feminism" gained unusual at-
tention In 1909 she became editor of The
Forerunner Her writings include 'Woman and
Economics (1898, 2d ed , 1899), In This Our
World, a volume of verse (1898), The Yelloio
Wall Paper (1899) , Concerning Children
(1900), The Home, Its Work and Influence
(1903, 1910), Human Work (1904), What
Diantha Did (1910)? The Man-Made World
(1911); The Crux (1911), Moving the Moun-
tain (1911)
GILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908) An
American educator, born in Norwich, Conn He
came from a New Hampshire family whidh
migrated from Norfolk, England, in 1638 After
graduating from Yale University in 1852, he
studied and traveled in Europe He was con-
nected with Yale (1855-72) as librarian, pro-
fessor of physical and political geography, and
secretary of the Sheffield Scientific school , was
president of the University of California (1872-
75) , and then, as president of Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, during the first 25 years
of its existence, he contributed notably toward
the establishment of true university education
in the United States After his resignation he
served until 1904 as president of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington He Was also presi-
dent of many educational and philanthropic as-
sociations, received numerous honorary degrees,
GILMAN
and was a member of the American Academy of
Arts and Letters He was appointed by Presi-
dent Cleveland one of the commissioners to
deteimme the boundaiy line between Venezuela
and Butish Guiana, he served as one of tbe
Charter Commission of Baltimore, and he was
president of the National Civil Service Reform
League (1901-07) and of the American Oriental
Society (1893-1906) As a member of three
boards — the Peabody, the Slater, and the Gen-
eral Education — he was active in the promo-
tion of education m the South His publi-
cations include a large number of reports and
magazine articles, an introduction to Lieber's
minoi writings, an introduction to De Tocque-
ville's Democracy in America, a volume of
speeches and essays entitled University Prob-
lems, a small volume on Science and Letters in
Tale, and a memoir of James Dwight Dana, the
geologist To the American Statesmen Seiies he
contributed a memoir of President Monioe In
1901 he became one of the thiee general editors
of the first edition of the NEW INTERNATIONAL
ENCYCLOPAEDIA Consult Franklin, Life of Daniel
Coit Gilm an (New York, 1910) —His brother,
EDWARD WHITING OILMAN (1823-1900), was
born at Norwich, Conn , graduated at Yale in
1843, and, after studying theology at Union
Theological Seminary and Yale Divinity School,
was a tutor at Yale, and in 1849 was ordained
a Congregational minister From 1871 until
his death he was corresponding secretary of the
American Bible Societv, being chiefly concerned
with its wide foieign con espondenee
CrlLMAN, JOHN TAYLOB (1753-1828). An
American Fedeialist political leader, Governor
of ISTew Hampshire for fourteen teims He was
born at Exeter, N H , the son of Nicholas Oil-
man, a R evolutional y leader, and a brother of
United States Senatoi Nicholas Oilman (qv)
He was educated at Exeter and became a ship-
builder The day following the battle of Lex-
ington he marched to Cambridge with the first
company of minutemen from New Hampshire,
and subsequently served as an aid to his father,
who commanded the regiment of New Hamp-
shire troops at the siege of Boston Later he be-
came assistant to his father, then State Treas-
urer His first political office was in the State
Legislature m 1779 He TV as a delegate from
New Hampshire to the convention held in 1780
at Hartford, Conn , to devise means for the con-
tinuation of the war In 1782-83 he was a
member of the Continental Congress, resign-
ing to accept the office of State Treasurer, m
succession to his father In 1786 he resigned
the treasurership to act as commissioner, with
John Kean of South Carolina and William
Irvine of Pennsylvania, to settle the accounts
of the old Confederation with the several States
In 1788 he was a member of the New Hampshire
Convention to adopt the Federal Constitution
After another year's service as State Treasurer,
he was elected, in 1794, Governor of New Hamp-
shire This office he held until the close of
1805, and again from 1813 to 1816 Although
opposed to the war policy of the national gov-
ernment, he engaged actively in providing de-
fenses for the New Hampshire coast and fron-
tier He sympathized with the movement that
resulted in the Hartford Convention of 1814,
but refused to take any action in the matter
of sending delegates from New Hampshire, which
was therefore represented only unofficially In
1816 he declined a reelection, and retired to
768 GILMEK
private life Consult The Gfilman Family (Al-
bany, 1869)
GILMA3ST, LAWBENCE (1878- ) An
American writer on music He was born at
Flushing, N Y , and studied art under W M
Chase and at tbe Art Students' League of New
Yoik From 1896 to 1898 he was on the staff
of the New York Herald At the same time he
studied diligently by himself piano, organ, and
composition In 1901 he became 'musical critic
of Harpers Weekly, in 1901 assistant editor,
in 1911 managing editor In his wii tings he
shows himself thoroughly in sympathy with the
most advanced thought in modern music His
more important books are Phases of Modern
Music (1904), Edivard MacDmoell (1905, re-
vised and expanded 1909), A Guide to Strauss9
Salome (1907), A Guide to Debussy's Pelleas
et Mehsande (1907), Aspects of Modern Opera
(1908) He also became known as a frequent
contributor to leading magazines
GILMAK", NICHOLAS ( 1755-1814) An Ameri-
can statesman, born at Exeter, N H, son
of Nicholas Oilman (1731-1813), who served
with John Langdon during the Revolution and
\\as State Treasurer m 1776-83 Nicholas the
younger served during the Revolutionai y War
as adjutant in the First New Hampshire Regi-
ment (Col Alexander Scammell's), in 1786-88
was a member of the Continental Congress, and
m 1787 of the Constitutional Convention at
Philadelphia From 1789 to 1797 he sat in the
House of Representatives, and from 1805 until
his death in the Senate
GILMAN, NICHOLAS PAINE (1849-1912).
An Arnencan author, journalist, and cleigyman,
born at Quincy, 111 He graduated at the Har-
vard Divinity School in 187f, was pastor of
various Unitarian churches in Massachusetts
from 1872 to 1878 and in 1881-84, and profes-
sor of English literature at Antioch College,
Yellow Springs, Ohio, m 1878-81 From 1885
to 1889 he was assistant editor of the Unitarian
Review, from 1889 to 1895 editor of the Literary
World (Boston), and in 1892-1900 editor of the
Neiv World, a Unitarian quarterly In 1895
he was appointed to the chair of sociology and
ethics m the Meadville (Pa ) Theological Semi-
nary He wrote Pi o fit- Sharing between Em-
ployer and Employee A Study in the Evolu-
tion of the Wages System (1889), which was
translated into German, and received a gold
medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889, Conduct
as a Fine Art The Laius of Daily Conduct
(1891), a nonsectarian textbook of ethics, So-
cialism and the American Spirit (1893, 2d ed,
1896) , A Dividend to Labor A Study of Em-
ployers' Welfare Institutions (1899), Methods
of Industrial Peace (1904)
GILMAN, SAMUEL (1791-1858) Clergy-
man and author He was born at Gloucester,
Mass, graduated at Harvard in 1811, and in
1819 was 01 clamed pastoi of the Unitarian
church at Charleston, S C , which he continued
to serve till his death He was an active advo-
cate of the temperance cause, and published
Memoirs of a New England Village Choir
(1829), Pleasures and Pains of a Student's
Life (1852) , Contributions to Literature, De-
scriptive, Critical, Humorous, Biographical,
Philosophical, and Poetical (1856) , as well as
contributions to periodicals and translations of
certain of Boileau's satires
GILMEB, gil'mer, GEORGE ROCKINGHAM
(1790-1859) An American lawyer and gov-
GILMEK,
769
GILMORE
ernor, born at Lexington, Ga He was m the
army in 1813-18 After serving in the State
Legislature (1818-20), where he began the agi-
tation for the establishment of the Supreme
Court, he was twice Governor of Georgia ( 1829-
31, 1837-39), a member of Congress (1821-23,
1827-29, 1833-35), and presidential elector for
Hugh L White (1836) and for Harrison
(1840) Consult his Georgians Sketches of
Some of the First Settlers of Upper Georgia, of
the Cherokees, and the Author (New York,
1855)
GIL1TEB, JEKEMY FEANCIS (1818-83) An
American soldier, born m Guilf ord Co , N C
He entered the engineers upon his graduation
from the United States Military Academy m
1839 (with Halleck, Canby, Hunt, and Ord),
saw service in the Mexican War, and surveyed
battlefields near the city of Mexico, and until
1861 was active m making surveys, construct-
ing fortifications, and executing various river
and harbor improvements Upon the outbreak
of the Civil War he entered the Confederate
service, was appointed major of engineers, and
became chief engineer on the staff of Gen A S
Johnston. He was wounded at the battle of
Shiloh, was later appointed chief of the en-
gineering bureau at Richmond, and in 1863 was
commissioned major general in the Confederate
army In 1867-83 he was president and engi-
neer of the Savannah Gas Company
GILMCXR, gil'mSr, HAKRY (1838-83) An
American soldier, born in Baltimore Co , Md
He entered the Confederate army in 1861, was
commissioned captain in 1862, in 1862-63 was
imprisoned for five months at Fort McHenry,
and in 1863 raised a cavalry battalion, of which
he was made major fie commanded the First
Confederate Regiment of Maryland and in 1864
headed the advance of the forces of Gen J A
Early into Maryland In 1874 he became police
commissioner of Baltimore He wrote Four
Tears in the Saddle (1866)
GILMOBE, gil'mdr, JAMES ROBERTS (1822-
1903) An American writer and editor, born in
Boston, Mass He entered a counting room in
1836 and m 1847 established m New York City
a cotton and shipping firm which did a leading
business m several Southern States He was
its president until 1857, when he retired from
commercial life In 1862, with Robert J
Walker, ex-Secretary of the United States
Treasury, and Charles G Leland ("Hans Breit-
mann"), he founded in New York the Continen-
tal Monthly, devoted chiefly to the cause of
emancipation, his interest in which he relin-
quished to Walker in 1863 In that year he
became an occasional editorial writer for the
New York Tribune In the summer of 1864 he
and Col James F Jaquess, as unofficial agents
of President Lincoln, went to Richmond to lay
before President Jefferson Davis various peace
proposals These were immediately reacted,
since they did not provide for recognition of the
independence of the Confederacy Gilmore'a ac-
count of this mission in the Atlantic Monthly
undoubtedly did much to break the ranks of the
peace party in the North and to influence many
to vote for Lincoln rather than McClellan in
November, 1864 Gilmore engaged in business
again m 1873, but retired 10 years later to
devote himself wholly to literature His popu-
lar historical works have been much criticized by
special students, but they are of great general
value His earlier books were published under
the nom de plume of "Edmund Kirke" His
writings include Among the Pines (1862),
My Southern Friends (1862) , Down in Tennes-
see (1863) , Adrift in Dixie (1863) , Among the
Guerrillas (1863), On the Border (1864), Par
tuot Boys (1864) , A Campaign Life of Garfield
(1880), The Rear Guard of the Revolution
(1886), John Sevier as a Commonwealth
Builder (1887), Advance Guard of Western
Civilization (1888) , A Mountain White Heroine
(1889), The Last of the Thorndikes (1889),
Personal Recollections of Abraham. Lincoln <wd
the Civil War (1898)
GILMOKE, JOSEPH ALBEEE (1811-67) An
American politician, war Governor of New
Hampshire He was born in Weston, Vt He
had very little schooling, and his early business
experience was obtained in a store in Boston
In 1832 he settled at Concord, N H, where he
became the proprietor of a large grocery store.
In 1848 he became interested in railroading as
a constructing agent, and was general superin-
tendent of the Concord and Claremont Railroad
tmtil 1866 — after the load was consolidated
with the Manchester and Lawrence and other
connecting roads In 1858 he was elected to
the New Hampshire State Senate as a Repub-
lican, fie was reelected in the following year
and chosen Piesident In March, 1863, he
was nominated for Governor by the Repub-
licans, when none of the three candidates re-
ceived a majority of votes as required by the
State constitution foi an election by the people,
the Legislature chose Gilmore, and in 1864 he
was reelected by the people His administra-
tion of the office during the most trying period
of the Civil War was marked by great energy
and firmness, and largely through his exertions
New Hampshire's contiibution to the Union
armies was increased from 15,500 to 33,258, an
excess of 1800 over the State's quota
G-ILMOBE, JOSEPH HENEY (1834-1918).
An American educator, born in Boston In 1858
he graduated from Brown University (AM,
1861), and in 1861 from Newton Theological
Institution Ordamed to the Baptist ministry
in 1862, he was pastor at Fisherville, N H ,
until 1864, and at Rochester, N Y, until 1867
He edited the Concord (N H ) Daily Monitor
m 1864-65, was acting professor of Hebrew at
the Rochester Theological Seminary in 1867-
68, and for 40 years, until he became professoi
emeritus in 1908, occupied the chair of rhetoric,
logic, and English at the University of Roches-
ter. He wrote the widely used hymn "He Lead-
eth Me," and published, besides a number of
textbooks on rhetoric and speaking, Familiar
Chats about Books and Reading (1892) and
Outlines of English and American Literature
(1905).
GrJXMOBE, PATBICK SARSFIELD (1829-92)
A celebrated American military bandmaster,
born near Dublin, Ireland His first musical
experience was with the town band of Athlone,
and when but 18 years of age he left his na-
tive city to go to Canada with an English
band Almost immediately on his arrival he
crossed the boundary into the United States
and settled in Salem, Mass, where he became
conductor of a military band The National
Peace Jubilee of 1869, and the World's Peace
Jubilee of 1872, held on Boston Common, gained
him an international reputation The entire
musical ensemble in 1869 consisted of an or-
chestra of 1000, and a chorus of 10,000 voices,
GILMQim
77<>
GILPIN
which number was doubled in the festival of
1872 Having settled in New York in 1874,
Gilmore and his band began concert tours which
were as popular as they were successful, the
tours covering Canada, Great Britain, and sev-
pral continental European cities of inapoitance
His successor in this branch of musical organiza-
tion was Sousa (q v ) He died in St Louis, Mo
GILMOUB, gil'mur, RICHARD (1824-91) A
Roman Catholic bishop of Cleveland, Ohio, born
in Glasgow, Scotland In 1842 he became a
Catholic, he had been a Scottish Covenanter
He was educated at Mount St Mary's College,
Emmitsburg, Md , and in 1852 was ordained
priest Consecrated Bishop of Cleveland in
1872, he became widely known for his interest
in Catholic education, establishing The Catholic
Universe (1874) and organizing the Catholic
Central Association (1875) He wrote a Bible
History (1869) and compiled readers, primers,
and spelling books called The Cathohc National
Series
GrlLOLO, jev-lo/16, or HALMAHERA. (native
name, Bato-tsima) The largest of the Moluccas
(qv ) or Spice Islands, situated between lat
2° N and 1° S and long. 127° 27' and 129°
E, east of Celebes (Map East Indies, G 5)
Its area is estimated at over 6950 square miles
It is very irregular in its form, which resembles
Celebes in its peninsular configuration The
surface is mountainous and the climate tropi-
cal The soil is of great fertility The island
belongs to the Nethei lands, and is included in
the Residency of Ternate. The chief towns are
Galela and Patani The population is estimated
at 100,000 and consists of Malays and Alfuros
GIMTKT, gll'pln, BERNARD (1517-83) An
English clergyman, known as the ''Apostle of
the North" He was born at Kentmere, West-
moreland He studied at Queen's College, Ox-
ford Soon after graduation he was chosen
fellow of his college and took orders in 1542
On the opening of the new foundation of Christ
Church Wolaey made him one of the head mas-
ters At that time the university was divided
on the subject of the Reformation Gilpm at
fust took ground against it, but later embraced
it. In 1552 lie became vicar of Norton and
was licensed by Edward VI as a "general
preacher " On the King's death he went abroad
and lived at Louvain and Pans Returning to
England during Queen Mary's reign, he found
the persecution of the Protestants still in prog-
ress. His uncle, Bishop Tunstall, of Durham,
gave him the living of Easington and the arch-
deaconry of Durham, later the rectory of Hough-
ton-le-Spring, protecting him also, notwith-
standing his open avowal of Protestant opinions
He devoted himself to the diligent prosecution
of his parish work and to itinerant labors
through the country Queen Elizabeth offered
him the bishopric of Carlisle, which he declined
He continued until his death rector of Houghton,
residing constantly in his parish except when
he visited the ruder parts of the county of
Northumberland The people in certain dis-
tricts had long led a lawless life, subsisting
mostly on plunder Gilpin went fearlessly
among them and did much to change the char-
acter of the country His chief labors, how-
ever, were in his own parish of Houghton,
which included 14 villages He organized and
endowed a school, and expended his funds
freely for education and charity He was a
bachelor and in hospitality resembled the char-
acter ascribed to the primitive bishops Every
fortnight 40 bushels of coin, 20 bushels of malt,
and a whole ox \\ere consumed in Ins house,
besides ample supplies of many othei kinds He
maintained an open table foi his people every
Sunday from Michaelmas to Easter The rectory
house was also open to all travelers, and so
great was the reverence which surrounded him
that his liberality was raiely abused He died
at Ho ughton-le- Spring, March 4, 1583 Consult
his life by Carleton (London, 1629, repunted,
Glasgow, 1852), also the life by Collmgwood
(London, 1884) Four of his seimons were re-
printed (Houghton-le-Spring, 1835)
aiLPIN", HENRY DILWOOD (1801-60) An
American lawyer He was born in Lancaster,
England, where his fathei, Joshua Gilpin, a
Philadelphia manufacturer and author, was liv-
ing at the time He graduated at the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania in 1819, was admitted to
the bar in 1822, and rapidly established him-
self in an extensive practice in Philadelphia
In 1832 he was appointed by Jackson to succeed
Dallas as United States District Attorney for
Pennsylvania and served until 1837 In 1832-34
he was one of the government directors of the
United States Bank and actively seconded
Jackson's radical efforts to destroy that insti-
tution This activity reacted upon him towards
the end of the administration, when the Senate
refused to confirm his appointment as Governor
of Michigan Terntory In 1837 he was ap-
pointed by Van Buren Solicitor of the United
States Treasury, and in 1840 he was appointed
Attorney-Genei al of the United States, a posi-
tion which he retained until the inauguration
of President Harrison He spent his remaining
years in travel and literary pursuits and in the
practice of his profession, for the next 20 yeara
he was one of the best-known members of the
American bar From 1826 to 1832 he edited
the Atlantic Souvenir, the first American liter-
ary annual He was a frequent contributor to
magazines and reviews Besides legal repoits,
he edited The Papers of James Madison (3
vols , 1840) and Opinions of the Attorney- Gen-
erals of the United States from the Beginning
of the Government to 1841 (2 vols, 1841) Ho
also published Biogiaphy of the Signeis of the
Declaration of Independence (1826) , a transla-
tion of Chaptal's Essay on Import Duties and
Prohibitions (1841) , Life of Martin Van Buren
(1844) Consult the Memorial compiled by his
wife (Philadelphia, I860)
G-ILPIET, JOHN The hero of a humorous
poem by William Cowper (qv ), fiist published
in the Public Advertiser in 1782 Cowper heard
the story from Lady Austen, who in turn had
heard it in her childhood As to the historical
reality of John Gilpin, there is a discussion in
Notes and Queries (London, 2d series, vm, ix
x, 1856, 3d series, n, 1862, 5th series, ix, 1874
6th series, i, n, v, 1880)
GILPIJsT, WILLIAM (1724-1804) An Eng
lish author, born at Scaleby Castle, near Car
lisle, and educated at Oxford For 30 years he
conducted a school at Cheam, Surrey, where ht
introduced with much success important educa<
tional reforms His works, embracing biog
raphies, descriptions of natural scenery, and
religious publications, include lives of Bernard
G-ilpin, Latimer, Cobham, Huss, Wy cliff 'e, fiisca,
Jerome of Prague, Lectures on the Church
COrteohism (1779) , Exposition of the New
Testament (1790) , Remarks on Forest Scenery
CHL
Oilier Woodland Views (1790); and many
volumes describing the British Isles, illustrated
by his sketches in summer vacations
GIL POLO, Hel pd'lo, GASPAE. See POLO,
GASPAK GIL
GILS01STITE, gil'son-it (named in honor of
S H Gilson, owner of a large deposit of the
mineral) A black, brilliant bitumen, with
conchoidal fracture, hardness 2 to 2 5 and
specific giavity 1 065 to 1 07 It is found in
veins in the Tertiary shales of northeastern
Utah and westein Colorado Gilsonite is a
nonconductor of heat and electricity and is
soluble in carbon disulphide, chloioform, and
warm oil of turpentine An analysis gave
C3 8830, H, 996, N + O, 032, S, 132, ash,
0 10 The mineral is utilized m making
paints and varnishes Consult Eldridge, "The
Uintahite (Gilsonite) Deposits of Utah/' Seven-
teenth Annual Report United States Geolog-
ical Survey, part i (Washington, 1896) See
ASPHALT
GILT'HEAD' (so called from the coloring on
its head) A small hsh (Sparus awatus) of
the family Sparidse, to which the scup, porgy,
and sheepshead belong It is numerous on the
coast of Europe and Africa, near the shore in
small shoals, feeding upon shellfish The back
is silvery gray, shaded with blue, the belly
like polished steel, the sides have golden bands,
and there is a half-moon-shaped golden spot be-
tween the eyes, from which it derives the name
"gilthead " This fish was very generally kept
in the vivaria of the ancient Romans, being
much valued and easily fattened The name is
also given to a British wrasse ( q v )
GIL VICENTE, zhel ve-san'ta. See VICENTE
GIL Y ZABATE, Hel e tha'ra-U, ANTONIO
( 1793-1861) A Spanish dramatist and literary
historian, born in the Esconal He was edu-
cated in France and upon his return to Spam
was employed m the Ministry of the Interior
His earlier literary activity (1826-29) was
hampered by the political and ecclesiastical
censorships, though in this period he produced
the tragedy Dona Blanca de Borltin He be-
came the editor of several of the Opposition
journals and afterward held a number of official
positions, including those of director and sub-
secretary in the ministries of Commerce, In-
struction, and Public Works After some years
lie again tuined to hteiature His works in-
clude the tragedy Don Rodngo; the dramas
Carlos II el hechizado, Don Alvaro de Luna,
and Guzmdn el l)ueno_, and the comedy Don
Pedro de Portugal, and others His dramatic
works were published in Paris in 1850. He also
wrote De la instruccidn publica en Espana
( 1855) , a Manual de hteratura (4th ed , Madrid,
1851-56), and some critical studies
GIMBALS, gmi'balz (ME. gemel, from OF.
gemeau, fern gemelle, twin, from Lat gemellus,
twin) A contrivance for suspending objects on
board ship so that they may remain horizontal
or vertical notwithstanding the motion of the
ship As usually fitted, it consists of a ring
carrying pivots on its circumference which rest
in sockets in a frame or box, and of a secon^
set of pivots on the object (as a compass or
mercurial barometer) which rest in sockets so
placed on the inner suiface of the ring as to
permit an oscillatory motion at right angles to
that of the ring
GIMLET, gimlet See Boira<* MACHINERY
GIMLI, gem1£ (Icel, heaven's roof) In
Noise mythology, a great hall at the world's
southern end, brighter than the sun It will
stand when heaven and earth have passed away,
and good and upright men will inhabit the place
to all eternity
GIMP, or GYMF (from Fr guwipe, nun's
wimple, from OF guimple, wimple, OHG t&im-
pal, veil, Eng u/imple) A kind of trimming
for dress, curtains, furniture, etc , made eitliei
of silk, wool, or cotton Its peculiarity is that
it consists of a fine wire 01 cord whipped around
and completely covered with fine thread See
LACE
GIN, jm (from geneva, from Dutch yenevei ,
from OF genei,re, Fr genievre, juniper, from
Lat juniperus, juniper), or GENEVA An alco-
holic drink distilled from malt or from malt
and unmalted barley or other gram and after-
ward rectified and flavored with juniper berries
The imitation gin which forms the common
spirituous drink of the lower classes of London
and vicinity is alcohol flavored with oil of tur-
pentine and common salt, each rectifier having
his own particulai recipe for regulating the
quantities to be used The alcoholic strength
of gin, as commonly sold, ranges from 22 to 48
per cent The amount of sugar vaues from 2
to 9 per cent The larger pait by fai of the
spirit is made in Holland and is exported to
other countries, especially to America and
northern Europe See LIQUORS
GIN, COTTON See COTTON, COTTON GIN,
COTTON SEED
GnSTArN", zhS'naN', PAUL RENI£ LEON (1825-
98) A French architect, born in Paris A
pupil of Lebas, he won the Giand Prix de Rome
in 1852 After his return from Italy he prac-
ticed in Paris and pti 1859 won one of the prizes
in the competition for the new Opera House
(See GARNIER, JEAN Louis CHARLES ) lie was
professor at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts from 1880
until his death He designed the church of
Notre Dame des Champs, the Lying-in Hospital,
the library of the School of Medicine, and sev-
eral other schools His most admiiable work
was the Musee Galliera, the most beautiful of
the lesser public buildings of Paris
G-INATILAN, He'na-t£-lan' A town of Cebti,
Philippines, situated on the southwest coast, at
the mouth of the Rio GmatiMn It is in a level
section, where corn, rice, millet, sugar cane,
tobacco, cotton, cacao, etc , are cultivated , and
the forests of the vicinity yield valuable timber
Pop, 10,617
GINCKELL, G See GINKEL, G
GKTNDELY, g£n'de-le, ANTON (1829-92) An
Austrian historian, born and educated in
Prague He was appointed professor at the
Oberrealschule in 1853 and at the university
in 1862 About the same time he was made
archivist for the Kingdom of Bohemia. Besides
the important G-escMchte des dreissigjahngen
Kneges (1869-80), not completed, his principal
publications include G-eschichte der bohmischen
Bruder (1856-57), Rudolf II und seine Zeit
(1862-65) , Waldstein wahrend seines, ersten
Generalats (1886), which provoked violent op-
position, and Ueler des Johann Amos Comemus
Leoen und Wirksamkeit (2d ed., 1893) Post-
humously appeared G-eschnchte der Q- eg en-
reformation in Bolimen, ed by Tupetz (1893),
and Bwtrage sur OesGhichte des dreissigjahrigen
Ktieges, ed by Him (1900) He also con-
tributed numerous essays to the Afthandlungen
of the Vienna Academy and from 1877 to 1892
GINES DE PASSAMONTS 7^
edited Bohmische Landtag 'si erhandlungen von
1526 an bis auf die Neuzeit
GINES DE PASSAMONTE, Hennas d£
pas'sa-mon'ta One of the many thankless
debtors to the chivalry of Don Quixote, in
Cervantes' romance of that name He is a
galley slave whom the knight sets free and who
immediately joins his fellows in attacking then
rescuer
GINES DE SEPtJLVEDA, JUAN See
SEPULVEDA.
GINEVRA, je-nev'ra An Italian bude
who&e tragic fate was commemorated by Samuel
Rogers in a poem entitled "Italy " On her
wedding day she concealed herself in sport
within an oaken chest whose spring lock fastened
her down The guests sought for her in vain
and not until years had passed \yas it discovered
how she had met her death The chest and a
portrait of the lady were shown to the poet on
his visit to Modena
GINGER, pn'jer (AS g^ng^'ber, OF gengilre,
from Lat. zmgiher, Gk %iyylp€p<.$, singiberis,
ginger, from Ar , Peis zanyabil, from Prak
smgabera, from Skt $rngaveraf ginger), Ztn-
giber A genus of plants of the family Zingi-
beracete, natives of the East Indies The spe-
cies, of which there are about 20, are perennial
herbs with annual stems, creeping rootstocks,
and leaves in two opposite rows The flowers
are in compact spikes with bracts The root-
stocks of most of the species are used as a
condiment and in medicine The most valuable
and generally used are those of the common
ginger (Zmgiber officinale), sometimes distin-
guished as the narrow-leaved ginger, now culti-
vated in various tropical countries In the East
Indies this plant has been cultivated from time
immemorial, in the West Indies, particularly
in Jamaica, from whence the finest quality is
derived, and Sierra Leone, from both of which,
as well as from, the East Indies, its rootstocks
— the gmger of commerce — are a considerable
article of export Like the banana and other
plants that have long been in cultivation, ginger
is grown wholly from cuttings, having appar-
ently lost the ability to set seed The rootstock
is about the thickness of a man's finger, knotty,
fibrous, and fleshy when fresh The stems are
reedlike, generally 3 or 4 feet high, invested
with smooth sheaths of the linear-lanceolate
smooth leaves The flowers are not produced on
the leafy stems, but on short scapes m spikes
about the size of a man's thumb, and are of a
whitish color, the lip streaked with purple The
cultivation of ginger is extremely easy wherever
the climate is suitable In India it is carried
on to an elevation of 4000 or 5000 feet on the
Himalayas, in moist situations It may be
cultivated at higher latitudes if the rootstocks
are taken up and protected during the winter
In harvesting the crop the rootstock is taken
up when the stems have withered and is pre-
pared for the market either by scalding in
boiling water — in order to kill it — and subse-
quent drying, or by scraping and washing The
first method yields black or coated ginger, the
second white or scraped ginger, the blackest of
black ginger, however, being only a stone color,
and the whitest of white ginger very far from
perfectly white, unless bleaching be employed,
as is done not unfrequently to improve its
appearance — a process not otherwise advan-
tageous Ginger found in the shops is sometimes
covered with a white coating, usually of lime
This is thought to improve its appearance, out
usually covers an inferior grade There is a
considerable difference, however, in the orig-
inal color of the rootstocks of ginger of dif-
ferent countries, which is supposed to be owing
to difference in the varieties cultivated The
uses of ginger, both in medicine as a stimulant
and a carminative, and in domestic economy as
a condiment, are too well known to require
particular notice The pimcipal constituents
of ginger root are a pale yellow volatile oil
called "oil of ginger/' gmgerol, oleoresin, and
often as much as 20 per cent of starch The
yield of oleoresin is from 5 to 8 per cent Medi-
cinally ginger is used as a fluid extract, oleo-
resin, tincture, powder, and m various standard
preparations as compound rhubarb powder, etc.
Candied ginger, or preserved ginger, consists of
the young rootstocks preserved in sugar and
is now exported in considerable quantity from
China as well as from the East and the West
Indies It is a delicious sweetmeat, and is
useful also as a stomachic Essence of gingei,
much used for flavoring, is in reality a tincture
prepared of ginger and alcohol Sirup of ginger
is used chiefly by druggists for flavoring Gin-
ger tea, an infusion of ginger in boiling water,
is a domestic remedy very useful in cases of
flatulence Ginger beer is a well-known beverage
flavored with ginger Ginger wine is a cheap
liquor flavored with ginger Ginger was known
to the Romans and is said by Pliny to have
been brought from Arabia
Another species of ginger is zerumbet (Zi,ngi-
ber zerumbet), also called broad-leaved ginger,
cultivated in Java, and of which the rootstock
is sometimes erroneously called round zedoary
The rootstock is much thicker than that of
common ginger and is less pungent The root-
stock of the cassumunar (Zmgiber cassumunar),
sometimes called yellow zedoary, has a camphor-
like smell and a bitter aromatic taste It
acquired a high reputation in England and
throughout Europe about the close of the seven-
teenth century as a stimulant and stomachic,
but it soon sank into disuse The rootstock of
the mioga (Zingiber mwgo,} is less pungent than
ginger and is much used in Japan Cattle sent
to graze in the jungles of northern India during
the rainy season are said to be fed the root-
stock of a species of ginger (Zingiber capita-
turn] to preserve their health The root of
Asarum canadense is sometimes called Indian
ginger, or wild ginger, in North America, and is
used as a substitute for ginger It has a grate-
ful aromatic odor and taste and is stimulant,
tonic, and diaphoretic. See ASARABACCA, Plate
of FLAVORING PLANTS
GINGER, WILD See ASAKABACCA
GINGERBREAD TREE See DOOM PALM
GINGER FAMILY See ZINGIBEKACE^E
GINGHAM, gingham (probably from Java-
nese gwg-gang, perishable, fading, less plausibly
from Fr Gmngamp, a town in Brittany) A
cotton fabric of plain weave, originally intro-
duced from India It differs from calico in that
its colors are dyed in the yarn and woven in
m stripes or checks and not afterward printed
At first the Indian ginghams consisted of cotton
cloths, with two or more colors arranged as a
small checkered pattern, now a great variety
of designs and color combinations are found in
this material, which is used for women's and
children's summer gowns and aprons The
whole piece is woven with yarn of one color.
Other cotton stuffs, such as zephyrs and chain-
brays, partake of the nature of ginghams
GrlW'G-IU See SESAMUM
(HNGrlVFTIS See GUMS, DISEASES OF
(HNGrUENE, zhaN'ge-na', PIERRE Loins
(1748-1816) A French man of letters, horn
at Rennes He first came into prominence
through his critical articles to the Mercure de
France and later by his verses In 1791 he
published Lettres sur les Confessions de J J
Rousseau, in which he praises Rousseau In
the beginning of the Revolution he spread the
principles of justice and of liberty in his paper,
La Femlle Villageoise (1791-94) , but when his
paper criticized the ensuing excesses, Gmguene
was imprisoned As Director General of the
Commission of Public Instruction, he aided
gieatly in the reorganization of popular edu-
cation from 1794 until 1797, when he was
appointed by the Directory Minister Plenipoten-
tiary to Sardinia In 1799-1802 he was a mem-
ber of the tribunate Meanwhile he had been
contributing to the Histoire Utteraire de la
France (begun by the Benedictines) The last
years of his life were devoted to his His^re
htteraire de I'ltahe, completed by Salfi (1811-
19, 2d ed, by Daunou, 14 vols, 1824-35)
GINIG-AUAiN" See JIISTIGARAN
GrlNKEX., gm'kel, or (HNCKELL GODAET
VAN (1630-1703), first EARL OF ATHLONE A
Dutch general in the English army The eldest
son of Godard Adriaan van Reede, Baron Gmkel,
he was born at Utrecht in 1630 He was
trained for the army and in 1688 accompanied
William of Orange to England The following
year he distinguished himself in the capture of
a mutinous Scottish regiment at Sleaford, Lin-
colnshire, and in 1690 went to Ireland with the
King and was conspicuous in command of a
body of Dutch cavalry at the battle of the
Boyne He was left as general in chief when
William returned to England He captured
Ballyraore, reduced Athlone, defeated Saint-
Ruth at Aughrim with terrible slaughter,
marched on Galway, which capitulated, and
completed the conquest of Ireland by taking
Limerick. His return to London through Eng-
land resembled a triumphal progress He re-
ceived the thanks of Parliament and was created
Baron of Aughrim and Earl of Athlone. He
continued in the English service and in 1692
accompanied William to the Continent He was
present at the battle of Landen and assisted
in the destruction of the French magazines and
stores at Givet At the renewal of hostilities
in 1702 he commanded the Dutch troops under
Marlborough, but before the campaign had pro-
ceeded far, died, after two days' illness, at
Utrecht, Feb 11, 1703
GINKGrO, gink'g6 or jink'g6 (Jap, from Chin
ymhmg, silver apricot, from yw, silver + hmg,
apricot) A genus of plants represented by a
single living species, which is the sole survivor
of an important ancient group of gymno sperms
known as the Ginkgoales The G-inkgo lilo"ba
is the well-known maidenhair tree of cultivation,
a popular name suggested by the fact that the
leaves resemble those of the ordinary maiden-
hair fern (Adiantum). It has been cultivated
for centuries in China and Japan as a sacred
tree in connection with temple groves, and it
has become common in ornamental cultivation
in all civilized countries
The tree has the general habit of a conifer,
with central shaft and wide-spreading branches
It is recorded that it sometimes reaches a height
of nearly 100 feet and a trunk circumference of
more than 25 feet The characteristic leaves
have long and slender petioles, with broad,
wedge-shaped, and variously lobed blades, and
a distinctly forking vein system The leaves
are also deciduous, a very rare habit among
gymnospeims The spore-bearing organs — le,
the stamens and ovules — are borne upon short,
spurhke shoots, the stamens being in loose,
catkin-like clusters while the ovules usually
occur in pans at the summit of a long stalk
As a rule, but a single one of the pair of ovules
develops into the mature seed, a development
which occurs whether fertilization takes place
01 not
Formerly Ginkgo was included among the
conifers, but further knowledge of its stiucture
has caused it to be set apart as a gioup by
itself, equal in lank to Cycadales, Coniferales,
and Gnetales, the other three living groups of
gymnosperms Prominent among the recent dis-
coveries in connection with G-mkgo has been the
discovery of ciliated (hence motile) male cells,
identical in general character with those dis-
covered in the Cycadacese (qv ) The embryo
is an exception among gymnosperms, since it
does not develop the usual long and slender sus-
pensor As in the cycads, the embryo develops
two cotyledons, and between them there is a
very conspicuous plumule (shoot bud) Ginkgo
also shares with cycads the featuie that its
seed becomes plumlike, a testa with fleshy outer
and stony inner layers being organized Often
without pollination, and hence, of course, with-
out fertilization, the seed attains its usual size,
and the two layers of the testa are developed
The staichy kernel of the seed has an almond-
like flavor and is eaten, after slight roasting^
by the Chinese.
The Ginkgo was introduced into the United
States towards the close of the eighteenth cen-
tury, and, because of its symmetrical shape and
freedom from attacks of injurious fungi and in-
sects, it has come into favor as an ornamental
and street tree It is hardy as far north as
Massachusetts, and at Washington, D C , it
grows quite well, several streets being planted
with this species Wheie employed as a street
tree, only staminate specimens should be
planted, so as to escape the annoyance of the
falling disagreeable-smelling fruits in autumn
The leaves of Ginkgo are so characteristic
that they are unusually trustworthy evidence
of the existence of the group as fossils Such
leaves are found in abundance down to the Coal
Measures, and some of them at least must have
belonged to 0-mkgoales The most important
fossil leaf genus referred to this order is the
Mesozoic Baiera It is evident that Ginkgoales
were abundant and somewhat diversified during
the Mesozoie, their greatest extension occurring
during the Jurassic, and it is altogether prob-
able that they existed near the close of the
Paleozoic. Jurassic remains of the group have
been found in every country, from the Arctic
regions to the south temperate regions, being
abundant in England, throughout Europe,
Siberia, China, Japan, North America, and Aus-
tralia The prominent genera were Cfankgo and
Ba^era — the former becoming more abundant in
the more recent periods and in the more north-
ern latitudes, the latter including the majority
of the older representatives of the group Con-
sult A C Seward, "Maidenhair Tree (Ginkgo
774
}," in Annals of Botany, vol xiv (London,
1900), and S W Maury, The Ginkgo (New
Yoik, 1910) See Plate of GYMNOSPERMS
GINlSr, gin, EDWIN (1838-1914) An Ameii-
can publishei and peace advocate He was bom
at Oiland, Me, and graduated in 1862 fiom
Tufts College (AM, 1865) He founded, and
\\as until Ins death head of, the fhm of Gmn
find Company, among the leading publishers of
school and college textbooks in the United
St ites, whose first book, Allen's Latin Grammar,
vuis published m 1868 Long interested in
social questions and 111 the woild peace move-
ment, m 1909 he set aside a million dollars to
be used after his death to endow a World
Peace Foundation In the meantime he con-
tributed $50,000 annually to carry on the work
of the foundation, which was established in
1910 He also founded an International School
of Peace in 1913 One of his public addresses
was published under the title Organizing the
Peace Work (1913)
GIKTUITNGrAGrAPy gm'noong-a-gap'. See
BURI
GIIffS'BTma, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831-1914)
An English biblical scholai He was bom in
Warsaw, Kussian Poland, and was educated at
the rabbinical school there, but went to England
when he was a young man In 1S57 he pub-
lished The Song of Songs, \\ith a valuable com-
mentary and sTiminaiy of previous ciiticism, and
recened an honorary* LLD from Glasgow He
wrote critical and historical commentaries on
Eeelesiastes (Coheleth, 1861) and Leviticus
(1882) and in 1870 was appointed one of the
levisers of the Old Testament His great work
was on the Masoia — text (1880-86), Maso-
retico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible
(1894, 2d ed, 1911), and introduction (1897),
also the Pentateuch (1908) and Isaiah (1909),
revised after the Masora Among his other
publications are The Karaites (1862) , The
Essenes (1864), The Kalbalah (1865), The
Moabtte Stone (1870) , with Salkinson, a He-
brew version of the New Testament, and a
series of facsimiles of Hebrew manuscripts of
the Old Testament (1897-98)
GI3STSE3STG, jin'seng (Chin yin-tsang, like-
ness of a man, less probably, first of plants)
The yellowish root of Panax ginseng, highly
esteemed as a medicine by the Chinese, who
believe that it possesses extraordinary virtues
for all diseases, particulai ly for exhaustion of
body and mind It was first referred to in
English in 1654, in a translation of Martini's
History of the Conquest of Oliina, in which it
is merely mentioned, but in De la Loubere's
account of Siam in 1688 It is described as the
most esteemed of all plants of the East The
Tatars are said to drink a decoction of the
leaves as tea In Siam the root was chewed in
the same manner as coca is by the Peruvian
Indians Loub&re says* "he that hath this root
in his mouth will hold out at labor as long
again as he that hath it not " Specimens re-
sembling the human form are sometimes sold
for their weight m gold This species, which
is a native of China and adjoining territory, is
from 1 to 2 feet tall, has five almost smooth
leaves, with long petioles, between which arises
the long- stalked umbel of inconspicuous flowers,
which are succeeded by numerous scarlet berries
It is cultivated in China and Korea A de-
scription of this species and its properties led
to the discovery in 1716 of the American
species Panax qumquefohutn, which so closely
leseniblos Asiatic ginseng that an extensive ex-
port tiade of wild loots soon followed it& intro-
duction in China Its natural range is flora
the borders of the Mississippi east^aul, in the
Southein States it is almost entirely confined
to the highlands and the mountains The North-
ern root is considered of superior quahtv and
commands the highest prices The decreasing
supply of wild ginseng has been insufficient to
meet the demand, and this led, in various locali-
ties, to many expeimients m gi owing ginseng,
all of winch failed until about 1885, when George
Stantori grew the plant in beds in the foiest at
Apulia, N Y He later succeeded in gi owing
it under an artificial shade of lath Since the
publishing of his methods inteiest in the plant
has inci eased, and many beds have been set out
The small quantities of cultivated root so fai
marketed have commanded 20 per cent 01 moie
in advance of the price paid for wild roots
gathered in the same distiict Ginseng suc-
ceeds best m well-drained, loose, f liable loam,
rich in humus, potash, and phosphouc acid, but
not in nitrogen In its pieseiit state of develop-
ment the root requires about five years to leach
marketable size Two fragiant aromatic species,
Panax fiuiicosus and Panax cochlcatus, natives
of the Moluccas, are used in India as medicine
In European and American practice none of
these species are employed to any extent Con-
sult Kains, Ginseng (New York, 1903), and
Harding, Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants
(Columbus, Ohio, 1908)
G-rNTTL, gin't'l, WILHELM FKIEDRICH (1843-
1908) An Austrian chemist, a son of the phys-
icist Julius Wilhelm Gintl He was bom and
educated in Vienna and was appointed pro-
fessor of chemistiy at the German Polytechnic
Institute in Prague in 1870 From 1878 to
1889 he was a member of the Bohemian Diet
In 1902 he entered the Austrian House of Peers
He was the founder and first president of the
Austrian Society for the Promotion of Chemical
Industry He became widely known through
his Studien uber Grooves strahlende Mate? le
und die mechamsche Theone der Mecti idtat
(1880)
GrlNZ'BEHG, ASHER (pen name, AHAD HA-
*AM) (1856-1927). A Russian scholar and
founder of Zionism, born at Skvira, Kiev, Rus-
sia He studied the Talmud in a Jewish heder,
or elementary school, and between 1882 and 1884
was at Vienna, Berlin, and Bieslau Settling
in Odessa in 1886, he founded m 1889 the Zion-
ist League (Bene Mosheh) to improve Hebrew
education, disseminate knowledge of Hebrew lit-
erature and culture, a-nd care for the interests
of the Palestinian Hebrew settlements In 1897
he attended the Zionist Congress at Basel,
Switzerland, where he opposed the ideas of Dr
Herzl, and from that time he became known as
the leader of the "moral," as opposed to the
"political," Zionism He inspected the Pales-
tinian colonies in 1900 He became editor of
Keweret in 1890 and of Ha-Shiloali in 1896
Gmzberg's writings in Hebrew came to be more
widely read than those of any other contempo-
rary author using the same language His
articles were collected and published under the
title Al Parashat DeraJam (1895, 2d ed , 1902)
Some of them were translated into German and
Russian, and into English by Leon Simon un-
der the title Selected Essays (1912)
OXOBEBTI, jd-bar'te, VINOENZO (1801-52),
c>
3
LU
III
DC!
H
z
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GIOBERTI
775
An Italian philosopher and statesman, born in
Turin Educated in the Church, he was or-
dained to the pnesthood in 1825 and subse-
quently appointed professor of theology in the
university of his native city On the accession
of Charles Albert he was selected as chaplain
to the court, an office which he filled till 1833
In the using political agitation Gioberti wss
accused of piomoting the Libeial movement, dis-
missed flora couit, and suffered an imprison-
ment of four months His name was stricken
from the hat of doctois of theology on the
ground that through his teachings he \~vas a
conupter of youth He went to Paris and
shortly after to Brussels, wheie he spent 11
years as pnvate tutor in an academy, pursuing1
his studies in his leisure hours Gioberti looked
upon the papacy as the divinely appointed
agency for the elevation of Italy among the
nations A confederation of states subject to
papal ai miration, and having in the King of
Piedmont a military protectoi, was his scheme
for the unity and regeneration of Italy These
views he developed in Del pnmato cwile e
morale degli Italians (1843) The liberal and
conciliatory policy adopted by Rome on the ac-
cession of Pius IX, a waim admirer of the
Pnmato, appeared as the verification of Giober-
ti's predictions and increased his popularity
On his return to Italy in 1848 he was received
\\ith ovations from all classes of the people
and was chosen by several towns as their repre-
sentative in Parliament The King appointed
him senator, he subsequently was elected Presi-
dent of the Chamber of Deputies, and in Decem-
ber, 1848;, became Prime Minister, but, owing
chiefly to the failure of his attempt to bring
about an agreement between the Pope and the
Grand Duke of Tuscany, he was forced to lesign
His successor dispatched him to Paris on some
unimportant mission, and thus ended Giobeiti's
political caieer, although his Rmnovamento
civile $ Italia (1851) was the Bible of the revo-
lution of 1859
From that penod he devoted himself exclu-
sively to literary pursuits in Paris until his
death Gioberti aimed at the gloiy and aggran-
dizement of his country by means of the awak-
ening of the national consciousness, but failed
in farsightedness, and his influence as a politi-
cal guide declined, but the depth of thought
and strength of conviction in his various works
entitle him to the standing which, as a writer,
he enjoys Gioberti's remarkable gentleness in
private intercom se boie no trace of the ener-
getic force with which his writings propound
an opinion or denounce an opponent His chief
writings, besides the Pnmato, are La teorica
del soprannaturale (1838), L3 Introduzione allo
studio della filosofia (1840), which sums up his
philosophical system, best stated in the propo-
sition, "Being creates existence", the Lettre
sur les doctrines pMlosophiques et politiques de
M de Lamewiais (1841) , the treatises Del bello
(1841) and Del luono (1843), the Prolegomena
al Pnmato (1845), an open attack upon the
Jesuits, whom he had covertly assailed in the
Pnmato; II Gesuita modemo (1847), a second
attack upon the Jesuits, who had replied to his
Prolegomena, Del rmnovamento civile d*ItaUa
(1851),, advocating unity of the Italian states,
national independence, and suppression of the
temporal power of the Pope There appeared
(1855-63) the Rvforrtta cattohca della Chiesa,
the Filosofia della nvelazwne, a large part of
his correspondence, and several other works
Consult Berti, Di Vmcenvo @^obert^, n forma-
tore politico e mimsfoo (Floience, 1881) , Spa
venta, La filosofia di Giolerti (Naples, 1803),
Mauri, Smtti faoyrafici (Florence, 1876) , Zam
chelh, "La giovine7za di Vincenzo Gioberti,1' m
Stud* pohlici, etc (Bologna, 18<)3) His whole
philosophy is presented in extiacts, oiganieally
arian^ed, in V Gioberti, Nuova piotologia, ed
by G "Gentile, 2 vols (Ban, 1912)
GIQBEKTIWE (]6-beVtin) TXNCTITBE A
preparation for restoring wi it ings 01 paintings
•which have fiom age become illegible In some
cases the process has recovered documents which
have been partially expunged and the paichment
written over (See PZILIWSE.ST ) rlhe inventor
of it was Giovanni Antonio Gioberti, an Italian
chemist (1761-1834), a natne of Piedmont, sec-
lotaiy of the Society of Agriculture at Tin in,
and professor in the "unirei s^ty in that citv
GIOC03STDA, jo kdn'da, LA An opeia by
Ponchielli (q_v ), first produced in Milan, April
8, 1876, in the United States, Dec 20, 1883
(New York)
GIOCOHDO, )G-kon'do, FEA GIOVANNI (c 1450-
1515) An Italian aielntect, engmeei, and an-
tiquary, born at Veiona He \\as a Fi anas-
can fnar, studied archeology in Rome, and made
a remarkable collection of some 2000 ancient
inscriptions which he presented to Lorenzo de'
Medici He was the designer of the fortifica-
tions of Treviso and of woiks to prevent the
silting up of the lagoon of Venice He was ar-
chitect of Feidmand, King of Naples (1489),
and when Naples was taken by the Fiench in
1495 he went with Chailes VIII to France,
where he is said to have designed the Pont
Notre Dame, the Hotel Dieu, Chambre des
Comptes (neither of these two now standing),
and other woiks After his return to Italy the
Pope appointed him (1513) architect of St
Peter's, he succeeded Bramante and ^as a co-
laborer uith Raphael and Gnihano da San
Gallo He is generally and with good leason
believed to have designed the elegant Palazzo
del Consiglio at Verona, erected most probably
from his designs during IPS absence in France
and considerably altered in modern times He
was proficient in philosophy, theology, and clas-
sical liteiature, wrote notes on Cesar's Com-
mentaries, and published a cutical edition of
Vitruvms (1511)
GIOIA 33BL COLLE, lO'ya del kolla A city
in the Province of Ban delle Pughe, south
Italy, 38 miles northwest of Taranto (Map
Italy, F 4) It has a fine twelfth-century cas-
tle, built by the Hohenstaufen and recently re-
stored It markets grain, wine, almonds, and
wool In May and September important cattle
fairs are held there Pop (commune), 1901,
21,721, 1911, 21,837
G-IOIOSA J02TICA, jfi-yo'sa yO'ne-ka A city
in the Province of Reggio di Calabria, south
Italy, 10 m^les northeast of Gerace, near the
Ionian Sea Three miles below the town are the
rums of a Roman theatre and another ancient
building called the Nanglio, whose nature and
purpose are not clear (See NoHne degh scam,
1883-84 ) It markets gram and olives Pop
(commune), 1901, 10,247, 1911, 10,943
(HOJA, jo'ya, FLAVIO An Italian navigator
of the fouiteenth century, born at Pasitano,
near Amalfi Three centuries later a legend —
the elements of which can be analyzed — took
form that he invented the compass, but he
GIOJA tf
merely contributed to perfect the instrument
and to make it available for navigation Possi-
bly he chose the fleur de-hs to mark North
on the compass card, in honor of Chailes of
Anjou
aiOJA, MELCHIORRE (1767-1829) A famous
Italian publicist, born at Piacenza He was
educated for the priesthood, but later studied at
Pavia, withdrew from the cleigy, and m 1799
\vas appointed by the French government direc-
toi of the statistical bureau at Milan Some
of his chief works are Sul commercio dei com-
mestioih e care prezzo del Ditto (1804) , Nuovo
ptospetto delle scienza economic® , Filosofia delict
statistical
GIOJELLI BELLA MADONNA, jo-yel'le
del'la ma-dOn'na, I It The Jewels of the Ma-
donna) An opera by Wolf-Ferrari (qv ), nrst
produced in Berlin, Dec 23, 1911, in the United
States, Jan 16 1912 (Chicago)
GIOLITTI, jo-lefts, GIOVANNI (1843- )
An Italian statesman. He was born at Mondovl
in the Province of Cuneo and was educated at
Turin After serving for eight years in a de-
partment of the Ministry of Finance, in which
he was appointed chief inspector in 1874, he was
elected to the Chamber of Deputies In 1889
he became Minister of the Treasuiy and, in
the following year, Minifater of Finance, which
position he \\as soon afterward compelled to
resign because of his policy of extreme economy
After the fall of Rudini, whose financial policy
he had stoutly opposed, Giolitti became Pres-
ident of the Ministry, in May, 1892, and, al-
though constantly antagonized by the Chamber,
succeeded in introducing many needed lefoirns in
favor of the lower classes In November, 1893,
he was compelled to resign on account of the bank
scandals and particularly on account of his
friendly relations with Tanlongo, director of the
Banca Romana, who had issued duplicate notes,
had corrupted government officials, and whom
Giolitti had appointed to the Senate Giolitti be-
came Minister of the Interior in 1901, resigned
in June, 1903, and in October formed a ministry
of his own He resigned m March, 1905, but
became Premier again in May, 1906, and held
office until December, 1909 Sonmno's cabinet,
which succeeded, resigned in March, 1911, and
Giolitti again came into office, apparently only
the stronger for his many defeats After his
colonial budget had been vetoed in 1914 (March
4), he resigned (March 8), paitly it seemed for
strategic reasons
GIOBJDANI, jftr-da'nS, PIETRO (1774-1848).
An Italian author, born at Piaeenza, a stylist,
and one of the several writers who helped the
Italian language to throw ofi the French bond-
age of the preceding period He studied law,
but in a moment of romantic despair joined the
Benedictine Order After Marengo he fled from
the cloister and finally became secretary of the
Academy at Bologna His Panegwico a Napo-
leon caused him to be deprived of this post, at
the restoration, in 1815, of the papal govern-
ment The authority at Vienna, displeased by
the liberality of the views he fiankly expressed,
persecuted him to the end of his life, through-
out which he displayed a fine spirit of patri-
otism His writings are ntunerous consisting
largely of critical essays, eulogies, memorial
addresses, and pamphlets, and form part of the
best Italian prose He was the first to recog-
nize the genius of Leopardi. Giusti, Manzoni,
Monti, Canova, and Capponi were also his
6 GIORDANO
friends The most valuable of his wntings is
the Epistolario, published with the Opere, ed
by Gussalli and Vafcsali (4 vols , Milan, 1854-
62) Consult Roinani, Delia vita e delle opeie di
Pietro Gioidam (Mantua, 1868), and Delia
Giovanna, Pietto Giordani e la sua dittatura
letteiaiia (Milan, 1882)
GIORDANO, jor-da'no, LUCA, culled LUCA
FA-PRESTO (1632-1705) An Italian painter,
born in Naples He \\as the son of Antonio, an
mfeiior painter, who continually urged him on
at his work, saying, "Luca, work quickly,"
whence his nickname, "Fa-Presto " He painted
with such facility that at the age of 13 the
Viceiov of Naples placed him under the instruc-
tion of Giuseppe Ribeia When still young, he
went to Rome, where he made many copies of
the pictures by the great masters There he
studied under Pietro da Cortona, whom he
assisted in his numerous contiacts He after-
ward visited Venice and studied Titian and
Paul Veronese, later, on his return to Naples,
he was fitted to undertake important work
Throughout his life he never lacked patronage
In 1678 he executed an immense picture to
oommemoiate the peace between France, Spain,
and Holland In 1679 he was invited to Flor-
ence by the Grand Duke Cosimo III to decorate
\vith frescoes the cupola of the Coismi Chapel,
and m 1683 the Gallena Rocardi with a fresco
of Olympus In 1690 he was invited to Spam
by Chailes II and appointed painter to the King
and made Knight He painted some of his best
frescoes in the chapel of San Lorenzo and on the
grand staircase of the Esronal, the latter repre-
sented "The Battle of Samt-Quentin" and "The
Taking of Montmorency" lie also decorated
othei churches and palaces at Madrid and To-
ledo After the death of Charles II Giordano
continued in the service of Philip V, and in
1702 he accompanied that monarch to Naples
and was received with great enthusiasm So
great had now become his power of painting
rapidly that it is said he painted for the Jesuits
a picture of "St Francis Xavier Baptizing the
Indians," now in the Museum of Naples, in a
day and a half In like manner he completed in
48 hours the frescoes of the Tesoro di San
Maitino, Naples, representing the "Story of
Judith " One of his best frescoes is the "Cleans-
ing of the Temple," in San Philippo a Girola-
mini, Naples
He painted an incredible number of pictuies,
all the chief galleries of Europe are well sup-
plied with them Madrid has a great numbei,
and there are many others at Dresden, Vienna,
Naples, and Munich His earliest works are in
the manner of Ribera, but by far the greater
number are in a style formed under Pietro da
Cortona He possessed ready invention and
charm His color is harmonious and his brush-
work good, but his pictures were negligently
executed Among his best works, besides those
mentioned above, are "Venus and Mars/' in
the Louvre the "Judgment of Paris," in Ber-
lin, "David with the Head of Goliath'* and
"Lot and his Daughters," at Dresden, "Massa-
cre of the Innocents," Munich, "The Archangel
Michael," Vienna, etc Consult Bellori, Le vite
de pvttori) scultori, ed arcliitetti moderm (Rome,
1728), and Riccardi-Vernaccia, Gallena Ric-
cardiana (Florence, 1828)
GIORDANO, UMBERTO (1867- ) An
Italian composer, born at Foggia He received
his musical education at the Conservatory of
GIORGIO
777
GIOUGIONE
under Serrao, and while still a student
attracted the attention of the publisher Son-
zogno, who commissioned him to wiite his first
opera, Mala Vita (1892) In 1894 Regina Diaz
followed and failed, but tv\o yeais later the
success of Andrea Chemer carried the composer's
fame beyond Italy Fedora in 1898 almost du-
plicated the success of its predecessor, while
Siberia (1904) showed a decided falling off
After a somewhat long period of silence he
wrote Mese Mariano (1913), which shows a
general advance over his preceding works, but
still fell short of the great success of Andrea
Chemer His latest opera, Madame Saris Gene,
had its world's premiere at the Metropolitan
Opera House, New York, in 1915. Giordano be-
gan as an outright imitator of Mascagni, but
soon turned away from the coarseness and bru-
tality of the "venstic" school He combines real
melodic invention with strong diamatic instinct
GIORGIO, jOr'jd, FRANCESCO DI (1439-1502)
An Italian architect, engineer, sculptor, and
painter, remarkable for his versatility, which
makes him prominent among the artists of the
Renaissance He was born in Siena, where, after
1463, he did constructive work, especially in
connection with fortifications From 1478 he
was in the service of the Duke of Urbino as
military architect and engineer In 1480 he was
commissioned to construct the model for the
dome of the cathedral at Milan, executed in 1493
by Giovanni Antonio de Gessato The invention
of mines at the siege of Naples in 1495 is at-
tributed to him As a sculptor, he may be
judged by the figures in the Loggia dei Nobili,
and the angels bearing candelabra in the cathe-
dral at Siena In painting he was a pupil of
Vechietta, and imitated Fra Fihppo Lippi, to
which his graceful pictures in the Siena Gallery
bear witness He wrote a Trattato di architet-
tura civile e militare, ed by Cesare Saluzzo in
1841
GIOBGIONE, jdr-jo'na (c 1478-1510). One
of the greatest Venetian painters, the pioneer
of the High Renaissance in Venice. Giorgione
is the strong form of Giorgio, Venetian Zorzon
(Zorzo, Zorzi), by which name he is known in
contemporary documents He was born at Cas-
telfranco, near Treviso There is no warrant
for the seventeenth-century tradition of his
descent from a local noble family, the Barba-
relli Of his life little is known besides what
Vasari relates that he was of humble origin
and was brought up in Venice, that he was
beautiful in person and of great social charm,
a fine musician, singing perfectly to the lute,
that he was an ardent lover, a typical repre-
sentative of the gracious Venetian life of his
day Although Vasari's narrative is based on
later tradition, the picture which he presents is
confirmed by the few other surviving sources
The influence of his boyhood home may be seen
in the idyllic landscape of his pictures He
came early to Venice and was apprenticed to
Giovanni Bellini (qv ) Success came to him
early, for in 1500 he received commissions from
the Venetian state for the portraits of Doge
Agostmo Barbarigo and Condottiere Consalvo
Farranti, in 1504 he was commissioned by
Tuzio Costanzi, another condottiere, to paint
the great altarpiece at Castelf ranco , in 1507 he
was employed in painting a large, easel picture
for the Hall of Audience in the Ducal Palace,
and in 1507-08, in company with other artists,
he decorated the facade of the Fondaco dei
Tedeschi, after having previously decorated some
half dozen otheis In September or October,
1510, he died of the plague in Venice
In such a short life he could have executed
but few of the 150 paintings formerly attributed
to him in the European gallenes Of unques-
tioned authenticity, supported by documental y
evidence, are the three following paintings ( 1 )
the altarpiece of the cathedral of Castelfranco,
a "Madonna Enthroned between Saints Liberale
and Francis," one of his earliest works, (2)
"Gypsy and Soldier" (Venice, Palazzo Giovan-
nelh), a beautiful landscape containing idealis-
tic figures of a young man meeting a nude
woman and child , ( 3 ) "Evander Showing JEneas
the Site of Home" (Vienna Museum)
Critics are, for the most part, agreed m
ascribing to Ins early period two small richly
colored pictures in the Uffizi, Florence "Moses
and the Burning Bush" and "The Judgment of
Solomon," both of his early period, and besides
the "Madonna with Saints Anthony and Koch,"
catalogued as a Pordenone, in the Madrid Gal-
lery Of a later period is the "Fete Champetre,"
in the Louvre Of the many portraits ascribed
to him, the "Knight of Malta," in the Uffizi, and
the "Man in a White Costume," at Rovigo, are
certainly genuine, the admirable "Young Man,"
in the Beilm Museum, and "Antonio Brocardo,"
m the gallery at Budapest, are probably also
genuine
Among other works rightly ascribed to Gior-
gione are "Christ Bearing the Cross," now in
the Gardner collection, Boston, and an earlier
version in San Eocco, Venice, "Apollo and
Daphne," in the Archbishop's Seminary, Venice,
the "Three Ages of Man," m the Pitti Palace,
Florence, and, especially, the "Sleeping Venus,"
m the Dresden Gallery, formerly considered a
copy from Titian This last picture is, m our
opinion, the most perfect representation of
Venus in the art of the Italian Renaissance,
and is the prototype of other representations of
this subject by Venetian artists Morelli was
the first to ascribe it to Giorgione, but he rejects
the "Concert," in the Pitti Palace, usually as-
cribed to him, although it is a picture of the
greatest charm Many other pictures are attrib-
uted to Giorgione in European galleries, and
especially in the English, but most of these
are doubtful The most charming of these is
the "Shepherd Boy," in Hampton Court, which
seems more likely the work of Torbido
Vasari long ago pointed out that Giorgione's
position in Venetian painting was like that of
Leonardo in Florentine , for he conducted it from
the constraint and the detail of the early, to
the freedom and mastery of the high, Renais-
sance Through him the new worldly spirit
entered into Venetian painting Once religious
and didactic, it now became worldly and poetic
— an expression of the happy, gracious, and
complete Venetian life of his day Under the
guise of religious subjects he painted real genre,
Venetian men and women in "beautiful sunny
landscapes, with no particular religious signifi-
cance, but merely to express the mood or senti-
ment of the painter He made remarkable prog-
ress in the landscape, which he treats as of
equal importance with the figures represented —
idyllic in character and with the most remark-
able effects of sunshine and atmosphere hitherto
attained The color in his painting is bright,
soft, and wondrotisly melting, the tone is golden,
the light and shade subtle, and the line, though
OIOTTI3STO
778
GIOTTO
not so distinct as Titian's is nevertheless cor-
rect His was unquestionably the most power-
ful influence upon Venetian painting in the
sixteenth century Practically all important
contemporaries followed his lead, even his
master, the aged Bellini Among those most
directly under his influence were Titian, Sebas-
tian del Piombo, Palma Vecchio, Pordenone,
Torbido, and Cariani
Bibliography The earliest authority to
classify the works of Giorgione on a sound criti-
cal basis was Morelh (Italian Painters, London,
1892) Since then much progress has been
made by Berenson, whose attributions seem to
the pi esent writer the soundest ( Venetian Paint-
ers of the Renaissance, New York, 1909) , by
Justi, Giorgione (Leipzig, 1908), and Ventuu,
Giorgione e il Giorgionismo (Milan, 1913) The
two last-named monographs publish also the
historical sources of his life and works and con-
tain excellent reproductions Other interesting
monographs are Conti, Giorgione (Milan,
1894) , Gronau, Zorzon da Castelfranco (Ven-
ice, 1894), Cook, Giorgione (London, 1900),
Von Boehn, Giorgione und Palma Vecchio (Biele-
feld, 1908)
GIOTTINO, jat-te'no (c 1324-57) An Ital-
ian painter, of the school of Giotto Much con-
fusion exists concerning the painter designated
under this name by Vasan It is thought by
modern critics that the \\orks of two different
men — Maso, a pupil of Giotto, \^ho woiked be-
fore 1350, and Giotto di Stefano, who was active
in the later fourteenth century — have been con-
founded under the name "Giottino " A Dep-
osition," in the Uffizi, a "Crucifixion" and
"Adoration," m the Strozzi Chapel at Santa
Maria Novella, the legend of Constantine and
Pope Sylvester at Santa Croce in Florence, are
attributed to Giottmo So have also been the
frescoes of the Life of St Nicolas in the lower
church at Assisi, and those m the church of
Santa Chiara, Assisi The last two, however,
are probably by Giotto di Stefano He stands
very close to Giotto, had strong realistic tend-
encies, and partly gained in delicacy what he
lost in force and originality Consult Vasari,
Lwes of the Painters (10 vols , New York,
1912) , Crowe and Cavaleaselle, History of
Painting in Italy, vol i (London, 1903) , Thode,
Franz von Asswi (Berlin, 1S85) , Siren, Giottmo
und seme Stellung in der gleichzeitigen floren-
timschen Malerei (Leipzig, 1908)
GIOTTO, jot'tS (GIOTTO DI BONBONE) (c 1276-
1337) A Florentine painter, the greatest of
Italy before the Renaissance, also a sculptor
and architect He was born at Colle, near
Vespigniano, the son of a landed proprietor —
not of a peasant, as was formerly supposed
Two different legends explain his early study
of painting Vasari, following Ghiberti's Com-
mentaries, relates that while a shepherd boy he
was seen by Cimabue (qv ) drawing sheep on a
slate, a commentator of Dante says that while
apprenticed to a wool merchant he became at-
tracted to Cimabue's studio and then entered
it as this master's pupil (c!280) But even
the fact of his connection with Cimabue is now
strongly contradicted It has become evident
that his style is different from Cimabue's —
which was a combination of the Byzantine and
Roman schools — and that he was the pupil of
the Roman school, developing its early Christian
and classic side, and having- close relation with
his older contemporary, Pietro Cavalhm (qv )
He was influenced by the naturalistic art of
Giovanni Pisano See Pis AN o
Giotto's earliest works are at Assisi, in the
church of St Francis, where several stages in
his early progress may be traced, from his in-
tense and revolutionary but juvenile work de-
picting the life of St Fiancis, in the upper
church, through the seiies of the "Life of
Christ," in the lower church, completed in 1297
01 1298, to the masterly "Allegories of St
Francis" Returned to Rome m 1298, Giotto
painted the altarpiece for St Peter's (now in
the sacristy), and designed the "Navicella" in
mosaic, still surviving, much restored, in the
vestibule of St Peter's, the frescoes on San
John Lateian of which a fragment, "Boniface
VIII Proclaiming the Jubilee," still survives
At this time he is supposed to have painted the
frescoes in the Palazzo del Podest& (now Museo
Nazionale), Florence, from which, in 1841, the
whitewash was partially removed, and which
were thereupon ruinously "restored " Thev have
attracted wide attention because in one of them
the portrait of Dante appears between Coiso
Donati and Biunetto Latini (For illustiation,
see DANTE ) Giotto's authorship, however, has
been denied with great show of reason
The next stage in his caieer is marked by the
decoration in fresco of the entire Arena Chapel
at Padua in 1303, in thiee ro'ws of compositions
illustrating the "Life of Christ," and the "Life
of the Virgin," in 38 scenes, besides the "Last
Judgment" on the inner facade, the scenes in
the choir, and the "Allegories" of the dado
The simplicity, dignity, and dramatic power of
these compositions aie beyond piaise He
reaches here the height of his genius After
executing some almost destroyed works in Sant
Antonio, Giotto returned to Florence and then
to Assisi, where he painted the four famous
allegorical frescoes in the vault of the lower
church — the "Marriage of St Francis with Pov-
erty," the "Triumph of Charity," the "Triumph
of Obedience," and the "Glorification of St
Francis " At some time before 1330 he exe-
cuted the superb seiies of frescoes m the chapels
at Santa Croce, of which only those in the
Bardi and Peiuzzi chapels survive in lament-
able condition, but sufficiently to show that
the religious fever recently gained had not been
lost
The "Life of John the Evangelist" and the "Life
of John the Baptist" (cleaned in 1841 and 1863)
in the Peruzzi Chapel, representing his maturest
style, are pronounced by many to be the master's
greatest work, and the most fruitful inspiration
of his successors even during the fifteenth cen-
tury The "Ascension of St John" also is re-
markable, as are the "Dance of Herodias'
Daughter" and the "Birth of John the Baptist "
The scenes in the Bardi Chapel are from the
"Life of St Francis," from which even Ghir-
landaio and Benedetto da Maiano drew inspira-
tion On the invitation of King Robeit of Na-
ples, Giotto went to that city in 1330 He was
named member of the King's household and
assigned important commissions in the Castel
Nuovo and Castel del Uovo and Santa Chiara,
but no trace of these works survives During
his stay, which lasted at least till 1332, he es-
tablished a branch of his school After his re-
turn to Florence he was engaged rather m works
of architecture and sculpture than painting
While Giotto's genius undoubtedly expressed
itself in freest and most revolutionary fashion
cr
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GIOTTO 71
m frescoes, his panel pictures are both numerous
and important An early example is the "Vir-
gin and Child Enthroned, with Angels'7 in the
Academy at Florence Theie are crucifixes at
Santa Maria Novella, at the Ognissanti, and the
Arena Chapel, Padua, important altarpieces at
Santa Croce ( Florence ) , in the gallery at
Bologna, in the Louvre, a "Last Supper" in
Munich, and a "Presentation of Christ in the
Temple" in the Gardner collection, Boston
Giotto was also an architect, though probably
not of the first rank, except as a designer He
was made chief architect of the Florentine Ca-
thedral in 1334, and his masterpiece of design,
the Campanile, called Giotto's Tower, was then
begun, and though left unfinished at his death,
was probably carried out according to his plan,
at least in the lower stories A design pie-
served in the Opera del Duomo at Siena may
possibly be the original one by Giotto In it the
lower stoiy corresponds exactly with that of
the Campanile, while the crowning spire har-
monizes with what Vasan tells us was Giotto's
original plan The Campanile is unique among
church towers for its wealth of colored patterns
and architectural detail and especially of sculp-
tures It is a square tower, 84 meters high,
in three stories Its reliefs and statues were
from his designs, executed partly by Andrea
Pisano and other masters, and aie among the
best works of Italian Gothic sculpture They
are chaiacteristic, allegorical, and philosophic
themes of the cieation and the moral qualities
of man, and the various occupations of human
life, artistic, scientific, intellectual, and ma-
terial Giotto's share in the building of the
cathedral is less clear
Giotto was from the first a popular figure in
Florentine story His praises were sung by his
fnend Dante and by Petrarch, the historian
Villani eulogizes him, while Boccaccio and
Sacchetti relate interesting anecdotes From
these accounts he seems to have been a typical
Florentine, able, clever, and witty to an unusual
degree His ode on "Poverty," which has been
preserved, presents a striking contrast to his
ideal i epresentation of the subject in his paint-
ings In painting his style was broad and
simple, his coloring light and clear, his figures
animated and full of expression, in contrast to
the previous Byzantine style At his death his
style had penetrated through a large part of
Italy, and his followers gave him the compli-
ment of almost slavish imitation The Giot-
tesque style ruled Italy throughout the four-
teenth century as no one man's style ever did
before or afterward
Bibliography. The original sources are Ghi-
berti, I commentary ed Schlosser (Berlin,
1914) , Vasan, Lives of the Painters (10 vols ,
New Yoik, 1912) , Boccaccio, Decameron, vol
vi, 5, Sacchetti, Novelle (Florence, 1886) Full
modern studies will be found in Crowe and Caval-
caselle, History of Painting in Italy (London,
1903) , Thode, "Giotto," in Kunstlermonogra-
phien, ed by Knackluss (Bielefeld, 1899) , Zim-
mermann, Giotto und die Kunst Italiens in Mit-
telalten (Leipzig, 1899), and the monographs
on Giotto by Perkins (London, 1902), Selmcourt
(ib, 1905), and Rintelen (Munich, 1912) Con-
sult also, Ruskm (London, 1854-60), Frey,
"Studien zu Giotto," in Jahrbmher der komglich
preussischen Kunstsammlungen, vols vi, vn
(Berlm, 1885-861 ; Jamtscheck, Die Kunstlehre
Dantes und G-iottos Kunsft (Leipzig, 1892),
VOL. IX— 50
•9 GIOVIO
Berenson, Florentine Paintets of the Renaissance
(New York, 1909)
GIOVANTTTI, jO'vi-net'tC, ARTUEO M ( 1884-
) An American industrial agitator, born in
the Abruzzi, Italy He emigiated to the United
States m 1901, studied in Union Theological
Seminary, New York City, and worked in Pies-
bytenan missions With Joseph J Ettoi (qv )
he led the Lawienco (Mass } textile mill strik-
eis m 1912 The authorities of La\uence had
these two leaders arrested in Jamiaiy upon the
chaige of inciting to a not leading to loss of
life, they based their action upon a statute fallen
into desuetude Ettor and Giovanitti were kept
m jail for more than 10 months before they
were at last tiied and acquitted m November,
1912 Then imprisonment occasioned a nation-
wide agitation foi fioe speech by the Industrial
Woikers of the World, the Socialists, and other
moie or leas radical elements, and at the time of
the trial a 24-hour protest stiike was called in
Laurence "The Cage,1 a poem by Giovanitti
published in the Atlantic Monthly, was inspired
by the idea of "sixteenth-con tmy courts trying
to solve twentieth-century pioblems" A volume
of his verse, Atroics in the Gale, was published
in 19J4
GIOVANNI, j&-van'ne, DEMENICO DI, See
BUKCIIIELLO, DOMEJNICO
GIOVANNI, FRANCESCO POGGIO BRACCIOLTNI
See Por.Gio BRACT IOLINI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO
GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA See BOLOGNA
GIOVANNI PISA3STO. See PISANO, GIO-
VANNI
GIOVENAZZO, DUKE OF See CELLAMARE
GIOVITSTAZZO, jo'vS-nat'sS. A city on the
Adriatic, in the Piovmee of Ban delfe Pughe,
Italy, 12 miles northwest of the city of Ban
It has bastioned walls, a thirteenth-century
Greek-Norman cathedral, a theatre, a technical
school, and a gymnabium It markets wine,
olives, almonds, and building atone, and manu-
factures brandy and fish nets Pop (com-
mune), 1901, 11,245, 1911, 10,727
GXOVIO, jo'v^-d, PAOLO also known by the
Latin form of his name, Jovrus (1483-1552)
A noted Italian biographer and historian He
was born at Como and studied philosophy and
medicine at Padua and at Pavia, but finally
tuined to literature, after practicing medicine
at Rome His excellent Latin style brought
him to the notice of Leo X, who m tuin recom-
mended him to the kindness of Cardinal Giulio
de' Medici, afterward Clement VII Clement
showered favors on him and as a compensation
for the loss of all his propeity, incurred in
the sack of Rome, 1527, made him, in 1528,
Bishop of Nocera in Naples Clement's succes-
sor, Paul III, looked with disfavor on tho
worldly, pleasure-loving Bishop, and GIOVIO was
compelled to retire to his magnificent villa on
Lake Como, where he spent his time in the
company of fine pictures and clever men He
was a contemporarv of Machiavelli and Varcln
He frequently visited, however, the various
Italian courts, where his genius and esprit were
greatly admired. He died at Florence, of the
gout, and was buried in the church of San
Lorenzo GIOVIO was an excellent type of the
ecclesiastical pagan of the Italian Renaissance
As an historian, he is not to be depended on,
being exceedingly incorrect in , his facts and
shamelessly venal The following works, how-
ever, deserve mention Histonorum sm Tempons
liibri XLV (Florence, 1550-52) , Jllustrwm
OIPPSLAND
780
GIKALDA
Virorum Vitas (ib, 1549-57) Consult Muntz,
Le musee de portraits de Paul Jove (Pans,
1901)
GIPPSLABTD, gipsland The southeast dis-
trict of Victoria (qv ), Australia It is com-
posed largely of mountain and forest land with
great mineral deposits Its valleys are fertile
GIPSIES See GYPSIES
GIRAFFE, ji-raf (formerly also jaraff, from
Fr giraffe, from Sp , Portug girafa, from Ar
zarafat, giraffe, from zerafa, to walk slowly),
or CAMELOPARD The tallest of quadrupeds
(G-iraffa camel opar dalis) , constituting, with the
okapi, a distinct family of ruminants, G-iramdae.
It is a native of Africa, formerly extensively
diffused from Nubia to the Cape of Good Hope,
though apparently nowhere abundant It is
now nearly extinct south of the Zambezi River
and east of the Kalahari Desert, and numerous
only in the remote interior, where it frequents
arid plains It occurs generally in small herds
of from 5 to 40 and feeds on the leaves and
small branches of trees Its general aspect is
remarkable because of the height of the fore
parts and great elongation of the neck, the head
being sometimes 18 feet fiom the ground The
number of vertebrae in the neck is seven, no
greater than in other quadrupeds, and the neck
has no extraordinary flexibility, but its length
is produced by an elongation, elsewhere un-
known, of each vertebra The bodv is short,
and the back slopes from the shoulder to the
tail, but the greater height of the fore parts
is not owing to the length of the forelegs, which
are not really longer than the hind legs, but
to processes of the vertebrae which form a basis
for the muscular support of the neck and head
and make a hump on the shoulders The articu-
lation of the skull to the neck is such that
the head can easily be thrown back until it is
in the same line with the neck, thus giving the
animal additional power of reaching its appro-
priate food The skull has empty cavities, which
give lightness to the head, along with sufficient
extent of surface for the insertion of the liga-
ment which supports it The legs are long and
slender, the feet have cloven hoofs, but are
destitute of small lateral toes The head is
long, the upper lip entire, projecting far be-
yond the nostrils, and endowed with considerable
muscular power The tongue is remarkably
capable of elongation and can be thrust far out
of the mouth and employed to grasp and take
up very small objects, and by it and the mobile
lips the animal obtains its food, which consists
almost wholly of the leaves and twigs of
mimosa trees The dentition of the giraffe is
bovine, but the upper jaw has no canine teeth
The head is furnished with two remarkable pro-
tuberances between the ears, generally described
as "horns/3 and consisting of a bone united to
the skull by an obvious suture, permanent, cov-
ered with skin and hair, and terminated by long
hard bristles. The nearest analogue is the
horn core of the pronghorn The ears are
moderately long, the tail is long and terminates
in a tuft of long hair that nearly reaches the
ground There is a callosity on the breast
The neck has a very short mane. The hair is
short and smooth, reddish white, marked by
numerous dark rusty i?pots
The eye of the giraffe is very large, lustrous,
and commands a wide angle of vision, and the
nostrils have a muscle by which they can be
closed against blowing sand. It is an inoffen-
sive animal and gcneially seeks safety in imme-
diate flight, although it is capable of making
a stout resistance, and fights by kicking with
its hind legs, discharging a storm of kicks with
extraordinary rapidity It is not easily ovei-
taken even by a fleet horse and has greatly the
advantage of a horse on uneven and broken
ground Its pace is a gallop, the hind legs
reaching ahead and astride of the forefeet at
every leap Wise hunters who attempt to pur-
sue giraffes at all on horseback try to push
them so hard at first as to get them e blown,"
after which they can drive them steadily towards
camp, otherwise the giraffe may gallop for
miles They are exceedingly keen of smell and
hearing, see well, and are game that tax the
skill of good sportsmen, yet great numbers
have recently been killed for their hides
The giraffe was known to the ancients and
was exhibited in Roman spectacles Represen-
tations of it appear among Egyptian antiqui-
ties It has been supposed to be the zemer of
the Jews, translated chamois in the English
Bible (Deut xiv 5) Giraffes are among the
rarest and most valuable animals in captivity,
although they will thrive well with, proper care
In 1892 the last giraffe in the gardens of the
London Zoological Society died, and for the first
time since 1836 the animal was not on exhibi-
tion in London, the secretary of the society
reported that he saw no immediate prospect of
obtaining a living specimen They have bred in
Europe
Besides the typical form, a dozen or more
subspecies have been recognized, while the
Somali giraffe, Qiraffa reticulata, is usually
considered a distinct species
Fossil Forms The modern giraffe is the lone
relic of the family Giramdse that was rather
widely distributed duiing later Tertiary times
The origin of the family is not known, though
it seems to have split from the other ungulates
at a late date and to be closely allied to the
deers and oxen Fragmentary skeletons like
that of the modern giraffe, perhaps of the same
species, are found in the Pliocene deposits of
Europe and India The earliest forms, found
in the Pliocene beds of India, Persia, and south-
ern Europe, have more heavily built skeletons,
with shorter necks and larger horns, than does
the modem species, and the horns, of which
there are often two pairs, are found on the
skull of the male only The principal fossil
genera are Samothenum and Swathenum
(qqv )
The best accounts of giraffes are found in the
writings of African sportsmen travelers, such
as the books of Sir W C Harris, Gordon dim-
ming, C J Andersson, Sir Samuel Baker, H A
Bryden, and especially of H C Selous For a
recent review of the known forms, consult
Lydekker, Game Animals of Africa (London,
1908), and Rothschild and Neuville, Annales
des Sciences Naturelles Zoologie, (9) xm
(Pans, 1911) Consult also authorities men-
tioned under ANTELOPE, so far as they relate to
Africa, and see Plate of GIRAFFE AND OKAPI
GIRALDA, Hd-ral'da (from Sp girar, to
turn) A square tower, now serving as the
belfry of the cathedral of Seville, Spain, built
between 1184 and 1196 as a minaret of a
mosque By some authorities its design is
attributed to the Arab mathematician El Guebr
The tower measures 50 feet at its base and tapers
slightly towards the top of the square portion,
Q.
Q
UJ
U_
LL
<
9-
O
(HBALD&S 7
250 feet above, which is reached by an inclined
plane without stairs It is richly decorated in
Moorish style Fiom this top uses a square Re-
naissance belfry, 100 feet m height, dating from
1568, teimmating in a small dome The latter
is surmounted by a statue of Faith, which in
spite of its great weight is adjusted to turn
freely with the wind and gives the to\\er its
name Consult J A Cean Bermudez Dcsctip-
ci6n artistica de la catedral cle Seville (Sevilla,
1863), and G E Street, Gothic Architecture in
Spain (2 vols, New York, 1914) See Plate of
SEVILLE
(3-IHALDES, zhe'ral'das', CARDOZO JOACHIM
ALBIN (1808-75) A Fiench surgeon, born at
Oporto, Poitugal, and educated m Paris lie
was for many years suigeon of the Foundlings'
Hospital, Paris, and (1848-54) suigeon of the
Central Bureau of Hospitals An accident com-
pelled him to give up active piactice One of
the constituent parts of the human testicle beat s
his name His contnbutions to medical science
include Des luxations de la mG choir e (1814),
Du, traitcment dcs aneitrysmes pop fate's par la
compression (1845), Reolierches sur les kijztes
muqueux du sinus macsillaire (2d ed , 1860),
Lemons cliniques sur les maladies chvurgicales
des enfants (1869)
GIB ALDI, jS-ral'de1, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, sur-
named CINZIO, or CYNTHIUS (1504-73) An
Italian author, born at Ferrara He was edu-
cated at the university theie, where in 1525 he
was made professoi of natural philosophy He
became Secretary of State undci the dukes Ercole
d'Este II and Alfonso II of Feriaia As a mem-
ber of the Accademia dolle Affidati, he took the
name of Cmzio He wrote a numbei of ti age-
dies, the best known of which is H Orbecche
(1541) , and G-h Jtecatommiti (1565), a hundiecl
tales, translated into French as Les cents excel-
lentes nouvelles (1583) by G Chappuys The
plots of Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and
Othello can be traced to him His plays show
the influence of Aristotle and Seneca, but he
applied their theories with great freedom Con-
sult Bilancmi, Qiraldi e la tragedia ital nel
sccolo XVI (Aquila, 1890) , Ghilmi, Teatro
d'uonrim Ictteratt, vol i, F Beneducci, II Oir-
aldi e I'epica nel cinquecento (Bra, 1896)
GIBAI/DTTS, or GKEBALD, DE BAB'BI
( U146-U220) An English ecclesiastic and
chronicler, best known as Giraldus Cambrensis
He was born in Pembrokeshire of a noble Nor-
man family and was educated by his uncle, who
was Bishop of St David's During his youth
he thrice visited Paris, studying and lecturing
at the university there He took holy orders,
probably m 1172, and was soon afterward ap-
pointed Archdeacon of Brecknock, in which
capacity he showed himself an ardent champion
of ecclesiastical privilege and a stuct discipli-
narian On the death of his uncle, m 1176,
Giraldus was chosen Bishop by the chapter of
St David's, but failed of confirmation by the
King and retired to the University of Paris,
where he resumed the study of canon law and
theology He returned to England in 1180,
and in 1184 he visited Ireland as preceptor
to John, the youngest son of Henry II As a
result of this trip, he wrote his HHxpugnatio
Hibernioa and Topographia Hibernioa, a de-
scription of Ireland, which still possesses great
antiquarian value, though open to criticism in
many respects A tour of Wales which he made
in 1188 in the company of Baldwin, Archbishop
Ji GIRABD
of Canterbuiy, resulted in the writing of the
Itmeranum Cambnce About this time Giraldus
was offered the bi&hopiics of Llandaff and Ban-
gor, but refused to accept either, in expectation
probably of succeeding to the see of St David's,
on which his heart vva* set In 1198 that office
fell vacant, and Giraldus was again elected by
the chapter, but only to be i ejected again by the
Kino, the chief reason foi his failure being, per-
haps, his Welsh familv connections After a
contest lasting five yeais and repeated appeals
to the Pope, Giraldus accepted defeat, resigned
his office of aichdeacon, and devoted himself
henceforth to study Gnaldus' writings, though
disfigured by credulity and marked, in the per-
sonal narratives with which they abound, by
excessive vanity, are of great value as materials
for the political history and the social condition
of the age and the country which they describe
His works are in the Rolls Series (8 vols, 1861-
91) — vols i-iv by Brewei vols v-vii by Di
mock, vol vui by Warner The Topographia
Hilernica, JUxpugnatio Hibeinica, Itinerarwim
Cambuce, and Descuptio Camhnce are published
in one volume in "Bonn's Antiquaiian Library"
Consult Hoare's translation of the Itinerary
through Wales (2 vols, London, 1806), Owen,
Gerald the Welshman (ib, 1889) , Gioss, Sources
and Literature of finghvh History (ib , 1000)
GIBANDOLA, je-ran'dS-U A splendid dis-
play of fireworks formerly given at the castle of
Sant' Angelo, "Rome, on the coronation of a new
Pope and at the feast of St Peter, June 29
It was later transferred to the Pmcian Hill and
given on the first Sunday in June
GIBAJSTDOLE, je-ran'dS-ia, BERNARDO DEIXA
See BUONTALENTI, BERNARDO
GIBABD, ji-raid' A city in Russell Co , Ala ,
opposite Columbus, Ga , on the Chattahoochee
River, and on the Central of Georgia Railroad
(Map Alabama, D 3) It is in a cotton growing
region and has a cotton mill, a distillery, several
wholesale liquor houses, and a concrete plant
Pop, 1900, 3840, 1910, 4214
G-IBABD A city and the county seat of
Crawford Co , Kans , 26 miles south by west
of Port Scott, on the St Louis and San Eran-
cisco, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa
Fe railroads (Map Kansas, H 7) It is the
centre of a fertile agricultural and stock-raising
region, near extensive bituminous coal fields,
and has breakfast-food factories, a foundry, and
stove works, flour mills, buckyards, and other
industrial establishments The " Appeal to Rea-
son" is published here The water works and
electric-light plant are owned by the munici-
pality Girard has adopted the commission form
of government Pop, 1900, 2473, 1910, 2446
GIBABD A village in Trumbull Co , Ohio,
5 miles north of Youngstown, on the Mahomng
River, and on the Erie, Baltimore, and Ohio,
and the Pennsylvania railroads (Map Ohio, J
3) It has manufactories of iron and steel,
leather, and chewing gum Pop, 1900, 2630,
1910, 3736
GIBABD, CHARLES (1822-95) An American
naturalist, born at Mulhausen, Alsace He was
a pupil and assistant of Louis Agassiz at Neu-
chatel and from 1847 to 1850 an associate in
scientific investigations in the United States In
1850-59 he was connected with the Smithsonian
Institution With Prof S F Baird of the
Institution, he made extensive studies of reptiles
and wrote the article "Reptiles" in Stanbury's
EJapl ovation and Survey of the Great Salt Lake
GIBAHID
782
GIBABD
of Utah (1853), and a Catalogue of North Amer-
ican Reptiles in the Museum of the Smithsonian
Institution Part I, Serpents (1853) Among
his writings are Herpetology of the United
States Exploring Expedition under the Command
of Captain Wilkes (1858) and a "Report upon
Fishes" for Emory's Survey of the United States
and Mexican Boundary (1859)
GXBARD, zhe'rai', FIRMIN (1838- ) A
French genre painter He was born at Poncin
(Am), and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-
Arts under Gleyre His works are painted anec-
dotes, such as "The Fiancees," "The First Com-
munion/' "After the Ball," "The Betrothal,"
"A Wedding in the Last Century", "A Death-
Bed Wedding" (Bruges Museum) , "A Street
in Paris" (Helsmgsfors) , "Picardy Interior"
(1908), "Waffles" (1909) They are freshly
and truthfully executed in brilliant colors and
are minutely finished
GIBABD, JEAN BAPIISTE, "Le P&re Girard"
(1765-1850) A Swiss educator, born at Fri-
bourg He entered the Franciscan Ordei at 16
Although he had done some teaching, he did not
begin his definite work in education until 1798,
when he published a Projet d'education pout
toute I'Helvetie In 1805 lie became director of
the primary schools at Fribouig, and there he
remained until 1823 His ideas were considered
too liberal, and the Jesuits weie more powerful
than the Franciscans, so ' Le Peie Girard" was
compelled to give up his school Until 1834
he taught philosophy at Lucerne, then he came
back to Fribourg and lived in what one of his
biographers calls "a laborious retirement "
Here he wrote his Enseignement regulier de
la langue maternelle (1844-46), which was
awarded a prize by the French Institute Ville-
mam, who praises him highly, sums up his
theory of teaching in these words "The only, the
really popular school is one in which all the ele-
ments of study serve in the cultivation of the
mind, and where the child is led himself by the
things he learns and by the way in which lie
learns them " Girard was himself a grammarian
of the first order, but he said, instead of "a
grammar of words," let us have "a grammar of
ideas" His influence has grown and still grows
in Switzerland, France, and Italy, and is felt in
much of the improvement recently made in the
teaching in the elementary French schools A
critical judgment places him next to Pestalozzi
among Swiss educators
GIBAHJD, JULES AUGUSTUS (1825-1902) A
French classical scholar, born in Pans, of a fam-
ily of engravers He studied at the Ecole Noi-
male and was professor of rhetoric at the College
of Venddme and then at the Lyceum of Lille and
in 1874 became professor of Greek poetry in the
Faculty of Letters of Paris He wrote Essai
sur Thucydide (1860, revised, 1884), crowned by
the French Academy, Le sentiment religieux en
Orece (1869, 2d ed , 1879), Etudes sur V elo-
quence attique (1874, 2d ed , 1884) , Etudes sur
la poesie grecque (1884), a French veision of
Theocritus (1888), and many contributions to
the Revue des Deux Mondes In 1873 he was
elected a member of the Academy of Inscrip-
tions Consult the memoir in Comptes rendus
Bulletin of that Academy for 1902. by Valois
Noel
GIErABD, MAEC AMABLE (1822-92). A
Canadian statesman He was born at Varennes,
Province of Quebec, was educated at St Hya-
cinthe College, and was afterward called to the
bar of Lower Canada When the Legislative
Council of Canada became an elective body,
Girard was an unsuccessful candidate foi it in
1858, and 111 1862 he was also an unsuccessful
Conservative candidate for the Legislative As-
sembly of Canada Latei he went to the
Canadian Northwest and was called to the Mani-
toba bar in 1871 He was Provincial Tieasuiei
in 1870-72, Premier in 1874, and between 1879
and 1883 held the offices of Provincial Secretary
Mmistei of Agriculture, and President of the
Council He \vas afterward appointed to the
Dominion Senate
GIHA.BB, NOEL JULES (1816- ) A
French sculptor, born m Paris He was a pupil
of David d3 Angers and Pctitot at the Ecole des
Beaux- Arts, and first exhibited at the Salon in
1849 His "Vintager Piessing the Giapc"
(1852) was bought by the government, and his
"Comedy" and "Diama" were accepted as the
pediment for the side facade of the Paris Opera
Others of his works are "La Rochefoucauld"
(Louvre) , "Chanty" and "Science" (Hospital
of Lariboisiere) , ' St John" and "St Joseph"
(church of St Sulpice, Paris)
GIRAEJ), PAUL FBTLDILRIO (1852- ) A
French jurist, born in Gumgamp, C6tes-clu-Noid,
and educated at Pans and Rennes He was pro-
fessor of law at Montpellior m 1880-88 and at
Paris in 1888—93 He \vas one of the most im-
portant writers of his day on Roman law and
received honoraiy degrees from the univeisities
of Breslau and Heidelberg He tianslatcd into
French (1887-96) Mommson's Romischcs Staats-
rcchtj edited Tecctes de droit romain anno Ids
(1890-1912), and wrote a valuable Manuel de
clioit tomain (1896, 5th ed , 1911, translated
into German, 1908), Histoire de V organisation
yudiciaire des Remains (1901), Melanges do
droit romain (1912)
GIRABD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845).
A French mechanician and imcntor He was
born at Lourmarin, Vaucluse, and manifested a
strong aptitude for mechanical invention, also
showing a fondness for botany, painting, and
literature Forced by the Revolution to leave
France, he painted at Port Mahon, Minoica, and
then was a soap-maker at Leghoin Returning
after the fall of Robespierie, ho became piofc&«hOi
of chemistry and of natmal history at Nice.
About 1800 he went to Paris and theie estab-
lished a soap manufactory Giraid invented and
patented a successful flax-spinning machine, for
which a reward of 1,000,000 francs had been
offered by Napoleon In 1813 he established a
flax mill at Paris and another at Chaionno, in
both of which he made use of his machine, but
although he was declared to have earned the re-
ward offeied, the fall of Napoleon m 1815 left the
decree unfulfilled Girard now on this account
becoming involved in serious money difficulties,
he engaged in manuf aetm ing flax m Austria
and Poland, and in steam navigation on the
Danube until 1825 Jn that yeai he became
attached to the Russian government to pro-
mote the manufacture of flax and later was ap-
pointed chief engineer of the mines of Poland
In 1844 he returned to France and exhibited at
an industrial exposition a large number of his
inventions
GIBABD, PIERRE SIMON (1765-1836) A
French civil engineer, born at Caen At the age
of 24 he was engaged as engineer in the con-
struction of roads and bridges and upon his
return from the Egyptian campaign m 1802 was
783
CHBAKB COLLB0E
appointed chief oi that department He built
the canal fiom the Ouicq River to Paris (1802-
20), and in 1819 was director of the department
of gaslight illumination in that city, in which
capacity his researches on the then comparatively
new illuminating agent were highly important
His principal wntings include Traite analytique
de Id resistance ties sokdes (1798) , Rappott dcs
ponts et cliaussces sur le pro jet general dw cancel
do I'Ourcq (1803), Memo ire sur le canal de
rOurcq et la distribution de scs eaucc (1831)
GIRAKD, jl-rard', STEPHEN i 1750-1831)
An American merchant and philanthropist He
•was born at Bordeaux, France, the son of a sea
captain, became a sailor in 1764, and at the age
of 23 was captain and pait owner of a ship en-
gaged in the West Indian and American coast-
ing trade In. 1770 he settled in Philadelphia,
but continued in the coasting trade until stopped
by the outbreak of the Revolutionary Wai Es-
pousing the cause of the Colonies, he remained
in America, dealt in a small way in army sup-
plies, and in 1780 again embarked in the West
Indian trade, this time on a moie extensive
scale, and in a few years, by a succession of
lucky ventuies, had accumulated a considerable
f 01 tune In 1810 he became laigely interested
m the first United States Bank and in 1812,
upon the lapsing of its charter, purchased the
greater part of its stock, and its building He
letamed the old olnceis, only renaming it "The
Bank of Stephen Girard," succeeded to much of
the old bank's business, and made it one of the
soundest and most successful financial institu-
tions in America During the War of 1812 he
was the chief financial suppoit of the govern-
ment, advancing it large sums to enable it to
continue military operations, and in 1814 took
up practically an entire loan of $5,000,000, after
subscribers had been sought in vain On the re-
chartcring of the second United States Bank in
1816, he became one of its puncipal stockholders
and a director and exeiciscd a dominant control
over its policy for many years Upon his death
he left almost his entire fortune of $7,500,000 in
public benefactions, chief of which was Girard
College, in the regulations for the control and
management of which he incorporated his ideas
as to freedom of thought and religious belief.
Girard's personality was forbidding and his
personal appearance most unattractive Pe-
nurious and almost miserly in small affairs, a
close and shrewd business man, and a hard task-
master, he was, nevertheless, generous and open-
handed in his benefactions even during his life
and self-sacrificing and public-spirited to a de-
gree, as his personal services to the people of
Philadelphia, when that city was ravaged by a
yellow-fever epidemic in 1793, showed Consult
Ingram, Life and Character of Stephen Girard
(Philadelphia, 1884), and a sketch in Semi-
centennial of Girard College (ib, 1898)
GIRARD COLLEGE. An institution for
the education of orphans, founded in 1848 at
Philadelphia, Pa, under the will of Stephen
Girard (qv). Mr Girard died Dec 26, 1831,
bequeathing the residue of his estate, valued
at $5,260,000, in trust for the establishment of
an institution for the education and main-
tenance of "poor white male orphans " The age
of admission was fixed by Mr Girard at between
6 and 10, and the age of leaving at between 14
and 18, at which time students were to be bound
out in the arts and trades Applicants for ad-
mission were to be preferred, first as earning
from Philadelphia, second fiom Pennsylvania,
thud from New York, and fouith fiom New
Oilcans The courses of study \\ere to be in the
main practical, insistence being laid upon "facts
and things rather than woidh 01 signs3' The
principles of "pure moiahty" weie to be taught,
but the inculcation of religious cloctnne in a
denominational sense was forbidden, and — most
famous clause of a famous will — minister s and
ecclesiastics of eveiy sect were prohibited fiom
holding office in the college 01 enteimg its piem-
ises upon any pietext \\hatsoevei The exclu-
sion of cleigymen has been interpreted as being
hostile to religious teaching 1 he fouiidei said,
in express teims, that the piovision fox the ex-
clufeion of clergymen was introduced ^>o that
the minds of the boys who were being reared by
the institution might be kept free fiom the con-
fusion of denominational contio^eisies, and was
followed in the will by a statement that it was
not to be mteipieted as being a "inflection upon
any sect 01 peison whatsoevei " The assem-
bling of the college for chapel seivice, of which a
pait invariably is Scriptme leading and piayei,
is a daily practice On Sunday two chapel
sei vices aie held, and at these sei vices addi esses
are delivered either by some membei ot the
official staff of the college or by some visiting
layman
Preliminary action looking to the due execu-
tion of Mr Girard's will was taken by the
Philadelphia city councils in 1832, a boaid of
tiustees was elected in 1833, and in the same
year the corner stone of the main building was
laid This building, erected m the form of a
Greek temple, was completed in 1847 at a cost
of nearly $2,000,000 In the meantime suit
had been bi ought by Mr Girard's heirs to have
his will set aside, and the case was not decided
until 1844, when the United States Supicme
Court, notwithstanding the aigumcnt of Daniel
Webster for the plaintiffs, held the will to be
valid In 1848 the college was formally oigan-
ized with 100 pupils and 17 instructors and
officers, the income at that time being about
$118,000 annually In addition to the main
building there aie some 20 othei buildings for
the purposes of the institution, among tliem be-
ing a chapel, school buildings, doi mitones, din-
ing hall, infiimary, mechanical school building,
etc Forty acres are inclosed for the use of the
college by a substantial stone wall, 10 feet high
The present normal capacity of the college is
1520 pupils Through wise investment and care-
ful management the endowment of the college
has increased to about $29,000,000, exclusive
of the plant
Mr Girard provided that the care of his
college should be assumed by the mayor, the
aldermen, and the citizens of Philadelphia, and
their agents, the then corporate title of the city
In the earlier years the board of control was
chosen by the councils of the city, and with fre-
quent changes, divisions in the board, and the
uncertainty of policy because of these changes,
it was found not to be to the interest of the
college, and, by act of the Legislature, approved
June 30, 1869, the present board of directors of
city trusts succeeded the earlier plan of control
This board consists of 12 directors (chosen for
life by the board of judges of the courts of Com-
mon Pleas of Philadelphia) and the mayor of
the city, and the president of the select councils,
ex officio The board manages not only Girard
College, but the Girard Estate, parts of
\
784
BOSSILHO
aie extended to other purposes, and numerous
othei bequests The principal departments of
the college are admission and discharge, in-
firmary and health, domestic or matron's de-
partment, steward's department, household and
playgrounds, and education As an educational
institution, Girard College is composed of three
schools — a pnmai y school of four years, a
grammar school of three years, and a high
school of four years Preparation is given for
the following mechanical pursuits trade draw-
ing, carpentry and woodworking, machine-shop
piactice, electucal constiuction, foundry, forge
practice, and smithing, and printing On the
commercial side instruction is given in book-
keeping and office practice, commercial law and
customs of business, and shorthand and type-
writing The president in 1914 was Cheesman
A Herrick
GIRABDOT, zhe'rar'daN', EMILE DE (1802-
81) A French legislator and publicist He
was born in Paris, an illegitimate son of Alex-
ander, Count Girardm In 1831 he mariied
Delphme Gay ( q.v ) , a well-known writer.
After engaging in various journalistic enter-
prises and being inspector of fine arts in
the Martignac Ministry, he was elected in 1834
a member of the Chamber of Deputies, in
which he seived for many yeais As the
founder and editor of the conservative and
Royalist oigan La Presse, he secured the pa-
tronage of the court, and though compelled to
resign the editorship during his term in the
Legislative Chamber, he again conducted it from
1851 to 1856 and from 1862 to 1866, when he
sold it to the banking house of Millaud & Co.
In 1867 he acquired for 500,000 francs the jour-
nal La Liberty m which he served the interests
of the Liberal Empire, and which he converted
into a violent anti-Prussian paper This was
followed in 1871 by L'Umon Frangaise, and then
he bought Le Petit Journal to support Thieis.
After conducting various other papers, such as
the Journal Officiel and La France (after 1874),
he retired in 1881, with, a fortune estimated at
1,000,000 francs As a journalist, he was in
some respects the chief leader of his day The
history of his origin and early childhood is re-
counted in the first novel published by him, and
entitled Emile (1827) His other writings in-
clude La fitte du millionnaire, a comedy in
three acts (1858), Etudes politiques (2d ed ,
1849) , De V instruction piiblique en France (2d
ed, 1842) , La, politique umverselle, decrets de
I'avenir (4th ed, 1854) ; L'Homme et la femme
(1872) , Le supphce d'une femme, a comedy
(1865), frequently repubhshed and highly
successful
GIRARDIN", JEAN PIEBBE Lours (1803-84).
A French chemist, born in Paris He became
professor of chemistry at Rouen in 1828 and
at Lille in 1858, and was appointed rector of
the academy at Clermont-Ferrand in 1868 He
devoted himself especially to the applications of
chemistry to art, industry, and agriculture, and
published Considerations generates sur les vol-
cans (1830) , Du sol arable (1842) , Des fumiers
et autres engrais animaux (1875) , Traite ele-
mentaire d> agriculture (1874), Chimie gene-
rale et apphqu£e (1868-69).
GrlBARDIW, MADAME DE See GAY, DEL-
PHIKE
GIBARDIiN', SATNT-MAEO See SAINT-MABC
GlRAKDIN, FRANgOIS AlJGUSTE
GIBAKDOlSr, zhS'rar'dSN', FKANQOIS (1628-
1715) A leading French sculptor of the court
of Louis XIV He was bom at Troyes, March
17, 1628, the son of a bronze founder, Nicolas
Girardon As a boy, he entered the service of
one Baudesson, a wood carver and furniture
maker, whose son was a painter of some im-
portance Although intending to become a sculp-
toi, Gnardon learned to paint and at the age of
15 decorated a chapel of Ste Julie in Tioyes
There is some good work of the Renaissance
in Troyes, which was a souice of inspiration
to the sculptor His first woik in sculpture
was a statue of the Virgin in his native city
At this time the Chancelloi Seguier undeitook
certain improvements at his chateau of Saint-
Lie"baut Baudesson, who was employed on the
work, took with him the young Girardon Re-
guier became interested in the boy and, as he
had been with Le Brun, sent him to Paris and
afterward to Rome In Rome, thiough the in-
fluence of the painter Pierre Mignard, also of
Tioyes, he came under the influence of Loienzo
Bernini, the gieatest sculptor of that day
When Girardon lemoved to Pans in 1652, he
studied with Magnier and Francois Auguiei and
later came into relations with Le Biun and
worked under his powerful diiection for manv
years He entered the Academy of Painting and
Sculpture, Jan 7, 1657, and in the same yeai
man led Cathenne Duehemin, a painter of con-
siderable skill, who was herself admitted to the
Academy in 1663 In 1667 he was sent to
Toulon to superintend the decorations of the
vessels of the royal navy, and in 1668 he visited
Rome a second time, returning to Pans in 1669
The rOle which he now played was a large one
He was lodged m the Louvie, was professor at
the Academy (after 1659), and en -joyed the full
favor of the court In 1695 he became chan-
cellor of the Academy The most notable works
of Girardon were the monument of Richelieu in
the church of the Sorbonne, Paris, which Alex-
andre Nenoir saved at the risk of his life in the
Revolution, and the equestrian statue of Louis
XIV, which once stood in the Place Vendorae
The group of the "Rape of Prosperme" at
Versailles may also be mentioned There are
many busts, bas-reliefs, and small works in the
Louvre (Paris) Of his decorative work, done
under the influence of Le Brun, there is a little
in the Gallery of Apollo in the Loiivie The
greater part of it, however, is grouped about the
palace and park of Versailles Girardon was a
skillful technician, but his art was somewhat
theatrical and lacking in individuality Con-
sult Coiraid de Breban, Notice sur la me et les
osuvres de Girardon (Paris, 1850) , Genevay, Le
style Louis XIV (ib, 1886), Gonse, La sculp-
ture frangaise (ib , 1895), Lambert, Versailles
et les deux Trianons (ib, 1900) , Lami, Diction-
naire des sculpteurs de I'ecole frangaise sous le
tegne de Louis XJV (ib, 1906)
GIBABD'VILLE A borough in Schuylkill
Co , Pa , 58 miles northwest of Reading, on
the Philadelphia and Reading and the Lehigh
Valley railroads It has a State hospital for
persons injured on railroads and m mines The
chief industry is the mining of anthracite coal
Settled in 1841, it is governed under a charter
of 1873 by a chief burgess, elected every three
years, and a council of nine members Pop ,
1900, 3666, 1910, 4396
GIBABT DE BOSSILHO, zhg'rar' de rSs-
selyft An epic poem composed in a northern
Provencal dialect and forming part of the Car-
&IRASOL
785
{ovingian cycle Consult Samtsbury, Fiencli
Literature ( 6th ed , Oxford, 1902 )
GIUASOL, jir'a-sol (Fr, Sp, Portug girasol,
from It girasole, from girare, to turn, from Lat
gyrus, circle) A name given to precious stones
that show reflections of bright red or yellow
light, which apparently come from the iii tenor
of the mineral The name is especially applied
to the -fire opal, which is of a rnilky bluish color,
translucent, and shows reddish reflections in a
bright light The best-known specimens are
found at Zimapan, Mexico, and in the Faroe
Islands (See OPAL ) The name has also been
given to the astenated sapphire, or star sapphire,
fine specimens of which have been found in
India Girasols were highly esteemed by the
ancients and when of good quality commanded
high prices They are now made artificially and
aie no longer so highly prized as formerly
(HBAUD, zhe'ro', GIOVANNI, COUNT (1776-
1834) An Italian dramatist, of Fiench descent,
born in Rome His first play L'Onestu non si
vince (1798) was a success After taking part
in politics, he returned to the stage with L' Ajo
ncll' imlaravso (1807) He was made director
general of all the theatres in Italy by Napoleon
in 1809 His comedies are amusing, but lack
literary merit His Gommedie were published in
Milan (1823) The best known of them are
Don Desiderio, La capricciosa confusa, and La
conversazione al bujo
GIE/BADE3ST, ger'ba-den, CASTLE OF An ex-
tensive ruined fortress near Grendelbruch, in
Lower Alsace, the inner fortress of which be-
longs to the tenth century and the outer castle
to the early thirteenth Oiigmally posses&mg
14 gates and 14 courts, it still retains evi-
dences of the elaborateness of its design in its
great square donjon, and in its hall with win-
dows bordered, with columns arranged m clusters
GIBD'ER A beam which is intended to be
supported at either end and to carry a vertical
load between the ends Girders are simple when
they are supported only at the two ends, con-
tinuous when they extend over one or more in-
termediate supports as well, solid when, like
a rolled I-beam, the upper and lower flanges
are connected by a solid web, and braced when
the upper and lower flanges are connected by an
open framework of diagonal or combined diag-
onal and vertical members (For description of
plate girders and braced girders, see BRIDGE )
A box girder is a solid girder in which the
flanges are connected by two web plates in such
a manner that a cross section of the girder is
box-shaped or rectangular m form ( See ROLLING
MILL for a description of steel shapes ) Girders
may be of timber, but they are more commonly
of steel, which has almost entirely replaced cast
iron and wrought iron
GIB/DLE (AS. gyrdel, Ger Gurtel, from Eng
gird, to encircle with cord or band, connected
with Eng yard, Ger Q-arten, and Lat hortus,
garden) The belt fastened around the body
to confine the long loose robes worn by both
men and women previous to the fifteenth cen-
tury (See COSTUME ) It was minutely pre-
scribed to the children of Israel to be worn by
priests, made "of gold, of blue, and purple, and
scarlet, and fine twined linen" (Ex xxviii.
4, 8, 33 ) , but it was worn by others as well
All through the Bible "to gird up the loins"
is a common symbol of activity and alertness.
The zona (Gk Z&rn) of classical antiquity
was a broad band worn around the waist by
young women before marriage, hence the ex-
pression zonam wrgineawi solver e is a peri-
phrasis for marriage Men also, among the
Greeks and Romans, wore a broad band or belt
which often served for carrying money and
other small articles The oingulum, sometimes
called cestus, Gk a-rpd^tov, was worn higher
under the breasts, as in the modern Empue
costume The name oingulum was also applied
to the battens, or swoid belt, which formed a
regular part of the Roman soldier's uniform
and usually passed ovei the left shoulder In
the Middle Ages girdles became magnificent
and expensive, being made of damask, brocade,
cloth of gold, and other costly materials, and
adorned with jewels and embroidery, until sump-
tuary laws in England and elsewhere prevented
For tlie girdle in church vestments, see COS-
TUME, ECCLESIASTICAL
GIBDLE OS1 VENUS (trans of Lat cesium
Venens) A remarkable ctenophoran jellyfish
inhabiting the Mediterranean, of a ribbon-like
shape, some 5 01 6 feet in apparent length
by about 2 inches in breadth, although, con-
sidered with reference to the structure of the
animal, the appaient length is leally its breadth,
and the appcirent breadth its length The
mouth is situated in the middle of the inferior
edge, and the stomach is embedded m the gelat-
inous substance The edges are bordered by
rows of swimming plates, by the movements of
which, the cieature seems to be propelled in the
water It exhibits lovely iridescent colors by
day and brilliant phosphorescence by night Its
substance is so delicate that it is difficult to
obtain a perfect specimen
GIB'DLER A small cerambycid beetle ( On-
cideres cingulatus) , which girdles the twigs of
hickory, pear, and other trees It is grayish
brown, with a light-colored band across the
elytra In August this beetle lays its eggs near
the tips of twigs, then gnaws a deep furro\v
around the twig behind them The winds of
autumn break off the end of the girdled twig
which falls to the ground Then the eggs hatch
the grubs feed upon the decaying wood, leavin^
only a shell of bark, and attain their full growth
during the summer They then pupate and pi o
duce imagos a year from the time the eggs were1
laid Extensive damage sometimes results from
the great mirobers of these twig girdlers
GIBJXWOOD, GILBERT PROUT (1832-1018)
A Canadian physician and educator He was
born in London, England, and was educated at
University College and St George's School of
Medicine in that city In 1864 he was appointed
assistant surgeon of the British Grenadier
Guards Pie accompanied the First Battalion to
Canada in 1862 at the time of the Trent Affair,
and after his return to England left the army
to live in Montreal He was appointed surgeon
of the Third Regiment, Victoria Rifles, in 1865
and served with it during the Fenian raid of
1866 In 1872-94 he was piofessor of practical
chemistry in the medical faculty of McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal, and professor during 1879-
1902, after which he became professor emeritus
Gird wood was also appointed director of the
electrical department and the Roentgen rays,
Royal Victoria Hospital, and in 1903 was piesi
dent of the Roentgen Society of America He
was one of the original fellows of the Royal
Society of Canada in 1882, and later became a
member of several scientific societies in Panada,
the United States, and Great Britain He con
7S6
fcributed many aifcicles on medical and surgical
subjects to the London Lancet, the Montreal
Medical Journal, arid the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada
GIBGEH, jer'ge (from Coptic (rirgis, George,
in honoi of the pation saint of the town) The
capital oi the Egyptian province of the same
name, and former capital of Upper Egypt, sit-
uated on the left bank of the Nile and about
00 miles southeast of Assmt by lail (Map:
Egypt, 02) It has a number of mosques and
a government cotton factory The town is noted
for its weekly market held on Tuesday The
environs contain numeious ancient tombs and
several cometenes In the vicinity is an old
United Copts convent Pop, 1897, 17,913,
1913, 19,893, of whom 5443 aie Copts
GIBGEItfTX, jer-jan'te (ancient Agngentum,
q v ) An episcopal city, the capital of the
Province of G-irgenti, Sicily, on the river Drago,
84 miles by rail southeast of Palermo, 720-1080
feet above sea level (Map Italy, D 6) It is
3 miles from the Mediteiranean and 6 miles
by rail from Porto Empedocle ( q v ) through
which it carries on its trade The atmospheie
is usually clear and mild The town is the seat
of a bishop, of an Ameiican consular agent, and
is the militaiy headquartei s for the Province of
Girgenti The fourteenth-centuiy cathedral of
San Giorgio, with unfinished campanile, has
been completely modernized and contains a Ma-
donna by Guido Reni and a famous ancient
marble saicophagus Vvith lehef, illustrating the
story of Hippolytus (qv ) In the cathedral
archives aie many documents of the Norman
period Catacombs extend under the entue
town The city museum has a fine marble statue
of Apollo, vases, coins, and terra cottas Gir-
genti commands a beautiful view of the sea, and
at sunset in clear weather Pantelleria, 90 miles
to the southwest, can be seen It has a chamber
of commerce, an important public library,
founded in 1765 by Bishop Lucchesi, a technical
school, a royal technical institute, a royal gym-
nasium, a royal female normal school, a semi-
nary, and a municipal theatre The most im-
portant commercial product is sulphur, of which
about 3,000,000 quintals (metric) aie exported
annually There are also important salt mines
Other products are wine, oil, almonds, gram,
cheese, honey, earthenware, salt fish For the
early history of Girgenti and for the remains of
its former splendor, see AGBIGENTTJJM Pop ,
1901, 257024 (commune) , 1911, 26,823 Consult
Picone, Memorie stonche agrigentine (Girgenti,
1865), Siro, Le promncie d' Italia G-irgenU
(Torino, 1886) , Rocco, Chrgenti (Bergamo,
1903) , Baedeker, Southern Italy (16th Eng ed ,
Leipzig, 1912)
GIRL OF THE GOLDEN WEST, THE (La
Pancmlla del West). An opera by Puccini
(qv), first produced in New York, Dec 10.
1910
GIBLS' CLUBS. See WORKING WOMEN'S
CLUBS.
GIBNAB, gir-nar7. A sacred mountain of
remarkable aspect, in the peninsula of Katlna-
war, part of the native State of Gujarat, Bom-
bay, India, in lat 21° 30' N* and long 70° 42'
E , 230 miles northwest of Bombay Above
Luxuriant hills and valleys surrounding its base
rises a bare and black rock of granite to the
height of about 3500 feet above the sea The
summit is broken into various peaks, its north-
ern and southern sides being nearly perpendicu-
lar An immense bowlder, which seema to be
poised on one of the scaiped pinnacles, is called
the Beiru Jhap, 01 Leap of Death, fiom its be-
ing used by devotees for the puipose of seli-
dcstiuction On a ledge about 600 feet below
the summit there is a group of 16 ancient Jain
temples
GIRSTDT, gernt, OTTO (1835-1911) A Gei-
man dramatist He was born at Landsberg-an
der-Waithe and was educated at Beilin and
Heidelberg He wrote many plays, two of which
were awaided prizes at Vienna and Munich
They include the comedies I7 1 (1865), Und,
Am'andern Tage^ Onentalische Wirren (1877) ,
Die Stemschnuppe (1886), a faice, with Hosier,
Nervos, a farce, with Moser (1889) , Endhch
(1891), Dteizehn (1892) His tragedies in-
clude DancLelmann (1883) and Die ScMaclit lei
T organ (1900) His novels and tales aie less
popular
GIBODET-TBIOSON, zhe'rf/da' ti e-o'zoN',
ANNE Louis (1767-1824) A French, historical
paintei His leal name was Girodet de Rous&y,
and he was born at Montargis He was adopted
and educated by M Tuoson, the couit physician,
whose name he assumed in later years He was
a pupil of David, and in 1789 he took the Piix
de Rome In pursuing his studies at Rome he
cultivated a sentiment in his woik which had
not developed in the studio of David, wheie
correct and classical drawing was considered
paramount His "Sleep of Endymion," now in
the Louvre, was painted at this time, it is said
the figure was copied fiom a bas-relief In 1792
Girodet painted "Hippocrates Refusing Piesents
Sent fiom the King of Persia," a gift to Dr
Trioson, who bequeathed it to the Medical
School of Paris In 1802, at the request of
Napoleon, he executed "Ossian and his Warriors
Receiving the Shades of French Warriors/' and
in 1806 he exhibited his "Scene of the Deluge"
( now in the Louvre ) , which received a pi ize
over David's famous "Sabines," but it has been
severely criticized as poor in composition "Pyg-
malion and Galatea," his last and one of the
best works, was exhibited in 1810 His large
historical pictures, the "Sui render of Vienna to
Napoleon" (1808) and the "Insurrection at
Cairo" (1810), both at Versailles, are less pleas-
ing In the "Burial of Attila" (1808, Louvre),
Girodet was more successful His efforts to com-
bine the teachings of the classic with his own
romantic spirit sometimes produced grotesque
results, but Girodet helped to make possible the
later school of the Romanticists Among his
portraits that of Chateaubriand is perhaps the
best He was made member of the Institute in
1815 and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
1816 He died in Paris and, by order of Louis
XVIII, was decorated with the cross of Officei of
the Legion of Honor when in his coffin Consult
Coupin, CEJuvres posthumes de Girodet Ttioson
(Paris, 1829)
GIBOW, ir^-ron'. A town of Colombia, m the
Department of Santander, on the Lebrija River.
It has gold mines and produces tobacco Pop ,
1912, 6202 It was founded in 1631
GIBOW, H^-ron', DON PEDRO, MAEQU^S DE
LAS AMABILLAS See AHUM ABA
GIBOH, H^-ron', DON PEDRO TELLEZ Y. See
OSUNA
GIBOW, FRANCISCO HERNANDEZ (1510-54)
A Spanish soldier, born at Caceres, Estremadura
He went to the Indies in 1535 and, engaging
GIE.03STDE
787
GIBOTJABD
in the wars in New Granada, assisted in its
conquest In Peru he fought under the Viceroy,
Blasco Nunez de Vela, and served ably in the
army of President Gasca Becoming disgrun-
tled he led a revolt against the government in
1553 The next year, after defeating the royal
forces under Alvaiado, he entered Cuzco in
triumph His cause then waned, he was cap-
tured, condemned to death, and beheaded at
Lima The account of the revolt is given by
Giron himself in the Itebelitin de Francisco Her-
ncmdez Giron published in vol xm of the Colec-
cidn de hbros espanoJes ratos 6 cunosos (Ma-
drid, 1879) Consult Mendiburu, Diccionano
historico-biogt dfico del Peru (Lima, 1874-90)
GIBONDE, zhe'idNd' A maritime depart-
ment in the southwest of France, formed of
part of ancient Guienne, bounded on the west by
the Bay of Biscay, on the north by Charente-
Inferieure, on the east by Dordogne and Lot-et-
Garonne, and on the south by Landes (Map
France, S , D 4) Area, 4140 square miles The
surface is generally level, but hilly in the east
It is watered by the Garonne, which expands into
the estuary called the Gironde, and by its afflu-
ent the Dordogne At the mouth of the Gironde
stands the famous lighthouse, the Phaie de
Corodouan, dating from 1585 Gnonde is one
of the principal wine-producing departments of
France, over 14 per cent of the total area being
vineyards The other products are grain, vege-
tables, fruit, and hemp The oyster industry of
the Bay of Arcachon is important. Pop , 1901,
821,131, 1911, 829,095 Capital, Bordeaux
GIBONDISTS, jl-ron'dists (Fr Oirondins,
from Qironde, a department of France) The
paity of moderate Republicans during the French
Revolution (1791-93) When the Legislative
Assembly met in October, 1791, the most remark-
able group of men in it were the Deputies, most
of them new men, from the Department of the
Gironde Baiennes, Ducos, Service, Vergniaud,
Gaudet, Censonne, Sers, and Grangeneuve were
the chiefs of their group They soon showed
themselves to be oiators of ability, and their
moderate republicanism drew to their side such
men as Brissot, Roland and his wife, Condorcet,
Potion (later mayor of Paris, 1791), Dumouriez,
and Lacoste They assumed the name Giron-
dins, controlled the Patnote Frangais, and
their influence dominated the Jacobin Club.
For more than a year they directed the af-
fairs of government They had a majority in the
Assembly, and the King was forced to select
Roland, Dumounez, Claviere, and Servan as
ministers in March, 1792 The forced icsigna-
tion of the Girondist ministry, some three
months later, led to the popular insurrection
of June 20. Though there were elements of
dissension between the Girondists and the Jac-
obins as early as the spring of 1792, both par-
ties united in bringing about the overthrow of
the monarchy through the insurrection of Aug
10, 1792 The former were idealists and the
latter practical men. The responsibility for the
September massacres is harder to determine,
but probably the leaders of the Girondists were
not implicated in the atrocities of the mob, al-
though they claimed the credit for the results
After that date they lost more and more of
their popularity, though their eloquence still
dominated in the Assembly, which despised them
as weaklings The result was that the Jacobins
obtained the upper hand and ousted the Giron-
dists from office under the National Convention
Danton and his followeis triumphed over Roland
and his, Dumounez deserted the side of the Kev-
olution, and not a single Girondist figured on the
newly foimed Committee of Public Safety The
failure of the Gnondibts to airost and impeach
Marat was followed by the im asion of the hall of
the Convention by a Jacobin mob on Mdy 31,
1793, and the airest, on June 2, of about 20 of
the leaders of the paity Many others fled to
the provinces or escaped from France Unsuccess-
ful risings took place throughout Fiance in their
behalf, the only result being that furthei ai-
rests were made On Oct 3, 1703, the pnsoneis
were accused before the Convention of conspiracy
against the Republic and were sent to be tiled
by the Revolutionary Tribunal On October 24,
theiefoie, they were arraigned before this body
They \vere at fiist allowed to defend thcmsohcs,
but their speeches were so eloquent and then
innocence so apparent that the court could not
condemn them, and the Convention was forced
to order that the investigation be closed, and
that the pnsoners be executed, Oct 31, 1793
This bloodthirsty deciee was cairied out the
same evening Bnssot, the leader of the paity
(from whom they were sometimes known as
Biissotins), Vergniaud, Gensonne", Ducos, and
16 others were sent to the Place de Greve On
the way thither they chanted the Marseillaise
and met their death with splendid courage
Others of the Girondists weie subsequently
bi ought to the guillotine, including Madame Ro-
land, whose charms, intellect, and ardor had
made her an inspiring influence in the party In
the provinces also theie were executions Ro-
land, Vilaze*, Rebecqui, Potion, Buzot, and Con-
dorcet preferred suicide to the guillotine, and by
the close of 1794 the Girondist party had all
but disappeared Those of the party who sur-
vived, including Lanjuinais, Defermon, PontG*-
coulant, Louvet, Isnard, and La Riviere, reap-
peared in the Convention after the fall of Robes-
pierre and the Terrorists, but they no longer
formed a party of importance Laniartme has
written a panegyric on the Girondist party, 77? 9-
toire des G-irondins (Paris, 1847), translated by
Rycle, and published in London in the same
year For more impartial and accurate ac-
counts, consult Guadet, Les G-irondins (new
ed , Pans, 1889) , De Patris, L9 Esprit financier
des G-irondins (ib, 1909), Goete-Bernstem, La
politique ext6neure de Bnssot ct des Q-irondmv
(ib , 1912) In English the following are worth
consulting Mignet, The French Revolution
(London, 1826) , Morse-Stephens, History of the
French Revolution (New York, 1911) See
FRENCH REVOLUTION, also the special articles
on the various Girondist leaders, with the au-
thorities referred to there
GIBOET IiE COTTBTOIS, zh£'r6N' le kuor'twa'
(Fr, Giron the Courteous) The hero of a thir-
teenth-century lomance of the same name, by
Rusticien, derived from an earlier romance,
Palamedes, by Ehe de Borron The printed edi-
tion rests upon Rustic] en's version
GIBOTJABD, zhS'roS'ar', DriSiRfi (1836-1911)
A Canadian legislator and jurist He was born
at St Timothe*e, Province of Quebec, and was
educated at Montreal College and McGill Univer-
sity He studied law, was called to the bar in
1860, and practiced his profession in Montreal A
work published by him tinder the title JSssai s\tr
les lettres de change et billets promissoires made
him widely known and insured his rapid advance-
ment in the profession He was elected a Con
GI&OUARD
788
GIBTY
servative member of the Dominion Parliament
(1878), and continued a member until 1895,
also acting for many years as chairman of the
Standing Committee on Privileges and Elections.
He strongly opposed the execution of Louis Kiel
( q v ) and introduced and carried several bills,
the most important of which was the so-called
Deceased Wife's Sister Bill (1882). In 1895
he was appointed a puisne "judge of the Supreme
Court of Canada, retaining that position until
his death His literary productions include two
volumes of interesting essays upon legal sub-
jects , a collection of historical essays on the
District of Montreal, translated from the French
and published under the title of Lake St Louis,
Old and Neio, Illustrated, and Cavalier de la
Salle (1893) , and Les anciens postes du Lao
Saint Louis (1895).
GIBOTJABD, Sra EDOUABD PEBCY CRANWTLL
(1867- ). A Canadian soldier, railway engi-
neer, and administrator Born in Montreal, he
was educated at the Eoyal Military College,
Kingston, Ontario. For some time he was on
the engineering staff of the Canadian Pacjfic
Railway. In 1888 he was gazetted second lieu-
tenant of the Royal Engineers, in 1891 lieuten-
ant, and in 1890-95 was railway traffic manager
at Woolwich He served under Sir Herbert
(now Earl) Kitchener, with the Dongola expe-
dition, in 1896-97, during 1896-98 was director
of the Soudan Railways, and m 1898-99 was
president of the Egyptian Railway Board He
took part in the South African War (qv ) and
m 1899-1902 was Director of Railways during
and after that conflict In 1902-04 he was
Commissioner of Railways for the Transvaal and
the Orange River Colony, in 1904 was pro-
moted lieutenant colonel, and in 1906 became
assistant quartermaster general. Western Com-
mand, Chester, England. His career as admin-
istrator began with his appointment in 1907 as
High Commissioner of the Protectorate of North-
ern Nigeria Then, in 1909, having been Gov-
ernor of that protectorate for two years, he
was promoted colonel and in 1909-12 was Gover-
nor and commander in chief of the East Africa,
Protectorate In 1900 he was knighted He pub-
lished History of the Railways during the War
in South Apica, 1899-1902 (1905)
GIBOUARD, JOHN JOSEPH (1795-1855) A
Canadian revolutionary leader, born in the city
of Quebec Early left an orphan, he was edu-
cated by Abbe" Gatien. After his admission to
the bar in 1816 he practiced law at St Benoit.
The disputes between the Governor and the
popular branch of the Legislature in regard to
the voting of supplies were then rapidly ap-
proaching a crisis. The question of responsible
government was involved (See POLITICAL PAR-
TIES, Canada ) Girouard vehemently took the
popular side and in 1830, having been elected
to the Assembly, voted for the refusal of money
supplies unless granted by a majority of that
body. He spoke at many popular meetings,
though without urging actual rebellion How-
ever, when the rebellion broke out in 1837, Gi-
rouard took command of a local body of insur-
gents, whom he soon advised to discontinue their
lesistance He fled to the United States, but
returned and was imprisoned, though released
next year after a proclamation of amnesty. He
then returned to legal practice at St Benoit for
the remainder of his life Though requested in
1842 to join the Lafontame-Balhoni ministry as
Commissionei of Crown Lands, he declined
GIBOtTETTES, zhe'roo'et', LES (Fi , the
weather vanes) A tenn of reproach applied in
the Dictionnaire des Girouettes (Pans, 1815)
to those who changed their political party on
the return of the Bouibons after Napoleon's
fall. The number of changes in political faith
was indicated by a coi responding number of
weathercocks printed after the names
GI&IIET, gei'tin, THOMAS (1775-1802) An
English water-color painter and etchei He was
born in Southwark, and was apprenticed to
Edward Doves, the mezzotint engraver Girtin
was one of "the founders of the English water-
color school and with his friend Tuiner inau-
gurated the practice of "painting" in water
color, as distinguished fiom tinting He was a
contributor to the exhibitions of the Royal
Academy from 1794 to 1801, his subjects includ-
ing views of London, of Paris, 20 of which he
etched himself, and scenes in northern England,
Scotland, and Wales, where he made extensive
sketching tours, he also painted many English
cathedrals In 1797 he painted a panorama of
London, and m 1801 exhibited an oil painting,
"Bolton Bridge," at the Royal Academy His
work is characterized by largeness of manner,
depth and harmony of color, bold distribution
of masses, and solemn grandeui of sentiment
Despite his early death from tuberculosis, which
took place in London, Nov 9, 1802, he exeicised
a vast, though indirect, influence on modern
landscape painting, and advanced the art of
water-color painting in technique, color, and
poetic interpretation The Butish Museum pos-
sesses a fine collection of his drawings Other
works are found in the South Kensington Mu-
seum, the Whitworth Institute, Manchester, the
National Gallery of Scotland, and the National
Gallery of Ireland Consult Miller, Turner and
Girtin's Picturesque Views (London, 1854)
GLRTON (ger'ton) COLLEGE. One of the
most noted institutions for the higher education
of women in England, founded through the ef-
forts of Miss Emily Davies It was established
in 1869, in a rented house at Hitchin, Hertford-
shire, with six students, and was conducted in
the main under the influence of membeis of
Cambridge University, from among whom its
lecturers were recruited The inconvenience of
its distance from that university led to its re-
moval, in 1873, to its present location, about 2
miles from Cambridge Since then it has in-
creased greatly in numbers and influence Its
students follow essentially the same course of
work as the Cambridge undergraduate who
studies for honors Since 1881 its members have
been admitted to the university examinations,
and their names appear in the tripos, or honor
lists, in the university calendar They do not,
however, receive degrees from the university,
but are granted degree cei tificates upon satisfy-
ing the university requirements The usual en-
rollment of the college is about 160 The build-
ings are very handsome, forming three sides of
a quadrangle, and are in attractive grounds
The administration is vested in an executive
committee, a mistress, and a vice mistress, and
the instruction is carried on, as in a college of
the university, by lecturers and tutors Consult
EEC Jones, G-irton College (London, 1913).
See CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF, COLLEGIATE
EDUCATION FOR WOMEN
aiRTY, geVti, SIMON (1741-1818) A no-
torious renegade leader of the Indians He was
born in what is now Dauphin Co , Pa , was cap-
789
GKESOItS
tured by the Indians, along with the rest of his
family, at Fort Gianville, in 1756, was released
in 1759, and acted as an inteipieter for some
time after the conspiracy of Pontiae In Lord
Dumnore's War he served against the Indians
and for a shoit time thereafter was a second
lieutenant in the Virginia militia In 1776 he
was appointed an Indian interpreter for the
United States, but was soon discharged, after
which he enlisted troops m the vicinity of Fort
Pitt for service against the English He went
over to the English in Apiil, 1776, was attainted
of high treason by the Pennsylvania Legislative
in July, and became an inteipieter in the em
ploy of the British Indian Depailment His
name soon became a terror throughout the West-
ern settlements, and innumerable atrocities were
attributed to him, though his influence and po-
sition among the Indians weie greatly exagger-
ated In August, 1782, with 600 Indians he
ambuscaded a party of Kentuckians at Blue
Licks and killed more than 60 of them After
the Revolution he acted as an interpreter for the
English and was extremely active in instigat-
ing1 the Indians to attack the American fron-
tieismen He commanded the Indians who at-
tacked Dunlap's Station, on the Great Miami,
in February, 1791, led the Wyandots at the de-
feat of jSt Clair, commanded the Indians who
attacked Fort Jeffeison, on the Mississippi, in
June, 1791, and in 1794 paitzcipated in the
battle of Pallen Timbers During the latter
part of liis life he lived near Detroit, across the
Canadian border Fis brothers, Geoige (1745-
C1812), James (1743-1817), and Thomas (1739-
1820), also fought with the Indians against
the United States Consult Butterfield, History
of the Gwtys (Cincinnati, 1890)
G-IBVAN, ger'van A seaport and market
town on the west coast of Ayrshire, Scotland, at
the mouth of the Girvan, 21 miles southwest of
Ayr (Map Scotland, D 4) Weaving was for-
merly its leading industry and, though still car-
ried on, has been superseded by the winter her-
ring fishery since the enlargement of the harbor
There is an export trade in coal and limestone
from adjacent districts It has grown in favoi
as a health resort and watering place Pop ,
1901, 4019, 1011, 5331
<HBY; zh£'r£', JEAN MA.KIE JOSEPH ABTIIUR
(1848-99), A French histonan, born at Tre"-
voux, France He was educated at the Ecole
des Chartrea, where he held the prof essoi ship of
diplomacy after 1885, and at the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes, where he became a lecturer in
1874 He did much to promote the study of the
origins of French cities and revived interest in
diplomacy His publications include Ili^toire
de la wile de Sawit-Qmer et de ses institutions
jusqu'au JLlYe sidcle (1877) , Les gtabhsscments
de Rouen (1883-85) , Documents sur les tela
Uons de la royau^ aveo les wiles de France de
1180 & ISH (1885) 3 Etude sur les origines de
la commune de Swnt-Quentin (1887), Manuel
de diplomatique (1894). The last-named work
won him election to the Academy of Inscriptions
and Belles-Lettres in 1896
0ISA"N"DEK, ge'zan-deY The pseudonym of
the German author JOHANIT GOTTFRIED SOHNA-
BEL ( q v )
GISBORNE, giz'bQrn, FBEDEBICK NEWTON
(1824-92). A Canadian inventor and electri-
cian, born in Broughton, Lancashire, England
In 1842 he left England for a trip around the
World and finally settled in Canada in 1845,
wheie he spent two years in farming. In 1847
he entered the employ of the Montreal Telegraph
Company as an opeiator, and in the same year
was placed in charge of their new office at
Quebec By close study he soon became an ex-
pert electncian, and original improvements in
methods and instruments soon atti acted so much
attention to his work that, in 1849, he received
the appointment of superintendent of the lines
of the Nova Scotia government at Halifax Here
he began to study the problems of ocean teleg-
raphy In 1852 he laid the fiist deep-sea cable
in American watezs, between Prince Edward Is-
land and New Brunswick In 1853 he went to
New York City, where he became associated with
Cjius W Field, and on the organi7ation of the
New Yoik, Newfoundland, and London Tele-
graph Company, was appointed chief engineei
of the now company In that capacity, in 1856,
he laid the land lines across Newfoundland He
was the commissioner foi Newfoundland at the
London Exposition in 1862 and at Pans in 1865
In 1879 he was appointed superintendent of the
Canadian government telegiaph service, which
position he hold until his death Among his
numerous inventions \\eie an anti induction
ocean cable, elect! ic and pneumatic ship signals,
an anticoirosive composition for the bottoms of
iron ships, and an electric lecoiding target
GIS'CO (Gk. TttfKtav) The name of three
Caithaginian generals L A son of the Hanul-
car who was defeated by Gelon at the battle of
Himeia 480 BO In consequence of the defeat
Giaco was banished to Selmus, in Sicily, where
he died 2 The son of Hanno He unsuccess-
fully opposed Timoleon (qv) aftei the lattei
had defeated the Carthaginians at the river
Crimissus 339 BO (Consult Holm, G-GBoMcJite
SiciUen$y n (Leipzig, 1874), and Beloch, in
Kho, vn, ib , 1907 ) 3 A commander of the
Carthaginian garrison at Lilybacum, at the end
of the First Punic War In 241 B o he was
seized and murdered by the mercenaiy troops
who had begun the civil war called the "Inex-
piable," and with whom the Caithagiman gov-
ernment had commissioned him to treat
GISELA, gG'ze-la ('-1043) A queen of Ger-
many and Roman empress The widow of Duke
Ernest of Swabia, she married (1016) Conrad
II and was crowned with him at Borne in 1027
She exerted a conaideiable political influence,
particularly in seeming the annexation of Bur-
gundy to the German possessions Her influ-
ence in the Church also was paramount She
was celebrated for her beauty, her generosity,
and her profound interest in the affairs of state
and of science Slie was the mother of the Ro-
man Emperor Henry III
GISLASOH, gxsaa-s6n, KONRAD (1808-93)
An Icelandic philologist, born at Longum^ri
and educated at Copenhagen He was professor
of ancient Noise languages at Copenhagen from
1353 to 1886 and became known as a philolo-
gist through his excellent editions of the Gfi$-
lasaga (1849) and the Nj&la (2 vols, 1875-89)
and more especially thiough his grammatical
studies of Icelandic and his Danish-Icelandic
Dictionary, which is recognized as an authority
on those languages Gislason bequeathed 3ns en-
tire fortune to the University of Copenhagen
Consult Arkw for no^$L Filologi, vii-vni, and
Timarit hvns islen&k B6kmentafjelags, xn
GISORS, zrtie^zQr' A town in the Depart-
ment of Eure, Prance, on the nver Epte, 33
miles northeast of Evreux It contains- a richly
aissnra
790
GIULIANI
decorated mediaeval church, and in its vicinity
on a hill are situated the remains of an old
castle constructed by Henry II of England The
town is famous as the scene of a battle in 1198,
when the English under Richard I defeated the
French In this battle the expression "Dieu et
mon Droit," which has since become the motto
of the loyal arms of England, was used for the
first time by Richard I The manufacture of
felt is the only industry of any importance
Pop, 1901, 4801, 1911, 5508
GIS'SINQ, GEORGE ROBEET (1857-1903) An
English realistic novelist, whose rare talent (or
genius) was but slowly recognized Born at
Wakefield, he was educated at Owens College,
Manchester, and at the Univeisity of London,
m both which institutions his career was bril-
liant He made an unhappy marnage — he was
later to make a second similar matrimonial
ventuie — and in 1876 went to America, where
for some time he eked out a precarious living by
writing and teaching Later he went to Ger-
many, teaching and studying there to return to
London and make literature his profession For
years he suffered extreme poverty, living and
writing in wretched London gariets and cellars
After 1882 the legend of his abject poverty
seems to have been pure fiction. From that date
to the end of his life his work as a tutor and
his pen kept him for the most part in compara-
tive comfort But struggle, toil, and pnvation
had broken his health, and he died at the age
of 46 The novels The Unolassed (1884) , Demos
(1886), the first of his books to attract wide
attention, Thynsa (1887), one of the best of
his stories, and The Nether World (1889), well
represent him as a minutely faithful, if not
altogether sympathetic, novelist of the lower
classes In the bulk of what remains of his
work he is the painter of the middle and pro-
fessional classes, and the best of these books are
studies of unusual or abnormal modern tem-
peraments against a middle-class "background
These stories generally involve problems con-
cerning marriage, the position of woman, edu-
cation, the relation of class to class, etc In
this second group are Isabel Clarendon (1886) ,
A Life's Morning (1888), The Emancipated
(1890) , the brief and inferior D email Quamer
(1892), The New Orub Street (1891), unsur-
passed as a picture of middle-class literary life,
Born in Exile (1892), in which the author is
seen to great advantage, The Odd Women
(1893), also a notable book, In the Year of
Jubilee (1894) , the brief but interesting Eves
Ransom (1895), The Paying Guest (1895),
Sleeping Fires (1895), The Whirlpool (1897),
one of the best of Gissmg's novels, The
Crown of Life (1899) , Our Friend the Charla-
tan (1901), and Will Warburton (1905)
Standing alone, must be mentioned Veranilda
(1904), left incomplete at the author's death by
a few chapters, a very knowledgeable and care-
fully written story of Roman life in the sixth
century, which was an outcome of Gissing's life-
long devotion to classic history and literature
His work includes also Human Odds and Ends
(1898), The House of Colwels (1906), both
volumes of short stories, The Private Papers of
Henry Ryecroft (1903), a blend of fiction and
autobiographic self -revelation , and the per-
sonal records of travel in By the Ionian Sea
(1901). Gissing, if not a born story-teller,
was an accomplished and singularly intelligent
novelist He follows in a measure the large
descriptive scheme of Tolstoy and of Zola, Th^
master of a trained and supple style, he could
write at his best an imaginative prose of raie
beauty and power Consult the introduction by
Thomas Seceombe to The House of Cobwebs
(1906), Paul Elmer Moie's illuminating study
in Shelburne Essays (6th series, New York,
1908) , F Swinnerton, Gissing A Critical Study
(ib, 1912), Morley Roberts, The Private Life
of Heniy Maitland (ib, 1912), in which Hait-
ian d is Gissing
GITANOS, iie-ta'nos See GYPSIES.
GITSCHIH, gi-chen', or JI&N, ye'chen A
town of Bohemia, Austna, situated on the Cid-
Ima, about 50 miles northeast of Prague (Map
Austria -Hungary, D 1) Among the note-
worthy buildings are the handsome palace built
in 1630 by Wallenstein, the former Jesuits' Col-
lege (now" used as bai racks), the fine church dat-
ing from 1655, a Gymnasium, and a teachers'
college The chief industiies are manufactures
of sugar, machinery, and paper, it also carries
on a considerable trade in giain In the neigh-
boring Carthusian monasteiy of Waldita Wal-
lenstein was interred, but in 1785 the body was
removed to Munchengratz Neai here, on June
29, 1866, the Prussians under Geneial von
Tumphng defeated the Austnans and Saxons
undei Count Clam-Gallas, thus opening the way
to a junction of the two Prussian armies and
the subsequent victory of Sadowa Pop , 1900,
9790, 1910, 10,204, mostly Czechs
GltJDICE, ANTONIO DEL See CELLAMAEE.
GITJDICI, ioo'd§-ehe, PAOLO EMILIANI (1812-
72). An Italian historian and man of letters,
born in Sicily At an early period he was in-
fluenced by his reading of Machiavelh, Voltaire,
Foscolo, and Byron During a few months of
1848 he was professor of Italian literature in
the University of Pisa, but was removed be-
cause of his liberal tendencies On the reestab-
lishment of the Italian kingdom he was made
professor of esthetics and secretary of the
Academy of Fine Arts at Florence This second
professorship he relinquished in 1862 and in
1867 was elected a deputy to the Italian Pailia-
ment He died at Tunbndge, England, Sept.
8, 1872 It was his aim to show that Italian
hteratuie, which he judged with great independ-
ence, was due, not to the patronage of princes,
but to the national consciousness Gmdici's
chief works are Storia della letter atura italiana
(4th ed, 1865), Btona del tcatto in Italia
(1869), Stona dei comum italiam (1866), a
translation of Macaulay's Histoty of England
(1856), and an essay, "Intorno ai poeti linci
d/Itaha," prefaced to the Florilegio dei lirioi piti
insigm d' Italia (1846-47) Consult Biografia
di Paolo Emiham G-iudici (Floience, 1874)
GITTFFBIDA-ItTrGGEBI ( joof-f re'da-r3og-
gi're"), VINCENZO (1872- ) An Italian an-
thropologist, born in Catania In 1896 he be-
came a practicing physician in Borne, later he
devoted himself to anthropology, which he
taught at the University of Rome, the Univer-
sity of Pavia (1906-07), and, after 1907, at
Naples, where he was director of the Anthropolog-
ical Institute. He wrote Swllb dignitfr mor-
fologica dei segm degeneratwi (1907), Homo
sapiens Einleitung zu e^nem Kiirse der Anthro-
pologie (1913), L' Homo attuale, una specie
collettwa (1913)
GIULIANI, joo-lya'ne", GIAMBATTISTA (1818-
84) An Italian philologist, born at Oanelli
(Piedmont). He studied at Asti and entered
HZQ Somaschian Ordei m 1336, taking part,
however, in the political movement about him
He was profossoi at various colleges in Italy
and in 1860 was made professor of hteratuie
at the Istituto degh Studi Superiori of Floi-
ence A special chair was created foi him as
lecturei on Dante, of whose woiks he had made
a careful study Among his writings on this
subject are Saggio di un nuovo commento della
Commedia di Dante (1845) , Le norme di com-
mentare la Divina Commedia (1856), Metodo
di commentate la Dwina, Commedia (1861),
Letteie sul vivente linguaggio della Toscana
(1858-65), II Goiivito di Dante Aligfnen rein-
tegrate nel testo con nuovi commenti (1874)
GIULIAlSrO, joo-lya'no, IN CAMPANIA A
city in the Province of Naples, central Italy, 8
miles northwest of the city of Naples (Map
Italy, E 4) It has a baronial castle, and is
delightfully situated in a plain that produces
grain, vegetables, figs, and other fruit The
town also has manufactures of potteiy Pop
(commune), 1901, 14,363, 1911, 15,963
GITJLIAlSrO DA MAJANO, joo'lya'^ da
ma-ya'nd ( 1432- ? 91 ) A Florentine architect and
sculptor in wood, of the early Renaissance He
was bom in Majano and received his ait educa-
tion in Florence There is much dispute about
his life and work, because Vasari has confused
him with Giuhano da Sangallo We know from
documentary evidence that in 1465 he began the
church of Loreto, that m 1468 he rebuilt the
collegiate church of San Gimignano, and in
1474 he began the cathedral of Faenza In 1477
he was made chief architect of the cathedral of
Florence He was called to Naples in 1488 by
King Alfonso of Aragon, for whom he built the
fine Poggio Reale, i?ow destroyed, and the Porta
Capuana, one of the most beautiful gates of the
Kenaissance He died at Naples after 1491
The Palazzo Strozzi, which ranks with the Pitti
Palace (qv), among the finest palaces of the
early Renaissance in Florence, is sometimes as-
cribed to him, but usually to his brother, Bene
detto da Majano (qv ) He was also famous as
a sculptor in wood, having executed some of the
finest intarsio work in Italy His woiks in this
line include the doors of the Sala d'Udicnza,
m the Palazzo della Signoria, Florence, some
decorations in the Sagrestia Nuova, in the cathe-
dral, the choir stalls of the cathedral of Peru-
gia, an intamo chest in the cathedral of Loreto
GXTFLIABX, joo-lyS/re*, GIAMBATTISTA CABLO,
COUNT (1810-92) An Italian historian of lit-
erature, born at Verona He studied theology
at Rome. From 1856 until his death he was
canon at Verona and librarian of the Biblioteca
Capitolare He had the distinction of having
established the first primary schools on Viennese
models in his native city (1836). He was a
member of the Berlin Akademie der Wissen-
schaftcn His principal works aie Memona
libliografica Dantesca (1865), Oinque disoorsi
dell' Alighieri dalla sua statua in Verona (1865-
63 \; Colpe d'oochio sulle bMiotheche d3 Italia
(1867), Storia della musica sacra in Verona
( 1874-79 ) , I$tona monumentale letteraria,
paleografica della Gapitolare Bibhoteca di Ve-
rona (1882)
GiTTIiIA VILLA. See VILI/A GrmiA.
GITJLINT, jM-lS'ne, GtOBGiQ (1714-80) An
Italian historian and antiquary, born at Milan
His work on the mediaeval history of Milan
(1760), based on original research, of 20 years,
is marked bjr great learning
H GITTSSAHI
GItJLIO ROMAK"O, j(5o'le--6 r6-md'n6 An
Italian paintei See PIFPI, GIULIO
GIULIO ROMANO An Italian faingei and
composer See CACCIWI, GIUI TO
GITJOTA, joon'ta, GHOTTTI, ]oun'te, 2ONTA,
zon'ta, or JUNTA A family of celebrated
Italian punters, originally from Floience Two
bi others, LUCA ANIONIO and FILIPPO, weie book-
selleis m Florence as early as 1480, then the
elder of the brothers went to Venice and founded
a printing establishment which was continued
aftei his death by his son TOMMASO and his
cousms FILIPPO (1450-1517) staited m Floi-
ence a printing house, celebrated foi its editions
of classics His sons, BENEDETTO and BEBNAKDO,
printed Boccaccio's Decamcrone (1527) Othei
members of the family went to Rome, and sev-
eral to Spam, where GIULIO and TOMMASO were
pi inters to the King (1595-1624) Another,
JACQUES FRANCOIS JUNTE, founded a printing
house at Lyons (1520), which lasted for a num-
ber of years
GIUNTA PISA3TO, loon'ta pe-sa'no (c 1202-
58). The eailiest Italian painter to emerge
flora the crowd dm ing the period befoie Cirna-
bue. He flourished between about 1202 and
1258 in Pisa, which was then the ait centie of
Tuscany and possessed an important school of
sculpture, though painting was at a very low
level A "Crucifix" in Santi Raincri e Leonardo,
Pisa, is undoubtedly by him, and he also signed
and dated a "Crucifixion" (1236), now in Santa
Maria degh Angeh, Assisi Some authorities
attribute to him the frescoes in the right tran-
sept of the upper church at Assisi (usually
thought to be by Cimabue, q v ) , which are
greatly inferior to those of the left transept
If he vanes from the Byzantine school in giving
dramatic action and pathos to his figures, they
seem also to be exaggerated and barbarous
Consult Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of
Painting in Italy, vol i (London, 1903), and
Thode, Fiansi von Assisi (Berlin, 1885)
GIUBA. See GYAROS
GITJBGEVO, joor'ia-vo, Rum GITJUGITJ,
jotix'gob (the city of St George) A town of Ru-
mania, in Wallachia, situated on the left bank of
the Danube, opposite Rustchuk, 34 miles south-
southwest of Bucharest, of which it is the port
(Map- Balkan Peninsula, E 3) The chief land-
ing place for steameis is the island of Smarda,
about 2 miles to the cast Giurgevo has a custom-
house The exports consist principally of grain,
salt, and petroleum Although the harbor is
shallow, the annual shipping exceeds 1,000,000
tons, a considerable portion of which is earned
m Austio -Hungarian vessels Neaily all the
commerce between Bulgaria and Rumania passes
through the town. Pop, 1899, 13,978, 1910,
1,5,200 Founded by the Genoese in the four-
teenth century, on the site of the Byzantine town
of Theodorapolis, Giurgevo subsequently became
an important military post under the rule of
the Turks and was strongly fortified until 1829
During the wars between Russia and Turkey it
was the scene of many engagements and was
taken repeatedly by the Russians.
GITJBGITT See GTXTKGEVO
GIUSSANT, joos-sd'nS, CARLO (1840-1900)
An Italian philologist, born at Milan, Italy He
was educated at tne University of Turin, at the
Accademia, Soientifico-Litteraria of Milan, and
at the University of Pisa (graduated 1864) ,
and he also studied in Germany at Berlin,
TtiMngen, and Erlangen, where lie acquired a
GOTSTI
792
GIVET
knowledge of Sanscrit and Zend He is author
ot the "Grammatica sanscnta" in De Guberna-
tis' Piccolo, enciclopedia Indiana (1868), and
he translated the Indian philosophical poem,
"Ashtavakragita," published in De Gubernatis'
Rwista onentale (1867-68) Later he taught
Latin at the Lyceo of Cremona and at the Ac-
cademia Scientifico-Litterana, where he rose
to be professor of Latin literature He became
known especially for his fine work on Lucretius,
and he translated, from the German of Guhl,
Sopi a la vita degli antichi greci e romani
GIUSTI, joos'te, GIUSEPPE (1809-50) One
of the most celebrated and popular of the mod-
ern poets and satirists of Italy, born in Monsun-
mano, near Pistoia Sprung from an influential
Tuscan family, Gmsti was early destined for the
bar He obtained his degree of LL D at the
University of Pisa. On quitting Pisa Gmsti
was at Florence living with the advocate Capo-
quadri, and heie he first attempted poetry.
Lyrical compositions of the Romantic school,
of elevated and nervous thought, were his ear-
liest efforts, but he speedily saw that satire,
not idealism, was his true forte In a preemi-
nent degree Gmsti possessed the requirements
of the great lyrical satirist — terseness, clearness,
and brilliancy. His writings, attaining a wider
and more immediate popularity than the purely
lyrical verse of Manzoni and Leopardi, exercised
great political influence When the press was
shackled, and freedom of thought was tieason,
his verses in manuscript were in general circu-
lation throughout Italy and assisted in prepar-
ing the insurrection of 1848 Then for the fust
time Giusti discarded the pseudonym of "the
Anonymous Tuscan," and signed his name to a
volume of verses, bearing on the events and aims
o* the times In his political poems he aban-
doned the beaten track and adopted many metri-
cal forms instead of the conventional terza rima,
or unrhymed hendecasyllables. All his compo-
sitions are short, raiely blemished with person-
alities, and written in the purest form of the
popular Tuscan dialect. They are in spirit
and wit not only Italian, but essentially Tus-
can. A reverent student of Dante, Giusti him-
self often leaches an almost Dantesque sublim-
ity in the higher outbursts of his wrath, while
he stands alone in the lighter play of ironical
wit In politics, from taking an active part in
which bad health prevented him, he was an en-
lightened and moderate Liberal Giusti was
beloved in private life for his social qualities
and his loving and gentle spirit He died in
the dwelling of his friend the Marquis Gino
Cappom at Florence His most celebrated pieces
are entitled Lo stivale, or the history of a boot
(Italy), a humorous narration of all the mis-
fits, ill usage, and patching allotted to this un-
fortunate down-trodden symbol of his country;
Gingillino, a masterpiece of sarcasm, portraying
the ignoble career of the sycophant, II Re Travi-
cello, or King Log, 21 Brindisi di Girella, or the
Weathercock's Toast, one of his best pieces, and
the Dies Irce, or funeral oration of the Emperor
Francis I, written in condemnation of the
atrocities committed in the fortress prison of
Spielberg Several of Giusti's poems have been
excellently rendered into English verse by W D.
Howells in Modern Italian Poets (1887), and
into German by Paul Heyse in Italiemsohe
Vichter, vol iii (Berlin, 1887) Editions of
Giusti's Poesie are those prepared by Carducci
(Florence, 1859, 1893), Fioretto (Verona, 1876
and since), Bragi (Floience, 1890) Of his
prose works, the Epistolamo, or Correspondence,
appeared, in a second edition (Florence, 1885) ,
the Epistolano seel to (Naples, 1892) The best
biography of Giusti is that prepared by Carducci
for his edition of the Poesie Consult also Cai-
ducci's essay on Gmsti in his Pnmi saggi (Bo-
logna, 1809), Biagi (ed ), Vita di Giuseppe
Giusti (Floience, 1893), an autobiography,
Leonardis, II Giusti Unco e il Giusti satuico
(Genoa, 1887), Horner, The Tuscan Poet Giu-
seppe Giusti and his Times (London, 1864) ,
Speia, Letter atura compaiata (Naples, 1896)
GIUSTI3SriA3STI, joo'ste-nya'ne An illu&tn-
ous Italian family, distinguished in the annals
of Venice and Genoa — AGOSTINO GIUSTIXIANI
(1470-1536) was a great student of Arabic,
Chaldee, Greek, and Hebrew He prepared a
polyglot edition of the Old Testament and had
2000^ copies printed at his own expense — MAK-
CA^TONIO GIUSTINIANI was Doge of Venice from
1684 to 1688, during which time the Venetians
temporarily wrested the Morea from the Tuiks —
VINCENZO GIUSTINIANI in the seventeenth cen-
tury built a magnificent palace among the nuns
of Nero's baths at Rome and stocked it with
tieasmes of painting and sculptme He also
formed a museum of antiquities, discovered on
the spot In 1807 the Gmstmiam family con-
veyed the collection of paintings to Pans, wheie
they disposed of the greater pait by auction and
privately sold the remainder, consisting of 170
fine paintings, to the artist Bonnemaison, who
sold them to the King of Prussia This frag-
ment of the famous Giustmiani Gallery now
enriches the Berlin Museum, and a very few
of its former treasures are still to be found
in the Giustimam Palace at Rome Consult
Hopf Carlo, Storia, dei Giustmiani di Genova
(Genoa, 1882)
GIUSTINIAtfl, LEONARDO (1388-1446) An
Italian poet, born at Venice, a humanist and a
translator from the Greek, orator, epistolog-
rapher, and Procurator of San Marco, he is best
remembered for his canzonette The 27 stram-
Tbotti that have been attributed to him con-
tain all the themes of the Italian popular songs
and resemble them in compactness of form
and spontaneity of sentiment Some of the can-
zonette set to music by Giustmiani himself and
called Giustinianes sometimes Veneziane, were
sung at banquets and upon festive occasions in
general Their subject matter is erotic, their
tone familiar, and their language full of dia-
lectal peculiarities Consult Wiese, Poesie
edite ed inedite di Leonardo Giustmiani (Bo-
logna, 1883) , Lamma, Intorno ad alcune rime di
Leonardo Giustimani, Giorn stor (1887) , Orto-
lani, Appunti su Leonardo Giustmiani (Feltre,
1896) , and Oberdorfer's articles in Ateneo Ve-
neto (1912) There is a biography by Fennig-
stem (Halle, 1909).
G-IVET, zhe'va/ A town in the Department
of Ardennes, France, on both banks of the
Meuse, about 1 mile from the Belgian frontier,
and about 23 miles from the Belgian town41 of
Namur ( Map • France, N , K 2 ) It was formerly
a fortress of considerable strategical value, but
in 1892 the fortifications were dismantled, and,
with the exception of the citadel of Charlemont,
converted into promenade grounds In the
European War of 1914 Givet \\as on the early
line of the Allies' defense against the Germans
and was the scene of a stubborn resistance by
the British expeditionary force under Sir John
793
BAY
FiencJb. in the latter end of August The town
contains a number of breweries, tanneries, pen-
cil factories, and maible quarries Pop, 1901,
6947, 1911, 7759
G-IVORS, zhe"'v6r'. A town in the Depart-
ment of Pth6ne, France, on the Rhone and the
Gier, 14 miles south of Lyons (Map France, S,
J 3) It contains numeious establishments for
the manufactuiing of machinery, bottles, and
window glass, and there are impoitant coal
mines in the vicinity. Pop, 1901, 12,132, 1911,
12,784
G-IZEH See GITIZEH
GIZZARD, giz'ard (from OF gezier, Fi.
gesier, gizzaid, from Lat gigerm, cooked en-
trails of poultry) A strong musculai poition of
the alimentary tract, where hard solid food is
broken up preparatory to digestion Gizzards
are found in vaiious groups of animals and have
only a physiological likeness The best-known
example is that of birds, which is the posterior
conipaitment of the stomach, the front part be-
ing glandular and fitted to moisten the food to
be crushed The degree of development of the
gizzard of birds depends upon the hardness of
the food eaten Giam-catmg birds have the
most poweiful gizzards, insect-eating birds less
powerful ones, while in buds of piey the gizzaid
is slightly developed The great anatomist,
Hunter, indeed, believed that a strong giz/aid
could be cultivated in carnivorous birds by feed-
ing them on gram, and this has been accom-
plished in the case of captive gulls In the giz-
zard of buds small stones are frequently found,
which are swallowed by the bird to aid in trit-
urating its food Among other animals in
which a gizzard has been described are ceitain
Rotifer a, Bryozoa, the earthworm, the crayfish
and its allies, and various insects, especially
such as devour solid food The "gizzard" of in-
sects and crustaceans is the fore stomach, or
proventriculus , it is by some authors regarded
as mainly a strainer See BIKD, ALIMENTARY
SYSTEM
GIZZARD SHAD (so called from the shape
of its stomach) A name in Floiida for the mud
shad ( q v ) See Plate of HERRING AND SHAD
GKTALLAR, yallar (Icel yell&r) . The horn
which, according to Scandinavian mythology,
Heimdall blows to notify the gods when a
stranger is approaching the bridge Bifrost
GJELLERUP, yel'le-inp, KABL ADOLF (1857-
) A Danish novelist, born at Roholte, Zea-
land He became a waim advocate of Greek
and German ait and a devoted admirer of
Richard Wagner, upon whose famous "Trilogy"
he wrote the work entitled Richard Wagner i
lians Ho'iedvcsrl Nibelungens Rmg (1890) Be-
sides a collection of poems entitled Min Kycer-
hgheds Bog (1889), and the dramas Biynhild
(1884), 8t Just (1886), Tliamyns (1887), En
Avkadisk Legende (1887), Haglard og Signe
(1S88), Bryllupsgaven (1888), Herman Vandel
(1891), Wuthorn (1893), Hans Excellence
(1895), Mollen (1896), Gift og Modgift (1898),
Offemldene (1903), Elskovsproven (1906), and
Den Fuldendte Hustru (1907), his works include
several admirable tales of travel and the popular
novels entitled Dot imge Danmark (1879), Ger-
manernes Lcerhng (ISS2), Minna (1889), Romu-
lus (3d ed , 1903), Vandreaaret (1885), Konvo-
lutten (1897), Pilgwmen Kamanita (1906), Fra
Vaar til Host (1910), and Verdensvandterne
(1910) His dramas are not well adapted to
the stage, because of the deficiency of the dia-
logues, but his lyrical verses and novels are
populai
GrLACE (glas) BAY A town in Cape Breton
Co , Nova Scotia, Canada, about 15 miles east-
northeast of Sydney, on the Sydney and Louis-
burg Railway (Map Nova Scotia, K 2) It is
an important coal-mining centre, about 10,000
miners being employed in the vicinity There
are also a fishing industry, machine shops, and
a wood-working factory Large supplies of coal
are shipped from the harboi to Canadian and
other ports An important Marconi wireless
station is located here The town has a mining
school, and owns its electric-lighting and water
Pop, 1901, 6945, 1911, 16,562,
136 133
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