, . ,-. C/.Sem.
LaL.Gr XT17«r
56994n A NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON
GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY
BY
E. A. SONNENSCHEIN, D.Lrrr.
PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY
OF BIRMINGHAM
CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE
ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY.
OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1912
HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE
PREFACE
THIS volume and the companion volume of my French
grammar are based upon the work of the Joint Committee
on Grammatical Terminology whose final Report was issued
last year ; l and they are designed to make the Committee's
scheme of grammar teaching available for use in schools. It
is a matter of great satisfaction to observe the rapid progress
of the movement to which the Committee devoted so much
labour ; since the publication of our Report the recommenda-
tions contained in it have been adopted either in their entirety
or with some modifications by the writers of at least four
English grammars, and it seems to be generally recognized
that the terminology and classifications recommended by the
Committee constitute a real advance in the direction of
simplicity and uniformity in the teaching of grammar.
So far no Latin or French grammar has appeared on these
lines ; but the Committee's work is expressly designed to
include in its scope the grammar of other languages besides
English, and so to secure that the grammatical doctrine taught
to pupils shall be all of a piece. It is as a contribution to this
movement that I have undertaken the task of writing the
present books. It has involved no little labour ; for the
V
1 On the Terminology of Grammar, being the Report of the Joint Com-
mittee on Grammatical Terminology ; revised 1911 (John Murray, Albemarle
Street, W.). The Committee contained representatives of the Classical
Association, the Modern Language Association, the English Association,
the Incorporated Association of Head Masters, the Head Mistresses' Asso-
ciation, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary
Schools, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Mistresses in Public
Secondary Schools, the Association of Preparatory Schools, and two co-
opted members.
4 PREFACE
objects of the Committee cannot be attained by a mere
mechanical substitution of one term for another. The whole
scheme of grammar teaching had to be thought out from
a new point of view. Grammatical ideas are far more than
mere labels ; they are abstracts and brief chronicles of theories
and doctrines; so that the choice of a term means the choice
of one grammatical conception in preference to another. This
being so, the importance of a uniform system of grammatical
terminology in schools becomes obvious ; to teach pupils half
a dozen different names for the same thing is to demand of
them that they shall carry in their heads half a dozen different
ways of regarding the point in question, or to tempt them to
carry nothing in their heads, but rather to reject all gram-
matical terms as mere sound and fury, signifying nothing. The
principle that where the same grammatical feature presents
itself in different languages of the same family it should be
described by the same name will be generally conceded. But
it is also true that where these languages differ in their usage,
their differences should be stated in terms which will be in-
telligible to the pupil ; and this cannot be secured except on
the basis of a common system of terminology. To start the
study of a new language with a new stock of grammatical
ideas is a fundamental mistake.
This Latin grammar, however, contains many things for
which the Joint Committee is in no sense responsible. In the
first place, the outline drawn by the Committee had to be filled
in by the adoption of some terms not expressly countenanced
therein ; and secondly, I have introduced into my book several
features which stand in no relation to the work of the Com-
mittee, but which have presented themselves to me in the
course of a long experience of teaching Latin as desirable
innovations.
(i) It is generally recognized that the rigid separation of
syntax from accidence involves many disadvantages ; on the
other hand it would not be desirable to present a complete
syntax to pupils in the first stage of learning. I have steered
PREFACE 5
a middle course by giving a simple account of some of the
prominent uses of forms as introductory matter to the study
of the forms themselves ; 1 and I have called this part of the
book ' Forms and their chief meanings '. I have intention-
ally made the accidence brief and simple, on the principle
approved by the Curricula Committee of the Classical Associa-
tion.2 Omne siipervaamm pleno de pectore manat. The details
of accidence are relegated to an Appendix as matter of far less
importance and interest to the beginner than the fundamental
features of sentence construction.3
(2) I have throughout called attention to the similarities of
Latin to English, and to French ; for I assume that nearly all
pupils learning Latin have already begun or are beginning the
study of French. It seems to have been too much forgotten
by writers of Latin grammars that French sometimes throws
light on Latin,4 and that the English derivatives formed from
Latin words may be turned to account in the learning of Latin
forms. This I have tried to do wherever possible.6
(3) In dealing with the principal parts of verbs I have intro-
duced what I believe to be a substantial improvement. For
the first time, so far as I know, the forms of the Perfect Active
have been reduced to rule by means of a classification accord-
ing to the final sound of the stem from which they are formed.
1 e.g. §§ 11-13 on the meanings of the cases, and §§ 125-38 on the
meanings of the voices, moods, lenses', verb-adjectives and verb-nouns ; the
chief uses of the pronouns are given in §§ 101-24.
2 Recommendations of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin
and Greek (London, John Murray, 1912), pp. 29 f.
8 It is hardly necessary to say that great care has been paid to correctness
of statement in regard to the details of accidence included. Some of the
authorities used in this part of the book are referred to in the'Appendix.
4 That French may be turned to account in the study of Latin is shown
throughout my Syntax. But I would also call attention to the fact that the
scanning of Latin verse would be greatly facilitated by the learning of
a simple rule of syllable division in French ; see French Grammar, § n, and
compare Latin Grammar, § 9.
0 e.g. in the examples for declension in §§ 34-9 and Appendix § xiii, and
in the formation of the Perfect Participle Passive, §§ 172-237.
6 PREFACE
It seemed worth while to try how far such a catalogue misonne,
exhibiting the formations of the Perfect Active in all the four
conjugations at a single view, might prove to be in practice the
simplest method of dealing with these apparently anomalous
forms, which have always been the crux of pupils learning
Latin. When one realizes that the learning by heart of a list
of principal parts as so many isolated forms involves the
memorizing of, on a moderate estimate, 750-1000 facts, one is
not surprised that the forms are not actually remembered
without long practice. Incidentally the pupil will learn some
historical philology ; but the purpose of my classification is
not to explain how the facts came to be what they are, but
simply to lead to a practical mastery of the forms ; and it is in
this light that it must be judged. — The Supine is no integral
part of the system of any Latin verb, except in so far as it
is employed in the periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive ; it
has, therefore, no proper title to the position which it has so
long usurped. By substituting for it the Perfect Participle
Passive we not only get rid of a multitude of bogus Supines
which have been manufactured by grammarians in order to
supply a fourth 'principal part ', but we also teach the pupil
a form which is of incomparably greater value both in itself
and as an element in the formation of the compound tenses
of the passive voice.
(4) The Subjunctive mood is treated on the lines indicated
by my previous work on the subject.1 I have here attempted
to present the results of that investigation in a form intelligible
to the beginner, and I am encouraged to think that my expo-
sition of the mood will be found useful in practice. Here, as
in several other parts of my book, I have aimed at lucidity
rather than brevity. But I have not included, here or else-
where, any usages which go beyond what a pupil comes across
in his everyday reading of authors like Caesar and Virgil.
1 The Unity of the Latin Subjunctive : A Quest (John Murray, Albemarle
Street, W., 1910).
PREFACE 7
(5) Most of my examples in syntax are designedly taken
from Caesar, and where possible from the books of the Gallic
War most commonly read in schools. Caesar is an admirable
exponent of Latin prose usage, and an interesting author if he
is studied properly. But, apart from this, the advantage of
teaching syntax by way of examples which may have been
already met with in the course of reading is very great ; and
I have rarely gone for my examples beyond the range of
books commonly read in schools.
(6) In the treatment of the ablative case I have adopted
a principle which is new in Latin grammar, though it is impli-
citly recognized by all grammarians, viz. that the meanings of
the ablative depend to a great extent on the meaning of the
noun used and on that of the verb or adjective or adverb with
which it is used (§ 12, §428). An ablative like hora stands on
an altogether different footing from ablatives like Roma and
sagilta ; and I believe this fact ought to be recognized in the
earliest stages of teaching, as an aid to understanding. I have
carried out the principle in §§ 429-51 of the syntax.
(7) In regard to the pronunciation of Latin, I have adopted
the scheme of the Classical Association,1 which has been
officially recognized by the Board of Education and is rapidly
coming into general use. In the matter of the marking of the
quantities of vowels I have carried out the principle recom-
mended by the Classical Association,2 and recently endorsed
by a resolution of the Classical Association of Scotland. In
matters of phonology and syllable division I have been guided
by Niedermann's Outlines of Latin Phonetics?
I am indebted to several friends for help and counsel.
With my colleague, Mr. C. D. Chambers, I have discussed
almost every point dealt with in this grammar, and he has
1 The Pronunciation of Latin (John Murray, Albemarle Street, W., 1906).
2 On the Teaching of Latin and Greek, p. 2 : ' That in texts of Latin authors
intended for the use of beginners the quantities of long vowels be marked,
except in syllables where they would be also " long by position 'V
3 Translated by Strong and Stewart (George Routledge and Sons, 1910).
8 PREFACE
given me much assistance in preparing parts of the MS. for
press. Dr. H. Blase, of Mainz, has been so good as to read my
MS. of the syntax on the Subjunctive and the Cases. He and
Prof. W. R. Hardie, of Edinburgh, and Prof. R. M. Henry,
of Belfast, who have read the whole of my proof, have ren-
dered me the inestimable service of sympathetic criticism, and
at many points my book has profited by suggestions they
have made. Mr. W. E. P. Pantin, Secretary of the Joint
Committee on Grammatical Terminology, has read part of my
proof, and to him too I owe several useful hints. My former
pupil, Dr. Henry Thomas, of the British Museum, has done
me the kindness of reading the MS. of my Subjunctive and
suggesting various modifications of detail.
My best thanks are also due to the officials of the Clarendon
Press for the help they have given me in the production of
the book.
E. A. S.
CONTENTS
PART I -ACCIDENCE
FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS
SECTIONS PAGE
1-10 Introduction n
11-13 General meanings of the cases ... 18
14-54 Declension of nouns and adjectives ... 19
55 The Locative Case 32
56-65 Gender of nouns 32
66-72 Comparison of adjectives 35
73-77 Formation of adverbs from adjectives 37
78, 79 Comparison of adverbs 38
80-95 Numeral adjectives 39
96-101 Personal pronouns ....... 44
1 02 The emphasizing adjective ipse .... 46
103 Possessive adjectives .... 47
104-109 Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns . . 47
no Interrogative pronoun and adjective ... 49
111-118 Indefinite pronouns and adjectives .... 50
119-121 Relative pronoun and adjective .... 52
122-124 Table of corresponding words 53
125-138 Meanings of voices, moods, tenses, verb-adjectives,
and verb-nouns 55
139,140 Conjugation of voco, with meanings ... 60
141,142 Conjugation of sum, with meanings ... 62
143-148 Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives, and
verb-nouns in the four conjugations ... 64
149-151 The four conjugations, active voice ... 66
152, 153 Formation of the passive voice .... 68
154,155 Conjugation of vocor, with meanings ... 70
156-158 The four conjugations, passive voice . . 72
I59~I63 The mixed conjugation . . 75
164-169 Deponent verbs . . 77
170-237 Principal parts of verbs 80
238-249 Irregular verbs ... -95
10
CONTENTS
SECTIONS
i-xxii
xxiii-xxvii
xxviii-xxxvii
xxxviii-xl
xli, xlii
APPENDIX TO PART I
Peculiarities of declension
Exceptions to rules of gender .
Notes on verbs
The Calendar, Roman money, Abbreviations
Alphabetical list of Principal Parts
PAGE
104
107
109
in
114
250-268
269-290
291-367
292-312
3x3-3i7
318-364
365-367
368-454
368-377
378
379-397
380-393
394-397
398-415
416-427
428-454
429-451
452-454
455-5°9
456-485
486-499
500-502
503-506
507-509
5*0-5*9
520-533
534-550
PART II— SYNTAX
I. The sentence and its parts .... 123
II. Agreement of the parts of the sentence
with one another 128
III. Moods and tenses ... . 137
Tenses of the indicative mood . . . 137
The imperative mood 146
The subjunctive mood 147
Sequence of tenses 175
IV. Cases and prepositions 178
The nominative case and impersonal verbs . 178
The vocative case 181
The accusative case 181
(a) without a preposition . . . 181
(b] with a preposition . . . . 185
The dative case 188
The genitive case 195
The ablative case '200
(a) without a preposition . . . 200
(b) with a preposition .... 208
V. Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives . . .211
The infinitive .... .212
The participles ... . 225
The gerund adjective 230
The gerund .... .232
The supines 234
VI. Pronouns and indicating adjectives . . 236
VII. Classification of sentences and clauses. . 240
VIII. Reported speech 248
IX. Order of words 256
INDEX .263
PART I. ACCIDENCE
INTRODUCTION
1 LATIN is a member of the great Indo-European family of
languages, to which English also belongs. Hence many
Latin constructions and some Latin forms are similar to
English constructions and forms.
French is an altered form of Latin. Hence French, too,
stands in a close relation to English. Moreover, after the
Norman Conquest many French words were taken over into
English, and the forms and constructions of Norman French
had an influence in moulding the structure of the English
language. In this way English was brought into a still
closer relation to French and Latin. And since that date the
vocabulary of English has been enriched by the introduction
of a large number of Latin and French words.
We shall see that Latin, French, and English have much
in common — a fact which is due partly to their common
ancestry, partly to the influence which French and Latin
have had on English.
2 Comparison of Latin with modern languages. When
we compare an ordinary Latin sentence with its English or
French translation, we notice two important differences, apart
from the differences in the words used.
Populus Romanus nationes barbaras Britanniae
The nation Roman the tribes barbarous of Britain
expeditionibus Caesaris non debellaverat :
by the expeditions of Caesar not had subdued'.
i. e. The Roman nation had not subdued the barbarous tribes of
Britain by (by means of) the expeditions of Caesar.
Haec hodie facere non possum :
These things to-day do not I can :
i. e. I cannot do these things to-day.
Note that
(i) the order of the words is quite different ;
(ii) some of the English words have no Latin words to
correspond to them : 'the', 'of, 'by', 'had', 'things', 'I'.
12 INTRODUCTION
(i) Order of Words. • The normal Latin order differs
from the normal English order in two important respects.1
RULE i. Most adjectives, when not specially emphatic,
come immediately after the noun to which they belong in
sense, as in French : e. g. Romanus after populus, barbaras
after nationes ; cf. French k peuple rotnain, les peuples bar-
bares.
RULE 2. Adverbs and objects usually come before (most
adverbs immediately before) the words to which they belong
in sense : e. g. non (adverb) and nationes barbaras Britanniae
(object) both before debellaverat ; haec (object) and hodie
(adverb) both before facere ; facere (object) before possum;
non (adverb) before possum.
These rules apply also, for the most part, to words and
groups of words which are equivalent to adjectives and ad-
verbs ; for example, they apply to cases of nouns used
adjectivally or adverbially ; thus we have Caesaris l of Caesar '
(adjectival = 'Caesarian') after expedttionibus, arid expeditionibus
(adverbial) before debellaverat-
The second rule causes the chief difficulty to the English
reader of Latin. For in any group of Latin words containing
an adverb or an object, the most important word, that on
which the sense depends, comes at the end of the group, and
not at the beginning, as generally in English. But in English,
too, the Latin order is sometimes found, especially in poetry :
How happy is the blameless vestal's lot
The world forgetting, by the world forgot. (PoPE.)
The reader of Latin must therefore learn to break up Latin
sentences into groups of words that go together:
Populus Romanus | nationes barbaras Britanniae | expedi-
tionibus Caesaris | non debellaverat. The art of reading
Latin depends on forming the habit of breaking up sentences
1 By the ' normal order ' is meant the usual order in prose ; the order in
verse is much freer.
INTRODUCTION 13
in this way, and of expecting the words to come in the order
demanded by the rules.
4 (ii) English words not expressed by separate words
in Latin. Note the following points :
(a) Latin has no articles, definite or indefinite : thus ex-
peditio might mean either 'an expedition ' or 'the expedition '.
(b) The subject of a Latin finite verb is often only
indicated by the inflexion of the verb : e. g. possum, ' I can ',
possumus, ( we can.' But Latin also has pronouns, which
may be used in the nominative case for the sake of emphasis
or contrast : e. g. ego possum, tu non poles, ' I can, you cannot '
(French moitjepeux] toi, tu ne peux pas).
(c) The compound tenses of the active voice of English
verbs are expressed by simple tenses of Latin : debellaverat,
'had subdued', debellabat, 'was subduing', debellabit, 'will
subdue.'
(d) The meaning of some prepositions maybe expressed in
Latin by the inflexion of a noun or pronoun. Thus in § 2
' of and ' by ' are expressed by the inflected forms called the
genitive case and the ablative case ('by the expeditions of
Caesar ', expedltibnibus Caesaris). Other English prepositions
whose meaning may be expressed in certain phrases by
a Latin case without a preposition are ' to ', ' for ', ' from ',
' with ', ' at ', ' on ', ' in ' ; see §§ n, 12.
But Latin also has prepositions, which are sometimes
necessary to express the sense, especially in prose ; for
example, ' an expedition has been prepared by Caesar ' would
be in Latin ' expedltio a Caesare parata est ' ; even 'of may
in certain phrases be expressed by a preposition, e. g. ' one
of many', 'unus de mulfis' (compare French de). And
the meaning of the prepositions 'before', 'after', 'across',
'without', and many others is always expressed by a pre-
position in Latin (ante, post, trans, sine, &c.).
H INTRODUCTION
Pronunciation of Latin.
5 The Latin vowels had much the same sounds as they have
in French, Italian, and German. The chief difference
between Latin and French is that the Latin u was pronounced
like oo in English, not like the French u in lune.
In the following English words the vowels have nearly the
same sounds as the Latin a, e, i, o, u :
aha, demesne, intrigue ', sorrow, cuckoo.
a like French a in pate or English a in father-, e. g. mater.
a (the same sound shortened) like French a in pas or the
first a in English aha : e. g. pater.
e like French e in e'te, but lengthened ; or English a in fate
without the faint /'-sound at the end : e. g. me. The Lat. e
was what is called a ' close e '.
e like English e in fret or French e in nette : e. g. tenet.
The Latin e was what is called an 'open e'.
I like i in English machine, French rire or lie : e. g. imus.
I like i in English in, pit : e. g. regit.
6 like French 6 in mole or French eau in beau ; or
English o in home without the faint w-sound at the end : e. g.
Roma.
6 like o in English hot or French mo/: e. g. hominem.
u like English oo in too or French ou in goute : e. g. tu.
u (the same sound shortened) like English oo in took or
French ou in goutte : e. g. consul.
y (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words) like French
u in lune : sometimes long, e. g. Lydia ; sometimes short,
e. g. tyrannus.
6 Diphthongs (double vowel sounds) are produced by running
two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single
long syllable.
The Latin diphthongs were pronounced somewhat as
follows :
ae like English at in aisle: e.g. taedae.
au like English ou in loud: e.g. laudo.
INTRODUCTION 15
ei like English ey in grey : e. g. eia (Interjection).
eu like English ew in new : e. g. seu, heu.
oe like English 02' in boil: e.g. poena.
ui like French oz/z'('yes') : e.g. huic. The word cui (dat.
sing, of quis and qui] was sometimes pronounced as two short
syllables, cm, like the two vowels of the English ruin.
7 The consonants were pronounced by the Romans much
as they are pronounced in English, except the following :
c, always like English c in can (= k) : e. g. cano, cecini ;
condicio, scit.
g, always like English g in good : e. g. rego, regis,
regam, reges, regunt; regie.
s, always like English 5 in seal, gas : e. g. sus, rosa.
z (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words), probably like
English dz in adze : e. g. Zephyrus, gaza.
t, always like English t in ten : tenet, natio, fortia.
i consonant (sometimes written /), like English y in yoke:
e. g. iugum, iacere, cuius, huius, eius.
u consonant (generally written v\ like English w in wall,
wine : e. g. vallum, vmum.
qu and ngu before a vowel were pronounced as in the
English queen, anguish (not like the French qu in qui, que] :
e. g. qui, anguis. Similarly, su was pronounced like English
sw in sweet in the three words suavis, suadeo, suesco, and
their derivatives.
Doubled consonants (//, mm, nn, rr, tt, &c.) were both pro-
nounced : e. g. coMis, Cot-ta.
Quantity of Syllables.
8 By the quantity of a syllable is meant the amount of time
which is taken to pronounce it. A long syllable is considered
to be equal in duration to two short syllables.
A syllable is long in two cases :
(i) when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : e. g. me,
matres, regt, taedae, laudo ;
(ii) when it contains a short vowel followed by two or
16 INTRODUCTION
more consonants other than a mute (c, g; t, d-y p, b) or f
and a liquid (r, I) : dent, /rate, anc^nt, aimani. The
double consonants x (= cs) and z (= dz, § 7) count as two
consonants; thus dux and the first syllable ofgaza are long.
The letter h and the u in qu do not count as consonants.
Thus the first syllable of adhuc, hquor, neque, &c., is short.
A syllable is short when its vowel-sound is short and is
followed either by no consonant or by only one consonant :
eS°t -<lue> dat, dabat, rapere. Syllables in which a short vowel-
sound is followed by a mute or / and a liquid are properly
short, except when the mute and the liquid belong to different
parts of a compound word, as in abripere, neglegere.
9 In order to understand the reason for these rules it is
necessary to consider the division of Latin words into
syllables, as pronounced. The rules for syllable division
are (as in French) : l
(i) A single consonant is pronounced with the following
vowel : ma-ter, ca-dit, bo-nus, no-men.
(ii) Two or more consonants are divided between two
syllables, except when the first consonant is a mute or/and the
second one of the liquids r or /. In this case the two con-
sonants are easily combined, and are therefore pronounced
together at the beginning of a syllable (except in compounds) :
la-crima, a-grum, pa-frem, va-fra, lo-cu-ples, A-tlas, &c.
From these rules of syllable division the quantity of
syllables is at once intelligible. A syllable is long when it
ends (i) with a long vowel or diphthong, (ii) with two or more
consonants (trabs, hiems, dant) or a double consonant (dux),
(iii) with a single consonant followed by a syllable which
begins with a consonant (ar-ma, ad-sum, con-dit, vac-ca, bel-Ius,
ab-ripere, con-traho). In this case the first consonant is
separated from the second by a slight pause.
All other syllables are short : viz. (i) those ending with
a short vowel (e-go, be-ne, nia-/e,pi-a, a-gri,pa-tre, &c.); (ii) those
4 See French Gram. § IT.— The rule of the Roman grammarians which led
to divisions like ma-gnus, ae-sias, di-cins has been shown to be mistaken.
INTRODUCTION 17
containing a short vowel followed by a single consonant (dat)
and not followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant.
In connected discourse (prose or verse) the words are run
on together, so that the first syllable of the next word counts
as the next syllable, within the limits of the sentence or clause
or, in verse, generally of the line.
In this grammar long vowels are marked (a, e, I, 6, u),
except where they are followed by two or more con-
sonants such as themselves make the syllable long, apart
from the length of the vowel.1 Short vowels have no
mark over them, except for some special reason (as in
§ 5). Diphthongs, being necessarily long, are also not
marked.
10 Accent. All Latin words of more than one syllable had an
accent (stress), which did not necessarily fall on a long
syllable. In words of three or more syllables, if the last
syllable but one was long it was also accented ; if short, the
accent fell on the last syllable but two : thus vocabo, honestus ;
but vocaverit, hone'stwr, hominis, homiriibus.
In words of two syllables the first was accented, whether
it was long or short : thus mater, pater, v8co, Miisds.
The words -que, 'and ', -ve, i or', -ne (used in asking questions)
and -cum ' with ' counted as part of the word to which they
were attached in speaking and writing ; and the accents fell
in accordance with the above rules : thus Musasque, paterve,
vocone ? ; but Musaque, rdsdve, mihine ?.
In words that had lost a syllable the accent might fall on
the last syllable remaining : e. g. tanton (for tantone), tstilnc
(for istun-ce). But apart from such cases no Latin words
of two or more syllables were accented on the last syllable.
Contrast French.
1 When a word, whose vowel is marked long on the above principle,
enters into composition with another word, the mark of length is retained ;
e. g. noiiMe, mosque, iindecim, vendo.
FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS
General meanings of the Cases.
MOST Latin nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have inflected
forms called ' cases ', which differ from one another in
meaning, though not always in form. Note that (i) all
neuter nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have the same form
in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases, both in the
singular and in the plural number ; (ii) all nouns have the
same form in the dative as in the ablative plural; (iii) the
vocative does not differ from the nominative in form, except
in the singular number of nouns and adjectives of the 2nd
declension in us (§§ 16, 18, 22).
The general meanings of the nominative, vocative, accusa-
tive, genitive, and dative cases are the same as in English :
Nominative. Patria mihi est Britannia. My country is
(lit. To me the country is) Britain.
Vocative. Te, patria, amo. / love thee, my country.
Accusative. Patriam amo. / love my country.
Genitive. Litora patriae relinquo. / am leaving my
country's shores (or the shores of my
country).
Vincet amor patriae. The love of country
will prevail.
Dative. Patriae libertatem dedit. He gave his coun-
try freedom, or He gave freedom to his
country.
Non tibi ipsl sed patriae natus es. You are
born not for yourself but for your
country.
FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS 19
12 The ABLATIVE is a case peculiar to Latin. Its meaning
depends partly on the meaning of the noun used and of the
verb with which it is used. Thus with a verb denoting 'to
expel ' the abl. may express the idea of ' from ' : patria ex-
pulsus est, ' he has been expelled from his country '. The
abl. of a noun denoting an instrument may express the idea
of 'with', or 'by means of': aquilam sagitta necavit, 'he
killed an eagle with (or by means of) an arrow '. The abl.
of a noun denoting a period of time may express the idea of
' at ', ' on ', ' in ' : prima hora diel, ' at the first hour of the
day ' ; hoc die, t on this day ' ; hoc anno, * in this year.'
Note that the abl. of a noun denoting a material object
could not express the idea of ' on ' or ' in ' in prose : for
instance prima mensd could not mean 'on the first table',
nor could hoc horto mean ' in this garden '. In these and
similar instances the abl. would take a preposition in prose :
in prima mensa, in hoc horto. Similarly, ex patria (or a patria)
venit, 'he comes from his native land ' ; cum patre vwit, ' he
lives with his father ' ; a patre amdtur, ' he is loved by his
father.'
13 Names of towns and a few other nouns (including names
of small islands which had only one town of importance in
them, after which they were called) have also a LOCATIVE CASE
denoting 'at', 'in', or 'on'; see § 55.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
14 Latin nouns are arranged in five declensions, according to
the endings of the genitive singular and the genitive plural :
Ending of Gen. Sing. Ending of Gen. Plur.
ist Declension ae arum
2nd „ I orum
3rd „ is um
4th ,, us uum
5th ,, ' ei erum
Latin adjectives have forms similar to (though not exactly
the same as) those of nouns.
B 2
2O
ACCIDENCE
Nouns of the First Declension.
insula, {., island.
Singular
Plural
N., V.
insula
insulae
Ace.
insulam
insulas
Gen.
insulae
insularum
Dal.
AbL
insulae
insula
insulls
EXAMPLES FOR DECLENSION —
Fern.: fuga, flight; hora, hour; iniuria, injury; via, road;
victoria, victory ] lulia, Julia.
Masc. : agricola, husbandman] nauta, sailor] perfuga,
deserter] Catillna, Catiline.
Nouns of the Second Declension.
16 dominus, m., owner bellum, n., war
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Norn.
Voc.
dominus
domine
| dominl
tbellum
[bella
Ace.
dominum
dominos
j
Gen.
dominl
dominorum
belli
bellorum
Dat.
AbL
f domino
dominls
jbello
} bellls
Examples for declension are given in § 21. For nouns in
t'us, turn see § 22.
magister, m., teacher puer, m., boy
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N.t V.
magister
magistri
puer
puerl
Ace.
magistrum
magistros
puerum
pueros
Gen.
magistri
magistrorum
puen
puerorum
Dat.
Abl.
| magistro
| magistrls
[puero
(• puerls
Examples for declension are given in § 21.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 21
Vir, m., man (as distinct from woman) is declined as follows :
Smg. virum, virl, viro; Plur. virl, viros, virorum, virls.
Adjectives like nouns of the 2nd and the ist declension.
18 T. cams, cara, carum, dear (like dominus, insula, helium, p. 20)
Singular
Plural
masc. fern. neut.
masc.
fern.
neut.
N.
V.
carus cara carum
care cara carum
f carl
carae
cara
Ac.
carum caram carum
caros
caras
cara
G.
carl carae carl
carorum
cararum
carorum
D.
Ab.
caro carae caro
card cara caro
j carls
carls
carls
19 2. creber, crebra, crebrum, frequent (like magister in the
masc.)
Singular
Plural
masc. fern. neut.
masc. fern. neut.
N.
V.
| creber crebra crebrum
\ crebrl crebrae crebra
Ac.
crebrum crebram crebrum
crebros crebras crebra
G.
crebrl crebrae crebii
crebr5rum crebrarum crebrorum
D.
Ab.
crebro crebrae crebro
crebro crebra crebr5
\ crebris crebris crebrTs
20 3- liber, llbera, hberum, free (like puer in the masc. Here
the e of the nom. sing, is retained throughout)
Singular
Plural
masc. few* neut.
masc. fern. neut.
N.
V.
\ liber llbera llberum
[iTberl ITberae llbera
Ac.
ITberum llberam ilberum
Ilber5s liberas llbera
G.
Hberi ITberae llberl
llberorum llberarum llberorum
D.
Ab.
ITbero llberae ITbero
ITbero ITbera libero
liberls ITberls llberis
Examples for declension (like i, 2, 3) are given in § 21,
22 ACCIDENCE
EXAMPLES FOR DECLENSION (Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 20,21).
21 Like dominus : MASC. amicus, friend', annus, year ; nume-
rus, number. — FEM. lagus, beech] ulmus, elm (names of trees).
Like bellum : NEUT. periculum, danger, peril', proelium,
battle-, signum, standard] consilium, plan, counsel.
Like carus, a, um: bonus, a, um, good] antlquus, a, urn,
ancient] vacuus, a, um, empty, idoneus, a, um, fitted] tertius,
a, um, third] datus, a, um, given] tuus, a, um, your] tantus,
a, um, so great] quantus, a, um, how great? ; and all super-
latives in -issimus, a, um.
Like magister (magistr-) and creber, crebr-a, crebr-um
are declined most nouns and adjectives of the 2nd decl. in
er\ e.g. arbiter, m.; witness] faber, m., carpenter or smith]
minister, m., servant] ager, m., field] liber, m., book] aeger,
aegr-a, -um, sick ; integer, integr-a, -um, whole, entire ; pulcher,
pulchr-a, -um, fine ; sacer, sacr-a, -urn, sacred', noster, nostr-a,
-um, our.
Like puer and liber, a, um are declined only a few nouns
and adjectives : chiefly (i) liberi (no sing.), m., children, lit.
' free-born ones ' ; (2) asper, a, um, rough ; lacer, a, um, torn ;
miser, a, um, unhappy, tener, a, um, tender', (3) compounds of
-fer and/ger, like aquilifer, m., standard-bearer-, armiger, m.,
armour-bearer-, frugifer, a, um, fruit-bearing,
NOUNS IN ius, him.
22 i. Nouns (but not adjectives) in ius or ium properly form
the gen. sing, in I in prose (in verse often in -ii) :
e.g. filius, m., son, fill; negotium, n., business, negoti;
except proper names, e. g. Clodius, gen. Clodii.
2. Proper names in ius and the noun filius form the voc.
sing, in i :
e. g. Vergilius, Vergili ; Gaius (three syllables), Gal.
3. Deus, m., god, has its voc. sing. = nom. sing., and
generally contracts two syllables into one in the nom., voc.,
dat., and abl. plural : di, dis ] gen. sometimes deum.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 23
Nouns of the Third Declension.
23 Class A (Consonant stems with gen. plur. in -urn).
Those nouns of the 3rd decl. which have one more syllable
in the genitive singular than in the nominative singular and
only one consonant before the ending of the gen. sing, form
the genitive plural in um.
24 (i) Nominative singular formed without any suffix.
MASCULINES AND FEMININES
victor, m., victor. natio, f., tribe.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
Ace.
victor
victor-em
\ victor-es
natio
nation-em
r nation-es
Gen.
victor-is
victor-um
nation-is
nation-um
Dat.
Abl.
victor-I
victor-e
jvictor-ibus
nation-!
nation-e
jnation-ibus
25
NEUTERS
nomen, n., name.
tempus, n., time.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N.,V.,A.
nomen
nomin-a
tempus
tempor-a
Gen.
nomm-is
nomin-um
tempor-is
tempor-um
Dat.
Abl.
nomin-i
nomin-e
|nomin-ibus
tempor-I
tempor-e
| tempor-ibus
26 (ii) Nominative singular formed with the suffix -5 (before
which a dental disappears).
CHIEFLY FEMININE
hiems, f., winter. clvitas, f., state.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
Ace.
hiem-s
hiem-em
[hiem-es
j
clvita-s
civitat-em
jclvitat-es
Gen.
hiem-is
hiem-um
clvitat-is
civitat-um
Dat.
Abl.
hiem-I
hiem-e
thiem-ibus
clvitat-i
clvitat-e
| clvitat-ibus
Examples for declension (like i, ii) are given in §§ 34-9.
24 ACCIDENCE
27 Class B (Vowel stems with gen. plur. in -i-um). Those
nouns of the 3rd decl. which have either the same number of
syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing, or two con-
sonants before the ending of the gen. sing, form the genitive
plural in him.1
28 (i) With the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as
in the nom. sing.
navis, f., ship.
caedes, f., massacre.
Sing.
Plur. Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
navi-s
naves caede-s
caedes
Ace.
navem
naves caedem
caedes
Gen.
navis
navium caedis
caedium
Dat.
Abl.
navl
nave
) _ ., caedi
r navibus
| caede
| caedi bus
OBS. The abl. sing, of words like navis often ends in -*, and
the ace. plur. of nouns like navis and caedes in -7s.
29 (ii) With two consonants before the ending of the gen.
sing, (which has one more syllable than the nom. sing.).
urbs, f., city.
gens, f., clan.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing. Plur.
N., V.
urb-s
urbes
gen-s
gentes
Ace.
urbem
urbes
gentem
gentes
Gen.
urbis
urbium
gentis
gentium
Dat.
Abl.
urbi
urbe
r urbibus
gentl
gente
| gentibus
OBS. The ace. plur. of nouns like urbs and gens often ends
in -is.
30 (iii) Neuters in e with the same number of syllables in the
gen. sing, as in the nom. sing., and those which have dropped
the e of the nom. sing, and so end in al or ar. Note the abl.
sing, and nom. plur.
Most of these nouns come from stems in ; («<7w'-, nrbi-} insigni-, <&c.).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 25
insigne, n., badge. animal, n., animal \
N., V., A.
Sing.
insigne
Plur.
insignia
Sing.
animal
Plur.
animalia
Gen.
msignis
insignium
animalis
ahimalium
D., Ab.
insigni
insignibus
animall
animalibus
Most of these neuters were originally adjectives. Thus
animal (originally animate) meant 'possessed of life', from
anima.
Examples for declension (like i, ii, iii) are given in §§ 40-5.
Adjectives like nouns of the 3rd declension.
31 Adjectives of this kind are declined like the nouns of
Class B on the opposite page, excepting that the ablative
singular always ends in I (not e).
(i) brevis, m., f., breve, n., short, brief (like navis § 28, and
insigne § 30).
Singular
Plural
masc. and fern. neut.
masc. and fern. neut.
N., V.
brevi-s breve
breves brevia
Ace.
brevem breve
breves brevia
Gen.
brevis
brevium
Dat.
Abl.
brevl
brevibus
|2 (2) acer, m., acris, f., acre, n., keen, differs from brevis, breve
only in the nom. sing. masc.
Singular
Plural
masc.
fern.
neut.
masc. and fern.
neut.
N., V.
acer
acri-s
acre
acres
acria
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
acres
acna
Gen.
acris
acnum
Dat.
Abl.
1
acrl
acribus
26
ACCIDENCE
33 (3) ingerijs, m., f., n., huge (like gens § 29 in the masc. and
fem. Note the nom. and ace. sing, neut.)
M, v.
Ace.
Gen,
Dat.
Abl
Singular
masc. and fem. neut.
ingen-s ingen-s
ingentem ingen-s.
ingentis
ingenti
Plural
masc. and fem. neut.
ingentes ingentia
ingentes ingentia
ingentium
ingentibus
OBS. The ace. plur. (masc. and fem.) of adjectives like the
above (i, 2, 3) often ends in -Is.
Examples for declension are given in §§ 46-8.
EXAMPLES OF NOUNS OF THE 3RD DECLENSION
34 Class A. The only difficulty in words of this class,
especially those which end in 5, is to find out the stem of the
word from the form of the nominative singular ; in many of
these words the English derivatives, formed from the stem,
provide a key.
(i) Like victor (§ 24).
(a) with long vowel in stem : imperator, m., general, and
many others in tor (derived from the stems of verbs ; imperator
= is qui imperat)] clamor, m., shout] honor or honos, m.,
honour] sol, m., sun.
(b) with short vowel in stem: Caesar, m., Caesar] agger,
m., mound] consul, m., consul] arbor, f., tree; mulier, f.,
woman.
To this group belong a number of words with nom. sing,
ending in s, which is part of the stem, appearing as r in the
other cases :
mos, m., custom
flos, m., flower
pulvis, m., dust
[moral]
| floral]
[pulverize]
STEM mor-
STEM flor-
STEM pulver-
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 27
(2) Like natio (§ 24). Here the stem ends in n :
(a) with long 5 in last syllable of stem : eruptio, f., sortie ;
legio, f., legion ; oratio, f., speech ; ratio, f., reason ; regio, f.,
region ; sermo, m., discourse [sermon].
(6) with short / in last syllable of stem :
longitudo, f., length
multitude, f., multitude
ordo, m., rank
longitudinal]
multitudinous]
ordinary]
STEM longitudin-
STEM multitudin-
STEM ordin-
So consuetudo, f., habit, STEM consuetudin- ; homo, m.,
man, STEM homin-.
|6 (3) Like nomen (§25): agmen, n., army on the march,
advancing column-, crimen, n., accusation] flurrien, n., river-,
caput, n., head [capital], STEM capit-.
m (4) Like tempus (§ 25). The final s is part of the stem, as
in mds above. The last syllable of the stem of these neuters
is generally short.
corpus, n., body
decus, n., ornament
litus, n., shore
genus, n., kind
latus, n., side
onus, n., burden
opus, n.
work
pondus, n., weight
vulnus, n., wound
ius, n., right
rus, n., country
os, n., mouth
cadaver, n., corpse
robur, n., strength
"corporal]
decorate]
STEM corpor-
STEM decor-
literal]
STEM litor-
general]
STEM gener-
lateral]
STEM later-
onerous]
STEM oner-
operate]
STEM oper-
ponderous]
STEM ponder-
vulnerable]
STEM vulner-
jurist]
STEM iur-
rural]
STEM rur-
"oral]
STEM or-
'cadaverous]
STEM cadaver-
cor-roborate]
STEM robor-
28
ACCIDENCE
plebeian]
principal |
STEM
STEM
pleb-
princip
pacify]
STEM
pac-
legal]
STEM
leg-
vocal]
STEM
voc-
ducal]
STEM
duc-
judicial]
STEM
iiidic-
radical]
STEM
radlc-
regal]
STEM
reg-
38 (5) Like hiems (§ 26).
plebs, f., rabble
princeps, m., chief
pax (x = cs), f., peace
lex (x = gs), f., law
vox, f., voice
dux, m. or f., leader
iudex, m., judge
radix, f., root
rex, m., king
39 (6) Like civitas (§ 26). A dental (/ or d] or n of the stem
has been dropped before the suffix 5.
aestas, f., summer-, calamitas, f., disaster-, libertas, f., liberty.
miles, m. or f., soldier
hospes, m. or f., host
quies, f., rest
salus, f., welfare
virtus, f., valour
custos, m. or f., guardian
sacerdos, m. or f., priest (-e
lapis, m., stone
obses, m. or f., hostage
laus, f., praise
palus, f., marsh
pes, m.,foot
sanguis, m. blood
40 Class B.
(i) Like na vis (§ 28):
classis, f., fleet \ finis, m., end; hostis, m. or f., enemy;
collis, m., hill; funis, m., rope; orbis, m., circle.
41 (2) Like caedes (§ 28) :
aedes (plur.), f., house; nubes, f., cloud; moles, f., mass;
clades, f., disaster; fames, f., hunger; sedes, f., seat.
42 (3) Like urbs (§ 29) :
arx, f., stronghold, gen. arc-is ; falx, f., sickle, gen. falc-is.
[military]
[hospitable]
STEM
STEM
milit-
hospit-
[quiet]
STEM
quiet-
[salutary]
STEM
salut-
STEM
virtut-
[custodian]
STEM
custod-
[sacerdotal]
STEM
sacerdot
[dilapidated]
STEM
lapid-
STEM
obsid-
[laudable]
STEM
laud-
STEM
paliid-
[biped]
STEM
ped-
[sanguinary]
STEM
sanguin-
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 29
43 (4) Like gens (§ 29) :
(a) with nt before the ending of the gen. sing. : cliens, m.
or f., client] mens; f., mind] mons, m., mountain.
(b) with other consonants before the ending of the gen.
sing. : ars, f., art, art-is ; pars, f., part, part-is ; mors, f., death,
mort-is ; cohors, f., cohort, cohort-is ; nox, f., night, noct-is.
44 (5) Like insigne (§ 30) :
cubile, n., lair] ovlle, n., sheep-fold] mare, n., sea ; pene-
trale, n., inner sanctuary.
45 (6) Like animal (§ 30) :
tribunal, n., platform ; vectigal, n., tax ; calcar, n., spur ;
exemplar, n., pattern.
EXAMPLES OF ADJECTIVES LIKE NOUNS OF THE 3RD
DECLENSION
46 (i) Like brevis, breve (§ 31) :
facilis, e, easy; fortis, e, brave] gravis, e, heavy; inermis,
e, unarmed', omnis, e, all; utilis, e, useful; talis, e, such
( = of such a kind); qualis, e, of what kind'?.
47 (2) Like acer, acris, acre (§ 32) :
alacer, cris, ere, lively ; celeber, bris, bre, celebrated ;
equester, tris, tre, equestrian ; volucer, cris, ere, winged; and
the adjectives September, October, November, December
(bris, bre), e.g. mense Septembri, in September.
48 (3) Like ingens (§ 33) :
frequens, numerous; praesens, present; potens, powerful]
prudens, prudent ; recens, recent.
Also some with only one consonant before the ending
of the gen. sing., e. g. audax, gen. audacis, audacious; felix,
gen. felicis, lucky] velox, gen. velocis, swift] Arpinas, gen.
Arpmatis, belonging to Arpinum ; optimates (plur.), aristocratic,
as a noun, aristocrats ; praeceps, gen. praecipitis (from caput,
capit-), headlong] teres, gen. teretis, shapely. Similarly (without
s in the nom. sing.) par, gen. paris, equal; impar, gen. imparis,
unequal.
30-
ACCIDENCE
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES
49 Adjectives in the comparative degree are declined like the
nouns on p. 23 (not like those on pp. 24, 25); thus the ablative
singular ends in e, the genitive plural in um, the neuter
nominative plural in a.
[The formation of the nominative singular in tor, ius is given
in § 66: e.g. car-ior, -ius, dear-cr ; brev-ior, -ius, short-er,
brief -er.]
Singular
I masc. and fern. neut.
N.,'V. ' carior carius
Ace. carior-em carius
Gen. carior-is
Dat. carior-I
Abl. carior-e
neut.
Plural
masc. and fern.
carior-es canor-a j
carior-um
carior-ibus
50 Plus, 'more' (§ 71), is declined from the stem plur-, as
follows :
| Neuter Singular
Plural
masc. and fern. neut.
Norn., Ace.
plus
plur-es plur-a
Gen.
plur-is
plOr-ium
Dat., AbL
none
. plur-ibus
51
The compound coinplur-es (masc. and fern.), complur~a
(neut.); ' several/ found only in the plural, is declined in the
same way : complur-ium, complur-ibus.
Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
exercitus, m., army. cornu, n., horn.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
Ace.
exercitus
exercitum
\ exercitus
cornu
cornua
Gen.
exercitus
exercituum
cornus
cornu um
Dat.
AbL
exercitul (or u)
exercitu
f exercitibus
cornu (or ul)
cornu
| cornibus
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 31
EXAMPLES OF NOUNS OF THE 4TH DECLEN.
1. Like exercitus.
MASC. : adventus, arrival] impetus, attack ; metus, fear]
usus, use ; currus, chariot.
FEM. : Idus (plur.), the Ides ; manus, hand.
2. Like cornu. NEUT. : genu, knee.
52 domus, f., house, home, belongs partly to the 2nd decl.
Singular
Plural
N.,V.
domus
domus
Ace.
domum
domes (2nd decl.) or domus (4^/2)
Gen. \ domus
domorum (2nd) or domuum (^th)
Dat. ; domul
Abl. domo (2nd decl.}
rdomibus
Loc.1 domi (2nd decl.) j
53
Nouns of the Fifth Declension,
res, f., thing, affair.
Singular
Plural
N., V.
Ace.
res
rem
} res
Gen.
rei
rerum
Dat.
Abl.
rel
re
I rebus
54 The only nouns of importance belonging to the 5th decl.
besides res 2 are dies, day (generally masc.), and the following
feminines, none of which have all cases of the plural in use :
acies, line of battle ; fades, shape, face ; fides, fidelity, pernicies,
destruction ; planities, plain ; species, appearance ; spes, hope.
Those which have an / before the es of the nom. sing, have
a long e in the gen. and dat. sing., e. g. diet, aciei.
A shorter form of the gen. and dat. sing, is sometimes found :
die, acie.
1 See § 13 and § 55.
2 The combination res publica (sometimes written as one word nspublicci},
literally ' the public interest ', ' the common weal ', means republic, common-
wealth, or constitution. The plural res publicae (found in all the cases) means
republics, commonwealths, or constitutions, and should never be translated
' public affairs ', which meaning is expressed by the singular number.
32 ACCIDENCE
THE LOCATIVE CASE (see § 13)
55 The endings of the Locative, which is used to denote
'at', 'in', or 'on' (i.e. to answer the question 'Where?'),
are as follows : —
in Singulars of the ist decl. ae : Romae, at Rome ; militiae,
on military service :
in Singulars of the 2nd decl. I : BeneventI, at Beneventuin,
Brundisii, at Brundisium ; doml, at home (§ 52), belli, in war,
huml, on the ground.
In all other nouns the locative has the same form as the
ablative : thus —
Singulars of the 3rd decl. : Carthagine, at Carthage; Tlbure,
at Tibur; riire, in the country; Neapoli, at Naples (§ 28, Obs.).
Names of towns of plural form :
ist decl. : Athems, at Athens (nom. Athenae) ; Cannls, at
Cannae.
2nd decl. : Philippis, at Philippi ; Gabiis, at Gabii.
3rd decl. : Gadibus, at Gades.
GENDER OF NOUNS1
56 The rule for the gender of NOUNS DENOTING PERSONS is
the same as in French, and there are no exceptions to it
of any importance :
Nouns that denote a MALE PERSON are masculine;
Nouns that denote a FEMALE PERSON are feminine.
The gender of these words depends on their meaning, and
has nothing to do with their form or declension.
Thus MASC. : agricola, farmer; Sulla, Sulla; Horatius,
Horace ; puer, boy ; vir, man, husband ; pater, father ;
frater, brother ; rex, king ; senex, old man ; Cupido, the
god Cupid.
FEM. : puella, girl; Cornelia, Cornelia; regina, queen;
1 On this and the two following pages masculines are printed in heavy
type, feminines in italics, and neuters in CAPITALS*
GENDER OF NOUNS 33
tnulier, woman ; uxor, wife ; soror, sister ; mater, mother ;
Venus, the goddess Venus ; anus, old woman.
57 Nouns which may denote persons of either sex are masculine
or feminine according to their application : e. g. parens meus,
my father ; parens mea, my mother ; sacerdos castus, a holy
priest ; sacerdos longaeva, an aged priestess ; civis Romanus
or civis Romdna, a Roman citizen. Similarly masc. or fern. :
comes, companion ; dux, guide ; hospes, host or hostess ; hostis,
enemy, miles, warrior.
58 NOTE, (i) This rule does not apply to nouns which denote
a collection of persons ; these follow the rules for the separate
declensions given below : e. g. natio (fern.), tribe ; plebs (fern.),
the commons; copiae (fern.), forces (plur. of copia, supply);
AUXILIA (neut.), auxiliary forces (plur. of A UXJLIUM, aid).
(ii) Words like the following do not properly denote
persons, though they are sometimes applied to persons :
MANCIPIUM, chattel (neut., sometimes applied to slaves);
deliciae, delight (= darling).1
The gender of nouns NOT DENOTING PERSONS may be mostly
found by the following rules.2
59 I. Those of the ist declension are all feminine, e.g.
horat hour ; insula, island ; tra, anger ; rtpa, bank ; vita, life.
60 II. Those of the 2nd declension in us or er are nearly all
masculine, e. g. annus, year ; hortus, garden ; numerus,
number ; ager, field ; liber, book : those of the 2nd declension
in UM are all neuter, e. g. DONUM, gift ; ISINUM, wine.
61 HI. i. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom.
sing, by adding the suffix 5 to the stem are mostly feminine :
e. g. hiem-s, winter ; cwitd-s, state ; salu-s, welfare ; virtu-s,
virtue (Class A (ii), § 26) ; ndvi-s, ship ; caede-s, massacre
(Class B (i), § 28) ; urb-s, city ; gen-s, clan ; cohor-s, cohort
(Class B (ii), § 29).
1 In a play of Plautus a lady is humorously called ' my delight, my life,
apple of my eye, tip of my lip, my salvation, my honey, my heart, my little
cream cheese '.
a The chief exceptions to these rules are given in the Appendix.
34 ACCIDENCE
62 2. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom. sing,
without the addition of the suffix s are —
feminine if the nom. sing, ends in tid, tudo, go :
e. g. ndtio, tribe ; dratio, oration ; multitude, multi-
tude, ongo, origin ; imago, image (Class A (i),
§24).
Most other nouns in io and do are also feminine :
e- g- kgt'o, legion ; formido, terror.
NEUTER if the nom. sing ends in MEN, us, UR, E, {^:
e. g. NOMEN, name ; TEMPUS, time ; ROBUR, strength
(Class A (i); § 25) ; INSIGNE, badge ; MARE, sea ;
ANIMAL, animal; EXEMPLAR, pattern (Class B (iii),
§ 30).
Note that these neuters in us differ from the feminines in us of
§ 39 in two ways : firstly, the u of the neuters is generally short,
that of the feminines is always long ; secondly, the neuters have an
r before the ending of gen. sing. Contrast TEMPUS, TEMPOR-IS,
and GENUS, GENER-IS with salu-s, salut-is.
masculine in all other cases :
e. g. labor, labour ; agger, mound ; sol, sun ;
mos, custom ; pulvis, dust ; sermo, discourse
(Class A (i), § 24).
JQr*Test the above rule by referring to the nouns on
pp. 26-9.
63 IV. Those of the 4th declension in tus and sus are all
masculine :
e. g. exercitus, army ; motus, motion ; usus, use.
So too are most of the others of the 4th decl. in us ;
e. g. currus, chariot ; gradus, step.
The two or three of the 4th declension in u are all neuter :
e. g. GENU, knee.
64 V. Those of the 5th declension are all feminine, except
di'es (§ 54).
65 The above rules apply in general to nouns denoting kinds of
animals, except that none of these are neuter. Those which would
GENDER OF NOUNS
35
be neuter according to the above rules are masculine : e. g. mus,
mouse ; vultur, vulture. But some nouns denoting kinds of animals
are masc. when they denote the male, and fern, when they denote
the female : e. g. bos, bull ; bos, cow. Some have different forms to
denote the two sexes : e. g. equus, horse ; equa, mare.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
66 The Comparative is regularly formed by adding ior (masc.
and fern.), ius (neut.) to the part of the positive which remains
when the ending of the genitive singular is removed.
The Superlative is generally formed by adding to the same
part of the positive the endings issimus (masc.), issima (fern.),
issimum (neut.) :
Superlative
car-issimus
dearest, most dear
very dear
brev-issimus
util-issimus
nobil-issimus
ingent-issimus
67 But in some adjectives the superlative is formed by adding
the endings imus (masc.), ima (fern.), imuni (neut.) —
(1) to the same part of the positive, with the final letter (/)
doubled, in the four adjectives facilis, gracilis, humilis, similis
('easy*, 'slender', 'lowly', 'like') and their compounds
(difficilis, ' difficult ', dissimilis, ' unlike ') :
facilis facil-is facil-ior, -ius facil-1-imus
(2) to the nom. sing, masc., with the final letter (r) doubled,
in all adjectives whose nom. sing. masc. ends in er : thus —
Positive
Gen. Sing.
Comparative
carus
car-I
car-ior, -ius
dear
dearer, too dear
rather dear
brevis
brev-is
brev-ior, -ius
utilis
util-is
util-ior, -ius
nobilis
nobil-is
nobil-ior, -ius
ingens
ingent-is
ingent-ior, -ius
liber
pulcher
acer
celer
llber-I
pulchr-I
acr-is
celer-is
Hber-ior, -ius
pulchr-ior, -ius
acr-ior, -ius
celer-ior, -ius
C 2
liber-r-imus
pulcher-r-imus
acer-r-imus
celer-r-imus
36 ACCIDENCE
68 Many verb-adjectives (present and perfect participles) have
degrees of comparison formed regularly : e. g. amans, loving,
amant-ior, amant-issimus ; paratus, prepared, ready, parat-ior,
parat-issimus.
69 Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel making a separate
syllable (e-us, i-us, u-us) generally form the comparative and
superlative by means of the adverbs magi's, 'more', and
maxime, ' most ' :
pius, faithful magis pius, a, um maxime pius, a, um
idoneus, suitable magis idoneus, a, um maxime idoneus, a, um
70 A similar form of speech is always used to express the
ideas of ' less ' and ' least ' :
carus, dear minus carus, a, um minime carus, a, um
For the declension of comparatives see § 49 ; superlatives
are declined like other adjectives in us, a, um, § 18.
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES
71 bonus, good mel-ior, -ius, better optimus, best
malus, bad peior, peius,1 worse pessimus, worst
magnus, great maior, maius,1 greater maximus, greatest
parvus, small min-or, -us, smaller minimus, smallest
multus, much plus (n.), more"1 plurimus, most
mult!, many plur-es, -a, more plurimi, very many
iuvenis, young iun-ior, younger [natu minimus,. youngest
senex, aged sen-ior, elder [natu maximus, eldest]
novus, new [recent-ior, -ius, fresher] novissimus, a, um, last
vetus (veter-), old [vetust-ior, -ius, older] veterrimus, oldest
propinquus, near prop-ior, -ius, nearer proximus, nearest, next
72 In the case of the following comparatives and superlatives
the corresponding positive adjective does not exist, or is
rare8:
1 Two syllables (with / pronounced as y, § 7).
2 The singular plus is used like a noun : plus vim, more wine (lit. tnore of
wine). For the declension of plus see § 50.
3 In this list only the masc. is given ; the fern, and neut. are formed
regularly.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 37
deterior, worse deterrimus, worst
exterior, outer extremus, outermost .
inferior, lower Imus i,
inhmus)
interior, inner intimus, inmost
posterior, later postremus, last
prior, former primus, first
superior, higher supremusj , . . , .
summus }'"&"'
ulterior, farther ultimus, farthest
FORMATION OF ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES
73 I. From adjectives declined like nouns of .the 2nd declen-
sion (§§ 18-20) adverbs are mostly formed by adding e to the
part of the positive which remains when the ending of the
gen. sing, is removed : —
Adjective Gen. Sing. Adverb
74 doctus doct-I doct-e
learned learnedly
pulcher pulchr-I pulchr-e
fine finely
liber llber-I llber-e
free, frank freely, frankly
But in some cases o is added instead of e :
citus, swift] cito (shortened)
creber, frequent ; crebro
falsus, false ; falso
meritus, deserved ; merito
rarus, rare ; raro
serus, late] sero
subitus, sudden ; subito
tutus, safe] tuto
necessanus, necessary ; necessano
Distinguish the following formations :
verus, true ; vere, truthfully ; vero, in truth, indeed ; verum,
but, yet (a conjunction).
certus, certain ; certe, at any rate (ego certe scio, / at any
rate know) ; certo, for certain (certo scio, / know for certain).
primus, first ; primo, at first (of time ; opposed to postea,
afterwards)] primum, first, in the first place (French premiere-
ment), cf. § 77.
38 ACCIDENCE
75 II. From adjectives declined like nouns of the 3rd decl.
(§§ 3I~3) adverbs are mostly formed by adding iter to the
part of the positive which remains when the ending of the
gen. sing, is removed : —
brevis, brief brev-is brev-iter, briefly
felix, lucky fellc-is felic-iter, luckily
Note audax, bold audac-is audac-ter, boldly
>jQ But when the adjective has nt before is in the gen. sing.,
the adverb is formed by adding er instead of iter:
prudens, prudent prudent-is prudent-er, prudently
77 III. Many adverbs are supplied by the accusative singular
neuter of adjectives, especially adjectives of quantity and
number: multum, much] aliquantum, considerably, nimium,
too much] paulum, paululum, a little] quantum, how much]
tantum, so much (or only just so much, hence only) ; solum,
only] prlmum, first, in the first place ; secundum, secondly]
tertium, thirdly, &c. So also (from facilis) facile, easily, and
all comparative adverbs (§ 78).
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
78 The Comparative of adverbs formed from adjectives is
supplied by the accusative singular neuter of the comparative
adjective : the Superlative is formed by adding e to the part
of the superlative adjective which remains when the ending
of the gen. sing, is removed : —
Positive Comparative Superlative
vere, truthfully ver-ius, more truth- verissim-e, most truth-
fully fully
pulchre, finely pulchr-ius, more finely pulcherrim-e, most finely
crebro, fre- crebr-ius, more fre- creberrim-e, most fre-
quently quently quenlly
breviter, briefly brev-ius, more briefly brevissim-e, most briefly
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
39
79 The following are irregular (either in the positive or in the
comparative and superlative) :
bene,1 well
male,1 badly
magnopere,2 greatly
multum, much
non multum)
parum )
little
me! ins, better
peius, worse
magis, more
plus, more
minus, less
optime, best
pessime, worst
maxime, most
plurimum, most
minime, least
diu, long (of time)
nuper, lately
[wanting]
prope, near
saepe, often
diutius, longer
[wanting]
potius, rather
propius, nearer
saepius, oftener
diutissime, longest
nuperrime, most recently
potissimum, especially
proxime, next
saepissime, oftenest
80
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
CARDINAL
some declinable
I anus, a, um (§ 86)
II duo, duae, duo (§ 89)
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XX
XXX
XL
L
LX
LXX
LXXX
XC
C
tres, tria (§ 89)
quattuor
quinque
sex
septem
octo
novem
decem
vlginti
triginta
quadraginta
quinquaginta
sexaginta
septuaginta
octoginta
nonaginta
centum
ORDINAL
all declinable
primus, a, um
secundus, a, um
or alter, alter-a, -urn
tertius, a, um
quartus, a, um
quintus, a, um
sextus, a, um
Septimus, a, um
octavus, a, um
nonus, a, um
decimus, a, um
vlcensimus, a, um
tricensimus, a, um
quadragensimus, a, um
quinquagensimus, a, um
sexagensimus, a, um
septuagensimus, a, um
octogensimus, a, um
nonagensimus, a, um
centensimus, a, um
1 Note the short final e in these adverbs.
2 Magnopere — magno opere (from opus ' work', 3rd decl.).
40 ACCIDENCE
CC ducenti, ae, a ' ducentensimus, a, um
CCC trecenti, ae, a trecentensimus, a, um
CCCC quadringenti, ae, a quadringentensimus, a, urn
D quingenti, ae, a quingentensimus, a, um
DC sescenti, ae, a sescentensimus, a, um
DCC septingenti, ae, a septingentensimus, a, um
DCCC octingenti, ae, a octingentensimus, a, um
DCCCC nongenti, ae, a nongentensimus, a, um
M mille (§ 83) millensimus,. a, um
Compound forms of Numeral Adjectives,
(i) The numerals 11-19:
Cardinal. Ordinal.
81 XI undecim undecimus
XII duodecim duodecimus
XIII tredecim tertius decimus
XIV quattuordecim quartus decimus
XV quindecim quintus decimus
XVI sedecim sextus decimus
XVII septendecim Septimus decimus
XVIII duodeviginti 2 duodevlcensimus
XIX undeviginti2 undevicensimus
82 (2) In compound numbers from 20-100 the smaller number
is generally placed first with et 'and ' (as in the English ' one-
and-twenty '), but the other order without et (like 'twenty-
one ') is often found ; in compound numbers above 100 the
larger number is generally placed first (without et) : —
Cardinal. Ordinal.
XXI unus (a, um) et vi- unus (a, um) et vlcensi-
gintl or vigintl unus mus (a, um) orvicensi-
(a, um) mus (a, umj primus (a,
um)
XXVIII duodetrlginta 2 duodetricensimus (a, um)
XXIX undetriginta2 undetricensimus (a, um)
CXXXIII centum triginta tres centensimus (a, um) tri-
(tria) censimus (a, um) ter-
tius (a, um)
1 The hundreds are declined regularly in the plural.
2 Numbers compounded with 8 and 9 are generally expressed by means
of det denoting subtraction ('two from twenty7, 'one from twenty', &c.):
except 98 octo et nonaginta, 99 novem et tiondginta.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
41
Where unus occurs in compound numbers, it does not
agree in number (though it does in gender and case) with the
plural noun, e.g. centum unus pedes, '101 feet*.
83 (3) Numbers above 1,000.
The numeral mille, ' thousand ', is indeclinable in the sin-
gular and is an adjective: e.g. mille homines, 'a thousand
men', cum mille hominibus, 'with a thousand men*; but the
plural milia, ' thousands' (used in multiples of 1,000), is
a neuter noun of the 3rd declension, declined like the plural
of insigne (p. 25) — milia, milium, milibus-, and it takes the
genitive after it : e.g. duo milia hominum, lit. ' two thousands
of men', i.e. '2,000 men'; cum dudbus milibus hominum,
' with 2,000 men '. But compound numbers containing
hundreds as well as thousands (e.g. '3,333 men') do not
need the genitive : tria milia trecenti triginta ires homines or
tria milia hominum et trecenti triginta tres.
84 DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
answering the question * how
many apiece ? ' (quotenl?}
singuli, ae, a, one apiece
bmi, ae, a, two apiece
term (trim), ae, a, three apiece
quaternt, ae, a, four apiece
qumi, ae, a, five apiece
sen!, ae, a, six apiece
septeni, ae, a, seven apiece
octoni, ae, a, eight apiece
noveni, ae, a, nine apiece
deni, ae, a, ten apiece
undeni, ae, a, eleven apiece
duodenl, ae, a, twelve apiece
term deni, ae, a, thirteen apiece
duodevlceni, ae, a, eighteen apiece,
§81
how
NUMERAL ADVERBS
answering the question '
many times ? ' (quotiens ?)
semel, once
bis, twice
ter, thrice
quater,four times
quinquiens,^^ times
sexiens, star times
septiens, seven times
octiens, eight times
noviens, nine times
deciens, ten times
undeciens, eleven times
duodeciens, twelve times
terdeciens, thirteen times
duodevlciens, eighteen times
The others can be found from the cardinals by changing the
ending: thus —
ACCIDENCE
vlcem, ae, a, 20 apiece
viceni (ae, a) singuli (ae, a)
21 apiece
triceni, ae, a, 30 apiece
quadrageni, ae, a, 40 apiece
&c. (-gem for -gintd, § 80)
centeni, ae, a, 100 apiece
duceni, ae, a, 200 apiece
treceni, ae, a, joo apiece
quadringenl, ae, a, </oo <z^zVr<
&c. (-gem for -Dials', § 80)
viciens, 20 times
semel et viciens, 21 times
trlciens, jo times
quadragiens, 40 times
&c. (-giens for -ginta, § 80)
centiens, 100 times
ducentiens, 200 times
trecentiens, joo times
quadringentiens, 400 times
&c. (-tens for -t, § 80)
Note—
singula mllia, 7,000 apiece
blna mllia, 2,000 apiece
centena mllia, 100,000 apiece
deciens centena mllia, 1,000,000 apiece
miliens
bis miliens
centiens miliens
deciens centiens mlliens
85 The distributives, except singuli, ae, a, are sometimes used as
cardinals: (i) with plural nouns which have singular meaning:
blna castra, two camps ; (ii) in multiplication : bis blna sunt quattuor,
twice two is (or are) four-, deciens centena mllia sestertium(gen.plur.),
ten times a hundred thousand sesterces (— a million sesterces) ;
(iii) in poetry, denoting a group : blna pocula, a pair of cups.
DECLENSION OF CERTAIN NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
86 unus, solus, totus, ullus, nullus (gen. sing. -ius, dat.
sing. -I).
unus, una, linum, one (or alone, only)
Singular
Plural
masc. fern. neut.
masc.
fern. neut.
Norn.
Onus una unum
uni
unae una
Voc.
une una unum
uni
unae una
Ace.
unum unam unum
unos
unas una
Gen.
unms
unorum
unarum unorum
Dat.
Abl.
uni
uno una uno
1
unls
87 The plural of unus is used (i) in the sense of ' alone' : uni
ex omnibus Sequam, ' the Sequani alone of all ' ; tres unos
passus ambulavit, ' he walked only three steps ' : (2) with
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
43
nouns whose plural has singular meaning, e. g. una castra,
' one camp ' ; unae litterae, ' one letter * (= una epistula}.
88 Like unus, a, um are declined the following adjectives of
kindred meaning :
solus totus ullus * nullus 1
alone whole any at all not any at all
All these adjectives (including unus} are sometimes found with
a short i in the gen. sing. (-ius) in the poets, that form being more
convenient for some kinds of verse. — For examples showing the
meaning of ullus see § 116.
80 duo, duae, duo, two tres, tria, three
masc. fern. neut.
masc. and fern. neut.
Norn.
duo duae duo
Ace.
duos or duo duas duo
tres tria
Gen.
duorum duarum duorum
orduum orduum
trium
Dal.
Abl.
tduobus duabus duobus
tribus
90
91
Like duo, duae, duo is declined ambo, ambae, ambo, ( both '.
alter, uter, neuter (gen. sing. -lus, dat. sing, -i).2
Alter, altera, alterum one of the two or the second
Norn.
Ace.
Gen.
\Dat.
\Abl.
Singular
masc. fern. neut.
alter altera alterum
alterum alteram alterum
alterius
alteri
altero altera altero
Plural
masc. fern. neut.
alteri alterae altera
alteros alteras altera
alterorum -arum -orum
• alteris
Q2 Alter, a, um always refers to one of two persons or things ;
altero oculo captus, blinded in one eye. When repeated,
1 Ullus is a diminutive of unus • nullus is formed by prefixing ne i not '.
2 The gen. sing, of alter, uter, and neuter is often found with a short » in
the poets ; cf. above on unus, solus, totus, ullus (§ 88).
44
ACCIDENCE
the first alter means ' the one of the two ', the second ' the
other of the two ' : alter erat Romanus, alter Callus.
The plural a/ten, ae, a means ' one of two parties ' ;
or, when repeated, ' the one of the two parties ' . . . ' the
other of the two parties ' : alterl erant Roman!, alter! GallT.
93 The following adjectives of number are declined like alter,
altera, alterum, except that the e of the nom. sing. masc.
disappears in all the other forms :
(i) uter, utra, utrum, which of the two? (interrogative):
utro oculo captus erat ?
Or whichever of the two (relative, cf. § 115) : uter eorum
vita superaverit, ad eum pars utrlusque pervenit, ' whichever
of them survives, to him falls the share of both*.
The plural utn, ae, a means ' which of the two parties? ',
or ' whichever of the two parties '.
94 So too is declined the first part of the compounds of uter,
e. g. uter-que, utra-que, utrum-que, either of the two = both ;
utroque oculo captus = ambobus oculis captus.
The plurals of such compounds refer to two parties.
95 (2) neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two\ plural
neutrl, ae, a, neither of the two parties.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
First Person (i. e. the person speaking).
Singular
Plural
Nom.
ego 7
nos we
Ace.
me me
nos us
Gen.
mei of me
( nostri of us
{nostrum of us
Dat.
mihi me, to me
nobis us, to us
Abl.
me me
nobls us
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
45
97
Second Person (i. e. the person spoken to).
Singular
N., V. tu thou 1
Ace. te thee
Gen. tul of thee
Dat. tibi thee, to thee
Abl. te thee
1 or you (denoting one person).
Plural
vos 2 you, ye
vos you, ye
Ivestrl of you
Ivestrum of you
vobis you, to you
vobis you
2 not used to denote one person.
98 The ace., gen., dat., and abl. of the ist and the 2nd person
may be used reflexively, i. e. may refer to the doer of
the action denoted by the verb ; they are then translated by
myself, thyself (yourself), ourselves, yourselves : me occldam,
/ will kill myself', te amas, you love yourself ( = you are
selfish).
99 Third Person (i.e. the person spoken of: he, she, it\
they).
Singular
Plural
masc. fern. neut.
masc. fern. neut.
Norn.
is ea id
il eae ea
Ace.
eum earn id
eos eas ea
Gen.
eius
eorum earum eorum
Dat.
el
I ,'TQ
Abl.
eo ea eo
| us
The nom. sing, and plur. is used only for the sake of
emphasis or contrast.
The nom. and dat. and abl. plur. are sometimes spelled-
el, ets.
100 In the third person there is, as in French, a separate
46 ACCIDENCE
reflexive form for the ace., gen., dat., and abl. cases
Sing, and Plur. ; masc.,fem., and neut.
Ace. se or sese himself, herself, itself; themselves
Gen. siri^ of himself, of herself , of itself ; of themselves
' Dat. ' sibi to (or/or) himself, &c.
Abl. se or sese himself, &c.
EXAMPLES : —
Cato se occldit. Cato killed himself (committed swz-cide).
Homo non sibi soli natus est, sed patriae. A man is
born not for himself alone, but for his country.
101 Of the- above forms of the genitive case (§§ 96-100) only
eius and eorum, earum have possessive meaning : liber
eius, the book of him = his book. The genitives in i are used
chiefly as genitives of the object ; memento mel, remember
me or be mindful of me ; memor sum tin, / am mindful of
you ; amor sui, the love of self-, odium vestri, the hatred of
you = the feeling of hatred against you. The genitives
nostrum and vestrum are used chiefly as genitives of partition ;
quis nostrum ? who of us?, nemo vestrum, no one of you.
.The possessive meaning in the ist and 2nd persons, and
in the 3rd person when reflexive, is expressed by possessive
adjectives (§ 103).
THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE
102 ipse m., ipsa f., ipsum n., -self, differs from se (§ 100) in
two respects :
(i) it is an emphasizing adjective or pronoun ; se is
a reflexive pronoun : e. g. Brutus fllios suos ipse occldit.
•Brutus himself put his own sons to death-. Mulierem ipsam
vldl. / saw the woman herself.
(ii) it may agree with a pronoun (generally not expressed)
of the ist or 2nd as well as of the 3rd person, whereas se
refers only to the 3rd person : Ipse feel. / did it myself. Ipse
fecistl. You did it yourself. Ipse dixit. He said it himself.
IpsI diximus. We said it ourselves, &c.
THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE 47
Singular
Plural
Norn.
ipse ipsa ipsum
ipsi ipsae ipsa
Ace.
ipsum ipsam ipsum
ipsos ipsas ipsa
Gen.
ipsms
ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
Dat.
ipsi
"I • -
Abl.
ipso ipsa ipso
ipsis
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
103 Declined like other adjectives in us, a, um and er, ra, rum
(§§ 18, 19), except that the voc. sing. masc. of meus is mt.
ist PERSON : meus, a, um, my or (reflexive) my own ;
noster, nostra, nostrum, our or (reflex.) our own ;
2nd PERSON : tuus, a, um, your or (reflex.) your own ;
vester, vestra, vestrum, jyowr or (reflex.) your own;
3rd PERSON : stius, a, um, his own, her own, its own, their own
(reflex.).
EXAMPLES :
pater noster, patria nostra, consilium nostrum.
Liberos meos occldit. He has killed my children.
Me et liberos meos occldam. / will kill myself and my
own children.
Brutum et fllios eius (§ 101) occldam. / will kill Brutus
and his sons.
Brutus flHos suos occldit. Brutus killed his own sons.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE AND PRONOUN
104 hie m., haec f., hoc n., this
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Singular
hie 1 haec hoc 1
hunc hanc hoc
huius
huic
hoc hac hoc
Plural
hi hae haec
hos has haec
horum harum horum
his
1 The nom. sing. masc. and neut. are generally long syllables : see
note at the foot of next page.
ACCIDENCE
105
The c at the end of most of the above forms (§ 104) is
a demonstrative suffix with the same force as the French ci
in ceci and celui-ci ; thus Lat. hie is literally ' this here '.
For the pronunciation of huius and huic see § 7 and § 6.
All the following adjectives and pronouns (demonstra-
tive, interrogative, indefinite, and relative, §§ 105-19) have
the neuter nominative and accusative singular in d.1
OTHER DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND
PRONOUNS
ille m., ilia f., illud n., that, yon
Singular
Plural
Norn.
ille ilia illud
ill! illae ilia
Ace.
ilium illam illud
illos illas ilia
Gen.
illius
illorum illarum illorum
Dat.
ill!
I -11-
Abl.
illo ilia illo
r illis
106
107
iste m., ista f., istud n.; that, that of yours, is declined
exactly like ille, ilia, illud.
is m., ea f., id n.; that, the (unemphatic)
Singular
Plural
Norn.
is ea id
ii eae ea
Ace.
eum earn id
eos eas ea
Gen.
eius
eorum earum eorum
Dat.
el
)
Abl.
eo ea eo
Y us
1 The demonstrative hie, haec, hoc (§ 104) had originally the ^-forma-
tion in the neut. sing., and this explains how it is that hoc is a long syllable,
though its vowel is short. The original form hod-ce became hoc-ce, hocc;
and though the last c was dropped in writing it was pronounced before vowels,
making the syllable long (see § 9, ii). The nom. sing. masc. hie became
a long syllable by imitation of the neuter.
DEMONSTRATIVES
49
[08
i-dem m., ea-dem f., i-dem n., the same
(literally, that very one)
Norn.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Singular
Idem eadem idem
eundem eandem idem
eiusdem
eidem
eodem eadem eodem
Plural
Idem eaedem eadem
eosdem easdem eadem
eorundem earundem eorunderr
Isdem
109
alius m., alia f., aliud n., other, another
Singular
Plural
Nom.
alius alia
aliud
alii
aliae
alia
Ace.
alium aliam
aliud
alios
alias
alia
Gen.
alius 1
aliorum
aliarum
aliorum
Dat.
alii
\
Abl.
alio alia
alio
f
alns
1 The gen. sing, is rarely used, being commonly replaced either by the
adjective alienus, a, um or by the gen. of alter, a, urn (§ 91) : aes alienum,
debt, lit. money belonging to another ; domus alterlus, one's neighbour's house.
alius . . . alius, one . . . another : alius alium interfecit.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE
no quis (mostly pron.)) ^r quid (always
qui (mostly adj.) ]m-.quaef, kod(alwa
which ?, what ?
The ace., gen., dat, and abl. are either pronouns or ad-
jectives.
Singular
Plural
Nom. quae
(quid
(quod
qui
quae
quae
Ace. quern quam
(quid
•1 j ! QUOS
(quod I
quas
quae
Gen.
CU1US
quorum
quarum
quorum
Dat.
Abl.
CUl
quo qua
quo
I
quibus
50 ACCIDENCE
Exx. : Quis vocat ? Who is calling ?
Qui puer vocat ? What boy is calling ?
Quae puel la vocat ? What girl is calling ?
All the forms in the above table except quis and quid may
be not interrogative but exclamatory : qui sermones ! what
talk (there will be] !
For the pronunciation of emus and cut see § 7 and § 6.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
in The Latin indefinite pronouns and adjectives are closely
connected in form with the interrogatives (§ no), but in
meaning with numerals. They denote indefinite number.1
(i) quis (qui) mv quae f., quid (quod) n., anyone, any]
declined like the interrogative (§ no), except that the nom.
sing. fern, and the nom. and ace. plur. neut. are generally
shortened to qua.
Used after words like si, 'if, nisi, 'unless', ne, 'not' or
' lest ', num, ' whether ' :
Si quis quid rumore acceperit, ad magistratum deferat.
If anyone hears anything by report, he is to inform the
magistrate.
Ne qua multitude trans Rhenum traducatur. Let no mass
of men be led across the Rhine.
112 (2) Compounds of the above (§ in) with an indeclinable
part.
Forms in -quis and -quid are generally pronouns : forms
in -qui, -quae (or -qua), -quod generally adjectives.
a|!qU!S| m, aliqua (., someone, some.
ahqui i ahquod)
Exx. : Aliquem ad me mitte. Send someone to me.
Cum aliquod beHum incidit, omnes pugnant. When
some war arises, they all fight.
1 Other words of the same kind are nemo, 'no one' and m'/iil, 'nothing',
derived from we 'not' and hemo (an Old Latin form of homo, ' man '),
1 a whit' : nemo -~ not a man ; nihil = not a whit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 51
113 quidam m., quaedam f., quiddam (quoddam) n., a certain,
some : declined with n instead of m before d.
Exx. : Quendam ad se vocat. He calls a certain man to him.
Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur. He con-
verses with some young men.
114 quivis m., quaevis f., quid vis (quod vis) n. j
quilibet m., quaelibet f., quidlibet (quodlibet) nJ a
= every (-vis from void).
Exx. : Quilibet haec facere potest. Anyone (= every one) can
do this.
Non cuivls homim contingit adlre Corinthum. It is
not every one's good luck to visit Corinth.
115 quisquam m. and f., quicquam (for quidquam) n. ; used like
the English anyone at all, chiefly in negative and interro-
gative sentences (no plural).
Exx. : Ne quemquam oderls. Do not hate anyone at all.
Cur quicquam sibi postulat ? Why does he demand
anything at all for himself?
n6 The adjective which corresponds in meaning (= any at all)
is ullus, a, um (declined like unus, a, am, § 86).
Exx.: Neque ullam vocem exprimere poterat. Nor could he
utter a single word.
Sine ullo maleficio ablbimus. We shall depart without
any wrong- doing at all.
117 quisque m., quaeque f., quidque (quodque) n., each one, each.
Exx. : Quaerunt quid quisque eorum de quaque re audierit.
They inquire what each one of them has heard about
each matter.
Materia cuiusque generis in Britannia est. There is
timber of each (= every) kind in Britain.
118 quispiam m., quaepiam f., quidpiam (quodpiam) n., someone
or other.
Exx. : Cum quaepiam cohors ex orbe excesserat, hostes re-
fugiebant. Whenever some cohort or other quitted
the circle, the enemy fled.
Dixerit quispiam . . . Somebody is likely to say . . .
D 2
52 ACCIDENCE
RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE
119 The relative pronoun and adjective are connective ; i. e.
they introduce a new clause with a verb of its own, like
a conjunction. The word in the other clause to which the
relative refers is called the antecedent.
qui m., quae f., quod n., who, which
Singular
Plural
Nom.
qui
quae quod
qui
quae
quae
Ace.
quern quam quod
quos
quas
quae
Gen.
CU1US
quorum
quarum
quorum
Dat.
AbL
quo
CUl
qua quo
j
quibus
The relative need not stand as near as possible to its ante-
cedent, as it does in French and generally in English :
EXAMPLES :
Corus ventus navigationem impediebat, qui in his locls flare
consuevit. The NW. wind, which is wont to blow in these
parts, was stopping navigation.
Pulvis in ea parte videbatur in quam (or quam in partem)
legio iter fecerat. Dust was seen in that (or the) direction in
which the legion had marched.
Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur, quorum erat
princeps Litaviccus atque fratres eius. He converses with
certain young men, the chief of whom were Litaviccus and his
brothers.
120 In the above instances the clause introduced by the relative
is subordinate ; in the following it is co-ordinate :
Magnum numerum obsidum imperat : quibus adductis Mori-
nos in fidem recepit. He demands a great number of hostages :
which having been brought to him (= and when they had been
brought to him), he admitted the Morini to his protection (B. G.
iv. 22. 2). Instead of quibus adductis Caesar might have
RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE 53
written et his adductis or qui (= et hi) cum adducti essent.
Compare B. G. vii. 5. 4.
121 NOTES. — i. An old ablative (sing, and plur., all genders) is
qut, which is generally used as an adverb meaning 'how' or
'why', but sometimes as a rel. pron., e.g. qulcum, with whom.
2. Another form of the dat. and abl. plur. is quis (in poets).
3. Latin has two generalizing relatives, meaning ' whoever ',
'whatever ' : (i) quicumque m., quaecumque f, quodcumque
»n. — compounds of qm, quae, quod, § 119; (ii) quisquis m.; f./
quidquid n. — doubled form of an old-fashioned relative quis,
quid.
!22 TABLE OF CORRESPONDING WORDS
In the following table —
(1) the relatives correspond to the demonstratives : e. g.
Tantam eorum multitudinem interfecerunt quantum fuit diel
spatium. They killed as great a number of them as was the
length of the day.1 Duae naves eosdem port us quos reliquae
capere non potuerunt. Two ships could not make the same
ports as the rest. Dixerunt se ibi futures esse ubi Caesar
voluisset. They said they would be there where Caesar
wished.
(2) The adverbs correspond to the pronouns — demonstra-
tive to demonstrative and relative to relative : for instance,
ibi there (= in eo loco) corresponds to is that, and ubi where
(= quo in loco) to qui which.
123 Note the English word ' as ' in the table :
(i) with relative or conjunctive meaning (in the second
and the fourth columns) ;
(ii) with demonstrative meaning (in the first and the
third columns).
1 i. e. ' as the day was long '. The sentence means that the number of the
slain was proportionate to the length of the day.
54
ACCIDENCE
124 Demonstrative Relative Demonstrative
Relative
Pronouns and Pronouns and Adverbs
Adverbs and
Adjectives Adjectives
Subordin-
ating Con-
junctions
(hie, here
hie, haec, hoc, \ \ hue, hither
this
(hinc, hence
illic, there
ille, ilia, illud
.
illuc, thither
that, yon
illinc, thence
ibi, there
lubi, where
is, ea, id
that, the
qul,quae, quod-
" who, which
eo, thither
inde, thence
jquo, whither
(unde, whence
ibidem, in } |
Idem, eadem, idem
eodem, to [%
&
the same
indidem,/ro///J ^
<
'istic, there
iste, ista, istud
istuc, thither
that of yours
istinc, thence
tantus, a, um quantus, a, um tantopere
quantopere
so great, as great as so much
as
/tarn, 50 (before ad-
quam, as
jectives and ad-
talis, e qualis, e J verbs)
of such a kind as ita, sic, adeo, 50
ut, as
(^ (before verbs)
tot, 50 many, quot, as totiens, 50 many
quotiens, as
as many times, as many
times
THE VERB
I. Meanings of Voices, Moods, and Tenses.
Voices. There are two voices in Latin :
i. The Active Voice, which is used either transitively
or intransitively :
nuntium vocat, he calls the messenger (trans.),
quis vocat ? who is calling ? (intrans.).
THE VERB 55
2. The Passive Voice :
nuntius vocatur, the messenger is called.
vocatur ad anna, there is a call to arms (impersonal
passive construction ; literally it is called to arms).
126 Moods and their Tenses.
i. The Indicative Mood relates to matters of fact :
vocat, he is calling.
num vocat ? is he calling ?
127 There are six tenses of the Indicative.
The Present, the Past Imperfect and the Future are
tenses of incomplete action :
Present : vocat, he is calling * or he calls (habi-
tually).
Past Imperfect : vocabat, he was calling or he called
(habitually = he used to call).
Future : vocabit, he will call or will be calling.
128 The Perfect, the Past Perfect and the Future Perfect are
tenses of completed action :
Perfect: vocavit, used either (i) as a Present
Perfect, marking the action as
completed at the time of speaking :
he has called',
or (ii) as a Past Historic, marking
the action as having taken place in
the past (i. e. before the time of
speaking) : he called.'2'
Past Perfect : vocaverat, he had called.
Future Perfect : vocaverit, he will have called.
129 2. The Imperative Mood is used like the English im-
perative, and has in addition a 3rd person (sing, and plur.).
It has two forms of the 2nd person (singular and plural) :
a short form : voca j
a long form : vocato ) ca '
1 The Present is most commonly translated by the English Present
Continuous, except in verbs that denote a state as distinct from an act.
ll J* Used like the French Past Historic : // uppela, il s'frria.
56 ACCIDENCE
130 3. The Subjunctive Mood has the same kind of meaning
as the English subjunctive, but is more widely used.1 It has
four tenses, which are translated in different ways, according
to the context in which they stand. Their uses will be given
later (Syntax, §§ 318-67). Meanwhile note the following
translations, which, though they are not applicable to all
usages, express the fundamental meanings of the tenses of
the subjunctive, and will serve as a clue to their more difficult
uses : —
Present Subj. : vocet, he call, he is to call, he shall call.
Compare the Fut. Indie.: vocabit,^
will call, which expresses no more
than future time. The Pres. Subj.
combines the idea of obligation with
that of future time.
Perfect Subj.: vocaverit, he have called, he shall have
called. Compare the Fut. Perf.
Indie, (which has the same form
in this person) : vocaverit, he will
have called.
The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive have the
corresponding meanings in past time :
Past Subj. : vocaret, he was to call, he should call.
(a kind of Future in the past)
Past Perf. Subj . : vocavisset, he should have called.
(a kind of Future Perfect in
the past)
1 Examples of the English Present Subjunctive (from Shakespeare)
denoting what is to be done.—Ca\\ him my king? (= Am I to call him my
king?).— Somebody call (= somebody is to call, let somebody call) my
wife.— Now call we (= let us call) our high court of parliament. — Look you
call (=look: you are to call) me Ganymede. — Past Subjunctive (from
a daily paper) : —No cabinet would be able to endure the odium attaching to
a government which called upon us to make peace on such terms (called —
should call .
THE VERB 57
131 But in some uses the shaft-meaning of the tenses of the
subjunctive is modified : sometimes they denote what would
be done or ivould have been done under certain conditions :
vocem, voces, vocet ) / should (you would, he
vocarem, vocares, vocaret j would) call.
vocavissem, vocavisses, vocavisset, I should (you would,
he would] have called.
In some subordinate clauses they may be translated by
» English indicatives of the corresponding tense : e. g. Quis
vocet (vocaverit) nescio. I do not know who is calling (has
called).
132 II. Meanings of Verb - Adjectives and Verb -Nouns
(formed from the stem of the verb).
i. The three Participles, called (i) Present (ii) Perfect
(iii) Future, mark the action as (i) going on or not completed
(ii) completed (iii) in prospect :
Present Participle Active : vocans (-nt-), calling.
Perfect Participle Passive : vocatus, a, urn, called.
Future Participle Active : vocatQrus, a, urn, about to
call.
Note the absence of a Perfect Participle Active, a Present
Participle Passive and a Future Participle Passive.
133 2. The Gerund Adjective is a passive verb -adjective,
marking the action as to be done : vocandus, a, um, to-be-called:
Nuntius revocandus est. The messenger is to be called
back (= must be called back).
Mllites ab opere revocandl erant. The soldiers had to
be (lit. were to be) called back from their work.
The nom. sing. neut. of the gerund adjective is used with
a tense of esse in an impersonal passive construction (cf.
§125,2):
Magna voce vocandum est. We must call (lit. // is to
be called) with a loud voice.
Magna voce vocandum erat. We had to call (lit. It was
to be called) with a loud voice.
58 ACCIDENCE
In some cases the Gerund Adjective may be translated
by an English adjective in -able or -ible, where these adjectives
have passive meaning :
liber laudandus, a laudable book, a praiseworthy book.
homo contemnendus, a contemptible person.
134 3. The Infinitives called (i) Present (ii) Perfect (iii) Future
mark the action as (i) going on or not completed (ii) completed
(iii) in prospect :
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Present Infin. : vocare, to call, \ vocarl, to be called.
to be calling.
Future Infin. : vocaturus (a, vocatum In (§ 137), to be about
um) esse, to be about to call. to be called.
Perfect Infin. : vocavisse, to vocatus (a, um) esse, to have
have called. \ been called.
135 4' The Gerund is an Active Verb- Noun of the neuter
gender, corresponding to the English verb-noun in -ing, and
denoting the act of — ing ; it is used only in the singular
number and chiefly in the genitive and the ablative cases :
vocandl causa, for the sake of calling.
vocando, by calling.
It has no nominative case.1
136 5. The Supine in -urn is the Accusative Case of a Verb-
Noun of the 4th declension (Nom. vocatus, a calling, a call)',
the Accusative here denotes the end in view or purpose :
vocatum, to call (lit. with a view to calling).
Venerunt rogatum ut sibi ignosceret. They came to ask
that he should pardon them.
137 The combination of the Supine in -um with the Present
Infinitive Passive of eo 'I go' is equivalent to a Future
Infinitive Passive : 2
Non credo mllites revocatum Irl. / don't think that the
1 The form in -um given in the following tables (§ 139, &c.) is the
Accusative, which is used after certain prepositions (chiefly ad}.
2 This construction is impersonal : see Syntax, § 377.
THE VERB 59
soldiers will be called back (lit. / do not believe there to
be a going with a view to calling back the soldiers).
Many verbs have no supine in -um.
138 A few verbs have also a Supine in -u, which is an Ablative
or Dative or Locative case of a Verb -Noun of the 4th declen-
sion ; but supines in -u are very rare :
facile factu, an easy thing to do.
Difficile dictu est. // is difficult to say.
The following tables show the principal translations
of the moods, tenses, verb-nouns, and verb-adjectives in
the active voice of two verbs : (i) the verb voco, ' I call/
(2) the verb sum, ' I am/ which is used in two ways :
(i) with full meaning, in sentences like Sum plus Aeneas
4 1 am the faithful Aeneas ' ; Est profecto deus qut quae nos
gerimus audit et videt 'There is (= exists) assuredly a god
who hears and sees what we are doing ' (Plautus, The Captives,
3*3)-
(ii) as an auxiliary verb, which, when joined with the Perfect
Participle Passive, forms the tenses of completed action of the
Passive Voice (§ 158).
6o
ACCIDENCE
VOCO— ACTIVE VOICE
Tenses of incomplete action— Stem voca-
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
voco / am calling
vocas you are calling
vocat he is calling
vocamus we are calling
vocatis you are calling
vocant they are calling
or / call, &c., § 127
FUTURE
vocabo / shall call
vocabis you will call
vocabit he will call
vocabimus we shall call
vocabitis you will call
vocabunt they will call
QY I shaft be calling, &c.,§ 127
PAST IMPERFECT
vocabam / was calling
vocabas you were calling
vocabat he was calling
vocabamus we were calling
vocabatis you were calling
vocabant they were calling
or I called (habitually), = used
to call, &c., § 127
IMPERATIVE
voca, vocato call
vocato let him call
vocate, vocatote call
vocanto let them call
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
vocem
voces
vocet
vocemus
vocetis
vocent
For the meanings see §§ 130,
131
PAST
vocarem
vocares
vocaret
vocaremus
vocaretis
vocarent
For the meanings see §§ 130,
VERB-
ADJS.
PRES. PART.
vocans (-nt>) calling
FUT. PART.
vocaturus, a, um about to
call
VERB-
NOUNS
PRES. INFIN.
voca re to call
GERUND
vocandum [the act
of] calling
FUT. INFIN.
vocaturus (a, um) esse to
be about to call
SUPINE
vocatum [with a view} to
call
THE VERB
61
VOCO — ACTIVE VOICE (continued)
Tenses of completed action — Stem vocav-
INDICATIVE
PERFECT
vocavl / have called
vocavistl you have called
vocavit he has called
vocavimus we have called
vocavistis you have called
vocaverunt (-ere) they have called
or / called, &c., § 128
FUTURE PERFECT
vocavero / shall have \
vocaveris * you will have
vocaverit he will have ( 3s
vocaverimus l we shall have
vocaveritis * you will have
vocaverint they will have
PAST PERFECT
vocaveram / had .
vocaveras you had
vocaverat he had
vocaveramus we had
vocaveratis you had
vocaverant they had
IMPERATIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
vocaverim
vocaveris 2
vocaverit
vocaverimus 2
vocaveritis 2
vocaverint
For the meanings
££ TOO TOT
see
PAST PERFECT
vocavissem
vocavisses
vocavisset
vocavissemus
vocavissetis
vocavissent
For the meanings see
§§ 13°; J31
VERB-
ADJ.
VERB-
NOUN
[None]
PERF. INFIN. vocavisse to have called
often lengthened.
2 5 often shortened.
The same statements apply in all other verbs [see Appendix].
62
ACCIDENCE
SUM
Tenses of incomplete action
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
sum / am
esyou are
est he is
sumus we are
estisyou are
sunt they are
FUTURE
ero / shall be
eris you will be
erit he will be
erimus we shall be
eritis you will be
erunt they will be
PAST IMPERFECT
eram / was
eras you were
erat he was
eramus we were
Gratis you were
erant they were
IMPERATIVE
es, esto be
esto let him be
este, estote'6i
sunto let them be
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
sim / be
sis you be
sit he be
slmus we be
sitisyou be
sint they be
[Other translations in §§ 130, 131]
PAST
essem / were
esses you were
esset he were
essemus we were
essetisjyow were
essent they were
[Other translations m§§ 130, 131]
VERB-
ADJ.
VERB-
NOUNS
[No Pres. Part.]
FUT. PART, futurus, a, um
about to be
PRES. INFIN. esse
to be
[No Gerund]
FUT. INFIN.
(fore1
{futurus (a, um) esse
to be about to be
1 Fore is the only non-compounded fut. infin. which exists in Latin. It
also serves as a fut. infin. to/fo (§ 246). From the same stem comes a by-
form of the Past Subjunctive : forem, fores, foret ; forent = / should be, you
ivould be, &c.
THE VERB
SUM (continued)
Tenses of completed action— Stem fu-
INDICATIVE
PERFECT
ful / have been
fuisti you have been
fuit he has been
fuimus we have been
fuistis you have been
fuerunt (-ere) they have been
or I was, you were, he
was, &c., § 128
FUTURE PERFECT
fuero / shall have been
fuerisjycw will have been
fuerit he will have been
fuerimus we shall have been
fueritis you will have been
fuerint they will have been
PAST PERFECT
fueram / had been
fueras you had been
fuerat he had been
fueramus we had been
fueratis you had been
fuerant they had been
IMPERATIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
fuerim
fueris
fuerit
fuerimus
fueritis
fuerint
For the meanings see §§ 130, 131
PAST PERFECT
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset
fuissemus
fuissetis
fuissent
For the meanings see §§ 130, 131
VERB-ADJ.
[None]
VERB NOUN
PERF. INFIN. fuisse to have been
64 ACCIDENCE
143 III. Formation of moods, tenses, verb- adjectives and
verb-nouns.
The personal inflexions of the active voice in all tenses of
the indicative and subjunctive, except the perfect indicative,
are as follows :
Sing. i. -6 or -m Plur. i. -mus
2. -s 2. -tis
3. -t 3. -nt
See the tables of voco and sum (§§ 139-42).
Two of these inflexions are seen in English verbs— the m
of the ist pers. sing, in the verb ' am ', and the t of the 3rd
pers. sing, in forms like ' love/A '. Three of them survive in
some French verbs : tu cour-s, il cour-t, Us coure-nt,
144 The four conjugations.
Latin verbs are divided into four conjugations,1 which are
distinguished by their characteristic vowels (seen in the
present infinitive active) :
ist CONJ. Pres. Infin. Act. vocare, to call
2nd CONJ. „ ,, ,, habere, to have, to hold
3rd CONJ. „ ,, „ regere, to rule, to guide
4th CONJ. ,, „ „ audire, to hear
145 By removing the re of the pres. infin. act. may be found the
stem from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed,
and which is found unchanged in most forms :
EXAMPLES :
Stem Imperative Imperative Past Subj. Past Sub/.
Active Passive Act. Pass.
ISt CONJ.
voca-
voca
voca-re
voca-rem
voca-rer
2nd CONJ.
habe-
habe
habe-re
habe-rem
habe-rer
3rd CONJ.
rege-
rege
rege-re
rege-rem
rege-rer
4th CONJ.
audi-
audi
audl-re
audl-rem
audl-rer
1 These do not include a very important group of verbs which belong
partly to the 4th, partly to the 3rd Conjugation (Mixed Conjugation, § 159).
THE VERB 65
But in many of the forms belonging to the tenses of incom-
plete action the stem suffers modifications ; in some forms its
final vowel is shortened, as in voca-t, habe-t, audi-t; in others
it is changed, as in regi-t, regu-nt. Some of the forms of
the 3rd and 4th conjugations are got from imitation of the
2nd conjugation ; so rege-bam, audi-e-bam. It is, therefore,
necessary to learn these tenses separately in the separate
conjugations. They are given side by side in §§ 149, 150 for
purposes of comparison.
146 The tenses of completed action have exactly the same
endings in all the four conjugations, which differ only in the
formation of the stem from which these tenses come. Here
all the conjugations can be learned together : see § 151.
147 The stem of the perfect tenses active is formed —
in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix v to the stems in a and i\ voca-v-, audi-v- ;
in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding v to the
stem in e (here shortened to e) ; but the v amalgamates
with the e so as to form u : habu- ;
in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation from a stem which
has no final vowel, e. g. reg-. To this stem the suffix
s is very commonly added : rex- (for reg~s~).1
148 The stem of the perfect participle passive is formed—
in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix t2 to the stems in a and J: voca-t-, audi-t- ;
in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding / to the
stem in e (here shortened to i) : habi-t- ;
in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation by adding / to a stem
which has no final vowel : rec-t- (for reg-t-}.
1 Other ways of forming the perf. act. and the perf. part. pass, are given
in §§ 171, 172.
2 This t is the same as the / or d which is used to form the past participle
of most English verbs : dwel/, los^, heard. The t which is found in the
future participle active and the supine is of different origin, being the same
as that which is used in nouns of the 4th declension. Hence these forms
have no sense of completion : vocaturus = about to cal/, not about to hate called.
901 E
66
ACCIDENCE
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS— ACTIVE VOICE
Tenses of incomplete action
ist CONJ. and CONJ. 3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
STEM voca-, call habe-, have, hold rege-, rule
audi-, hear
INDICATIVE
voco
habeo
rego
audio
H
£5
vocas
habes
regis
audls
W
CO
vocat
habet
regit
audit
W
p>
vocamus
habemus i regimus
audimus
PH
0-.
vocatis
habetis regitis
auditis
vocant
habent
regunt
audiunt
1
vocabo
habebo regam
audiam
w vocabis
habebis reges
audies
vocabit
habebit reget
audiet
S vocabimus
habebimus regemus
audiemus
UH
vocabitis
habebitis regetis
audietis
vocabunt
habebunt regent
audient
£_,
vocabam
habebam
regebam
audiebam
. y
vocabas
habebas
regebas
audiebas
2£
vocabat
habebat
regebat
audiebat
^£
vocabamus
habebamus
regebamus
audiebamus
vocabatis
habebatis
regebatis
audiebatis
vocabant
habebant
regebant
audiebant
VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-NOUNS
PR. PT. I vocans ! habens
regens
audiens
MO
(-nt-)
(-nt-)
(-nt-)
FUT. PT.
vocaturus;
habiturus,
recturus,
auditurus,
a, um
a, um
a, um
a, um
PR. INF.
vocare habere
reerere
audlre
GER.
vocandum h'abendum regendum
audiendum
FUT. INF.
vocatQrus I habiturus Irecturus
auditurus
(a,um)esse (a,um)esse (a,um)esse
(a, um) esse
SUP. | vocatum habitum rectum
audltum
149
THE VERB
67
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS — ACTIVE VOICE (continued)
'50
Tenses of
incomplete action (continued)
ISt CONJ.
2nd CONJ.
3rd CONJ. 4th CONJ.
STEM voca-, call
habe-, have
rege-, rule audi-, hear
IMPERATIVE
jvoca
(habe
(rege (audi
Sn
. 2
(vocato
(habeto
(regito
1 audi to
3
vocato
habeto
regito
audlto
P0
J vocate
(habete
fregite
( audlte
. 2
I vocatote
(habetote
(regitote jauditote
3
vocanto
habento
regunto audiunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
vocem
habeam
regam audiam
H
voces
habeas
regas
audias
Z
w
vocet
habeat
regat
audiat
(f}
w
vocemus
habeamus
regamus
audiamus
PH
PLi
vocetis
habeatis
regatis j audiatis
vocerit
habeant
regant
audiant
vocarem
haberem
regerem
audlrem
vocares
haberes
regeres
audires
£
vocaret
haberet
regeret
audlret
£
vocaremus
! haberemus
regeremus audlremus
vocaretis
haberetis
regeretis
audiretis
1
vocarent
haberent
regerent
audlrent
E 2
68
ACCIDENCE
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS — ACTIVE VOICE (continued)
Tenses of completed action
Stems vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
INDICATIVE
PERFECT
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. i. -I P. i. -imus
2. -isti 2. -istis
3. -it 3. -erunt
or -ere
FUTURE PERFECT
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
S. i. -ero P. i. -erimus
2. -eris1 2. -ends1
3. -erit 3. -erint
PAST PERFECT
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
S. i. -eram P. i. -eramus
2. -eras 2. -eratis
3. -erat 3. -erant
IMPERATIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
S. i. -erim P. i. -erimus2
2. -eris 2 2. -erltis '2
3. -erit 3. -erint
PAST PERFECT
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. i. -issem P. i. -issemus
2. -isses 2. -issetis
3. -isset 3. -issent
VERB-NOUN
PERFECT INFINITIVE
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
•isse
THE PASSIVE VOICE
152 The passive forms of the tenses of incomplete action
(indicative, imperative, and subjunctive) may be found from
the active forms in all the four conjugations by adding the
following endings and making some changes (i, ii, iii below) :
/often lengthened (§ 140).
2 J often shortened (§ 140)
THE PASSIVE VOICE 69
Endings.— Indie., Subj. and short forms of the Imperative :
S. i. r P. i. r
2. ris or re
In P. 2 mini is
substituted for
-tis and -te
3. ur 3. ur
Long forms of the Imperative, 2nd and 3rd persons, r.
(i) where the active form ends in a consonant and the passive
ending begins with r, the last consonant of the active is
dropped ; (ii) the stem vowels, a, e, i of the ist, 2nd, and 4th
conjugation recover their length in some of the forms in which
they are shortened in the active ; (iii) a final o in the active is
shortened to o in the passive; (iv) a short / before s in the
active becomes e in the passive.
Examples : voco, voco-r ; vocem, voce-r (m dropped) ;
vocamus, vocamu-r (5 dropped),
vocas, voca-ris (s dropped) ; vocatis, voca-minl.
vocat, vocat-ur (a long); vocant, vocant-ur.
voca, voca-re ; vocate, voca-minl.
vocabis, vocabe-ris ; regis, rege-ris.
153 The passive tenses of completed action are formed by com-
bining the perfect participle passive with tenses of the verb
sum (§ 141). The participle, being an adjective, agrees in
gender number and case with the subject of the sentence or
clause : populus Romanus ad arma vocatus est, the Roman
nation has been (lit. is) called to arms; mater Gracchorum
vocata est Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi was called
Cornelia ; numina magna vocata sunt, the great deities were
invoked. The sense of completed action is given not by the
verb sum but by the participle : vocatus sum, / am a called
person (i. e. a person who has been called). Compare in
English 'All these articles are sold ' = ' All these articles have
been sold '. Vocatus sum is properly a present perfect (= Engl.
/ have been called), but it came to have the same double use
as the perfect active (§ 128); as a past historic it is translated
/ was called.
7o
ACCIDENCE
VOCOR— PASSIVE VOICE
Tenses of incomplete action— Stem voca-
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
vocor 1 am being called
| vocaris * you are being called
\ vocatur he is being called
\ vocamur we are being called
vocamini you are being called
vocantur they are being called
or I am called, &c., § 127
FUTURE
vocabor I shall be called
vocaberis ' you will be called
vocabitur he will be called
vocabimur we shall be called
vocabimim you will be called
vocabuntur they will be called
PAST IMPERFECT
vocabar 7 was being
vocabar is 1 you ivere being
vocabatur he was being
vocabamur we were being
vocabamim you were bcing\
vocabantur they were being '
or 7 was called (habitually)
= used to be called, § 127
IMPERATIVE
i vocare, vocator be called
vocator let him be called
vocamini be called
vocantor let them be called
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
vocer
voceris ]
vocetur
vocemur
vocemini
vocentur
j For the meanings see §§ 130,
I31
PAST
vocarer
vocareris 1
vocaretur
vocaremur
vocar^mim
vocarentur
For the meanings see §§ 130,
VERB
ADJ.
VERB-
NOUNS
GERUND ADJ. vocandus, a, um to-be-called
PRES. INFIN.
FUT. INFIN.
vocan to be called
vocatum Irl to be about to be called
1 Or with -re for -ris (vocare, vocabcre, vocabarc, vocere, vocargre).
THE PASSIVE VOICE
71
VOCOR — PASSIVE VOICE (continued)
Tenses of completed action—Compounded with
Perf. Part. Pass.
INDICATIVE
PERFECT
vocatus sum / have
vocatus es you have
vocatus est he has
vocatl sumus we have
vocati estis you have
vocatl sunt they have
or / was called, &c., § 153
FUTURE PERFECT
vocatus ero / shall have
vocatus eris you will have
vocatus erit he will have
vocatl erimus we shall have
vocatl eritis you will have
vocati erunt they will have
PAST PERFECT
vocatus eram / had
vocatus eras you had
vocatus erat he had
vocatl eramus we had
vocati eratis you had
vocatl erant they had
In all the above forms the
fern., or neut.
SING, vocatus, a, um
IMPERATIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
vocatus sim
vocatus sis
vocatus sit
vocatl slmus
vocati sltis
vocati sint
PAST PERFECT
vocatus essem
vocatus esses
vocatus esset
vocatl essemus
vocatl essetis
vocatl essent
For the meanings see
§§ 13°; J31
participle may be masc.,
PLUR. vocatl, ae, a
~
*NOUN
PERF. PART, vocatus, a, um called, having been called
PERF- INFIN. vocatus (a, um) esse to have been called
72
ACCIDENCE
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS — PASSIVE VOICE
156
Tenses of incomplete action
ist CONJ. 2nd CONJ. 3rd CONJ. 4th CONJ.
STEM voca- habe- rege- audi-
INDICATIVE
vocor habeor
regor audior
H
vocaris1
haberis l
regeris 1 audiris l
W
vocatur
habetur
regitur audltur
W
vocamur habemur
regimur audlmur
P4
PH
vocamim j habemim
regimim j audimim
vocantur
habentur reguntur audiuntur
vocabor
habebor
regar audiar
W
vocaberis1 j habeberis1
regeris1 audieris1
OH
£3
vocabitur habebitur
regetur audietur
H
J3
vocabimur habebimur
regemur audiemur
UH «
vocabimini
habebimim •
regemini
audiemim
vocabuntur
habebuntur
regentur
audientur
i
Pi
vocabar
habebar
regebar
audiebar
W
flu
vocabaris l
habebaris l
regebaris 1
audiebaris1
IG
vocabatur
habebatur
regebatur
audiebatur
•"* w
r_ PH
vocabamur
habebamur
regebamur
audiebamur
C/)
vocabamim
habebamim
regebamim
audiebamini
i
vocabantur
habebantur
regebantur
audiebantur
VERB-ADJECTIVE AND VERB-NOUNS
VERB-
vocandus,
habendus,
regendus,
audiendus,
ADJ.
a; um
a, um
a, um
a, um
VERB-
NOUNS
vocarl
vnratum TrT
haberl
hahitnm TrT
regi2
rectum in
audlrl
andTtum TrT
1 Or with -re for -ris (vocare, habcre, regerc, auJlre, &c.) ; see note p. 70.
2 Note the peculiar form of the Prcs. Infin. in t (regi). not, as might have
been expected, in i?rl.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
73
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS— PASSIVE VOICE (continued)
Tenses of incomplete action (continued)
ISt CONJ.
2nd CONJ.
3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
STEM voca-
habe-
rege-
audi-
1MPERATIVE
c (vocare
( habere
[legere
'jaudire
! (vocator
lhabetor
[ regitor
(auditor
3 vocator
habetor
regitor
auditor
P. 2 vocamim
habemini
regimim
audlmim
3 vocantor
habentor
reguntor
audiuntor
SUBJUNCTIVE
vocer
habear
regar
audiar
£ voceris *
habearis J
regaris l
audiaris1
w vocetur
habeatur
regatur
audiatur
g vocemur
habeamur
regamur
audiamur
DH vocemim
habeamim
regamim
audiamini
vocentur
habeantur
regantur
i audiantur
i
£ vocarer
haberer
regerer
audirer
S vocareris l
habereris1
regereris l
audlreris1
^ y voCaretur
! haberetur
regeretur
audlretur
H £ vocarmur
haberemur
regeremur
audlremur
< vocaremini
haberemini
regeremini
audiremini
0-1 vocarentur
haberentur
regerentur
audirentur
157
158 The tenses of completed action are formed by compound-
ing the Perf. Part. Pass, with a tense of esse 'to be'. The
participle may be masc., fern., or neut., and sing, or plur.
See table on next page.
1 Or with -re for -ris (vocere, habeare, regare, audire ; vocarere, haberere,
regerere, audlrere.).
8o ACCIDENCE
170 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS OF ALL
CONJUGATIONS1
The Principal Parts given in the following list are—
1. The Present Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
2. The Present Infinitive Active.
3. The Perfect Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
4. The Perfect Participle Passive. This form is given in
the masculine gender whenever the Perf. Part. Pass, can be
used in all three genders : e. g. vocdtus from voco. But
in verbs whose Perf. Part. Pass, can only be used in
the impersonal passive construction, the form is given in
the neuter gender : e. g. mansum from maneo, fautum from
faveo. The active voice of the verbs to which these participles
in -um belong is used intransitively or with a dative. In the
few verbs which have no Perf. Part. Pass, (masc., fern., or
neut.) the Future Participle Active is given as the 4th
Principal Part.2
The 3rd Conjugation is taken first because the most im-
portant Perfects to be mentioned under the ist, 2nd, and
4th Conjugations are formed in the same way as those of
the 3rd Conjugation.
Formation of the Perfect Active.
171 (i) RULE i.3 All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in one of the vowels ay e, i, or o are
formed with the suffix?;: e.g. ist conj. voca-, vocav-',
1 In the list which follows (§§ 173-237) only the most important
verbs are included. Others are given in the alphabetical list in the
Appendix.
2 The Supine in -um is generally taken as the 4th Principal Part. But
the Perf. Part. Pass, is a far more important form than the Supine ; and,
moreover, many verbs have no Supine in actual use. The Supine may be
formed by changing -us of the Perf. Part. Pass, into -um.
3 The rules given here in heavy type have no exceptions.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS Bi
4th conj. audi-, audtv-', 2nd conj. comple-, complev- ;
habe-, habu- (for habev-, § 147) ; 3rd conj. pa-sc-, pav- ;
cre-sc-, crev- ; sci-sc-, sew- ; no-sc-, nov-.1
(ii) RULE 2. All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in the vowel u or the consonant v or
in nd are formed without any suffix; e.g. 3rd conj.
statu-, staiu- ; volv-, volv- ; defend-, defend- ; 2nd conj. mov-,
mov- ; pend-, pepend-.1
(iii) Perfects Active which are formed from stems ending in
a consonant other than v or nd are formed in three
different ways (a, bt and c, below) :
either (a) with the suffix s: e.g. 3rd conj. scrib-, scrips-.
If the stem ends in a guttural, the guttural generally
amalgamates with the s: e. g. 3rd conj. reg-, rex- (§ 147) ; 2nd
conj. aug-, aux-; 4th conj. vine-, vinx-.
But (RULE 3) if a liquid precedes the guttural, the
guttural is always dropped before the suffix 5 of the
Perf. Act. : e. g. 3rd conj. sparg-, spars- ; 2nd conj. tndulg-,
induls- ; 4th conj.fulc-, fuls-.
RULE 4. If the stem ends in a dental, the dental is
dropped before the suffix s or turned into another s : e. g.
3rd conj. claud-t claus- ; ced-, cess- ; 2nd conj. rid-, rts-.
or (b) with the suffix u (chiefly when the stem ends in
/ or m) : e. g. 3rd conj. col-, coin- ; trem-, tremu-.
or (c) without any suffix : e. g. 3rd conj. vert-, vert- ; leg-, leg- ;
a£~> &£' f curr-, cucurr-.
72 The stem of the Perfect Participle Passive is formed —
(i) by adding the suffix / to a stem ending in a vowel or
in any consonant except a dental : ist conj. voca-, vocal-;
2nd conj. comple-, complet- ; habe-, habit- ; 4th conj. audi-,
audit- ; ven-, vent- ; 3rd conj. reg-t red- (§ 148) ; scnb-,
1 Note that here the stem from which the Perf. Act. stem is formed is not
the same as that from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed
(cf. §§ 178, 198, 199, 201). So too in many verbs of the ist, and, and 4th
conjugations; see §§ 208, 213, 223.
901
74
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS— PASSIVE VOICE (continued)
PERF. IN DIG.
S. vocatus. habitus. )
rectus, audltus j Sum' es> est
P. vocatl, habitl, )
rectl, audltl }. sumus, estis, sunt
PUT. PERF. INDIC.
S. vocatus. habitus. )
rectus, audltus j ero- ens- ent
P. vocati, habitl. )
rectl, audltl } enmus> entls' erunt
PAST PERF. INDIC.
S. vocatus. habitus, )
rectus, audltus } eram- eras' erat
P. vocatl, habitl, i
rectl, audit! f eramus' eratls> erant
PERF. SUBJ.
S. vocatus. habitus. ) . _
rectus, audltus j sim' SIS' slt
P. vocatl, habitl, ) _
rectl, audltl f simus' Sltls' smt
PAST PERF. SUBJ.
S. vocatus, habi
rectus, auditi
P. vocatl, habitl, )
rectl, audltl j essemus> essetls. essent
S. vocatus, habitus, )
rectus, audltus j essem' esses' esset
VERB-ADJECTIVE
PERFECT PARTICIPLE
VERB-NOUN
PERFECT INFINITIVE
ist CONJ.
2nd CONJ.
3rd CONJ.
4tn CONJ.
vocatus, a, um vocatus, a, urrr.
habitus, a, um habitus, a, um
rectus, a, um rectus, a, um
audltus, a, um audltus, a, um
esse
75
THE MIXED CONJUGATION
159 In the following important verbs in id the present infinitive,
the past subjunctive, and most of the persons of the present
indicative and imperative belong to the 3rd conjugation (with
the stem-vowel i or e short), while the rest of the tenses of
incomplete action belong to the 4th conj.
capio, capere, cepi, captus, take.
cupio, cupere, cuplvl, cupltus, desire.
facio,1 facere, feel, factus, make.
fugio, fugere, fugl, fugiturus,^.
iacio, iacere, ieci, iactus, throw.
pario, parere, peperl, partus, produce, bring forth.
rapid, rapere, rapui, raptus, seize.
sapio, sapere, sapivi be sensible.
And compounds of quatio and -spicio :
con-cutio, -cutere, -cussl, -cussus, shake violently.
con-spicio, -spicere, -spexl, -spectus, catch sight of.
160 Tenses of incomplete action— Active voice.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
S. capio P. capimus
capis capitis
capit capiunt
FUTURE
capiam, capies, capiet, &c.
PAST IMPERFECT
capiebam, capiebas, capiebat,
IMPERATIVE
S. cape, capito P. capite
capito capiunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
capiam, capias, capiat, &c.
PAST_
caperem, caperes, caperet,
VERB-
AD JS.
PRES. PART, capiens
(-nt-)
FUT. PART, capturus,
a, um
VERB-
NOUNS
PRES. INFIN. capere FUT. INFIN. capturus
(a, um) esse
GERUND capiendum SUPINE captum
Facio forms the imperative and sing./ac (without the final
76 ACCIDENCE
161 Tenses of incomplete action — Passive voice.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
S. capior P. capimur
caperis l capimim
capitur capiuntur
FUTURE
capiar, capieris/capietur,^*;.
PAST IMPERFECT
capiebar, capiebaris,1 capie-
batur, 6°r, tur,
IMPERATIVE
S. capere, capitor P. capimin!
capitor capiuntor
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
capiar, capiaris,1 capiatur, &c.
caperer, capereris,1 capere-
j VERB- ADJ. | GERUND ADJ. capiendus, a, um
VERB-NOUNS \ PRES. INFIN. cap! FUT. INFIN. captum In.
1 Or with -re for -ris ; compare notes on pp. 70, 72, 73.
Tenses of completed action - Active voice.
162 PERFECT INDIC. cepi, cepistl, cepit, &c.
SUBJ. ceperim, ceperls,1 ceperit, &c.
FUT. PERF. INDIC. cepero, ceperis,1 ceperit, &c.
PAST PERF. INDIC. ceperam, ceperas, ceperat, e>r.
SUBJ. cepissem, cepisses, cepisset, 6°c.
VERB-NOUN — PERF. INFIN. cepisse.
Tenses of completed action— Passive voice.
163 PERFECT INDIC. captus sum, captus es, captus est, &c.
SUBJ. captus sim, captus sis, captus sit, 6°c.
FUT. PERF. INDIC. captus ero, captus eris, captus erit, 6°c.
PAST PERF. INDIC. captus eram, captus eras, captus erat, 6°c.
SUBJ. captus essem, captus esses, captus esset,6°c.
VERB-ADJ. — PERF. PART, captus, a, um.
VERB-NOUN — PERF. INFIN. captus (a, um) esse.
1 Sec notes on p. 61.
77
DEPONENT VERBS
164. Deponent verbs are -verbs whose indicative, subjunctive,
and imperative are passive in form, but active in meaning,
and whose only active forms are those of the present par-
ticiple, future participle, future infinitive, supine, and gerund.
The gerund adjective of deponents is passive in meaning,
as in other verbs.
Deponents are the only Latin verbs which have three
participles and three infinitives with active meaning.
PARTICIPLES INFINITIVES
horta-ns (-nt-), exhorting, horta-ri, to exhort.
hortat-us, -a, -um, having hortat-us (-a, -um) esse, to
PRES.
PERF.
exhorted. have exhorted.
FUT. i hortat-urus, -ura, -urum, h ortat- urns (-ura, -urum) esse,
about to exhort. . to be about to exhort.
165 Some deponents had originally a reflexive meaning, i. e. denoted
an action done to oneself, e. g. orlrl, to raise oneself, French se lever;
hence to arise ; utl, to serve oneself, French se servir (argento meo
usus est, il s'est servi de won argent] ; vescl, to feed oneself.
166 The tenses of incomplete action of deponent verbs are
exactly like those of the four regular conjugations (vocor,
habeor, regor, audior, §§ 156, 157), except in three deponents
which belong to the mixed conjugation (§ 161) :
ad-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, attack: so too other com-
pounds of gradior : con-gredior, in-gredior, &c.
morior, mori, mortuus (fut. part, moriturus), die.
patior, patl, passus, suffer.
167 Orior, orlrl, ortus (fut. part, oriturus), arise, is peculiar ; it
belongs to the 4th conj., but is conjugated like capior in the
pres. indie, and imperative, and in the pastsubj. forms orerer
as well as orirer. Its gerund adjective oriundus (never orien-
dus) has the meaning of a present or perfect participle : dls
oriundus, springing or sprung from the gods.
The following tables show all the forms and meanings
of a deponent of the ist conjugation.
Examples in other conjugations : vereor, I fear (2nd conj.) ;
fungor, / discharge (3rd conj.) ; potior, / get possession of
(4th conj.).
78
ACCIDENCE
* 168
CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB
Tenses of incomplete action
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
hortor, / am exhorting
hortaris,1^^ are exhorting
hortatur, he is exhorting
hortamur, we are exhorting
hortamini, you are exhorting
hortantur, they are exhorting
or / exhort, &c., § 127
FUTURE
hortabor, I shall
hortaberis,1 you will
hortabitur, he will
hortabimur, we shall
hortabimini, you will
hortabuntur, they will
or / shall be exhorting
PAST IMPERFECT
hortabar, / was
hortabaris,1 you were
hortabatur, he was
hortabamur, we ivere
hortabaminl, you were
hortabantur, they were
or / exhorted (habitually
= used to exhort}
IMPERATIVE
hortare, hortator, exhort
hortator, let him exhort
hortamini, exhort
hortantor, let them exhort
1
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
horter
horteris x
hortetur
hortemur
hortemini
hortentur
For the meanings see §§ 130, 1 3 1
PAST
hortarer
hortareris l
hortaretur
hortaremur
hortareminl
hortarentur
For the meanings see§§ 130, 131
PRES. PART, hortans (-nt-), FUT. PART, hortaturus, a,
exhorting um; about to exhort
GERUND ADJ. hortandus,
a, urn, to-be-exhorted
PRES. INFIN. hortari,
to exhort
GERUND hortandum,
[the act o/"] exhorting
FUT. INFIN. hortaturus (a,
um) esse, to be about to
exhort
SUPINE hortatum,
[with a view] to exhort
1 Or with -re for -ris (hortare, hortabere, hortabare, hortere, hortarere) ;
cf. notes on pp. 70, 72, 73.
CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB 79
CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB (continued)
169
Tenses of completed action
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
PERFECT
sum, / have exhorted
hortatus
es, you have exhorted
est, he has exhorted
[None]
sumus, we have exhorted
hortati
estis, you have exhorted
sunt. they have exhorted
or / exhorted, § 153 and § 128
SUBJUNCTIVE
FUTURE PERFECT
PERFECT
i ero, I shall have
isim
hortatus
- eris, you will have "g
sis
erit, he will have "£
sit
erimus, we shall have -^
f simus
hortati
• eritis, you will have <*
hortati -j sltis
erunt, they will have
[s'.nt
For the meanings see
§§ 13°; I3I
PAST PERFECT
PAST PERFECT
(eram, I had \
Cessem
I hortatus
J eras, you had ^
hortatus •{ esses
( erat, he had "£
(esset
(eramus, we had~-§.
1 essemus
hortati
J eratis, you had §
hortati j essetis
( erant, they had
(essent
For the meanings see
§§ 13°; J3T
In all the above forms the participle may be masc.,
fern., or neut.
SING, hortatus, a, urn PLUR. hortati, ae, a
VERB- ]
ADJ.
DERF. PART, hortatus, a, um, having exhorted
VERB- i
NOUN
DERF. INFIN. hortatus (a, um) esse, to have exhorted
8o ACCIDENCE
170 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS OF ALL
CONJUGATIONS1
The Principal Parts given in the following list are—
1. The Present Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
2. The Present Infinitive Active.
3. The Perfect Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
4. The Perfect Participle Passive. This form is given in
the masculine gender whenever the Perf. Part. Pass, can be
used in all three genders : e. g. vocdtus from voco. But
in verbs whose Perf. Part. Pass, can only be used in
the impersonal passive construction, the form is given in
the neuter gender : e. g. mansum from maneo, fautum from
faveo. The active voice of the verbs to which these participles
in -um belong is used intransitively or with a dative. In the
few verbs which have no Perf. Part. Pass, (masc., fern., or
neut.) the Future Participle Active is given as the 4th
Principal Part.2
The 3rd Conjugation is taken first because the most im-
portant Perfects to be mentioned under the ist, and, and
4th Conjugations are formed in the same way as those of
the 3rd Conjugation.
Formation of the Perfect Active.
171 (i) RULE i.3 All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in one of the vowels a, e, /, or o are
formed with the suffix v : e. g. ist conj. voca-, vocav- ;
1 In the list which follows (§§ 173-237) only the most important
verbs are included. Others are given in the alphabetical list in the
Appendix.
2 The Supine in -um is generally taken as the 4th Principal Part. But
the Perf. Part. Pass, is a far more important form than the Supine ; and,
moreover, many verbs have no Supine in actual use. The Supine may be
formed by changing -us of the Perf. Part. Pass, into -urn.
3 The rules given here in heavy type have no exceptions.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS 81
4th conj. audi-, audlv-\ 2nd conj. comple-, complev- ;
habe-, habu- (for habev-, § 147) ; 3rd conj. pa-sc-, pav- ;
cre-sc-, crev- ; sci-sc-, sew- ; no-sc-, nov-.1
(ii) RULE 2. All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in the vowel u or the consonant v or
in nd are formed without any suffix; e.g. 3rd conj.
statu-, staiu- ; volv-, volv- ; defend-, defend- ; 2nd conj. mov-,
mov- ; pend-, pepend-.1
(iii) Perfects Active which are formed from stems ending in
a consonant other than v or nd are formed in three
different ways (a, b, and c, below) :
either (a) with the suffix s : e.g. 3rd conj. scr~tb-t scrips-.
If the stem ends in a guttural, the guttural generally
amalgamates with the s: e.g. 3rd conj. reg-, rex- (§ 147); 2nd
conj. aug-, aux-', 4th conj. vine-, vinx-.
But (RULE 3) if a liquid precedes the guttural, the
guttural is always dropped before the suffix s of the
Perf. Act. : e. g. 3rd conj. sparg-, spars- ; 2nd conj. indulg-,
induls- ; 4th conj.futc-, fuls-.
RULE 4. If the stem ends in a dental, the dental is
dropped before the suffix s or turned into another s: e. g.
3rd conj. claud-, claus- ; ced-, cess- ; 2nd conj. rid-, ris-.
or (b) with the suffix u (chiefly when the stem ends in
/ or m) : e. g. 3rd conj. col-, colu- ; trem-, tremu-.
or (c) without any suffix : e. g. 3rd conj. vert-, vert- ; leg-, leg- ;
aS't eg' > curr-, cucurr-.
72 The stem of the Perfect Participle Passive is formed —
(i) by adding the suffix / to a stem ending in a vowel or
in any consonant except a dental : ist conj. voca-, vocal-;
2nd conj. comple-, complet- ; habe-, habit- ; 4th conj. audi-,
audit- ; ven-, vent- ; 3rd conj. reg-, red- (§ 148) ; scrib-,
1 Note that here the stem from which the Perf. Act. stem is formed is not
the same as that from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed
(cf. §§ 178, 198, 199, 201). So too in many verbs of the ist, and, and 4th
conjugations; see §§ 208, 213, 223.
901 F
•82 ACCIDENCE
scrip-l- (p for b) ; consul-, consul-t- ; inser-, inser-t- ; cre-sc-,
cre-t- ] no-sc-, no-t-.
(ii) by adding the suffix s to a stem ending in a dental. In
this case the dental is either dropped or turned into
another 5 before the suffix 5: claud-t clau-s- ; defend-,
defen-s- ; vert-, ver-s- ; mitt-, mis-s- ; sed-, sess-.
But there are some exceptions to the above rule ; these are
printed in heavy type in the following list of Principal Parts.
The best guide to the formation of the Perfect Participle
Passive is the English derivative which is formed from it.
THIRD CONJUGATION
i. Verbs in go, guo (pronounced gwo) or ho.
173 (#) Most of these form the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix s:
reg-6 -ere rex-I rect-us [direction] rule
So tego, cover-, intellego, understand] neglego, disregard.
dl-lig-o -ere -lex-i -lect-us
ad-fllg-o -ere -flix-I < -flict-us
flg-o -ere fix-i fix-us
iung-6 -ere iunx-I iunct-us
cing-o -ere cinx-I cinct-us
"predilection] love
affliction] dash down
suffix] fix
Junction] join
succinct] surround
So ex-stinguo, quench [whence English ' extinct '].
fing-o -ere finx-I fictus [fiction] fashion
So pingo, paint] stringo, lighten.
trah-o -ere trax-T tract-us [traction] draw
veh-o -ere vex-I vect-us [invective] carry
174 The guttural is dropped after a liquid [Rule 3, § 171].
merg-o -ere mers-I mers-us [immerse] dip
sparg-6 -ere spars-I spars-us [sparse] scatter
175 (b) The following in go form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix :
ag-o -ere eg-I act-us [action] drive, do
jeg-o -ere leg-I lect-us [collection] gather
THIRD CONJUGATION 83
frang-o -ere freg-I1 fract-us
pang-o -ere pepig-1 1 pact-us
tang-6 -ere tetig-I1 tact-us
pung-o -ere pupug-I l punct-us
fraction] break
compact] fix
contact] touch
"puncture] prick
2. Verbs in co, quo (pronounced kwo\
176 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5 :
dlc-o2 -ere dix-I dict-us [diction] say
duc-o 2 -ere dux-I duct-us [reduction] lead
coqu-6 -ere cox-I coct-us [decoction] cook
J77 (b) Perf.* Act. stem formed without a suffix :
vinc-o -ere vic-I1 vict-us [victory] conquer
re-linqu-o -ere -liqu-I l -lict-us [derelict] leave
parc-6 -ere peperc-i pars-urns3 [parsimony] spare
178 (c) The following verbs in sco form the Perf. Act. from
a stem ending in a vowel (viz. the vowel that precedes the
sc), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] :
pasc-o -ere pav-I past-us [pasture] feed
ad-suesc-6 -ere -suev-I -suet-us be accustomed
So cresco, grow ; quiesco, go to rest.
scisc-o -ere sclv-l sclt-us [plebiscite] decree
nosc-o -ere nov-I not-us [notion] get to know
79 But disco and posed are peculiar :
disc-6 -ere didic-I learn
posc-o -ere poposc-I postulat-us* [postulate] demand
80 All other verbs in esco take a Perf. from the 2nd Conj. :
e.g. languesc-6 -ere langu-i . grow weak
abolesc-o -ere abolev-I (§221)
81 3- Verbs in uo or vo. Most of these form the Perf. Act.
from a stem ending in u or v, without a suffix [Rule 2,
§171]=
statu-6 -ere statu-I statut-us [statute] set up
1 Formed from a stem which has no n before the guttural (frag-, pag-,
2 Imperative and sing, die, due ; cf.fac, § 159, fer, § 241..
8 The Perf. Pass, of pared is generally supplied by temperdtum est from
the verb tempero, ist Conj. 4 From the verb/>os/M/o, ist Conj.
F 2
84 ACCIDENCE
So exu-o, take off] imbu-o, tinge ; minu-6, lessen ; tribu-o,
assign • metu-6 (no part, pass.), fear.
ru-o -ere ru-I -rut-us1 tumble
ruit-urus
solv-6 -ere solv-I solut-us [solution] loosen
So volv-o, roll.
182 But viv-o, stru-5, and flu-b form the Perf. Act. from a stem
ending in a guttural (not seen in the Pres. Indie.), with the
suffix 5 : %
viv-o -ere vix-I victurus [Victuals] live
stru-o -ere strux-i struct-us [construction] pile up
flu-6 -ere flux-I flux-us2 [influx] flow
4. Verbs in do.
r83 (a) Most of these verbs, except those in ndb (§ 186), form
the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix 5 [Rule 4, § 171]:
e-vad-6 -ere -vas-I -vas-um [evasion] go out
claud-6 -ere claus-I claus-us [clause] shut
divid-o -ere dlvls-l divls-us [division] divide
So laed-6, hurt] plaud-o, clap] lud-o, play ; trud-o, thrust.
ced-o
-ere
cess-i
cess-um
[concession]
yield
i84
(b) The following
form the
Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix :
ed-o
esse
ed-I
-es-us
eat
con-sid-o
cad-o
-ere
-ere
-sed-I
cecid-I
-sess-um
cas-urus
[session]
[occasion]
seat oneself
fall
caed-o
-ere
cecld-i
caes-us
fell, slay
cred-o
-ere
credid-i
credit-us
[credit]
trust
185 Like credo are all compounds of dare (§ 210), if formed with
a preposition of one syllable, e.g. abdo, hide; addo, add]
condd, found; edo, give out, utter] indo, put in] perdo, lose]
prodo, betray ; reddo, give back ; subdo, put under ; trado,
hand down ; similarly vendo, sell (from venum do, I offer for
sale).
1 In transitive compounds : dl-rutus, ' destroyed ' ; ob-rutus, ' buried '.
2 Fluxus means ' flowing ', ' slackened ', ' lax '.
THIRD CONJUGATION 85
86 (c) All verbs in ndb form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix [Rule 2, § 171] :
de-fend-6 -ere -fend-I -fens-us [defensive] defend
So a-scendo, climb ; ac-cendo, kindle ; prehendo, grasp.
pand-o -ere pand-I pass-us spread out
pend-o -ere pepend-i pens-us
tend-6 -ere tetend-I tent-us
fund-6 -ere fud-I1 fus-us
scind-o -ere scid-I1 sciss-us
pension] weigh, pay
'attention] stretch
"fusion] pour
scissors] tear
5. Verbs in to.
[87 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5
mitt-o -ere mls-I miss-us
flect-6 -ere flex-I flex-us
mission] send
flexible] bend
connexion ] bind
nect-o -ere nexu-I nex-us
[88 (b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
vert-6 -ere vert-i vers-us [version] turn
sist-o -ere -stit-I3 stat-us4 [station] sfo/>(tr.and
(= fixed) intr.)
[89 (c) Peto forms its Perf. Act. from a stem ending in i
(added to pet-), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] :
pet-o -ere petlv-T petlt-us [petition] aim at
6. Verbs in bo, po.
90 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix s :
scrib-o -ere scrips-I script-us [description] write
So nubo, marry • carpo, pluck.
191 (b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
bib-6 -ere bib-T potat-us5 [potation] drink
pot-us6 [potion]
rump-o -ere rup-i rupt-us [rupture] burst
1 Formed from a stem which has no n before the d (fud-, scid-\
2 nexu-J is a double Perfect formed by adding u to nex-.
" Chiefly in compounds like con-stitt, re-stitt.
4 From the stem sta-.
5 From the verb poto, ist Conj.
6 Often active in meaning ( = 'having drunk ') like the English ' drunken '.
86 ACCIDENCE
192 (c) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix u :
pro-cumb-d -ere -cubu-I -cubit-um fallforward
strep-d -ere strepu-I makeanoise
7. Verbs in 16.
193 (a) All verbs in lid form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix :
vell-p -ere vell-I vuls-us [convulsion] pluck
fall-o -ere fefell-I fals-us1 [false] deceive
pcll-d -ere pepul-I puls-us [compulsion] push
per-cell-d -ere -cul-I -culs-us cast down
toll-d -ere sus-tul-I sub-lat-us lift
194 (I)} All other verbs in Id form the Perf. Act. stem with the
suffix u :
al-d -ere alu-I alt-us nourish
col-o -ere colu-I cult-us [culture] cultivate
consul -o -ere consulu-I consult-us [juris-consult] consult
So occuld, hide] and compare void, ndld, mfild, § 242.
8. Verbs in mo, no.
195 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix u :
trem-d -ere tremu-I - tremble
So gem-o, groan ; fremo, make a noise.
gign-o 2 -ere genu-I genit-us [genitive] beget
196 (/') Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
em-d -ere em-I empt-us [redemption] buy, take
can-d -ere cecin-T cantat-us:! [incantation] sing
stern formed with the suffix vS :
197
prcm-o -ere prcss-i press-us
con-temn-d -ere -temps-I -tempt-us
prom-d -ere promps-I prompt-us
sum-d -ere sumps-I sumpt-us
pressure] press
contemptible] despise
prompt] take forth
consumption] take up
1 The meaning ' deceived ' is general!}' expressed by deceptus.
2 Forgi-gen-0.
3 From the verb canto, ist Conj.
THIRD CONJUGATION 87
198 (d) The following verbs in no form their Perf. Act. from
a stem ending in a vowel (e, a or i), with the suffix v [Rule i,
§ 171]-
cern-o -ere crev-I -cret-us1 [discretion] distinguish
So sperno, scorn.
stern-o -ere strav-I strat-us [prostration] strew Jay low
sin-o -ere slv-i sit-us [site] permit
pon-o2 -ere posu-I posit-us [position] place
g. Verbs in ro.
199 (a) The following form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending
in a vowel (e or i)} with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171],
ser-o -ere sev-I sat- us sow
ter-o -ere trlv-T trlt-us [detrition] rub
quaer-o -ere quaesiv-I quaesit-us seek
ac-quir-o -ere -qulslv-i -quislt-us [acquisition] acquire
200 (b) The following form the Perf. Act. stem variously :
ger-o -ere gess-I ges-tus
ur-o -ere uss-I ust-us
curr-o -ere cucurr-I curs-um
ser-o -ere
gesture] carry
combustion] burn (trans.)
cursory] run
insertion] twine
'translation] bear
fer-o4 ferre tul-T lat-us
10. Verbs in sso, s.6, xo.
201 (a) Verbs in sso form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending
in a vowel (i added after the ss), with the suffix v [Rule i,
§ I7I] :
arcess-o -ere arcesslv-l arcesslt-us summon
So lacesso, provoke ; capesso, catch at ; facesso, do eagerly ;
incesso, assail.
202 (b) Viso forms the Perf. Act. without a suffix, and texo
with the suffix u :
vls-o -ere vls-i visit
tex-o -ere texu-I text-us [texture] weave
1 In compounds de-cretus, dis-cretus, se-critns.
2 Pond is a compound of sino ; its original form was po-sino, Perf. po-sivi,
of which postrf is only another form. 3 Only in compounds, e.g. in-sem F.
4 Few forms its principal parts from three entirely different stems.
88 ACCIDENCE
MIXED CONJUGATION (§ 159).
203 i. Most verbs of the Mixed Conjugation form the Perf.
Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the part
of the Infinitive which comes before the ending ere).
In the following list the Infinitive is divided so as to show
this stem.
204 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
capi-o
faci-o
iaci-6
fodi-6
fugi-o
pari-o
cap-ere
fac-ere
iac-ere
fod-ere
fug-ere
par-ere
cep-i
fec-I
iec-I
fod-I
fug-I
peper-T
capt-us
fact-us
iact-us
foss-us
fugit-urus
part-us
[capture]
[faction]
[fosse]
[fugitive]
take
make
throw
dig
flee
bring forth
205 (b) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5 :
con-cuti-6 -cut-ere -cuss-I -cuss-us [concussion] shake
con-spici-o -spic-ere -spex-I -spect-us [inspection] look at
So in-lici-o, lure on ; but e-lici-o, lure out, forms e-licu-I,
e-licit-us [elicit].
206 (c) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix u :
rapi-o rap-ere rapu-T rapt-us [rapture] seize
207 2. Cupid and sapid form their Perf. Act. from the stems
cupl-, sapt-, with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] like audio (4th
Conjugation) :
cupi-o cupere cupiv-I cuplt-us desire
sapi-o sapere saplv-i be sensible
FIRST CONJUGATION
208 i. Four verbs of the ist Conjugation form the Perf.
Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the part of
the Infinitive which comes before the ending are\ like
verbs of the 3rd Conjugation. In the following list the
Infinitive is divided so as to show this stem.
FIRST CONJUGATION 89
These four form the Perf. Act. stem without a suffix :
209 (a) iuvo and lavo without reduplication [Rule 2, § 171] :
iuv-o iuv-are iuv-I iut-us [adjutant] aid
lav-o lav-are lav-I laut-us wash
210 (b) do and sto with reduplication :
d-o d-are ded-I dat-us [dative] give
Do differs from all other verbs of the ist conj. in having
the stem vowel a short in all forms except das (2nd sing.
Pres. Indie. Act.) and da (2nd sing. Imperative) : thus dare,
datus. Similarly circum-do forms circum-dare, -dedi, -datus.
But all compounds formed with a preposition of one syllable
belong to the 3rd conjugation ; see § 185.
211 st-o st-are stet-i stat-urus [station] stand
The compounds of sto with a preposition of one syllable
form the Perf. Act. in -stifi, and many of them have a Fut.
Part. Act., e. g. in-sto, -stare, -stiti, -staturus. Circum-sto
forms -stare, -steti, .
212 2. Some verbs of the ist Conjug. form the Perf. Act.
like habeo (2nd Conj.): the most important are—
vet-6 vet-are vetu-i vetit-us forbid
So cubo, lie down • domo, tame [whence English ' in-
domit-able '].
sec-o seca-re secu-I sect-us [section] cut
son-o sona-re sonu-I sonat-urus sound
ton-o tona-re tonu-i thunder
So mic-o, glitter.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
213 i. About twenty verbs of the 2nd Conjugation form
the Perf. Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the
part of the Infinitive which comes before the ending ere),
like verbs of the 3rd Conjugation. In the following list
the Infinitive is divided so as to show this stem.
90 ACCIDENCE
214 (a) From a stem ending in a guttural. These all take
the suffix s, like most verbs in go and co of the 3rd Conjug.
auge-6 aug-ere aux-I auctus [auction] increase
luce-o luc-ere lux-I shine
So liige-o, mourn.
215 The guttural is dropped after a liquid [Rule 3, § 171] :
indulge-o indulg-ere induls-I ---- indulge
So fulgeo, flash ; urgeo, urge.1
torque-6 torqu-ere tors-I tort-us [torture] twist
216 (b) From a stem ending in d (not preceded by n) :
(i) with the suffix s [Rule 4, § 171] :
arde-o ard-ere ars-I ars-urus [arson] beonfire
rlde-o rid-ere ris-I rls-um2 [derision] laugh
suade-o suad-ere suas-I suas-um [persuasion] advise
217 (ii) without a suffix :
sede-o sed-ere sed-I sess-um [session] sit
vide-o vid-ere vid-I vis-us [vision] see
morde-o mord-ere momord-i mors-us [morsel] bite
218 (c) From a stem ending in nd'y always without a suffix
[Rule 2, § 171].
pende-o pend-ere pepend-I — hangfintr.)
sponde-o spond-ere spopond-I spons-us [sponsor] pledge
tonde-o tond-ere totond-I tons-us [tonsure] shear
219 (d) From a stem ending in v ; always without a suffix
[Rule 2, § 171]:
cave-6 cav-ere cav-I caut-um [caution] beware
So faveo, be favourable.
move-o mov-ere mov-I mot-us [motion] move (if.)
So foveo, warm ; voveo, vow.
1 Other (less important) verbs of the 2nd Conj. to which this rule applies
are given in the alphabetical list (Appendix) : e. g. alged, mulceo, tergeo.
2 In transitive compounds there is the form -risus, e. g. derJsus, irnsus.
SECOND CONJUGATION 91
220 fy From stems ending in other consonants :
iube-o iub-ere iuss-I iuss-us [jussive] bid
mane-o man-ere mans-I mans-um [mansion] remain
haere-o haer-ere haes-I haes-urus cling
[adhesion : note difference of spelling]
221 2. Five verbs of the 2nd Conj. form the Perf. Act. from
the stem of the Present (ending in e) with the suffix v
[Rule i, §171]:
com-ple-o -pie-re -plev-I -plet-us [completion] fill up
So deleo, destroy ; fleo, weep.
abole-o abole-re abolev-I abolit-us [abolition] get rid of
cie-o * cie-re clv-i cit-us [excite] rouse
222 3. The following have some peculiarity in the Perf.
Part. Pass. :
doce-o
doce-re
docu-T
doct-us
[doctor]
teach
tene-o
tene-re
tenu-i
-tent-us
[retention]
hold
misce-o
misce-re
miscu-I
mixt-us
[mixture]
mix
torre-o
tor re-re
torru-i
tost-us
parch
cense-o
cense-re
censu-i
cens-us
[censure]
decide
FOURTH CONJUGATION
223 i. About ten verbs of the 4th Conjugation form the
Perf. Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the
part of the Infinitive which comes before the ending
ire), like verbs of the 3rd Conjugation. In this list the
Infinitive is divided so as to show this stem.
224 (a) From a stem ending in a guttural, with the suffix 5 :
sanci-o sane-Ire sanx-I sanct-us [sanction] ratify
vinci-o vine-Ire vinx-I vinct-us bind
225 The guttural is dropped after a liquid [Rule 3, § 171] :
fulci-o fulc-Ire fuls-I fult-us prop
So re-fercio, cram ; sarcio, patch.
1 The compounds of tied are of the 4th Conj., e.g. ex-do, -«/v, -civt (or
-«'«), -cltus (or -dtus).
92 ACCIDENCE
226 (b) From stems ending in other consonants :
saepi-6 saep-ire saeps-I saept-tis fence in
senti-o sent-Ire sens-I sens-us [sense] feel
hauri-6 haur-ire haus-I haust-us [exhaustion] drain
veni-o ven-ire ven-I vent-um [advent] come
comperi-o comper-Ire comper-i compert-us learn
reperi-o reper-ire repper-I repert-us [repertory] find
227 2. The following form the Perf. Act. like habed (2nd Con-
jugation) :
sali-o sali-re salu-I leap
aperi-o aperl-re aperu-I apert-us [aperture] open
So operio, cover.
228 3- Sepelio forms the Perf. Part. Pass, from the stem sepel- :
sepeli-o sepell-re sepellv-I sepult-us [sepulture] bury
229 4. Ferio forms two Perfects Active, from entirely different
stems :
feri-o feri-re percuss-I1 percuss-us [percussion] strike
Ic-I - ict-us
DEPONENT VERBS
230 Deponent Verbs have only three Principal Parts :
1. The Present Indicative, ist pers. sing.
2. The Present Infinitive.
3. The Perfect Participle.
3rd Conjugation.
231 fung-or fung-I funct-us [function] discharge
loqu-or loqu-i locut-us [elocution] talk
sequ-or sequ-I secut-us [consecutive] follow
fru-or fru-I us-us 3 enjoy
1 From per-cutio, a compound of qttatt'd, like con-cutio, § 205. Used in the
literal sense with the abl. seciiri ('with an axe') : sec firi percuss?. ' I have
beheaded.'
2 Used in a figurative sense with the acc./oedns ('a treaty ') : foedus ferire ,
' to make a treaty.'
3 Borrowed from titor (see below) ; fruct-us and fruit-us [whence English
' fructify ' and ' fruition '] are not usual.
DEPONENT VERBS
93
nasc-or 1
nasc-I
nat-us
[native]
be born
irasc-or l
Irasc-I
suscensu-1 2
get angry
vesc-or !
vesc-I
ed-Is
feed(intr.)
adipisc-or 1
adipisc-I
adept-us
[adept]
acquire
comminisc-or1
comminisc-I
comment-us
[comment]
devise
expergisc-or l
expergisc-I
experrect-us
awake (intr.)
nancisc-or l
nancisc-I
nact-us or nanct-us
get
obllvisc-or l
oblivisc-I
obllt-us
forget
pacisc-or l
pacisc-I
pact-us
[compact]
make a bargain
proficisc-or 1
proficisc-I
profect-us
set out
ulcisc-or 1
ulcisc-i
ult-us
avenge, punish
nlt-or
nlt-I
(i) nls-us
(i) strive
(ii) nix-us
(ii) rest on
ut-or
ut-I
US-US
[usage]
use, enjoy
am-plect-or )
com-plect-or)
-plect-I
-plex-us
[complex]
embrace
lab-or
lab-I
laps-us
[relapse]
slip
quer-or
quer-I
quest-us
complain
32
233
234
Mixed Conjugation.
pati-or pat-i pass-us [passion] suffer
con-gredi-or -gred-I -gress-us [congress] meet
So ag-gredior, e-gredior, trans-gredior, and other compounds
of gradior.
mori-or mor-I mortu-us [mortuary] die
Fut. Part, morit-urus
ist Conjugation.
All the Deponents of the ist Conj. form their Perf. Part,
like voco : e. g. hort-or, horta-ri, hortdt-us, exhort (§ 169).
2nd Conjugation.
Most of the Deponents of the 2nd Conj. form their Perf.
Part, like habed : e. g. vere-ort vcre-ri, verit-us, fear*; misere-or,
misere-ri, mtserit-us, pity ; tue-or, tue-n, tuit-us, protect. Note
re-or, re-ri, rat-us [rate], think.
1 The stem of the tenses of incomplete action is extended by the addition
of sc; cf. pasc-, cresc-, &c., § 178.
2 Borrowed from suscensed, 2nd Conj. ; the form iratus is an adjective
meaning ' angry ' ; thus frdtus sum means ' I am angry ', not * I got angry '.
8 Supplied by edd, § 184.
94 ACCIDENCE
The following forms its Perf. Part, like a verb of the 3rd
Conj. :
fate-or fat-erl fass-us confess
con-fite-or -fit-en -fess-us [confession]
4th Conjugation.
235 Most of the Deponents of the 4th Conj. form their Perf.
Part, like audio : e. g. poti-or, poti-rt, pottt-us, get possession
of; largi-or, largi-ri, largtt-us, give bountifully ; menti-or,
mentt-n, mentit-us, speak falsely ; moli-or, moli-ri, mo/Jt-us, set
in motion ; sorti-or, sorti-ri, sorttt-us, obtain by lot.
The following form the Perfect Participle like verbs of the
3rd Conj. :
meti-or met-Irl mens-us [mensuration] measure
ordi-or ord-Iri ors-us1 begin
ori-or or-Iri ort-us1 arise
(§ 167) Put. Part, orit-urus
ex-peri-or -per-Irl -pert-us [expert] make trial of
ad-senti-or -sent-Iri -sens-us [consensus] assent
SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS
Semi-deponent verbs are verbs which have passive forms
with active meaning in only some groups of tenses.
2nd Conjugation.
236 aude-6 aud-ere aus-us dare
gaude-o gaud-ere gavis-us rejoice
sole-oy sole-re, solit-us, be accustomed, is like haded.
3rd Conjugation.
237 fi-o fieri fact-us become (§ 246)
fid-6 fld-ere fis-us trust
re-vert-or -vert-I -versus 2 return, turn back (intr.)
1 Ors-us (having begun) from a stem in d, but ortus (having arisen) from
a stem in r: see Rule, § 172.
2 The Perfect Indie, is active in form borrowed from verto, § 188): revertl.
95
IRREGULAR VERBS
238 The verbs whose principal parts are given above (§§ 1 73-237)
are not properly described as irregular, though they form
their perfect active and perfect participle passive differently
from verbs like voco, habeo, rego, audio, which are taken as
models for the four conjugations. The latter, it is true,
form the large majority of verbs in the ist, 2nd, and 4th
conjugations. But rego is not really more typical of the 3rd
conjugation than verbs which form their perf. act. without
5, like lego (§ 175) or defendo (§ 186). Nor can perfects like
mm (ist conj., § 209), vent (4th conj., § 226), or like auxi
(2nd conj., § 214), vmxifaih conj., § 224) be properly described
as irregular. They are merely examples of two of the ways
I of forming the perfect which are given in § 171.
The term ' irregular ' is more fitly used of a small number
of verbs which stand apart from all other verbs in the
formation of the tenses of incomplete action, and of verbs
which are defective in some of their tenses, as shown in the
sections which follow.1
Compounds of sum.
239 Most compounds of sum, such as ad-sum, de-sum, m-sumf
prae-sum, £c., are conjugated exactly like sum-, but pro-sum
and pos-sum are peculiar.
In pro- sum, / am helpful, the preposition pro assumes its
older form prod when the verbal part begins with a vowel :
Pres. Indie. : pro-sum, prod-es, prod-est ;
pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt.
Put. Indie. : prod-ero, -eris, -erit, 6°c.
Past Imperf. Indie. : prod-eram, -eras, -erat, &c.
Past Subj. : prod-essem, -esses, -esset, &c.
Imperative : prod-es, -esto, -este, -estote.
Infinitive : prod-esse.
1 Only the forms printed in heavy type in §§ 239-47 need to be learned.
96 ACCIDENCE
240 possum, I can, is compounded of sum and an indeclinable
adjective potts or pote meaning 'able ' : pos-sum, ' I am able/
This adjective, which assumes the form pos- before s, resumes
the form pot- before a vowel. In the pres. infin. and the
past subj. the syllable es- of esse and essem disappears.
This verb is also peculiar in the formation of its perf. active
stem : potu-.
Possum forms no imperative, and the only verb-noun which
it has is the infin. (pres. and perf.).
Pres. Indie. : pos-sum, pot-es, pot-est ;
pos-sumus, pot-estis, pos-sunt.
Fut. Indie. : pot-ero, -eris, -erit, &c.
Past Impcrf. Indie. : pot-eram, -eras, -erat, &c.
Pres. Subj. : pos-sim, -sis, -sit, 6°£.
Past Subj. : pos-sem, -ses, -set ; pos-semus, -setis, -sent.
Pres. Infin. : pos-se.
Principal Parts : possum, posse, potu-i, .
241 fero, / bear ; ferre, tul-i, lat-us
'/ before s and /,
drops |
V i
la short e between two r's.
The Imperative 2nd sing, is fer\ cf. dtc, due (§ 176), fac
(§ 159).
[See table next page.
IRREGULAR VERBS
Tenses of incomplete action.
97
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
. fero P. ferimus
f ers fertis 5. fer, ferto P. ferte, fertote
fert ferunt ferto fer unto
FUTURE
feram, feres, feret, &c.
PAST IMPERFECT
ferebam, ferebas, ferebat,
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
feram, feras, ferat, &c.
PAST
ferrem, ferres, ferret,
VERB-
ADJS
VERB-
PRES. PART, ferens (-nt-) FUT. PART, laturus, a, uir
FUT. INFIN.
laturus (a, um) esse
PRES. INFIN. ferre
SUPINE latum
NOUNS i GERUND ferendum
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
5. feror P. ferimur
ferris feriminl
fertur feruntur
FUTURE
ferar, fereris, feretur, &c.
PAST IMPERFECT
ferebar, ferebaris,
IMPERATIVE
S. ferre, fertor P. feriminl
fertor feruntor
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
ferar, feraris, feratur, &c.
PAST
f er r er , f err eris, f erretur, &c
VERB-
ADJ.
GERUND ADJ. ferendus, a um
VERB-
NOUNS
PRES. INFIN. ferri
FUT. INFIN. latum Irl
ACCIDENCE
242 volo, / will, velle, volu-i, and its compounds nolo, / will
not [from ne-volo], nolle, nolui,and malo, I prefer [from magis
and volo], malle, malui.
Tenses of incomplete action.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
volo nolo malo
vis non vis mavis
vult non vult mavult
volumus nolumus malumus
vultis nonvultis mavultis
volunt nolunt malunt
FUTURE
volam nolam malam
voles noles males
volet nolet malet
volemus nolemus malemus
voletis noletis maletis
volent nolent malent
PAST IMPERFECT
volebam nolebam malebam
volebas nolebas malebas
volebat nolebat malebat
IMPERATIVE
— noli, nolito
nolito
— nolite, nolitote
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
velim nolim malim
veils noils malls
velit nolit malit
velimus nolimus malimus
velitis nolitis malitis
velint nolint malint
PAST
vellem nollem mallem
velles nolles malles
vellet nollet mallet
VERB- PRES. PART.
ADJ- volens nolens [No Fut. Part.]
PRES. INFIN. [No Supine]
J™* velle nolle ^ malle
[Gerund only in late Latin]
243 eo, I go, ire, i-i, it-urn
belongs to the 4th conjugation ; but it forms an old-fashioned
fut. and past imperf. indie, by adding -bo and -bam to the stem
i-, just like a verb of the ist or 2nd conjugation (vocabo,
habebo ; vocabam, habebam). Note the short i in itum.
IRREGULAR VERBS
99
Tenses of inc
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
5. eo P. Imus
Is itis
it eunt
FUTURE
5. ibo P. ibimus
ibis ibitis
Ibit Ibunt
PAST IMPERFECT
S. ibam P. ibamus
ibas ibatis
ibat ibant
omplete action
IMPERATIVE
S. I, ito P. lie, Itote
Ito eunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
5. earn P. eamus
eas eatis
eat eant
PAST
S. Irem P. I r em us
Ires Iretis
Iret * Irent
VERB-
ADJS.
PRES. PART, iens PUT. PART, iturus, a, um
(stem eunt-)
\ VERB-
NOUNS
PRES. INFIN. Ire FUT. INFIN.
iturus (a, um) esse
GERUND eundum SUPINE itum
The passive is formed in the same way, but is only used
impersonally, e. g. Itur, there is a going ; but those compounds
which are used transitively in the active voice have a fully
conjugated passive voice (ad-irl, to be approached, in-Iri, to be
entered, sub-irl, to be undergone, &c.).
244 Peculiarities in the tenses of completed action : —
The perfect active is it (not 1vt\ and these two vowels
are contracted into one long i before 5 :
Per/. Indie. : il, isti, iit ; iimus, istis, ierunt.
Past Perf. Subj. : issem, isses, isset, &c.
Perf. Infin. : isse.
G 2
ioo ACCIDENCE
245 queo, lean, quire, quivii, quitum
nequeo, / cannot, nequire, nequivi, nequitum
are conjugated like eo (§ 243), but are used only in a few
forms.
246 fio (i) / become -, ,, . ,
\; fieri, fact-us sum.
(11) / am made \
In its second meaning fid serves as a passive to facto,
which does not itself form a passive of the tenses of in-
complete action, except in those compounds which are used
transitively in the active voice (affici, to be affected, interfici,
to be killed, &c.).
Tenses of incomplete action.
INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
S. fio P. [Only in Old Latin and Late
fis " Latin]
fit Hunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
FUTURE PRESENT
flam, fles, flet, &c. flam, flas, flat, &c.
PAST IMPERFECT PAST
fiebam, flebas, flebat, &c. fierem, fieres, fieret, &c.
VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-NOUNS
[Pres. Part, and Gerund only in FUT. PART, futurus, about
Late Latin.] to become
PRES. INFIN. fieri, FUT. INFIN. fore, or futurus
(i) to become esse> to be about to be~
(ii) to be made rr come_ . , ,
[lactum in, to be about to be
made, belongs to facto]
IRREGULAR VERBS 101
247 edo, I eat, esse, ed-T, -es-us (only in compounds, e.g. ex-esus,
eaten out, amb-esus, gnawed around].
Tenses of incomplete action
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
S. edo P. edimus
es estis 5. es, esto P. este, estote
est edunt
FUTURE
esto edunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
S. edam P. edemus ; S. edim P. edimus
edes edetis edis editis
edet edent edit edint
PAST IMPERFECT
edebam, edebas, edebat &c. essem, esses, esset,
PAST
VERB-
ADJS.
PRES. PART, edens (-nt-) FUT. PART, esurus, a, urn
. INFIN. CSSC FuT. INFIN.
,.- _ _ / v
NOUNS < esurus (a, um) esse
GERUND edendum SUPINE esum
248 The following verbs of ' saying ' are used chiefly in the
tenses of incomplete action, and in these they are defective :
(1) inquam, say I (used parenthetically), forms :—
Pres. Indie. : inquis, inquit ; inquiunt.
Put. Indie. : inquies, inquiet.
Past Imperf. Indie. : inquiebat.
(2) aio, / say, forms : —
Pres. Indie. : ais; ait (two syllables : a-is, a-it) ; aiunt.
Past Imperf. Indie. : aiebam, aiebas; aiebat, &c.
Pres. Subj. : aiat.
(3) fan, to speak, forms chiefly :—
Pres. Indie. : fatur, he speaks. Put. Indie. : fabitur, he
will speak, hnperat. : fare, speak.
Gerund: fandl, fando, of speaking, by speaking.
Per/. Part. : fatus, a, um, having spoken.
102 ACCIDENCE
249 The following verbs have no tenses of incomplete action.
(i) The Perfect coep-i, / have begun, I began, coep-isse,
coept-us :
Per/. Indie. : coepi, coepisti, coepit, &c.
Put. Per/. Indie. : coepero, / shall have begun, coeperis,1
coeperit, &c.
Past Perf. Indie. : coeperam, / had begun, coeperas, coep-
erat, &c.
Perf. Subj. : coeperim, coeperis,1 coeperit, &>c.
Past. Perf. Subj. : coepissem, coepisses, coepisset, &c.
Put. Part. : coepturus, a, urn, about to begin.
w
55 \Perf. Part. : coeptus, a, um; begun.
< (Perf. Indie. : coeptus (a, urn) sum, I have been begun.
The tenses of incomplete action are supplied by incipio,
incipiam, incipiebam.
The chief use of both coepl and incipio is with an infinitive
as object :
aedificare {?°e.pi' 7 ^ ^ . I to build.
(incipio, I am beginning}
Sometimes, however, with other objects or without any object :
orationem coepisse (incipere), to begin a speech.
The Passive forms are mostly used with a Passive Infinitive,
and are translated by active forms in English : urbs aedificari
coepta est, the city began to be built.
Sometimes, however, in other constructions : amicitia coepta est,
friendship was begun.
(2) The Perfect memin-i, / remember, memin-isse (unlike
coepl) has the meaning of a Present tense :
Perf. Indie. : memim, meministi, meminit, &c.
Put. Perf. Indie. : meminero, I shall remember, memineris,1
meminerit, &c.
Past Perf. Indie. : memineram, I remembered, mem in eras,
meminerat, 6°c.
Perf. Subj. : meminerim, memineris,1 meminerit, &c.
Past Perf. Subj.: memimssem, meminisses, meminisset, 6°c.
See notes on pp. 61, 68.
IRREGULAR VERBS 103
(3) The Perfect 6d-i, I hate, 6d-isse, os-us has (like memim)
the meaning of a Present tense :
Per/. Indie. : odi, odisti, odit, 6°£.
Fut. Perf. Indie. : odero, / shall hate, oderis,1 oderit, o°£.
Past Perf. Indie. : oderam, / hated, oderas, oderat, &c.
Perf. Sub/. : oderim, oderis,1 oderit, &c.
Past Perf. Subj. : odissem, odisses, odisset, &c.
Fut. Part. : osurus, a, um, about to hate.
Perf. Part. : osus, a, um, hating.
The meaning of the Perf. Part, is neither passive (in spite
of its passive form, cf. in French alle ' gone ') nor perfect.
1 See notes on pp. 61, 68.
APPENDIX TO PART I
PECULIARITIES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
Second Declension.
i Locus, m. ' place ' generally forms a neuter nom. and ace. plural
loca. The masc. forms loci, locos mostly mean * passages in books '.
ii A few nouns in us are neuter, with ace. sing, the same as nom.
sing. ; so vulgus ' the rabble ' (rarely masc.).
iii Some adjectives in us, a, urn, form gen. sing, in MS, and dat. sing,
in i, see §§ 86, 88.
iv Some nouns retain an old form of the gen. plur. in um (generally
side by side with the later form in drum] :
(a) nouns denoting coins and measures; e.g. nummus,m.( coin';
sestertius, m. ' sesterce ' (a small silver coin) ; talentum, n. ' talent '
(a Greek word denoting a sum of money— about .£200).
(b) some nouns denoting persons : e. g. deus ( god ', gen. plur.
often deum in poets (§ 22. 3) ; Itberi ' children ' (§ 21) ; socius l ally '.
Vir ' man ' (§ 17, p. 21) often forms gen. plur. virum in poets.
(c) some nouns denoting nationalities, especially in poets :
Achivl * Achaean s ', Teucrt ' Teucrians '.
Similarly some numeral adjectives : duo (§ 89), compounds of
centum (§ 80). and distributive adjectives like bim(§ 84) ; thus pedum
quadrdgenum intervallo ' at an interval of 40 feet in each case '
(Caesar, B. G. iv. 17. 5).
Third Declension.
(i) Forms with i instead of e.
v (a) The accusative singular of a few nouns in is (Class B, § 28)
ends in im instead of em : thus v7s, f. ' violence ' forms vim ; sitis, f.
' thirst ', sitim ; puppis, f. ' stern of a vessel ', puppim ; so too proper
names of rivers and towns, e.g. Tiberis, m. 'the Tiber', Neapolis,
f. 'Naples'.
A few nouns have both the form in im and that in em, e.g. securis,
f. ' axe ', securim or securem.
Tiberim, vim, Nedpolim ; securim, sitim, puppim.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 105
(b) The ablative singular of the nouns that form the ace. sing,
in im ends in F instead of e: thus vi 'by violence ', sift 'by thirst'.
So too the ablative singular of some nouns which are properly
adjectives, such as natalis (originally dies natdlis), m. ' birthday '.
(c) ignis, m. ' fire ' forms abl. igm in certain phrases, e.g. ferrb
igntque ' with fire and sword '.
(ii) Genitive plural in urn instead of turn.
(a) The nouns pater, m. 'father', mater, f. ' mother', frdter, m.
' brother ' have lost an e in the ace., gen., dat. and abl. cases : pater,
patr-em, patr-is, patr-i, patr-e ; plur. patr-es, patr-um patr-ibus. Thus
the genitive plural comes to be contrary to the rule given in § 27.
(b) The words canti, m. or f. ' dog ', mensis, m. ' month ', iuve-
nis, m. or f. 'young man ' or 'young woman ', and senex (gen. senis),
m. ' old man ' form the genitive plural irregularly in urn : canum,
mensum,1 iuvenum and senum.
(c) Parens (gen. parentis), m. or f. ' parent ' forms both paren-
tum and parentium.
(iii) Genitive plural in turn instead of um.
(a) The following nouns form the genitive plural in turn, con-
trary to the rule given in §23: vis, f. 'violence' (plur. vires,
' strength ') ; Its (gen. lifts), f. ' dispute ' ; faux (plur. fauces), f.
'throat', 'jaws'; imber (gen. imbris), m. 'rain'; nix (gen. nivis),
f. ; snow ' ; Penates (plur.), m. ' household gods ' ; optimates (plur.),
m. 'aristocrats ' ; and proper names of tribes ending in is (gen. itis)
or as (gen. dfts) :
virium, litium, faucium, Pendtium ;
imbrium and nivium, Samnitium, optitndtium.
(b) Many feminine nouns in fas (gen. tdtis) have a by-form of
the gen. plur. in tdtium, as well as the more usual form in tdtum ;
e. g. civitds, f. ' state ', civitatum or civitdtium.
(iv) The following nouns are irregular in respect of their stems
or their endings. English derivatives showing the stem are given
in square brackets.
1 Mensum is the ordinary form in classical times; mensium and mcnsuum
are later (as has been shown by Wagener, Beitrcige zur lateinischen Gram-
matik, 1905).
106 APPENDIX
bos, m. or f. ' ox ' [bov-ine] : bov-em, bov-is, bov-i, bov-e ; plur.
bov-es, bo-urn, bubus or bdbus.
card, f. ' flesh ' [carn-al] : carn-em, carn-is, carn-i, carn-e ; plur.
= ' pieces of flesh ' rare.
cor, n. 'heart' [cord-ial] : cor (ace.), cord-is, cord-i, cord-e; plur.
cord-a (cord-ium, cord-ibus, rare).
tier, n. 'journey' [itiner-ary] : tier (ace.), itiner-is, -F, -e, plur.
itiner-a, -um, -ibus.
luppiter, m. ' Jupiter ', lit. ' Father Jove ' [jov-ial] : lov-em, lov-is,
lov-t, lov-e.
msiurandum, n. ' oath ', should be written as two words, ius
a noun of the 3rd decl. (§ 37), iurandum an adj. of the 2nd
decl. : thus ius iurandum, iuris iurandt, iun iurando, iure
iurando ; no plur. in use.
os, n. ' bone ' [oss-ify] : os (ace.), oss-is, oss-i, oss-e ; plur. oss-a,
oss-ium, oss-ibus.
senex, m. ' old man ' [sen-ior] : sen-em, sen-is, sen-t, sen-e ; plur.
sen-es, sen-am, sen-ibus.
sus, m. or f. 'pig', su-em, su-is, su-1, su-e; plur. su-est su-um,
su-bus or su-ibus.
vis, f. 'violence', ace. vim, no gen. or dat., abl. vt\ plur.
= 'strength ', vtr-es, vlr-ium, vir-ibus. [Compare above xi.]
xiv (v) Some adjectives, with no separate form for the feminine or
neuter in the nom. sing., are declined like nouns of the 3rd decl.
(Class A, §§ 23-6), i. e. they have the abl. sing, in e and the gen.
plur. in um, or one of these two forms. Contrast ingens, § 33.
xv (a] Verb-adjectives in ns, gen. ntis (Present Participles) form
the abl. sing, in e, when they are used either as nouns or predica-
tively in the abl. absolute ; thus ab amante ' by a lover ', flumine
currente ' as the river is flowing '. But when they are used as
attributes of a noun they have the form in t (like ingens, §33) ;
thus in flumine currenti ' in a flowing river '. In poets they some-
times form the gen. plur. in um ; thus amantum (for amantium}.
xvi (b) The following adjectives form the abl. sing, in -e and the
gen. plur. in -urn :
vetus ' old ' (stem veter-, whence English ' veter-an ').
dives * rich ' (stem divit-).
pauper ' poor ' (stem pauper-} .
princeps ' chief (stem princip-, whence English ' princip-al ')•
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 107
Abl. sing, vetere, dtvite, paupere, principe.
Gen. Plur. veterutn, dwitum, pauperum, principum.
Such adjectives generally have no neuter plur. (nom. or ace.) ;
but vetus forms vetera, and dives forms dttia (contracted).
(vi) celer m., celeris f., celere n. ' swift' is declined like deer, den's,
acre (§ 32), excepting that it does not drop the e of the stem. The
genitive plural in the form celerum is used only as a noun = ' of the
cavalry '.
(vii) A few adjectives are indeclinable, as tot ' so many ', nequam
1 good for nothing ' (lit. ' no-how '), frugi ' good for something ' (lit.
'for use ', dat. offmx).
Fourth Declension.
A few masc. and fern, nouns form the dat. and abl. plur. in tibus :
e. g. tribiis, f. ' tribe '.
ALTERNATIVE SPELLINGS IN ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
(i) Instead of imus in superlatives and ordinal numerals an older
form in umus is sometimes used : e.g. pessumus, decumus (whence
porta decumana ' the decuman gate ', decumae ' tithes ') ; also in
some other adjectives, e.g./tnifumus.
(ii) Instead of -ensimus and -tens in numeral adjectives and
adverbs (§ 80 f.) the spellings -esimus and -ies are found.
(iii) Instead of -endus in gerund adjectives belonging to verbs of
the 3rd and 4th conjugation an older form in -undus is found : e.g.
repetundus (whence pecuniae repetundae ' moneys to be recovered '
= money illegally extorted) ; oriundus, which has come to be used
with the meaning of a present participle active, ' arising.'
CHIEF EXCEPTIONS TO RULES OF GENDER (§§56-65)
EXCEPTIONS TO RULE FOR 2ND DECL. (§ 60). — Proper names of
towns and countries in us, and nouns in us denoting kinds of trees,
are fern. : e. g. Corinthus ' Corinth ' (captiva Corinthus], Aegyptus
' Egypt ' ; ulmus ' elm ' (ulinus antiqua ' an immemorial elm ') ; also
the word humus ( earth ' (humus atra ' the black soil '). A few in
US are neuter: note 1/ULGUS 'the rabble' (PROFANVM
VULGUSlrt\z profane rabble'), PELAGUS 'the sea' (a Greek
word, used by poets : PELAGUS APERTUM ' the open sea ')•
io8 APPENDIX
EXCEPTIONS TO RULES FOR 3RD DECL. (§§ 61, 62).
xxiv i. The following, which form the nom. sing, by adding the suffix
5 to the stem, are masc. :
0) Nouns ending in es, gen. itis, and ex, gen. icis: thus
caespes ' turf (in caespite viv5 ' on the live turf), gurges 'whirl-
pool ' (in gurgite vasto ' in the wild whirlpool '), vertex * summit '
(in summS vertice ' on the topmost summit ').
W
lapis, sangtris, mons and fons 1 stone, blood, mountain, fount
pes, grex (greg-is), dens and pons | foot, flock, tooth, bridge
(c) Nouns ending in nis, with the same number of syllables in
the gen. sing, as In the nom. sing.: amnis 'river', crmis 'hair',
finis 'end' (sometimes fern, in the singular), funis 'rope', ignis
' fire J, panis ' bread '. Also the following, with some others less
important :
axis, orbis, collis, ensis
fascis, piscis, unguis, mensis
axle, orb, hill, sword
bundle, fish, nail, month
xxv 2. The following, which form the nom. sing, without the addition
of the suffix s, are exceptional :
Masculina— ord5, cardo I rank, hinge ; cf.'ordin-al', 'cardin-al
pugiS1 and scipi5 dagger, staff
Neutra 2— CORD-A, CAPIT-A \ heart (COR), head (CAPUT)
LAC MEL, VER, ITINER-A \ milk, honey, spring, journey (ITER)
VERBER-A,CADAVER-A , lash, Corpse
OR-A, oss- A, AEQUOR-A mouth (os), bone (os\ sea
AER.A, I'AS-A, MARMOR-A bronze (AES), vessel, marble
Feminina— -arbor nuda i bare tree
vis et tellus, card cruda I violence, earth, raw flesh
xxvi FEMININES OF THE 4TH DECL. (cf. § 63)
The following in us are fern. :
dotnus, manus, Idus, tribus ;
also porticus and quercus
house, hand, the Ides, tribe ;
colonnade, oak
xxvii EXCEPTION TO RULE FOR 5TH DECL. — The word dies 'day' is
generally masc., but sometimes fern, in the singular number, when
it denotes 'lapse of time', e.g. longa dies, or an appointed date,
e. g. dies dicta, ante earn diem, ad hanc diem.
1 The quantity of the u in pugio is shown by an epigram of Martial
(xiv. 33).
2 The plural of the neuters is given, where it exists, to show the stem.
109
NOTES ON VERBS
(i) The ending -ere for -erunt in the 3rd person plural of the
Perfect Indicative (§§ 140, 142, 151) is especially common in poets
and historians.
(ii) The ending -re for -ris in the 2nd person singular of the
passive forms of verbs (§§ 152, 154, 156, 157, 161, 168) is found in
prose as well as verse of all periods. Cicero generally used -ris in
the Pres. Indie., but in the Fut. Indie, and Pres. Subj. and in the
Past Imperf. Indie, and Past Subj. he more commonly used -re.
Virgil and Horace used both -ris and -re.
(iii) Some forms of the Perfect Active are occasionally con-
tracted : e. g. amdsti (for amav-isti\ audisse (for audiv-isse}.
Perfect stems in iv sometimes drop the v and shorten the i: e. g.
audi-erat, peti-erat (for audiv-erat,petw-erat}.
(iv) The verbs dico 'I say',duco 'I lead', facto 'I make',fero
' I bear ' drop the final e of the 2nd pers. sing, imperative active :
die, due, fac, fer.
(v) In some verbs the Future Participle cannot be found from
the Perfect Participle Passive: e.g. moriturus (§ 166), oriturus
(§ 167), ruiturus (§ 181).
(vi) The quantity of the i in the endings of the 2nd pers. sing,
and plur. and the ist plur. of the Fut. Perf. Indie, of all conjugations
(-ert's, -eritis, -erimus) is properly short (representing, as it does,
what is called a short * thematic vowel ' in Greek) ; the quantity of
the i in the corresponding forms of the Perf. Subj. is properly
long (representing an optative i in Greek). But, owing to the
similarity of these two tenses both in form and in meaning, they
were confused at an early date ; and poets treated the quantity of
the i in both tenses as either long or short according to metrical
convenience : cf. placards (= placaveris, Fut. Perf., Hor. Od. iii. 23. 3),
fecenmus (Fut. Perf., Catullus 5. 10), egerimus (Perf. Subj., Virg.
Aen. vi. 514).
(vii) The quantity of the e in edo (ist pers. sing. Pres. Indie.,
§ 247) and in all forms of the Future and Past Imperfect Indie, and
of the Pres. Subj. is short; so too in the forms edunfo, edens
(st. edent-), edendum. The quantity of the e in es (2nd pers. sing.
Pres. Indie.), and before 55 (as in essem) or st (as in esf, esto] is
no APPENDIX
uncertain ; till recently it was supposed to be long ; but some
recent authorities maintain that it was short, as in the corresponding
forms of the verb sum. [Vollmer, Glotta i. i, pp. 113-16, 1907 ;
Niedermann, Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1908, p. 664 ; Classical
Review, vol. xxvi (1912), pp. 78-80.]
xxxv (viii) Old Latin forms in -so and -sim.— Old Latin had many
forms in -so and -sim which do not belong to any of the ordinary
tenses of the verb, and a few of these were still used in the classical
period :
faxo, e. g. Virg. Aen. ix. 154, xii. 316, Livy vi. 35. 9.
faxis, faxit, faxitis, faxint, e. g. Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 38, ii. 6. 5, Livy
xxii. 10. 4, xxix. 27. 3, xxxvi. 2. 5, Cic. Sen. 73.
t'usso, e. g. Virg. Aen. xi. 467.
recepso, e. g. Catullus 44. 19.
ausim, ausis, ausit, ausint, e.g. Cic. Brutus v. 18, Virg. Eel. iii.
32, Georg. ii. 289, Hor. Sat. i. 10. 48, Ovid, Met. vi. 466.
The stem from which these forms come is a Perf. Act. stem
formed with s: fax- (=fac-s-\ contrast the ordinary Perf. Act.
stem without s, fee- § 204) ; iuss- like the ordinary Perf. Act. stem
of tubed, § 220 ; aus- (= aud-s-, cf. the Perf. Part, aus-us, § 236).
The ending im is the same as that in sim, velim, nolim, malim,
edim. The above forms in im may, then, be described as old-
fashioned Perfect Subjunctives (often with future meaning, like
other Perf. Subjunctives).
The ending 5 is the same as that in the Fut. Perf. Indie, of other
verbs : faxo and tusso may, then, be called old-fashioned Fut. Perf.
Indicatives (sometimes without the sense of completion, see § 309. i)
The forms in is, it, itis, int may belong either to the forms in b
or to those in im.
xxxvi (ix) Some old-fashioned Present Infinitives Passive in -ier are
found in poets of the classical period, and in some old laws quoted
by Cicero :
e.g. (ist conj.) dominarier, Virg. Aen. vii. 70; laudarier, Hor.
Sat. i. 2. 35.
(2nd conj.) fanner, Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 148 ; torquerier, Propertius
iii. 6. 39.
(3rd conj.) accingier Virg. Aen. iv. 493; spargier, Hor. Od. iv.
ii. 8.
NOTES ON VERBS in
(x) The gerund adjective (§ 133) is not to be regarded as an
adjectival form of the gerund (verb-noun, § 135). On the contrary
the gerund grew out of certain uses of the gerund adjective (see
Syntax, § 503, note). That this is the true account of the relation
of these forms was shown by Weisweiler in his book on the
Participium Futuri Passivi (Future Participle Passive, the name
by which the gerund adjective was always described by the Roman
grammarians), published in 1890. The gerund is a declined form
of the neuter of the gerund adjective, used as a noun. [From a
construction like enndum est nobis (§ 501) the form eundum was
detached in the sense of Her ; cf. Her est nobis ' our way is ', Virg.
Aen. xi. 17 : and from this was formed a genitive eundf ' of the
going ' and an ablative eundo ' by the going '.]
THE CALENDAR
Names of the months : — lannarius, Febrnarins, Martins, Aprilis,
Mains, Innins, Qninctilis (or Inlins, after lulius Caesar),
Sexttlis (or Augustus, after Augustus), September, October,
November, December. These words were originally adjectives :
lannarius mensis ( the January month '. — The number of
days in each month subsequent to the reform of the calendar
by Caesar in B.C. 46 was the same as at the present day.
The ist'day of each month was called Kalendae (ist Decl., fern.).
,, 5th ,, most months „ Nonae „
„ i3th „ „ „ „ Idns (4th Decl., fern.).
But : — In March, July, October, May,
The Ides were on the I5th day,
(and the Nones on the 7th).
The intervening dates were expressed as so many days before
the Nones, Ides, or Calends. In reckoning backwards the Romans
were accustomed to count the ' terminus a quo ' as well as the
' terminus ad quern.' Thus Nonae means the 9th ( = 8th) day before
the Ides. (A good practical rule is to add one in subtracting from
Nones or Ides, and two in subtracting from the number of days in
the month, for dates before the Calends of the next month.)
ii2 APPENDIX
Examples.
* On the ist of January/ Kalendts Janudriis (abl. ; § 444).
„ 2nd ., ante diem quartum Nonas lanuarias (a.d.
IV. Non. Ian.).
„ 3rd » «wte diem tertium Nonas lanuarias (a. d.
III. Non. Ian.).
,, 4th ,, pndie Nonas lanuarias (prld. Non. Ian.).
„ 5th „ Nonis Idnuariis (Non. Ian.).
„ i4th „ ante diem undevtcensimumKal.Februdrias
(a. d. XIX. Kal. Febr.).
The accusative after ante in these expressions is due to the
position of the word in the sentence : ante diem quartum Nonas
lanuarias for die quarto ante Nonas lanuarias ; compare the
expression ante tertium annum for tertio anno ante.
ROMAN MONEY
xxxix Amounts of money were reckoned as so many sesterces.
Sestertius was the name given to a small silver coin, of the value
of two and a half asses. The word is a compound of semis 'half
an as ' [from semi and as] and tertius l third ' : thus it means literally
* the third (as) half an as ', and was used in the sense of ' two and
a half asses' (two asses and half of the third).
Note the following expressions :
(i) duo sestertii, 2 sesterces ; centum sestertii, 100 sesterces.
(ii) duo milia sestertiorum or sestertium, 2,000 sesterces, lit.
two thousands of sesterces (§ 83). Sestertium is an old form
of the gen. plur., which is found also in the gen. plur. of
some other words of the 2nd decl. ; see above iv, p. 104.
(iii) duo sestertia, 2000 sesterces. In this expression the geni-
tive sestertium has been detached from its governing word
in expressions like duo milia sestertium (ii), and treated as
a neuter singular; hence plur. sestertia.
(iv) deciens centena milia sestertium, lit. ten times a hundred
thousands of sesterces = 7,000,000 sesterces ; viciens centena
milia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces, &c.
ROMAN MONEY
These long expressions were generally shortened by omitting
the words centena milia :
deciens sestertium, 1,000,000 sesterces,
and sometimes the gen. sestertium was detached from these ex-
pressions and used as a neuter singular in the sense of 100,000
sesterces: e.g. erni fundum sestertio undeciens, 'I purchased an
estate at the price 0/1,100,000 sesterces ' (abl. § 438).
Centum sestertii may be roughly valued at £i (reckoning the as
as id.) ; thus septem milia sestertium or septem sestertia = £70.
The abbreviation HS or (better) IIS stands for iis(emis).
ABBREVIATIONS
Praenomina.
xl
A. — Aulus
N. or NUM.
= Numerius
C. = Gaius
P.
= Publius
CN. = Gnaeus
D. = Decimus
Q.
S. or SEX.
= Quintus
= Sextus
K. = Kaeso
SER.
= Servius
L. = Lucius
M. • = Marcus
SP.
T.
= Spurius
= Titus
M'. = Manius
Ti.
= Tiberius
MAM. = Mamercus
Other Abbreviations.
A.U.C.
AED.
Cos.
Coss.
D.
D.D.
D.D.D.
D.M.
DES.
F.
HS. (or
IIS) =
IMP.
N.L.
O.M.
P.C.
= anno urbis conditae
= aedilis
= consul or consule
= consulesorconsulibus
= dlvus
= dono dedit
= dat, dicat, dedicat
= dls manibus
= designatus
= filius
sestertius (orplur.}
= imperator
= non liquet
= optimus maximus
= patres conscriptl
PR.
PROC.
PRO PR.
PRO Q.
Q.
S.
s.c.
S.P.D.
S.P.Q.R.
S.V.B.E.E.V,
V.R.
= praetor (or -es)
= pro consule or
proconsul
= pro praetor e
= pro quaestore
= quaestor
= salutem
= senatus consul-
turn
= salutem pluri-
mam dlcit
— senatus populus-
que Romanus
= si vales bene
est, ego valeo
*= utl rogas
M
1 14
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS IN ALPHABETICAL
ORDER
xli In this list compound verbs are inserted under the uncom-
pounded form, e.g. abdo under do. When a verb has several com-
pounds formed exactly in the same way, only one or two of them
are given as examples.
Rules for the formation of the Perfect Active of compounds.
1. The Perf. Act. of the compound has generally the same vowel
as the Perf. Act. of the uncompounded verb, even when the vowel
of the compound is weakened to a short * in the Present ; see ago,
premo.
But compounds of Jtabed, teneo, rapid, salio, and statud retain the
short i of the Present in the Perf. Act.
2. Compounds which have a weakened vowel other than a short
i in the Present retain that vowel in the Perf. Act. and Perf. Part.
Pass. ; e.g. claudo, quaero, quatib.
3. Reduplication is generally dropped in the Perf. Act. of com-
pounds, except in those of disco, do, posed, sisto, sto ; see cado, pellb.
Traces of reduplication are preserved in some compounds with
re- : see recido, repellb.
xlii aboleo
abolere
abolevl
abolitus
get rid of
§221
acuo
acuere
acui
— _
sharpen
§181
adolesco
adolescere
adolevi
adultus
grow up
§178
ago
agere
egi
actus
drive, do
§i?5
per-ago
-agere
-egi
-actus
accomplish
ex-igo
-igere
-egi
-actus
demand
cogo
cogere
coegl
coactus
compel
algeo
algere
alsi
•
be cold
§215
,2
alo
alere
alui
altus
nourish
§J94
apiscor
ad-ipiscor
apisci
ad-ipiscT
aptus sum
ad-eptus
sum
get
acquire
§231
arcesso
arcessere
arcessivl
arcessitus
summon
§201
ardeo
ardere
arsl
arsurus
be on fire
|2l6
arguo
arguere
argui
accuse
§181
audeo
audere
ausus sum
dare
§236
augeo
augere
auxl
auctus
increase
§214
bibo
bibere
bib!
| potatus
{ potus
drink
§191
cado
cadere
cecidi
casurus
fall
§184
oc-cido
-cidere
-cidi
-casurus
sink
re-cido
recidere
reccidl
recasurus fall back
caedo
caedere
cecidi
caesus
fell, slay
§184
oc-cido
-cidere
-cidi
-clsus
kill
cano
canere
cecinl
cantatus
sing
§196
capesso
capessere
capessivi
catch at
§201
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
capio
capere
cepl
captus
take
§204
ac-cipio
-cipere
-cepl
-ceptus
receive
carpo
carpere
carpsl
carptus
pluck
§190
de-cerpo
-cerpere
-cerpsl
-cerptus//wc£ off
caveo
cavere
cavl
cautum
beware
^219
cedo
cedere
cessl
cessum
yield
§183
-cendo not in
use
ac-cendo
-cendere
-cendl
-census
kindle
§186
censeo
censere
censui
census
decide
§ 222
cerno
cernere
crevl
distinguish
$198
de-cerno
-cernere
-crevl
-cretus
decree
cieo
ciere
clvl
citus
rouse
§221
ex-cio
-clre
-clvi(or-cil) -citus
callforth
§221
cingo
cingere
cinxl
cmctus
surround
$ I73
claudo
claudere
clausl
clausus
shut
'§183
in-cludo
-cludere
-clusl
-clusus
shut in
colo
colere
colui
cultus
cultivate
§194
comminiscor comminisci commentus sum
devise
§231
congruo
consulo
congruere
consulere
congrui
consulul
consultus
agree
consult
§181
§194
coquo coquere
credo see under do
coxl
coctus
cook
§176
crepo
crepare
crepul
crepitum
creak
§ 212
cresco
crescere
crevl
cretus
grow (intran.
)§I78
cubo
cubare
cubul
cubitum
' lie down
§212
-cumbo not in use
pro-cumbo
-cumbere
-cubui
-cubitum
fall forward
§192
cupio
cupere
cuplvl
cupitus
desire
§207
curro
currere
cucurrl
cursum
run
§20O
pro-curro
-currere
-cucurri
| -cursum
run forward
deleo
delere
delevl
deletus
destroy
§221
dlco
dlcere
dixl
dictus
say
§I76
disco
discere
didicl
learn
§J79
de-disco
-discere
-didicl
unlearn
dlvido
dlvidere
dlvlsl
dlvlsus
divide
§183
do
dare
dedl
datus
give
§210
circum-do
-dare
-dedl
-datus
surround
§210
ab-do
-dere
-didl
-ditus
hide
§185
cred-o
-dere
-didl
-ditus
trust
§184
ven-do
-dere
-didl
-ditus
sell
S 185
doceo
docere
docul
doctus
• teach
§222
domo
domare
domui
domitus
tame
§212
duco
ducere
duxl
ductus
lead
§ 176
edo
esse
edi
esus
eat
§184
emo
em ere
-eml
emptus
buy, take
§196
ad-imo
-imere
-eml
-emptus
take aivav
promo
promere
prompsl
promptus take forth
§197
sumo
sumere
sumpsl
sumptus
take up
§197
eo
Ire
il
itum
go
$243
red-eo
-Ire
-il
-itum
return
ven-eo
-Ire
-il
be sold
H 2
n6
APPENDIX
expergiscor
expergiscl
experrectus sum
awake (intr.)
$231
exuS
exuere
exul
exutus
take off
§181
facesso
facessere
facesslvl
do eagerly
§201
facio
facere
feel
factus
make
§204
pate-faciS
-facere
-feel
-factus
throw open
ad-ficiS
-ficere
-feel
-fectus
affect
falls
fallere
fefelll
falsus
deceive
§J93
re-fello
-fellere
-fell!
refute
farciS
farclre
farsi
fartus
cram
re-ferciS
-fercire
-fersl
-fertus
cram
§225
fateSr
faterl
fassus sum
confess
§234
confiteor
-fiterl
-fessus sum
confess
faveS
favere
favl
fautum
be favourable
§219
-fends not in
use
de-fends
-fendere
-fendl
-fensus
ward off"
§186
feriS
ferire
(percuss!
(IcI
percussus
ictus
strike
§229
fero
ferre
tuli
latus
bear
§200
ad-fero
adferre
attuli
allatus
bring to
au-ferS
auferre
abstull
ablatus
take away
con-fero
conferre
contull
collatus
bring together
dif-ferS
differre
distull
dilatus
i *•
defer
ef-fero
efferre
extull
elatus
carry forth
in -fero
in ferre
intuli
illatus
carry in
of-ferS
offerre
obtull
oblatus
offer
refers
referre
rettull
relatus
bring back
suf-ferS
sufferre
sustull
endure
fldo
fldere
flsus sum
trust
§237
figo
figere
fix!
fixus
fix
finds
findere
fid!
fissus
split
|i86
fingo
fingere
finxl
fictus
fashion
flo
fieri
factus sum
become
§237
fleets
flectere
flexl
flexus
bend
§187
fleo
flere
flevl
fletus
iveep
I 221
fllgS not in use
ad-fllgS
-fligere
-flixi
-flictus
dash down
§^73
prS-fllgS
-fllgare
-fllgavl
-fllgatus
overthrow
fluS
fluere
flux!
fluxus
flow
§182
fodio
fodere
fsdi
fossus
dig
§204
foveS
fovere
fovl
fstus
warm
§219
frangS
frangere
fregl
fractus
break
§J75
per-fringS
-fringere
-fregl
-fractus
shatter
fremS
fremere
fremul
make a noise
§ 195
fruor
frui
usus sum
enjoy
§231
fugiS
fulciS
fugere
fulclre
fM
fulsi
fugiturus
fultus
flee
prop
$204
§225
fulgeS
fulgere
fulsl
.
flash
§215
lundo
fundere
fudl
fusus
pour
§186
fungor
fungi
functussum
discharge
§231
gaudeo
gaudere
gavlsus sum
rejoice
§236
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
117
gemo
gemere
gemul
groan
§195
gero
gerere
gessl
gestus
carry
§200
gigno
gignere
genul
genitus
beget
§ J95
gradior
gradi
gressus sum
step
con-gredior
-gredi
-gressus sum
meet
§232
haereo
haerere
haesT
haesurus
cling
§220
haurio
haurire
hausT
haustus
drain
•?226
imbuo
irribuere
imbul
imbutus
tinge
§181
incesso
incessere
incessivl
assail
02OI
indulgeo
indulgere
indulsl
indulge
^2I5
induo
induere
indui
indutus
put on
§181
irascor
irascl
suscensul
get angry
§ 231
iacio
iacere
iecl
iactus
throw
§204
de-icio
deicere
deiecl
deiectus
cast down
iubeo
iubere
iussl
iussus
bid
§220
iungo
iungere
iunxi
iunctus
join
f i?3
iuvo
iuvare
iuvT
iutus
aid
§209
labor
labl
lapsus sum
slip
§231
lacesso
lacessere
lacessivi
lacessltus
provoke
§ 2OI
Iacio not in use
e-licio
-licere
-licui
-licitus
lure out
§205
in-licio
-lie ere
-lexl
-lectus
lure on
§205
laedo
laedere
laesi
laesus
hurt
§I83
e-lldo
-lid ere
-llsi
-Hsus
shatter
languesco
languescere langul
grow weak
§180
lavo
lava re
lav!
lautus
wash
§200
lego
col-ligo
di-ligo
legere
-ligere
-ligere
leg!
-leg!
-lexl
lectus
-lectus
-lectus
gather \ 175
col/ec/[so e-(de-)ligo]
love ' §173
intel-lego
-legere
-lexl
-lectus
understand
e
§J73
neg-lego
-legere
-lexl
-lectus
disregard
§T73
lino
linere
lev!
litus
smear
§199
linquo
re-linquo
linquere
-Imquere
HquT
-liqui
leave
leave
§J77
-lictus
loquor
loqui
locutus sum
talk
§231
luceo
lucere
lux!
shine
§214
ludo
ludere
lusi
lusum
play
ssi83
lugeo
luge re
lux!
mourn
§214
luo
luere
lul
— (\) loose (\\}wash\ 181
ab-luo
-lucre
-lu!
-Iutus
wash off
malo
malle
maluT
prefer
§194
maneo
manere
mans!
mansum
remain
§220
mergo
mergere
mersl
mersus
dip
$174
metior
metirl
mensussum
measure
§235
meto
metere
messem fed messus
mow
metuo
metuere
metui
fear
§181
mico
micare
micui
glitter
§212
minuo
minuere
minui
minutus
lessen
§181
misceo
miscere
miscui
mixtus
mix
^222
mitto
mittere
mlsl
missus
send
§187
n8
APPENDIX
mordeo mordere
momordi morsus bite
§217
morior mon
mortuus sum die
§232
moveo movere
movl motus move (trans.)
§219
mulceo mulcere
mulsl mulsus soothe
^215
m
(nactus sum
nanciscor nancisc!
i ffd
& QOT
( nanctus sum s
j O
nascor nascl
natus sum be born
§ 231
necto nectere
nexul nexus bind
§187
neglego see under lego
nitor nitl
( nisus sum strive \
\ nixus sum rest on j
§231
nolo nolle
nolul be unwilling
§J94
nosco noscere
novT notus get to know
§178
ignosco ignoscere
ignovi ignotum pardon
agnosco agnoscere
agnovi agnitus recognize
cognosco cognoscere cognovl cognitus ascertain
§178
nubo nubere
nupsi nupta marry
§190
-nuo not in use
ab-nuo -nuere
-nui deny
§181
obliviscor obliviscl
occulo occulere
oblltus sum forget
occulul occultus -hide
§231
§I94
ordior ordiri
orsus sum begin
§235
orior orirl
ortus sum arise
§235
paciscor pacisci
pactus sum makeabargain
§231
pando pandere
pandi passus spread out
^186
pango pangere
pepigi pactus fix
§175
com-pingo -pingere
-peg! -pactus join together
parco parcere
pepercT parsurus spare
§i?7
pario * parere
peperi partus get
§204
aperio aperire
aperul apertus open
§227
operio operlre
operuT opertus cover
§227
com-perio -perlre
-peri -pertus learn
§226
re-perio reperlre
repperi repertus^w^/
§226
ex-perior -perlrl
-pertus sum make trial of
§235
pasco pascere
pavi pastus feed (trans.)
§178
patior patl
passus sum suffer
§232
per-petior -peti
pello pellere
-pessus sum endure
pepuli pulsus push
§!93
im-pello -pellere
repello repellere
-pull -pulsus impel
reppull repulsus repel
pendeo pendere
pependl — kang(intrans.)
§218
pendo pendere
pependl pensus weigh
§186
im-pendo -pendere
percello percellere
-pendi -pensus weigh, pay
perculT perculsus cast down
§193
pergo see under rego
peto petere
petlvl petltus aim at
§ l89
pingo pingere
plaudo plaudere
pinxi pictus paint
plausT plausum clap
§173
§183
ex-plodo -plodere
-plosl -plosus hiss off
plecto poetical and rare
com-plector -plectl
-plexus sum embrace
§231
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
-pleo not in use
com-pleo -plere -plevi
pono see under sino
posco poscere poposci
de-posco -poscere -poposci
possum see under sum
-pletus fill up
postulates demand
demand
119
§221
prehendo
prehendere prehendi
prehensus^ras^
§186
premo
premere
pressl
pressus press
§197
op-primo
proficiscor
-primere
proficiscl
-pressl
profectus
-pressus surprise
sum set out
§231
promo see under emo
pungo
pungere
pupugl
punctus prick
§175
quaero
quaerere
quaesivi
quaesltus seek
§199
re-qulro
-quliere
-quisivl
-qulsitus require
quatio
quatere
quassus shake
con-cutio
-cutere
-cussl
-cussus shatter
\ 205
queror
querl
questus sum complain
§231
queo
quire
quivi
quitum be able
§245
quiesco
rado
quiescere
radere
quievl
rasl
quietus go to rest
rasus scrape
§178
$183
rapio
rapere
rapui
raptus snatch
§206
dl-ripio
-ripere
-ripui
-reptus plunder
rego
regere
rexl
rectus rule
§J73
cor-rigo
-rigere
-rexl
-rectus correct
pergo
pergere
perrexi
perrectum go on
surgo
surgere
surrexl
surrectum arise
reor
rerl
ratus sum
think
$234
rldeo
ridere
risl
rlsum laugh
§216
de-rldeo
-rldere
-risi
-rlsus deride
§216
rodo
rodere
rosi
rosus gnaw
§183
rumpo
rumpere
rupi
ruptus burst
§191
ruo
ruere
rul
ruiturus tumble
§181
ob-ruo
-ruere
-rul
-rutus overwhelm
§181
saepio
saeplre
saepsi
saeptus fence in
§226
salio
sallre
salui
leap
§227
de-silio
-silire
-silui
leap down
sancio
sanclre
sanxi
sanctus ratify
§ 224
sapio
sapere
saplvl
be sensible
^207
sarcio
sarcire
sarsi
sartus patch
§225
scando
scandere
scandi
climb
de-scendo
-scendere -scendi
-scensus descend
§186
scindo
scindere
scidl
scissus tear
§186
scisco
sciscere
sclvl
scltus decree
§178
scrlbo
scribere
scrip si
scriptus write
§190
seco
secare
secul
sectus cut
§212
sedeo
sedere
sedl
sessum sit
§217
ob-sideo
-sidere
-sedl
-sessus besiege
sentio
sentlre
sensl
sensus feel
§226
con-sentio
-sentlre
-sens!
-sensum agree
ad-sentior
-sentlrl
• sensus sum assent
§235
120
APPENDIX
sepelio sepelire sepeHv!
sequor sequl secutus
sepultus bury § 228
follow § 231
sero serere
sertus twine § 200
de-sero -serere -seru!
-sertus desert
sero serere sevi
satus sow § 199
con-sero -serere -sev!
-situs plant
serpo serpere serps!
crawl § 190
sido rare
con-sido -sidere -sed!
-sessum seat oneself 1 § 184
sino sinere siv!
situs permit § 198
de-sino -sinere -sii
-situm cease
pono ponere posui
positus place § 198
sisto sistere stit!
status stop § 188
con-sisto -sistere -stit!
stop
soleo solere solitus sum
be accustomed § 236
solvo solvere solv!
solutus loosen § 181
sono sonare sonu!
sonaturus sound §212
spargo spargere spars!
sparsus scatter § 174
dis-pergo -spergere -spers!
-spersus scatter abroad
specio not in use
con-spicio -spicere -spex!
-spectus look at § 205
sperno spernere sprev!
spretus scorn \ 198
spondeo spondere spopond!
re-spondeo -spondere -spond!
sponsus pledge §218
-sponsum answer
statuo statuere statu!
statutus set up § 181
con-stituo -stituere -stitu!
-stitutus establish
sterno sternere strav!
stratus strew § 198
stinguo poetical and rare
ex-stinguo -stinguere -stinx!
-stinctus quench § 173
sto stare stet!
staturus stand $211
circum-sto -stare -stet!
surround §211
in-sto -stare -stit!
•staturus pursue $211
strepo strepere strepu!
make a noise § 192
stringo stringere strinx!
strictus tighten 1 173
struo struere strux!
structus pile up $ 182
suadeo suadere suas!
suasum advise §216
suesco poetical
ad-suesco -suescere -suev!
•suetus be accustomed § 178
sum esse fui
• be § 141
prosum prodesse profu!
» • sihf ^ o*-\
t/C' oc / t/*CrC»c/£c> ^ -^^t^
possum posse potu!
be able § 240
sumo see under em 6
surgo see under rego
tango tangere tetig!
tactus touch § 175
at-tingo -tingere -tig!
-tactus touch
tego tegere tex!
tectus cover § 173
temno temnere
despise
con-temno -temnere -temps!
-temptus despise § 197
tendo tendere tetend!
tentus stretch § 186
con-tendo -tendere -tend!
-tentus strain
os-tendo -tendere -tend!
show
PRINCIPAL PART
S OF VERBS
121
teneo tenere tenul
hold
§222
re-tineo -tinere -tinul
-tentus retain
tergeo tergere tersl
tersus wipe
§215
tero terere trivl
trltus rub
§199
texo texere texul
textus weave
tingo tingere tinxl
tollo tollere sustull
tinctus dip
sublatus lift
§173
§I93
tondeo tondere totondl
tonsus shear
§218
at-tondeo -tondere -tondl
-tonsus shear
tono tonare tonul
thunder
§212
tbrqueo torquere torsi
tortus twist
$215
torreo torrere torrul
tostus parch
§222
traho trahere traxl
tractus draw
§173
tremo tremere tremul
tremble
§I95
tribuo tribuere tribul
tributus assign
§181
trudo trudere trusl
trusus thrust
1 183
tundo poetical and rare
con-tundo -tundere -tudl
-tusus bruise
§184
ulciscor ulciscl ultus sum
avenge, punish
§231
ungo ungere unxl
unctus anoint
§173
uro urere ussl
ustus burn
§200
comburo comburere combussl
-bustus burn up
utor uti usus sum
use, enjoy
§231
vado vadere
go
e-vado -vadere -vasl
•vasum go out
§183
veho vehere vexl
vectus carry
§I73
vello vellere velll
vulsus pluck
§X93
vendo see under do
venio venire venl
ventum come
§226
verto vertere verti
versus turn
§188
con-verto -vertere -verti
-versus turn
re-vertor -verti -verti
-versus return
§237
vescor vescl edl
feed (intrans.)
§231
veto vetare vetui
vetitus forbid
§212
video videre vidi
vlsus see
§217
vincio vincire vinxl
vinctus bind
§ 224
vinco vincere vlcl
victus conquer
§177
vlso vlsere vlsl
visit
§202
vivo vlvere vixl
victurus live
§182
volo velle volul
wish
§194
volvo volvere volvl
volutus roll
Sl8T
voveo vovere vovl
votus vow
§219
PART II— SYNTAX
I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS
250 IN Latin, as in English and French, a sentence consists of
two parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the
word or group of words which denotes the person or thing of
which the predicate is said : the predicate is all that is said of
the person or thing denoted by the subject :
Subject
Exercitus
The army
Labienus
Labienus
Exercitus
The army
Predicate
rediit.
returned.
exercitum reduxit.
brought back the army.
salvus et incolumis erat.
ivas safe and sound.
251 Subject + predicate may be contained in a single word :
redl, return. In Latin the subject is often expressed or
implied by the inflexion of the verb : redi-s, you return ; redi-t,
he returns ; redi-mus, we return ; redl-tis, you return ; redeu-nt,
they return.
The parts of the predicate.
252 (i) The verb.
A verb may form the whole of the predicate : exercitus
rediit, the army returned ; Troia fuit, Troy has had its day. On
the other hand predicates may be expressed without a verb :
pavidi duces, milites ducibus infensl, the officers [were] terri-
fied, the men [were] enraged with the officers ; ne quid nimis,
[one should do] nought to excess ; unde mihi lapidem ? where
[can I get] me a stone ?
253 (2) The object, governed by the verb : Labienus exerci-
tum reduxit, Labienus brought back the army.
i24 SYNTAX
254 (3) The predicative adjective, predicative noun or pre-
dicative pronoun :
(a) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the sub-
ject is declared to be, to become, tb be made, to be named,
or to seem : exercitus salvus et incolumis erat, the army
was safe and sound; Ubil vectigales Sueborum fiunt,
the Ubii become (or are made) tributaries of the Suebi;
Labienus certior fit, Labienus is informed, lit. becomes (or
is made) more certain ; silva mumta oppidum a Britannis
vocatur, a fortified wood is called a town by the Britons ;
ascensus minime arduus videbatur, the ascent seemed not
at all steep ; ego is sum, I am he(—\ am the person in
question).
(b) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the
object is declared to be made, or to be named : haec res
omnia tuta reddidit, this rendered everything safe ; Suebl
Ubios vectigales faciunt, the Suebi make the Ubii tribu-
taries ; Labienum certiorem facit, he informs Labienus,
lit. makes Labienus more certain ; BritannI silvam munl-
tam oppidum vocarit, the Britons call a fortified wood
a town.
255 Predicative adjectives and nouns may be used in sentences
which do not contain verbs of ' being ', ' becoming ', ' seeming ',
'making', or ' naming': exercitus salvus et incolumis re-
diit, the army returned safe and sound (this does not mean 'the
safe and sound army returned ', but ' the army was safe and
sound when it returned ') ; exercitum salvum et incolumem
reduxit, he brought back the army safe and sound ( — the army
was safe and sound when he brought it back) ; naves humiles
factae sunt, the ships were built low ; naves actuaries fecit, he
built the ships as row-barges; Ubios multo humiliores rede-
gerunt, they rendered (lit. reduced) the Ubii much more humble,
i. e. reduced them so that they became more humble (B. G. iv.
3. 4) ; nobilissimos civitatis legates mlserunt, they sent the
men of highest position in the state as delegates ; me adiutore
utere, use me as a helper.
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 125
Other parts of the sentence.
256 Any noun in the sentence may be qualified by an adjective
or the equivalent of an adjective. An adjective or adjective
equivalent which merely qualifies and is not predicative is
called an epithet : exercitus Romanus rediit, the Roman
army returned (epithet adjective). On the ordinary position
of the epithet adjective see § 3.
257 An epithet noun may stand either before or after the noun
to which it belongs. The two nouns often form a kind of
compound noun, of which either the first or the second part
may be regarded as the epithet : urbs Roma, the city of Rome
(\: e. either the Roman city or Rome which was a city) ; rex
Galba, King Galba ; flumen Rhenus, the river Rhine] Garumna
flumen, the river Garonne] bellator deus, a warrior god.
858 An epithet noun which stands after the noun to which it
belongs and is added as by an afterthought is said to stand
in apposition : Galba, rex Suessionum, Galba, the king of the
Suessiones.
559 The verb, or any adjective or adverb in the sentence, may
be qualified by an adverb or the equivalent of an adverb :
deinde (or proxima hieme) Rhenum transierunt, thereupon
(or in the next winter) they crossed the Rhine] longius
anno | uno in loco | incolendi causa | nonremanent, they do
not remain \ in one place \ longer than a year \ for the purpose
of residing there.
60 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva-
lent to a noun, an adjective or an adverb, and not having
a subject and a predicate of its own, is called a phrase :
mllites naves conscendere iubet, he bids the soldiers
embark (noun phrase, cf. § 461).
homines capillo promisso, men with long hair, long"
haired men (adjective phrase).
trans Alpes habitant, they dwell across the Alps (adverb
phrase). Other* examples in § 259.
126 SYNTAX
261 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva-
lent to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb and having a sub-
ject and a predicate of its own is called a subordinate clause :
causa transeundl fuit quod bello premebantur, the cause
of their crossing was that they were hard pressed by war,
or the fact that they were hard pressed by ivar was the cause
of their crossing (noun clause).
ea hieme quae secuta est Germanl Rhenum transierunt
non longe a marl quo Rhenus influit, in the winter which
followed the Germans crossed the Rhine not far from the
sea into which (lit. whither) the Rhine flows (adjective
clauses).
Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulferiorem
contendit, when this was reported, Caesar hastened into
Further Gaul (adverb clause).
262 A sentence containing only one predication is called a
simple sentence :
longius anno uno in loco incolendi causa remanere iis
non licet, it is not permitted to them to remain longer than
a year in one place for the purpose of residing there.1
263 A sentence consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts is
called a double sentence or a multiple sentence :
prlvati agri apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno
remanere uno in loco licet, there is no private land
among them, nor are they allowed to remain longer than
a year in one place (double sentence) ; hi in armis sunt,
ill! domi remanent, the latter bear arms, the former remain
at home (here the two parts of the double sentence are
not connected by any conjunction); multum sunt in
venationibus : quae res vires alit, they are much engaged
in hunting: which circumstance increases their strength
1 The instances in this and the two following sections are taken from
Caesar, B. G. iv. i.
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 127
(quae res = et ea res, connecting the two co-ordinate parts
of the sentence ; contrast the use of quae in § 261). Each
of the parts of such a sentence may be called a co-ordinate
clause.
264 Similarly any member of a sentence may be double or
multiple :
hi atque ill! in vicem in armls sunt, the latter and the
former bear arms in turn (double subject) ; quae res et
vires alit et immani corporum magnitudine homines
efficit, which circumstance both increases their strength
and makes them men of vast bodily size (double predicate) ;
se atqiie reliquos alunt, they support themselves and the
rest (double object) ; gens est maxima et bellicosissima,
the tribe is the largest and most warlike (double predicative
adjective) ; quae res et cibi genere et cottidiana exerci-
tatione et Hbertate vitae vires alit, which circumstance
increases their strength both by the nature of their food
and by their daily exercise and by the freedom of their lives
(multiple adverbial qualification) ; ager privatus ac
separatus, private and separate land (double epithet).
265 A sentence containing one main predication and one or
more subordinate predications is called a complex sentence.
266 All sentences containing a subordinate clause (§261) are
complex. In most complex sentences the part which is not
subordinate has a subject and a predicate of its own, and is
called the main clause : opportunissima res accidit, quod
GermanI ad Caesarem sul purgandl causa venerunt, a most
fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to
Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves (quod . . . venerunt is
a noun-clause in apposition to res) ; ii qul trans Mosam ierant
non redierant, those who had gone across the Meuse had not
returned (qui . . . ierant is an adjective-clause, qualifying it);
si gravius quid accident, abs te rationem reposcent, if
anything serious happens they will call you to account (st . . .
accident is an adverb-clause, = under certain conditions).
128 SYNTAX
267 But in some complex sentences containing a noun-clause
the rest of the sentence is incomplete without the noun-clause :
causa transeundi fait quod bello premebantur, the cause of
their crossing (subject) was (main verb) that they were driven by
war (noun clause, used predicatively) ; or the fact that they
were driven by war (subject) was (main verb) the cause of their
crossing (predicative noun).
268 A complex sentence may form one of the co-ordinate parts
of a double or multiple sentence (§ 263): opportunissima
res accidit, quod German! ad Caesarem sui purgandi
causa venerunt (complex sentence) ; quos Caesar retineri
iussit, a most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans
came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves] and Caesar
ordered them to be detained.
II. AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS OF THE
SENTENCE WITH ONE ANOTHER
269 The parts of the sentence are said to ' agree ' when they
are made like one another in certain respects. Agreement
binds them together and shows that they form a unity.
i. Agreement of the verb.
270 The verb agrees with the subject in number and person, as
in English and French :
Hostis fugit. The enemy is running away (sing.).
Hostes fugiunt. The enemies are running away (plur.).
Ite, fllii, celebrate exsequias Sclpionis African!. Go, my
sons, attend the funeral of Scipio Africanus.
Quern quaeritis adsum Troius Aeneas. /, Aeneas of
Troy, whom you are seeking, am here.
271 A double or multiple subject takes a plural verb :
Cicero et Terentia valent. Cicero and Terentia are well
(3rd person).
Tune et uxor tua valetis? Are you and your wife well?
(and person, because the double subject = vos).
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 129
Ego et uxor mea Hberique nostrl valemus. My wife and
I and our children are well, (ist person, because the
multiple subject = nos.)
Constructions according to sense.
272 (i) A singular noun denoting several persons or things may
take a plural verb : pars se receperunt, part (= some of them)
retired.
273 (2) When the parts of a double subject are so closely connected
that they form one idea, the verb may be singular : senatus
populusque Romanus decrevit, the senate and Roman people has
resolved.
274 2. Agreement of the predicative adjective and predicative
noun.
The predicative adjective and the predicative noun agree
as far as possible with the word of which they are predicated
(as in French)1 — the pred. adj. in gender, number, and case;
the pred. noun in case :
Exercitus salvus et incolumis est (or rediit, § 255). The
army is (or returned) safe and sound.
Roma erat caput Italiae. Rome was the head (capital) of
Italy.
Vita rustica magistra parsimoniae est. A country life is
the teacher of thrift, (magister happens to have a cor-
responding feminine magistra.)
Ciceronem populus Romanus consulem creavit. The
Roman people elected Cicero consul.
Mllites salvos et incolumes praestitit. He secured the
safety of the soldiers (lit. he secured the soldiers safe and
sound) : cf. Cicero, pro leg. Man. § 55. Praesto in this
sense is derived from praes and sto, ' I stand surety/
1 The predicative adj. or noun is only part of what is predicated (see § 250).
The agreement of predicative words with the words of which they are
predicated is not found in all languages. In German, for example, predicative
words (unlike epithets) are uninflected.
901 T
130 SYNTAX
Licet ils incolumibus exlre. // is allowed to them to depart
unharmed', here incolumibus is predicated of its, which
is governed by licet.
Administrls ad ea sacrificia Druidibus utuntur. As
agents for those sacrifices they make use of the Druids :
here admimstris is predicated of Druidibus, which is
governed by utuntur.
275 So too with an infinitive:
Balbus clvis Romanus esse vult. Ralbus desires to be
a Roman citizen : here civis is predicated of Balbus.
Cicero dixit Balbum civem Romanum esse. Cicero
declared Balbus to be ( = declared that Balbus was)
a Roman citizen : here civem is predicated of Balbum.
276 Double or multiple subject.
(1) When a double or a multiple subject consists of words
denoting persons of different sexes, and the predicate contains
a predicative adjective, the plural adjective is put in the mas-
culine gender, as in French :
Pater meus et mater mea salvl sunt. My father and
mother are well. (The double subject = duo homines,
' two human beings ', and homo is always masc.)
(2) When a double or multiple subject consists of words
of different genders but not denoting persons, and the predi-
cate contains a predicative adjective, the plural adjective either
agrees with the part of the subject which stands nearest to it
or is put in the neuter gender :
Bracchia modo eorum atque umerl liber! ab aqua erant.
Only their arms and shoulders were free of the water.
Mors et somnus similia sunt. Death and sleep are similar
(similar things).
277 The rules given above for predicative adjectives apply also
to verb-adjectives (perfect participles) in compound tenses of
verbs : pater meus et mater mea mortul sunt (captl sunt), my
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 131
father and my mother are dead (have been taken prisoners] ;
Cicero a populo Romano consul creatus est, Cicero was elected
consul by the Roman people.
278 Peculiarity. If the subject is a demonstrative, interrogative, or
relative pronoun, and the predicate contains a predicative noun,
the subject is generally made to agree with the predicative noun,
as in French :
Hie vltae Hannibalis exitus fuit. This was the end of Hannibal's
life.
Haec est nobilitas mea, hae imagines meae. This is my title
to nobility, this my gallery of ancestral busts.
Quae est causa ? What is the reason ?
Roma, quod caput erat Italiae. Rome, which was the capital of
Italy.
Sunt item quae appellantur alces. There are also what (i.e.
animals which) are called elks (B. G. vi. 27 : quae is fern.,
agreeing with alces}.
279 3- Agreement of epithets.
The epithet adjective agrees in gender, number and case
with the word which it qualifies :
vir bonus, a good man ; hie vir, this man (demonstrative
adj.); qulvir? which man? (interrogative adj.); quota
hora est? what o'clock is it? (interrogative numeral adj.);
adulescentes quldam, some young men (indefinite adj.) ;
patriam suam relinquit, he is leaving his native land
(possessive adj.) ; duo erant itinera quibus itineribus
exlre possent, there were two roads by which roads they
would have been able to march out (relative adj.); castra
munlta, a fortified camp (verb-adj.).
280 If an epithet adjective qualifies two or more nouns of
different genders, it either (a) agrees with the noun that
stands nearest to it, or (b) is repeated :
(a) signum et manum suam cognovit, he recognized his
seal and hand ;
omnes terrae et maria ) all lands and seas
terrae et maria omnia \ (
I 2
132 SYNTAX
(b) maior alacritas studiumque pugnandl maius, greater
keenness and love of fighting ;
omnes terrae et omnia maria, all lands and seas.
281 The epithet noun agrees in case with the word to which it
belongs :
urbem Romam relinquit, he is leaving the city of Rome ;
silva Arduenna a flumine Rheno ad initium Remorum
pertinet, the forest of the Ardennes stretches from the
river Rhine to the frontier of the Remi (flutnen neut.;
Rhenus masc.).
Nouns in apposition : agrum Helvetiorum, gentis Gallicae,
vastat, he lays waste the territory of the Helvetii, a Gallic
tribe ; Athenas, inventrices artium et scientiarum, viset,
he will visit Athens, the mother of arts and sciences (in-
ventor happens to have a corresponding feminine in-
ventrix).
4. Agreement of pronouns.1
282 Pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun or
noun-equivalent which denotes the person or thing indicated :
Silva Hercynia magna est : in ea (fern, sing.) sunt multa
genera ferarum, quae (neut. plur.) reliquis in locls visa non
sint : ex quibus quae maxime differant a ceterls haec sunt.
Est bos cervi figura, cuius (masc. sing.) a fronte unum cornu
exsistit : ab ems (neut. sing.) summo sicut palmae ramlque
diffunduntur. Eadem est feminae marisque natura. Sunt
item alces : harum est consimilis caprls figura. . . . His sunt
arbores pro cubllibus : ad eas se applicant (B. G. vi. 25-7).
The Hercynian forest is large : in it there are many kinds of
wild beasts, which (i. e. kinds) have not been seen in other places :
of which (i. e. kinds) those which differ most from the rest are
the following. There is an ox with the shape of a stag, from
whose forehead springs a single horn : from the top of this
1 The term ' pronoun ', as used here and in the Accidence, does not include
indicating adjectives, such as hie in hie vtr, ' this man ' (see § 279).
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 133
what resembles hands and branches spreads out. The appear-
ance of the male and of the female is the same. There are
also elks : their shape is like goats ( = that of goats). Trees
serve them as beds : they lean against them (i. e. the trees).
283 The person or thing indicated by a pronoun is not always
expressed by a noun or noun-equivalent in the sentence or
context; sometimes the speaker has a person or thing in
mind without mentioning it :
Ei qul in statione erant interfectl sunt. Those (i. e. the
men) who were on sentry duty were killed.
Ea quae acciderant nuntiant. They report the things which
had happened.
Caesarl cum id nuntiatum esset, eos per provinciam iter
facere conarl, maturat ab urbe proficisci. IVhen that
(i. e. that fact) had been reported to Caesar, namely that
they were attempting to march through the province, he
hastens to set out from Rome.
284 The pronoun ego indicates the person speaking, who may
be male or female; nos indicates the person speaking and
other persons associated with him — / and you or / and he
(she, they) : tu and vos indicate the person or persons spoken
to, who may be male or female. The gender of these pro-
nouns varies accordingly :
Ful ego (masc.) liber; nunc servus sum. — Ego te (masc.)
llberum praestabo. I have been free ; now I am a slave.
—I will guarantee you free.
Ful ego (fern.) llbera ; nunc serva sum. — Ego te (fern.)
llberam praestabo.
285 Predicative pronouns agree not only in gender and number
but also in case with the word^of which they are predicated :
Tune is es, qul fecisti? — Ego is sum. Are you he who
did it ? — / am he.
Tune ea es, quae fecisti? — Ego ea sum. Are you she
who did it ? — / am she.
134 SYNTAX
286 The relative pronoun agrees, like any other pronoun, in
gender and number with the noun or noun-equivalent which
denotes the person or thing indicated. This noun or noun-
equivalent is generally found in another clause of the sentence,
and is called the antecedent of the relative; see some examples
in § 282. The case of the relative depends on the construction
of the clause in which it stands, just as the case of other pro-
nouns depends on the part which they play as subject, object,
&c., in the sentence :
/quae ad portum ferebant.
which led to the harbour.
quas hostes sine custodiis rellquerant
which the enemy had left unguarded.
quarum una angusta erat,
of which one was narrow.
Duas vias occupavit
J
quibus nullae custodiae praesidio re-
He seized the two roads \ lictae erant.
to which no sentries had been left as a
protection.
quibus hostes exierant.
by which the enemy had marched out.
in quibus nullae custodiae erant.
\ in which there were no sentries.
Haec a me beneficia habetis, quern proditionis insimulatis.
These benefits you have from me, whom you accuse of treachery.
287 The relative is always to be regarded as of the same person
as its antecedent ; the person of the relative is shown by the
verb of the relative clause, when the relative is the subject :
Ego, qul te confirms, ipse me non possum. /, who am
reassuring you, cannot reassure myself (Cicero).
luppiter, ingentes qm das adimisque dolores. O Jupiter,
who dost inflict and take away great sufferings. Hor.
Sat. ii. 3. 288.
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 135
OBS. If the antecedent is a predicative noun or predicative pro-
noun, it is generally treated as of the same person as the subject
of the main clause:
Sum pius Aeneas, raptos quT ex hoste penates classe veho
mecum. / am the faithful Aeneas, who carry with me in my
fleet my household gods rescued from the enemy : Aen. i. 378.
Non is sum qui mortis perlculo terrear. / am not one who
is to be terrified by the danger of death : in English the
antecedent ' one ' is treated as of the 3rd person.
See other examples in § 285.
288 If a relative pronoun refers to the whole statement of
another clause, it stands in the neuter singular (often preceded
by id, 'that '; so in French ce qui), or agrees with res inserted
in the relative clause :
Ex litteris Caesaris dierum quindecim supplicatio decreta
est, quod (or id quod) ante id tempus acciderat nulli. As
a result of the dispatch of Caesar a public thanksgiving
of fifteen days was decreed— a thing which had not hap-
pened to any one before that time.
Flumen Axonam exercitum traduxit : quae res omnia
tuta ab hostibus reddebat. He crossed the river Aisne :
which manoeuvre rendered everything safe from the enemy.
These are double sentences (§ 263).
289 Relative clauses without any antecedent expressed are
common in Latin ; qui — is qui, 'he who/ French celui qui;
quod — id quod, 'that which' or 'what', French ce qui; qui-
cumque, 'whoever,' French quiconque. Compare in English
' Who steals my purse steals trash ' (Shakespeare).1 In such
cases the relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with
the antecedent which the speaker has in mind :
Qui ex ils novissimus convenit, in conspectu multitudinis
1 A relative clause of this kind taken together with its unexpressed antecedent
is equivalent to a noun (^ he who steals my purse' = 'a. pickpocket') ; but
the relative clause alone should not be spoken of as a noun-clause.
136 SYNTAX
necatur. He who is the last to present himself, is put to
death in the sight of the multitude.
Feras, non culpes, quod mutarl non potest.1 One should
put up with, not find fault with, what cannot be altered
(= ' What can't be cured must be endured ').
Habetis quam petistis facultatem. You have the chance
that you sought (lit. what chance you sought).
Quos poterat saucios secum duxit. He took with him what
wounded men he could (supply ducere : whatever wounded
men he could take).
Quibuscumque signis occurrerant se adgregabant. They
joined whatever standards they happened to find.
290 The relative pronoun is never omitted in Latin, as it often is
in English : e.g.f This is not the man I saw yesterday', Latin
Hie non is est quern herl vldi.
1 Publilius Syrus, a writer of mimes, contemporary with Julius Caesar
(first century B.C.).
III. MOODS AND TENSES
THE INDICATIVE MOOD
291 The Indicative mood relates to a matter of fact (§ 126).
Examples of the Indicative in the various kinds of sentence
and clause are given in §§ 520-33.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
The Present.1
292 In verbs which denote an act as distinct from a state the
Present marks the act as either going on or habitual at the
time of speaking :
librum scribit, he is writing a book] Latme loquitur, he is
speaking Latin ; loquiturne Latme ?, is he speaking
Latin ?.
libros scribit, he writes books (habitually) ; Latme loquitur,
he speaks Latin-, loquiturne Latlne?, does he speak
Latin ?.
In verbs which denote a state as distinct from an act the
Present is generally translated by a non-continuous form of
the English Present :
est, he is ; habet, he has ; amat, he loves ; scit, he knows ;
estne ?, is he ? ; amatne ?, does he love ?.
293 Special uses.
(i) In connexion with adverbial expressions of ' time how long'
the Present denotes what has been going on up to the time of
speaking :
multos annos librum scribit, he has been writing a book for many
years ; iam diu Romae habito, / have been living at Rome for
a long time ; French je demeure a Rome depuis longtemps.
1 The Latin Present Indicative has the same meanings as the French
Present Indicative (French Grammar, §§ 292, 293).
138 SYNTAX
(ii) The Present is sometimes used in vivid narration of past
events (as in English and French), to represent the actions
picturesquely, as if they were going on at the time of speaking
(Historic Present) :
Caesar acceptls litterls statim nuntium ad Crassum mittit ;
iubet media nocte proficiscl celeriterque ad se venire. Exit
cum nuntio Crassus. Scrlbit Labieno, si rei publicae com-
modo facere possit, cum legione veniat. After receiving the
dispatch Caesar immediately sends a messenger to Crassus, bids
him start at midnight and come to him quickly. Crassus sets
out together with the messenger. To Labienus he writes that if
he be able to do so to the advantage of the state, he is to come with
his legion : B. G. v. 46. In this example the Historic Present
is treated as a tense of present time ; but it sometimes takes
the sequence of a past tense. Thus Caesar might have
written posset, 'should be able,' for possit, 'shall be able,'
and veniret, ' he was to come,' instead of veniat, l he is to
come.'
The Past Imperfect.1
294 The Past Imperfect (or Past Continuous) tense is a Present
in the past, i.e. it has the meanings of the Present tense trans-
ferred to past time. Thus in verbs which denote an act, it
marks the act as either going on or habitual at some time in
the past which the speaker has in mind or which is referred
to in the context :
librum scribebat, he was writing a book] Latine loque-
batur, he was speaking Latin-, loquebaturne Latine?,
was he speaking Latin ?.
libros scribebat, he wrote (— used to write) books; Latine
loquebatur, he spoke ( = used to speak) Latin ; loque-
baturne Latine?, did he speak (—used he to speak)
Latin ?.
1 The Latin Past Imperfect Indicative has in general the same meanings
as the French Past Imperfect (French Grammar, §§ 294, 296) ; but it is not
used like the French Past Imperfect in ^/-clauses which refer to present or
future time (French Grammar, §§ 295, 315).
THE INDICATIVE MOOD 139
In verbs which denote a state the non-continuous form of
the English Past is generally used : erat, he was; habebat, he
had] amabat, he loved; sciebat, he knew.
Homines nomen horum amabant. People loved the
name of these men : Cicero, pro Sestio, § 105 ; the time
at which they loved is expressed in a previous sen-
tence : illls temporibus, in those days.
595 The Past Imperfect sometimes marks an act as attempted
or begun :
Britanm nostros intra mumtiones ingredl prohibebant.
The Britons tried to (or began to) prevent our men from
entering within the fortifications.
Special use.
596 In connexion with adverbial expressions of ' time how long' the
Past Imperfect denotes what had been going on up to some point
of time in the past (cf. § 293 (i)) :
iam diu librum scribebat, he had been writing a book for a long
time; domicilium ibi multos iam annos habebat, he had had
his home there for many years ; French, i7 demeurait la depuis
plusieurs ans.
The Future.1
297 The Future tense marks the action of the verb as about to
take place after the time of speaking :
librum scribam (scribes, scrlbet), / shall (you will, he will)
write a book ; sciam (scies, sciet), / shall (you will, he
will] know.
298 A substitute for the Future, sometimes used with special
meanings, is formed by sum with a Future Participle :
librum scripturus est, he is about to write (likely to write,
sure to write, bent on writing) a book.
1 The Latin Future Indicative has the same meanings as the French
Future Indicative (French Grammar, §§ 297-9).
140 SYNTAX
The Past tense of sum with a Future Participle expresses
the meaning of a Future in the past :
librum scripturus erat, he was about to write (likely to write,
sure to write, bent on writing) a book.
299 The original meaning of the Future. Most (or all) Latin Futures
are derived from Subjunctives,1 and some of their uses show traces
of their Subjunctive origin, i. e. express what is to be done or shall
be done, as distinct from what will be done ; see Subjunctive, § 318 f.
(a) in Statements :
Post nonam venies. You shall come (= come or you must
come) after the ninth hour ; Hor. Epist. i. 7, 71 ; so too 1. 27
reddes. Compare Subjunctive, § 321, note.
Hunc tu olim caelo, spoliis Orientis onustum, accipies secura;
vocabitur hie quoque votis. Him thou shalt one day welcome
light of heart to heaven, laden with the spoils of the East ; he
too shall listen to the voice of prayer'. Aen. i. 289 f. (a promise).
(b] in Questions :
Nil ergo optabunt homines ? Shall men then pray for nothing?
Juv. x. 346.
The Perfect.
300 The Perfect tense is used in two ways 2: —
(i) as a Present Perfect, like the English Present Perfect
with 'have', i.e. as a tense of present time. When used in
this way the Perfect describes an action of the past as affecting
the doer at the time of speaking : librum scripsit, he has written
a book = he is in the position of having written a book; servus
ful, I have been a slave = I am in the position of having been
a slave.
Vixl et quern dederat cursum Fortuna peregl. / have lived
1 On this point further information will be found in Lindsay's Short
Historical Latin Grammar, p. 97. — The English Future Indicative formed
with 'shall' is properly an expression of obligation, like the Subjunctive.
The French Future Indicative was also originally akin to an expression of
obligation : je donnerai — je donner-ai, ' I have to give.'
2 The Latin Perfect has the same two uses as the French Perfect. The
main difference between Latin and French is that Latin has no separate
Past Historic tense (French Grammar, §§ 301, 302).
THE INDICATIVE MOOD 141
and have run the course which my destiny had assigned me :
Aen. iv. 653. — Ne qua civitas Romanes suls fmibus recipiat
a me provlsum est. / have taken steps to secure that no state
shall admit the Romans within their territory : B. G. vii. 20. 12.
— Mihi quidem Scipio, quamquam est subito ereptus, vlvit
tamen semperque vivet ; virtutem enim amavl illlus viri quae
exstincta non est. Although Scipio has been suddenly taken
from me, yet for me he lives and will always live ; for I have
loved his noble qualities, and they have not perished : Cic. de
Amic. § 102. If the speaker had been referring to some past
time at which he loved Scipio, he would have used the Past
Imperfect amdbam (§ 294).
OBS. In special contexts the Perfect may suggest that the
action of the verb is over and done with : vixi, / have had my
day — my life is over ; dixl, / have spoken = my speech is
ended ; fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrorum,
we are Trojans no more (i. e. our existence as a nation is over),
Ilium is no more and the great glory of the Trojans : Aen. ii. 325.
501 (2) more commonly as a Past Historic, i.e. as a tense of
past time which marks the action of the verb as having taken
place before the time of speaking, without describing it as
affecting the doer at the time of speaking : Hieme ahm post
urbem conditam DCCII Caesar commentaries suos de bello
Gallico scripsit, Caesar wrote his notes of the Gallic war in the
winter of the year 702 after the foundation of Rome. In this
use the Latin Perfect corresponds to the English Past tense.
Observe that scripsit could not here be translated ' has written ',
as in § 300 : for that would mean ' Caesar fs (at the present
time) in the position of having written '. He was once in that
position ; but that idea would be expressed not by the Perfect
but by the Past Perfect (scripserat).
The meaning of the Perfect as a Past Historic differs still
more from the meaning of the Past Imperfect, which marks
the action of the verb as going on or habitual at the time
spoken of (§ 294) : hieme anni post urbem conditam DCCII
142 SYNTAX
Caesar commentaries suos scrlbebat, in the winter of the year
702 Caesar was writing his notes ; hieme Caesar commentaries
suos scrlbebat, Caesar used generally to write his notes in the
winter (i.e. after the conclusion of a campaign in the summer).
302 The Perfect as a Past Historic is specially common in
narrative, where it is used to recount a number of past actions
which took place in succession (one after the other). Here the
Perfect answers the question What happened next ?, whereas
the Past Imperfect is used of actions going on at the time
indicated. In the Perfect the narrative advances, in the Past
Imperfect it stands still : Ad extremum agrls expulsl Usipetes
ad Rhenum pervenerunt, quas regiones Menapii incolebant.
Hi ad utramque ripam fluminis agros habebant ; sed tantae
multitudinis adventu perterritl ex iis aedificils quae trans
flumen habuerant demigraverant, et Germanos transire pro-
hibebant. IllI omnia expert!, cum transire non possent,
revertl se in suas sedes simulaverunt, et tridul viam pro-
gressl rursus reverterunt, atque inoplnantes Menapios op-
presserunt. At last the Usipetes, driven from their lands,
arrived at the Rhine, the territory which the Menapii inhabited
(i. e. at that time). The latter possessed (at that time) lands on
both banks of the river ; but having been frightened by the arrival
of so great a multitude they had removed from the buildings
which they had had on the east of the Rhine, and were trying
to prevent the Germans (i. e. the Usipetes) from crossing.
The Germans, having tried every device, as they were not able
(Past Subjunctive used like Past Imperfect Indie.) to cross,
thereupon pretended that they were returning to their own homes,
and then, after proceeding a three days' journey, came back again
and took the unsuspecting Menapii by surprise : B. G. iv. 4.
303 The Perfect Passive is, according to its form, a Present
Perfect : Usipetes expulsl sunt, lit. the Usipetes are driven out
(=are in the position of having been driven out). But it
came to be used also as a Past Historic : expulsl sunt, they
were driven out (cf. Accidence, § 153).
THE INDICATIVE MOOD 143
The Past Perfect.1
3°4 The Past Perfect tense marks the action of the verb as
already completed at some time in the past which the speaker
has in mind or which is referred to in the context: librum
scripserat antequam Roma discessit, he had written the book
before he left Rome.
Ex ils aedificils quae trans Rhenum habuerant demigra-
verant. They had removed from the buildings which
they had had on the other side of the Rhine (quoted in
§ 3°2)-
The Future Perfect.1
305 The Future Perfect tense marks the action of the verb as
already completed at some time in the future which the speaker
has in mind or which is referred to in the context : librum
ante fmem hiemis scripserit, he will have written the book before
the end of the winter.
306 The Fut. Perf. is found chiefly in subordinate clauses :
Quicquid feceris, approbabo. Whatever you do (lit. shall
have done), I shall think right.
De Carthagine vereri non ante desinam quam illam ex-
clsam esse cognovero. / shall not cease to be alarmed
about Carthage until I have learned (lit. shall have learned)
that it is razed to the ground : Cic. de Sen. § 18.
307 Often accompanied by a Fut. Perf. in the main clause :
Praeclare vixero, si quid mihi accident priusquam hoc
tantum mall vldero. / shall have lived gloriously if I die
(lit. if anything shall have happened to me) before I see
(lit. shall have seen) this great disaster happen : Cic. pro
Mil. 99.
1 The Latin Past Perfect has the same meanings as the ist Past Perfect
of French. The Latin Future Perfect has the same meanings as the French
Future Perfect.
144 SYNTAX
308 Sometimes the Fut. Perf. denotes the future position which
will result from a completed action, or what will be found to
have happened :
Adulescens senem vicero. /, a young man, shall be in
the position of having overcome (or shall be found to have
overcome) an old man : Livy xxviii. 44. 18.
309 Special uses.
(i) Sometimes the Fut. Perf. expresses no distinct idea of com-
pletion, and may then be translated by the English Future; so
especially in Plautus and Terence : abiero, / shall depart.
(ii) The Fut. Perf. is sometimes used, like the Future (§ 299),
with shall meaning :
(a) in Statements :
Quam id recte faciam, vlderint sapientes. How far I should
be right in doing so, it is for philosophers to consider (lit.
philosophers shall consider) : Cic. de Amic., § 10.
(b) in Questions :
Coniugiumque domumque patris natosque videbit ? . . . Occi-
dent ferro Priamus ? Troia arserit igni ? Shall Priam have
fallen by the sword? Shall Troy have been burned? And
shall Helen see her husband and the home of tier father and her
children ? (/. e. shall Helen return home after Priam has been
slain and Troy burned ?) : Aen. ii. 579, 581.
But the Romans did not always distinguish between the Fut.
Perf. Indie, and the Perfect Subjunctive (cf. § 299), except in the
ist person singular.
COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES
IN CERTAIN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
310 (i) Where English uses the Present tense in subordinate
clauses referring to future time, the Future or the Future
Perfect is generally used in Latin : l
Quid animl consanguinels nostrls erit, si paene in ipsls
cadaveribus decertare cogentur ? What will be the
1 Often, however, the Pres. Indie, after antequam and priusquam (as in
Virg. Aen. iv. 27, and frequently in Cicero). — For the use of a prospective
Subjunctive in subordinate clauses see §§ 339, 340.
ENGLISH AND LATIN TENSES 145
feelings of our kinsmen if they are forced (lit. shall be
forced) to fight over our very corpses ? : B. G. vii. 77.
Si gravius quid accident, abs te rationem reposcent. If
any disaster occurs (lit. shall have occurred), they will
demand a reckoning at your hands : B. G. v. 30.
311 (2) The tense used in subordinate clauses to denote an
action which had taken place before some other action of the
past depends on the subordinating conjunction employed :
postquam, posteaquam, ubi, ut, simul atque commonly take the
Perfect Indicative; cum the Past Perfect Subjunctive (§ 354).
The tenses employed in English are the Past and the Past
Perfect :
Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remis inci-
tarl iussit. When Caesar observed this, he ordered the
ships of war to be set in motion by means of oars.
Hostes, simul atque se ex fuga receperunt, legatos de
pace mlserunt. As soon as the enemy recovered after
their flight, they sent envoys to treat about peace.
Posteaquam equitatus noster in conspectum venit (or Cum
equitatus noster in conspectum venisset), hostes terga
verterunt. After ( When) our cavalry came (had come)
in sight, the enemy fled.
312 (3) Dum 'while* frequently takes the Present Indicative
(Historic Present, § 293. ii) in narrative :
Dum haec geruntur, qui erant in agrls discesserunt.
While this was going on (lit. is going on), those ivho were
in the fields departed.
901
146 SYNTAX
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
3*3 The imperative is used (as in English and French) to
denote what is desired by the speaker, in commands, requests,
entreaties, and, less commonly, in wishes : 1
Da mihi operam. Pay attention to me [command].
Da, pater, augurium. Give an omen, O Father : Aen. iii.
89 [request or entreaty].
Vale. Farewell. — Salve. Hail [wishes : lit. be well'].
OBS. Originally the long forms of the imperative referred to a
more remote future than the short forms, which were used to de-
note that something was to be done in the immediate future. This
explains why the long forms had a 3rd person. The long forms,
then, as used in Old Latin, might be called Future imperatives.
But in the classical period the distinction of meaning between the
long and the short forms had to a great extent disappeared.
314 But the imperative has a restricted use in Latin of the
classical period :—
(i) The long forms (in -to, -tote, -nto) are not much used
except in legal phraseology and in poets :
Amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano esto. There
shall be friendship between King Antiochus and the
Roman people: Livy xxxviii. 38. i.
Tu ne cede malls, sed contra audentior Ito. Yield thou not
to misfortunes, but go to meet them all the bolder : Aen.
vi. 95.
315 (2) The negative used with the imperative is ne ; but
a negatived imperative is found only in legal documents
and in poets :
Equo ne credite, Teucrl. Trust not to the horse, Trojans :
Aen. ii. 48.
1 The name imperative comes from imperare, command ; but command, in
the ordinary sense of the term, is not the only meaning of the imperative
mood.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 147
316 Instead of the 3rd person singular and plural of the im-
perative (long forms) and the imperative with ne, the sub-
junctive mood is commonly employed (§ 320). The following
table shows the forms of the imperative and the subjunctive
most commonly used in commands, requests, and entreaties
(positive and negative).
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
2nd pers. sing.
plur.
3rd pers. sing,
plur.
Jnedederls don'
( noli dare, please not to give
i . f ne dederitis, don't give *
date, give \ -,-L , '/ s.. . ,
( nolite dare, please not to give
det, let him give ne det, let him not give
dent, let them give ne dent, let them not give
1 literally you shall not give or you are not to give ; see § 322.
2 imperative of nolo with infinitive : literally will-not to give.
This is the politer and more usual form of a negative com-
mand or request.
317 From the use of the imperative in commands comes a use in
which it expresses a supposition (' supposing that ') :
Ostendite modo bellum ; pacem habebitis : videant vos paratos
ad vim ; ius ipsl remittent. Just make a show of war; you shall
have peace : let them see you prepared to use force ; they will themselves
abandon their claim : Livy vi. 18. 7.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
318 The uses of the subjunctive mood may be divided into
three classes :
(A) Those in which it denotes what t's to be done ;
(B) Those in which it denotes what would happen under
certain imagined conditions ;
(C) Those in which it has been so much weakened that it
differs little from an indicative in meaning.
The first two uses have something in common, and it is
possible that use B grew out of use A. Use C is clearly of
later origin than the other two.
K 2 .
148 SYNTAX
319 (A) SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING WHAT
IS TO BE DONE
These subjunctives express the meanings of the English
verb ' shall ' (obligation and futurity).1
i. In Simple Sentences and Main Clauses.
The Pres. Subj. denotes what is to be done :
QUESTION. Quid faciam ? What am I to do ? or What
shall I do ?
ANSWER. Invenias argentum. You are to find the money
(= you must find the money).
Cedat, opinor, forum castrls. The forum, I suppose^ is to
(or must] yield to the camp.
The Past and the Past Perf. Subj. denote what was to be
done :
QUESTION. Nonne argentum redderem ? Was I not to
pay back the money? (= ought I not to have paid back
the money ?)
ANSWER. Non redderes. You ought not to have paid it
back (you were not to pay it back).
At tu dictls, Albane, maneres. But thou, A/ban, should? st
have kept to thy word'. Aen. viii. 643.
Eadem me ad fata vocasses. You should have called me
to share your fate \ Aen. iv. 678.
320 When the thing that is to be done by the person addressed
or spoken of is desired by the speaker, the statement becomes
equivalent to a command, request, entreaty, or wish ; and in
these cases the subjunctive, if negatived, is negatived by ne,
like the imperative (§ 315).
1 The verb 'shall' originally denoted obligation (/ shall •= I owe or I am
under an obligation) ; and in some uses it still expresses this idea, as in Thou
shall not steal. But in other uses it has come to denote merely future
time, especially in the ist person.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 149
321 The Present Subjunctive in desires refers to future time :
Ne sim salvus, si aliter scrlbo ac sentio. May I perish,
if I write otherwise than I think (Cicero). — Sis felix.
Be prosperous (Catullus). — Dl tibi praemia digna ferant.
God grant thee a fitting reward : Aen. i. 605. These
are wishes; compare the English and the French
subjunctive in God save the King, Dieit vous be'nisse, Vive
la Re'publique. — Utinam (originally = ' how ? ') is some-
times added : Utinam ilium diem videam. O that I
may see that day : originally ' how, pray, am I to see
that day ? '
Exeant ; ne patiantur Catillnam tabescere. Let them
depart ; let them not suffer Catiline to pine away : Cic.
Cat. ii. 6. This is a command ; compare the French
subjunctive in qu'ils partent*
Proinde hos latrones interficiamus. Accordingly let us
kill these robbers : B. G. vii. 38. — Sequamur ; placemus
ventos et Gnosia regna petamus. Let us follow ; let us
appease the winds and make for the realms of Crete :
Aen. iii. 114 f. These are requests addressed to
a group of persons in which the speaker is included.
Compare the English subjunctive in ' Prepare we for
our marriage' (Shakespeare), and the French im-
perative, ist pers. plur., in tuons ' let us kill '.
322 The Perfect Subjunctive, 2nd person sing, and plur., is
sometimes used in negative commands (cf. § 316) :
Ne transierls Hiberum ; nusquam te vestlgio moverls.
Do not cross (or You shall not cross) the Ebro ; do not
move anywhere from the spot: Livy xxi. 44. This
1 The 2nd person, sing, and plur., of the Pres. Subj. denoting command
is not much used in classical Latin, except in poets : at ramum hunc agnoscas,
yet recognize this branch : Aen. vi. 406 f. In old Latin (Plautus and Terence)
this use is very common ; but in Latin of the classical period commands,
requests, and entreaties in the and person are generally expressed by the
imperative.
15° SYNTAX
usage is fairly common in Cicero's letters, in Livy, and
in Seneca.
323 The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive are used with
ittinam in wishing that something were or had been otherwise
than it actually is or was.1
Utinam adesset. O that he were here] cf. Aen. i. 575.
Utinam adfuisset. O that he had been there.
2. In Subordinate Clauses.
324 Most of the above uses of the subjunctive in simple sentences
and main clauses cannot occur in historical narrative ; hence
they are not found in Caesar's Gallic War. But in sub-
ordinate clauses subjunctives denoting what is (or was) to be
done are exceedingly common in all writers.2 They may
generally be translated by 'shall* or 'should' with the
infinitive.
(a) In Noun Clauses.
325 The simplest form of subordination is that in which no
conjunction is employed :
(i) Complex sentences containing a dependent question as
to what is (or was) to be done :
Quid faciam nescio. What I am to do I don't know.
This sentence is formed out of two simple sentences:
quid faciam? what am I to do? (§ 319); nescio, /
don't know.
1 Compare the use of these tenses in § 319 (last two examples). A
sentence denoting what ought to have been easily passes into an expression
of wish that something had been : e. g. maneres (Aen. viii. 643) might in
another context mean ' would that you had remained ', and vocasses (Aen. iv.
678) might mean 'would that you had called'. In some passages it is
doubtful which meaning is intended (e.g. Aen. x. 854, xi. 162). — Compare
in English the use of ' should ' in wishes : ' My poor father should have been
here.'
2 It was from the frequent use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses
that the mood got its name ( = subjoining}.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 151
Quid facerem nesciebam. What I was to do, I didn't
know ; i. e. quid facerem ? what was I to do ? (§ 319) ;
nesciebam, / did not know.
Sortibus consultum est utrum ignl statim necaretur an in
aliud tempus reservaretur. Lots were cast as to whether
he should be (was to be) burned immediately or reserved
for another occasion : B. G. i. 53.
(ii) Complex sentences containing a dependent statement
of obligation or a dependent desire :
Caesar huic imperat adeat dvitates. Caesar gives him
the order he is to approach the states : B. G. iv. 21 ; /'. e.
adeat clvitates, he is to approach the states (§ 319) or let
him approach the states (§ 321) ; Caesar huic imperat,
Caesar gives him the order. Compare the English
subjunctive in ' Mind you come ' = ' Bear in mind, you
are to come '.
326 But dependent statements of obligation and dependent
desires are generally introduced by the subordinating con-
junction ut ' that ' :
Caesar huic imperat ut clvitates adeat. Caesar gives him
the order that he is to approach the states.
Hortatur ut populi Roman! fidem sequantur. He exhorts
them to place themselves (lit. that they shall place themselves]
under the protection of the Roman people: B. G. iv. 21.
It is not true to say that in this construction ut takes
the subjunctive ; the real fact is that the subjunctive
clause in this construction takes ut 'that '.
327 Noun clauses which express that something is not to be
done are introduced by ne ' not ', which in English is trans-
lated by ' that ... not ':
Labieno praeceptum erat ne proelium committeret. In-
. structions had been given to Labienus that he should not
(was not to) join battle : B. G. i. 22. An utis sometimes
added (ut ne for ne).
Litteras misit ne eos frumento neve alia re iuvarent. He
152 SYNTAX
sent a dispatch that they were not to assist them with corn
nor with anything else : B. G. i. 26 (neve = and not}.
328 Noun clauses denoting that something is (or is not) to be
done depend either on a verb (§§ 329-32), or on a noun or
noun-equivalent (§ 333).
329 (i) Depending on verbs of ' asking ', ' bidding ', 'trying',
' bringing about ', and the like. The corresponding English
verbs more commonly take an infinitive with ' to ' : *
Petunt ut Mandubracium defendat. They ask that he shall
defend (They ask him to defend) Mandubracius : B. G.
v. 20. — Orabant ut sibi auxilium ferret. They begged
that he should bring them aid : B. G. iv. 16. — Labieno
imperat (or dlcit or scribit) ut quam plurimas naves
i n st i t u at. He gives orders (or says or writes) to Labienus
that he is to build as many ships as possible : B. G. v. 1 1. —
Senatus censuerat ut Caesar Haeduos defenderet. The
Senate had resolved that Caesar was to protect the
liaeduans : B. G. i. 35. — Haec ab Ariovisto postulavit :
primum ne Germanos amplius trans Rhenum tradu-
ceret; deinde obsides Haeduorum redderet, Sequanls-
que permitteret ut obsides redderent ; neve Haeduls
bellum in ferret. This is what he demanded ofAriovistus:
first, that he should not bring Germans across the Rhine
any more ; secondly, he was to send back the hostages of
the Haedui and give permission to the Sequant that they
should send back hostages ; and that he was not to make
war upon the Haedui: cf. B. G. i. 35. — Dabat operam (or
Id agebat) ut in officio Dumnorigem contineret. He was
trying to keep Dumnorix to his duty : B. G. v. 7. — NullI
civitatl persuaderl potuit ut Rhenum translret. No
state could be persuaded to cross (lit. that it should cross)
1 The only Latin verbs which ordinarily take an infinitive to denote what
is to be done are verbs of 'willing' (volo, nolC, malo, cupio), iubeO, / bid,
sin5, patior, 7 permit, cog5, / compel, and the similar verbs of negative
meaning — veto, I forbid, and often prohibeO, / prevent : see §§ 459, 465.
Opto, 7 ask, I desire, takes either construction.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 153
the Rhine : B. G. v. 55. — Dumnorix a Sequams im-
petrat ut per fines suos Helvetios Ire patiantur. Dum-
norix prevails on the Sequani that they shall allow the
Helvetii to pass through their territory : B. G. i. 9.—
Efficiam posthac ne quemquam voce lacessas. / will
bring it about that you shall not challenge any one to sing
hereafter: Virg. Eel. iii. 51.
330 (ii) Noun clauses depending on verbs of 'forbidding', ' pre-
venting ', and 'resisting '. These clauses are introduced by ne,
because they denote what is not to be done. In English no
negative is required if the clause is translated by a verb-
noun : *
Interdicit Cassivellauno ne Mandubracio neu Trino-
bantibus noceat. He forbids Cassivellaunus to injure
Mandubracius or the Trinobantes ; lit. He lays an inter-
dict on Cassivellaunus, he shall not (is not to) injure, &c. :
B. G. v. 22. — Plura ne dicam dolore impedior. lam
prevented by grief from saying more : formed out of ' I
am not to say more: I am prevented by grief; cf.
§ 325. — Recusabant ne Gnus omnes antecederet. They
protested against one man having precedence over all.
Compare French : ' la pluie empeche qu'on ne sorte ' ;
and the following sentence from Shakespeare : ' You may as
well forbid the mountain pines to make no noise.'
OBS. Quominus 'by which the less' is often used instead
of ne ; in this expression minus is a negative :
Non recusabimus quominus sub dicione Romanorum
simus. We shall not protest against being under the
authority of the Romans: cf. B. G. i. 31.
331 When the main clause is negatived or interrogative the
noun clause is usually introduced by quin (derived from qut-ne,
originally = ' why not ? ' or ' how not ? ') :
German! retinerl non poterant quin tela in nostros
1 For some Latin verbs of this class which take an infinitive (without
a negative) see note to § 329.
154 SYNTAX
conicerent. The Germans could not be restrained from
hurling missiles against our men : B. G. i. 47. — Non
recQsamus quin armis contendamus. We do not refuse
to fight (originally 'Why should we not fight? we
have no objection ').
332 (iii) Noun clauses depending on verbs of 'fearing*. Here
too the noun clause expresses (from the Latin point of view)
a desire that something shall not be done : hence it takes ne
where the English uses ' that ' or ' lest '. Compare the use
of ne in French : je crams que je ne nieure = ' I fear that
I shall die '. The Latin ne nioriar metuo meant originally
' may I not die ! I have my fears '.
Veritus ne ab omnibus deseratur, legatos ad Caesarem
mittit. Fearing lest he be deserted by all, he sends envoys
to Caesar : cf. B. G. v. 3. — Veritus ne hostium impetum
sustinere non posset litteras Caesarl remlsit. Fearing
lest he should not be able to resist the attack of the enemy
he sent a dispatch to Caesar : B. G. v. 47.
Instead of ne non l that not ' ut is often used :
Ut res frumentaria supportaretur timebant. They feared
lest supplies should not be brought up : cf. B. G. i. 39.
The ut was originally interrogative (like utinam in wishes,
§ 321) : 'how were the supplies to be brought up ? they had
their fears.'
333 (iv) Noun clauses depending on a noun or noun-equivalent
(pronoun or adjective used as a noun) :
lus est belli ut victores victis imperent. // is the law of
war that the victors shall give commands to the vanquished'.
cf. B. G. i. 36. — De senatus consulto certior factus est
ut omnes iuniores Italiae coniurarent. He was informed
of the vote of the Senate [to the effect] that all the younger
men of Italy should (were to) take the military oath :
B. G. vii. i. Similarly in dependence on nouns like
sententia,fdtum, mos, potestds, occdsio.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 155
Suum illud, nihil ut adfirmet, tenet ad extremum. He
maintains to the last that habit of his of affirming nothing
(that he shall affirm nothing) : Cic. Tusc. i. 99. — Quid
melius est quam ut nihil adfirmem? What is better
than that I should affirm nothing ?
Verum est ut bonl bonos dlligant. It is right that
good men should love good men : Cic. de Amic. 50. — An
verisimile est ut clvis Romanus haec fecerit? Is it
probable that a Roman citizen should have done this ?
Cic. Sest. 78.
(b) In adjective and adverb clauses.
334 Here the s/w//-subjunctive assumes various shades of
meaning.
(i) It may denote what is obligatory or proper or necessary
or destined :
Circumscrlbit nos terminls quos non excedamus. He
confines us within limits which we are not to (= must not)
pass over: Livy xxi. 44. 5. — Quam multl dies reperlrl
possunt qul tall noctl anteponantur? How many days
can be found which are to be preferred to such a night
(i. e. to the sleep of death) ? Cic. Tusc. i, 97. — Accipe
quod numquam reddas mihi. Here is a sum of money
which you need never repay me (lit. which you are not
bound ever to repay me) : Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 66. — Nasce-
tur Troianus . . . famam qul terminet astrls. There
shall be born a Trojan who shall extend his glory to the
stars : Aen. i. 286 f.
335 (ii) It may denote the necessary or natural effect of an
antecedent : English ' such (or so) as to ' with the infinitive.
Compare ' Build me straight a goodly vessel which shall
laugh at all disaster ' (Longfellow) : which shall laugh = such
as to laugh. 'There was no reason why I should rejoice ' =
no reason such as to make me rejoice. Such clauses are
often preceded by a word meaning ' so ' or ' such ' or ' enough ',
156 SYNTAX
/worthy', 'fitting', &c., in the main clause; compare the
French tel que and de sorte que with the subjunctive.
<Qw7-clauses. — Neque ulla tanta vis reperietur quae con-
iunctionem vestram labefactare possit. Nor will any
force be found so strong as to be able (lit. which shall
be able) to weaken your alliance : Cic. Cat. iv. 22. — Non
is sum qul mortis periculo terrear. / am not a man of
such a character as to be terrified (not one who is to be
terrified) by the danger of death : B. G. v. 30. — Satis
erat causae quare Caesar in Dumnorlgem adverteret.
There was sufficient reason why Caesar should punish
(was to punish) Dumnorix: B. G. i. 19. — Dignl sunt
quorum saluti consulatis. They deserve (lit. they are
worthy) that you should consider their welfare : cf. Cic.
leg. Man. 13. — Idonea mihi Laelii persona visa est
quae de amlcitia dissereret. / thought Laelius a suit-
able character to discuss (lit. who should discuss) friend-
ship : Cic. Amic. 4.
Secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castris conti-
nerent. There followed storms which were to keep our
men in camp(— storms so severe as to keep): B. G.
iv. 34. — Quid est quod rldeas ? What is there that you
should (or have to) laugh at? — Nihil habeo quod agam.
I have nothing to do (— nothing which I am to do) :
Hor. Sat. i. 9. 19. — Haec habul de senectute quae
dlcerem. / had this much to say about old age (= this
much which I was to say) : Cic. Sen. 86.
336 ^//-clauses. — Haec omnia sic agentur, ut bellum intestl-
num sedetur. All this shall be done in such a manner
that the civil war shall be ended: Cic. Cat. ii. 28. — Ita
currus collocant, ut expedltum ad suos receptum
habeant. They place their chariots in such a position as
to have a ready retreat to their friends \ B. G. iv. 33.—
Mihi cuiusquam salus tantl fuisset, ut meam neglegerem ?
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 157
Should anyone's welfare have been (§ 319) of so great
importance to me that I was to (as to make me) disregard
my own ? Cic. Sulla 45. — Quid in me admlsi, ut
loqul non audeam ? What crime have I committed that
I should not venture to speak ? Plaut. Men. 712. — Nee
tantum maerorem senatul mors Clodii afferebat, ut nova
quaestio constitueretur. Nor did the death of Clodius
cause the senate so much grief that a new court of
inquiry had to be constituted: Cic. Mil. 13. — Nemo erat
adeo tardus, quin (= ut non or qui non) statim castrls
exeundum et occurrendum putaret. No one ivas so
sluggish as not to think that he must immediately march
out of the camp and oppose us : B. C. i. 69. — Non
possunt una in civitate multi fortunas amittere, ut non
plures secum in eandem trahant calamitatem. It is not
possible for many men in one and the same state to lose
their property without dragging (lit. in such a way as
not to drag) a greater number with them into the same
misfortune : Cic. leg. Man. 19).
337 (iii) An adjective or adverb clause with a s/*fl//-subjunctive
may be subordinated to quam 'than', preceded by a com-
parative adjective or adverb in the main clause :
Maior sum quam cui (or quam ut mini) possit Fortuna
nocere. / am too great for Fortune to be able (than
that Fortune should be able) to injure me: Ovid, Met.
vi. 195. — Longius aberant quam quo telum adicl posset.
They were too far off for a javelin to reach them.
Similarly quasi ' as if = quam st (with a postulative
subj., § 343 : loqueris quasi nescias.
338 (iv) Many adjective and adverb clauses with a s/z«//-subjunc-
tive denote what is desired. The subordinate clause (called
a clause of purpose) is introduced either by a relative pronoun
or by ut ' that ', ne ' that . . . not ', or quo ' whereby ' (quo being
generally followed by a comparative). They may often be
translated by an English infinitive.
158 SYNTAX
Exploratores mittit qui locum idoneum castrls deligant.
He sends scouts to choose a suitable place for a camp ;
lit. who shall chooset or who are to choose : B. G. ii. 17.
Labienum in continent! reliquit ut portus tueretur. He
left Labienus on the continent in order that he should
(might) protect the harbours : B. G. v. 8.
Ne aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutio-
marum ad se venire iussit. Lest he should (or In order
that he might not) be compelled to waste the summer in
the country of the Treveri, he commanded Indutiomarus
to come to him : B. G. v. 4.
Mllites manipulos laxare iussit, quo facilius gladils utl
possent. He ordered the soldiers to open up their ranks,
whereby the more easily they should (might) be able to use
their swords : B. G. ii. 25.
339 In some adjective and adverb clauses the s/?tf//-subjunctive
denotes little more than the idea of future time. Such sub-
junctives may be called * prospective ', because they mark the
action as in prospect either at the time of speaking or at some
point of time in the past which the speaker has in mind.
340 Prospective subjunctives are often found in clauses of time
introduced by words meaning ' until ' or ' before ' :
Exspectare dum hostium copiae augeantur summae
dementiae est. To wait till the forces of the enemy shall
be increased is the height of folly: B. G. iv. 13. — Non
prius duces ex concilio demittunt quam ab ils sit con-
cessum ut arma capiant. They do not let the leaders
go out of the council till permission to take up arms has
been (lit. shall have been) granted by them : B. G. iii. 18.
—Dum reliquae naves eo convenient in ancoris ex-
spectavit. He waited at anchor till the rest of the ships
should assemble there : B. G. iv. 23. — Priusquam se hostes
ex terrore reciperent, exercitum in Suessiones duxit.
He led his army into the country of the Suessiones before
the enemy should recover from their alarm : B. G. ii. 12.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 159
341 Prospective subjunctives are especially common in adjective
and adverb clauses which are subordinated to a clause which
itself refers to future time :
Fraus fidem in parvis sibi praestruit, ut, cum operae
pretium sit, cum mercede magna fallat. Fraud con-
trives for itself credibility in small things, in order that,
when it shall be worth while, it may deceive with great
profit : Livy xxviii. 42. 7. — Exspectabat ut, si forte hostes
elicere posset, citra vallem contenderet. He was waiting
in order that, if perchance he should be able to lure out the
enemy, he might fight on this side of the valley : B. G.
v. 50. (Contrast sJwith the Past Subj. in § 350. 2.)—
Imperavit ut sustinerent quoad ipse propius accessisset.
He ordered them to hold out till he himself should have
come nearer-, cf. B. G. iv. ii.-— Sabellis docta ligonibus
versare glebas ... sol ubi montium mutaret umbras,
taught to turn the sod with Samnite mattocks when
the sun should lengthen the shadows of the mountains :
Hor. Od. iii. 6. 38-41 (Sabellus means ' Samnite ', not
'Sabine').
342 In some adjective and adverb clauses the sAtf//-subjunctive
expresses a supposition ('supposing that'). In this use the
subjunctive may be called ' postulative ', because it denotes
what is assumed or demanded for the purpose of argument.
The origin of this use is seen in simple sentences (§§ 317,
321):
Vendat aedes vir bonus; norit ipse vitia earum, ceterl
ignorent : vitia emptori dlcere debet. Let an honest
man sell a house ; let him know its defects himself, but let
all other men be ignorant of them : he ought to point out
the defects to a purchaser (cf. Cic. Off. iii. 13). Here
the sentences with the subjunctive are commands;
but they are equivalent to suppositions: should an
honest man sell a house . . . he ought to point out its defects.
Compare in English ' Let two parallel lines be pro-
160 SYNTAX
duced to infinity : they will never meet '; ' Be he alive
or be he dead'; 'will he nill he'; and in French soit
= 'supposing it to be so.'
Modo luppiter adsit : tertia lux classem Cretaels sistet in
orls. Only let Jupiter stand by us : the third dawn shall
set our fleet on the shores of Crete : Aen. iii. 116 f.
A postulative subjunctive of the past is seen in instances
like the following : —
Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, quinque diebus nil
erat in loculls. Supposing that you had given a million
sesterces to this thrifty man, in five days there was nothing
in his money box : Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15 f.
343 But postulative subjunctives are generally introduced by
a subordinating conjunction — si 'if',1 ut 'supposing that',
dum or dummodo 'so long as', quamvis 'even if, 'although '
(literally ' as you will ', from quam and the 2nd pers. sing,
pres. indie, of v old) — or by a relative pronoun :
Si vendat aedes vir bonus, &c. If an honest man should
sell a house, &c. For the use of the tenses of the sub-
junctive in such ^-clauses see§ 35o.2 — Ut omnia contra
oplnionem acciderent, tamen se plurimum navibus
posse. [They reflected that] supposing that everything
1 St means literally ; so ' ; the same word is seen with the suffix c in sic
(st i in case', st-c 'in that case'). In Shakespeare's time 'so' was some-
times used in the sense of ' if ' ; e. g. ' No matter whither, so you come not
here ' (As You Like It, ii. 3. 30) ; Latin Non refert quo eas, si non hue venids.
2 But the tenses of the subjunctive may be used without the special
implications which they have in the sentences quoted in § 350 : e. g. Murus
oppidt a pldnitie atque inilio ascensiis recta regione, si nullus anfractus inter-
cederet, MCC passus aberat, 'The wall of the town was 1,200 paces distant
from the plain and the beginning of the slope in a straight line, supposing
no bend in the road to intervene' (= disregarding bends in the road) :
B. G. vii. 46 — Sf in Italia consis/at, erimus una ; sin cedet, consilt res (st,
i Supposing him to make a stand in Italy, we shall meet ; but if he yields
(///. shall yield), the matter demands thought' : Cic. ad Alt. vii. 10 : cf. Hor.
Od. ii. 14. 6, ii. 17. 14, iii. 3. 7.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 161
should happen contrary to their expectation, they were never-
theless very strong in ships : B. G. iii. 9. — Oderint dum
metuant. Let them hate, so long as (= provided that) they
fear. — Ea voluptas, quamvls parva sit, pars tamen est
vltae. That pleasure, be it ever so small (lit. be it small as
you will) is nevertheless a part of life. — QuI rei publicae
sit hostis, felix esse non potest. Whoso shall be an
enemy of the state, cannot be a happy man.
344 Such clauses often have a limiting or restrictive sense.
(a) Relative clauses limiting a superlative or negative :
Omnium oratorum, quos quidem ego cognoverim, acu-
tissimus. The most keen-witted of all orators, at any rate
of those whom I have known (all, provided that I have
known them): Cic. Brutus 180. — Servus est nemo,
qul modo tolerabill condicione sit servitutis, qul non
audaciam horum clvium perhorrescat. There is no
slave, provided only that he be in a not unendurable state
of servitude, who does not (§ 335) shudder at the critni*
nality of these citizens : Cic. Cat. iv. 16. — Often in the
expression quodsciam ' so far as I know' (lit. 4 supposing
me to know it ').
345 (b) ^//-clauses preceded by ita — ed condicione : Equites vobls
ita concedunt ut vobiscum de amore rei publicae cer-
tent. The knights yield to you (senators) only on the
understanding that they shall vie with you in patriotism :
Cic. Cat. iv. 15. — Ita ill! audire poterunt ut vos quoque .
audiatis. They will not be able to hear without your
hearing also : cf. Cic. Sulla 31.
A postulative ^F-clause (especially with quippe or ut ' as ')
may assume causal meaning : cf. siquidem, originally = ' if
indeed ', hence ' since ' :
Insipiens sum, qul quidem contra eos tarn diu disputem.
/ am foolish to argue so long against them (Cicero) ; lit,
if I argue, considering that I argue.
162 SYNTAX
(B) SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING WHAT WOULD
HAPPEN UNDER CERTAIN IMAGINED CON-
DITIONS
347 These subjunctives are translated by 'should* in the ist
person and ' would ' in the 2nd and 3rd persons.
What would happen is what will happen (or is likely to happen)
under certain imagined conditions : e.g. ' What would you do ? '
means ' What are you likely to do in that case (or under those
circumstances) ? ' The idea is that of a future action, the
occurrence of which depends on a condition which the speaker
has in mind.
These subjunctives, then, may be called subjunctives of
conditioned futurity,1 They express the meanings which
are generally expressed in French by the Futures in the
past.
i. In Simple Sentences.
348 The Present and the Perfect Subjunctive denote what is
likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of the
present or future :
Hoc Ithacus velit et magno mercentur Atridae. This the
Ithacan would desire and the sons of Atreus ivould pur-
chase at a great price ; ' would desire ' = ' is likely under
these circumstances to desire': Aen. ii. 104; cf. ii. 8
quis tdliafando temperet a lacrnnis ?
Dlcere non ausim (— audeam). / should not venture to
say. Similarly velim ' I should like ', nolim ' I should
not like ', malim 1 1 should prefer '.
Hoc non facile dixerim. I should not readily assert this,
I am not likely to . . . : Cic. Verr. iv. 94.
1 Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may have originally denoted what
ought (logically) to be the case, marking a statement as a necessary inference
from some supposition : si hoc verum sit, illud sit falsum, supposing this to
be true, that must be (ought to be) false. If so, these subjunctives are in origin
subjunctives denoting what is to be (see §§318, 319). Note that in the fourth
example above quis arbitrarctur might be translated ' 10/10 ivds to think ^
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 163
The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive denote what
was likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of
the past : l
Quis arbitraretur hoc bellum uno anno conficl posse?
Who would have thought [under those circumstances]
that this war could be brought to an end in one year ?
Cic. leg. Man. 31.
Crederes victos. You would have supposed them con-
quered'. Liv. ii. 43. In such sentences 'you' may
mean either the person addressed or any one ('one ').
Nulla alia gens tanta clade non obruta esset. Any other
nation would have been overwhelmed by so great a disaster:
Liv. xxii. 54.
Similarly vellem ' I should have liked ', nollem, mallem.
2. In the Main Clause of a Complex Sentence.
349 The combination of a clause containing a subjunctive of
conditioned futurity with a clause containing a postulative
subjunctive (§342) forms a conditional sentence of a particular
kind, in which there is an implication that the speaker does
not vouch for the condition being (or having been) fulfilled.
The use of the subjunctive in the //"-clause marks the con-
dition as a mere assumption (if it be supposed that), and in
some cases implies that it is contrary to fact.
350 In conditional sentences of this kind '2 the tenses of the sub-
junctive are used in special senses by writers of the classical
period.3
i. When the ^/-clause refers to future time, it takes the
1 The same idea is sometimes expressed by the Future Participle with
a past tense of sum : see § 352.
- There is another kind of conditional sentence, in which the ^/-clause is
open, i. e. in which there is no implication as to the fulfilment of the con-
dition. Such z/-clauses take the indicative mood : see § 531.
3 In the Old Latin writers the tenses of the subjunctive are somewhat
differently used.
L 2
164 SYNTAX
Present Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Present Sub-
junctive in the main clause, denoting what would happen : l
Si vir bonus habeat hanc vim, ut digitorum percussione
nomen suum in locupletium testamenta inserere possit,
hac vl non utatur. If a good man were to have the
power of being able by snapping his fingers to introduce
his name into the wills of wealthy persons, he would not
use the power-, cf. Cic. Off. iii. 75. — Si habeat 'if he
were to have ' or ' if he should have ' or ' should he
have ' implies ' I do not say that he will have '. The
speaker (or writer) guards himself against being sup-
posed to mean that the condition will be fulfilled.
Si per te liceat, perendino die communem cum reliquis
belli casum sustineant. If you were to permit them,
they would the day after to-morrow face the chances of
war in common with the others : B. G. v. 30. 3.
2. When the //-clause refers to present time, it takes the
Past Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Past Subjunctive
in the main clause, denoting what would happen :
Si vir bonus hanc vim haberet, ea non uteretur. If
a good man had this power, he would not use it. — Si
haberet ' if he had ' implies that he has not the power.
The condition is contrary to present fact.
Cuius rei si exemplum non haberemus, tamen institul
pulcherrimum iudicarem. Even if we had no precedent,
I should nevertheless regard it as a fine thing that one
should be established: B. G. vii. 77. 13.
3. When the ^-clause refers to past time, it takes the Past
Perfect Subjunctive (or sometimes the Past Subjunctive2),
1 The Perfect Subjunctive is occasionally used in this case, but it is very rare.
2 The use of the Past Subjunctive with reference to past time is the older
usage, often found in Plautus, e.g. deos voluisse credo ; nam n! vellent, nOn
fieret, / believe that the gods willed it ; for if they had not willed it, it ivould not
have happened (Aulularia 742). But, as in English and French, a form which
originally denoted past time, came to be used with reference to present
time : nisi Alexander essem, Diogenes esse vellem, */ / were not Alexander,
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 165
and is accompanied by a Past Perfect (or sometimes by a Past)
Subjunctive in the main clause, denoting what would have
happened :
Si M. Crassus hanc vim habuisset, ea usus esset. I/
Marcus Crassus (an unscrupulous man) had had this
power, he would have used it. — S~i habuisset 'if he had
had* implies that he had not the power. The con-
dition is contrary to past fact.
Dares hanc vim M. Crasso, in foro saltaret. Had you
given (supposing you to have given) this power to Marcus
Crassus, he would have danced for joy in the forum
(Cicero, in the continuation of the passage quoted
above. Crassus was dead when Cicero wrote).
Nisi milites defessi essent, omnes hostium copiae delerl
potuissent. If the soldiers had not been tired out, all
the forces of the enemy might have been destroyed : B. G.
vii. 88. Nisi or nl means 'if ... not ' or ' unless '.
351 An /^-clause referring to past time may be accompanied by
. a main clause referring to the time of speaking :
Si mens non laeva fuisset . . . Troia nunc stares. If our
hearts had not been blinded, thou, Troy, would 'st now be
standing: Aen. ii. 54 f.
352 Instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive in the main clause
the Future Participle with eram or fui is sometimes used :
Emendaturus, si licuisset, eram. / should have corrected
the faults, if I had been allowed to do so : Ovid, Tristia
i. 7. 40 ; lit. / was likely to (or going to) correct the faults.
353 Instead of the subjunctive of a verb denoting/ can ', ' must ',
or ' ought ' in the main clause, the indicative may be used :
Quodsl Pompeius prlvatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad
/ should wish to be Diogenes. The English were (Subj. of was) originally
related to' past time, as in ' If it were so, it was a grievous fault ' (Shake-
speare) ; but it generally expresses a contrary-to-fact supposition of the
present. So too the French Past Imperfect Indicative (see French
Grammar, § 315).
i66 SYNTAX
tantum bellum is erat deligendus. But even if Pompey
were a private citizen at the present time, nevertheless it
is he who ought to be chosen for the conduct of so great
a war : Cic. leg. Man. 50. Similarly deligi euni oporte-
bat ' he ought to be chosen ' ; deligi poterat 'he might
be chosen '.
Si privatus turn fuisset, deligendus fuit. If he had been
a private citizen at that time, he ought to have been chosen.
Similarly deligi euin oportuit 'he ought to have been
chosen ' ; deligi potuit ' he might have been chosen '.
Contrast the Past Perfect Subj. potuissent in the last
example of § 350.
354 In conditional sentences with a subjunctive in the //'-clause,
the subjunctive of conditioned futurity in the main clause
generally assumes a negative shade of meaning, i.e. denotes
some degree of unlikelihood. But not necessarily; for when
a word meaning ' even ' is added in the //-clause, or when si
alone means 'even if (as in some of the examples above), the
speaker means that the action of the main clause is or was
likely to happen in any case. For example, the passage
quoted above (§ 350. i) from Cicero goes on as follows :
Si vir bonus hanc vim habeat, non utatur, ne si explora-
tum quidem habeat id omnlno neminem umquam sus-
picaturum. If a good man were to have this power ;
he would not use it, not even if he were to be sure that not
a single person would ever suspect him : ' he would not
use it ' = his refusal to use it is likely.
3. In Subordinate Clauses.
355 Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may be subordinated
to a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction :
Nemo est quT ilium non ad Manlium quam a<J Massi-
lienses Ire malit. There is no one who would not prefer
that he should go to Manlius rather than to the people of
Marseilles : Cic. Cat. ii. 16.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 167
MaestI redierunt, ut victos eos crederes. They returned
sad at heart, so that one would have supposed them con*
quered : cf. § 348.
Honestum tale est, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si
obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset laudabile.
Righteousness is of such a nature that even if men were
unacquainted with it or had said nothing about it, it would
nevertheless be commendable by reason of its own beauty :
Cic. Fin. ii. 49.
Nescio num si hanc vim haberem ut digitorum per-
cussione heres locupletium scrlbl possem, hac vl uterer.
I do not know whether, if I had the power of being able
by snapping my fingers to be written down as the heir of
wealthy persons, I should use it (cf. § 350. 2).
Non dubito quln si homines hanc vim habuissent, saepe
usurpata esset. / do not doubt that if people had had
this power, it would often have been used.1
356 But instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive denoting con-
ditioned futurity in subordination to a conjunction which
itself requires the subjunctive,2 or in a dependent question,
the Future Participle with fuerim, fuens, fuerit is generally
employed, if the meaning is active and the verb has a Future
Participle :
Non dubito (or Non dubitabam) quln si M. Crassus hanc
vim habuisset, ea usurus fuerit. / do not (or did not]
doubt that if Crassus had had this power, he would have
used it : lit. was likely to use it.1 — Die quidnam facturus
fuerls, si eo tempore censor fuisses. Say ivhat you
would have done (lit. were likely to do), if you had been
censor at that time : Livy ix. 33. 7.' — Adeo inopia
coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi cum fugae specie abeun-
1 Note that in all these subordinate expressions of conditioned futurity no
regard is paid to the rule of sequence of tenses (§ 365).
2 E. g. ut or quin (§ 362) or cum (§ 358). By means of the combination
of the future participle with/ww'w Latin is able to express futurity and at the
same time to maintain the subjunctive construction required by the conjunction.
i68 SYNTAX
dum timuisset, Galliam repetlturus fuerit. Hannibal
was driven to such straits by want, that if he had not
feared that his departure would have involved the appear-
ance of /light, he would have retreated to Gaul: Livy
xxii. 32. 3.1
For the way in which conditioned futurity is expressed in
dependence on a verb of 'saying' or 'thinking' see §471
(Died M. Crassum hac vl usurum fuissc, si earn habuisset).
(C) SUBJUNCTIVES WITH WEAKENED MEANING
IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
357 In course of time the subjunctive came to be used in some
constructions with a weakened meaning, little different from
that of an indicative. These weakened subjunctives are,
however, found only in certain subordinate constructions
(five in number); and the origin of most of them can be
traced. In some cases it is the s//<7//-meaning, in others the
wou/d-meamng, that has been weakened. The loss of the
s/z#//-meaning is similar to the loss of the sense of obligation
or necessity in some constructions of the gerund adjective
(§ 502).
Note the following features which are common to all these
weakened uses of the subjunctive :
(i) The tenses of the subjunctive are translated by the
corresponding tenses of the English indicative :
the Present Subj. by a Present Indie.
the Past Subj. by a Past Indie., or by its continuous form.
the Perfect Subj. by a Perfect or a Past Indie.
the Past Perf. Subj. by a Past Perf. Indie,
(ii) Where future time has to be expressed, it is expressed
by adding the Future Participle : e.g. interrogo num venturus
sit, / ask whether he will come : interrogavl num venturus
esset, / asked whether he would come.
1 Note that in the subordinate expression of conditioned futurity no regard
is paid to the rule of sequence of tenses (§ 365).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 169
(iii) The negative is always non. Contrast the use of ne as
the negative of some of the subjunctives which denote what is
or was to be done (§§ 320, 327, 330, 332, 338).
358 i. Certain clauses of time, cause, and concession take
a subjunctive with weakened meaning.
(a) Cum meaning 'when' generally takes the subjunctive
in past time (i. e. when the time of the main clause is past).
The tenses of the subjunctive used in such cww-clauses are
the Past and the Past Perfect.
The cum-dause is best translated by a participle without
any conjunction : the cum does not mean exactly ' at the time
when ' (in which sense it takes the indicative), but rather
'whereas', denoting the circumstances under which the
action of the main clause takes place l :
Cum esset Caesar in Gallia Citeriore, certior fiebat Belgas
coniiirare. Being in Hither Gaul, Caesar was informed
that the Belgae were leaguing together: B. G. ii. i.
Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulteriorem
contendit. This having been reported, Caesar hastened
into Further Gaul : B. G. i. 7.
(b) Cum meaning 'because' or 'although', and qutt quae,
1 The word cum is in origin an accusative of the relative pronoun (stem
quo-} ; its root-meaning is, therefore, ' as to which,' or ' whereas '. ' Whereas '
is not very different from the meaning which si ('originally 'so') acquired
when it became a subordinating conjunction ; cf. § 343 note. In English
'bwhen ' and 'if are often interchangeable : 'when it rains (= whenever it
rains), I stay at home,' ' if it rains, I stay at home.' Similarly in Latin :
difficile est tacere cum doteas, ' it is difficult to hold one's peace when one is
hard hit ' (si doleas, ' if one is hard hit ') : Cic. Sull. 31. It is possible, then,
that the subjunctive which is used in circumstantial cww-clauses is in origin
postulative, like the subjunctive with si: si ita esset, 'supposing that it was
so,' cum ita esset, t under whatever circumstances it was so.' The past
tense of the postulative subjunctive does not necessarily imply that the
supposition is contrary to fact : see § 343, note 2. Cicero uses st ita esset
without this implication in Tusc. v. n. 33 ; cf. Shakespeare's ' If it were so
(= supposing that it was so), it was a grievous fault': Julius Caesar iii.
2. 84. The subjunctive in cww-clauses of time, cause, and concession did
not become common till the time of Cicero,
1 70 SYNTAX
quod, meaning 'because he (she, it)', 'although he (she, it)',
take the subjunctive in both present and past time.
Here, too, the cww-clause and the gw-clause are best trans-
lated by a participle :—
Quae cum ( = Et cum ea) ita sint i ggredere_ ex "^e (Cic : Cat. i. 10)
( tamen paceni faciam (B. G. i. 14).
this being so = (i) because this is so, (2) although this is so.
Cum non amplius octingentos equites haberent, impetum
fecerunt. Having (= Though they had] not more than
800 horsemen, they charged : B. G. iv, 12.
Titurius, qul nihil ante provldisset, trepidare. Titurius,
having foreseen nothing, became alarmed: B. G. v. 33.
359 In translating from English into Latin, cum with the sub-
junctive is a very useful equivalent for the English participle.
One reason for this is that Latin has no perfect participle
with active meaning, except in deponent verbs, and no present
participle passive of any verb : nor has it any present par-
ticiple of the verb sum. The cw/w-clause came to be used as
a substitute for these wanting forms.
360 2. Certain clauses of result introduced by ut, or by gut,
quae, quod, take a subjunctive with weakened meaning1 :
Tanta tempestas coorta est ut naves cursum tenere non
possent. So great a storm arose that the ships were not
able to hold their course : cf. B. G. iv. 28.
Cicero ne nocturnum quidem sibi tempus ad quietem
relinquebat, ut ultro mllitum vocibus sibi parcere
cogeretur. Cicero did not allow himself even the night
1 The origin of this construction, which is such a curious feature of the
Latin language, is shown in §§ 335-6. The Romans regarded a result as
the necessary effect of a cause — as something bound to happen, something
which is or was to come about. The subjunctive mood was very well fitted
to express this idea, which is closely akin to that of the root-meaning of the
subjunctive. And the Romans employed this mood in all clauses of result —
not only those in which English often uses the infinitive with 'as to' and
French the subjunctive after de sorte que and similar expressions, but also
those which are expressed in English and French and other languages as
statements offacf (by the use of the indicative mood).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 171
for sleep, so that he was actually compelled by the protests
of the soldiers to spare himself: B. G. v. 40.
Tarn paratus fuit ad dimicandum animus hostium ut ad
galeas induendas tempus defuerit. So eager were the
enemy for fighting that time failed our men for putting
on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21.
Habetis eum consulem qul parere vestrls decretls non
dubitet. You have a consul of such a character that he
does not hesitate to obey your decrees : Cic. Cat. iv. 24.
OBS. Oum may be used for ut non or qui (quae, quod) non,
when the main clause is negative or interrogative :
Numquam tam male est SiculTs quln aliquid facete dlcant.
The Sicilians are never in such trouble that they do not
say (as not to say) something witty (lit. wittily) : Cic.
Verr. iv. 95.
361 Out of this construction grew another in which the sub-
ordinate clause loses all its sense of result and becomes
purely descriptive. When a relative clause (with or without
the antecedent is) is an essential part of the sentence, which
cannot be removed without destroying the sense, it generally
takes the subjunctive :
Nulla navis quae mllites portaret desiderabatur. No
ship that carried soldiers was missed: B. G. v. 23.
Neque quicquam eorum quae apud hostes agerentur eum
fallebat. Nor did any of the things which were going
on among the enemy escape his notice: Livy xxii. 28. i.
Sunt qul dlcant . . . There are people who say . . .*
Erant qui censerent . . . There were people who expressed
the opinion . . . Livy xxi. 6.1
1 The origin of subjunctives of this type may perhaps be found in sentences
like reperiunhir qui dlcant, l people are found to say ' : e. g. qui se ultro
rnor/i offerant fncilins reperiuntur quant qui dolorem patienter ferant, people
are more readily found to expose tfiemselves (who shall expose themselves)
unasked to death than to bear pain with fortitude: B. G. vii. 77. 5.— It
should be noticed that the indicative is sometimes used after sunt qtrt,
e. g. Caesar, B. G. iv. TO sunt quJ piscibus et ovls avium vwere existinwntur ;
Horace. Od. i. i. 4.
i ?a SYNTAX
362 3- Certain noun clauses introduced by ut or quin take
a subjunctive with weakened meaning.1
(a) 67-clauses depending on verbs of ' happening ' :
Factum est ut impetum nostrorum non ferrent. The
result was (lit. It resulted] that they did not stand the
attack of our men : B. G. iii. 19.
Accidit ut luna plena esset. // happened that there was
a full moon : E.G. iv. 29.
(b) Qum-dauses depending on negatived or interrogative
expressions of ' doubting ' :
An dubitamus quin RomanI ad nos interficiendos veniant
[venturl sint, venerint] ? Do we doubt that the Romans
are coming [will come, have come] to murder us ? cf.
B. G. vii. 38.
Non erat dubium quin RomanI ad eos interficiendos
venlrent [venturl essent, venissent]. There was no
doubt that the Romans were coming [were about to come,
had come[ to murder them.
363 4. Dependent questions as to a matter of fact and de-
pendent exclamations take a subjunctive with weakened
meaning.2
1 The subjunctive in these ^/-clauses is of the same origin as that in clauses
of result (§ 360) : compare id ne fieri posset, obsidionefiebat, ' that this should
not be possible, was brought about by the siege' (Caesar, B. C. i. 19), where
fiebat takes ne and a shall- subjunctive. — £)//m-clauses with the subjunctive
were originally interrogative. A question like quin rogem ? ' why should
I not ask?' (Plautus, Mil. 426), or quin quod iuvat id semper faciant ? 'why
should they not always do what pleases them ? ' (Sallust, Jug. 85. 41) may
be subordinated, like any other question with the subjunctive (§§ 319, 325) ;
compare § 331. In the following instance quin preserves its original meaning
of ' why not ? ' and the subjunctive its shall- meaning :
Dubitandmn non existimavit quin proficisceretur. He thought there ought
to be no hesitation as to setting out : B. G. ii. 2 ; originally ' why should he
not set out? He thought there ought to be no hesitation'. It would be
impossible here to translate proficisceretur by an English indicative ('was
setting out ').
2 The use of the subjunctive in dependent questions as to a matter of fact
(which take the indicative in English, French, and Greek) did not become
a rule of Latin syntax till the time of Cicero, though it is often found in Old
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 173
(a) Dependent questions as to a matter of fact :
Quid quisque audierit quaerunt, et cogunt eos pronun-
tiare quibus ex regionibus veniant quasque ibi res cog-
noverint. They inquire what each has heard, and compel
them to declare from what country they come and what
they have learned there : B. G. iv. 5. — Quid fieri velit
ostendit. He indicates what he wishes to be done : B. G.
v. 2. — Intellegebat qua de causa ea dlcerentur. He
perceived why those things were said: B. G. v. 4. — Hinc
intellegl poterat utrum apud eos pudor an timor plus
valeret. Hence could be seen whether honour or fear
had more influence with them: B. G. i. 40. — Matres
familiae sortibiis declarabant utrum proelium com-
mittl ex usu esset necne. The matrons used to show by
drawing lots whether it was expedient that a battle should
be fought or not: B. G. i. 50; contrast § 325, third ex.
(b) Dependent Exclamations :
Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You see how
Soracte stands out glistening with deep snow : Hor.
Od. i. 9. i (dependent form of the exclamation Ut alta
stat nive candidum!). — Mlrum quantum ill! viro fides
fuerit. Strange it is, to what an extent that man was
believed: Livy i. 16 (dependent form of Quantum illi
viro fides fuit!).
OBS. i. In reported speech dependent questions and
dependent exclamations are sometimes expressed by the
accusative with infinitive construction : see § 545.
OBS. 2. In dependent exclamations the indicative is some-
times found in poets :
Aspice ut insignis spolils Marcellus opimls ingreditur.
Look how Marcellus steps along conspicuous in a general's
spoils : Aen. vi. 855, cf. viii. 192, Georg. i. 57.
Latin. It may be connected with the use of the subjunctive to denote the
words or thoughts of another person (§ 364) : see note below.
174 SYNTAX
364 5. Adjective and adverb clauses take the subjunctive
when they express the thought of another person or of
the speaker himself on some other occasion.1
The adjective or adverb clause may be —
Either (a) subordinate to a noun clause which is itself
dependent on a verb of ' saying ' or ' thinking ' :
Helvetii dixerunt sibi in animo esse iter per provinciam
facere, quod aliud iter haberent nullum. The Helvetii
said that they intended to march through the Roman pro-
vince because they had no other road : B. G. i. 7. The ad-
verb clause quod aliud iter haberent nullum is part of the
thought not of Caesar but of the Helvetii, whose speech
Caesar is here reporting. In their original speech they
would have used the indicative : Nobts in animo est iter
per provinciam faceret quod aliud iter habemus nullum.
Caesar dixit haec esse quae ab eo postularet. Caesar
said that these were the things which he demanded of
him : B. G. i. 35. The adjective clause quae ab eo
postularet is part of the thought of Caesar at the time
when his speech was made : Haec sunt quae abs te
postulo.
Or (b) subordinate to a main clause (without any noun
clause intervening) :
Cottae et Titurii calamitatem, qul in eodem castello occi-
derint, sibi ante oculos ponunt. They picture to them-
selves the misfortune of Cotta and Titurius who (as they
said to themselves) fell in the same fort: B. G. vi. 37.
1 A use of the English 'should' to denote what was said or thought by
another person suggests a possible origin for the Latin subjunctive in this
sense. In Elizabethan English instances are found like ' I heard a strange
thing reported ... of a raven that should build in a ship of the King's ' (Ben
Jonson, Volpone, ii. i), which might be translated mira ris nuntiata est de
corvo qul in nave rcgid nldificdret. And the same usage still exists in some
dialects of English : e. g. l He goes about saying that I should be a thief.' —
Compare also the use of the French Future in the Past in the same sense (see
French Grammar, § 310. iv). Thus in the third example above qul occidetint
might be translated in French quiauraient peri.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 175
RemI de suis prlvatis rebus petere coeperunt quoniam
clvitatl consulere non possent. The Remi began to
entreat about their private affairs because (as they said)
they were not able to take thought for the state : B. G.
v. 3-
OBS. i. This construction is sometimes iound in clauses of
cause preceded by non :
Perseverabo, non quod confidarn sed quia adhuc spero.
/ shall persevere, not (as might be supposed) because
I have confidence, but because I still have hopes ; French
je continuerai, non pas quefaie confiance, maisfespere
encore (French Grammar, § 359).
OBS. 2. There is a similar use of the subjunctive in noun
clauses introduced by quod and depending on verbs of
'rejoicing', 'grieving', and 'wondering':
Milites indignabantur quod conspectum suum hostes
ferre possent. The soldiers were indignant that the
enemy should be able to face them : B. G. vii. 19. In
such clauses English very often uses 'should' and
French the subjunctive (see French Grammar, § 362):
compare the following instances from Shakespeare :
' This I wonder at that he should be in debt ' (Com. of
Err. iv. ii. 48) ; 'Alas that love should be so tyrannous !'
(Rom. and Jul. i. i. 176).
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
365 The tenses of the subjunctive used in subordinate clauses
generally correspond to or follow from the tense of the verb
of the main clause. The following rule is illustrated by all
the examples of s//«//-subjunctives in subordinate clauses given
in §§ 324-46, and by all but one * of the examples of sub-
junctives with weakened meaning in §§ 358-64.
1 B. G. ii. 21 in § 360. This exception is explained below (Remark 2).
176 SYNTAX
RULE : i. When the main clause has a tense of present or
future time, the subjunctive of the subordinate clause is either
Present or Perfect :
Present to denote action not completed : e.g. Quid facial
nescit, He does not know what he is doing (§ 363)
or what he is to do (§ 325) :
Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid fecerit
nescit, He does not know what he has done (or
did)] §363.
2. When the main clause has a tense of past time, the sub-
junctive of the subordinate clause is either Past or Past
Perfect :
Past to denote action not completed : e. g. Quid
faceret nesciebat, Pie did not know what he was
doing (§ 363) or what he was to do (§ 325) :
Past Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid
fecisset nesciebat, He did not know what he had
done ; § 363.
366 Subordinate clauses with the Present or the Perfect Sub-
junctive are said to have 'primary sequence'; those with the
Past or the Past Perfect Subjunctive are said to have
' secondary sequence '.
REMARKS,
367 (i) The Perfect Indicative when used as a Present Perfect
is a tense of present time and properly takes primary
sequence ; when used as a Past Historic it is a tense of past
time and properly takes secondary sequence :
Ne qua clvitas Romanes suls fmibus recipiat a me pro-
vlsum est. I have taken precautions that no state shall
receive the Romans within their borders : B. G. vii. 20.
Dixit mihi quid faceret (fecisset). He told me ivhat he
was doing (had done).
But there are exceptions; for even when the Perfect is
SEQUENCE OF TENSES 177
used as a Present Perfect it sometimes takes secondary
sequence :
Ne vobls nocere possent ego provldi ; ne mihi noceant
vestrum est providere. / have taken precautions that
they should not be able to injure you ; it is your business
to take precautions that they shall not injure me : Cic. Cat.
iii. 27.
In noun clauses introduced by ut or quln (§ 362) the Perfect
always takes secondary sequence ; and the only tense of the
subjunctive used is the Past : see the examples in § 362.
Perfects which have become Presents in meaning always
take primary sequence: e.g. Novimus [Meminimus] quid
proxima nocte egerls. We know [remember] what you did last
night: cf. Cic. Cat. i. i.
(2) In clauses of result (§ 360) the tense of the subjunctive
is often independent of the point of view of the main clause :
Tarn paratus fuit ad dimicandum animus hostium ut ad
galeas induendas tempus defuerit. So eager were the
enemy for fighting that time failed our men for putting
on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21. Here the action of defuerit
is marked as having taken place before the time of
speaking, not in relation to fuit, which would naturally
have been followed by deesset.
Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitul in antlquum statum
nullo modo possit. He ruined Sicily to such an extent
that it can nowise be restored to its ancient condition :
Cic. Verr. Act. I. 12. Here the action of possit is
marked as going on at the time of speaking, and not
in relation to perdidit.
(3) The Historic Present (§ 293. ii) is treated sometimes as
a tense of past time, sometimes as a tense of present time
(this latter usage is the commoner in Caesar) :
Speculators mittit ut quid ageretur sclret.
„ „ ut quid agatur sciat.
901 M
178 SYNTAX
(4) The Historic Infinitive (§ 480) is always treated as
a tense of past time :
Obsecrare ut Caesar certior fieret. They entreated that
Caesar might be informed : B. C. i. 64.
(5) In the course of a long passage of reported speech
depending on a tense of past time, some of the adjective
and adverb clauses may have primary sequence: e.g. in
B. G. i. 14. 6 the Present Subjunctives depend on respondit
(not on consuesse, which is a present in meaning). This
varied construction is common in Livy.
(6) It follows from the Rule (§ 365) that a sentence like
'I know what he was doing last night' cannot be translated
literally into Latin ; we must say ' I know what he did last
night', Sew quid proximo, nocte fecerit. And a sentence like
' He did not know how much twice two is ' must be trans-
lated Nesciebat quot bis bina essent (literally ' He did not know
how much twice two was ').
IV. CASES AND PREPOSITIONS
THE NOMINATIVE CASE
368 The nominative is the case of the subject :
Haedul, gens valida, Romanis amlcl erant. The Haedui,
a powerful tribe (§ 281), were friends to the Romans. —
Exercitus salvus et incolumis rediit. The army returned
safe and sound (§ 274). — Orgetorix dux deligitur. Orge-
torix is chosen leader (§ 274).
369 When the subject is indicated only by the inflexion of the
verb (§ 251), it is often vague in meaning: Dlcunt. They
say, people say. — Pluit. // is raining ('it' = something, i.e.
the sky or the rain ]). — Alios effugere saepe, te numquam
potes. You (= One) can often escape from others, but never
* Compare in English 'The rain jt raineth every day' (Shakespeare).
THE NOMINATIVE CASE 179
from yourself (= oneself). — Feras, non culpes, quod mutari
non potest. One should put up with, not find fault with, what
cannot be altered (§ 289).
37° Verbs which are used only in the 3rd person (generally
without a nominative1) and in the infinitive are called imper-
sonal verbs: e.g.
pluit (-ere), it is raining
lucescit (-ere), it is dawning
tonat (-are), it is thundering
fulgurat (-are), /'/ is lightening
371 The following impersonal verbs are either used without
any subject expressed, or take as their subject either the
nominative of a neuter pronoun or more commonly an in-
finitive or (in a complex sentence) a noun clause : —
372 (i) piget, pudet, paenitet, taedet, and miseret, which express
the feelings of vexation, shame, regret, weariness, and distress.
These verbs may take an accusative of the person who has
the feeling and a genitive of that which causes the feeling
(unless this is expressed as the subject) ; compare ' It re-
pented the Lord that he had made man, and it grieved
him ' (Genesis vi. 6); * He is slow to anger and repenteth him
of the evil ' (Joel ii. 13) :
Faterl pigebat. It was annoying to confess (To confess
was annoying). — Factorum meorum (or Haec fecisse)
me numquam paenitebit. / shall never repent of my
deeds (or of having done these things). — Nequitiae tuae
me pudet. / am ashamed of your wickedness. — Me tul
miseret. / am sorry for you, I pity you.
373 (ii) interest ' it makes a difference ' and refert ' it matters '.
These verbs may take a genitive of the person to whom it
makes a difference or matters ; but instead of the genitive of
a pronoun of the ist or 2nd person, or of the 3rd person
1 A nominative case is sometimes added : luppiter pluit, Jupiter is raining
(i.e. is sending rain); saxa pluunt, stones are raining down (i.e. coming
down like rain) ; hoc lucescit, this is the dawn coming ; caelum tonat, the sky
is thundering.
M 2
i8o SYNTAX
when reflexive, the ablative singular feminine of the possessive
adjective is used .-1
Ad nostram laudem non multum interest. // does not
make much difference to our reputation. — Quid Milonis
intererat interficl Clodium ? What (§ 392) did it con-
cern Milo that Clodius should be killed?— Mea nihil
interest sclre, sed illius multum. It matters nothing
(§ 392) t° me to know, but it matters very much (§ 393,
§ 77) to him. — Quod tua nihil refert ne curaverls. Do
not take thought for what does not concern you (=Mind
your own business). — Illorum magis quam sua retu-
- lisse credunt. They think that it concerned those persons
rather than themselves (Sallust). — Neque cuiusquam
refert. Nor does it concern anyone (Tacitus).
374 (iii) libet ' it pleases ', licet ' it is allowed ', and liquet ' it is
clear5.
These verbs may take a dative of the person to whom
something is pleasing, allowed, or clear :
Licet ils incolumibus discedere. They may depart un-
harmed (§ 274). — Hoc feel dum licuit. This I have
done, so long as it was permitted. — Quod cuique libet
loquatur. Let each man say what he likes. — Hoc non
liquet, neque satis cogitatum est. This is not clear,
nor has it been sufficiently pondered.
375 (iv) oportet ' it is fitting ', decet ' it is seemly ', and dedecet ' it
is unseemly':
Me ipsum ames oportet, non mea. // is fitting [that]you
should love (§ 325. ii) me myself, not my possessions (Cic.
Fin. ii. 85). — Amlcitiam populi Romani mini praesidio,
non detriments esse oportet. It is fitting that the friend-
1 The origin of this ablative is uncertain, as is also the case of re- in refert.
Mea refert comes either from mea res (nom.^fert ' my interest involves ', or
from nteam rem fert ' it tends to my interest ' (meant rem = ad meam reni}.
In either case the re- was misunderstood as an ablative, and the possessive
adj. made to agree with it.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE 181
ship of the Roman nation should be (§ 466) a protection,
not a disadvantage to me (cf. B. G. i. 44. 5). — Perge,
decet. Go on, it befits you (Aen. xii. 153). — Omnes
homines ab odio vacuos esse decet. // is seemly that
all men should be free from hatred.
376 The Past Imperfect and the Perfect Indicative of these
verbs denote what ought to have been done, i. e. what would
have been fitting (see § 353) :
Amlcitiam populi Roman! mihi praesidio esse oportebat
(or oportuit). The friendship of the Roman nation
ought to have been a protection to me (implying that
it had not been a protection).
Note that where English has a perfect infinitive with
1 ought ' Latin has a present infinitive with a past tense of
oportet. The reason is that the English ' ought ' (originally
a past tense of ' owe ') has come to be used like a present
tense, and so there is no means of indicating past time
except the perfect infinitive.
377 Verbs which are used intransitively in the active have an
impersonal passive use, expressing that an action takes place :
Hur, there is a going, a journey is made ; pugnatum est, there
was fighting, a battle was fought.
THE VOCATIVE CASE
378 The vocative is the case of the person (or personified thing)
addressed :
Desilite, mllites, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere.
Leap down, fellow soldiers, unless you want to betray
the standard to the enemy.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE
379 (A) THE ACCUSATIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION
The accusative without a preposition has two main uses :
(i) as the direct object of a verb used transitively,
(ii) in certain adverbial expressions.
i82 SYNTAX
380 (i) Accusatives of the direct object :
Commium, regem Atrebatem, remittit. He sends back
Commius, the Atrebatian king (§ 281). — Exercitum sal-
vum et incoluraem reduxit. He brought back the army
safe and sound (§ 274). — Commium regem constituerat
Caesar. Caesar had appointed Commius king (as king,
§ 274)-
381 Many verbs which are used intransitively in their uncom-
pounded form acquire a transitive use when compounded
with a preposition ; e. g. pugno ' I fight ', oppugno i I fight
against ', ' I attack '. Especially verbs of motion, when com-
pounded with certain prepositions (circum, per, praetert trans,
and some others), may be used transitively :
hostem circumvemre, to surround an enemy, agros per-
currere, to overrun a country, aliquem praeterire, to
overlook (pass by) some one ; flumen transire, to cross
a river; civitates adlre, to approach the states (literally
or figuratively) ; consilium inlre, to enter on a plan ;
mortem oblre, to meet death ; perlculum subire, to face
danger.
382 Many verbs whose ordinary use is intransitive may be used
transitively with an object which is akin in meaning to the
verb. Such 'cognate objects ' are generally either (a) nouns
qualified by an epithet, or (b) neuter adjectives or pronouns :
(a) vltam longam vivere, to live a long life ; vltam exsulis
vlvere, to live the life of an exile ; bldul iter progredi,
to advance a two days' march.
(b) pingue et peregrlnum sonare, to have a coarse and
foreign sound (to ring coarse and foreign) ; illud laetor,
/ am glad of that (I have that joy).
383 Verbs of 'teaching' and 'asking' sometimes take two
direct objects, especially when one of them is a neuter pro-
noun or adjective:
Captlvl RomanI Nervios haec (= usum turrium) docue-
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 183
rant. The Roman prisoners had taught the Nervii
these things (= the use of turrets}. — Caesar Haeduos
frumentum flagitavit. — Caesar demanded corn of the
Haedui (B. G. i. 16 ; but this construction is rare).—
Illud te oro. / beg that of you. — Multa deos orans.
Entreating many things of the gods. — Hoc te interrogo
(or rogo). / ask you this question.
384 But these verbs more commonly take a phrase formed with
a preposition instead of one of the accusatives :
Boios de adventu suo docet. He informs the Boii of
(= about) his arrival. — De te ipso te rogo. / ask you
about yourself. — Auxilium a populo Romano non im-
plorabimus. We shall not ask aid of (from) the Romans.
— Haec Caesar ex Lisco quaerit. Caesar asks these
questions of Liscus.
385 Some verbs compounded with a preposition (especially
trans) take two direct objects :
Exercitum Ligerim traducit. He leads his army across
the Loire (B. G. vii. n. 9).
386 A passive construction is occasionally found, in which the
accusative denoting the person becomes the subject of the
sentence and the accusative denoting the thing is retained :
Nervii haec a captlvls Romanls docebantur. The Nervii
were being taught these things by the Roman prisoners
(B. G. v. 42).
Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt. The Belgae were led across
the Rhine (cf. B. G. ii. 4).
387 The accusative after some passive verbs (chiefly in poets)
is to be regarded as due to a reflexive use of the passive, in
which it denotes an action done to oneself. But the Romans
drew no clear line of distinction between this construction
and that of a passive verb with a retained accusative (§ 386) :
Induor vestem. / put on a garment (= Induo mihi
vestem, or Induo me veste). — Exuitur cornua. She
184 SYNTAX
sheds her horns. — Inutile ferrum cingitur. He girds on
the useless sword (= Accingit sibi ferrum). — Antlquum
saturata dolorem. Having sated her ancient grudge.
388 By the omission of the verb of the sentence the accusative
of the object sometimes becomes an exclamation :
nugas! nonsense! (from nugas agis, 'you are talking
nonsense ') ; dl, vestram fidem ! ye gods, your protec-
tion ! (supply iniploro ' I entreat '). Cupidinem Praxi-
telis H.S. MDC ! A Cupid by Praxiteles for 1,600 sesterces !
(Cic. Verr. iv. 12). Compare 'A horse ! a horse ! my
kingdom for a horse ! ' (Shakespeare).
(ii) Adverbial accusatives :
389 (a) The accusative of a noun denoting a period of time
may be used to express duration, answering the question
< How long?51:
Multos annos regnaverat. He had reigned many years
(or for many years). French // avait re'gne beaucoup
d'ans.
390 (b) The accusative of a noun denoting a measure of space
may be used to express extent, answering the question ' How
far ? ' l :
Decem mllia passuum progress! sunt. They advanced
ten miles. French Us se sont avance's dix kilometres.
So with abesse ( to be distant'. — Aggerem pedes cccxxx
atum, pedes LXXX altum exstruxerunt. They constructed
a rampart 330 feet broad and 80 feet high.
391 (c) The accusative of names of towns and of the words
domus and rus may be used to express ' to ' or ' towards ',
answering the question ' Whither ? ' 2 :
Lutetiam Parisiorum proficiscitur. He marches to Paris.
— Domum ' contenderunt. They hastened home (or
1 In this usage Latin is exactly like English and French.
2 A similar use of the accusative of an abstract noun of the 4th declension
is the origin of the supine in um (§ 136) : spectatum eo, / am going to the
spectacle = I am going to see.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE i85
homewards). — Rus me recipiam. / wilt betake myself to
the country.
392 (d) The accusative of neuter pronouns and nihil may be
used adverbially :
Quid venis ? Why do you come ? — Caesar ea re nihil
commovebatur. Caesar was not at all moved (nothing
moved] by this.
393 The accusative singular neuter of many adjectives of quan-
tity has become an adverb : see § 77.
(B) THE ACCUSATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION
General rules.
3Q4 (i) Most prepositions take the accusative. Nine take the
ablative (see § 452) and four take either the accusative or the
ablative (see § 397).
395 (2) Phrases formed with prepositions are nearly always
adverbial, qualifying a verb or an adjective, not adjectival, as
they often are in English, e.g. 'the camp across the river',
'the soldiers outside the walls'. In most instances where
this adjectival use is found in Latin, the noun qualified by
the phrase is akin in meaning to a verb, as in ascensus ad
munitibneSj reditus in patriam. In other instances the phrase
belongs to a noun qualified by an adjective, in which case it
stands between them, as in magna inter Gallos auctoritds, ' great
authority among the Gauls.' Apart from the above uses and
a few special uses mentioned below,1 English phrases which
are adjectival should be translated into Latin by turning them
into adverb phrases: e.g. castra trans flumen sita\ mllites
qw extra muros erant.
396 The following prepositions always take the accusative.
ad : (i) to : ad oppidum proficiscl, to march to a town (cf. § 391) ;
ad locum venire or pervemre (=to arrive at)} ad
mllitum salutem pertinere (to relate to) ; ad decem
1 E. g. under erga, § 396 ; in (ii), § 397 ; ex (i), § 453 ; sine, § 453-
186 SYNTAX
milia hominum (to the number of 10,000) ; ad unum
omnes (to the last man) ; ad mediam noctem (till
midnight).
(ii) to the neighbourhood of: ad Genavam pervenire (con-
trast Genavam pervenire, § 391).
(iii) at or by, near: ad portas esse ; pons qui ad Genavam
erat; ad soils occasum; ad tempus (at the right
time) ; ad extremum (at last).
(iv) according to : ad suum arbitrium imperare ; quern ad
modum (= as).
(v) for : diem ad dellberandum sumere ; satis ad laudem
et ad utilitatem proficere.
(vi) among ( = apud) : nomen ad omnes nationes sanctum.
adversus, towards : adversus montem progredl ; iustitia etiam
adversus infimos servanda est ; adversus hostem copias
ducere (against the enemy).
ante, before : ante portas ; ante pugnam ; ante horam sextam.
apud: (i) among, in the presence of', apud mllites contionarl.
(ii) in the opinion of : apud barbaros multum valere.
(iii) at the house of (French chez) : apud Ciceronem
vlvere.
circum, circa, and circiter, around, about: circum urbem
hiemare ; circum municipia mittere ; circum se habere ;
circa secundam horam venire ; circiter meridiem.
citra and cis, this side of: citra flumen ; cis Alpes.
contra : (i) against : contra hostem pugnare.
(ii) opposite to : regiones contra Galliam sitae ; contra
oplnionem (contrary to expectation).
erga, towards: perpetua erga populum Romanum fides
(adjectival, § 395).
extra, outside of: extra munltiones procedere ; extra ordinem
(= irregularly).
infra, below : infra locum ubi pons erat.
inter : (i) between : inter montem et flumen situs.
(ii) among : inter omnes constat ; inter se bellare ; inter
se ius iurandum dare (mutually').
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 187
(iii) in the opinion of (cf. apud) ; plurimum inter suos
valere.
(iv) during : inter bellum.
intra, within : intra portas esse ; intra munltiones ingredl (tela
conicere) ; intra paucos dies,
iuxta, near: iuxta murum castra ponere.
ob, on account of: ob earn rem ; quam ob rem.
penes, in the power of: penes eos victoria est.
per, through : per fines Sequanorum copias ducere ; per Alpes
iter est ; per agros nuntios mittere (over the country) ; per
tres annos (cf. time how long, § 389) ; per exploratores
cognoscere (by means of scouts)} per aetatem in armls
esse non poterant (owing to their age) ; per vim oppidum
occupare (by force, forcibly).
post : (i) after : post pugnam ; post diem tertium.
(ii) behind: post montem se occultare ; post tergum.
praeter : (i) beyond, past : praeter castra copias ducere ; prae-
ter spem ; alium praeter se habere nullum (in
addition to himself).
(ii) except : nihil praeter pelles.
prope, near, near to : prope castra esse ; castra prope oppidum
ponere. Similarly the adverbs propius and proxime (§ 79) :
propius tumulum accedere.
propter, on account of, because of: propter fertilitatem loci ibi
consldere ; propter gravitatem armorum pugnare non
posse,
secundum : (i) along : secundum flumen legiones ducere.
(ii) after : secundum proelium ; secundum ea
(—next to that)] secundum naturam flumi-
nis (according to).
supra, above : supra pontem (= in the upper part of the river).
trans, across : trans Rhenum colonias mittere ; trans Alpes
habitare.
ultra, beyond: ultra Hiberum locum deligere; ultra modum
progredi.
versus, towards : oppidum versus proficiscl.
i88 SYNTAX
397 The four following prepositions are used either with
the accusative or with the ablative.
in with the accusative corresponds to the English ' into ' or
'onto' or 'to', answering the question 'Whither?':
(i) in urbem venire ; in Sicilian! iter facere ; in fines
Treverorum pervenlre (to come- through into = to
arrive at)', in unum locum convenlre (to come-
together into = to assemble in) ; in collem confugere
(on to a hill).
(ii) in a figurative sense : in conspectum agminis venire ;
in fidem recipere ; hostes in fugam conicere ; in
hostes impetum facere (upon the enemy) ; odium Gal-
lorum in Romanes (against the Romans : adjectival) ;
bond animo in populum Romanum esse (well dis-
posed towards the Romans).
sub, under, with the accusative answers the question
'Whither?':
(i) sub iugum mittere ; sub terram Ire ; milites sub muros
urbis mittere (up to the walls).
(ii) in a figurative sense : Galliam sub imperium Romano-
rum redigere.
Sub with the accusative is also used of time, denoting
towards, i. e. shortly before : sub occasum solis ; sub ves-
perum.
subter, under, and super, over, with the accusative answer the
questions 'Whither?' and 'Where?': subter murum
advehl ; alios super alios praecipitare ; Nomentanus erat
super ipsum, Porcius infra (N. sat above the Jiost, P. below
him : HORACE); super subterque terram pugnare (Livv).
THE DATIVE CASE
398 The dative is mainly a personal case, i. e. words denoting
persons (nouns and pronouns) stand in the dative far more
commonly than words denoting things.
THE DATIVE CASE 189
The dative is never used with a preposition ; but it is very
frequently used with verbs compounded with a preposition.
This is, indeed, the commonest of all its uses.
The uses of the dative may be divided into two main
classes : 1
(i) those in which it is an object ;
(ii) those in which it is adverbial.
(i) Datives used as objects.
399 (a) as the indirect object of a verb which also takes
a direct object in the accusative :
Haedul Boils agros dederunt. The Haedui gave the Boii
lands or gave lands to the Boii. — Caesarl rem renuntiant.
They report the matter to Caesar. — Alterl negotium ex-
hibes. You are causing your neighbour trouble (trouble
to your neighbour).— \\$ auxilium suum pollicitus est.
He promised them his help. — Trinobantibus XL obsides
frumentumque imperat. He gave orders to the Trino-
bantesfor 40 hostages and corn. — Mihi honorem invi-
dent. They envy me my distinction. — Id ils suasit (per-
suasit) Orgetorix. Orgetorix recommended this to them
(persuaded them of this). — Se suaque omnia alienis-
simls crediderunt (commiserunt). They trusted them-
selves and all their possessions to perfect strangers. —
Hoc mihi ignosce. Pardon me this (= this offence].
400 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative
and an accusative, the dative being closely connected in sense
with the preposition :
legionl aliquem praeficere, to put some one in charge of
(at the head of) a legion; hostibus bellum inferre, to
wage war upon the enemy (= in hostes) ; hostibus metum
1 Many uses of the dative may be regarded as falling under either of these
heads. Where the dative is governed by (or ' taken by ') a verb it is an
object ; where it might be removed from the sentence \vithout destroying
the construction it is adverbial.
190 SYNTAX
inicere, to inspire fear in the enemy, alien i vestem in-
duere, to put clothing on some one ; mortl aliquem eri-
pere, to rescue some one from death (= ex morte) ; mortl
aliquem offerre, to expose some one to death] magnis
parva conferre, to compare small things with great
(= cum magnis); voluptati salutem anteponere (post-
habere), to put welfare before (after) pleasure ; = ante
voluptatem, post voluptatem ; urbl murum circumdare,
to put a wall round a city (= circum urbem).
401 Note the verb adimere ' to take away ', which takes a dative
denoting ' from ' (like eripere, § 400), though this meaning is
not expressed by the preposition ad :
Omnia nobls ademit. He has taken everything away from
us (lit. he has robbed us everything) ; compare French
il nous a enleve (arrache) tout.
402 In the passive construction of these verbs (§§ 399-401)
the direct object becomes the subject of the sentence and the
dative remains :
Agri dati sunt Haeduls a Boils. Lands were given to the
Haedui by th Boii. — Omnia nobls adempta sunt. Every-
thing has been taken away from us.
403 (b) as the sole object of certain verbs : x
Some of the verbs which have the dative as a sole object
are verbs which may also take a direct object (§ 399), and
verbs of similar meaning to these : imperare, to command]
ignoscere, to pardon ; parcere, to spare ; indulgere, to be
indulgent] favere, to favour] credere, to believe] confidere,
to trust :
Populus Romanus victis imperare consuevit. The Roman
people is wont to give orders to the vanquished. — parcere
1 A Dative put — remember pray —
With imperare and obey,
Studere, nubere, nocere,
Favere, parcere, placere ;
To these add envy, trust, forgive,
THE DATIVE CASE 191
subiectls et debellare superbos, to be merciful to the
conquered and to war down the defiant (Aen. vi. 853). —
Orabant ut sibi ignosceret. They begged him to pardon
them : French pardonner with dat. — Decimae legionl
indulserat Caesar et maxime confidebat. Caesar had
been indulgent to the tenth legion and he trusted it more
than the others. — Fortuna fortibus favet. Fortune favours
the brave. — Fmitiml nobls invident. Our neighbours
envy us (cf. B. G. ii. 31).
404 Others are verbs which cannot take two objects :
verbs of ' obeying ' and ' resisting ' :
parere and oboedire (a compound of audio, § 405), to
obey, French obe't'r; servire and inservire (§ 405), to
be a slave to, to serve.
resistere, repugnare, adversari, to resist, to oppose,
French resister.
verbs of ' pleasing ' and ' displeasing ' :
placer e, to please, French plaire.
displicere, to displease.
verbs of ' benefiting ' and ' injuring':
prodesse (§ 405), to benefit', mederi, to remedy.
nocere and obesse (§ 405), to injure, French nuire ;
the verbs studere, to pursue zealously ;
nubere, to marry (said only of the bride : viro
nubere, to marry a husband', contrast uxorem
ducere, to marry a wife).
Decima legio Caesarl parebat. The tenth legion obeyed
Caesar. — Cicero coniurationi Catilmae restitit (adver-
satus est). Cicero resisted (opposed) the conspiracy of
Catiline.
Cicero bonls civibus placere cupiebat. Cicero desired to
please good citizens. — Maiori parti placuit castra defen-
dere. It seemed good to the majority to defend the camp.
—Id consilium multis displicebat. That plan displeased
many.
192 SYNTAX
Haec res aliis proderat, aliis oberat (nocebat). This was
advantageous to some and disadvantageous to others. —
Inopiae rel frumentariae meder! conabatur. He was
trying to remedy the lack of provisions.
Dumnorix novls rebus studebat. Dumnorix was bent on
a change of government (lit. new things}.
lulia, fllia lulii Caesaris, Pompeio nupsit. Julia, the
daughter of Julius Caesar, married Pompey. Contrast
Pompeius luliam in matrimonium duxit.
405 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative as
their sole object, the dative being closely connected in sense
with the preposition :
legion! praeesse, to be at the head of a legion ; alicui sub-
venire (succurrere), to come to the assistance of some one ;
alicui succedere, to come after some one, or to turn out
well for some one (e. g. nulla res ils successerat, they had
not succeeded in anything) ; alicui occurrere, to run up
against some one ; alicui praestare (antecellere), to sur-
pass some one.
406 The only passive construction which is possible with
verbs that take a dative as their sole object is the impersonal
passive construction (§ 377) :
Decimae legion! a Caesare indulgebatur. Indulgence
was shown (lit. it was indulged) to the tenth legion by
Caesar-, equivalent in meaning to 'The tenth legion
was indulged by Caesar*. — Nobis a fmitinris nostris
invidetur. We are envied by our neighbours. — Bello-
vac!s persuader! non poterat ut diutius morarentur.
The Bellovaci could not be persuaded (lit. it could not be
made acceptable to the B.) to wait any longer (§ 329).
(ii) Adverbial datives.
407 («) With verbs.
The dative may denote, as in French, the person in whose
THE DATIVE CASE 193
interest (or against whose interest) the action is done. Here
the dative may be translated by ' for ' :
Quid sibi vult? What does he want for himself ? — Non
tibi ipsl sed tot! rel publicae vlvis. You live not for
yourself but for the whole state (Cicero). — His numerum
obsidum duplicat. He doubles the number of the hostages
for them (i.e. demands twice the number of hostages
from them, B. G. iv. 36). — Sibi quemque consulere
(cavere, providere) iussit. He bade each man to take
thought for himself. — Ea res legion! feliciter evenit.
This turned out fortunately for the legion. — Pugna
adversa el evenit. The battle fell out adverse for him
(= he was defeated).
408 In some instances the dative of a personal pronoun marks
a person as interested in a statement, command, or question
about an action, rather than in the action itself:1
At tibi repente venit ad me Camnius. But you will be
interested to hear that all of a sudden Caninius came to
me (Cicero). — Quid mihi Celsus agit ? What is Celsus
doing, I should like to know ?
Compare ' Knock me at that door, Sirrah ! ' (Shakespeare).
409 Esse with the dative may denote possession :
His erat inter se de principatu contentio. They had (lit.
There was for them} a quarrel among themselves about
the leadership.
Est mihi nomen Antonius (or Antonio, attracted into the
case of mihi). My name is Antony.
410 With esse or a verb meaning ' to come ', ' to send', ' to give*,
' to regard ', or the like, the dative singular of certain nouns
(mostly abstract) denotes what some one or something is to be
or is to serve as. The meaning of the dative in this construc-
1 In such cases the dative is sometimes called c ethical ' (i.e. emotional).
901 N
i94 SYNTAX
tion comes out clearly in a passage of Lucretius (v. 875, with
the verb iaceo) :
- Aliis praedae lucroque iacebant. They lay there to be
a prey and a profit to others.
In this use the dative is generally translatable by a predica-
tive noun or adjective :
Alter alter! inimicus auxilio salutique erat. The one rival
was a supporter and rescuer to the other : E.G.
v. 44. 14 ; lit. existed to be a support and salvation.
dono aliquid dare, to give something as a present (— to
be a present], to give something for a gift.
res quae usui sunt, things which are useful (lit. for use).
411 This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the
person interested :
Amicitia popull Roman! nobis ornamento et praesidio,
non detrimento, esse oportet. The friendship of the
Roman people ought to be a distinction and protection,
not a loss to us : B. G. i. 44. 5.
curae (auxilio, subsidio, solacio, honor!, probro, con-
temptul, onerl) esse alicui, to be a charge (help, support,
consolation, honour, disgrace, laughing stock, burden) to
any one
auxilio venire (mittere) alicui, to come (to send) as an aid
to some one
legionem praesidio relinquere castris, to leave a legion as
a protection for the camp
laud! esse (habere, ducere, &c.) alicui, to be (to regard) as
an honour to some one
412 In writing Latin two cautions should be borne in mind :
(1) The only nouns which can be used in this construc-
tion are nouns like the above (mostly abstract). Other English
predicative nouns preceded by 'as' agree in case with the
noun of which they are predicated (§ 274).
(2) The dative in this construction is never qualified by
THE DATIVE CASE 195
any adjective except one of quantity : magno solacio, a great
consolation. Expressions like the English 'an everlasting
disgrace ' are not Latin.
413 With the gerund adjective, and sometimes with the perfect
participle, the dative may denote the agent :
Sequams omnes cruciatus erant perferendi. The Sequani
had to endure all kinds of torture — all kinds of torture
had to be endured by the Sequani ; cf. § 453 ab (iii).—
Quam multa poetae dlcunt quae philosophls aut dlcenda
sunt aut dicta ! How many things the poets say which
either ought to be said or have been said by philosophers !
(Seneca).
414 (b) With adjectives which in English take 'to ' or 'for',
/. e. those meaning ' necessary', ' useful ', 'pleasant ', 'friendly',
' suitable ', ' similar ', ' equal ', and their opposites :
locus castris idoneus, a place suitable for a camp
Helvetiis inimlcus, hostile to the Helvetii
nostro exercitul par, equal to our army
ceteris similis, like the rest (but with similis the genitive is
commoner, § 424).
415 The adjectives propior 'nearer* and proximus 'nearest'
generally take the dative; but the corresponding adverbs
propius and proxime take the accus. or ab with the abl., like
prope ' near ' when it is a preposition (§ 396) :
Belgae propiores (proximi) sunt Germanls. The Belgae
are nearer (the nearest) to the Germans.
propius (proxime) tumulum accedere, to draw nearer (very
near) to the mound,
propius abesse ab aliquo, to stana nearer to some one
THE GENITIVE CASE
416 The genitive is chiefly an adjectival case, used to qualify
nouns. But it is also used adverbially (§§ 423-6), and as the
object of certain verbs (§ 427). It is never used with a pre-
position (except with tenus sometimes, in poets).
N 2
196 SYNTAX
I. Adjectival Genitives.
(a) Answering the question < What sort of a ? '
417 (i) Denoting ' belonging to ':
(a) in the sense of ' possessed by ' :
domus Caesaris, Caesar's house, the house of Caesar.
This genitive of the possessor may be used predicatively :
Haec domus est Caesaris. This house is Caesar's. —
Gallia populi RomanI non AriovistI est. Gaul is the
property of the Romans not of Ariovistus.
(b) in the sense of 'connected with'. What special kind
of connexion is indicated by the genitive depends on the
context :
expeditio Caesaris, Caesar's expedition ; imagines Caesaris
Caesar's images, likenesses of Caesar-, statua Phldiae,
a statue of (i. e. made by) Phidias ; civitates Galliae, the
states of (belonging to) Gaul, the Gallic stales ; radii solis,
the sun's rays ; facultas itineris faciendl, the opportunity
of making a journey ; signum proelT committendi, the
signal for engaging ; speculandl causa (or gratia), for
the sake of scouting ; copiae equitatus peditatusque,
forces of (i. e. consisting of) cavalry and infantry ; in-
iuria retentorum equitum, the wrong of (i. e. which con-
sisted in) detaining the cavalry.
Used predicatively : liber sum et llberae clvitatis, I am
a free man and I belong to a free state (B. G. v. 7. 8) ;
imperatoris est non minus consilio quam gladio supe-
rare, it belongs to (= is the part or duty of) a genera
to prevail by strategy as much as by the sword.
418 (ii) Used objectively (i. e. as the object of a noun which
is akin in meaning to a verb) :
interfectores Caesaris, Caesar's murderers, the murderers
of Caesar (= ii qul Caesarem interfecerunt) ; metus
mortis, the fear of death] amor patriae, the love of
THE GENITIVE CASE 197
country ; amor sui, self-love (cf. § 101) ; cupiditas
belli gerendi, the desire of waging war] imperium
totlus Galliae, the command of the whole of Gaul] spes
impetrandl, the hope of obtaining one's request.
Contrast the genitives in amor matris (in the sense of
amor maternus) 'a mother's love', 'the love felt by
a mother ' ; minae Clodii ' the threats of Clodius '
8.417-*).
419 (iii) Used to describe a person or thing.
In this use the genitive is always qualified by an adjective :
homines parvae staturae, men of small stature (= parvl
homines, little men)] belua multorum capitum, a many-
headed beast ; puer decem annorum, a boy ten years old.
Used predicatively : res incertl exitus est, the affair is of
uncertain issue.
(b) Denoting partition.
420 In this use the genitive denotes the whole of which a part
is mentioned ; it therefore corresponds to the denominator
of a fraction. This meaning is closely connected with the
idea of 'from' or 'out of; hence it may generally be ex-
pressed in Latin by ex or de with the abl. : units ex multls
or unus de multis ' one of many ' ; perpaucae ex navibus (or ex
numero ndvium) ' very few of the ships (or out of the number o,f
the ships) '.
421 The English genitive in 5 cannot be used to translate the
Latin genitive when it denotes partition ; here it is necessary
to employ a genitive-phrase formed with of:
multl Gallorum, many of the Gauls • omnium hominum
doctissimus, the most learned of all men ; duo nostrum
(or vestrum), two of us (or of you).
422 The genitive of partition is very frequently used after the
neuter singular of a pronoun or adjective of quantity used
as a noun, like aliquid, id, quid, quicquani, nihilt hoc, quod,
198 SYNTAX
tantum, quantum, aliquantum, multum, plus, minus, and after
satis, nimis, parum (adverbs used as nouns) :
quid novi?, lit. what of new? (gen. of the neuter adj.
novum ' a new thing '), = what news ? ; hoc solaci, this
much consolation ; tantum spatl, so much distance ; mul-
tum aestatis, much of the summer] plus doloris, more
pain ; satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, plenty of
eloquence, but too little wisdom.
The only adjectives which can stand in the genitive in this
construction are those whose genitives end in -/ (adjectives
like nouns of the 2nd declv § 18).
II. Adverbial Genitives.
423 The genitive of some neuter adjectives of quantity and
some words of similar meaning may denote the price at which
a thing is valued or bought, sold, hired, &c. : '
Auctoritas Commil in his regionibus magni habebatur.
The authority of Commius was highly regarded (lit. was
held at a high price) in these quarters.
Quanti equum emit ? At what price did he buy the horse ?
— Tanti quantl voluit. At the price zvhich he wished.
Note the comparative and superlative of magni and parvt:
magni, pluris, pluriml, at a high (higher, very high) price.
parvi, minoris, minimi, at a low (lower, very low) price.
424 The genitive may be used with adjectives which in English
take ' of ', and a few others of similar meaning: e.g.
plenus flduciae, full of confidence (cf. abl. § 437).
cupidus (avidus, studiosus) bellandi, desirous of making
war.
memor (immernor) praeceptorum, mindful (unmindful} of
the precepts.
gnarus (ignarus, inscius) omnium rerum, aware of (igno-
rant of) everything.
peritus (impentus) belli, experienced in (ignorant of) war.
1 Compare the similar use of the ablative (§ 438).
THE GENITIVE CASE 199
similis (dissimilis) mel, like (unlike] me. Here English
uses the dative ; and the Latin similis may also take
the dat. (§ 414), but less commonly.
425 The genitive may be used with the impersonal verbs pigety
pudet, paenitet, and taedet to denote the cause of the vexation
(§ 372).
Piget taedetque me morum clvitatis. I am annoyed at
and sick of the manners of the state (Sallust). — Pudet me
stultitiae meae. / am ashamed of my folly. — Gallos
consiliorum suorum saepe paenitet. The Gauls often
repent of their resolutions. Compare French se re-
pentir de.
426 The genitive of nouns denoting a charge or accusation may
be used with verbs of ' accusing ', ' acquitting ', ' condemning ' :
aliquem proditionis accusare (insimulare, arguere, reum
facere, &c.), to accuse some one of treachery, aliquem
inertiae nequitiaeque condemnare, to condemn some one
on the charge of idleness and profligacy.
These genitives, like the corresponding genitive-phrases
formed with ' of ' in English, are to be explained as qualifying
a noun in the ablative understood, i.e. as originally adjectival:
crimine furti accusatus est ' he was accused on the charge of
theft '. The genitive capitis, which is sometimes used with
these verbs, is to be explained in the same way : capitis dam*
natus est ' he was condemned on a charge involving his caput*
(a capital charge).
III. Genitives used as objects.
427 Most verbs meaning ' to pity ', ' to remember ', or ' to forget '
take a genitive as their object :
Miserere mel. Pity me.
Horum hominum me miseret. / pity these people (§ 372).
Meminl neque umquam obllviscar illlus noctis. / remem-
ber and shall never forget that night.
200 SYNTAX
So too with the impersonal expression venit mihi in mentein,
lit. 'it comes into the mind to me ' = ' I call to mind'.
But (i) miseran t to pity ' (ist conj.) takes the accusative :
Communem Galliae fortunam miserantur.
(ii) with verbs of ' remembering ' and t forgetting ' the
object may stand in the accusative if it denotes a thing :
Hoc meminineque obllvisci possum. Iniurias meminisse
nolo.
THE ABLATIVE CASE
428 The ablative is mainly an adverbial case, used to qualify
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The particular kind of ad-
verbial meaning which it expresses depends partly on the
meaning of the noun which stands in the ablative, partly on
the meaning of the verb, adjective, or adverb with which it
is used.1
The ablative is used either (A) without a preposition, or
(B) with a preposition.
(A) THE ABLATIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION
I. Adverbial ablatives.2
429 (i) The ablative may denote 'from':
(a) answering the question t Whence ? ', when the noun is
the name of a town, or domus, rus :
Roma (domo, rure) proficiscl, to start from Rome (from
home, from the country].
1 The meanings of the Latin ablative are derived from three different cases
of the parent language : (i) an ablative proper, denoting from ; (2) an in-
strumental or sociative case, denoting by, ivith ; (3) a locative case, denoting
at, in, on. This fact explains how it is that the Latin ablative has such
different meanings. But it is not always certain from which of these original
cases a particular Latin usage is derived ; and it is probable that some Latin
usages have been formed by contributions from more than one of these
sources.
2 The first five of these adverbial ablatives (§§ 429-41) correspond to
adverb-phrases formed with dc\n French. See French Grammar, §§ 417-28.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 201
430 (b) when used with a verb which itself denotes separation :*
patria cedere, to withdraw from one's native land ; conatu
desistere, to desist from an attempt] aliquem equo dei-
cere, to unhorse some one ; oppidum obsidione liberare,
to free a town from siege ; alicui aqua atque ignl inter-
dicere, to cut some one off from water and fire ; aliquem
urbe expellere, to drive some one from the city ; elves
calamitate prohibere, to keep the citizens out of harm's
way : Cic. pro leg. Man. 18. [For the construction of
adimere 'to take away' see § 401.]
431 (c) when used with a verb of 'depriving' or an adjective
meaning 'deprived ' the abl. is translated by 'of :
armls aliquem spoliare, to strip some one of his armour]
oppidum vacuum defensoribus, a town deprived of de-
fenders.
432 (ii) The ablative may denote 'owing to', 'because of
(' from ' in a figurative sense). The noun whose ablative is
so used is generally abstract :
inopia pabull perire, to perish from (owing to) want of
food] slve casu, slve consilio deorum, whether owing
to accident, or to the design of the gods (B. G. i. 12. 6) ;
non voluntate sua sed coactu clvitatis, not owing to his
free will but through the compulsion of the state (B. G.
v. 27. 3) ; temeritate hostium, owing to the rashness of
th^nemy] studio pugnandi aut spe praedae, through
zeal for fighting or hope of booty. — This use of the abl.
is often found with verbs denoting emotion or the
expression of emotion : delicto dolere, correctione
gaudere, to feel pain at having done wrong and to re-
joice in punishment (Cic. Amic. 90) ; victoria gloriarl, to
boast of a victory.
433 (ni) The ablative may denote 'by', when the verb is
passive and the noun denotes something not living :
vento teneri, to be detained by the wind] flumine tegi, to
1 There are not many verbs of this kind. The verb separo itself takes ab, a.
202 SYNTAX
be covered by the river] onere armorum opprimi, to be
burdened by a weight of armour ; religionibus impediri,
to be hampered by scruples.
[Contrast ab, a with the abl. of nouns denoting living agents,
§ 453-]
434 PV) The ablative may denote manner or means, answer-
ing the question ' How? ' : the English 'with ' often serves as
a translation.1
(a) when the noun (generally qualified by an epithet)
denotes attendant circumstances — often something connected
with the body or mind :
magna voce exclamare, to cry with a loud voice, French
crier d'une voix forte ; passis manibus pacem petere,
to sue for peace with outstretched hands ; omnibus cru-
ciatibus aliquem adficere, to visit some one with every
kind of torture ; impetum magno animo sustinere, to
resist an attack with great resolution (very resolutely) ;
summo studio et alacritate nitl, to strive with the greatest
zeal and eagerness (very zealously and eagerly] ; magna
dlligentia, with great diligence (very diligently].
435 (b) when the noun denotes an instrument or something
which can be used as an instrument :
armis contendere, to fight with arms ; castra vallo fos-
saque munire, to fortify a camp with a rampart and
a ditch ; navibus translre, to cross by ship (by means
of ships) ; sagittariis et fundatoribus hostem terrere, to
frighten the enemy by means of archers and slingers ; 2
magnis pra'emils aliquem adlicere, to attract some one by
means of great rewards ; se aliorum copiis alere, to
1 But when l with ' means ( together with ' it is expressed by cum with
the abl., § 453. So too when the noun denotes attendant circumstances and
is not qualified by an epithet; see ex. in § 453 cum.
2 ' By means of followed by a noun denoting a person is ordinarily
expressed by per with the accusative : litteras per nuntium mittere, i to send
a letter by a messenger.'
THE ABLATIVE CASE 203
support oneself on the supplies of others (B. G. iv. 4);
piscibus vescl or vlvere, to live on fish, to support life
by means of fish (B. G. iv. TO).
436 (c) when the noun denotes a road or route :
eodem itinere revertl, to return by the same road] esse-
darios omnibus viis emittere, to send out charioteers by
all routes.
437 W when used with a verb of 'filling* or 'equipping5 or
an adjective meaning ' filled ' or ' equipped ' :
navigia mllitibus complere, to man the ships with soldiers
(cf. French remplir de)] donare aliquem clvitate, to
present some one with the citizenship ; omnibus rebus in-
structus (ornatus), equipped with everything ; singular!
audacia praeditus, gifted with unique effrontery.
The adj. plenus sometimes takes an abl. : navis frumento
plena, a ship filled with corn ; but cf. § 424.
438 (e) when the noun denotes price or cost and the verb
denotes 'buying', 'selling', 'hiring', or 'costing':1
parvo pretio redimere, to purchase (redeem) at a small
cost] patriam auro vendere, to sell one's country for
gold] magno detriments constare, to be secured at a great
loss] victoria multo sanguine constabit (orstabit), victory
will cost tnuch blood. Compare the use of the genitive
of neuter adjectives of quantity, § 423.
439 (/) when used with the adjectives dignus and indignus
(cf. French digne de) : 2
memoria dignum, a thing worthy of mention ; vox popull
1 With verbs of 'buying' the price paid is the means of acquisition.
The other verbs of this group took the same construction by imitation of
verbs of ' buying *.
2 The abl. with dignus is perhaps connected with the abl. of price ; cf.
' worthy ' and « worth ' in English : sextante sal Romae erat ' salt cost (was
worth) a sixth of an as at Rome ' (Livy xxix. 37. 3). Others connect dignus
with decet : corona dignus ' adorned with a garland ', hence ' worthy of
a garland '.
2o4 SYNTAX
Roman! maiestate indigna, a speech unworthy of the
dignity of the Roman people.
44° (£") m expressions like the following, in which the abl.
answers the question ' In what respect ? ' (a modification of
'How?'):
par virtute, equal in valour ; naves numero LX; ships 60
in number] magnitudine paulo infra elephantos, in size
a little below elephants ; meo arbitratu vir iustus, in my
judgement (opinion) a just man ; nomine Bibrax, Bibrax
by name.
441 (v) With comparatives the ablative may denote two dis-
tinct things :
(a) the degree of difference (English ' by ' *) ; the words
which stand in the abl. are neuter adjectives of quantity or
pronouns or nouns denoting measurement :
carinae aliquanto planiores, keels considerably (lit. by a con-
siderable amount) flatter ; multo gravior, much heavier
(lit. heavier by much) ; multo gravius, much more seriously ;
paulo humaniores, a little more civilized] eo minus, so
much the less] hoc (or tanto) angustior, so much the
narrower] quo facilius, whereby the more easily ; nihilo
magis, none the more] Hibernia dlmidio minor est quam
Britannia, Ireland is smaller by a half than Britain ;
decem pedibus altior, higher by ten feet ; multls parti-
bus maior, many times as great. Similarly with ante
and post, used as adverbs or as prepositions : vlgintl
annls ante, twenty years before (adv.) ; paucls ante
diebus, a few days before (adv.) ; paulo post mediam
noctem, a little after midnight?
1 This meaning is connected with the meaning ; by means of (§ 435 ff.).
2 The meaning 'ago' may be expressed by abhinc, but with the accu-
sative : abhinc annos quattuordecim inortuus est ' he died fourteen years
ago'.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 205
442 (b) 'tharr':1
Ubil ceteris GermanTs paulo humaniores sunt, the Ubii
are a little more civilized than the rest of the Germans
(= quam ceteri GermanI); Caesar militum vltam laude
sua habebat cariorem, Caesar held the lives of his soldiers
dearer than his own glory (= quam laudem suarn) ; am-
plius horis sex pugnabatur, the fight went on for more
than six hours (— quam horas sex, accusative of time
how long).
443 The ablative may always be used instead of quam with
a nominative or accusative (except where it would cause
ambiguity), and must be used instead of quam with the nom.
or ace. of a relative pronoun :
Misenum Aeoliden, quo non praestantior alter. Misenus
the Aeolid, than whom none other was more excellent
(Aen. vi. 164).
The English accusative whom, which is always used instead
of who after than, is an imitation of this Latin abl. But the
abl. cannot be used instead of quam with other cases : e. g. in
tibi plus quam mihi dedit. Ambiguity would arise if the abl.
were used in Brutum plus amo quam Cassium ; for Cassia
might mean quam Cassius amat. But there is no ambiguity
in nt te plus ocuUs mels amarem ' if I did not love thee more
than my eyes ' (Catullus).
444 (vi) The ablative may denote ' at ', ' on ', ' in ', or ' within '.
These meanings are closely connected with the meaning of
the locative case (§ 55).
(a) When the noun denotes a period of time, its ablative
may answer the question ' When ? ' :
vere, in the spring', aestate, in the summer-, autumno, in
the autumn ; hieme, in the winter.
1 The meaning < than ' was probably derived from the meaning ' from ',
' starting from' (§ 429) : humaniores ceteris GermanTs ' more civilized starting
from the rest of the Germans as a standard '.
206 SYNTAX
The ablative of the words hora, dies, nox, mensis, annus,
tempus is generally accompanied by an epithet :
hora sexta, at the sixth hour] die quarto, on the fourth
day ; Idibus Martils, on the Ides of March ; proximo
anno, in the next year] eo tempore, at that time.
445 The ablative of words which do not properly denote
a period of time, such as pueritia l boyhood', bellum 'war',
proelium ' battle ', adventus ' arrival ', are sometimes used to
answer the question ' When ? ', but only when accompanied
by an epithet or preceded by the preposition in : *
extrema pueritia, at the end of his boyhood (Cic. pro leg.
Man. 28) ; in pueritia, in boyhood (Cic.) ; hoc proelio,
in this battle] equestribus proelils, in cavalry battles
(B. G. iv. 2) ; in bello, in time of war; Luculli adventu,
on the arrival of Lucullus.
446 (b) The ablative of nouns denoting a period of time and
some other nouns of similar meaning may answer the ques-
tion ' Within how long a time ? ' :
xxv diebus aggerem exstruere, to construct a rampart
within 2 j days (= intra xxv dies); his decem diebus,
within the last ten days ; eo biduo, within two days from
then ; patrum nostrorum memoria, within the memory of
our fathers.
447 (c) The ablative of the nouns terra, mare, locus and a few
others of less importance may answer the question 'Where ? ':
terra marique pollere, to be powerful on land and at sea ;
idoneo (aequo, inlquo) loco pugnare, to fight in a con-
venient (favourable, unfavourable) position-, hoc (eo,
eodem, quo) loco esse, to be in this (that, the same,
which) place-, suo loco esse, to be in one's proper place:
scribae loco aliquem habere, to have some one as secre-
tary (lit. in place of a secretary). So too nouns denoting
place with the epithet totus : tota urbe, throughout the
city; tota Italia, throughout Italy.
1 Exceptions are rare.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 207
448 (d) With verbs of ' relying ' and the adjective fretus the
ablative of any noun may answer the question ' On what ? ' :
virtute sua mtl, to rely on one's own valour ; natura loci
confldere, to rely on the nature of 'the ground ; superiori-
bus victorils fretus, relying on previous victories.
For the ablative absolute construction see Participles,
§§ 494-7-
II. The adjectival ablative.
449 The adjectival ablative describes a person or thing. The
noun which stands in the ablative generally denotes a feature
of body or mind, and (as in the corresponding use of the
genitive, § 419) is always qualified by an adjective ;
homines magna statura, men of great stature (=tall men) ;
homines capillo promisso, men with long hair (= long-
haired men) ; summa virtute adulescens, a young man
of great courage ; simulacra immanl magnitudine, images
of vast size.
Used predicatively : Britanm capillo promisso erant, the
Britons were long-haired; bono animo esse videbantur,
they seemed to be of good disposition (= well disposed).
III. Ablatives used as objects.
450 The ablative is used as an object —
(a) With the deponent verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior —
verbs which express the kindred ideas, 'enjoying/ 'getting
possession of i1
navibus (iumentis, 6^£.) utl, to employ ships (beasts of
burden, &c.); suo iure utl, to exercise one's right; ve-
stltu utl, to wear clothing ; commodis vltae frui, to enjoy
the comforts of life ; eodem munere fungi, to perform
the same task ; ter aevo functus, having enjoyed a triple
life (Horace).
1 With these verbs the abl. originally denoted means (§ 434) : utl navibus,
to serve oneself with ships, French se servir de.
208 SYNTAX
451 (b) With the verbs cared, egeo — verbs of ' lacking ' or ' need-
ing ' (the opposite ideas to those of § 450) — and the impersonal
expressions opus cst and usus cst ' there is need ' : l
cibo carere, to lack food, to be without food ; omnibus
rebus necessarils egere, to be destitute of all necessities ;
auxilio nobls opus est, we need aid (lit. there is need to
us of aid) ; navibus consul! non usus erat, the consul had
no need of ships (lit. there was not use of ships to the
consul).
(B) THE ABLATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION
452 i. ab, cum, sine, ex (or e),
coram, tenus, prae, pro, de.
Phrases formed with these, as with other prepositions
(§ 395); are nearly always adverbial. Exceptional instances
of adjectival phrases formed with cum, sine, and ex are given
below.
453 ab, or (only before a consonant) a, or (only before te) abs :
(i) from : ab Haeduls venire; octo mllia passuum a ca-
strls abesse ; ab oriente ad occidentem ; non longe
a marl ; aliquid ab aliquo accipere ; abs te rationem
reposcent (B. G. v. 30) ; a prlma luce ad vesperum.
(ii) on the side of (i. e. regarded from . . .) : a Septen-
trionibus (on the north) ; ab hac parte (French de ce
cote')', afronte; a tergo.
(iii) by, with passive verbs, the ablative denoting a living
agent (person or animal) : ab equitibus (or equi-
tatu) repelll; ab duce et a Fortfina deseri (Fortuna
is here personified) ; a lupa nutrlrl (to be fed by
a she-wolf] contrast the abl. without a prep. § 433).
1 For the origin of the abl. with these verbs see verbs of ' depriving '
(§ 431). Usus est followed the construction of ntor (§ 450), from the stem
of which the noun tisus is derived.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 209
coram, in the presence of: coram populo.1
cum, with :
(i) denoting accompaniment : cum omnibus copiis exlre ;
legio quam secum habebat ; legates cum mandatis
mittere ; cum hostibus bellum gerere (or pugnare) ;
pacem facere cum Helvetils ; cum dignitate otium,
peace with honour (adjectival).
(ii) denoting manner : cum cruciatu necari (with torture) ;
cum is used here because there is no epithet ; c£
§434-
de: (i) about, concerning: de aliqua re dicere (or loqui, or
docere) ; de aliqua re audire (or cognoscere or cer-
tiorem fieri); legatos de pace mittere; desperare
de salute (of deliverance) ; cf. French de with verbs
of 'speaking ' and ' thinking'.2
(ii) down from or from : de muro iacere ; de navibus
desilire.
(iii) of, denoting partition : pauci de nostris (few of our
men ; cf. genitive, § 421).
(iv) oiving to, according to : qua de causa (for which reason) ;
de more ; cf. ex (iv), below,
ex or (only before consonants) e :
(i) out of, from : ex navl (or e navl) desilire ; ex omni-
bus partibus venire ; ex equls conloqul (from horse"
back)} ex captlvis quaerere (or comperire or inve-
mre) ; quidam ex Hispania (a person from Spain,
adjectival); ferventes ex argilla glandes (red-hot
balls made out of clay, adjectival ; B. G. v. 43).
1 Comm is often an adverb ( = * face to face '). Conversely the adverbs
of kindred meaning, palam ' openly ' and clam ' secretly ', are sometimes
used as prepositions : palam populo (Livy), clam me ' without my know-
ledge '.
2 A phrase formed with de is sometimes nearly equivalent to an object :
iniquum est de stipendio recusare, it is unreasonable to refuse about the tribute
(B. G. i. 44. 4) is almost = it is unreasonable to refuse the tribute. Compare
significare de fuga, nearly = significare fugam (vii. 26. 4); adduni de Sabini
morte (v. 41. 4) .
901 O
210 SYNTAX
(ii) after : ex terrore ac fuga se recipere (to recover after
their alarm and flight, B. G. ii. 12).
(iii) of, denoting partition : quattuor et septuaginta ex
equitibus (B. G. iv. 12); unus ex captivis; ex omni-
bus humanissimi : paucae ex numero navium ; cf.
de (iii), above, and the genitive, § 421.
(iv) according to : ex communi consensu (by common con-
sent) ; ex consuetudine sua.
prae : (i) in comparison with : Gallis prae magnitudine cor-
porum suorum brevitas nostra contemptul est.
(ii) for = owing to (in negative sentences) : collis prae
multitudine hostium vix cerm poterat.
pro : (i) in front of: pro portis castrorum in statione esse ;
pro oppido conlocare.
(ii) for = instead of: innocentes pro nocentibus.
= on behalf of: pro patria morl.
= in return for : pro beneficils gratiam referre.
= as : pro amlco habere (to regard as a friend).
(iii) according to : pro tempore et pro re.
sine : without : sine ullo labore et periculo ; non sine aliqua
spe ; gladius sine mucrone (pointless, adjectival).
tenus (placed after its noun) as far as : pectore tenus ;
Aethiopia tenus.
2. in, sub, super, subter.
[For the accusative with these prepositions see § 397.]
454 in with the ablative corresponds to the English in or on,
answering the question ' Where ? ' (cf. the locative,
§55) =
(i) in urbe esse ; in Sicilia habitare ; in Treveris esse (in
the country of the Treveri) ; in colle consistere (on
a hill)', in ponte turrim constituere praesidiumque
ponere ; sua in silvis deponere.
(ii) in a figurative sense : in celeritate posita est salus
(deliverance depends on swiftness) ; in repentino hos-
THE ABLATIVE CASE 211
tium adventu multum fortuna potest (in the case of
the sudden arrival of the enemy).
sub, under, with the ablative answers the question ' Where ? ' :
(i) sub aqua esse ; sub terra habitare ; sub muro stare ;
sub monte consldere (at the foot of a mountain).
(ii) in a figurative sense : sub oculls omnium pugnare ;
sub imperio Romanorum esse ; sub umbra amlcitiae
Romanae latere.
super with the ablative generally means about, concerning :
super aliqua re dicere (scrlbere, rogare). In poets it
sometimes means over, above ; cui ensis super cervlce
pendet (over whose neck hangs a sword ; Horace).
subter, under, with the ablative (rare) answers the question
' Where ? ' : subter densa testudine (beneath a close shed of shields ;
Aen. ix. 514).
V. VERB-NOUNS AND VERB-ADJECTIVES
55 Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are nouns and adjectives
formed from the stems of verbs. They therefore denote acts
or states, like some other nouns and adjectives connected
with verbs. Compare mori ' to die ' and mortuus ' dead ' with
mors ' death '.
But verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are like verbs in three
respects :
(1) They have tenses and voices.
(2) They take the same case as the verb from which they
are formed :
legibus parere, to obey the laws
legibus parendo, by obeying the laws
legibus parens, obeying the laws
(3) They are qualified by adverbs (not adjectives) :
legibus semper parere (parendo, parens), always to obey
(by always obeying, always obeying) the laws.
o 2
2i2 SYNTAX
USES OF THE INFINITIVE
I. THE INFINITIVE AS AN OBJECT
456 The chief use of the infinitive is as an object :
(i) as the sole object of certain verbs (chiefly verbs
denoting some activity of the mind).
The same kind of verbs take an object-infinitive in Latin as
in English :
(a) verbs of ' desiring ', ' resolving ', ' striving ', and the
like:
volo, / will j nolo, / will not] malo, I prefer] cupio, /
desire ; studeo, / am eager ; audeo, / dare
statue, constituo, decerno, animum induce, / resolve
conor, contendo, intends, / strive
cogito, in animo habeo, / intend
festlno, mature, propero, I hasten
cunctor, moror, I delay
dubito, vereor, I hesitate
non euro, / do not care ; non recuso, / do not refuse
(b) verbs of ' being able ' and ' being bound ' :
possum, 7 can ; nequeo, / cannot
scio, I know how (= I have the ability); nescio, I know
not how
disco, / learn ; dedisco, / unlearn
debeo, / ought
(c) verbs of ' beginning ', 'ceasing ', ' continuing ', ' being
accustomed ', and the like :
coepl, incipio, instituo, I begin
desino, desisto, mitto (intermitto, praetermitto), 7 cease ;
neglego, 7 neglect
pergo, persevero, I go on, I persevere
soleo, consuevi, 7 am accustomed, assuesco, consuesco,
7 accustom myself
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 213
57 EXAMPLES.
(a) Scrlbere volo. I will write or / wish to write.
Scribere noli. Will-not to write (= Please do not
write, § 316).
Sapere aude. Resolve (Dare) to be a wise man.
(b) Eos longius prosequi non potuerunt. They could not
pursue them further-. B. G. iv. 26.
Vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria utl nescls. You under-
stand how to win a victory, Hannibal, but you do not
understand how to use it : Livy xxii. 51. 4.
(c) Nostros lacessere coeperunt. They began to attack our
men.
Fugere destiterunt. They ceased to run away.
For the agreement of predicative adjectives and nouns
attached to an object-infinitive (e. g. with esse) see $ 275 :
Clvis Romanus esse cupio. / desire to be a Roman
citizen.
.58 CAUTIONS.
1. This use of the infinitive as an object must be carefully
distinguished from the adverbial uses of the infinitive
which are common in English and French but which are
not found in classical Latin prose. Thus in sentences
like 'Come to see me ' (infin. of purpose, French viens
me voir\ ' He is worthy to be loved ' (infin. qualifying the
adj. 'worthy', French digne d'etre aime), 'It is easy to
do ' (French facile dfaire\ Latin generally employs some
other construction : see §§ 484, 485.
2. The Latin infinitive is not often used alone as the object
of verbs of 'hoping' and ' promising ', as in the English
' I hope to see him ' (French j'espere le voir), ' I promise
to come '. Here Latin uses the construction of the
accusative with the future infinitive (§ 470) : sperb me cum
vjsurum esse ; prdmitto me venturum esse.
2i4 SYNTAX
459 (]i) as one °f two objects after certain verbs (verbs
which denote some activity of the mind) :
(a) verbs of ' teaching ' and ' accustoming ' :
doceo, I teach] assuefacio, I accustom
(b) some verbs of ' bidding ', ' forbidding ', and ' permitting ' :
iubeo, / bid (but not impero, which takes a clause with
the subjunctive, §329); veto, I forbid ; prohibeo, /
forbid, or / prevent '
sino, patior, I permit
(c) verbs of ' perceiving ' :
video, I see] audio, I hear
460 EXAMPLES.
(a) Doceo te Latine sclre. / am teaching you to understand
Latin..
Equos eodem remanere vestlgio assuefecerunt. They
have accustomed their horses to remain on the same
spot : B. G. iv. 2.
(b) Milites conscendere naves iubet. He bids the soldiers
embark-. B. G. v. 7. — Teutonos intra fines suos
ingredi prohibuerunt. — They forbade the Teutons to
enter (or prevented the T. from entering] their territory :
B. G. ii. 4.
(c) Ubi praeter spem quos fugere credebant infestis signis
ad se ire viderunt, impetum nostrorum ferre non
potuerunt. When contrary to expectation they saw those
whom they believed to be retreating advance in battle
array, they could not withstand the attack of our men :
B. G. vi. 8. 6.— Classica canere audierunt. They
heard the trumpets sound?
1 Other verbs of l preventing ' generally take a clause with the subjunctive
(see § 330) ; and that construction is also found with prohibeo, though less
commonly than the infinitive.
2 Cf. Necdum etiam audierant inflarl classica, necdum . . . crepitare enses,
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 215
461 The above are simple sentences containing two objects —
the first an accusative, the second an infinitive (or a phrase
formed with the infinitive), denoting the action which is taught,
bidden, or perceived :
doceo I teach\^ y°U- (ist object)
ILatlne scire, to understand Latin (2nd object)
iubet, he bids jmllitgs> ^ soldiers (ist object)
(conscendere naves, embark (2nd object)
audierunt, <kyA«m/Jclassica' the ^"W.184 object)
(canere, sound (2nd object)
462 Out of this construction there grew a usage of great impor-
tance in Latin. The accusative and the infinitive, instead of
being two separate objects of the main verb grew together so
as to form a single object, in which the infinitive acquired
a predicative meaning and the accusative played the part of
its subject. This usage is rightly called the accusative with
infinitive construction ; for the accusative goes strictly with
the infinitive as its subject and not with the main verb as its
object.
Iubet naves deduci. He bids the launching of the ships =
He bids that the ships be launched. (The sentence
does not mean that he gave an order to the ships.)
Hostes castra movere ex perfugls audit. He hears from
deserters about the enemy striking their camp = He hears
that the enemy are striking their camp. (He did not
hear the enemy striking their camp.)
In the course of time, when the accusative with infinitive
had come to be regarded as a separate clause of a complex
sentence, it began to be used in dependence on verbs which
could not take an accusative alone, e. g. oportet ' it is fitting J,
constat ( it is well known ' (see §§ 466, 472).
463 French has this construction ; but it is only used when the
accusative is a relative pronoun.1 English has it also ; though
Nor as yet had they heard the signal given on trumpets nor swords ring on
anvils : Virg. Georg. ii. 539 f.
1 See French Grammar, § 463.
216 SYNTAX
there are not many verbs on which it can depend in modern
English : e.g. ' He believed them to be retreating', ' He de-
clared himself to be an honest man V
464 When a predicative adjective or predicative noun is attached
to the infinitive it always agrees with the accusative-subject
(cf. § 275) :
Cicero dixit Balbum clvem Romanum esse. Cicero said
that Balbus was a Roman citizen.
Oportet Balbum clvem Romanum esse. // is fitting that
Balbus should be a Roman citizen.
465 The construction of the accusative with infinitive is used
with two different meanings :
(i) as equivalent to an English ' that '-clause with the
subjunctive or the equivalent of a subjunctive (denoting
that something is to be done, or was to be done).2 In this usage
the only tense of the infinitive which is employed is the
Present.
(a) as object, depending on certain verbs of:
'willing' : volo, nolo, malo, cupio (§ 456)
'bidding' and 'forbidding' : iubeo, veto, prohibeo (§ 459)
'permitting' : sino, patior (§ 459)
' compelling ' : cogo
and the like.
The infinitive may be either active or passive :
{milites pontem rescindere.
that the soldiers shall cut down the bridge.
pontem a militibus rescindl.
.that the bridge be cut down by the soldiers?
1 There is no sufficient reason for regarding this English construction as
an imitation of the Latin. It was well-established in Old English.
a Instead of the ace. with in fin. a clause with the subjunctive (as in
§§ 329, 330) is occasionally used with some of these verbs. Cogo generally
takes ut with the subjunctive when the verb of the subordinate clause is
active.
3 Note the subjunctive ' be' in the translation. It would be impossible to
translate by an indicative (* that the bridge is cut down ').
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 217
Pluribus praesentibus eas res iactari noluit. He was un-
willing that that matter should be discussed in the presence
of several persons : B. G. i. 18. — Leges duo ex una familia
magistratus crearl vetabant. The laivsforbade that two of
the same family should be appointed magistrates : B. G. vii.
33. 3. — Civem Romanum capitis condemnari coegit.
He caused a Roman citizen to be condemned to death
(Cicero).
466 (b) as subject of certain impersonal expressions :
oportet, it is fitting', decet, it is seemly] licet, it is
allowed
placet, it is approved ; displicet, it is disapproved
aequum est, // is fair ; inlquum est, it is unfair
interest, it is important] necesse est, opus est, it is
necessary
and the like.
Amlcitiam populi Roman! mihi praesidio esse oportet.
It is fitting that the friendship of the Romans be 1 (= the
friendship of the Romans ought to be) a protection
to me: B. G. i. 44. 5. — Consiliorum eos paenitere
necesse est. It is necessary that they repent (= they
must necessarily repent) of their resolutions : B. G.
iv- 5- 3-
467 (ii) as equivalent to an English * that '-clause with the
indicative (denoting that something is being done or was done
or will be done). In this usage all the three tenses of the
infinitive are used, marking the action as going on (Pres.
Infin.) or completed (Perf. Infin.) or in prospect (Fut. Infin.) at
the time denoted by the verb of main clause, which may be
present, past, or future. For the use of the Future Participle
with/«fss* to denote what would have happened see § 471.
1 Note the subjunctive ' be ' (active voice) = ' should be '. The translation
' is ' would be impossible. Similarly ' repent ' in the next example is a sub-
junctive, though it does not differ in form from an indicative.
2i8 SYNTAX
468 This construction is found —
(a) as object, depending on certain verbs which denote
some activity of the mind :
verbs of 'perceiving': sentio, intellego, / perceive;
animadverts, / observe ; video, I see] audio, / hear;
cognosce, disco, I learn
arbitror, iudico, existimo, / judge, I think] cogito,
I reflect] opinor, puto, I fancy
credo, I believe ; confido, lam confident ; spero, I hope ;
suspicor, I suspect
novi, scio, / know ; nescio, / do not know ; meminl,
/ remember
and the like.
verbs of ' saying ' : dico, / say ; nego, 7 deny ; respondeo,
/ answer ; doceo, / show ; fateor, / confess ; nuntio,
trado, / report ; glorior, / boast ; queror, / complain ;
simulo, / pretend
promitto, polliceor, I promise ; minor, I threaten
and the like (including equivalent expressions such
as scnbo, ' I write to say', certiorem facio ' I inform ') ;
verbs of ' feeling ' J : gaudeo, laetor, / rejoice ; doleo,
/ grieve ; indignor, 7 am indignant ; miror, 7 am
surprised
and the like (including aegre fero, 7 am annoyed).
469 EXAMPLES.
I nos copias deducere us to be withdrawing (that we
are withdrawing) our forces.
Credunt j nos copias deduxisse us to have withdrawn (that
They believe 1 we have withdrawn) our forces.
(nos copias deducturos esse us to be about to with-
draw (that we shall withdraw) our forces.
1 These verbs may also take a qiwd- clause, corresponding to a Ma/-clause
in English or a #?^?-clause in French : Gaudent quod cOpias deducimus
(deduximus, deducturl sumus, &c.\ They rejoice that we are withdrawing
(have withdrawn, are about to withdraw, &c.) our forces.
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 219
nos copias deducere us to be withdrawing (that
we were withdrawing) our forces.
Credebant nos copias deduxisse us to have withdrawn (that
They believed} we had withdrawn) our forces.
nos copias deducturos esse us to be about to with-
draw (that we should withdraw) our forces.
Se fines angustos habere arbitrabantur. They considered
themselves to have (that they had) a narrow territory :
B. G. i. 2. — Dixit se scire illud esse verum. He de-
clared himself to know it to be true (He said that he knew
that it was true) : B. G. i. 20. — Nostros indlligentius
servatu ros esse crediderant. They had believed our men
to be likely to keep (that our men would keep) a less
careful watch : B. G. ii. 33.
47° The Future Infinitive is the tense generally required in
dependence on verbs of ' hoping ' and ' promising ' :
Sperabant (Promlsimus) nos copias deducturos esse.
They hoped ( We promised] that we should withdraw the
forces.
471 To express that something would have happened under
certain imagined conditions the Future Participle with the
Perfect Infinitive fuisse is employed :
Credebant nos proelio victos copias deducturos fuisse.
They believed that we having been defeated (= if we had
been defeated, cf. § 487) in a battle should have withdrawn
our forces: deducturos fuisse, lit. to have been likely to
withdraw (cf. § 352).
Titurius dixit se arbitrari Caesarem profectum in Italiam ;
neque aliter Carnutes interficiendT Tasgetil consilium
fuisse capturos, neque Eburones, si ille adesset, tanta
contemptione Romanorum ad castra ventures. Titurius
said that he considered that Caesar had started for Italy;
that otherwise the Carnutes would not have adopted the
measure of putting Tasgetius to death, nor would the
Eburones have come to the camp with such contempt for
220 SYNTAX
the Romans, if Caesar had been there : B. G. v. 29. — Credo
veteres hac re usuros fuisse, si nota esset. I believe that
the ancients would have made use of this thing, if it had
been known : Cic. Orator 169.
472 (/>) as subject of certain impersonal expressions :
constat, it is well knoivn ; apparet, it is apparent ;
manifestum est, it is manifest ;
and the like (including equivalent expressions such as
fama est, there is a report ; spes est, there is hope}.
Multa genera ferarum in ea silva nasci constat. // is an
established fact that many kinds of wild beasts are pro-
duced in that forest: B. G. vi. 25.
473 When a clause of comparison is subordinated to an accusative
with infinitive, it also takes the accusative with infinitive con-
struction :
Scipio nihil difficilius esse dlcebat quam amicitiam usque ad
extremum vltae diem permanere. Scipio used to say that
nothing was more difficult than that friendship should endure
right on to the last day of life : Cic. Amic. 33.
When the same verb belongs to both of the subordinate clauses
(as in ' I don't believe that you can stand on one leg as long as I
[can] '), it is generally omitted in the clause of comparison ; but its
subject still stands in the accusative :
Non credo te tantum temporis in uno pede stare posse
quantum me.
Decet cariorem esse patriam nobls quam nosmet ips5s. // is
seemly that our country should be dearer to us than we our-
selves [are].
Contrast the following, in which the comparative clause has
a different verb : Quis credit tantum esse solem quantus videtur ?
Who believes that the sun is only just as big as it appears ?
474 Nominative with infinitive. Sentences containing an
accusative with infinitive may often be thrown into passive
form. The accusative then becomes the subject of a simple
sentence in which the infinitive is retained (cf. the retained
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 221
accusative in § 386). Compare the following sentences with
those in .§ 469 :
Credimur l (Dlcimur) copias deducere (deduxisse, deduc-
turl esse). We are believed (said) to be withdrawing (to
have withdrawn, to be about to withdraw) our forces.
The predicative adjective or noun then stands in the nomi-
native (cf. § 275) :
Homerus caecus fuisse traditur. Homer is reported to
have been blind.
475 This construction (called 'nominative with infinitive') is
generally preferred in Latin to that of a complex sentence
like ' It is believed (It is said) that we are withdrawing our
forces ', though that construction is sometimes found (e.g. with
vere dlcitur and with compound forms like nuntidtum est,
dtcendum est) :
Vere dlcitur nos copias deducere. It is said with truth
that we are withdrawing our forces.
476 An exceedingly common use of the nominative with infini-
tive construction is with the verb videor ' I seem ', which is
a kind of passive of video ' I see ' :
Videmur \ ( copias deducere.
Videbamur 4 copias deduxisse.
Videbimur J I copias deducturl esse.
II. INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT AND AS PREDICATIVE NOUN
477 The infinitive without an accusative may stand as the
subject of a sentence, chiefly with the verb est and a few im-
personal verbs, such as interest 'it is important ', decet ' it is
seemly ', praestat ' it is better ', licet ' it is allowed ' :
Clvitatibus maxima laus est quam latissime circum se
solitudines habere. // t's the greatest glory to the states
1 When credo means ' I take it on trust', as distinct from ' I trust', it does
not take a dative (as in §§ 399 and 403) ; hence the personal passive
construction is used, not the impersonal passive construction (§ 406).
SYNTAX
to have uninhabited country around them to as great
a distance as possible: B. G. vi. 23. — Magni interest
1 oppido potiri. To get possession of the town is very
important: B. G. i. 21. — Accipere quam facere iniuriam
praestat. // is better to suffer than to inflict an injury :
Cic. Tusc. v. 56. — Non longius anno uno in loco re-
manere licet. To stay longer than a year in one place
is not permitted : B. G. iv. i.
Infinitive as predicative noun :
Loquor de homine docto, cui vlvere est cogitare. / speak
of an educated man, to whom to live is to think (= life is
thought): Cic. Tusc. v. in.
478 When a predicative adjective or noun is attached to the subject-
infinitive (e.g. to esse or fieri or videri}, it stands in the accusative
case. The explanation is that it agrees with an accusative (subject
of the infinitive, § 462) understood ; epithets, too, of this unexpressed
subject may stand in the accusative :
Est aliquid, fatoque suo ferroque cadentem | in solida moriens
ponere corpus humo, | et mandare suls aliqua, et sperare
sepulcrum, | et non aequoreis piscibus esse cibum. It is
something, when falling by decree of fate and by the sword to
lay one's dying body on solid earth, and to give some last com-
missions to one's friends, and to hope for a tomb, and not to be
food (predicative noun) for the fishes of the sea : Ovid, Trist.
i. 2. 53-6. Supply aliquem ' some one '.
479 But after licet with a dative the predicative adj. or noun attached
to the infinitive generally stands in the dative (cf. § 274):
Licet vobls incolumibus discedere. You may depart unharmed:
B. G. v. 41. 6.
III. THE HISTORIC INFINITIVE
480 The Present Infinitive may be used in lively narrative as
equivalent to a finite verb in a simple sentence (Historic Infinitive) :
Cottidie Caesar frumentum flagitare ; diem ex die ducere
HaeduT. Caesar kept demanding the corn daily : the Haedui kept
putting him off day by day : B. G. i. 16. In origin the historic
infinitive may have been adverbial, with the verb understood
(cf. § 252) : flagitare \emnt\} ' they were for demanding * :
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 223
hence 'they proceeded to demand' or 'they kept demand-
ing ' ; compare etre a with the infinitive in French, and the
English idiom ' What are you at ? ; Or the usage may have
originated in a verb-less sentence of which the infinitive was
the subject.
IV. THE INFINITIVE IN EXCLAMATIONS
481 The infinitive is sometimes used in exclamations and indignant
questions (depending on a verb of emotion understood) : 1
Te nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexari ! idque fieri mea culpa ! To
think that you, my Terentia, are thus troubled ! and that this is
due to my fault! (Cicero.) Understand doled 'I grieve 'or
indignor ' I am indignant '.
Mene incepto desistere victam? / desist from my purpose
baffled? (Aen. i. 37.) Equivalent to egone desistam? 'Am
I to desist ? ' (§ 319.) Here the infinitive is probably adverbial,
as in § 480 : desistere ' for desisting '. English has the same
use ; for sentences like ' I desist ? J ' I honour thee ? ' contain
infinitives, not indicatives.
The original meaning of the infinitive.
482 In origin the infinitive is a dative or locative case : for example
regere ' to rule ' is formed from the stem reges-, meaning ' the act of
ruling ' ; dative or locative reges-i or -e ' for (or in) the act of ruling '.
Compare gener-t, dative of genus, from the stem genes-, which
.became gener- (§ 37).2 The passive infinitives show the original
dative or locative ending more clearly : dart ' to be given ', from
das-i, lit. ' for the giving '. The passive meaning was acquired
later. In the passive infinitive of the 3rd conjugation the inflexion
Jwas added directly to the root(reg~t).
483 Many uses of the infinitive show traces of its original meaning.
In most constructions it stands nearer in meaning to a dative, in
some to a locative. The following instances come mainly from
poets ; for infinitives with their original datival or locatival meaning
are for the most part avoided in classical prose, where some other
construction is generally substituted (especially ut or qut with the
subjunctive, the genitive of the gerund, ad with the accusative of
the gerund, or in a few cases the supine in u\
1 Compare the accusative of exclamation, § 388,
8 By the change of s into r between two vowels.
224 SYNTAX
484 The original meaning of the infinitive is adverbial :
(i) with verbs :
Libycos populare penates non venimus. We have not come to
lay waste the Libyan homes : Aen. i. 527 f. (cf. Hor. Od. i. 2. 7 ;
iii. 8. n). Populare here denotes purpose, which would be
expressed in classical prose by ut populemus or ut populemur
(deponent).
Argent! magnum dat ferre talentum. He gives them a great
talent of silver to carry away : Aen. v. 248. Ferre ' for carrying
away ' ; classical prose quod fer ant.
Interea soror alma monet succedere Lauso Turnum. Mean-
while his kindly sister warns Turnus to take the place (classical
prose ut succedaf) of Lausus : Aen. x. 439.
Flectere iter socils imperat. He commands his comrades to
change (classical prose utflectant] their course : Aen. vii. 35.
Hortamur fan. We exhort him to speak (classical prose ut
loquatur) : Aen. ii. 74.
Quid habes dlcere ? What have you to say ? (classical prose
quod dicds) : Cic. Balb. 33. — From this usage of the infinitive
with habed comes the French Future : dims from dire as,
Lat. dicere habes, ' you have to say', hence ' you will say'.
485 (ii) with adjectives :
avidus committere pugnam, eager to join (for joining) the fray :
Ovid, Met. v. 75. Classical prose avidus pugnae committendae.
bonus dicere versus, good at composing verses (locatival meaning
of infin.) : Virg. Eel. v. 2. Classical prose peritus with gen.
dignus amari, worthy to be loved: ibid. 89. Classical prose
qui ametur.
paratus decertare, ready to fight (for fighting), is found in
Caesar, B. G. i. 44 ; but would more commonly be expressed
by paratus ad decertandum.
vultus lubricus aspic!, a countenance hazardous to behold (in the
beholding, locatival meaning) : Hor. Od. i. 19. 8. Classical
prose lubricus visu (supine).- Constructions like fact/is facere
( = facilis factu) are common in Propertius,
225
USES OF THE PARTICIPLES
|86 The participles are used
(i) as epithets (§ 256) :
gladiator moriens, a dying gladiator ;
gladiator mortuus, a dead gladiator.
187 The epithet participle may be appositive (cf. § 258) :
Orgetorix, regnl cupiditate inductus, coniurationem fecit.
Orgetorix, prompted by the desire of being king, formed
a conspiracy : B. G. i. 2.
A phrase containing an appositive participle may often be
translated by a clause of time, cause, condition, or concession,
according to the context : thus inductus in the above example
might be translated ' when he had been prompted ' or f because
he had been prompted ' ; and in other contexts by ' if he had
been prompted ', ' though he had been prompted '.
Hanc adept! victoriam, in perpetuum se fore victores con-
fldebant. If they gained this victory, they felt sure that
they would be victorious for ever: B. G. v. 39. 4 (adepti
for adeptos ; cf. vii. 56. 2).
In conloquium venire invltatus gravaris. You refuse to
come to a conference, though invited : cf. B. G. i. 35. 2.
j.88 But more commonly the participle denotes attendant cir-
cumstances i1
Flens me obsecravit. Weeping he entreated me = He
entreated me with tears in his eyes. — Aquilifer fortis-
sime pugnans occlditur. The eagle-bearer falls, fighting
bravely: B. G. v. 37. — Centuriones armati Mettium
circumsistunt. The centurions in arms surround Mettius :
Livy i. 28.
1 This meaning is often expressed by cunt with the subjunctive : see
§§ 358, 359-
901 P
226 SYNTAX
(2) as predicative adjectives (§ 254) :
Inveni eum morientem. I found him dying.
InvenI eum mortuum. I found him dead.
49° Often with verbs of 'perceiving' :
Sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vldit. He
saw the consul sitting on a rock covered with blood : Livy
xxii. 49. 6. — Tlbicinem cantantem audio. / hear the
piper playing.
Here the participle is nearly equivalent to the infinitive in
the use mentioned in § 459 (c).
491 The nominative of the Perfect Participle Passive, used pre-
dicatively with a tense of esse, forms the tenses of completed
action of the passive voice : vocatus sum, 1 1 have been called '
or ' I was called ' (§ 153) ; vocatus eram, ( I had been called ' ;
vocatus erd, ' I shall have been called '.
492 The nominative of the Future Participle Active, used pre-
dicatively with a tense of esse, forms an equivalent for three
active tenses :
Moriturus sum. / am likely to (about to) die = I shall die
(Future Indie.).
Moriturus eram (or fui). / was likely to (about to) die :
equivalent to a Future in the Past of French or English
when used to denote futurity from a past point of view :
' je mourrais/ ' I should die.'
Moriturus ero. / shall be likely to (about to) die.
493 The nominative of the Present Participle Active is never
used predicatively with a tense of esse, except when the par-
ticiple has acquired the character of an ordinary adjective or
noun (§ 498),: dJligens est ( he is diligent ', sapiens erat ' he
was wise (or a philosopher) ', excellens erit ' he will be eminent ' ;
dicto audiens sum ' I am obedient to command '. So too in
French : il est savant ' he is learned ', but not il est lisant ' he
is reading ' (French Gram. § 481).
USES OF THE PARTICIPLES 227
494 A very important use of the participle as a predicative
adjective is that which is found in the construction called the
ablative absolute,1 which corresponds to the English nomina-
tive absolute construction :
Ponuntque ferocia Poem corda, volente deo. And the
Carthaginians lay aside their haughty temper, a god
willing it (= because a god willed it) : Aen. i. 303.
Compare the English nom. abs. in ' God willing (= if
God wills it), I shall do it '.
Paucls defendentibus, oppidum expugnare non potuit.
He could not take the town by storm, few defending it
(— though few defended it) : B. G. ii. 12.
Omnibus rebus comparatis diem dicunt. Everything
having been got ra*^y(=when everything had been
got ready), they appoint a day. B. G. i. 6.
Signis in unum locum collatis mllites sibi ipsos impedi-
mento esse vidit, quartae cohortis omnibus centurioni-
bus occlsls, signifero interfecto, signo amisso. He saw
that the soldiers were an impediment to themselves, the
standards having been crowded together in one place
(= because the standards had been crowded together),
all the centurions of the fourth cohort having been killed
and the standard-bearer having been slain and his
standard lost : B. G. ii. 25.
495 In this construction the ablative is an adverbial ablative
and the participle is predicated of it, so that the ablative and
its participle together form an equivalent of an adverb-clause
(as is indicated by the translations given in brackets above).
On the predicative character of the participle depends the
difference between the ablative absolute construction and
other ablatives with adjectives attached to them. Contrast
signis collates ' the standards having been crowded together '
(§494) with infestis signis 'with hostile standards ' (= in battle
1 Ablafivus absolutus ' ablative set free', 'dissociated ablative' — so called
because the ablative and its participle form a group by themselves.
P2
228 SYNTAX
array ; see example in § 460 c). In the latter case the adjective
is an epithet; in the former it is predicative. Similarly
volente deo in § 494 means not ' owing to a willing god ' but
1 owing to a god willing it'.
The ablative in this construction denotes attendant circum-
stances (cf. § 434) ; it may generally be translated by the
English 'with'.1 Thus panels defendentibus 'with few de-
fending it ', omnibus rebus comparatis ' with everything got
ready '. Compare the following sentences in English, where
the omission of ' with ' would leave an absolute construction :
' But Marlborough with the rapture of the fight still dancing in
his blood pulled up his horse on a little rustic bridge and
scribbled a dozen lines to his wife to tell her of the great
event/ 2 ' The latter plan would relieve the British communi-
cations from danger, and with this accomplished Lord Roberts
could deal with the Transvaalers east of Pretoria at his
leisure.'3 But this construction may assume various shades
of meaning according to the context in which it stands. Thus
the abl. abs. may be equivalent to a clause of—
(i) time (cf. the abl. of time when, § 444) :
signo dato, the signal having been given = when the signal
was given ; crescunt loca decrescentibus undls, the land
comes into view as the water subsides : Ovid, Met. i. 345.
(ii) cause (cf. the abl. of cause, § 432) : see examples § 494.
(iii) condition or concession :
Prohibentibus nostris hostes sine perlculo vltae flumen
adlre non possent. If our men made opposition the
enemy would not be able to approach the river without
risking their lives : B. G. viii. 40. 4.
1 The preposition cum is sometimes added in Latin : cum dts bene
iuvantibus arma capite ' arm yourselves, with the gods graciously assisting
you ' : Livy xxi. 43. 7 (so the MSS.). There are several examples in
Old Latin.
2 Fights for the Flag (Blenheim), by W. H. Fitchett, p. 16.
3 Birmingham Daily Post, June 15, 1900.
USES OF THE PARTICIPLES 229
OBS. In writing Latin the abl. abs. construction should be
avoided when the subject of the English subordinate clause
is repeated by a noun or pronoun in the main clause : e. g.
'When the hostages had been received, he put them under
close custody', 'As he was saying this, he expired'; in such
sentences an appositive participle (§ 487) should be used :
obsides acccptos custddivit\ haec dtcenst vitam exsplravit. In
this last instance the abl. abs. would be as awkward in Latin
as the nom. abs. in English : ' he saying this, he expired.' l
497 Instead of the participle in the abl. abs. construction a pre-
dicative noun or adjective may be used :
Cicerone et Antonio consulibus, with Cicero and Antony
as consuls = in the consulship of Cicero and Antony,
me invito, with me unwilling = against my will.
498 Some participles have acquired the character of ordinary
adjectives or nouns : e. g. absens ' absent ', praesens ' present ',
which are present participles of esse 'to be ' (see other
examples in § 493) ; amans ( a lover ' ; adulescens ' a young
man (or young woman) ' :
In improbl praesentis imperio maior est vis quam in
bonorum absentium patrocinio. In the command of
a wicked man who is on the spot there is more force than
in the protection of honest men who are far away]
praesens tempus, the present time ; in praesenti, at
present (Cicero).
So too some perfect participles, e. g. certus ' certain *,factum
' a deed ', impensa (sc. pecunia) ' expense ' :
Facto non consulto opus est. There is need of action, not
of deliberation.
Participles so used may be compared : amans, atnantior,
amantissimus ; optatus, optdtior, optdttssimus.
1 There are some examples in Latin writers (Caesar, Cicero, and others)
of the abl. abs in sentences like ' When the hostages had been received, he
put them into close custody ' ; see B. G. vi. 4. 4 : but it would be difficult to
find an abl. abs. in sentences like ' He saying this, he expired '.
230 SYNTAX
499 Many words that look at first sight like participles are not
really such : for participles are wr^-adjectives and formed
from the stems of verbs. But adjectives like the following-
are formed (by means of the same suffix as is used in verb-
adjectives1) from the stems of nouns or adjectives : barbd-tus
'beard-ed'; auri-tus ' ear-ed ' (e.g. lepores aunti ' long-eared
hares'), togd-tus 'dressed in a toga\ tunicd-tus 'dressed in
a tunic ', candida-tus 'dressed in a Candida (toga)', &c.
USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE
500 The gerund adjective is a passive verb-adjective (§ 133),
which has two uses :
(i) denoting what is to be done. Here the gerund adjective
is a passive participle with the sense of obligation or neces-
sity : '2
(a) as an epithet :
vir laudandus, a man to-be-praised, a laudable man
homo contemnendus, a person to-be-despised, a contemptible
person
(b) as a predicative adjective :
Hie vir laudandus est. This man is to be praised.
Acies erat instruenda. The line of battle was to be formed
(had to be formed) : B. G. ii. 20.
Urbem inflammandam Cassio attribuit. He handed over
the city la Cassius to be set on fire : Cic. Cat. iv. 13.
1 See note on the suffix t in § 148.
2 The name given to the gerund adjective by the Roman grammarians
was participium futuri passim 'future participle passive'. This term is
applicable to the usages treated in §§ 500 and 501 above, though the idea of
obligation or necessity is more prominent in them than that of futurity ; but
to the usage treated in § 502 the name ' future participle passive ' is not
applicable. Here the gerund adjective (like the subjunctive in certain of its
usages) loses the sense of obligation and becomes equivalent to a present
participle passive
USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE 231
Pontem in Ararl faciendum curat. He orders a bridge to
be made on the Arar: B. G. i. 13.
The nominative neuter of the gerund adjective, with the
sense of obligation, is often used with a tense of esse in the
impersonal passive construction (§ 377). The person by
whom the action is to be done is generally denoted by
a dative :
Pugnandum est nobis. We must fight (lit. fighting is to-
be-done by us).
Militibus de navibus desiliendum erat. The soldiers had
to leap down from the ships : B. G. iv. 24.
luveni parandum, sen! utendum est. A young man
ought to get, an old man to employ : Seneca, Epist.
xxxvi. 4.
Obllviscendum est nobis iniuriarum acceptarum. We
ought to forget injuries received.
Aguntur bona multorum clvium, quibus est a vobis con-
sulendum. The property of many citizens is at stake,
whose interests you ought to consult : Cic. pro leg. Man.
6. Here a vobis is substituted for the dative vobis in
order to avoid ambiguity : quibus vobis consulendum
est might have meant 'who ought to consult your
interests '.
The personal and the impersonal constructions may be
used side by side :
Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede Hbero pulsanda tellus.
Now we must drink, now the earth must be struck witii
free step : Hor. Od. i. 37. i.
(2) without the sense of obligation or necessity.
In this use the gerund adjective is like a present participle
passive :
Facultatem itineris per provinciam faciendi dare nolebat.
He was unwilling to grant an opportunity of a journey
being made through the Roman province : B. G. i. 7.
232 SYNTAX
This passive construction is equivalent in meaning to that
of an active verb-noun with an object : facultdtem itineris
faciendi = ' the opportunity of making a journey '. Thus—
cupiditas belli gerendl, lit. the desire of war being waged
= the desire of waging war: B. G. i. 41.
Sui muniendl, non Galliae oppugnandae causa id facit.
lit. He does so for the sake of himself being protected
(= of protecting himself), not of Gaul being attacked
(= of attacking Gaul) : B. G. i. 44.
Legates sui purgandi gratia mittunt. They send envoys
for the sake of clearing themselves : B. G. vii. 43.
OBS. — Note that in the last instance sui is plural, in the
one before it is singular : yet the gerund adjective is singular
in both cases. The reason is that the gerund adjective always
agrees with the form of this pronoun, whether its meaning be
singular or plural.
USES OF THE GERUND
503 The gerund is an active verb-noun, corresponding to the
English verb-noun in -ing.1 Its genitive and ablative cases
are used very much like the genitive and ablative of any other
noun ; but its accusative is used only after certain prepositions
(chiefly ad). Its dative is not much used, because the meaning
' for . . . ing ' is usually expressed by ad with the accusative.
The gerund has no nominative.
Gen. studiurn pugnandl, a desire of fighting: B. G. i. 46. —
difficultas navigandi, the difficulty of sailing : B. G.
iii. 12. — hiemandl causa, for the sake of wintering :
B. G. iii. i.— homines bellandi cupidi, men desirous
of going to war : B. G. i. 2.
Abl. Venerunt ut de indutils fallendo impetrarent. They
came in order that they might get their way about the
truce by deceiving: B. G. iv. 13.
1 The gerund (verb-noun) probably grew out of certain usages of the
gerund adjective, which is to be regarded as the older form.
USES OF THE GERUND 233
Reperiebat in quaerendo. He found in the course of
inquiry. B. G. i. 18. — Malignitatis auctores quae-
rendo rem arbitril sul ad senatum reiecerat. While
(lit. in) seeking for supporters of his meanness he had
referred to the senate a matter which lay in his own dis-
cretion: Livy v. 22. i. Compare taliafando, Aen.ii.6.1
Accus. Diem ad deliberandum sumam. / will take a day for
deliberating: B. G. i. 7.
Nostros alacriores ad pugnandum fecerant. They had
made our men more keen for fighting : B. G. iii. 24.
504 The cases of the gerund supply a genitive and an ablative
to the infinitive (which is also equivalent to an English verb-
noun in -ing): thus the infinitive might be declined as
follows :
NOM. discere, to learn : ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes
emollit mores, to have studied the liberal arts con-
scientiously refines the character (Ovid).
Ace. discere, to learn : discere cupio, / desire to learn.
GEN. discendl, of learning: discendi cupidus sum, / am
desirous of learning.
DAT. discendo, to learning: discendo operam do, / devote
myself to learning.
ABL. discendo, by learning: discendo emolliuntur mores, the
character is refined by learning.
505 As a verb-noun the gerund may take an object in the same
case as the verb from which it is formed. Thus causa par-
cendt victts 'for the sake of sparing the conquered' ; parcendo
victis ' by sparing the conquered '. But the gerund with an
object in the accusative case is for the most part avoided in
the best prose.2
1 From these uses (with and without in) conies the French gerund with
en : e. g. en demandant, en cherchant.
2 The gerund with an accusative- object begins to be fairly common in
later prose (e.g. in Livy, see ex. quoted in § 503, Abl.) and in the poets of
the Augustan age. It is chiefly the genitive and the dative of the gerund
that takes an accusative-object in these writers : e. g. spes urbem capiendi
234 SYNTAX
Instead of this construction the passive construction of the
gerund adjective is generally employed (see above, § 502), and
must be employed after a preposition, such as ad or in :
Non modo ad insignia accommodanda sed etiam ad
galeas induendas tempus defuit. Time failed them not
only for fitting on their badges but even for putting on
their helmets: B. G. ii. 21 (not ad insignia accommo-
dandum, ad galeas induendum).
506 But in some cases the gerund with an accusative object is
almost necessary :
(i) when the object is a neuter pronoun ; for here any
other case than the accusative would be indistinguishable
from a masculine :
studium aliquid agendi, the desire of doing something (not
alicuius agendi) ; talia fando, in speaking of such things
(not tdlibus fandls), see ex. in § 503.
(ii) in order to avoid the repetition of the clumsy endings
drum, drum :
neque consilil habendi neque arma capiendl facultate
data, no opportunity having been given either of holding
counsel (passive construction with gerund adjective)
or of taking arms (active constr. with gerund, instead of
armorum capiendorum) ; cf. B. G. iv. 14.
USES OF THE SUPINES1
507 The supine in -urn is the accusative of a verb-noun of the
4th declension in -tus or -sus, used adverbially to answer the
question ' Whither ? ' (cf. § 391), chiefly with verbs of motion ;
it thus denotes the end in view or purpose (§ 136) :
LegatI gratulatum venerunt. The envoys came to offer
i the hope of capturing the city '(instead. of urbis capiendae}, mens alitur artes
discendo l the mind is nurtured by studying the arts ' (instead of ariibus
discendis].
1 The curious name ' supine ' chosen by the Roman grammarians to describe
these forms means literally ' lying on its back', i.e. out of action.
USES OF THE SUPINES 235
their congratulations : B. G. i. 30. — Nunc venls ultro
inrisum dominum. Now you actually come in order to
laugh at your master: Plaut. Amph. 587.
Ludos spectatum eo. / am going to see the games. The
supine with eo is sometimes (not always) equivalent to
a Future Participle with sum (§ 492) : spectatum eo =
spcctaturus sum. Compare the French je vat's with the
infinitive, denoting immediate futurity : je vat's voir ' I
am just going to see ' (French Gram., § 298).
08 Out of the last-mentioned usage grew the most important
use of the supine in -urn, viz. that in which it is joined with
in to form the Future Infinitive Passive (§ 137). In this con-
struction tn is impersonal :
Titurio ipsl nihil nocitum Irl respondit. He answered that
no harm would be done to Titurius himself] lit. that
there was-a-going (Irl) to do no harm (nihil nocitum) to
Titurius himself: B. G. v. 36.
jog The supine in u is the ablative or dative or locative of
a verb-noun of the 4th decl. in -tus or -sus. But very few
verbs form a supine in -u: the most important are those
which denote 'saying', 'perceiving', or 'doing'.
The supine in u is used chiefly with certain adjectives
meaning ' easy ', ' difficult ', ' wonderful ', ' best ', and the like.
It may generally be translated by the English infinitive (some-
times active, sometimes passive) :
facile factu, an easy thing to do: B. G. i. 3.— optimum
factu, the best thing to do or to be done : B. G. iv. 30.—
mirabile dictu, strange to say : Aen. i. 439.— res nefaria
visu, a thing awful to behold: Cic. Plane. 99.
Difficile dictu est. // is difficult to say : Cic. Tusc. ii. 19. —
Hoc horridiores sunt aspectu. They are all the more
dreadful to look upon \ B. G. v. 14.— -Macedonia dlvlsul
facilis est. Macedonia is easy to partition or to be par-
titioned: Livy xlv. 30. 2.
236 SYNTAX
VI. PRONOUNS AND INDICATING
ADJECTIVES
The reflexive pronoun and adjective.
510 The reflexive pronoun se, sui, sibi, se and the reflexive
possessive adjective suus, a, um have two chief uses :
(i) referring to the subject of the clause in which they stand :
Cato se pugione suo occldit. Cato slew himself with his
dagger. — Deserebantur ab amicls suls. They were being
deserted by their friends.
Caesar temeritatem militum reprehendit quod sibi ipsi
iudicavissent quid agendum esset. Caesar blamed the
rashness of the soldiers, on the ground that they had
themselves judged for themselves what was to be done :
B. G. vii. 52. — Constat Dioclem se suspendisse. It is
well known that Diodes hanged himself (accusative with
infinitive = noun clause) : Cic. Verr. v. 129. — Suls in-
commodls graviter angl se ipsum amantis est. To be
seriously troubled by one's own misfortunes is the mark
of one who loves himself (amantis = eius qul amat) : Cic.
Amic. 10.
511 With certain impersonal verbs the accusative denotes the
logical subject : Paenitet eos consiliorum suorum. // repents
them (= They repent) of their plans : B. G. iv. 5.
(ii) referring to the subject of a different clause of a com-
plex sentence, as in an English example like 'God has
brought man into being in order that he may know Himself.
RULE. The reflexive pronoun and the reflexive adjective,
standing in a clause of purpose, or in a dependent state-
ment, dependent question, or dependent clause of desire,
may refer to the subject of the main clause i1
Caesar castella constituit ne hostes suos circumvenlre
1 For the exact meaning of the term ' dependent ' in this rule see
Classification of Sentences and Clauses, §§ 523, 524. A dependent clause is
one particular kind of subordinate clause.
PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 237
possent. Caesar built forts in order that the enemy
might not be able to surround his (i. e. Caesar's) men :
B. G. ii. 8.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeundum. Caesar
decided that the Rhine must be crossed by him : B. G.
iv. 1 6 (sibi = Caesari). Contrast constat Dioclem se
suspendisse, § 510.
Quid sul consilii sit ostendit. He indicates what his plan
is : B. G. i. 21.
Germani petebant ut sibi tridui spatium daret. The
Germans asked that he should grant them a period of
three days : B. G. iv. n (sibi = Germanls).
512 But such sentences are sometimes ambiguous ; for a pro-
noun or adjective referring to the subject of the subordinate
clause is also expressed by se or suus ; see § 510 :
Ariovistus dixit neminem secum sine sua pernicie conten-
disse. Ariovistus said that no one had fought with him
(Ariovistus) without disaster to himself (i. e. to the fighter) :
B. G. i. 36.
Such ambiguity is sometimes unavoidable ; sometimes,
though avoidable, it is not avoided ; sometimes it is avoided
by using ipse to indicate the subject of the main clause :
Cur de sua virtute aut de ipslus diligentia desperarent ?
[Caesar asked the. centurions] why they despaired of
their own valour or of his [Caesar's] zeal : B. G. i. 40.
>i3 The possessive adjective suus, a, um is sometimes used
with reference to a noun which is not the subject of any clause
of the sentence, especially when the possessive adjective has
emphasizing force (= ' his own ', ' their own ') :
Gallls prae magnitudine corporum suorum brevitas nostra
contemptu! est. To the Gauls the short stature of the
Romans is contemptible in comparison with the great size
of their own bodies : B. G. ii. 30.
Hirtium sul milites interfecerunt. // was his own men
who killed Hirtius .
238 SYNTAX
514 ' One another ' is expressed in Latin either by a phrase
formed with inter or by alter . . . alterum, when two persons
. are spoken of, or alius . . . alium, when more than two persons
are spoken of:
Amlcos inter se prodesse oportet. ) r • -, , .
A f. rnends ought to
Amlcos alterum alterl (or ahum alii) fe/ om amth^
prodesse oportet.
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives.
515 The Latin demonstratives are never used like the English
demonstratives in expressions like ' My house is larger than
that of my neighbour ' = 'the house of my neighbour', nor
before a participle in expressions like 'those standing by ' =
' the bystanders '; ' those in Rome ' = ' the people who are (or
were) in Rome'. In these usages the English demonstrative
is equivalent to the definite article; but the Latin demonstra-
tives are never used with this weakened meaning :
Domus mea maior est quam vlclni. My house is larger
than my neighbour' s= that of (the one of) my neighbour.
iiqul adstant(adstabant)) ^ bvstanders
or adstantes (without ii) )
il qul Romae sunt (erant), those in Rome
The following sentence is no exception to this rule, for
eorum fugientium does not mean 'of those fleeing', but 'of
them as they fled ' :
Hi novissimos adortl magnam multitudinem eorum fu-
gientium conciderunt. These, attacking the rearguard,
cut to pieces a great number of them as they fled: B. G.
ii. ii. 4; cf. v. 9. 8 (eosfugientes), vi. 27. 4 (earum stan-
tium = arborum stantium).
Interrogative pronouns and adjectives.
516 The interrogatives are sometimes strengthened by nam :
quisnam 'who in the world ? '
PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 239
Ecquis, ecquid is an interrogative form of the indefinite quis,
quid ' any one ', ' anything ' (§ in):
Ecquis fuit qum lacrimaret ? Was there any one who did
not weep ? (qum = qul non, § 360, Obs.)
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives.
517 For the distinctions in meaning between the indefinite
pronouns and adjectives see §§ 112-18.
A good example to illustrate the meaning of quwls and
qinlibet(% 114) is—
Cuiusvis est errare, nulllus nisi insipientis in errore per-
severare. Every one makes mistakes, but no one excepting
a fool persists in a mistake (Cicero).
Ouisquam (§ 115) is sometimes used in sentences which are
neither negative nor interrogative :
Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest. What can
happen to any one at all can happen to every one : Pub-
lilius Syrus.
Indignor quicquam reprehendl quia nuper compositum
sit. / am mdignant that anything should be blamed
merely because it has been recently written. -Hor. Epist.
ii. i. 76. Similarly with si 'if ' and quam ' than '.
Quisque ' each ' (§ 117) is sometimes used with superlatives
and ordinals :
Optimus quisque confitetur. Every good man (lit. each
best man) confesses — All good men confess.
Decimus quisque interfectus est. Every tenth man was
killed.
Quotus quisque iuris perltus est ! How few are skilled in
the law !
Relative pronouns.
518 Latin has two generalizing relative pronouns and adjec-
tives, corresponding to the French quiconque ' whoever * :
qmcumque m., quaecumque f., quodcumque n. \ whOever
quisquis m.; f., quicquid n.
24o SYNTAX
Both of them ordinarily take the indicative mood :
Coercere quibuscumque rebus poterat Dumnorigem cona-
tus est. He tried to keep Dumnorix in check by whatever
means he could.
Quicquid circuitus ad molliendum cllvum accesserat, id
spatium itineris augebat. Whatever amount of detour
(§ 422) was added with a view to making the ascent easier,
increased the length of the journey : B. G. vii. 46.
519 Quicumque is also used in certain phrases as an indefinite
adjective, i.e. without a verb (like the French quelconque) :
QuI quacumque de causa ad eos venerunt, ab iniuria pro-
hibent. Those who have come to them for any reason,
they protect from injury. B. G. vi. 23.
VII. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND
CLAUSES
520 Sentences are of the following kinds—
(1) Statements:
Sic est. // is so.— Vera dlco. / speak the truth.
(2) Questions:
(a) Questions which may be answered with ' Yes ' or
' No '. These questions are generally introduced in Latin by
the interrogative words num 1 or -ne :
Num sic est ? Is it so ? — Dlcisne vera ? Are you speak-
ing the truth ?
But sometimes no interrogative word is used :
Vis pugnare ? Do you want to fight ? or You want to
fight?
In negative questions of this class the word -ne is attached
to the negative, which is put first in the sentence :
Nonne vera dlcebam ? Was I not speaking the truth ?
Nonne argentum redderem ? Was I not to pay back the
money ? (§ 319).
i When num is used the answer ' No? is generally expected.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 241
The answer ' Yes ' is expressed in Latin by etiam or ita or
ita vero, or by repeating the question in the form of a state-
ment :
Vera dlcis. You are speaking the truth (= yes).
' No ' is generally expressed by minime or minime v'ero, or
by a repetition :
Non vera dicebas. You were not speaking the truth (— no).
— Non redderes. No (§ 319).
(b) Questions which cannot be answered with 'Yes' or
' No ' are introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns,
interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs :
Quis dixit ? Who said it ? — Quae erant verba eius ?
What were his words ? — Ouando dixit ? When did he
say it ? — Quam saepe dixit ? How often did he say it ?
— Ut vales ? How do you do ?
Quid faciam ? What am 1 to do ? (§ 319).
(3) Desires (including commands, requests, entreaties, and
wishes) :
Aut ' etiam ', aut ' non ' responde. Answer either f yes '
or ' no' (Cicero); § 313.
Sis felix. Be thou fortunate (§ 321).
The negative of all desires is ne :
Ne transieris Hiberum. Do not cross the Ebro.
(4) Exclamations :
Quam pulcher est ! How handsome he is! — Quae erit
laetitia ! What a joy it will be ! — Ut peril ! How I was
undone !
521 Two or more coordinate parts of a sentence may be con-
nected by one of the following coordinating conjunctions :
et, -que, atque, ac, and
sed, at, autem, verum, but
nam, namque, enim, for
aut, vel, -ve, or; neque, neve, nor;
or by a coordinating relative.
901 Q
242 SYNTAX
The words autem and enim stand after the first word in the
sentence, though they are not attached to it like -que and -ve.
Two conjunctions cannot stand together, but enim in the sense
of ' indeed ' (a sentence-adverb) may follow sed, et, or at.
522 Double questions may be introduced by
utrum ) , ,7
L whether ... an or :
•ne j
Utrum verum est an falsum ? or Verumne est an falsum ?
[ Whether^ is it true or false ?
Utrum verum est an non ? Is it true or not ?
Eloquar an sileam ? Am I to speak or am I to keep
silence? Aen. iii. 39.
523 Subordinate clauses are of the following kinds—
(i) Noun Clauses :
(a) Dependent Statements :
Opportunissima res accidit, quod German! ad Caesarem
sul purgandi causa vcnerunt. A most fortunate thing
happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for
the sake of clearing themselves (§ 266).
Dlviciacus dixit se sclre illud esse verum. Diviciacus
said that he knew that it was true (§ 469).
(b) Dependent Questions :
Quid fieri velit ostendit. He points out what he wishes
to be done (§ 363 a}.
Utrum vera an falsa dlceres (Utrum vera diceres necne),
nesciebam. / did not know whether you were speaking
truth or falsehood (whether you were speaking the truth
or not}. — Nccne is used in dependent questions in place
of an non.
Nescio an mirabilior adversls quam secundis rebus fuerit*
/ know not whether (—\ am inclined to think that) he
was more admirable in adversity than in prosperity :
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 243
Livy xxviii. 12. 2. Similarly hand scio an = ' probably '
or 'perhaps '.
Quid faciam nescio. What I am to do I don't know
(§ 325- i)-
(c) Dependent Desires :
Hortatur ut popull RomanI fidem sequantur. He exhorts
them to place themselves under the protection of the Roman
people (§ 326).
(d) Dependent Exclamations :
Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You see how
Soracte stands glistening with deep snow (§ 363 b).
Mlrum quantum illl viro fides fuerit. // is strange how
much people trusted that man (§ 363 b).
524 Dependent questions must be carefully distinguished from ad-
jective clauses introduced by a relative pronoun without an ante-
cedent (§ 289), and from adverb clauses introduced by a subordinating
conjunction.
Observe —
(i) The verb (or other word) in the main clause on which
a dependent question depends always denotes some activity of the
mind ; the main clause to which an adjective or adverb clause
belongs may contain any kind of verb : Die mihi quae emeris ' Tell
me what you have bought ' (dep. quest.), Da mihi quae emisti ' Give
me what you have bought' (adj. cl.) ; Quid velim scies 'You
shall know what I want ' (dep. quest.), Quod quaeris [scire] scies
' You shall know what you want [to know] ', adj. cl.
(ii) An adjective clause may be replaced by a noun denoting a
person or thing : quae emisti = ea quae emisti, e. g. poma, vmum, &c.
A dependent question cannot be so replaced ; the answer to it
must always be a sentence, containing a subject and a predicate :
Die mihi quae emeris ( Tell me [the answer to the question] What
have you bought ? ' The answer would be ' I have bought apples,
wine, &c.'
(iii) The English 'whether' may be either interrogative or
a subordinating conjunction meaning 'if on the one hand' : Quaerb
mini incdicuni adhibiturus sis necne, ' I ask whether you are going
to call in a doctor or not ' (dep. quest.) ; Sive incdiciiiii adhibueris,
2
244 SYNTAX
sive nbn adhibueris, non convalesces ' Whether you call in a doctor
or not, you will not recover ' (adverb clause).
Dependent exclamations, which are introduced by an exclama-
tory word, differ in meaning from dependent questions, which are
introduced by an interrogative word. But the subjunctive mood
is used in both : see § 363.
525 (2) Adjective Clauses :
Duas vias occupavit quae ad portum ferebant. He seized
the two roads which led to the harbour.
Quid est quod rides ? What is it that you are laughing
at ? (Contrast Quid est quod rJdeas ?t § 335.)
Omnes qul turn eos agros ubi hodie haec urbs est incole-
bant ill! parebant. All who then occupied the land
where (= on which) this city now stands submitted to him
(Romulus) : Cicero de Rep. ii. 4.
Circumscrlbit nos terminls quos non excedamus. He
confines us within limits which we are not to pass over
(§ 334)-
For other ^?«-clauses with the subjunctive see §§ 335, 337,
338, 341, 343> 344, 346> 355; 3^0, 361, 364.
526 (3) Adverb Clauses :
(a) Clauses of Time, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ubi, uf, 'when', postquam, postedquam, 'after',
simul atque, ' as soon as *, antequam, priusquam, ' before ',
donee, dum, quoad, ' while ', ' until ', cum, ' when ' :
Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves remover! iussit.
When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships to be
withdrawn : B. G. iv. 25. For tense see § 311.
Postea vero quam equitatus noster in conspectum venit,
hostes terga verterunt. But after our cavalry came in
sight, the enemy fled: B. G. iv. 37.
Hostes simul atque se ex fuga recepcrunt, statim legates
mlserunt. As soon as the enemy recovered from their
flight, they immediately sent envoys: B. G. iv. 27.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 245
Neque prius fugere destiterunt, quam ad flumen Rhenum
pervenerunt. Nor did they stop their flight before they
reached the Rhine : B. G. i. 53.
Dum haec geruntur, qul erant in agris reliqul disces-
serunt. While these events were taking place (§ 312), the
others who were in the fields went away : B. G. iv. 34.
Ipse, quoad potuit, fortissime restitit. He resisted most
bravely, as long as he could \ B. G. iv. 12.
De comitiis, donee redjit Marcellus, silentium fuit.
Nothing was said about the elections until Marcellus re-
turned : Livy xxiii .31.
Cum in spem venero aliquid me conficere, statim vos
certiores faciam. When I become (lit. shall have become,
§310) hopeful that I am producing some effect, I will let
you know : Caes. ap. Cic. ad Att. ix. 13.
Cum equitatus noster se in agros eiecerat, essedarios e
silvis emittebat. Whenever our cavalry had sallied out
into the fields, he sent the charioteers out of the woods :
B. G. v. 19.
Infelix Dido, nunc te facta impia tangunt ? Turn decuit,
cum sceptra dabas. Unhappy Dido, does thy disloyalty
now come home to thee ? It should have done so at the
time when thou wast offering thy sceptre : Aen. iv. 596.
For antequam, priusquamt donee, dum, quoad with the
subjunctive see §§ 339, 340. For cum with the subjunctive
see § 358 a.
527 (b) Clauses of Place, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ubi ( where ', qua ' by what route ', quo, 'whither ',
unde, ' whence ' :
Aliae naves eodem, unde erant profectae, referebantur.
Other ships were being carried back to the place from
which they had started: B. G. iv. 28.
528 (c) Clauses of Cause, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions quia, quod, quoniam, ' because.'
Reliquos secum ducere decreverat, quod motum Galliae
246 SYNTAX
verebatur. He had decided to take the rest with him,
because he feared a rising in Gaul: B. G. v. 5.
For cum ' since ' with the subjunctive see § 358 b.
529 (d) Clauses of Purpose, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ut 'in order that ', ne 'in order that . . . not ',
quo 'whereby ', with the subjunctive (§ 338) :
Labienum in continent! reliquit, ut portus tueretur.
530 (e) Clauses of Result, introduced by the subordinating
conjunction ut 'that ' with the subjunctive:
Ita currus collocant ut expeditum ad suos receptum
habeant (§ 360).
531 (/) Clauses of Condition, introduced by the subordinat-
ing conjunctions si 'if, nisi 'unless', with the indicative
or the subjunctive, or by dum, dummodo 'provided that*
with the subjunctive (§ 343).
A complex sentence containing a clause of condition is
called a 'conditional sentence*.
The indicative mood is used in the ^/-clause in instances
like the following :
Si peccat, poenam meret. If he is doing wrong (= if it is
a fact that he is doing wrong), he deserves punishment.
Si peccaverit, poenam merebit. If he does (lit. shall have
done, § 310) wrong, he will deserve punishment .
Si peccavit (or peccabat), poenam meruit (or merebat).
If he did wrong, he deserved punishment.
Si peccavit, puniatur. If he has done wrong, let him be
punished.
These clauses of condition may be called ' open ' as distinct
from the clauses of condition which take the subjunctive
(§§ 349; 35°)' 5F p^ccat means simply ' If it is a fact that he
is doing wrong ' ; the speaker does not imply that it is a fact
or that it is not.
RULE. — Open clauses of condition take the indicative mood,
and the main clause is free in regard to tense and mood.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 247
532 (g) Clauses of Concession, introduced by the sub-
ordinating conjunctions etsi 'even if, 'although5, with the
indicative or the subjunctive, quamquam ' although ' with the
indicative :
Etsi in his locls maturae sunt hiemes, tamen in Britan-
niam contendit. Although the winters are early in these
parts, yet he hastily crossed to Britain : B. G. iv. 20.
For quamv'is, ut, ' although ', with the subjunctive, see
§ 343 \ f°r cum 'although * with the subjunctive see § 358 b.
533 (//) Clauses of Comparison :
(i) denoting manner, introduced by the subordinating con-
junctions ut, sTcut, quemadmodum, quam, 'as ' :
Valeant preces apud te meae, sTcut pro te hodie valuerunt.
May my prayers be as effectual with you, as they have
been for you to-day ! Livy xxiii. 8.
For quasi, velut sJ, tanquam, tanquam sT, 'as if/ 'as
though ', with the subjunctive, see § 337.
(ii) denoting degree, introduced by the subordinating con-
junction quam ' than*, or by words meaning 'as ' :
Est Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Ireland is
smaller than Britain by half.
For quam ut ' than that ' with the subjunctive see § 337.
OBS. After adjectives and adverbs that denote likeness or
difference (par, pariter; similis, similiter; aeque, perinde ; alius,
aliter ; contrarius, contra, secus) the clause of comparison is
introduced by atque or ac\
Simili ratione (or Alia ratione) ac ipse feel iniiirias vestras
persequiminl. Avenge your wrongs in the same ivay
as (or otherwise than) I have done: B. G. vii. 38.
VIII. REPORTED SPEECH
534 Instead of quoting the words used by a speaker, an historian
may report what was said.
Reported speech takes the form of subordinate clauses
depending on a verb of ' saying ' (called the leading verb),
expressed or understood.
ORIGINAL SPEECH :
Desilite, milites, nisi vultis
aquilam hostibus prodere :
ego certe meum rei publi-
cae atque imperatori offi-
cium praestitero (= prae-
stabo). Leap down, soldiers,
unless you want to betray the
eagle to the enemy : I at any
rate shall do my duty to the
'commonwealth and to the
general. Quoted by Caesar,
B. G. iv. 25.
535 Simple sentences and main clauses of the original speech
become noun clauses in the reported speech (§ 523).
536 Statements in the indicative become dependent statements
in the accusative with infinitive construction (§ 467) :
Ego certe officium meum prae- ( se certe officium suum prae.
stabo. | staturum esse.
537 Desires become dependent desires with the subjunctive
(§ 329) :
REPORTED SPEECH :
Desillrent, nisi vellent aqui-
lam hostibus prodere : se
certe suum rei publicae at-
que imperatori officium
praestaturum esse. They
ivere to leap down (§ 325, ii)
unless they wanted (§ 363) to
betray the eagle to the enemy :
he at any rate would do his
duty to the commonwealth
and to the general ($ 467).
Desilite, milites, neve aquilam
hostibus prodiderltis (or
nollte aquilam hostibus pro-
dere).
Desilirent, neve aquilam hos-
tibus proderent.
REPORTED SPEECH
249
The vocative is generally omitted ; but it may appear as
a nominative in the reported speech, if necessary for the sake
of drawing a distinction between one section of the persons
addressed and another : e. g. desillrent mllites decimae legionis;
ceterl in nave manerent.
538 Questions generally become dependent questions with the
subjunctive (§§ 363, 325) ; but see below, § 541 :
Num aquilam hostibus pro-
dere vultis ?
His barbarls cedamus? Ho-
rum condiciones audiamus?
Cum his pacem fieri posse
credamus ? 1
Num aquilam hostibus pro-
dere vellent ?
Cederentne illls barbarls ?
Audlrentne eorum condi-
ciones ? Pacemne cum ils
fieri posse crederent ?
539 Exclamations, if immediately dependent on a verb like
mifminissent ' let them remember ', or reputarent ' let them
reflect', become dependent exclamations with the subjunctive
(§ 363) ; otherwise they are expressed by the accusative with
infinitive (see below, § 545):
Quanto dedecori est aquilam (Meminissent) quanto dede-
hostibus prodere ! How corl esset aquilam hostibus
great a disgrace it is to be- prodere. (Let them remem-
tray the eagle to the enemy ! her) how great a disgrace it
was to betray the eagle to the
enemy.
540 Adjective and adverb clauses of the original speech
remain adjective and adverb clauses in the reported speech ;
but they always take the subjunctive mood, whatever the mood
of the original speech may have been (§ 364).
nisi vultis aquilam hostibus
prodere, qul nos circu in-
stant, unless you wish to be-
tray the eagle to the enemy
who surround us.
nisi vellent aquilam hostibus
prodere, qul se (§ 5 1 1 ) circum-
starent, unless they wished to
betray the eagle to the enemy
who surrounded them.
1 Questions as to what is to be done (§ 325).
xiii. 16.
Compare Cicero, Philippic
250
SYNTAX
541 Noun clauses of the original speech remain noun clauses
in the reported speech : e, g.
Ego certe promittomeofficium se certe promittere se officium
meum rei publicae praesta-
turum esse. / at any rate
promise that I ivill do my
duty to the commonwealth.
suum rei publicae praesta-
turum esse, that he at any
rale promised that he would
do his duty to the common-
wealth.
But the indicative of a ^o^-clause becomes a subjunctive :
Haec est causa victoriarum
nostrarum quod quisque
officium suum praestitit.
This is the reason of our
victories, that each man has
done his duty.
hanc esse causam victoria-
rum suarum quod quisque
officium suum praestitisset,
that this was the reason of
their victories, that each man
had done his duty.
542 In dependence on a tense of past time (such as dixit 'he
said ') all the subjunctives of the reported speech are, as a
general rule, in the Past or the Past Perfect tense — in the
Past when the action is to be marked as not completed, in
the Past Perfect when the action is to be marked as completed.
Note that a Future or a Future Perfect Indicative of the
original speech is represented in the reported speech by a
prospective subjunctive (Past or Past Perfect, § 341) :
Magno dedecori erit, si aqui-
lam hostibus prodetis (or
prodideritis). // will be a
great disgrace, if you betray
the eagle to the enemy.
magno dedecori fore si aqui-
lam hostibus proderent (or
prodidissent), that it would
be a great disgrace, if they be-
trayed the eagle to the enemy.
For the use of tenses of the infinitive see §§ 467-9.
543 When the leading verb is of the 3rd person, pronouns and
possessive adjectives referring to the subject of the leading
verb, or denoting a person addressed by the subject of the
leading verb, are of the 3rd person in reported speech ;
REPORTED SPEECH 251
) become se and suus (§ 511); but ipse is
ego and meus sometimes used in order to avoid am-
nos and noster^ biguity (§ gia)i
f« and tos become is and eius, or ilk and
ws and vester become wand eorum, or illl and illorum.
544 When the leading verb is in a tense of past time, the
demonstrative hie 'this' and such adverbs as nunc 'now',
hodie 'to-day', hen 'yesterday', eras 'to-morrow', generally
become in reported speech ilk 'that', turn 'then', eo die 'on
that day ', pridie ' on the day before ', postero die ' on the next
day'. But Caesar often retains hie and nunc of the original
speech.1
Notes.
545 Rhetorical questions (i. e. questions which are equivalent
to statements expressing surprise or indignation) occurring
in the middle of a passage of reported speech are generally
expressed by the accusative with the infinitive, especially when
the verb is of the ist or 3rd person :
Num quando in exercitu
Caesaris admissum est de-
decus ? Has dishonour ever
been sustained in Caesar's
. army ?
Num quando in exercitu
Caesaris admissum esse
dedecus ? Had dishonour
ever been sustained in
Caesar's army ?
So too exclamations occurring in the middle of a passage
of reported speech :
Quanto dedecori est aquilam
hostibus prodere !
Quanto dedecori esse aquilam
hostibus prodere !
546 A command standing immediately after the leading verb
may be introduced by ut 'that': e.g. imperavit ut mJlites
desitirent 'he commanded that the soldiers should leap down ' ;
but commands in the middle of reported speech have no
conjunction (see example above, § 537).
1 For example, B. G. i. 14. 5 ; i. 31. 5 5 i- 32. 45 v. 27. 5 ; v. 29. 5 ;
yii. 20. 6 5 vii. 14. 10 ; vii. 14. 5.
252 SYNTAX
547 Relative clauses which are coordinate (qui = ct is or sed is
or nam is, § 120) generally1 stand in the accusative with the
infinitive : for example the sentence quoted in § 120 might be
reported as follows :
Magnum numerum obsidum se imperavisse: quibus ad-
ductls se Morinos in fidem recepisse.
548 The Present and the Perfect Subjunctive are sometimes
used for the sake of variety in the course of a long passage of
reported speech depending on a leading verb in a tense of
past time (see § 366) :
(Respondit) non sese Gallis sed Gallos sibi bellum in-
tulisse ... Si iterum experlri velint, se iterum paratum
esse decertare ; si pace Qtl velint, inlquum esse de
stipendio recusare, quod sua voluntate ad id tempus
pependerint. He answered that it was not he who had
made war upon the Gauls, but they upon him. ... If
they wanted to try again, he was ready to fight to a finish;
if they desired to enjoy peace, it was unreasonable to make
difficulties about the tribute, which they had paid without
grumbling up to that time : B. G. i. 44. 3, 4.
549 Comments of the reporter added parenthetically and
forming no part of the report do not come under the above
rules :
Interim Caesari nuntiatur Sulmonenses, quod oppidum a
Corflnio vn mllium intervallo abest, cupere ea facere
quae vellet. Meanwhile it is reported to Caesar that the
people of Sulmo, a town which is seven miles away (this
is a comment of Caesar, not part of what was reported to
him), were desirous of doing what he ivanted : B. C. i. 18.
For the forms which conditional sentences take in depen-
dence on a verb which requires the accusative with infinitive
construction see § 471.
1 For exceptions see Prof. Reid's note on Cicero, Amic. § 45.
REPORTED SPEECH
253
55° Conversion of Reported Speech into the speech which it
represents.
(i) Report of proposals made
by Ambiorix to Sabinus and
Cotta.
Apud quos Ambiorix ad hunc
modum locutus est : Sese pro
Caesaris in se beneficils pluri-
mum el confiteri debere,1 quod
eius opera stlpendio liberatus
esset, quod Aduatucis, flnitimis
suls, pendere consuesset, quod-
que d"2 et f Ilius et fratris films
a Caesare remissl essent, quos
AduatucI obsidum numero mis-
sos apud se in servitute et cate-
nls tenuissent-, neque id quod
fecerit de oppugnatione castro-
rum aut iudicio aut voluntate
sudfecisse? sed coactu civitatis ;
suaque esse eius modi imperia,
ut non minus haberet iuris in se
multitude quam ipse in multitu-
dinem. CIvitatT porro hancfuisse
belli causam, quod repentlnae
Gallorum coniurationl resistere
non potuerit. Id se facile ex
humilitate snd probare posse,
quod non adeo sit imperltus
rerum, ut suis copils populum
Romanum superarl posse con-
fidat. Sed esse Galliae commune
consiliunt : omnibus hlbernis
Caesaris oppugnandls hunc esse
dictum diem, ne qua legio alterl
legionl subsidio venire posset. . . .
Monere,1 ordre1 Titunumz pro
hospitio, ut suae ac mllitum
salutl consulat. Magnam manum
Germanorum conductam Rhe-
Specch represented.
Apud quos Ambiorix ' Ego
(orEqittdem)1 inquit 'pro Caesa-
ris in me beneficils plurimum el
confiteor me debere, quod eius
opera stlpendio liberatus sum,
quod Aduatucis, flnitimis mels,
pendere consuevi, quodque mihi
et f Ilius et fratris f Ilius a Caesare
remissl sunt, quos AduatucI ob-
sidum numero missos apud se J
in servitute et catenls tenuerant ;
neque id quod feet de oppugna-
tione castrorum aut iudicio aut
voluntate med feet, sed coactu
civitatis: meaque sunt eius modi
imperia, ut non minus habeat
iuris in me multitude quam ego
in multitudinem. Clvitatl porro
haec fuit belli causa, quod re-
pentlnae Gallorum coniurationl
resistere non potuit. Id facile
ex humilitate med probare pos-
sum, quod non adeo sum imperl-
tus rerum, ut mels copils populum
Romanum superarl posse con-
fldam. Sed est Galliae commune
consilium : omnibus hlbernis
Caesaris oppugnandls hie est
dictus dies, ne qua legio alterl
legionl subsidio venire possit. . . .
Moneo, orb te pro hospitio, ut
tuae ac mllitum salutl consulds.
Magna mantis Germanorum
conducta Rhenum transiit ; haec
aderit blduo. Vestrum 2 ipsorum
254
SYNTAX
num transtsse ; hanc adfore blduo.
Ipsbrum esse cons ilium, vetintne,
prius quam flnitimi sentiant,
eductos ex hlberms mllites aut
ad Ciceronem aut ad Labienum
deducere. . . . Illud se pollicen et
iure iurando confirmare, tutum
se iter per suds fines daturum.4
(B. G. v. 27.)
1 The accusative-subject J6~ is
understood.
2 For sibi, as several times in
Caesar : cf. B. G. i. 6. 3 ; i, n. 3.
3 For ilium or eutn.
4 For daturum esse.
(2) Report of the debate in the
Roman camp.
Contra ea Titurius serofactu-
ros1 clamitabat, cum maiores
manus hostium adiunctls Ger-
manls convenissent, aut cum ali-
quid calamitatis in proximls
hlbernls esset acceptum. Breveni
consulendl esse occasionem.
Caesarem se arbitrari profectum
in Italiam ; neque aliterCarnutes
interficiendl Tasgetil consilium
fuisse capturos, neque Eburones,
si ille adesset, tanta contemp-
tione nostrl2 ad castra ventures?
Sese non hostem auctorem, scd
rem spectare : subesse Rhenum ;
rnagno esse Germanls dolor!
Ariovisti mortem ct superiores
nostrds victorias ; ardere Galliam
tot contumelils acceptls sub
popull Roman! imperium reda-
<7/«;;/,superiore gloria rel inilitaris
exstincta. Postremo quis hoc
est consilium, velitisne, prius quam
flnitimi sentiant,3 eductos ex hi-
bernls mllites aut ad Ciceronem
aut ad Labienum deducere. . . .
Illud polliceor et iure iurando
confirmb, tutum me iter per meos
(or nostrds) fines daturum.'
1 Referring to the subject of tenue-
rant (cf. § 512).
2 Possessive adjective =' of you ',
emphasized by ipsorum.
3 Prospective subjunctive (§ 340)
Speech represented.
Contra ea Titurius ' Sero
faciemus ' inquit ' cum maiores
manus hostium adiunctls Ger-
manls convenerint, aut cum ali-
quid calamitatis in proximls
hlbernls erit acceptum. Brevis
consulendl est occasib. Caesarem
arbitror profectum in Italiam ;
neque aliter Carnutes interfi-
ciendl Tasgetil consilium cepis-
sent, neque Eburones, si ille
adesset, tanta contemptione
nostrl ad castra venissent. Non
hostem auctorem, sed rem specto :
sitbcst Rhcnus\ magno est Ger-
manls dolor! Ariovisti mors et
superiores nostrae victbriae ; ardet
Gallia tot contumelils acceptls
sub popull Roman! imperium
redacia, supcriore gloria rel mill-
taris exstincta. Postremo quis
hoc sibi persuadeat) sine certa
REPORTED SPEECH
255
sibi persitaderet, sine certa spe
Ambiorlgem ad eius modi con-
silium descendisse ? Suam sen-
ientiam in utramque partem esse
tiitam : si nihil esset durius, nullo
cum periculo ad proximam legio-
nzmperventuros l ; si Gallia omnis
cum Germanls consentiret, unam
esse in celeritate/os/to* saluiem.
Cottae quidem atque eorum, qui
dissentirent consilium quern ha-
bere exitum ? in quo si non
praesens perlculum, at certe
longinqua obsidione lames esset
timenda. (B. G. v. 29.)
1 The accusative-subject se is
understood.
2 nostri is here used because the
reporter (Caesar) is writing as a
Roman to Romans. He might have
used sut, which would have ex-
pressed the meaning from the point
of view of Titurius. So, too, nostras
below might have been reported by
suds. 3 Supply fitisse.
spe Ambiorlgem ad eius modi
consilium descendisse ? Mea
sententia in utramque partem est
tuta : si nihil erit durius, nullo
cum perlculo ad proximam legio-
nempervememus', si Gallia omnis
cum Germanls consentit, una est
in celeritate posita salus. Cottae
quidem atque eorum qui dissen-
tiunt consilium quern habet exi-
tum? in quo si non praesens
perlculum, at certe longinqua
obsidione fames est timenda '.
256 SYNTAX
IX. ORDER OF WORDS
Rules of Normal Order.
551 RULES i and 2. The two most important rules of normal order
have already been given (§ 3). In the following sentence the
position of every word except populus and the conjunctions
is determined by these two rules, which apply to phrases
(§ 260) as well as to single words.1
Populus Romanus urbes sociorum suorum,
The nation Roman the cities of allies its
imperio suo infestas, aut vl aut obsidione in potestatem
to rule its hostile, either by force or by siege to sway
suam redegit :
its reduced:
i. e. The Roman nation reduced to its sway, either by force or
by siege, the cities of its allies hostile to its rule.
552 But there is one exception :
Demonstrative, interrogative, and numeral (cardinal and
ordinal 2) adjectives, together with adjectives denoting quantity
or size (i. e. words meaning ' all ', ' some ', ' many ', ' few ', and
words denoting ' big ', ' little ', and the like) generally stand
before their nouns :
hie homo, is homo, tanta res, alia res, quae res?, utra
1 Thus the adjective phrase impend suo infestas comes after urbes ; and in
that phrase the adverbial dative imperio suo (§414) comes before infestas.
The phrases aut vl aut obsidione and in potestatem suam are both adverbial
to redegit, and therefore precede it.
2 The ordinal numerals generally stand after the words dies, horn, and
annus, e. g. ante diem quartum Kalcndds Maids, l the fourth day before the
Calends of May ' = April s8th ; annus millensimus nongentensimiis nonus
'the year 1909'; otherwise they precede their nouns, e.g. prima et
secunda acies ' the first and the second line ', prtmtttn agmen ( the head of
the column'; decima legio 'the tenth legion', quarta pars copidrum 'the
fourth part of the forces '.
ORDER OF WORDS 257
pars?, quanta multitude?, quota hora?; duae naves,
vlginti milia hominum.
omnes (non null!, multl, paucl) homines, magnus numerus,
magno animo, parva res, parvum spatium.
553 RULE 3. Relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative
adverbs stand at the beginning of the clause which they
introduce :
Hae sunt arbores quarum in umbra iacebat. These are
' the trees in the shade of which (or in whose shade) he was
lying. Not in umbra quarum nor in quarum umbra.
Thus a co-ordinating relative takes precedence of a sub-
ordinating conjunction :
Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remls incitarl
iussit. When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships
of war to be set in motion by means of oars : B. G. iv. 25.
The only words which can stand before a relative are pre-
positions; and even a preposition may be placed after the
relative, especially cum :
Proximi sunt Germams, quibuscum continenter bellum
gerunt. They are the nearest to the Germans, with whom
they continually wage war: B. G. i. 4.
qua de causa, for which reason ; quapropter, quocirca,
wherefore (compounds of a preposition with an ad-
verbial ablative of the relative pronoun).
554 RULE 4. Five exceedingly common co-ordinating con-
junctions
-que, and
ve, or
autem, vero, however.
enim, for
always stand immediately after the word, or the first word of
the group, which they connect :
pedites equitesque; senatus populusqueRomanus; terram
attigit omnesque incolumes naves perduxit (B. G. v. 23. 6;
here -que connects the two parts of the double sentence) ;
prospera adversave fortuna; a nullo videbatur, ipse
901 R
258 SYNTAX
autem omnia videbat ; eo tempore timSbam, nunc vero
timere non debeo ; civis enim Romanus erat.
OBS. Several sentence-adverbs,1 like quoque 'too*, 'also',
igitur ' therefore ',2 and -ne (used in asking questions) stand
after the word, or the first word of the group, to which they
belong :
tu quoque aderas; quid igitur respondeam?; pacemne
hue fertis an arma ?
555 RULE 5.— Most adverbs stand immediately before the word
which they qualify (and therefore come after objects, cf.
Rule 2) :
Hoc saepe dixi.
Especially the adverb non :
Hoc non dixi. Hoc dicere non possum. Hoc non saepe
dixi. Non omnes hoc dlcunt.
Order of clauses in complex sentences.
Rules i and 2 are applicable, to some extent, to adjective
and adverb clauses.
556 (i) Adjective clauses usually come after the word to which
they are adjectival ; see § 525.
557 (2) The following kinds of adverb clause usually come
before the clause whose verb they qualify :
cww-clauses (temporal or causal or concessive) and
clauses of time introduced by postquam, posteaqtiam,
ubi, ut, simul atque ; see § 358 and § 526.
clauses of condition and concession ; see § 350 and
§§ S31; 532.
So, too, the ablative absolute construction (equivalent to an
adverb clause) ; see § 494.
1 Sentence-adverbs are adverbs which qualify the sentence as a whole,
and not any particular word in it. But they sometimes have the effect
of emphasizing a particular word in the sentence.
2 Igitur, however, generally stands at the beginning of its clause in
Sallust and Tacitus.
ORDER OF WORDS 259
But prospective clauses and clauses of purpose and result
usually come after the clause whose verb they qualify ; see
§§ 338; 34°; 360, and §§ 529, 530.
558 As to noun clauses, the only generally applicable rule is
that noun clauses introduced by ut, ne, quominus or qum
usually stand after the clause on whose verb they depend
(whether as subject or object) : see §§ 326-33 and § 523.
559 Complication of clauses.— The Latin writers sometimes
go very far in putting one clause inside another, like Chinese
boxes :
Qui cum ex equitum fuga quo in loco res esset cognovissent,
nihil ad celeritatem sibi reliqui fecerunt. Lit. Who,
when from the flight of the cavalry what was the position
of affairs they had learned, left nothing undone in the
way of speed : B. G. ii. 26. 5.
Si quis, qui, quid agam, forte requlret, erit, vlvere me
dices. Lit. If there shall be any one, who, what I am
doing, perchance shall inquire, say that I am alive : Ovid,
Trist. i. i. 18.
In these instances each clause comes exactly in the position
which would be expected from Rules i and 2 ; but such sen-
tences are complicated and rather obscure. In writing Latin
the beginner will do well, as a rule, to finish off one clause
before beginning another. It is not necessary that the rela-
tive pronoun should come immediately after its antecedent.
For instance, ' I know the man whom you say you saw
yesterday* may be translated Hominem ndvl quern te heri
vtdisse dicis as well as Hominem quern te heri vidisse dicis novJ,
and the simpler order is often clearer.
Departures from normal order.
560 In no language is the order of words rigidly fixed ; and in
Latin the order is more elastic than in English, owing to its
wealth of inflected forms. Thus we find that the normal
order is frequently changed for various reasons.
R 2
260 SYNTAX
(1) To put a word in an unexpected position often makes it
prominent and emphatic :
Romanum imperium vestra fide, vestris vlribus reten-
tum est. // is by your loyalty, by your might, that the
empire of Rome herself has been upheld'. Livy xxiii. 5
(epithets placed before their nouns).
(2) A group of words is often divided by putting compara-
tively unimportant words in the middle of it. The effect of
this arrangement is to make the divided phrase, or one part
of it, emphatic :
Magnus ibi numerus pecoris repertus est. A great
number of sheep were found there : B. G. v. 21 (ibi
between magnus and numerus).
Omnis accusatoris oratio in duas divisa est partes. The
whole speech of the prosecutor was divided into two parts :
Cic. Cluent. i. i.
Aliud iter habebant nullum. Other road they had none :
B. G. i. 7.
(3) Words are sometimes thrown in, as it were by an after-
thought, at the end of a sentence. This may be called tag-
order. For instance, instead of 'I am always glad to see
you * we may say in English ' I am glad to see you — always ':
Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter.
When I was in Athens I used to attend the lectures of
Zeno — constantly : Cic. Nat. Deor. i. 59.
(4) The verb est, in the sense 'there is ', often stands at the
beginning of a sentence :
Erant in ea legione duo virl fortissiml. There were in that
legion two very brave men : B. G. v. 44.
It may also be put before a predicative adjective or noun :
Haec gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima : B. G. iv. i.
(5) Imperatives are often put at the beginning of the sen-
ORDER OF WORDS 261
tence or clause, as in French and English, with adverbs and
objects after them :
Egredere aliquando ex urbe . . . Educ tecum etiam omnes
tuos . . . Purga urbem : Cic. Cat. i. 10.
(6) In a group of words consisting of a noun + adjective +
adverb phrase, the adverb phrase stands between the adjective
and the noun, and the adjective often comes first :
magna inter Gallos auctoritas, great influence among the
Gauls (§ 395) ; suum rel publicae atque imperatori offi-
cium, his duty to the commonwealth and to the general
(§ 534)-
(7) The order of words in a sentence or clause is to a con-
siderable extent influenced by the sentence or clause which
precedes and by that which follows.
(a) The speaker or writer often begins with a word or
phrase which is closely connected in meaning with some-
thing which has been said in the preceding sentence or
clause : thus after a description of a battle, ending with
Hominum enini multitiidine receptus impediebatitr, Caesar goes
on as follows (B. C. iii. 64. 3) :
In eo proelio cum gravl vulnere esset adtectus aquilifer
et iam vlribus deficeretur, conspicatus equites nostros
' Hanc ego* inquit 'et vlvus multos per annos magna
dlligentia defendl et nunc moriens eadem fide Caesarl
restituo. Nollte, obsecro, committere, quod ante in
exercitu Caesaris non accidit, ut rel mllitaris dedecus
admittatur, incolumemque ad eum deferte. Hoc casu
aquila conservatur.
Here in eo proelio and hoc casu have the effect of conjunc-
tions or co-ordinating relatives ; for they connect what follows
with what precedes.
(b) The speaker or writer often ends with a word which
prepares the way for something that is to be said in the fol-
lowing sentence or clause : thus in the first sentence of the
Gallic War Caesar writes Gallia est omnis dlvisa in paries
262 SYNTAX
ires (not in tres paries divisd), because he is going to describe
these three parts in detail in the next sentence : ' The divisions
of Gaul are three — as follows.5 And in § 5 of the same
chapter he writes initium capit aflumine Rhodano, because he
is going to speak of other boundaries of this part of Gaul.
This principle will explain many instances in which an
adverb phrase or an object is placed after the verb. In many
examples the effect of the transposition is to bring a noun
into immediate contact with a relative pronoun, as in the first
instance above (in paries tres immediately before quarum),
and in the following :
Relinquo haec omnia ; quae si velim persequi, etc.: Cic.
Verr. v. 21.
(8) The normal order is often changed in order to make
the sentence more rhythmical or in other ways more pleasing
to the ear. This is true of prose as well as verse, though in
verse (English as well as Latin) the normal order is often
changed more than would be permissible in prose. But it
must not be supposed that the words can stand in any order,
even in verse.
INDEX
The references are to the sections
abbreviations, App. XL
abhinc 441, note
ablative 12 ; adverbial 429-448 ; ad-
jectival 449 ; as object 450, 451 ;
with a preposition 452-454 ; ab-
lative absolute 494-497
ac ' than ' 533, obs.
accent 10
accusative n ; as object 379-388
(retained, in the passive construc-
tion 386) ; adverbial 389-393 ;
with a preposition 394, 395 ; with
infinitive 462-473 (in reported
speech 536, 545, 547)
adjectives 18-21, 31-33, 46-50;
numeral 80-95 ; comparison of
66-72 ; possessive 103 ; demon-
strative 104-109, 124, 515; inter-
rogative no, 516; indefinite in-
118, 517, 519; relative 119-121,
124; reflexive 103,511-514
adjective clauses 525 ; with subjunc-
tive 334, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343,
344, 346, 355, 360, 361; in re-
ported speech 364
adverbs, formation of 73-77 ; com-
parison of 78, 79 ; numeral 84 ;
demonstrative 124 ; relative 124,
525
adverb clauses 526-533 ; with sub-
junctive 335-346, 358-360, 364 ;
of time 339, 340, 358 a, 526 ; of
place 527 ; of cause 358 b, 528 ; of
purpose 338, 529 ; of result 360,
530; of condition 343, 349, 350,
531 ; of concession 343, 358 b,
532 ; of comparison 337, 533 ; in
reported speech 364, 540
agreement, of verb 270-273 ; of pre-
dicative adjective and predicative
noun 274-276; of verb adjectives
277 ; of epithets 279-281 ; of pro-
nouns 282-289
aid 248
aliquis 112
alms 109
alter 91
an 522
analysis of sentences 250-268, 520-
533
antequani 340, 526
apposition 258, 281
audio, conjugated 149-151, 156-158
bos App. XIII
calendar, App. XXXVIII
cam's App. IX
capt'dj conjugated 159-163
card App. XIII
cases, general meanings of 10-12 ;
nominative 368-377; vocative 378;
accusative 379-397 ; dative 398-
415 ; genitive 416-427 ; ablative
428-454
celerApp. XVII
civitas App. XII
clause, subordinate 261, 523-533;
main 266. See adjective clauses,
adverb clauses, noun clauses
coepi 249
commands 313-316. 320-322 ; de-
pendent 326-329, 523
comparative clauses 533; subordi-
nate to accus. with infin. 473
comparison of Latin with modern
languages 2
comparison of adjectives 66-72 ; ot
adverbs 78, 79
complex sentences 265-268
compound verbs, principal parts of,
App. XLI
conditional sentences 531, 350 ; in
subordination 355, 471
conditioned futurity, subjunctives of
347-356
264
INDEX
conjugations, the four 144-151, 156-
158 ; mixed conjugation 159-163 ;
principal parts in all conjugations
170 237
conjunctions, co-ordinating 521 ; sub-
ordinating 526-533
co-ordinating relatives 120, 521, 547
cor App. XIII
corresponding words 122-124
c«w-clauses 358, 359, 526
dative n, 398; as object 399-405;
adverbial 407-415
decet 375
demonstratives in Engl. and Lat.
515
dependent clauses523 ; distinguished
from other subordinate clauses
511, note ; dep. questions distin-
guished from adjective and adverb
clauses 524
deponent verbs 164-169
desires 313-316, 320-323 ; subordi-
nate 325 (ii)-332, 338, 523 (c]
deus 22, App. IV (b\
dives App. XVI
domus 54
donee 340, 526
double or multiple sentences 263 ;
members of a sentence 264, 521
dubito (non d. quiii) 362 (6)
dum 312, 340, 343, 526
duo 89, App. IV (c)
ecquis 516
edo 247
English words not expressed by
separate words in Latin 4
eo 243, 244
epithets 256-258 ; agreement of 279-
281
-esimus, -ensimus App. XXI
etiam ' yes ' 520
etst 532
exclamations 388, 520 (4) ; depend-
ent 363, 523 (d)
fdrl 248
faux App. XI
faximjaxo App. XXXV
fern 241
/id 246
f rater App. VIII
gender of nouns 56-65 ; exceptions
to rules of gender. App. XXIII-
XXVII
genitive n; adjectival 417-422; ad-
verbial 423 426 ; as object 427
gerund 135, 503 506
gerund-adjective 133, 500-502
gradior 166
habed, conjugation of 149-151, 156-
158
hand sew an 523 b
hie 104 ; and hie 124, 544
historic infinitive 480 ; sequence
of, 367. 4 ; historic present 293 ii ;
sequence of, 367. 3
idem 108
-tens App. XXI
ignis App. VII
Tile 105
imber App. XI
imperative mood 129, 313-316 ; in
suppositions 317
impersonal verbs 370-376
impersonal passive construction
125. 2, 133, 137 note, 377, 406
indicative mood 126 128, 290 ; tenses
of 291-309
infinitive 134 ; as object 456-461 ;
as subject and predicative noun
477 479 5 historic 480; in excla-
mations 481 ; original meaning of,
482-485 ; accusative with infini-
tive 462-473 ; tenses of infinitive
134, 467-471 ; nominative with in-
finitive 474 476
inquam 248
interest 373
ipse 102, 512
irregular verbs 238 249
ita restrictive 345 ; --^ k yes ' 520
iter App. XIII
luppiter App. XIII
ius iurandum App. XIII
iuvents App. IX
liberi 21, App. IV (6)
libet 374
licet 374
liquet 374
Its App. XI
locative case 13, 55
locus App. I
INDEX
265
mala 242
water App. VIII
memini 249
men sis A pp. IX
mixed conjugation 159-163
money, App. XXXIX
morior 166
tie ' not ' 520 (6), 315, 316, 320-322,
327 330, 332, 338 ; neve 327
• ne 520 (a a), 522. 523 (A), 363
negative commands 315, 316, 520 (/O
neqited 245
nescio an 523 /;
neuter 9 1
w»'.r App. XI
7/0/0 242
nominative n, 368. 369; with in-
finitive 474-476
nonne 520 (2 a)
nouns 14 ; ist dec!. 15 ; 2nd dec).
16, 17, 21, 22; 3rd decl. 23-30,
34-45 ; 4th decl. 51, 52 ; 5th decl.
53, 545 gender of 56 65 ; App.
XXIII-XXVII
noun clauses 261, 523; with sub-
junctive 325-333
nullus 86.
num 520 (2 a), 523 (6), 355, 363
numeral adjectives 80-95
numeral adverbs 84, 85
nutnmus App. IV (a)
mine 544
object 253 ; direct 380-388 (cognate
382) ; indirect 399-402 ; other
dative objects 403-405 ; genitive
objects 427 ; ablative objects 450,
45i
ottl 249
'one . . . another' 109, 514
oportet 375, 353
optimates App. XI
Order of clauses 556-559
Order of words 3, 551-560
orior 167
05 App. XIII ; 5s 37
par ens App. X
participles 132, 486-499 ; of depo-
nents 164
passive voice 125 ; formation of 152 ;
uses of 386, 387, 402 ; impersonal
377, 406
pater App. VIII
patior 1 66
pauper App. XVI
pendtes App. XI
Perfect Active, formation of 171;
compounds, App. XLI
Perfect Participle Passive, formation
of 172
phrases 260
possum 240, 353, 456 (6)
postquam 526 ; with Perfect tense
311
postulative use of moods 317, 342-346
predicate 250-255
predicative adjective, noun, and pro-
noun 254, 255 ; agreement of 274
278, 457, 464
prepositions 4, 394, 395 ; with accus.
396; with accus. or abl. 397 ; with
abl. 452, 453
princeps App. XVI
principal parts of verbs, classified
list 170-237 ; alphabetical list,
App. XLI, XLII
priusquani 340. 526
pronouns : personal 96-101 ; demon-
strative 104-109, 124, 278, 515 ;
agreement of 282-285 ; interroga-
tive no, 278, 516; indefinite
111-118, 517; relative 119-121.
124, 278, 290, 518, 519; agree-
ment of 286-289 ; reflexive 100,
101, 510-514 ; in reported speech
543
pronunciation of Latin 5-7
prospective subjunctive 339-341
prosum 239
puppis App. V (a)
qualis 46, 124
quam 533 (ii) ; quam ut 337 ; quasi
337 > #w«w-clauses subordinate to
accus. with infin. 473
quantity of syllables 8, 9
quantus 21, 124
queo 245
questions 520 ; double 521 ; with
subjunctive 319 ; depenclentsas (i),
363, 523, 524
qtti, quae, quod 119: co-ordinating
120, 521, 547
qwcumqm 518, 519
qntdam 113
qttllibet 114
266
INDEX
quill 331, 336, 356, 360 obs., 362
note, 362 (6)
quis 1 10
quisnam 516
quispiam 118
qnisquam 115, 517
quisqite 117 517
quisquis 518
#/«™.s 114, 517
#«oaaf 340, 526
quominus 330 obs., 338
refert 373
reflexive pronouns 98, 100, 510-513
rcgo, conjugation of 149-151, 156-158
reported speech 534-55°
securis App. V (a)
senex App. XIII
sentence adverbs 521, 554 obs.
sentences : simple 262, double 263,
multiple 263, complex 265-268 ;
classification of 520
sequence of tenses 365-367, 548
sestertius App. IV (a)
sitis App. V (a), VI
solus 86
statements 520 (i) ; dependent
523 («), 467-473 ; use of reflex-
ives in 511
subject 250, 251 ; of infinitive 462
subjunctive mood 130, 131 ; denoting
what ts to be done 319-346 (of
purpose 338, prospective 339-341,
postulative 342-346) ; denoting
conditioned futurity 347-356 ; with
weakened meaning 357-364 with
cum 358, with utj quJ or quin
360-362, in dependent questions
and exclamations 363, expressing
the thought of another 364) ; in
reported speech 537-542, 548
subordinate clauses 261, 523-533 ;
tenses in, 310-312; conjunctions
introducing, 526-533
sum, conjugation of 141, 142 ; com-
pounds of 239, 240
sunt qui 361
supines 136-138, 507 509
sns App. XIII
talentum App. IV (a)
tali's 46, 124
i 'ant 'us 21, 124
tenses of the indicative : Present
127, 292, 293 ; Past Imperfect
127, 294-296; Future 127, 297-
299; Perfect 128, 300-303; Past
Perfect 128, 304 ; Future Perfect
128, 305-309
Tiberis App. V (a]
iotus 86
tribus App. XIX
ullns 86, 116
-undus, 167 App. XXII
ilnus 86
ut ' that ' 326, 336, 338, 360-362 ;
'how' 363 (/;), 520 (2 b and 4) ;
i when ' 311, 526
uterqi
uiinam 321, 323
utrum 522
verbs, conjugated 125-249 (deponent
164, semi-deponent 236, 237) ; as
part of the predicate 252 ; imper-
sonal 370-376
verbs taking a dative object 399-
406 ; genitive object 427 ; ablative
object 450, 451 ; infinitive as
object 456, 457 ; infin. as one of
two objects 459-461
verb-adjectives 132, 455 ; participles
in ns (stem nf-}, declined App.
XV; syntax of participles 486-
499
verb-nouns 134-138, 455 ; infinitive
456-485; gerund 503-506; su-
• pines 507-509
vetus App. XVI
video? 476
vir 17, App. IV (Z>)
vis App. V(rt), VI, XI, XIII
vocative u, 378
voco, conjugation of 139. 140, 149-
151, 154-158
void 242
vulgits App. II
wishes 313, 320, 323
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