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NEW  MEXICO 

A  Guide  to  the  Colorful  State 


NEW    MEXICO 


A  GUIDE  TO  THE  COLORFUL  STATE 

Compiled  by  Workers  of  the  Writers'  Program 

of  the  Work  Projects  Administration 

in  the  State  of  New  Mexico 

NEW    AND    COMPLETELY    REVISED    EDITION 

BY    JOSEPH    MILLER 
EDITED    BY    HENRY   G.    ALSBERG 

AMERICAN  GUIDE  SERIES 

ILLUSTRATED 


Sponsored  by  the   University   of  New  Mexico 
HASTINGS   HOUSE   •  Publishers  •   NEW  YORK 

MCMLXII 


FIRST   PUBLISHED    IN    AUGUST    1940 

SECOND    PRINTING   IN    JUNE    1945 

THIRD    PRINTING   IN    SEPTEMBER    1947 

REVISED    EDITION    NOVEMBER    1953 
NEW,    COMPLETELY    REVISED    EDITION,    AUGUST    1962 


CORONADO  CUARTO  CENTENNIAL  COMMISSION 

State-wide  Sponsor  of  the 
New  Mexico  Writers'  Project 

FEDERAL  WORKS  AGENCY 
JOHN  M.  CARMODY,  Administrator 

WORK  PROJECTS  ADMINISTRATION 

F.  C.  HARRINGTON,  Commissioner 
FLORENCE  KERR,  Assistant  Commissioner 
JAMES  J.  CONNELLY,  State  Administrator 


COPYRIGHT    1953,    1962    BY    HASTINGS    HOUSE    PUBLISHERS,    INC. 


COPYRIGHT    1940    BY   THE    CORONADO   CUARTO 
CENTENNIAL    COMMISSION 

PRINTED   IN    THE    UNITED  STATES  OF   AMERICA 

All  rights  are  reserved,  including  the  rights  to  reproduce 
this  book  or  parts  thereof  in  any  form. 


Foreword 


New  Mexico  today  represents  a  blend  of  three  cultures:  Indian,  Spanish, 
and  Anglo-American.  The  Indian,  in  his  pueblo,  still  carries  on  the  religious 
ceremonies  of  his  ancestors,  while  in  the  village  nearby  the  descendants  of  the 
Spanish  and  Mexican  conquerors  swirl  rhythmically  to  the  strains  of  folk 
songs  long  since  brought  from  old  Spain  and  Mexico.  To  the  beat  of  the 
Indian  tom-tom  and  the  gay  rhythms  of  the  Spanish  dance,  there  is  added 
the  roar  of  the  air  transport  and  the  sweep  of  the  transcontinental  stream- 
lined train. 

This  is  New  Mexico  today:  a  people  united  under  one  sovereignty,  but 
representing  a  background  of  four  centuries  under  Indian,  Spanish,  Mexican, 
and  American  cultures. 

Four  hundred  years  have  produced  the  modern  New  Mexico.  The 
growth  of  its  civilization  began  in  the  memorable  year  of  1540  when  Vasquez 
de  Coronado  entered  the  "northern  borderlands"  seeking  fabled  treasure. 
He  brought  with  him  the  first  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  to  enter  what  was  to 
be  the  great  cattle  country  of  the  United  States.  Now  the  gold  sought  by 
the  conquistador ~es  is  being  won  from  the  earth  in  oil  and  coal  and  copper 
or  comes  from  its  surface  directly  through  agricultural  endeavor  or  indirectly 
through  that  romantic  employment  of  the  West,  the  cattle  industry. 

Coronado  founded  no  permanent  European  settlements,  but  his  followers 
now  visit  a  land  of  enchantment.  The  ancient  cities  of  Santa  Fe,  Taos,  and 
Acoma  (fabled  as  a  sky  city  before  Coronado  came),  the  historic  shrines  of 
Inscription  Rock  and  Old  Mesilla,  the  scenic  wonders  of  Carlsbad  Caverns 
and  the  White  Sands — these  lie  in  a  fairyland  of  high  mountains,  swift 
streams,  broad  mesas,  and  brilliant  sky.  In  it  there  stretch  long  miles  of 
perfect  hard-topped  highway,  there  grow  great  forests  of  pine,  cool  and  in- 
viting to  camper  or  fisherman.  The  Navaho  tend  their  flocks  by  day  and 
dance  to  the  weird  Mountain  Chant  by  night. 

That  you  may  find  and  follow  these  roads,  that  you  may  see  how  life 
was  lived  in  this  sun-baked  land  before  the  first  Pilgrim  braved  the  cold 
winters  of  New  England,  that  you  may  compare  for  yourself  the  cultures  of 
Indian,  Spaniard,  or  Anglo-American  or  may  see  them  fused  into  one  pleasant 
pattern  of  living,  this  Guide  to  New  Mexico  is  offered. 

Here  in  New  Mexico,  time  becomes  visible.  Your  own  eyes  bring  you 
the  story. 

v 


VI         FOREWORD 

This  volume,  sponsored  jointly  by  the  University  of  New  Mexico  and  the 
Coronado  Cuarto  Centennial  Commission,  tells,  and  tempts  you  to  look. 

CLINTON  P.  ANDERSON 

Managing  Director   United  States   Coronado 
Exposition  Commission 


FOREWORD   TO   THE    COMPLETELY   REVISED    EDITION 

New  Mexico  has  enjoyed  phenomenal  growth,  and  has  changed  greatly 
in  many  of  its  phases  since  this  volume  was  last  revised  in  1953.  While 
many  of  the  towns  have  remained  practically  as  they  were,  the  explosive  de- 
velopment of  the  uranium,  oil,  and  natural  gas  fields  together  with  vast 
missile  and  allied 'programs,  has  brought  about  a  shift  in  the  population  to 
these  accelerated  areas.  The  numerous  reclamation  projects  already  com- 
pleted and  in  operation,  have  advanced  the  State's  agricultural  position,  and 
the  huge  Navajo  Dam,  now  under  construction  near  Farmington,  when 
completed  will  bring  additional  economic  benefits  to  New  Mexico. 

The  State  might  be  called  the  center  of  the  atomic  phenomena  with  its 
Los  Alamos  Scientific  Laboratory,  conducted  by  the  University  of  California, 
where  the  first  atomic  bomb  was  produced,  and  "Trinity  Site,"  in  the  White 
Sands  Proving  Grounds  area,  where  the  first  atomic  bomb  was  exploded 
in  1945, 

The  economic  life  of  many  of  New  Mexico's  Indians  has  also  been  im- 
proved, with  their  participation  in  these  scientific  and  industrial  fields,  and 
especially  the  Navaho,  largest  tribe  in  the  United  States,  whose  royalties  of 
upwards  of  $75  million  in  oil  leases  in  the  Four  Corners  area  of  their  reser- 
vation, has  enabled  them  to  improve  in  many  ways  their  physical  and  cultural 
lot  in  life. 

Albuquerque,  the  State's  largest  city,  has  expanded  rapidly  in  area  as 
well  as  population  growth,  the  latter  having  more  than  doubled  in  the  last 
decade  to  over  201,000  in  1960,  with  an  additional  40,000  on  the  city's  fringe 
area.  The  population  figures  used  in  this  revision  are,  for  the  most  part,  from 
the  1960  official  U.  S.  Census. 

Gratitude  for  valuable  aid  is  due  the  University  of  New  Mexico,  New 
Mexico  State  University,  the  Department  of  Development  and  the  State 
Tourist  Bureau,  State  Highway  Department,  government  agencies,  officers 
in  charge  of  the  various  national  and  state  parks  and  monuments,  chambers 
of  commerce,  postmasters,  and  other  individuals,  through  whose  co-operation 
this  revision  has  been  made  possible.  Special  thanks  is  extended  to  the  New 
Mexico  Tourist  Division  for  the  new  photographs  illustrating  this  volume. 

JOSEPH    MILLER 


Preface 


New  Mexico  is  so  rich  in  material  of  various  kinds  that  it  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  do  more  than  point  out,  in  a  book  of  this  size,  what  its 
treasures  are  and  where  they  can  be  found.  The  problem,  aside  from 
that  of  doing  justice  to  the  subject — which  we  haven't  done — is  one  of 
selection,  and  those  who  have  attempted  to  sketch  a  portrait  of  this 
State  have  realized  that  several  volumes  would  be  required  for  an  ade- 
quate likeness.  If  any  reader  breathes  the  silent  wish  that  this  or  that 
might  have  been  treated  more  fully  or  wonders  whether  there  is  more 
material  than  is  here  presented  on  the  different  subjects,  he  can  rest 
assured  that  the  lack  is  not  in  material,  but  in  space  to  present  it.  And 
if  it  seems  that  a  disproportionate  wordage  is  given  to  history  and 
Indians  throughout,  let  it  be  remembered  that  the  most  vigorous  and 
interesting  Indian  tribes  in  America  are  here  and  that  no  state  is  richer 
in  historical  incident.  The  story  of  the  exploration,  colonization,  and 
slow  development  of  this  vast  area,  fourth  largest  of  the  states,  is  most 
fascinating. 

Captains  of  industry  are  at  best  second  lieutenants  in  New  Mexico; 
the  land's  the  thing!  And  what  takes  place  on  the  land,  whether  it 
be  the  plains,  the  plateaus,  the  valleys,  or  the  mountain  ranges  is  still 
of  paramount  importance.  We  love  this  land,  its  sky,  and  its  color, 
and  we  have  tried  to  be  as  objective  in  our  point  of  view  as  New 
Mexico  will  allow.  There  are  three  sources  of  material:  Indian,  Span- 
ish, and  so-called  "Anglo"  American,  with  as  many  points  of  view  as 
a  mixture  of  these  can  supply.  The  term  Anglo-American,  as  the 
English-speaking  part  of  the  population  is  erroneously  called,  is  generally 
used  to  distinguish  between  those  whose  linguistic  heritage  is  Spanish 
and  those  whose  mother  tongue  is  other  than  Spanish  or  Indian.  Foi 
all  its  historic  age,  New  Mexico  is  still  in  many  respects  a  frontier,  as 
it  has  been  since  Coronado's  conquest  four  hundred  years  ago,  and  the 
three  cultures  are  still  separate  entities,  each  guarding  jealously  its  own 
traditions. 

Grateful  acknowledgement  is  made  for  the  aid  of  governmental 
agencies,  Federal,  State,  and  local;  for  those  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned separately  who  were  glad  to  supply  information  because  this  book 

vii 


Vlll      PREFACE 

is  about  New  Mexico.  Among  the  many  who  have  earned  our  grati- 
tude are  Dr.  J.  F.  Zimmerman,  president  of  the  University  of  New 
Mexico,  Dean  Hammond,  and  Professors  Bloom,  Castetter,  Koster, 
and  Reiter  of  the  faculty,  who  have  read  and  checked  different  parts  of 
the  manuscript ;  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett,  director  of  the  Museum  of  New 
Mexico,  and  members  of  his  staff;  Mr.  Paul  A.  F.  Walter,  president 
of  The  New  Mexico  Historical  Society,  and  especially  Miss  Helen 
Dorman,  librarian  of  the  Museum,  who,  with  her  assistants,  has  given 
expert  and  gracious  help  to  workers  on  this  project;  Dr.  Harry  Mera 
and  Messrs.  Kenneth  M.  Chapman  and  W.  S.  Stallings,  Jr.,  of  the 
Laboratory  of  Anthropology,  Santa  Fe;  Mr.  Erik  K.  Reed,  regional 
archeologist,  and  others  of  the  National  Park  Service,  Santa  Fe;  Dr. 
Deric  Nusbaum,  archeologist,  of  Gila  Pueblo;  and  Mr.  Clinton  P. 
Anderson,  who  in  the  final  stages  of  the  book  gave  generously  of  his 
time  and  good  counsel  and  whose  vast  knowledge  of  New  Mexico  has 
been  of  great  value. 

We  wish  to  express  appreciation  for  the  contributions  by  Alice 
Corbin  Henderson  and  Mr.  John  Gaw  Meem  for  the  essays  on  Litera- 
ture and  Architecture.  We  are  indebted  to  Helen  Chandler  Ryan, 
State  Supervisor  of  the  New  Mexico  Music  Project,  for  material  for 
the  essay  on  Music;  to  Mr.  Vernon  Hunter,  State  Supervisor  of  the 
New  Mexico  Art  Project,  and  Miss  Maria  Chabot  for  parts  of  the 
essay  on  Art;  to  Mr.  Paul  Farron  for  the  editing  of  the  old  Spanish 
archives;  to  Miss  Laura  Gilpin,  Mr.  Ernest  Knee,  and  others  for  their 
generous  contributions  of  exceptionally  beautiful  photographs;  to  the 
Thunder  Bird  Shop,  Santa  Fe,  for  two  original  Indian  paintings  used 
as  tail-pieces ;  to  the  Index  of  American  Design  and  the  New  York  City 
Art  Project  for  the  art  work;  and  to  the  Texas  Writers'  Project,  Mr. 
J.  Frank  Davis,  State  Supervisor,  for  all  the  maps. 

Most  of  the  credit  for  the  completion  of  the  work  belongs  to  Aileen 
Nusbaum,  former  director  of  the  project,  who  wrote  some  of  the  essays 
and  worked  mightily  under  great  handicaps  to  assemble  the  material. 

All  of  this  would  not  have  produced  the  book  without  the  labors 
of  the  anonymous  workers  on  this  project  who  did  the  research  and 
gathered  the  material,  typed  it,  and  prepared  it  for  publication.  For 
the  loyalty  and  cooperation  of  the  small  staff  that  saw  it  through,  an 
appreciative  co-worker  makes  grateful  acknowledgement  and  gives  hearty 
thanks. 


CHARLES  ETHRIGE  MINTON 

State  Supervisor 


Contents 


Page 
FOREWORD  v 

FOREWORD  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION vi 

PREFACE vii 

GENERAL  INFORMATION XIX 

CALENDAR  OF  ANNUAL  EVENTS xxvii 


Part  I.    Before  and  After  Coronado 

THE  STATE  TODAY 3 

THE  LAND 9 

ARCHEOLOGY 35 

INDIANS          43 

HISTORY 60 

AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCK  RAISING 82 

INDUSTRY,  COMMERCE,  AND  SCIENCE 87 

TRANSPORTATION 93 

FOLKLORE 98 

CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE  LANGUAGE 107 

RELIGION 120- 

EDUCATION 126 

LITERATURE 130 

Music 141 

ARCHITECTURE 148 

NEW  MEXICAN  ART 156 


Part  II.    A  City,  a  Capital,  and  an  Art  Center 

ALBUQUERQUE 173 

SANTA  FE 187 

TAGS 212 

ix 


X      CONTENTS 


Part  III.    The  Most  Accessible  Places 

Page 
TOUR  1          (Trinidad,  Colo.)— Rat6n— Santa  Fe— Socorro— Anthony — 

(El  Paso,  Tex.)  [US  85— US  80] 227 

Section  a.  Colorado  Line  to  Santa  Fe 227 

Section  b.  Santa  Fe  to  Socorro 242 

Section  c.  Socorro  to  Texas  Line 253 

TOUR  1A     Caballo— Hillsboro— Santa  Rita— Junction  US  260  [NM  180]  261 

TOUR  2          (Kenton,    Okla.) — Valley — Folsom — Rat6n — Cimarrdn — 

Taos  [NM  325— NM  72— US  64] 265 

Section  a.  Oklahoma  Line  to  Raton 266 

Section  b.  Rat6n  to  Taos 270 

TOUR  2A      Pojoaque — 6towi — Los   Alamos — Cuba    [NM  4-126]    -       -  276 

TOUR  3          (San  Luis,  Colo.) — Costilla — Taos — Santa   Fe — Galisteo — 
Moriarty— Willard— Corona    [NM    3 — US   64— US   85 

— NM  41— US  6c— NM  42] 283 

Section  a.  Colorado  Line  to  Santa  Fe 284 

Section  b.  Santa  Fe  to  Corona 292 

TOUR  3A      Junction    with    US    64 — Santa    Cruz — Chimay<5 — Truchas 

[Truchas  Road,  NM  76] 294 

TOUR  4         (Texline,  Tex.)—  Clayton— Des  Moines— Rat6n-  [US  87-  64]  3OO 

TOUR  5         (Antonito,  Colo.) — Palmilla  —  Taos  Junction  —  Espanola 

[US  285] 305 

TOUR  6          (Amarillo,  Tex.)  —  Glenrio  —  Tucumcari  —  Santa  Rosa-- 
Albuquerque—Gallup— (Holbrook,  Ariz.)    [US  66]  3O9 

Section  a.  Texas  Line  to  Albuquerque 3OQ 

Section  b.  Albuquerque  to  Arizona  Line     •      -      •      «  3*6 

TOUR  6A      Junction  US  66— Acoma  Pueblo  [NM  23]        ....  328 

TOUR  6B      Junction    US    66— Chaco    Canyon    National     Monument 

[NM56] 333 

TOUR  6C      Gallup— Shiprock  [US  666] 337 

TOUR   7        (Alamosa,   Colo.) — Chama — Espanola — Santa  Fe — Vaughn 

—Roswell— Carlsbad— (Pecos,  Tex,)  [NM  17— US  84-US  285]  342 

Section  a.  Colorado  Line  to  Espanola 342 

Section  b.  Santa  Fe  to  Texas  Line 346 

TOUR  7A     Espanola — Santa  Clara  Pueblo — Puy£  Cliff  Ruins  [NM  30  351 
and  NM  5] 


CONTENTS  XI 

Page 

TOUR  8          (Amarillo,  Tex.) — Fort  Sumner  —  Bernardo  —  Socorro  — 
Magdalena — Quemado— (Springerville,  Ariz.)  [US  60] 

354 

Section  a.  Texas  Line  to  Socorro 355 

Section  b.  Socorro  to  Arizona  Line 35° 

TOUR  9  (Cortez,      Colo.) — Shiprock  —  Aztec  —  Cuba — Bernalillo 

[US  666-550— NM  44] 3&2 

TOUR   10       Clovis  —  Roswell  —  Hondo  —  Alamogordo —  Las  Cruces — 

Lordsburg—  (Duncan,  Ariz.)    [US  70]      ....  3^9 

Section  a.  Clovis  to  Alamogordo 3^9 

Section  b.  Alamogordo  to  Arizona  Line       ....  373 

TOUR   11        Ranches  de  Taos— Mora— Junction  US  85  [NM  3]      •       •  3?6 

TOUR  12        (Brownfield,    Tex.)— -Tatum— Roswell— Hondo— Carrizozo 

—San  Antonio  [US  380] 3§O 

Section  a.  Texas  Line  to  Hondo 3°O 

Section  b.  Hondo  to  San  Antonio 3o2 

TOUR  13        (Dalhart,    Tex.) — Santa    Rosa — Carrizozo — Alamogordo — 

Newman  [US  54] 386 

TOUR  14        (Seminole,   Tex.) — Lovington — Artesia — La   Luz — Junction 

US  54  [NM  83] 391 

ToUR  15       Junction  US  85 — Madrid — Tijeras — Mountainair — Junction 

US  54    [NM  10]             ........  395 

TOUR  16        (Seminole,    Tex.)— Hobbs— Carlsbad— (Van    Horn,   Tex.) 

[NM  83-  [US  62-180] 400 

TOUR  16       Carlsbad-Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park  [US  62-i8o-NM  r]4O5 

TOUR  17        Taos  Junction— Espanola— Santa  Fe 412 

TOUR  18        Deming — Hurley — Silver   City — Glenwood — (Springerville, 

Ariz.)— [US  260] 415 

Part  IV.    Appendices 

CHRONOLOGY 423 

SOME  BOOKS  ABOUT  NEW  MEXICO 436,  47 J 

INDEX 441 


Illustrations 

All  photographs  are  by  courtesy  of  the  New  Mexico  Tourist  Division. 


THE  LAND 

Shiprock,  in  the  Navaho  Indian 
Reservation 

Eagle  Nest  Lake  in  the  Moreno 
Valley 

The  Rio  Grande  flowing  past  Black 
Mesa 

Gypsum  dunes,  White  Sands  Na- 
tional Monument 

Venus's  Needle,  northwest  of  Gal- 
lup 

INDIANS 

Navaho  girl  with  her  pet  lamb 

Scene  in  San  Ildefonso  Indian 
Pueblo 

Ancient  Pueblo  of  Taos 

Colorfully  dressed  Ildefonso  In- 
dians 

Zuni   olla   bearers   in  ceremonial 

„  costumes 

Acoma  Pueblo  on  top  of  a  rocky 
mesa 


Page 
Between  30  and  31 

Camel  Rock  near  Santa  Fe 

In  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains 

Enchanted  Mesa,  seen  from  nearby 

Acoma 

Dog  Canyon  near  Alamogordo 
The  Giant  Dome,  Carlsbad  Cav- 
erns National  Park 
Pecos  country  of  northern  New 
Mexico 


Between  60  and  61 

Planting  in  "waffle  beds"  to  retain 
scarce  water 

Navaho  silversmith  and  his  wife 

Mescalero  Apaches,  costumed  for 
the  Crown  Dance 

Jemez  Hoop  Dancer 

Surveying  the  Navaho  Indian  Res- 
ervation 


AGRICULTURE  AND  INDUSTRY 


Between  90  and  91 


Sheep  grazing  near  Cumbres  Pass 
Threshing  grain  near  the  village 

of  Tres  Ritos 
Beef  cattle  in  loading  pens  at  the 

Bell  Ranch 
Aerial  view  of  the  stockyards  at 

Clovis 
Cotton    fields    in    southern    New 

Mexico 
Small  farms  near  Albuquerque 


Gasoline  plant  near  Eunice 
Elephant  Butte  Dam  on  the  Rio 

Grande 

Open-pit  copper  mine  at  Santa  Rita 
Potash  stored  in  warehouses  near 

Carlsbad 

Adobe  brick  drying  in  the  sun 
Building  a  wall  at  Cochiti  Pueblo 
Aerial  view  of  Los  Alamos 


xiv       ILLUSTRATIONS 

MISSIONS 

Santo  Tomas,  in  the  village  of 
Trampas 

Old  Acoma  Mission  at  Acoma 
Pueblo 

Mission  church  at  the  abandoned 
Quarai  Pueblo 

Carved  pulpit  in  three-hundred- 
year-old  Santo  Tomas 

Country  chapel  near  Cimarron 


Between  152  and  153 

Reredos,  Cristo  Rey  Church,  Santa 

Fe 

Chapel  reredos,  Chimayo 
Cristo  Rey  Church  in  Santa  Fe 
Church  of  San  Felipe  de  Neri  in 

Albuquerque 
Church  of  San  Antonio  de  Isleta  at 

Pueblo  Isleta 

Santuario  de  Chimayo  at  Chimayo 
Ranchos  de  Taos  Church 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

Aerial  view  of  modern  Albu- 
querque 

View  of  Old  Town,  original  part 
of  Albuquerque 

Canyon  Road  in  Santa  Fe 

The  Sena  Plaza  in  Santa  Fe,  circa 
1840 

State  Capitol  in  Santa  Fe,  com- 
pleted 1953 

Governor's  Residence  in  Santa  Fe 

Carved  entrance  doors  in  old  Santa 
Fe 


Between  182  and  183 

Patio  and  garden  in  Santa  Fe 

Corner  fireplace  in  the  Taos  Inn 

Old  Mesilla 

Taos  Valley  Art  School 

Wilson  Hall,  New  Mexico  Mili- 
tary Institute,  Roswell 

Gymnasium,  New  Mexico  State 
University,  Las  Cruces 

Library,  University  of  New  Mex- 
ico, Albuquerque 

Pueblo-style  home  in  the  Hondo 
Valley 


HISTORY 

Inscription  rock,  El  Morro  Na- 
tional Monument 

San  Miguel  Mission  in  Santa  Fe 

Oldest  house  in  the  United  States, 
Santa  Fe 

Mission  ruins  (1629-80),  Gran 
Quivira.  National  Monument 

Ancient  pueblo  of  Kuaua  near 
Bernalillo 

Pre-historic  Pueblo  Bonito,  Chaco 
National  Monument 

Palace  of  the  Governors,  Santa  Fe 


Between  244  and  245 

Old  Santa  Fe:  La  Fonda  Hotel 

and  St.  Francis  Cathedral 
Old  Lincoln  County  Courthouse, 

1870 

Tombstone  of  Billy  the  Kid 
Old  grist  mill  in  Cimarron 
Parlor  of  Kit  Carson's  house  in 

Taos 
Repair  area  for  prairie  schooners 

in  Old  Fort  Union 
End  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  in  the 

plaza  at  Santa  Fe 


ALONG  THE  HIGHWAY 

The  yucca,  state  flower  of  New 

Mexico 
A  red-rock  mesa  in  northwestern 

New  Mexico 
Mesa    country   near    Grants,    off 

U.S.  Highway  66 


Between  274  and  275 

Seminary  near  Las  Vegas,  formerly 
a  resort  hotel 

Horseback  riding  in  Lincoln  Na- 
tional Forest 

Water  sports  at  Conchas  Dam 

Skiing  in  the  Sangre  de  Cristo 
Mountains 


ILLUSTRATIONS       XV 


ALONG  THE  HIGHWAY— continued 


Organ    Mountains,    northeast    of 

Las  Cruces 

Strings  of  chili  ripening  in  the  sun 
Cemetery  at  the  old  mining  town 

of  Kingston 


ARTS  AND  CRAFTS 

Shalako  Dancer,  by  Awa  Tairah 

Rug  weaving  in  front  of  a  Navaho 
hogan 

Wood  carver  at  work  at  his  ancient 
craft 

Weaver  working  on  a  Chimayo 
blanket 

Work  of  a  student  at  the  U.S.  In- 
dian School 

Traditional  Zuni  scene  painted  by 
an  Indian  student 


Pecos   River   and   the   Sangre  de 

Cristo  Mountains 
Twin  bridges  over  the  Rio  Grande, 

outside  Albuquerque 


Between  400  and  401 

Navaho  Fout  Gods  Sandpainting, 
N.M.  State  Museum 

Sandpainting  by  Navaho  Indians 

Indian  craftsmanship  in  jewelry- 
making 

Maria  Martinez,  famous  potter  of 
San  Ildefonso  Pueblo 

Amphitheatre  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Opera  Association 

Studio  of  late  Eugene  Manlove 
Rhodes 


MAPS 

Page 
OFFICIAL  STATE  ROAD  MAP 459 

TOUR  KEY  MAP front  end  paper 

ALBUQUERQUE iSoandiSi 

SANTA  FE 19$  and  197 

SANTA  FE  ENVIRONS 206  and  207 

TAOS 221 


General  Information 


Railroads:  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Ry.  (AT&SF),  Southern  Pa- 
cific Lines  (SP),  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Western  R.R.  (D&RGW), 
Chicago-Rock  Island  &  Pacific.  Santa  Fe  and  Southern  Pacific  are 
transcontinental  lines  with  branches  covering  important  points  in  State. 

Airlines:  Transcontinental  and  Western  Airlines  (New  York  to  Los 
Angeles),  stops  at  Santa  Fe  and  Albuquerque;  Continental  Airlines 
(Denver,  Colo,  to  El  Paso,  Texas),  stops  at  Raton,  Las  Vegas,  Santa  Fe, 
Albuquerque,  Roswell,  Hobbs  and  Carlsbad.  Pioneer  Airlines  (Dallas, 
Texas  to  Santa  Fe)  stops  at  Clovis,  Tucumcari,  Santa  Fe  and  Albu- 
querque. Frontier  Airlines  (Albuquerque,  Gallup,  Farmington). 

Busses:  The  main  interstate  bus  lines  are:  Greyhound  Lines,  New 
Mexico  Transportation  Co.,  Carlsbad  Cavern  Coaches,  Continental  Bus 
System,  Indian  Detours  Trans.  Co.,  Gannon  Ball  Stage  Line,  Parrish 
Stage  Lines,  Rio  Grantie  Motor  Way,  Rio  Grande  Stages,  Santa  Fe 
Trailways,  T.-N.M.  &  O.  Coaches,  All-American  Bus  Lines.  Local  and 
freight  lines  in  addition. 

Highways:  Main  traveled  routes  are  patrolled  by  State  Police.  No 
inspection  at  ports  of  entry  except  for  commercial  vehicles.  Never 
attempt  to  cross  "dry"  arroyos  when  water  is  running;  watch  out  for 
livestock  on  unfenced  highways.  Do  not  disturb  flowers  or  trees  or 
shrubs  bordering  highways.  Put  out  fires. 

Motor  Vehicle  Laws:  Passenger  automobiles  must  be  operated  at  such 
speed  as  shall  be  consistent  at  all  times  with  safety  and  the  proper  use 
of  roads.  Maximum  speed  for  trucks  and  busses,  45  m.  No  licenses 
required  of  non-residents  for  three  months.  Maximum  speed  in  resi- 
dence districts,  25  m. ;  in  business  districts,  20  m. ;  in  school  zones,  road 
intersections,  on  blind  curves,  and  blind  grade  crossings,  on  grades  where 
driver's  view  is  obstructed,  15  m.  Minimum  age  for  drivers,  16.  Driv- 
ers are  required  to  stop  at  scenes  of  accidents  resulting  in  property  dam- 
age or  personal  injury,  and  to  report  same  to  State  Police  or  local 
authorities.  Brakes  and  lights  must  be  in  good  order.  Rear  lamps  must 
exhibit  a  yellow  or  red  light  capable  of  being  seen  for  500  feet,  with  a 


XX       GENERAL     INFORMATION 

white  light  to  illuminate  the  number  plate.  A  red  reflector  at  least  three 
inches  in  diameter  required  on  the  rear  of  every  vehicle  not  having  tail- 
light  assembly.  Keep  to  the  right,  especially  on  mountain  roads. 

Prohibited:  Parking  on  highways,  passing  on  blind  curves  or  on  the 
crest  of  a  grade,  at  grade  crossings  or  intersections.  Projecting  luggage 
in  front,  or  more  than  four  feet  in  rear,  or  beyond  fender  line  on  left 
side.  Driving  without  an  unobstructed  rear-view  mirror. 

Accommodations:  Hotels  numerous  in  cities  and  towns;  guest  ranches 
and  lodges  in  mountain  areas  and  environs  of  larger  towns  offer  facilities 
for  riding,  pack  trips,  swimming,  hiking  and  golf.  Motels  and  camps 
numerous  in  and  near  towns,  but  scarce  between,  as  distances  between 
settlements  are  great.  A  great  many  tourist  camps  are  equipped  for 
trailer  accommodations,  especially  in  larger  towns  and  cities. 

Liquor  Laws:  No  liquor  sold  on  Sundays  from  2  a.m.  to  7  a.m.  Mon- 
day. 


Climate  and  Equipment:  Winters  are  cold  in  the  plateau  and  moun- 
tain sections.  Travelers  in  summer  should  be  prepared  for  hot  dry 
weather  but  should  have  warm  clothing  for  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture due  to  abrupt  changes  in  elevation.  Nights  are  generally  cool ;  cold 
in  high  altitudes.  Cars  should  be  equipped  with  chains,  shovel,  and  tow- 
rope  if  venturing  off  main  roads.  Country  subject  to  sudden  torrential 
rains  in  summer  months.  Skiing  equipment  useful  in  winter  months  in 
mountains  in  various  sections. 


Recreational  Areas:  New  Mexico  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  recre- 
ation areas.  Game  can  be  found  in  abundance  and  in  great  variety,  due 
to  the  presence  in  this  State  of  six  of  the  seven  life  zones  of  North 
America.  There  are  thousands  of  square  miles  of  unspoiled  mountain 
forests,  and  near  primitive,  remote  villages  are  recreational  resources 
readily  available  to  hunters  and  fishermen ;  also  there  are  numerous  others 
easily  accessible  near  less  remote  centers.  For  the  latter,  a  motor  car 
goes  right  to  the  spot;  for  the  former,  competent  guides  furnish  pack 
equipment,  horses,  and  dogs  for  hunting  bear,  bobcat,  and  mountain  lion, 
as  well  as  other  game  not  predatory.  Good  roads  lead  directly  to  or  very 
near  many  hunting  and  fishing  places,  many  of  them  with  adequate  hotel 
accommodations,  camp  grounds  or  other  facilities.  (Consult  NM  Dept. 
of  Game  and  Fish  for  seasons  and  bag  limits.) 


GENERAL     INFORMATION       XXI 

National  Forests:  Regional  headquarters,  Albuquerque:  Apache,  west 
central  section  of  State,  US  60  and  US  260 ;  Carson,  north  central  sec- 
tion, US  64  and  US  285 ;  Cibola,  central  and  west  central  sections,  US 
85  and  US  60;  Coronado,  southwest  section,  US  70-80;  Gila,  south- 
western section,  US  260 ;  Lincoln,  central  and  south  central  sections,  US 
54  and  US  70-380;  Santa  Fe,  north  central  section,  US  84-85,  US  64, 
and  US  285. 

Information  about  camping  facilities  available  in  national  forest  can 
be  obtained  from  the  forester  in  charge  of  each  forest  district. 

National  Park:     Carlsbad  Caverns,  southeast  section,  US  62,  180, 

National  Monuments:  Aztec  Ruins,  northeast  section,  US  550;  Bande- 
lier,  near  Santa  Fe,  US  64,  NM  4;  Capulin  Mountain,  northeast,  US 
64,  87 ;  Chaco  Canyon,  northwest,  US  66  and  NM  44,  56 ;  El  Morro, 
west  central,  US  66;  Gila  Cliff  Dwellings,  southwestern  US  260;  Gran 
Quivira,  central,  US  60  and  US  54 ;  White  Sands,  south  central,  US  70. 

State  Parks:  Bluewater,  west  central,  US  66;  Bottomless  Lakes,  south- 
east, US  285  and  US  380;  Conchas  Dam,  east  central,  US  66-54;  Hyde, 
in  two  sections,  near  Santa  Fe,  US  85  and  US  64;  in  Santa  Fe,  US  85 
and  US  64. 

State  Monuments:  Abo,  central,  US  60;  Coronado,  north  central,  US 
85;  Gran  Qiiivira,  central,  US  60  and  US  54;  Jemez,  north  central, 
NM  44,  NM  4;  Lincoln,  south  central,  US  380;  Paako,  north  central, 
US  66,  NM  10 ;  Pecos,  north  central,  US  84-85;  Quarai,  central,  US 
66,  NM  10.  Folsom,  northeast,  US  64,  87,  NM  72,  Palace  of  the 
Governor,  Santa  Fe,  Kit  Carson  Memorial,  Taos,  US  64. 

Pack  Trips:  Pack  trips  are  necessary  to  get  to  New  Mexico's  trails 
through  the  national  forests  and  mountain  regions.  These  trips  should 
not  be  attempted  without  experienced  guides,  as  few  of  the  trails  are 
marked  and  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt  such  trips  alone.  There  are 
numerous  pack  trails,  but  the  best  known  ones  go  to  the  various  national 
forests,  where  78  areas  have  been  developed  especially  to  take  care  of 
tourists.  In  these  areas  can  be  found  facilities  such  as  tables,  benches, 
overnight  shelter,  running  water,  and  fireplaces.  These  camping  areas 
are  distributed  over  the  following  national  forests :  Carson,  Cibola,  Gila, 
and  Lincoln.  Further  information  regarding  pack  trips  and  expert 
guides  can  be  obtained  from  the  Chambers  of  Commerce  in  the  following 
cities:  Las  Vegas,  Santa  Fe,  Espanola,  Carrizozo,  Lincoln,  Tularosa, 
Corona,  Alamogordo,  Mountainair,  Socorro,  Albuquerque,  Deming, 


GENERAL     INFORMATION 

Silver  City,  Taos,  Reserve,  Carlsbad,  and  Gallup.  They  also  furnish 
information  about  trips  not  included  in  national  forests. 

Fishing:  Lakes  in  New  Mexico's  southern  portion  afford  warm-water 
game  fishing.  Elephant  Butte  Lake  (see  Tour  Ic),  near  Truth  or  Con- 
sequences, is  noted  principally  for  large-mouth  bass,  weighing  three  to 
nine  pounds.  There  are  also  perch,  crappie,  bream,  and  several  species 
of  catfish.  Every  accommodation,  including  motorboat  service,  is  avail- 
able. 

Southeastern  New  Mexico  likewise  has  excellent  bass,  crappie,  and 
catfish  waters.  Smaller  lakes  in  the  Pecos  Valley  near  Roswell,  Artesia, 
and  Carlsbad,  the  Pecos  River,  and  numerous  smaller  waters  near  Santa 
Rosa  also  offer  good  fishing.  Conchas  Lake  near  Tucumcari  is  out- 
standing for  bass,  wall-eyed  pike  and  crappie  fishing  and  boats  and  lodg- 
ing and  public  camp  grounds  are  available. 

Trout  Fishing:  Streams  in  the  southwest  include  the  Gila's  West  and 
Middle  forks,  White  Water,  White,  Big  Dry  and  Willow  Creeks,  all  in 
the  Gila  River  drainage  area,  where  pack  trips  are  more  satisfactory  and 
facilities  are  available. 

The  Sacramento  and  White  Mountains  have  only  limited  fishing 
resources. 

The  Jemez  Mountains,  50  miles  west  of  Santa  Fe,  contain  numerous 
fishing  streams,  the  J&nez  east  fork;  the  Guadalupe,  Cebolla,  and  Las 
Vacas  Rivers  are  the  largest  and  the  best.  Fenton  Lake  is  a  good  newly 
developed  trout  lake.  Blue  Water  Lake  near  Grants  is  an  excellent  fish- 
ing lake  for  trout,  bass,  and  crappie.  Boats  and  cabins  available. 

The  Pecos  River,  its  tributaries  and  other  streams  heading  in  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  between  Santa  Fe  and  Las  Vegas  and  north- 
ward, yield  rainbow,  native,  and  Loch  Leven  trout.  Most  of  these 
streams  are  accessible  by  roads,  but  some  of  the  best  streams  and  high 
mountain  lakes  can  be  reached  only  by  trail. 

Fishing  is  excellent  in  streams  and  lakes  near  Taos  Mountain,  espe- 
cially in  regions  where  pack  trips  are  necessary.  Eagle  Nest  Lake,  30 
miles  northeast  of  Taos,  near  highway  64,  is  unsurpassed  for  rainbow 
trout,  as  are  the  Cimarron  and  Red  Rivers. 

One  hundred  miles  northwest  of  Santa  Fe,  the  Chama  River  and  its 
tributaries,  especially  the  Brazos,  provide  fishing  and  pleasant  vacation 
spots. 

The  State's  largest  fish,  rainbow  and  Loch  Leven  trout — often 
weighing  15  pounds — are  caught  in  the  Rio  Grande,  which  provides  IOO 
miles  of  fishing  from  Embudo  to  the  Colorado  State  Line. 


GENERAL     INFORMATION       XX111 

Fish  and  Game  Laws:  Game  fish  are  defined  as  trout,  bass,  crappie, 
perch,  catfish,  bream,  sunfish,  and  bluegill. 

Open  Season  for  Fishing  (dates  inclusive):  General:  Trout,  May 
25-Oct.  31;  bass,  crappie,  perch,  catfish,  bream,  sunfish,  and  bluegill, 
year  around.  Open  seasons  for  special  waters  differ;  make  local  in- 
quiry. Seasons  are  subject  to  change  on  April  i. 

Licenses:  Fishing  nonresident  $3  for  10  days  ($5  for  season).  General 
hunting,  $60.25.  Big  game,  $50.25.  Bird,  $15.25.  Licenses  must  be 
carried  on  person  and  exhibited  to  authorized  officer  upon  request.  At 
least  6  months  actual  bona  fide  residence  is  required  to  qualify  for  a  resi- 
dent license.  Children  under  14  years  may  fish  without  a  license,  but 
anyone  hunting  requires  a  license. 

Limits:  Trout,  15  fish  or  8  pounds  and  I  fish,  whichever  limit  is 
reached  first,  minimum  size  6  inches.  Pike,  perch  and  bass,  15  fish  or 
15  pounds  and  i  fish,  whichever  limit  is  reached  first,  minimum  size 
9  inches.  Crappie,  20  fish,  no  minimum  size.  Catfish,  20  fish  or  20 
pounds  and  i  fish,  minimum  size  10  inches.  Obtain  a  current  Hunt- 
ing and  Fishing  Digest  from  your  license  vendor  or  the  Dept.  of  Game 
&  Fish,  Santa  Fe,  N.  M. 

Prohibited:  To  use  any  means  of  taking  fish  other  than  with  hook  and 
line,  attached  to  rod  or  held  in  hand ;  to  use  more  than  one  line  with  or 
without  rod,  having  more  than  two  hooks,  allowed  to  each  person,  except 
that  more  than  two  hooks  may  be  used  on  artificial  lures. 

Big  Game  Hunting:  Big  game  hunting  may  include  bear,  wild  turkey, 
Abert  squirrel,  elk,  antelope,  and  deer,  including  mule  deer,  Arizona  and 
Virginia  whitetail.  Elk  and  antelope  hunted  on  special  permit.  Seasons 
and  bag  limits  are  dictated  by  standard  game  management  practices. 

Deer  inhabit  practically  every  mountainous  section  of  the  State  from 
the  desert  hills  in  the  extreme  south  to  the  northern  timber-line  regions. 
Turkey  and  bear,  not  so  widely  distributed,  inhabit  most  mountain  areas. 

The  Gila  Forest  in  Grant,  Catron,  and  Sierra  Counties  is  the  largest 
big  game  country.  Pack  trips  are  recommended. 

Big  game  and  turkey  abound  in  the  Magdalena  and  San  Mateo 
Mountains,  and  Gila  and  Apache  Forests  in  the  S,W.  part  of  the  State, 
in  the  White,  Sacramento,  and  Guadalupe  Mountains,  the  Capitan 
Mountains,  the  Jemez  Mountains,  the  Pecos  Mountains,  the  Rio  Pueblo 
country  between  Mora  and  Taos,  and  the  Canjilon-El  Rito-Vallecitos 
country  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Chama  River.  There  is  plenty 


XXIV       GENERAL     INFORMATION 

of  game  in  all  the  mountain  areas  along  the  northern  border  of  the  state 
near  Folsom,  Raton,  Cimarron,  Red  River,  Tres  Piedras,  Chama  and 
Aztec. 

The  large  ranches  of  the  State  have  abundant  game,  and  hunting  is 
usually  permitted  by  consent  of  landowners.  However,  the  ranching 
regions  contain  some  open  areas. 

Hunters  are  urged  to  kill  at  least  one  predatory  animal.  Mountain 
lions,  although  not  classed  as  game  animals,  provide  good  sport  when 
hunted  with  dogs. 

Open  Season  for  Hunting:  Big  game  season  is  usually  set  to  include  the 
second  and  third  week  of  November.  Antelope  season  is  usually  in  Octo- 
ber and  elk  season  is  in  November.  Consult  the  current  Hunting  and 
Fishing  Digest  obtained  from  the  N.  M.  Dept.  of  Game  and  Fish,  Santa 
Fe,  New  Mexico. 

Birds:  Pheasants  and  quail  season  usually  in  December;  grouse  in 
September ;  dove  in  September  and  October ;  and  waterfowl  have  a  split 
season.  Consult  the  Federal  Regulations  on  migratory  bird  season,  and 
the  Hunting  and  Fishing  Digest  for  the  upland  birds.  Or  contact  the 
Dept.  of  Game  and  Fish,  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico. 

Waterfowl:  During  seasons  when  waterfowl  are  plentiful,  hunting  is 
especially  good  along  the  Rio  Grande,  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  and  on 
northern  and  eastern  lakes.  Depletion  of  ducks  has  occurred  in  New 
Mexico  as  elsewhere,  but  wild  geese  hunting  is  still  above  average.  They 
are  present  in  late  fall  and  most  of  the  winter  on  larger  streams  and 
adjacent  sloughs,  and  also  on  small  lakes  and  ponds  of  northeastern 
New  Mexico,  where  they  congregate  in  great  numbers  to 'feed  in  grain 
fields. 

Licenses:  Nonresident,  bird,  $15.23.  Big  game,  $50.25.  Duplicate 
licenses,  $i  (if  original  lost). 

Limits:  Bear,  i  per  season;  deer,  i  buck  per  season;  elk,  i  bull  elk; 
antelope,  one  buck  per  season  (elk  and  antelope  permits  limited).  Birds: 
Quail,  varies  annually,  usually  8  per  day  and  48  per  season ;  doves,  varies 
annually,  usually  10  per  day;  dusky  or  blue  grouse,  3  per  season;  band- 
tailed  pigeons,  no  season;  turkey,  i  per  season;  pheasants,  2  cock  birds 
per  season. 

No  Open  Season:  On  mountain  sheep,  mountain  goat,  beaver,  ptar- 
migan, sage  hens,  pintail  grouse,  cranes,  swan,  plover,  yellow-legs,  or 
insectivorous  birds. 


GENERAL     INFORMATION      XXV 

Prohibited:  To  hunt  between  sunset  and  sunrise;  to  use  steel  or  hard 
pointed  bullets  except  on  turkey ;  to  take  game  by  any  means  other  than 
ordinary  shoulder  gun  or  bow;  to  take  birds  with  a  gun  larger  than  12 
gauge  or  rifle  or  pistol ;  to  use  any  kind  of  rifle  in  shooting  waterfowl 
or  upland  birds  except  turkey;  to  hunt  or  carry  firearms  in  any  game 
refuge ;  to  shoot  at  game  from  auto,  from  or  across  a  highway.  Rifles 
using  ammunition  with  less  than  1,000  Ibs.  muzzle  energy  prohibited  in 
taking  big  game.  Check  list  in  law  digest. 

TAG  YOUR  BUCK  AS  SOON  AS  KILLED. 

General  Service  for  Tourists:  N.  M.  State  Tourist  Bureau,  State  Capi- 
tol, Santa  Fe;  local  chambers  of  commerce;  National  Forest  Service; 
State  Game  and  Fish  Dept.,  Santa  Fe. 

Boating:  At  Elephant  Butte  Lake,  formed  by  Elephant  Butte  Dam, 
Conchas  Lake,  Eagle  Nest  and  Blue  Water  lakes.  Cottages  or  hotel  ac- 
commodations and  power-  and  rowboats  can  be  rented  by  the  day,  week, 
or  month  (see  Tour  Ic).  At  El  Vado  Lake,  on  the  Chama  River, 
formed  by  the  El  Vado  Dam,  cottages  and  boats  are  also  for  rent  (see 
Tour  7a). 

Ski  Areas:  Santa  Fe  Ski  Basin,  16  miles  northeast  of  Santa  Fe,  is 
usually  open  from  Nov.  i5-May  10,  depending  on  snow  conditions. 
Chair  lift,  Poma-lift,  three  rope  tows,  practice  slope  and  12  miles  of 
cleared  trails.  Taos  Ski  Valley,  19  miles  northeast  of  Taos,  Nov.-May; 
two  Poma-lifts  and  one  T-bar  lift.  Red  River  Ski  Area,  33  miles  north- 
west of  Taos,  Nov.-May;  6,000  feet  long  double  electric  chair  lift, 
rising  1,600  feet;  seven  miles  of  trails,  600  feet  long  rope  tow  on  15 
acre  beginners7  area.  Toboggan  and  sled  area.  Ice  skating  and  ice 
fishing.  La  Madera  Ski  Area,  25  miles  northeast  of  Albuquerque ;  late 
Nov.-mid-April ;  T-bar  tow  and  rope  tow  operated  on  weekends  and 
holidays.  Sipapu  Winter  Sports  Area,  25  miles  southeast  of  Taos; 
one  T-bar  tow,  one  rope  tow.  Ice-skating,  toboggan  and  sled  areas. 
Pajarito  Mountain  Ski  Area,  six  miles  from  Los  Alamos,  in  Jemez 
Mountains.  Cloudcroft  Ski  Area,  nineteen  miles  east  of  Alamogordo. 
One  novice-intermediate  run,  meadow  for  beginners,  slopes  for  tobog- 
ganing and  sledding.  Cloudcroft  Ski  Tow,  three  miles  east  of  Cloud- 
croft;  one  rope  tow,  five  ski  slopes  for  beginners,  intermediates  and  ex- 
perts. Sierra  Blanca  Ski  Area,  16  miles  northwest  of  Ruidoso,  three 
high  speed  T-bar  lifts;  other  facilities  under  way. 


A  Calendar  of 
Events  j  Fiestas,  and  Ceremonials 


There  was  an  old  established  Indian  culture  in  New  Mexico  when  the 
Spanish  explorers  arrived  in  1540.  The  Spanish  conquistadores  and 
colonists  had  established  traditions  of  their  own  by  the  time  the  Anglo- 
Americans  appeared  on  the  scene  in  1846. 

Today  the  state  is  proud  of  the  mingling  of  the  cultural  influences 
of  these  three  civilizations.  Nearly  all  of  the  celebrations,  fiestas  and 
ceremonials  have  their  tradition  in  the  past.  They  are  based  on  prayers 
for  rain,  for  bountiful  crops,  for  thanksgiving  when  the  crops  are  har- 
vested, in  the  case  of  the  Indian  ceremonials  and  dances;  on  historical 
episodes,  or  religious  feast  days,  in  the  case  of  those  having  their  influence 
in  Spanish  tradition ;  on  the  story  of  the  winning  of  the  West,  the  moun- 
tain men,  the  cattle  barons  and  the  cowboys,  in  the  case  of  those  pre- 
dominantly Anglo  in  origin. 

But  all  celebrations  and  fiestas  somehow  manage  to  commingle  all 
three  influences  and  thereby  produce  something  a  little  different  from 
anything  found  elsewhere  on  this  continent. 

There  is  given  in  this  section  a  partial  list  of  celebrations  which  occur 
on  fixed  dates.  In  addition  there  are  many  others  which  do  not  occur  on 
fixed  dates,  but  which  are  rich  in  tradition  or  historical  significance. 

Those  who  like  their  celebrations  to  reflect  something  of  the  history, 
the  religion  and  the  lighter  moods  of  a  city,  will  especially  enjoy  the 
annual  fiesta  at  Santa  Fe;  at  La  Mesilla,  where  the  Gadsden  Purchase 
was  consummated;  at  Albuquerque,  where  the  Fiesta  of  San  Felipe  dt 
Neri  recalls  that  Zebulon  Pike  was  once  held  prisoner  in  the  Old  Town 
Plaza. 

Most  towns  in  New  Mexico  have  a  rodeo  sometime  during  the  sum- 
mer. The  rodeo  had  its  origin  on  the  great  cattle  ranches  of  the  south- 
west in  "cowboy  contests"  (as  they  were  called),  between  the  working 
cowhands  of  adjoining  or  nearby  ranches.  These  were  tests  of  skill  be- 
tween individuals,  more  than  spectator  events.  Today  the  rodeos  per- 


XXV1U  EVENTS,     FIESTAS,     AND     CEREMONIALS 

petuate  much  of  the  feeling  of  the  Old  West  with  all  of  its  romantic 
glamour  of  booted  cowboys,  six-guns  and  fine  horses. 

The  Indians  of  New  Mexico  were  living  in  great  communal  houses 
when  the  Spaniards  arrived.  The  architecture  they  developed  has 
influenced  building  in  the  state  since  the  first  mission  churches  were 
erected  early  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Their  dances  are  usually  prayers  for  rain,  for  good  hunting  or  of 
thanks  for  success  in  their  endeavors.  Many  of  their  dances  occur 
on  fixed  dates  each  year  and  are  open  to  the  public.  There  are  other 
dances,  the  dates  of  which  are  set  in  relation  to  the  first  frost,  or  the 
sun's  rays  falling  on  a  certain  spot  in  the  Kiva.  Then  there  are  im- 
promptu dances  which  may  be  held  at  any  time.  All  are  colorful,  and 
all  based  on  age-old  traditions. 


EVENTS,     FIESTAS,     AND    CEREMONIALS  XXIX 


FIXED  DATE  EVENTS 


JANUARY 

I — Taos  Indian  Pueblo  stages  its  New  Year's  Day  Ceremonial  with 
either  the  Buffalo  or  the  Deer  Dance. 

6 — Installation  of  new  governors  in  Indian  pueblos,  with  special  dances 
at  Taos  and  San  Ildefonso.  The  day  is  celebrated  in  various  north- 
ern rural  villages  as  "Old  Christmas"  or  Three  Kings'  Day. 

23 — San  Ildefonso  has  its  fiesta,  puts  on  the  Buffalo  Dance. 


FEBRUARY 

2 — Candlemas  Day  ceremonial  dances  in  San  Felipe,  Cochiti,  and 
Santo  Domingo  Indian  pueblos. 


MARCH 

19 — Ceremonial  dances  at  Laguna  Pueblo. 

Good  Friday — Taos  (Talpa)  Passion  Play  in  the  Penitente  Chapel. 


APRIL 

Easter  Services  on  Taos  Mesa,  and  at  Gloiieta  Baptist  Assembly. 

Easter  and  three  days  following — Spring  Corn  Dances,  at  Cochiti,  San 
Felipe,  Santo  Domingo,  and  various  other  Indian  pueblos. 

MAY 

I — Fiesta  and  Spring  Corn  Dance  at  San  Felipe  Pueblo. 
3 — Corn  Dance  and  ceremonial  races  at  Taos  Pueblo, 


XXX  EVENTS,     FIESTAS,     AND     CEREMONIALS 

15 — San  Ysidro  fiesta  at  Los  Cordovas,  near  Taos,  blessing  of  the  fields. 
26 — In  Albuquerque's  Old  Town  Plaza,  Fiesta  of  San  Felipe  de  Neri. 

JUNE 

Corpus  Christi  Sunday,  in  Santa  Fe,  outdoor  religious  processions 
from  the  Cathedral  and  Cristo  Rey  Church ;  in  Taos  from  Guada- 
lupe  Church,  and  in  Ranchos  de  Taos,  from  the  Old  Mission. 
One  week  later,  in  Santa  Fe,  procession  of  La  Conquistadora  from 
the  Cathedral  to  Rosario  Chapel,  commemorating  reconquest  of 
New  Mexico  by  De  Vargas  in  1692.  (Return  procession  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday.) 

12 — Taos,  Fiesta  de  la  Loma,  evening  processions. 

13 — Sandia  Indian  Pueblo,  fiesta.  Dances  at  Taos  and  San  Ildefonso 
pueblos.  In  Cordova  and  other  northern  villages,  the  Feast  of 
San  Antonio  de  Padua  is  celebrated. 

24 — San  Juan  Pueblo,  annual  fiesta  and  ceremonial  dances;  at  Taos 
and  Acoma,  Corn  Dances. 


JULY 

2,  3,  and  4 — Annual  fiesta  and  Devil  Dance  at  Mescalero  Apache 
Reservation. 

4 — Las  Vegas,  Old  Town  Spanish  fiesta. 

25  and  26 — Taos  Pueblo  Corn  Dance ;  town  of  Taos,  Spanish  Colonial 
fiesta, 

26 — Santa  Ana  Pueblo,  Indian  fiesta  and  dances. 


AUGUST 

First  Weekend — Las  Vegas,  Rough  Riders'  and  Cowboys'  Reunion. 

2 — Jemez  Indian  Pueblo,  the  Old  Pecos  Dance. 

4 — Corn  Dance  and  fiesta  at  Santo  Domingo  Pueblo. 
Mid  August — Gallup  Inter-Tribal  Indian  Ceremonial, 
10 — San  Lorenzo  (Picuris)  Pueblo,  annual  fiesta. 


EVENTS,     FIESTAS,     AND     CEREMONIALS  XXxi 

12 — Santa  Clara  Pueblo,  annual  fiesta. 

15 — Zia  Pueblo,  Assumption  Day  fiesta  and  dance. 

28 — Isleta  Pueblo,  San  Augustin  fiesta  and  dance. 

SEPTEMBER 

Santa  Fe  fiesta,  always  on  Labor  Day  weekend. 
2 — Acoma  Indian  Pueblo,  St.  Stephen's  fiesta,  with  dances. 
6,  7,  and  8 — San  Ildefonso  Pueblo,  Harvest  Dance. 

15 — Jicarilla  Apache  Reservation,  ceremonial  races  and  dance  at  Horse 
and  Stone  Lakes. 

1 6 — Las  Cruces,  Mexican  Independence  Day. 
19 — Laguna  Pueblo,  annual  fiesta  and  dances. 

28,  29  and  30 — San  Geronimo  fiesta  at  Taos  and  Taos  Pueblo. 
Late  September  for  nine  days,  State  Fair  at  Albuquerque. 

OCTOBER 

3 — Ranches  de  Taos,  Spanish  village  fiesta. 

4 — Santa  Fe  celebrates  Feast  Day  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  its  patron 
saint.     There  is  a  religious  procession  the  evening  before. 

4 — Nambe  Indian  Pueblo  has  its  fiesta  and  dances. 

NOVEMBER 

2 — All  Souls'  Day,  celebrated  in  northern  Spanish  villages  with  spe- 
cial processions  and  services. 

12 — Tesuque  and  Jemez  pueblos  stage  their  St.  James*  Day  fiesta  and 
Harvest  Corn  Dances. 

DECEMBER 

10,  ii  and  12 — Las  Cruces,  Pilgrimage  by  Tortugas  Indians. 

1 1 — Feast  Day  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  Guadalupe,  celebrated  by  evening 
ceremonies  in  Taos  and  Santa  Fe  and  many  other  villages. 


XXXli  EVENTS,     FIESTAS,     AND     CEREMONIALS 

12 — Jemez  "Matachines." 

1 6  through  24 — At  Mesilla  are  nightly  pageant-processions  (posadas) 
depicting  search  for  lodgings  by  Mary  and  Joseph  in  Jerusalem. 

18  through  31 — Illuminated  "City  of  Bethlehem"  Christmas  panorama, 
in  Climax  Canyon  near  Raton. 

24 — Christmas  Eve,  celebrated  in  Spanish  villages  with  little  street  bon- 
fires for  El  Santo  Nino  (Christ  Child)  and  candlelit  Nacimientos 
(Nativity  scenes). 

24 — Ceremonial  Dance  Day  at  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo. 

24 — Night  processions  with  cedar  torches  at  Taos  Pueblo;  Midnight 
Mass  is  followed  by  ceremonial  dances  at  San  Felipe,  Laguna,  and 
Isleta  pueblos. 

25 — Christmas  Dances  for  three  days  at  Jemez,  Santo  Domingo, 
Tesuque,  Santa  Clara  and  other  pueblos ;  at  Taos  Pueblo,  the  Deer 
Dance. 

26 — Turtle  Dance  at  San  Juan  Pueblo. 
31 — Deer  Dance  at  Sandfa  Pueblo. 


i 

Before  and  After  Coronado 


The  State  Today 


NEW  MEXICO  today  represents  a  blend  of  three  cultures— In- 
dian, Spanish,  and  American — each  of  which  has  had  its  time 
upon  the  stage  and  dominated  the  scene.  The  composite  of 
culture  which  now,  in  the  union  of  statehood,  presents  a  harmonious 
picture  upon  casual  inspection,  is  deceptive,  for  the  veneer  of  Americani- 
zation in  places  runs  thin  indeed.  It  is  difficult  to  think  of  a  modern 
America  in  a  village  of  the  Pueblo  Indians,  while  the  inhabitants 
dance  for  rain.  To  be  sure,  a  transcontinental  train  may  thunder  by, 
or  an  airplane  soar  overhead ;  but  the  prayers  never  stop,  the  dance  goes 
on,  and  the  fantastic  juxtaposition  seems  to  widen  the  gap  between. 
Who  could  dream  of  the  American  Way  in  a  mountain  hamlet  where 
the  sound  of  the  Penitente  flute  is  heard  above  the  thud  of  the  scourges, 
and  Spanish-American  villagers  perform  medieval  rites  of  redemption 
in  Holy  Week? 

These  are  extremes  of  incongruity,  but  they  are  true.  They  dimin- 
ish in  the  vicinity  of  the  larger  towns  and  cities  and  vanish  altogether 
in  some  places;  but  their  existence,  strong  or  weak,  colors  the  con- 
temporary scene.  New  Mexico  is  a  favorite  camping-ground  of  the 
anthropologists  because  here  they  can  study  the  living  Indians  in  con- 
nection with  their  ancient,  unbroken  past  and  possible  future.  They 
can  learn  much  about  how  people  lived  in  medieval  Spain  by  studying 
the  ways  of  life  in  the  remote  Spanish-American  villages  of  modern 
New  Mexico;  it  has  been  said  that  if  a  Spaniard  of  those  times 
should  come  to  earth  today,  he  could  understand  the  Spanish  spoken 
in  New  Mexico  more  readily  than  the  modern  language  of  his  native 
land. 

The  interaction  of  the  diverse  elements  of  the  population  is  slowly 
working  towards  homogeneity,  dominated  more  and  more  by  the  irre- 
sistible middle  current  of  Anglo-American  civilization  and  the  modern 
American  tempo. 

The  mingling  of  the  three  racial  elements  early  gave  rise  to  the  need 
of  terms  to  differentiate  them.  Before  the  United  States  occupation  the 
non-Indians  of  the  region,  as  persons  of  Spanish  descent  and  subjects 
of  Mexico,  were  known  as  Mexicans,  and  proudly  so.  When  the  great 
influx  of  non-Spanish  people  occurred  after  1848,  the  New  Mexicans 
referred  to  them  generally  as  "gringos."  In  origin,  this  term  was  not 


4  NEW     MEXICO 

one  of  opprobrium  but  simply  meant  any  foreigner  (not  Spanish  or  In- 
dian) who  spoke  the  Spanish  language  without  a  good  accent — unin- 
telligibly. A  Spanish  dictionary  published  in  1787  shows  that  gringo 
(perversion  of  griego,  Greek)  was  used  in  Spain  long  before  Mexicans 
of  the  Southwest  applied  the  term. 

At  the  time  of  the  annexation  of  the  territory  by  the  United  States, 
the  people  of  Spanish  descent  became  United  States  citizens  and  were 
known  thereafter  as  Spanish-speaking  Americans  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  Indians  and  the  later  immigrants  from-  old  Mexico.  To 
distinguish  the  settlers  from  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  the  pre- 
fix "Anglo"  was  added.  Thus  today  the  residents  of  the  State  are 
spoken  of  as  Spanish-speaking  Americans  or  Spanish-Americans,  Anglo- 
Americans,  and  Indians.  It  is  well  to  keep  these  distinctions  in  mind 
when  thinking  of  New  Mexico. 

It  must  be  remembered  also  that  New  Mexico's  position  as  a  border 
State,  with  an  international  port  of  entry  and  a  considerable  mileage 
on  the  boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  has  always 
been  a  factor  in  the  State's  life  and  character.  Ties  with  Mexico  are 
strong — one  quite  recent  governor  of  the  State- was  a  Mexican  gentleman 
born  in  Chihuahua.  New  Mexico — particularly  the  southern  part — 
feels  the  effects  of  whatever  diplomatic  policies  are  current  between  the 
two  nations  at  a  given  time,  and  always  the  State  is  faced  with  the 
familiar  border  problems  of  smuggling,  illicit  immigration,  and  the  like. 
The  exchange  of  spiritual  and  other  influences  is  always  in  process — 
a  condition  which  adds  an  interesting  international  flavor  to  the  scene. 

In  the  migratory  annals  of  the  United  States,  the  direction  of  move- 
ment has  been  from  east  to  west;  in  New  Mexico  (meaning  in  this 
instance  all  the  southwestern  states  originally  embraced  in  the  old  Span- 
ish province  of  Nuevo  Mejico)  that  direction  did  not  hold.  For  three 
centuries  preceding  the  United  States  occupation,  the  trend  of  settlement 
here  was  all  from  the  south.  Contact  with  the  outside  world  was  not 
from  the  east  or  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  but  from  Mexico  City, 
and  through  Mexico  from  Spain.  This  difference  in  influences  must  be 
realized  in  order  to  appreciate  the  abrupt  turn-about  that  came  when 
the  Spanish  New  Mexican  frontier,  with  its  face  turned  anxiously  east, 
became  a  part  of  the  last  American  frontier,  with  its  face  turned  eagerly 
west,  but  it  still  has  much  of  its  habitual  brooding  introspection,  induced 
by  vast  expanses  of  mountains  and  semiarid  plateaus,  by  its  shut-in  val- 
leys, and  by  the  primitive  mode  of  life  that  prevails  everywhere  outside 
of  the  towns — on  ranches,  in  tiny  settlements,  in  the  Indians'  villages 
and  nomadic  solitudes. 

Homogeneous,  New  Mexico  is  not.  Its  cultural,  regional  variations 
follow  perhaps  inevitably  its  topographical  divisions.  Spanish  settle- 
ment, with  its  roots  in  Chihuahua,  spread  like  a  tree  up  the  central  Rio 


THE     STATE    TODAY  5 

Grande  Valley,  branching  east  and  west.  In  north  central  New  Mex- 
ico today  the  Spanish  element  is  still  most  prevalent,  the  only  integral 
remnant  of  the  northernmost  fringe  of  Spanish  empire  in  America. 

Northeastern  New  Mexico,  first  penetrated  from  the  east  by  trap- 
pers and  traders  and  later  developed  by  way  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  is 
preponderantly  Anglo-American.  With  the  coming  of  the  United 
States  Army  in  1846,  the  introduction  of  wagon  and  stagecoach  roads 
over  the  Gila  Trail  to  southern  California,  and  the  later  advent  of 
railroads  and  mining  developments  turned  the  Anglo-American  trek 
down  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  and  into  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
State  and  the  mines  of  the  Silver  City  area.  East  central  and  south- 
eastern New  Mexico,  the  western  extension  of  the  Great  Plains  and 
the  Llano  Estacado,  was  first  developed  as  a  cattle  country  soon  after 
the  Civil  War;  it  is  peopled  largely  by  ranchers  from  Texas,  and  is 
still  markedly  Texan  in  character.  South  central  New  Mexico  like- 
wise received  a  large  influx  of  Anglo-American  immigration  soon  after 
the  Civil  War,  when,  as  Eugene  Manlove  Rhodes  has  said,  "the  Missis- 
sippi valley  moved  in."  The  saints'  names  of  many  small  Spanish  vil- 
lages were  changed  to  the  Scotch,  Irish,  or  English  cognomens  of  the 
later  settlers.  Across  the  middle  of  the  State,  too,  the  trek  followed 
the  railroad  from  Santa  Fe  and  Albuquerque  to  the  western  border.  In 
the  far  northwest  the  fertile  San  Juan  Valley  attracted  Mormon  home- 
steaders who,  migrating  southward  from  Utah,  established  themselves 
in  the  region  bordering  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  plateau  country 
which  was  then  and  is  today  inhabited  by  the  Navaho  Indians,  and 
which  was  in  ancient  times  the  cradle  of  the  highest  development  of 
Pueblo  Indian  culture. 

These  general  regional  variations,  following  cultural  development, 
are  complicated  by  the  many  variations  within  any  one  region.  Sud- 
denly and  without  forewarning,  from  almost  any  point  in  the  State,  one 
may  step  from  modern  America  into  Old  Spain,  or  into  aboriginal  In- 
dian territory,  within  the  space  of  a  few  miles,  just  as  one  passes  from 
an  almost  tropic  climate  into  an  arctic  one,  due  to  the  many  abrupt 
Transitions  from  plain  to  plateau,  up  mountains  and  down  again. 

With  an  average  of  only  about  six  persons  to  the  square  mile.  New 
Mexico  is  a  sparsely  settled  State.  The  commerce  required  for  the 
needs  of  such  a  population  is  conducted  largely  by  Anglo-Americans  or 
people  of  foreign  descent,  the  native  Spanish-Americans  remaining  the 
farmers  and  not  infrequently  the  politicians.  Due  to  the  bilingual 
character  of  the  population,  a  section  was  placed  in  the  constitution  of 
the  State,  when  it  was  drawn  up  in  1910,  to  the  effect  that  all  laws 
passed  by  the  legislature  should  be  published  in  both  English  and  Span- 
ish for  the  following  twenty  years,  and  after  that  such  publication 
should  be  made  as  the  legislature  provided.  It  is  interesting  to  note 


6  N  E W    M  EXICO 

that  state  court  and  legislative  procedure  is  still  to  some  extent  bilingual, 
and  interpreters  stand  ready  in  the  legislature  to  translate  from  English 
into  Spanish  and  vice  versa.  Some  interpreters  deliver  a  better  and 
more  eloquent  speech  in  translation  than  the  original.  The  fate  of 
many  a  bill  has  rested  in  the  hands  of  the  interpreter. 

New  Mexico  as  a  whole  has  been  subjected  to  every  boom  that  has 
swept  the  western  land,  but  has  emerged  singularly  unaffected  by  them. 
From  the  days  of  Coronado,  who  sought  fantastic  wealth,  to  the  boom 
times  of  the  Comstock  Lode  and  Cripple  Creek,  search  for  treasure  in 
the  earth  has  been  a  fever  in  New  Mexicans.  The  finds,  though  not 
permanent,  have  been  spectacular  in  many  instances ;  but  the  gold  boom 
died  just  as  the  land  boom  and  the  cattle  boom  died.  Today  mining 
remains  a  lesser  industry,  confined  to  a  few  proved  areas  of  coal  and 
mineral  deposits.  Mining  operations  are  scattered  throughout  the 
State,  but  the  early  promise  of  the  industry  has  never  been  fulfilled. 
Oil,  natural  gas,  and  "dry  ice"  are  the  latest  developments  in  the  field, 
and  they  have  prospered,  especially  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State, 
where  Hobbs  has  mushroomed  from  a  shanty  oil  town  to  the  fifth  largest 
city  in  New  Mexico. 

The  patriarchal  feudal  system  of  Old  Spain  has  left  its  stamp  upon 
the  land.  It  was  the  custom  in  Spanish  times  to  portion  out  the  land 
in  vast  grants  for  colonization  to  favored  individuals,  who  had  the 
right  to  collect  tribute  from  the  Indians  living  upon  them;  for  more 
than  two  centuries  this  was  the  economic  picture  of  the  region.  As 
these  old  grants  contained  the  best  farming  and  grazing  lands  in  the 
territory,  their  withdrawal  from  the  arable  and  productive  domain 
greatly  retarded  the  normal  development  of  the  region.  Many  of  the 
original  grants  remain  intact  today,  having  changed  hands  after  the 
United  States  annexation  opened  the  country  to  speculators  of  the 
land  grabbing  era.  Most  of  those  robust  and  adventurous  men  antici- 
pated the  coming  of  the  railroads  and  the  boom  in  the  cattle  industry, 
and  for  some  years  they  fared  well  indeed;  but,  as  the  land  had  done 
so  often  before,  it  overwhelmed  the  land  grabbers  and  left  them  stagger- 
ing with  too  much  acreage  and  in  some  cases  an  insupportable  load  of 
taxes.  Some  of  the  old  grants  have  been  purchased  by  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment and  returned  to  the  Indians,  their  original  claimants;  others 
have  been  broken  up  and  sold  in  parcels;  still  others  stand  as  they  did 
in  the  beginning,  idle,  waiting  for  development  by  people  with  money 
enough  to  finance  the  task. 

Huge  areas  also  have  been  set  apart  as  national  forests  and  parks 
under  Federal  control.  The  timbered  mountains,  in  addition  to  hold- 
ing lumber  reserves  for  the  future,  offer  unlimited  recreational  facili- 
ties, camping,  hunting,  and  fishing  to  the  nation-at-large.  These  great 


THE     STATE    TODAY  7 

primitive  areas  coupled  with  many  national  and  state  parks  and  monu- 
ments are  among  today's  major  attractions  in  New  Mexico. 

The  fate  of  the  vast  cattle  empire  of  the  late  nineteenth  century, 
which  spread  from  the  southeast  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  has  been  similar  to  that  of  the  old  Spanish  grants.  The 
empire  has  receded,  leaving  the  great  ranches  of  the  early  days  broken 
up  and  sold,  or  languishing  under  burdens  of  delinquent  taxes.  The 
livestock  industry  is  still  of  great  importance  in  all  parts  of  the  State, 
although  dry  farming  and  irrigation  projects  have  broken  up  the  public 
range  in  many  sections. 

New  Mexico  remains,  then,  an  agricultural  State  primarily.  The 
country  people  of  Spanish  descent  in  the  central  sections  are  all  small 
farmers,  fighting  fatalistically  the  reluctant  earth  with  ancient  irriga- 
tion systems  and  inadequate  tools.  Rich  farming  lands  there  are,  but 
they  form  a  minor  part  of  the  whole.  Wherever  a  stream  ventures  out 
of  the  mountains,  there,  for  as  far  as  it  remains  above  the  surface,  will 
be  found  little  farms  using  the  precious  water.  Often  they  are  hidden 
in  the  folds  of  the  hills,  where  the  people,  forming  tiny  hamlets,  live 
now  much  as  their  forebears  have  lived  for  the  past  two  or  three  cen- 
turies. 

To  a  great  extent,  these  are  the  people,  too,  who  have  guided  the 
political  destiny  of  New  Mexico,  for  they  still  hold  the  balance  of  power 
between  the  two  major  parties.  The  political  complexion  of  the  State 
is  not,  however,  so  predictable  as  it  used  to  be.  Up  to  1916,  the  Span- 
ish-American population  could  be  expected  with  fair  reliability  to  vote 
Republican,  but  the  old  party  lines  are  beginning  to  break  down.  Rea- 
sons for  this  early  preference  were  an  ingrained  conservatism,  a  long- 
standing dislike  of  Democratic  Texas  and  Texans,  at  whose  hands  the 
Spanish-speaking  people  felt  they  had  suffered  persecutions  and  indigni- 
ties in  the  past,  and  the  desire,  if  not  the  need,  of  a  high  protective 
tariff  for  New  Mexico's  products. 

With  the  great  land  grants  resting  in  the  hands  of  the  Spanish* 
grandees,  it  was  the  hadendado  who  was  the  leader  and  the  lawmaker. 
His  peons  tilled  the  fields  and  tended  the  herds.  It  was  inevitable  that 
the  politics  of  the  territory  should  follow  the  same  feudal  path.  The 
grandee,  or  patron,  needed  only  to  say  the  word,  and  such  votes  as  were 
needed  by  him  or  his  friends  were  forthcoming.  As  the  patron  com- 
manded, so  it  was  done — as  in  the  old  days  the  peons  had  fought  for 
him,  so  now  they  would  vote  for  him.  The  result  was  that  the  terri- 
tory was  governed  by  ricos,  the  landowners,  for  the  ricos.  This  was 
the  situation  at  the  beginning  of  the  United  States  occupation.  The 
rule  of  the  eastern  Tweed  type  of  politician  here,  found  fertile  soil,  and 
the  territory  came  under  the  control  of  professional  Anglo-American 
politicians,  who  led  the  ambitious  Spanish-Americans  into  a  maze  of 


8          NEW    MEXICO 

political  practices  which  resulted  in  the  legend  that  the  haciendado  voted 
all  of  his  sheep  as  well  as  his  peons,  when  the  need  arose.  With  state- 
hood for  New  Mexico,  however,  these  old  practices  began  to  disappear 
and,  except  in  the  more  remote  sections,  are  gone  from  the  scene. 

As  to  the  northern  and  southern  political  divisions  of  the  United 
States,  New  Mexico  appears  sometimes  to  belong  with  the  former  and 
sometimes  with  the  latter.  During  the  Civil  War,  New  Mexico  as  a 
territory  sided  in  the  main  with  the  North,  even  stopping  a  Confed- 
erate army  which  had  been  sent  to  capture  the  territory  and  the  Cali- 
fornia gold  fields.  Whatever  the  partisanship  of  the  people  today, 
politics  remains  one  of  the  favorite  preoccupations,  for  the  Latin  tem- 
perament delights  in  the  special  kind  of  intrigue  and  excitement  which 
politics  affords.  It  pervades  their  whole  life,  causing  divisions  within 
families  and  even  within  religious  groups  where  such  schisms  seem 
irrelevant  to  the  Anglo-American. 

In  those  sections  of  the  State  which  have  been  shown  to  be  pre- 
dominantly Anglo-American,  the  social  life  is  that  of  the  middle  western 
small  town  which  has  been  so  widely  and  exhaustively  described  in  the 
literature  of  the  present  century.  In  the  central  and  northern  sections 
of  the  State,  this  life  is  deeply  colored  by  Spanish  and  Indian  influ- 
ences. It  centers  primarily  around  the  home  and  the  church,  which 
have  combined  with  the  tyrannical  land  to  perpetuate  a  fatalistic  out- 
look as  well  as  the  old  and  proved  ways  of  living. 

For  all  its  tyranny,  however,  it  is  a  land  of  surpassing  beauty  and 
attraction.  Its  climate  is  almost  universally  benevolent,  with  clear  air, 
brilliant  sunshine,  and  in  the  plateau  regions,  brisk  winters  of  dry  and 
stimulating  cold.  Space  is  the  keynote  of  the  land — vast,  limitless 
stretches  of  plain,  desert,  and  lofty  mountains,  with  buttes  and  mesas 
and  purple  distances  to  rest  the  eye.  To  all  of  this  is  added  the  interest 
of  human  life,  lived  here  for  countless  ages. 

The  future  of  New  Mexico,  from  a  commercial  and  industrial 
point  of  view,  is  promising.  The  needs  of  the  Nation  have  not  yet 
pressed  the  resources  of  the  State  to  development,  but  the  time  will 
come.  Enough  coal  lies  buried  within  its  borders  to  supply  the  nation 
for  thousands  of  years,  after  other  more  accessible  supplies  have  been 
exhausted;  and  the  same  is  true,  in  a  lesser  degree,  or  other  minerals. 
The  very  factors — aridity,  remoteness,  and  immense  distances — that  have 
retarded  the  exploitation  of  natural  resources  contribute  immeasurably 
to  the  State's  attractiveness  as  a  national  vacation-land. 


The  Land 


NEW  MEXICO  is  the  southeastern  State  of  the  Mountain  group, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Colorado,  on  the  east  by  Oklahoma  and 
Texas,  on  the  south  by  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by 
Arizona.  The  northwestern  corner  of  the  state,  joining  Arizona,  Utah, 
and  Colorado  in  a  common  corner,  is  the  only  place  in  the  United  States 
where  four  States  so  meet.  In  size,  New  Mexico  is  the  fifth  largest  of 
the  fifty  States,  its  area  embracing  121,510  square  miles  of  land 
ranging  in  elevation  from  lofty  mountain  peaks  to  low  arid  plains  and 
deserts. 

Of  the  eight  major  physiographic  divisions  of  the  United  States  three 
are  present  in  New  Mexico.  The  major  divisions  are  composed  of 
provinces,  and  the  provinces  in  turn  of  sections.  Parts  of  four  prov- 
inces and  eight  sections  are  in  New  Mexico.  Seven  of  the  eight  sec- 
tions lie  within  50  miles  of  Santa  Fe.  Few  other  cities  can  claim  such 
a  strategic  position. 

The  Southern  Rocky  Mountains  Province  lies  in  the  north-central 
part  of  the  State;  the  Great  Plains  Province,  with  its  three  sections 
— the  Raton,  Pecos  Valley,  and  High  Plains — occupies  the  eastern 
third;  the  Colorado  Plateaus  Province,  embracing  the  Navaho  and 
Datil  Sections,  is  in  the  northwest  quarter;  the  Basin  and  Range  Prov- 
ince with  its  two  sections,  the  Mexican  Highland  and  Sacramento, 
occupies  the  southwest  quarter  and  central  portion. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  System  of  the  Southern  Rocky  Mountains 
Province  is  made  up  of  complex  mountains  of  various  types.  This  is 
the  highest  and  most  rugged  part  of  the  State,  and  contains  Pleistocene 
glaciation  and  striking  scenery,  outstanding  features  of  which  are  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo,  Jemez,  and  Nacimiento  Mountains,  and  the  Rio 
Grande  Canyon. 

The  Interior  Plains  of  the  Great  Plains  in  the  Raton  Section  show 
dissected  lava-capped  plateaus,  mesas,  and  buttes;  deep  picturesque  can- 
yons, volcanic  cones;  Park  Plateau,  Raton  Mesa  group,  Ocate  and  Las 
Vegas  Plateaus,  and  Canadian  Escarpment. 

Pecos  Valley  Section,  of  late  mature  to  old  plain,  is  a  long  trough 
occupied  by  the  Pecos  River,  and  includes  the  Roswell  Artesian  Basin. 
The  High  Plains  Section  shows  the  broad  intervalley  remnants  of 
smooth  river-formed  plains;  the  Llano  Estacado,  or  Staked  Plains,  is  as 
flat  as  any  land  surface  in  nature. 


IO        NEW     MEXICO 

The  Intermontane  Plateaus  of  the  Colorado  Plateaus  Province,  in 
the  Navaho  Section,  show  young  plateaus,  stripped  structural-platform 
or  rock  terraces,  retreating  escarpments,  mesas,  cuestas,  shallow  canyons, 
and  dry  washes,  to  San  Juan  Basin,  San  Juan  Valley,  and  Chuska 
Mountains.  In  the  Datil  Section  are  found  extensive  lava  flows,  and 
volcanoes  and  volcanic  necks,  such  as  the  Zuni  Mountains,  Mount  Tay- 
lor, and  Cabezon  Peak. 

The  Mexican  Highland  of  the  Basin  and  Range  Province  shows 
narrow  isolated  ranges  of  largely  dissected  block  mountains  separated 
by  broad  silt-deposited  desert  plains;  rock  pediments,  alluvial  fans, 
bolsons,  playas  (dry  lake  beds),  salinas,  and  dunes.  Sandia,  Manzano, 
San  Andres,  Caballos,  Magdalena,  San  Mateo,  Black,  Mogollon,  and 
many  other  ranges  are  here;  also  basins  such  as  the  Tularosa,  Jornada 
del  Muerto,  and  Plains  of  San  Agustin ;  and  the  Rio  Grande,  a  through- 
flowing  stream  of  complex  geologic  history. 

The  Sacramento  Section  includes  mature  block  mountains  of  gently 
tilted  strata,  block  plateaus,  and  bolsons,  such  as  the  Sierra  Blanca, 
Sacramento,  and  Guadalupe  Mountains,  and  the  Estancia  Valley. 

The  great  topographic  relief  of  the  State,  10,466  feet  (from  2,840 
to  13,150),  is  conditioned  by  great  uplifts  and  displacements  of  the 
earth's  crust.  This  relief  is  to  a  large  degree  responsible  for  the  great 
range  of  rainfall  in  the  State  as  well  as  for  the  temperatures  above  and 
below  zero.  There  is  also  a  definite  connection  between  the  contrast- 
ing physiographic  relief  and  the  presence  in  the  State  of  six  of  the  seven 
life  zones  present  in  North  America;  the  Lower  Sonoran,  Upper  So- 
noran,  Transition,  Canadian,  Hudsonian,  and  Arctic-Alpine,  each  with 
its  distinctive  assemblage  of  plants  and  animals. 

The  annual  rainfall  for  the  whole  State  ranges  from  12  to  16 
inches  and,  although  100  degrees  of  heat  are  not  infrequent  in  the  sum- 
mer, the  mean  temperature  for  the  year  is  about  50*  degrees. 

GEOLOGY 

Few  other  States  possess  a  more  remarkable  array  of  diverse  geologic 
features  or  a  more  complete  record  of  geologic  history  than  New  Mex- 
ico. There  are  many  breaks  in  the  record ;  in  some  instances  no  strata 
were  deposited ;  at  other  times  strata  were  deposited  only  to  be  removed 
by  subsequent  erosion.  But  it  is  noteworthy  that  every  period  of  the 
geologic  time-table  is  represented  in  this  State.  The  most  ancient 
rocb  in  New  Mexico  are  possibly  1,000  to  2,000  million  years  old  and 
are  so  exposed  in  mountain  ranges  that  to  see  them  it  is  necessary  to 
ascend  rather  than  to  descend,  as  required  in  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the 
Colorado  in  Arizona, 

Throughout  much  of  the  Paleozoic  era  southern  New  Mexico  was 


THE     LAND        II 

submerged  beneath  the  seas  from  time  to  time,  thus  accounting  for  the 
presence  today  of  marine  sediments  such  as  sandstones,  limestones,  and 
shales  of  Cambrian,  Ordovician,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Mississippian 
ages  in  the  southern  half  of  the  State.  In  the  following  epoch,  the 
Pennsylvanian,  practically  the  whole  State  sank  beneath  marine  waters, 
and  thick  sediments  accumulated  over  extensive  areas.  In  the  closing 
period  of  the  era,  the  Permian,  oscillations  of  level  occurred  with  conse- 
quent marine  and  terrestrial  deposits.  In  the  Permian  Basin  of  south- 
eastern New  Mexico  vast  deposits  of  rock  salt,  gypsum,  and  potash  salts 
accumulated.  These  recently  discovered  potash  deposits,  vying  in  mag- 
nitude with  Germany's,  constitute  a  national  resource  of  great  value. 

During  Triassic  and  Jurassic  times  terrestrial  conditions  prevailed 
in  the  Southwest,  continental  deposits  by  wind,  rivers,  and  lakes  being 
made.  In  the  Cretaceous  period  most  of  the  State  was  submerged  for 
the  last  time,  and  marine  strata  of  considerable  thickness  were  deposited. 
In  this  period's  closing  stages  the  land  rose  again,  and  vegetation  ac- 
cumulated to  form  important  coal  beds.  The  Laramide  revolution, 
which  ended  the  Mesozoic  era,  brought  about  uplift  and  displacements 
of  the  earth's  crust. 

Throughout  the  next  era,  the  Cenozoic,  continental  deposits  accumu- 
lated, as  higher  portions  of  the  State  were  subjected  to  erosion,  and 
great  igneous  activity  began.  Both  intrusion  and  extrusion  of  magmas 
(molten  matter)  occurred  intermittently  and  from  place  to  place.  It 
is  believed  that  this  activity  began  in  the  late  Cretaceous  and  continued 
until  recent  times.  Further  deformation  of  the  earth's  crust  occurred, 
apparently,  during  the  Cenozoic.  The  deformations  of  the  Laramide 
revolution  and  of  the  Cenozoic  era  and  the  igneous  activity,  particularly 
the  intrusions,  accompanied  the  emplacement  of  most  of  the  State's 
ore  deposits.  During  the  Pleistocene  period  mountain  valley  glaciers 
occupied  some  higher  portions  of  the  State. 

Many  of  the  Paleozoic  rocks  are  at  certain  horizons  abundantly 
fossiliferous.  From  the  Cambrian  through  the  Permian  era  fossils  are 
dominantly  marine  invertebrates  such  as  corals,  crinoids,  brachiopods, 
clams,  and  snails;  marine  invertebrates  occur  again  in  Cretaceous  beds. 
Plant  fossils  appear  in  Pennsylvanian  and  Permian  strata,  and  most 
abundantly  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous,  where  great  numbers  contributed 
to  the  vast  deposits  of  coal.  Vertebrates,  such  as  fishes,  amphibians,  and 
reptiles,  are  found  in  the  Pennsylvanian,  Permian,  and  Triassic  forma- 
tions ;  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous,  fishes,  turtles,  and  dinosaurs  are  not  un- 
common. Cenozoic  beds  have  yielded  large  numbers  of  mammalian 
remains.  In  the  San  Juan  Basin  are  the  type  localities  of  the  well- 
known  Paleocene  formations,  the  Puerco  and  the  Torrejon,  with  their" 
unique  fossil  mammals.  Many  new  species  and  genera,  particularly 
of  fossil  plants  and  vertebrates,  have  been  described  from  New  Mexico. 


12        NEW     MEXICO 

When  studied  further,  the  invertebrates  will  also  doubtless  yield  many 
forms  new  to  science. 

Sedimentary,  igneous,  and  metamorphic  rocks  are  all  present  in  the 
State  in  great  variety.  Marine  sediments,  such  as  sandstones,  lime- 
stones, and  shales,  and  the  terrestrial  or  continental  deposits  of  rivers, 
lakes,  glaciers,  and  the  wind,  have  already  been  mentioned.  Intrusive 
igneous  rocks  occur  as  batholiths,  stocks,  dikes,  sills,  and  laccoliths; 
extrusive  igneous  rocks  in  the  form  of  volcanic  cones,  lava  flows,  and 
ash  deposits  cover  large  portions  of  the  State.  Volcanism  continued 
until  fairly  recent  times,  and  some  basaltic  lavas  are  possibly  less  than 
1,000  years  old.  Metamorphic  rocks  are  abundant  in  the  pre-Cambrian 
basement  complex  and  occur  also  in  the  aureoles  surrounding  the 
younger  intrusive  bodies.  What  is  generally  conceded  to  be  the  finest 
display  of  volcanic  necks  in  the  world  exists  in  the  Mount  Taylor-Rio 
Puerco  region. 

An  investigation,  still  in  progress,  reveals  that  more  than  275  species 
of  minerals  have  been  recorded  in  the  State.  Many  fine  specimens  can 
still  be  found,  especially  on  the  dumps  of  hundreds  of  abandoned  mines. 
A  number  of  minerals,  for  example  some  of  the  potash  salts,  either  do  not 
occur  elsewhere  in  North  America  or  are  very  rare.  Both  metallic  and 
non-metallic  minerals  have  yielded  richly.  A  total  of  320  species  and  80 
additional  varieties  of  minerals  are  described  in  Minerals  of  New  Mexico, 
by  S.  A.  Northrop  (University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1942,  1944). 

Much  of  the  State's  striking  scenery  is  in  large  part  the  result  of 
deformations  of  the  earth's  crust.  Folds  and  faults  of  many  varied 
types  abound.  A  standard  classification  of  mountains  recognizes :  ( I ) 
residual  mountains,  or  mountains  of  erosion;  (2)  volcanic  mountains; 
(3)  tectonic  mountains,  a  group  of  mountains  formed  by  displacements 
of  the  earth's  crust,  including  fault  rock  (broken  and  displaced  blocks), 
dome,  and  fold  (folded  rock  strata)  ;  and  (4)  complex  mountains,  or 
those  in  which  combinations  of  several  of  the  above  types  occur.  Good 
examples  of  all  except  the  pure  fold  type  are  found  in  New  Mexico 
The  fault  rock  type  is  particularly  well  developed  and  marvelously 
displayed.  Practically  all  of  the  deformation  and  its  accompanying 
igneous  activity  have  occurred  within  the  past  60  million  years,  since 
the  end  of  the  Mesozoic  era. 

SCENIC  GEOLOGIC  FEATURES 

Underground  Waters:  Carlsbad  Cavern  National  Park;  Bottom- 
less Lakes  State  Park;  several  groups  of  hot  springs  and  their  deposits, 
notably  the  Soda  Dam  near  Jemez  Springs;  Rosewell  Artesian  Basin; 
sinkholes  of  the  Pecos  Valley. 

Volcanic  Features:  Capulin  Mountain  National  Monument,  Ban- 
delier  National  Monument,  the  great  Valle  Grande  Caldera,  the  vol- 
canic necks  of  the  Mount  Taylor-Rio  Puerco  field,  Shiprock  and  asso- 


T  HE     LAND         13 

elated  peaks,  Zuni  Salt  Crater  near  Quemado,  the  very  fresh  lava  of 
the  Carrizozo  and  San  Jose  flows,  the  ice  caves  near  Grants. 

Erosion  and  Weathering;  Chaco  Canyon  National  Monument,  El 
Morro  (Inscription  Rock)  National  Monument,  Enchanted  Mesa, 
Tucumcari  Mountain,  the  volcanic  necks  already  mentioned,  Rio 
Grande  Canyon  near  Taos,  Cimarron  Canyon,  the  great  Red  Wall  be- 
tween Thoreau  and  Gallup,  glacial  phenomena  of  north  central  New 
Mexico,  work  of  the  wind  at  White  Sands  National  Monument  (one 
of  the  largest  areas  of  gypsum  sand  dunes  in  the  world). 

Miscellaneous  Features:  Estancia  Salt  Lake,  Zuni  Salt  Crater,  the 
great  fault  escarpments  of  such  ranges  as  the  Sandia,  Manzano,  Ca- 
ballos,  San  Andres,  Sacramento,  and  others,  Sweet's  Ranch  Petrified 
Forest,  the  Turquoise  Hills,  and  the  Santa  Rita  open  copper  pits. 

FLORA 

In  all,  more  than  6,000  species  of  flora  have  been  recognized  and 
recorded  in  New  Mexico.  Many  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  are  entirely 
different  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  country.  The  desert  cacti,  in 
season,  turn  into  vast  fields  of  flowers,  most  of  which  are  not  to  be 
found  in  flower  keys  of  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the  country. 
Many  extraordinary  forms  of  flora  are  peculiar  to  the  southwestern 
deserts. 

In  the  Lower  and  Upper  Sonoran  zones,  which  are  sometimes 
grouped  together  under  the  term  Sonoran  Desert,  the  predominant  vege- 
tation in  New  Mexico  is  desert  grass,  creosote  bush,  mesquite,  pinon 
pine,  and  soapweed;  and  valuable  grasses:  the  gramas,  the  galleta,  and 
buffalo  give  range  value  to  the  lands  of  Upper  Sonoran  elevation. 
Woody  plants,  like  desert  willow,  screw-bean,  valley  cottonwood,  and 
cacti,  are  found  in  variety.  Higher  elevation  areas  known  as  the  Upper 
Sonoran  zone  contain  most  of  the  valuable  grazing  and  dry-farming 
lands,  where  the  principal  crops  are  wheat,  corn,  milo  maize,  kaffir,  and 
broom  corn  on  the  eastern  plains  and  pinto  (Mexican)  beans  in  the 
Estancia  Valley  and  near-by  foothills. 

The  rough  lands  north  of  the  plains  are  generally  characterized  by 
scrubby  forests  of  juniper,  pinon  (nut  pine),  and  oak.  The  parts  of 
the  Upper  Sonoran  zone  which  are  not  under  irrigation  are  covered 
with  such  vegetation  as  sagebrush,  snakeweed,  and  short  grasses,  with 
saltgrass  and  valley  cottonwood  along  the  rivers.  The  higher  edges 
of  the  valleys  are  less  arid  and  are  generally  covered  with  pinon,  juniper, 
and  a  better  stand  of  grass. 

Certain  steep  broken  areas  of  the  Sonoran  Desert,  like  the  Gila  River 
Basin  in  the  southwest,  have  scattered  growths  of  oak,  juniper,  and 
pinon  and  an  abundance  of  food-yielding  plants.  In  the  canyons  are 


14         NEW     MEXICO 

a  profusion  of  wild  grape,  currant,  hackberry,  walnut,  and  oak.  Fruit- 
bearing  cacti  (Opuntias)  and  yucca  (Yucca  baccata)  occur  on  the 
slopes. 

Three  varieties  of  yucca,  commonly  called  soapweed  (palmita  or 
amole)  grow  in  New  Mexico.  The  roots,  when  crushed,  make  excel- 
lent suds  used  by  the  Indians  and  native  Spanish-Americans  in  place 
of  soap.  The  broad-leafed  Yucca  baccata  (Datil-date),  found  in  foot- 
hills, bears  large  succulent  seed-pods  which  the  Indians  used  as  food. 
Yucca  macrocarpa,  with  thick  wide  stiff  leaves,  bears  a  smaller  flower 
than  the  Yucca  aloifolia,  commonly  called  Spanish  Dagger,  or  Yucca 
elata,  which  has  narrow  flexible  leaves  and  tall  branched  flower  stocks, 
commonly  called  God's  Candles.1  Because  of  its  widespread  habitat,  its 
ability  to  withstand  drought,  and  its  beauty,  the  yucca  was  chosen  for 
the  State  flower. 

Some  sections  are  open  country  of  scattered  grass  and  desert  shrubs, 
such  as  saltbrush,  white  and  purple  sage,  and  varied  species  of  rabbit 
brush.  In  the  San  Juan  River  Valley  in  the  northwest,  all  of  which 
lies  within  the  Sonoran  Desert,  the  land  is  extremely  fertile  and,  where 
irrigated,  supports  good  yields  of  fruits,  chiefly  apples,  pears,  and 
peaches.  The  dominant  plants  in  this  section  are  the  Utah  juniper, 
buffalo  berry,  Rocky  Mountain  birch,  and  cliff  rose. 

Pifion  and  juniper  are  abundant  in  the  broken  country  and  over  the 
foothills  of  the  mountains.  Oak  becomes  more  conspicuous  toward  the 
upper  borders  of  the  zone.  The  Rio  Grande  cottonwood  is  large  and 
shady  along  the  valley  streams,  and  other  trees  of  the  Upper  Sonoran 
are  the  lance-leaved  cottonwood,  several  willows,  and  the  mountain 
mahogany.  Scattered  over  the  grassy  plains  and  mesas  are  sages,  yuccas, 
and  cacti,  and  in  some  of  the  more  arid  regions,  the  bushy  snakeweed, 
sometimes  mistaken  for  sagebrush,  and  greasewood.  Locoweed  (Astra- 
galui) ,  with  its  purple  or  white  flowers,  is  beautiful  in  full  bloom,  but  it 
is  the  curse  of  some  range  lands,  for  it  is  poisonous  to  cattle. 

The  Transition  zone  is  the  important  timber  section  of  the  State, 
the  zone  of  the  western  yellow  or  ponderosa  pine ;  the  lance-leaved  cot- 
tonwood, many  varieties  of  oak,  willow,  and  pine  are  also  found  in  the 
forests  of  this  zone,  together  with  the  New  Mexico  birch,  maple,  locust, 
the  wild  red  plum,  and  the  cherry.  Some  of  the  brushes  are  buck- 
thorn, currant,  gooseberry,  thorn  apple,  barberry,  wild  rose,  and  snow- 
berry.  Wild  hop,  columbine,  lupine,  milk  vetch,  and  rush  are  some  of 
the  herbaceous  plants;  dropseed,  meadow  grass,  bluegrass,  bromegrass, 
foxtail,  and  wheat  grass  are  common. 

The  trees  of  the  Canadian  zone  (which  lies  above  8,000  feet  and 
is  important  for  the  water  supply  it  stores  for  regions  of  lower  eleva- 
tions) are  the  bristlecone  pine,  western  white  pine,  aspen,  and  Douglas 
spruce. 


THE     LAND        15 

Engelmann  fir,  corkbark  fir,  and  Siberian  juniper  grow  in  the  Hud- 
sonian  zone,  which  lies  around  timberline.  Currants  and  sedges  of 
several  species  are  found  in  this  zone. 

The  flora  of  the  Alpine  zone,  the  smallest  of  all,  is  characterized  by 
dwarf  alpine  flowers,  mountain  foiget-me-nots,  saxifrages,  sedges,  rushes, 
dwarf  closed  gentian,  and  alpine  larkspur.  No  trees  grow  here,  as  the 
area  is  confined  to  the  mountain  peaks  above  timberline. 

Plants  enter  largely  into  native  Indian  ceremonial  rites,  many  species 
having  definite  uses,  medicinal  virtues,  and  healing  qualities.  The  jim- 
sonweed  (Datura  stramonium)  is  used  to  induce  hallucinations,  de- 
lirium, and  convulsions,  in  which  state  the  subject  is  supposed  to  be 
benefited  by  intercourse  with  the  powers  of  the  unseen  world.  The 
amole  (yucca)  root  figures  in  many  cleansing  rites,  and  the  wild  herbs 
used  by  the  Indians  and  Spanish-Americans  would  make  a  large  cata- 
logue. Mormon  tea,  chimajd  (wild  celery) — the  latter  a  plant 
whose  leaves  and  root  both  cooked  and  raw  are  edible — yerbas  buenas 
(mints),  oshd  (mountain  celery)  and  yerba  de  mansa  (lizard's  tail)  are 
among  those  still  gathered  in  New  Mexico  mountains  as  valuable  foods 
and  remedies. 

FAUNA 

The  first  survey  of  New  Mexico  animals  and  birds  was  made  in 
1540  by  Castaneda,  the  chronicler  of  the  Coronado  expedition.  In  mak- 
ing his  reports,  as  required  by  the  Spanish  government,  Castaneda  men- 
tioned chiefly  the  animals  whose  skins  were  found  in  the  pueblos  along 
the  line  of  march,  and  he  noted  especially  the  buffalo,  or  "cows  covered 
with  frizzled  hair  which  resembles  wool."  The  few  birds  mentioned 
are  of  special  interest,  since  they  were  the  first  recorded  in  what  is 
now  the  United  States.  The  Spanish  chronicler  noted  that  "a  very 
large  number  of  cranes  and  wild  geese  and  starlings  (purple  grackles) 
live  on  what  is  sown.  There  are  a  great  many  native  fowl  in  these 
provinces,  and  cocks  (wild  turkeys)  with  great  hanging  chins."  Long 
robes  and  dresses  made  of  the  "feathers  of  the  fowls"  were  seen,  and 
"tame  eagles  which  the  chiefs  estimate  to  be  something  fine." 

Many  expeditions,  private  and  governmental,  have  augmented  this 
first  fragmentary  report.  William  Gambel  visited  the  State  in  1841, 
mainly  for  the  study  of  birds,  and  four  years  later  James  William  Abert 
did  considerable  collecting.  Dr.  A.  Wislizenus  conducted  a  study  of 
the  flora  in  1846,  and  subsequent  students  have  furnished  a  wealth  of 
information  on  the  flora  and  fauna  of  New  Mexico.  A  systematic 
survey  of  the  State's  bird  life  was  undertaken  in  1903  by  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam  and  Mr.  Vernon  Bailey,  and  continued  after  1913  by  the 
Biological  Survey  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Field  work  was  carried  on  in  every  important  valley  and  mountain 


l6         N  EW     MEXICO 

range  in  New  Mexico,  and  material  gathered  for  a  fairly  detailed  map 
of  the  six  IL'e  zones. 

More  than  three  hundred  species  of  birds  have  been  recognized  in 
New  Mexico.  Fifteen  species  of  fur-bearing  animals  and  thirty  species 
of  game  are  listed  by  the  State  Game  and  Fish  Department. 

Rodents  are  the  most  abundant  mammals  in  the  Lower  Sonoran  zone 
and  also  occur  in  numbers  in  the  Upper  Sonoran.  Larger  mammals  in 
this  zone  include  the  beaver,  civet  cat,  whitetail  and  mule  deer,  wild- 
cat, fox,  antelope,  a  few  mountain  sheep,  and  the  Mexican  cougar. 
This  wide-ranging  predator,  commonly  known  as  the  mountain  lion, 
though  rare,  is  immensely  destructive.  The  timber  wolf — lobo  to  Span- 
ish-Americans— is  also  scarce  but  may  sometimes  be  found  ranging 
alone  or  leading  a  pack  of  mountain  coyotes.  Prairie-dog  towns  are 
still  seen  in  many  places  along  the  highways  despite  a  vigorous  program 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  bring  them  under  control;  they 
are  considered  harmful  to  both  grass  and  farm  crops.  Jack  rabbits 
(hares)  are  still  numerous,  and  occasionally  a  coyote,  badger,  or  skunk 
is  visible  from  the  highway. 

Terrapins  often  crawl  around  on  the  grasslands  of  the  southeast  far 
from  streams  or  lakes,  and  the  ornate  box  turtle  is  also  found  in  this 
zone.  Snakes  are  non-venomous,  except  the  rattlesnake  and  the  rare 
coral  snake. 

The  Abert  squirrel  and  the  porcupine  thrive  in  the  Transition  zone, 
which  is  also  the  habitat  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  lion,  the  mule  deer, 
black  bear,  bobcat,  and  mountain  coyote.  Otter,  mink,  and  badger 
occur  in  this  zone,  as  well  as  many  of  the  smaller  animals  and  rodents 
from  the  lower  elevations.  The  wild  turkey,  the  ruddy  duck,  cinnamon 
teal,  shoveler,  dusky  grouse,  and  many  song  birds  breed  here. 

Mountain  sheep,  the  Rocky  Mountain  woodchuck,  the  gray  rock 
cony,  and  several  birds,  including  the  dusky  shrew,  nutcracker,  and 
grosbeak  are  found  in  the  narrow  Hudsonian  zone  around  timberline. 
There  are  mountain  sheep  also  in  the  highest  areas  of  the  Alpine  zone. 

New  Mexico  has  excellent  possibilities  for  the  propagation  of  game 
birds.  Reclamation  and  other  agricultural  activities  have  helped  to 
create  conditions  favorable  to  certain  kinds,  and  recent  extensions  of 
game  sanctuaries  have  given  promising  increases.  There  are  now  183 
State,  and  one  or  two  Federal,  game  reserve  areas  set  aside  as  sanctuaries 
where  game  animals  and  birds  may  reproduce  unmolested,  all  of  them 
extremely  important  in  the  conservation  of  wildlife.  Areas  in  the 
lowlands  are  for  prairie  chicken,  quail,  and  other  game  birds  and  in 
the  mountains  for  big  game.  No  hunting  of  any  kind  is  allowed  within 
a  game  refuge. 

Predatory  animals  are  still  a  serious  menace  to  wild  game  of  all 
kinds  in  the  State.  Due  to  State  Game  Department  activities,  wolves 


THE     LAND         17 

and  mountain  lions  are  no  longer  the  serious  menace  that  they  were  in 
pa&t  years.  Wildcats  and  coyotes  are  still  dangerous  enemies,  their  prey 
ranging  from  barnyard  fowl  to  adult  deer  and  antelope. 

Distribution  of  birds,  as  of  all  wildlife  in  the  State,  is  influenced 
largely  by  altitude.  The  mountain  bluebirds  nest  at  various  levels  be- 
tween 5,800  and  10,300  feet,  while  the  white-tailed  ptarmigan  occupies 
the  tops  of  the  mountain  ranges.  Thrashers  are  found  throughout  the 
year  in  the  extreme  southwestern  part  of  New  Mexico;  the  chestnut 
colored  longspur  breeds  far  north  of  New  Mexico,  but  enters  the  State 
in  the  fall  to  remain  until  April ;  the  painted  bunting  nests  in  the  ex- 
treme southern  part  of  the  State  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande  and 
Pecos  Rivers  but  deserts  the  State  during  the  winter.  The  white- 
rumped  sandpiper,  the  Baird  sandpiper,  and  several  other  shore  birds 
pass  across  New  Mexico  when  traveling  from  their  summer  homes  far 
north  on  the  Arctic  coast  to  their  winter  homes  in  lower  South  America. 

About  three  hundred  different  species  of  birds  can  be  found  in  New 
Mexico  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year.  Among  them  is  the  fiercest  of 
all  hawks,  the  duck  hawk,  which  nests  in  overhanging  cliffs.  Bright- 
colored  orioles,  eight  or  ten  varieties  of  wrens,  four  kinds  of  humming- 
birds— among  them  the  calliope,  the  smallest  in  North  America;  forty- 
four  different  kinds  of  sparrows,  the  yellow  warblers,  finches,  and  mam 
other  small  birds  are  found  here.  White  pelicans  are  plentiful  near 
Elephant  Butte  Dam;  and  common  also  is  the  crested  roadrunner  (the 
chapparal  cock,  or  paisano,  of  Mexico),  a  grotesque  bird  that  tries  to 
outrun  horses  and  automobiles  on  the  roads.  Magpies  and  jays,  ravens, 
hawks,  and  eagles  (whose  feathers  are  prized  by  Indians)  are  found 
in  the  higher  zones.  Characteristic  of  the  Lower  Sonoran  zone  is  the 
mourning  dove,  whose  sweet,  mournful  note  breaks  the  stillness  of  the 
semiarid  plains.  On  the  high  timbered  mesas  and  in  mountain  canyons, 
the  Rocky  Mountain  magpie  (Pica  pica  hudsonla)  is  the  bane  of 
campers.  He  does  not  hesitate  to  filch  bright  objects  and  for  that  rea- 
son is  called  the  camp  robber,  a  title  bestowed  elsewhere  on  the  Canada 
jay. 

It  is  now  widely  recognized  that  birds,  by  destroying  farm  and 
orchard  insects,  are  directly  instrumental  in  the  conservation  of  agricul- 
tural output ;  consequently  they  receive  increased  protection  every  year. 

The  piiion  supplies  one  of  the  more  important  of  the  natural  game 
foods,  and  its  nuts  impart  a  fine  flavor  to  the  flesh  of  the  game  that  fat- 
tens on  them.  Oak  mast  ranks  second  to  pinon  and  is  a  more  depend- 
able source.  Juniper  berries,  manzamta  mast,  desert  sumac,  and  skunk- 
brush  furnish  food  and  cover  for  birds.  Elderberry  'and  chokeberry 
supply  seasonal  food  to  birds  and  animals,  especially  wild  pigeons  and 
songbirds;  bears  wreck  the  branches  of  the  chokeberry  to  get  its  fruit. 


l8        NEW     MEXICO 

Cacti  produce  succulent  fruit  even  during  the  driest  seasons,  and  yucca 
and  sotol  provide  food  for  cattle  and  deer. 

Streams  of  the  higher  elevations  support  only  trout.  New  Mexico 
is  aware  of  the  value  of  its  trout  streams  and  the  State  Fish  and  Game 
Department  is  carrying  on  an  efficient  restocking  system.  The  native 
blackspotted,  or  cutthroat,  are  unexcelled,  and  they  are  better  adapted 
to  New  Mexican  waters  than  most  of  the  introduced  specimens,  such 
as  the  Loch  Leven,  rainbow,  and  eastern  brook  trout. 

Millions  of  black  bass,  crappie,  perch,  channel  catfish,  and  bream  are 
planted  annually  in  the  warm  waters  of  New  Mexico  to  replace  the 
less  desirable  native  carp,  suckers,  and  garfish.  A  peculiar  type  of  giz- 
zard shad,  with  a  gizzard  very  similar  to  that  of  a  hen,  is  found  in 
Pecos  Valley.  Another  interesting  fish  is  the  gambusia,  which  has  been 
introduced  in  the  river  valleys  to  aid  in  mosquito  control.  It  is  the 
only  fish  in  these  waters  which  bears  its  young  alive. 

Cold-blooded  vertebrates  are  most  plentiful  both  in  species  and  num- 
bers in  warm  climates,  and  it  is  natural  that  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Sonoran  zones  in  New  Mexico  should  be  rich  in  reptilian  life.  The 
rattlesnake  is  the  most  widely  distributed  venomous  reptile  in  the  State. 
The  black-tailed  or  green  rattlesnake  is  occasionally  encountered  in  the 
Guadalupe  Mountains;  prairie  rattlesnakes  are  found  over  the  high 
plains  country  north  and  east,  and  the  large  western  diamond-back  is 
found  in  the  warmer  valleys. 

The  venomous  coral  snake  is  met  occasionally.  Non-poisonous 
snakes  include  the  western  bullsnake,  which  grows  to  a  large  size  but 
is  harmless;  the  Mexican  blacksnake;  the  coachwhip;  the  ring-necked 
snake;  the  puff  adder,  and  several  species  of  gartersnakes. 

One  of  the  odd  reptiles  of  New  Mexico  is  the  glass  snake,  which  is 
really  not  a  snake  at  all  but  a  legless  lizard.  Its -peculiarity  is  its 
ability  to  shake  off  a  part  of  its  tail  when  attacked.  While  the  aggres- 
sor watches  the  wiggling  tail,  the  creature  makes  for  cover. 

The  only  poisonous  lizard  in  the  whole  Southwest  is  the  Gila 
monster,  which  inhabits  the  Lower  Sonoran  zone  of  Arizona.  Many 
species  of  harmless  lizards  abound  in  New  Mexico.  Widely  different 
groups  are  represented,  such  as  the  scaly  rock  lizards,  bar-tailed  Texas 
lizards,  leopard  lizards,  Bailey's  collared  lizard,  and  western  earless 
lizards.  Three  kinds  of  horned  toads  are  found  in  the  State.  These 
interesting  little  creatures  with  tiny  horns  on  their  backs  are  sometimes 
captured  and  kept  as  pets. 

Five  species  of  toads  are  found  in  New  Mexico  but  the  leopard  frog 
and  the  bull  frog  are  the  only  true  frogs  in  the  State.  Salamanders 
(guajolote),  the  many-ribbed  triton,  theuta,  striped  swift,  the  Sonoran 
skinfc,  the  prairie  skink,  and  the  southern  brown-shouldered  uta  are 
found.  Six  species  of  turtle  occur;  the  Sonoran  mud  turtle,  yellow- 


THE    LAND        1 9 

necked  mud  turtle ;  the  western  painted  turtle ;  tortoise  terrapin,  and  the 
soft-shelled  turtle;  Cumberland  terrapin  are  common  on  the  prairies 
of  the  eastern  sections.  Besides  the  dry-land  terrapin  of  these  sections, 
there  is  the  tortoise  of  the  Lower  Sonoran  zone.  The  terrapin  is 
carnivorous  and  lives  on  earthworms  and  insects;  the  tortoise  is  her- 
bivorous. 

One  is  likely  to  encounter  many  legends,  exaggerations,  and  miscon- 
ceptions concerning  plants  and  animals  in  the  State.  Many  insects  are 
widely  believed  to  be  dangerous.  Three  of  these  are  the  tarantula,  the 
centipede,  and  the  vinegarroon. 

The  tarantula  is  a  large,  ugly,  hairy  spider,  dark  or  light  brown  in 
color,  which  burrows  into  the  ground  or  utilizes  small  holes  from  one 
to  two  inches  in  diameter.  For  all  its  ferocious  appearance,  the  taran- 
tula is  unable  to  inflict  more  than  temporary  pain  and  injury.  The 
centipede  is  another  horrid-appearing  insect,  more  beneficial  than  harm- 
ful, for  it  devours  other  insects  and  small  animals;  its  bite,  while  pain- 
ful, is  not  serious.  Wild  stories  are  sometimes  heard  of  the  deadly 
vinegarroon,  which  is  a  sun  spider  (solpugida).  They  are  known  to  the 
Arabs  as  wind  scorpions  and  to  the  Spanish  as  spiders  of  the  sun 
(aranas  del  sol).  They  are  very  swift  and  agile  insects  of  nocturnal 
habits,  living  in  warm  desert  rpgions.  The  vinegarroon  is  densely  cov- 
ered with  hairs,  has  no  spinning  organs,  and  is  entirely  harmless. 

Besides  these  three  much  slandered  species,  many  other  kinds  of 
scorpions,  harvesters,  spiders,  ticks,  and  mites  are  found  in  various  sec- 
tions. The  majority  prey  upon  other  insects  and  so  are  beneficial,  but 
some  are  serious  plant  and  animal  insect  pests. 

A  few  species  of  spider  are  exceedingly  venomous,  and  a  bite  from 
one  of  these  may  result  in  great  pain  and  even  death.  The  most  poison- 
ous species  in  New  Mexico  is  the  Black  Widow,  a  medium-sized  black 
spider,  the  female  of  which  has  a  red  mark  in  the  shape  of  an  hourglass 
upon  the  abdomen.  It  lives  under  boards,  logs,  stones,  and  in  out- 
buildings. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  ticks  in  various  parts  of  the  State : 
the  most  common  in  the  southern  and  warmer  parts  of  the  Lower 
Sonoran  zone  is  the  Argasine,  or  chicken  tick.  Ear  ticks,  or  the 
spinose  ear  ticks,  give  some  trouble  by  getting  into  the  ears  of  stock 
and  pets,  but  there  are  no  fever  ticks  in  the  State. 

The  sheep-scab  mite,  once  one  of  the  greatest  pests  sheepmen  have 
had  to  deal  with,  by  quarantine  and  dipping  has  been  almost  eradicated. 
Many  other  plant  and  animal  mites  offer  less  serious  problems. 

Grasshoppers,  katydids,  and  crickets  are  widespread  though  not  in 
exceptional  numbers.  Locusts  are  a  minor  menace  in  some  seasons  and 
require  poisoning  campaigns.  Aphis,  scale  insects,  leaf  hoppers,  and  other 


2O        NEW     MEXICO 

Homoptera  present  the  usual  problems  to  orchardists  and   gardener* 
but  are  controlled  by  a  variety  of  sprays. 

Wild  bees  are  plentiful,  and  there  are  a  great  variety  of  ants, 
beetles,  and  butterflies.  The  Rocky  Mountain  tent  caterpillar  is  a  dan- 
gerous pest  in  the  forests,  where  it  attacks  and  defoliates  at  least  twenty- 
four  varieties  of  trees  and  shrubs ;  one  species  even  attacks  the  evergreens. 
A  project  of  the  Work  Projects  Administration  has  spent  considerable 
time  in  Santa  Fe  searching  for  insect  enemies  of  these  pests  (which 
have  become  alarmingly  destructive  in  the  mountainous  sections)  in 
order  to  utilize  nature's  means  of  combating  them. 

NATURAL  RESOURCES 

Although  its  land  area  ranks  fifth  in  extent  among  the  fifty 
States,  New  Mexico  has  a  water  area  of  only  155  square  miles,  the 
smallest  of  any  State  in  the  Union.  Conservation  of  water  resources  is 
therefore  a  matter  of  utmost  urgency,  particularly  since  the  land  is  largely 
composed  of  vast  arid  and  semiarid  regions  which  require  irrigation  for 
abundant  productivity.  Water  is  thus  more  important  to  the  State's 
present  and  future  welfare  than  all  the  coal,  gold  or  minerals  within  its 
borders. 

Most  of  the  122  thousand  square  miles  of  New  Mexico's  area  consist 
of  high  plateaus  or  mesas,  with  numerous  mountain  ranges,  canyons, 
valleys  and  normally  dry  arroyos.  Its  topography  is  extremely  varied, 
with  elevations  ranging  from  3000  feet  along  the  southeastern  border  to 
over  13,000  feet  at  the  top  of  the  highest  mountains  in  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  range. 

New  Mexico  is  considered  semiarid  with  an  average  annual  precipi- 
tation of  15  inches.  But  this  varies  greatly  as  does  the  topography  rang- 
ing from  less  than  10  inches  in  the  Rio  Grande  and  San  Juan  valleys  to 
over  30  in  the  high  regions  along  the  north-central  border.  More  than 
half  of  the  state  receives  less  than  the  average,  so  that  dry  farming  possi- 
bilities, with  the  exception  of  eastern  New  Mexico,  are  comparatively 
few  in  number ;  hence  the  great  emphasis  placed  on  irrigation. 

Snow  falls  in  every  part  of  the  state,  increasing  in  amount  with  eleva- 
tion and  latitude  from  2  to  5  inches  in  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  to 
nearly  300  inches  in  the  high  mountainous  region.  Over  three-fourths  of 
the  annual  streamflow  originates  on  forested  and  grassland  areas  above 
8000  feet  where  snowfall  comprises  over  half  of  the  annual  precipitation. 
Snow  accumulates  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  and  by  the  first  of 
April  the  water  content  of  the  snowpack  largely  determines  the  amount 
of  streamflow  during  the  growing  season. 

New  Mexico  is  divided  into  water  basins,  each  with  its  special  char- 
acteristics and  problems.  It  is  drained  by  the  Cimarron,  Canadian, 


THE    LA  ND        21 

Pecos,  Rio  Grande,  San  Juan  and  Gila  rivers.  The  first  three  drain 
all  of  the  region  east  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo,  Jicarilla  and  Sacramento 
mountains.  Between  these  mountains  and  the  Continental  Divide,  the 
Rio  Grande  flows  southwesterly  to  near  the  southern  border,  thence 
southeasterly  to  Texas,  serving  about  two-fifths  of  the  state.  The  San 
Juan  in  the  northwest  and  the  Gila  in  the  southwest  drain  the  area 
west  of  the  Continental  Divide. 

The  economy  of  New  Mexico  is  largely  dependent  on  agriculture 
and  irrigation  farming  contributes  a  considerable  share  of  the  value  of 
this  industry.  Irrigation  is  now  used  for  production  of  crops  in  all  of 
the  major  river  basins,  the  total  land  area  now  exceeding  half  a  million 
acres.  The  available  water  supply  is  the  main  factor  limiting  develop- 
ment of  irrigated  agriculture.  There  is  an  abundance  of  fertile  land 
suitable  for  this  purpose  if  only  the  much  needed  water  could  be  supplied. 

Irrigation  in  New  Mexico  is  the  oldest  in  America,  but  modern  irri- 
gation is  far  more  complex  than  the  simple  diversion  of  water  from 
streams  into  the  fields,  involving  the  expenditure  of  millions  of  dollars 
for  dams,  canals,  and  subsidiary  works  for  the  control  of  flood  waters, 
erosion,  silt  and  drainage.  In  New  Mexico,  especially,  the  menace  of 
silt  carried  by  the  rivers  and  streams  is  very  great.  It  results  in  the  re- 
duction of  the  storage  capacity  of  reservoirs,  which,  unless  controlled,  can 
nullify,  in  a  relatively  short  time,  the  most  elaborate  and  expensive  recla- 
mation projects;  and  it  dangerously  raises  the  level  and  banks  of  rivers 
above  the  surrounding  countryside.  The  natural  processes  of  disintegra- 
tion, erosion  from  wind,  rain  and  torrential  cloudbursts,  will  continue, 
but  much  can  be  done  to  control  them. 

During  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  eras  in  New  Mexico,  irrigation  was 
confined  largely  to  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  its  tributaries, 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  hostile  Indians,  lack  of  engineering  knowl- 
edge, and  lack  of  capital  for  the  purpose  of  creating  extensive  dams. 
Irrigation  of  large  areas  by  modern  methods  was  initiated  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  northernmost  project  on  the 
Rio  Grande  proper  in  New  Mexico  is  the  Middle  Rio  Grande  Con- 
servancy District,  organized  in  1925.  This  project  had  the  multiple 
purposes  of  flood  control,  irrigation,  and  drainage.  The  principal  engi- 
neering works  were  El  Vado  Dam;  Cochiti,  Angostura,  Isleta,  and  San 
Acacia  Diversion  dams;  a  system  of  new  main  canals  and  rehabilitated 
laterals;  an  interior  drainage  system;  and  a  system  of  riverside  levees 
and  drains  to  contain  the  meandering  Rio  Grande.  A  comprehensive 
plan  to  rehabilitate  the  district's  works  and  to  improve  and  stabilize  the 
economy  of  the  Middle  Rio  Grande  Valley  was  approved  by  the  Con- 
gress in  1948.  Under  this  plan,  the  Corps  of  Engineers  has  constructed 
the  Jemez  Reservoir,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Jemez  River,  and  recon- 
structed the  levees  from  Cochiti  to  Bernardo.  It  is  now  constructing 


22        NEW     MEXICO 

the  Abiquiu  Reservoir  near  Abiquiu,  and  has  plans  for  early  construction 
of  the  Cochiti  and  Galisteo  reservoirs  near  Cochiti.  These  reservoirs 
are  for  floor  control  and  have  capacities  of  120,000;  562,000;  597,000 
and  130,000  acre-feet  respectively.  The  Bureau  of  Reclamation  has 
rehabilitated  El  Vado  Dam,  the  four  diversion  dams,  and  the  irrigation 
and  drainage  systems.  It  has  also  installed  a  channelization  program 
along  the  Rio  Grande  channel  from  Cochiti  to  the  Narrows  of  Elephant 
Butte  Reservoir,  a  distance  of  about  127  miles. 

Lower  on  the  river,  near  the  town  of  Truth  or  Consequences,  for- 
merly Hot  Springs,  is  Elephant  Butte  Dam.  Elephant  Butte  Reservoir 
when  filled  to  capacity  is  40  miles  long  and  approximately  three  miles 
across  at  its  widest  point.  The  shore  line  is  nearly  200  miles  in  extent, 
the  lake  covering  an  area  of  4,000  acres  to  an  average  depth  of  66  feet. 
The  original  storage  capacity  in  1915,  though  now  decreased  one-sixth 
by  silt  deposition,  was  sufficient  to  cover  slightly  more  than  2.6  million 
acres  under  one  foot  of  water.  Elephant  Butte  is  of  international  sig- 
nificance, as  it  was  built  under  a  treaty  with  Mexico,  because  the  waters 
of  the  Rio  Grande  also  irrigate  Mexican  lands. 

Waters  impounded  in  this  reservoir  irrigate  145  miles  of  valleys 
stretching  through  southern  New  Mexico,  a  section  of  southwest  Texas, 
and  south  into  Mexico.  The  principal  valleys  are  the  Mesilla  in  New 
Mexico  and  the  El  Paso  in  Texas.  The  reservoir  not  only  regulates  sea- 
sonal discharge  of  the  river  to  meet  irrigation  requirements  and  the  con- 
trol of  major  floods,  but  also  its  enormous  excess  capacity  makes  possible 
the  carrying  of  stored  water  from  year  to  year.  The  dual  service 
capacity  has  been  demonstrated  on  several  occasions  since  its  completion. 
The  reservoir  abounds  with  warm-water  fishes,  bass,  crappie,  and  catfish. 
A  summer  regatta  with  motor  and  sailboat  racing  and  water  sports  is 
held  annually. 

Caballo  Dam  is  a  secondary  structure  on  the  Rio  Grande  below  Ele- 
phant Butte,  ii  miles  south  of  Truth  or  Consequences.  It  was  built  for 
flood  control  and  for  re-impoundment  of  water  released  in  the  develop- 
ment of  firm  power  at  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  Its  impounding  capacity  is 
almost  350,000  acre-feet,  of  which  100,000  is  reserved  for  flood  control. 
Additional  supplementary  diversion  dams  are  provided  at  Percha,  Leas- 
burg,  and  Mesilla.  An  elaborate  system  of  flumes,  siphons,  and  several 
hundred  miles  of  main  canals  supplement  the  dams;  the  whole  provides 
irrigation  and  reclamation  for  an  area  of  approximately  170,000  acres, 
divided  into  three  main  valleys  by  canyons  through  which  the  Rio  Grande 
flows.  The  first  division  below  the  dam  is  the  Rincon  Valley,  extending 
about  50  miles;  next  is  the  Mesilla  Valley,  extending  south  55  miles; 
and  then  the  El  Paso  Valley,  extending  40  miles  farther  south. 

Small  irrigation  enterprises  on  Upper  Rio  Grande  tributaries  such 
as  Santa  Cruz,  Bluewater,  and  Costilla,  have  small  dams  and  reser- 


THE     LAND        23 

voirs  that  provide  better  utilization  and  control  of  Rio  Grande  waters. 
The  city  of  Santa  Fe  obtains  most  of  its  municipal  supply  from  a  small 
reservoir  on  Santa  Fe  Creek. 

Near  Carlsbad  in  Eddy  County  in  the  Pecos  Basin  is  the  Carlsbad 
Reclamation  Project.  Started  in  1888  as  a  private  enterprise,  the  project 
met  with  repeated  discouragement  and  failure.  Eventually  in  1904, 
after  a  series  of  disastrous  breaks  and  floods  which  washed  out  the  dams 
on  three  occasions,  the  owners  of  the  system,  the  Pecos  Irrigation  & 
Investment  Company,  petitioned  the  Federal  government  to  take  over 
the  project.  President  Theodore  Roosevelt,  under  authority  of  the 
Reclamation  Act  of  1902,  took  over  the  assets  of  the  company,  and  the 
Carlsbad  system  of  dams  was  completed  successfully  under  government 
ownership.  More  than  25,000  acres  of  reclaimed  land  are  watered  by 
the  project. 

Three  dams  and  their  reservoirs  serve  the  project;  the  McMillan 
and  Avalon  across  the  Pecos  River  north  of  Carlsbad,  and  the  Alamo- 
gordo  Dam  some  145  miles  upstream.  Appurtenant  project  features  in- 
clude miles  of  main  canals  and  intersecting  ditches,  a  remarkable  massive 
concrete  flume  across  the  Pecos  River,  and  an  inverted  siphon.  The  sys- 
tem waters  an  area  which  extends  ham-shaped  about  the  environs  of  the 
City  of  Carlsbad. 

The  Two  Rivers  Reservoir,  a  flood  control  reservoir  with  a  capacity 
of  207,500  acre-feet  is  being  constructed  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers  on 
the  Rio  Hondo  some  12  miles  west  of  Roswell.  It  will  provide  needed 
protection  from  floods  for  property  in  the  city,  and  is  scheduled  for  com- 
pletion late  in  1961. 

Conchas  Dam,  authorized  as  an  Emergency  Relief  Project  in  1935, 
was  completed  by  the  Corps  of  Engineers  in  1940  to  provide  storage  for 
flood  and  sediment  control  and  for  irrigation  of  the  Tucumcari  Project, 
a  Federal  reclamation  project.  Having  a  constructed  capacity  of  600,000 
acre-feet  at  the  spillway  crest,  the  reservoir  covers  about  21  square  miles, 
extending  22  miles  up  Canadian  River  Valley  and  13  miles  up  Conchas 
River  Valley.  It  provides  excellent  fishing  for  bass,  crappie,  and  other 
species  of  warm-water  fish.  The  Tucumcari  Project,  supplied  water  by 
Conchas  Reservoir,  comprises  some  39,000  acres  of  irrigated  land  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  of  Tucumcari.  It  was  authorized  in  1936  for  con- 
struction, also  as  an  Emergency  Relief  Project,  and  was  essentially  com- 
pleted in  1951.  The  project  works  provide  full  irrigation  service  to 
41,411  acres  of  land. 

Eagle  Nest  Dam,  about  50  miles  southwest  of  Raton  in  Coif  ax 
County,  is  in  Canadian  River  Basin.  Built  in  1918,  it  stores  headwater 
flows  of  Cimarron  Creek  for  use  on  downstream  irrigation  projects  and 
serves  approximately  20,000  acres.  Eagle  Nest  Dam  is  140  feet  high 
and  impounds  about  75,000  acre-feet  of  water.  This  private  project  is 


24        NEW     MEXICO 

in  a  setting  of  great  natural  beauty,  the  lake  seeming  to  be  a  natural 
rather  than  artificial  body  of  water.  Its  waters  are  stocked  with  trout 
by  the  State  Game  and  Fish  Department. 

Flow  of  water  in  the  Canadian  River  drainage  is  so  erratic  that  reser- 
voirs must  occupy  a  commanding  place  in  any  scheme  of  water  conser- 
vation and  use  in  the  region.  Several  projects  have  been  tentatively 
planned  for  rehabilitation  of  existing  irrigation  and  development  of 
fishery,  wildlife,  recreational,  and  industrial  uses.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  a  $5,000,000  reservoir  authorized  by  the  New  Mexico  Inter- 
state Stream  Commission  to  be  constructed  about  two  miles  above 
Logan.  Work  is  scheduled  to  start  in  1961. 

The  New  Mexico  portion  of  Cimarron  River  Basin  lies  in  a  moun- 
tainous plateau  region  of  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  State,  with  alti- 
tudes ranging  from  8,000  feet  at  the  source  of  the  river  to  4,600  feet 
at  the  New  Mexico-Oklahoma  Line.     The  river  flows  mostly  in  a  rela- 
tively narrow  canyon  eroded  in  the  sandstone,  but  the  valley  opens  out 
in  places  and  offers  suitable  cultivatable  areas.     About  6,500  acres  are 
now  under  irrigation,  and  there  is  much  more  good  land  than  is  needed 
to  utilize  all  the  available  water  supply.     High  construction  costs  at 
available  storage  sites  prevent  further  irrigation  development  at  this  time. 
The  San  Juan  River  is  the  largest  stream  flowing  into  or  through 
New  Mexico  and,  broadly  speaking,  is  the  only  stream  in  the  state 
having  unused  water  available  for  new  development.     Signed  by  the 
five  Upper  Colorado  River  Basin  states,  and  ratified  by  the  Congress 
in  1950,  the  Upper  Colorado  River  Basin  Compact  apportions  the  Upper 
Basin's  share  of  Colorado  River  water  between  New  Mexico,  Colorado, 
Utah,  Wyoming,  and  Arizona.     New  Mexico's  allotment,  after  deduct- 
ing her  share  of  the  evaporation  losses  from  control  reservoirs,  is  ex- 
pected to  average  about  600,000  acre-feet  of  stream  depletion  annually. 
The  San  Juan  River  rises  in  Colorado  and  flows  through  the  northwest 
section  of  New  Mexico  for  a  distance  of  100  miles.     The  fertile  flood 
plain  of  the  river  produces  abundant  crops  of  fruit,  vegetables,  grains, 
and  hay.     The  surrounding  bench  lands,  derived  predominantly  from 
shale  formations,  are  difficult  and  costly  to  irrigate  successfully,  and  fre- 
quently contain  high  amounts  of  harmful  sodium  salts.    The  better  lands 
lie  in  small  blocs,  requiring  lengthy  and  expensive  canal  systems,  and 
the  extremely  fine  texture  of  the  shale  soils  presents  a  serious  and  costly 
problem  of  drainage.     A  plan  for  development  of  New  Mexico's  water 
has  been  worked  out  with  the  various  interested  groups  by  the  state  water 
authorities,  full  consideration  being  given  to  the  needs  and  desires  of  both 
the  Navaho  Indians  and  the  non-Indian  residents  of  the  San  Juan  Basin, 
as  well  as  the  needs  of  the  water-deficient  Rio  Grande  Basin.  The  plan 
proposes  to  divert  a  portion  of  the  water  to  the  Rio  Grande,  by  means 
of  an  interbasin  diversion  system,  there  to  be  used  for  municipal  and 


THE     LAND        25 

industrial  water  supplies  and  for  supplementing  the  irrigation  supply  on 
lands  that  now  receive  insufficient  water.  Legislation  to  authorize  con- 
struction of  the  plan  is  presently  being  considered  by  the  Congress. 

A  serious  condition  of  water  erosion  exists  within  the  area,  largely 
because  of  the  highly  erodible  shale  formation  throughout  the  basin  and 
severe  overgrazing.  Programs  to  relieve  this  condition  have  not  been 
noticeably  successful.  Rapid  development  of  oil  and  gas  reserves  of  the 
area  and  recent  discovery  of  uranium  ore  have  made  agriculture  of  sec- 
ondary importance. 

The  Gila  River  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  13,500  square  miles, 
6,100  in  New  Mexico.  The  river  rises  in  the  high  Mogollon  and  Black 
Range  mountains  of  southwestern  New  Mexico  and  flows  in  a  general 
southwesterly  direction  across  Grant  and  Hidalgo  counties,  in  New 
Mexico,  and  finally  joins  Colorado  River  at  Yuma,  Arizona.  Above 
Cliff,  New  Mexico,  northwest  of  Silver  City,  the  main  stream  and  its 
tributaries  are  small  mountain  streams  of  normally  clear  water,  occasion- 
ally flushed  by  sharp  floods.  Irrigation  possibilities  are  meager  and  have 
been  largely  exhausted.  Below  Cliff  to  the  San  Carlos  Reservoir  in 
Arizona,  a  distance  of  175  miles,  the  river  passes  through  a  series  of 
canyons  and  valleys,  where  erosion  is  extremely  active  and  cheaply  con- 
structed canals  have  served  the  valley  lands.  In  New  Mexico  the 
water  supply  is  generally  adequate  for  areas  now  under  ditches.  The 
waters  of  the  Gila  irrigate  a  total  of  7,700  acres  in  the  State.  With 
minor  costs  there  could  be  added  approximately  10,000  acres  more  on 
the  New  Mexico  section  of  the  basin.  Ten  dam  sites  have  been  in- 
vestigated in  the  last  few  years,  for  storage,  irrigation,  flood  control, 
and  power,  of  which  nine  have  been  rejected  for  various  reasons  in 
favor  of  the  projected  site  at  the  mouth  of  Redrock  Canon. 

The  San  Francisco  River,  principal  tributary  of  the  Gila,  joins  the 
latter  stream  near  Clifton,  Arizona.  It  has  a  total  run-off  almost  as 
large  as  that  of  the  main  stream,  but  more  poorly  distributed  and  sup- 
porting only  minor  irrigation  developments. 

Notable  areas  of  fertile  land  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  State  where 
irrigation  by  pumping  underground  water  is  feasible.  Among  all  the 
western  states  New  Mexico  has  taken  the  lead  in  establishing  measures 
to  conserve  and  protect  its  ground-water  resources.  All  of  the  important 
ground-water  producing  areas  have  been  declared  underground  water 
basins  in  which  the  development  is  controlled  by  the  State  Engineer. 
They  are  the  Mimbres  Valley,  in  Luna  County;  Roswell  Artesian,  in 
Chaves  and  Eddy  counties ;  Lea  County ;  Hot  Springs,  in  Sierra  County ; 
Virden  Valley,  Animas  Valley,  and  Playas  Valley,  in  Hidalgo  County ; 
Carlsbad  in  Eddy  County;  Estancia,  in  Torrance  County;  Portales,  in 
Roosevelt  County;  Hondo,  in  Lincoln  County;  Penasco,  in  Otero  and 
Chaves  counties;  Bluewater  in  Valencia  County;  Gila,  in  Grant 


26        NEW     MEXICO 

County ;  and  Rio  Grande,  extending  along  the  river  from  the  Colorado 
state  line  to  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  in  Taos,  Rio  Arriba,  Los  Alamos, 
Santa  Fe,  Sandoval,  Bernalillo,  Socorro,  and  Sierra  counties. 

Forests:  The  evergreen-carpeted  mountain  ranges,  splashing  brooks, 
wildlife,  and  scenic  grandeur  of  which  New  Mexico  is  rightly  proud 
are  found  to  a  great  extent  in  the  seven  national  forests  which  lie  either 
entirely  or  partly  within  this  State.  They  are  the  Carson,  Cibola,  Gila, 
Lincoln,  and  Santa  Fe  National  Forests,  entirely  inside  the  State;  and 
the  Apache  and  Coronado,  which  are  in  both  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 
The  national  forests  in  New  Mexico  cover  a  total  net  area  of  8,565,501 
acres  (1960). 

These  forests  hold  some  of  the  most  important  natural  resources  of 
the  State,  and  have  played  a  vital  part  in  its  development.  Protection 
of  watersheds  makes  possible  a  gradual  run -of!  of  rain  and  melting 
snows,  thereby  insuring  a  steady,  regulated  flow  of  water  for  domestic 
and  industrial  use,  irrigation  and  power,  and  preventing  floods,  erosion, 
and  the  resultant  silting  up  of  costly  reservoirs. 

A  perpetual  supply  of  timber  and  forage  is  assured  by  allowing  use 
of  timber-lands  and  ranges  on  a  sustained-yield  basis,  worked  out  scien- 
tifically and  proved  by  years  of  forestry  experience.  Fish  and  game 
abound,  picnic  nooks  and  camp-grounds  are  numerous,  and  forests  are 
kept  green  by  constant  vigilance  against  that  blackening  scourge,  the 
forest  fire.  All  these  things  are  made  possible  because  the  national 
forests  are  not  restricted  to  any  one  use.  Their  administration  provides 
for  use  by  the  public  of  timber,  water,  forage,  wildlife,  and  other 
natural  resources,  on  the  principle  of  "the  greatest  good  for  the  greatest 
number  in  the  long  run." 

Stewardship  of  these,  the  public's  forests,  is  entrusted  to  the  Forest 
Service  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  charge  of 
local  districts  on  each  national  forest  are  the  rangers,  always  ready  to 
supply  visitors  with  information  or  help.  Each  national  forest  is  in 
charge  of  a  forest  supervisor,  with  headquarters  at  a  town  on  or  close  to 
his  forest.  Forests  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  comprising  the  South- 
western Region  of  the  Forest  Service,  are  under  general  supervision  of 
the  Regional  Forester  at  Albuquerque. 

These  forests  are  made  up  of  the  woodland  zone  and  saw-timber 
zone.  The  woodland  zone  may  be  subdivided  into  the  evergreen-oak 
type,  which  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  occurs  at  elevations  of 
4,500  to  6,000  feet,  and  the  pi  non-juniper  type,  occurring  at  elevations 
of  5,000  to  7,000  feet. 

The  woodland  zone  of  the  national  forests  in  the  State  covers 
3,000,000  acres  at  relatively  low  elevation,  and  is  readily  accessible  and 
available  for  use  for  fuel,  building  materials  and  fence  posts.  It  pro- 
vides shelter  and  food  for  game  and  wild  fowl.  Tree  species  of  this 


THE     LAND        27 

zone  are  found  in  areas  receiving  fourteen  or  more  inches  of  annual 
precipitation. 

The  saw-timber  zone,  embracing  approximately  4,200,000  acres,  may 
be  subdivided  into  three  broad  types:  ponderosa  pine,  Douglas  fir,  and 
spruce,  each  named  for  the  species  providing  the  major  volume  of  timber. 
Aspen,  valued  mostly  for  the  watershed  protection  and  aesthetic  reasons, 
occurs  high  in  this  belt.  All  require  an  excess  of  nineteen  inches  of 
annual  precipitation. 

Ponderosa  pine  occurs  generally  at  elevations  between  7,000  and 
8,000  feet.  It  is  estimated  that  85  per  cent  of  the  saw-timber  now 
being  manufactured  into  forest  products  comes  from  this  species,  Doug- 
las fir  is  found  above  the  ponderosa  pine  area,  usually  at  8,500  to  9,500 
feet.  Spruce  occurs  above  Douglas  fir  at  9,500  to  11,500  feet. 

These  types  supply  raw  material  for  a  considerable  number  of  new 
mills,  of  which  there  were  no  active  in  the  State  during  1960.  The 
total  cut  of  these  mills  from  timberland  depends  directly  upon  general 
economic  conditions.  The  annual  average  for  the  past  few  years  has 
been  125,000,000  board  feet.  The  total  volume  of  saw-timber  is,  in 
rounded  numbers,  9,000,000,000  board  feet. 

Success  of  Forest  Service  timber  management  policies  is  attested  by 
the  fact  that  some  owners  of  private  timberland  adjoining  national 
forests  have  arranged  for  management  of  their  lands  by  the  Forest 
Service,  under  co-operative  agreement. 

Water  conservation  is  fundamentally  linked  with  forest  conservation 
in  New  Mexico.  These  enormous  forest  areas  form  a  most  effective 
means  of  controlling  and  equalizing  the  flow  of  streams  and  maintain- 
ing favorable  water-flow  conditions  in  the  Rio  Grande,  Upper  Gila, 
Pecos,  San  Juan  and  Canadian  River  drainages.  Adequate  watershed 
protection  is,  therefore,  carefully  worked  out  by  the  Forest  Service. 

Thousands  of  head  of  livestock  depend  upon  these  forests.  In  1960 
they  carried  81,700  cattle  and  horses  and  68,100  sheep  and  goats.  Under 
scientific  range  management,  destructive  overgrazing  is  prevented.  Sus- 
tained yield  of  forage  year  after  year  is  assured  by  allowing  on  a  range 
area  only  the  number  of  livestock  which  grazing  experts  know  it  can 
support.  Local  stockmen  receive  first  consideration  in  grazing  permits. 
Range  improvements  installed  by  the  Forest  Service,  including  8,381 
miles  of  control  fences,  145  corrals,  and  1,243  water  sources,  have  a  cost 
value  of  nearly  3^/2  million  dollars. 

Primitive  areas,  keeping  virgin  wilderness  intactvso  this  and  future 
generations  can  see  it  in  the  natural  state  in  which  the  pioneers  found  it, 
have  been  set  aside.  They  are  accessible  only  by  pack  trip.  Foremost  in 
New  Mexico  is  the  Gila  wilderness  area  embracing  563,000  acres  of  the 
Gila  National  Forest  and  the  Pecos  Wilderness  area. 

Deer  and  other  big  game,  and  wildfowl  such  as  turkey  and  quail, 


28        NEW     MEXICO 

are  increasing  in  numbers  due  to  maintenance  of  wild  life  refuges  and 
to  scientific  wild  life  management  of  the  national  forests,  in  co-operation 
with  the  New  Mexico  Department  of  Game  and  Fish.  Research  on 
fish  life  and  conditions  in  forest  streams  contributes  materially  to  the 
success  of  stocking  them. 

Conservation  of  the  forests  has  taken  the  form  of  improving  woods 
practices  among  lumbermen;  maintaining  timber  areas  on  a  basis  of 
sustained  yield;  protecting  forests  against  fire  hazards;  controlling  de- 
structive rodents,  insects  and  tree  blights;  improving  timber  stands;  re- 
foresting burned  areas  or  newly  acquired  lands ;  checking  soil  erosion  on 
the  national  forests;  improving  ranges  by  revegetation  (65,743  acres 
have  been  reseeded  to  crested  wheat  grass),  by  construction  of  stock 
fences,  reservoirs  and  watering  places,  and  by  eradication  of  harmful 
plants ;  improvement  of  public  picnic  and  camping  areas  and  construction 
of  many  miles  of  forest  highways,  roads,  and  trails.  These  arteries,  pri- 
marily for  administrative  use  and  fire  control,  also  give  the  public  access 
to  areas  attractive  for  recreation. 

In  such  areas,  public  picnic  and  camping  grounds  have  been  de- 
veloped, with  hundreds  of  facilities  such  as  tables  and  benches,  overnight 
shelters,  running  water,  fireplaces,  comfort  stations,  and  refuse  pits. 
Care  is  taken  to  make  these  areas  blend  into  the  forests  as  much  as 
possible,  and  to  do  this  natural  materials  are  used  in  constructing  the 
facilities. 

There  are  many  principal  areas  like  this,  distributed  over  the  follow- 
ing National  Forests:  Carson,  39;  Cibola,  39;  Gila,  15;  Lincoln,  12; 
and  Santa  Fe,  40.  Hundreds  of  other  locations,  undeveloped,  are  a  lure 
to  those  who  choose  to  leave  the  beaten  path. 

These  forests  belong  to  the  people  by  rightful  heritage,  and  are 
theirs  to  use  free.  They  are  waiting,  ready  with  green  depths,  murmur- 
ing streams,  bracing  air,  and  thrilling  vistas.  Whether  they  will  always 
be  waiting  and  ready,  with  the  same  natural  beauty,  depends  on  whether 
the  public  leaves  them  as  they  found  them,  and  is  careful  with  matches 
and  campfires. 

Soil  Conservation:  Although  its  land  area  ranks  fifth  among  the 
fifty  States,  New  Mexico  has  a  water  area  of  only  about  131  square 
miles.  Conservation  of  the  State's  water  resources  is  therefore  a  matter 
of  the  utmost  urgency,  particularly  since  the  land  is  largely  composed  of 
vast  arid  and  semi-arid  areas  which  require  irrigation  for  profitable 
production.  Thus,  water  is  the  most  important  resource  in  the  State's 
present  and  future  welfare. 

With  the  development  of  the  agricultural  areas  through  irrigation 
projects,  farming  has  supplemented  the  already  important  industry  of 
stock  raising  until  their  combined  product  exceeds  in  value  the  output 
of  the  State's  other  industries. 


THE     LAND        29 

The  growth  of  dry  farming  (agriculture  wholly  dependent  upon 
rainfall)  has  occurred  chiefly  in  the  northern  and  eastern  portions  of 
New  Mexico,  where  the  average  rainfall  is  15.5  inches.  Irrigation  is 
practiced  in  the  Rio  Grande,  Pecos,  Mimbres,  Gila,  and  San  Juan  val- 
leys, and  wherever  water  can  be  obtained  from  small  streams.  Artesian 
and  pumping  wells  are  used  as  additional  sources. 

The  land  area  of  New  Mexico  is  approximately  77,760,000  acres. 
About  3J4  per  cent  is  farmed  and  a  little  more  than  90  per  cent  is  used 
for  livestock  grazing,  and  the  remainder,  for  the  most  part,  is  made  up 
of  inaccessible  areas  and  urban  centers.  The  number  of  farms  has  de- 
creased as  mechanization  has  increased.  The  average  size  of  farms  in 
1950  was  about  2,000  acres,  as  compared  to  1,300  acres  in  1940.  Crop 
farms  are  considerably  smaller,  being  only  8  to  12  acres  in  some  counties, 
and  60  to  80  acres  in  irrigated  valleys.  Dryland  farms  are  consider- 
ably larger.  About  58  per  cent  of  the  land  is  Federal  or  State-owned. 

Erosion  by  wind  and  water  long  has  been  a  problem  in  New  Mexico, 
but  not  until  the  severe  dust  storms  of  the  early  1930*5  was  the  urgent 
need  for  soil  and  water  conservation  realized.  Congress  recognized  the 
erosion  problem  at  that  time  and  appropriated  funds  to  set  up  soil 
erosion  experiment  stations.  The  Soil  Erosion  Service  was  set  up  in 
1933  to  demonstrate  soil  conservation  practices  on  private  and  State 
lands,  and  became  the  Soil  Conservation  Service  in  1935. 

The  Soil  Conservation  District  movement  started  early  in  1937,  and 
the  New  Mexico  Soil  Conservation  District  law  was  enacted  on  March 
17  of  that  year.  The  Mesa  Soil  Conservation  District  in  the  north- 
eastern part  was  the  first  New  Mexico  District  to  be  organized  in 
February  1938.  Most  of  New  Mexico's  agricultural  land  is  now  in- 
cluded in  Soil  Conservation  Districts. 

As  the  technical  agency  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
Soil  Conservation  Service  gives  assistance  to  farmers  and  ranchers  who 
are  co-operating  with  Soil  Conservation  Districts.  The  combined  knowl- 
edge of  a  staff  of  conservationists  including  soil  scientists,  engineers, 
agronomists,  range  specialists,  biologists,  and  others,  is  available  to  Dis- 
trict co-operators. 

Primarily  the  Soil  Conservation  Service  is  concerned  with  soil  and 
water  conservation  on  privately-owned  and  privately-leased  State  lands 
within  Soil  Conservation  Districts.  The  use  to  which  these  are  being 
put  is  significant.  In  New  Mexico  there  are  approximately  873,000 
acres  of  irrigated  land,  1,800,000  acres  of  rangeland,  and  20,000,000 
acres  in  forests  and  woodland.  Each  kind  of  land  has  its  conservation 
problems.  In  parts  of  the  State  there  is  a  shortage  of  irrigation  water, 
and  in  some  instances  the  groundwater  table  is  lowering.  There  has 
been  some  loss  of  soil  fertility  and  break  down  of  soil  structure.  In 
certain  localities,  there  has  been  water-logging  and  accumulation  of 


3O        NEW     MEXICO 

harmful  salts  on  irrigated  lands.  Wind  erosion  is  a  problem  on  some 
irrigated  sandy  soil  areas.  Improvement  and  protection  of  the  irrigated 
land  is  being  accomplished  through  application  of  proper  conservation 
practices  such  as  crop  rotations,  crop  residue  utilization,  irrigation 
water  management,  land  leveling,  improving  water  distribution  systems 
through  concrete  pipelines,  lined  ditches,  and  improved  systems  of  field 
laterals. 

One  of  the  major  conservation  problems  on  dry  cropland  is  to  control 
wind  erosion  on  approximately  1,800,000  acres.  Important  practices 
used  to  protect  dry  farm  lands  are:  stubble  mulching  and  crop  residue 
management;  seeding  permanent  cover  on  land  not  suited  for  regular 
permanent  cultivation ;  strip  cropping ;  emergency  tillage,  including  list- 
ing and  chiseling  when  other  wind  control  measures  have  failed  to  pre- 
vent damage;  terracing;  contour  farming  and  other  practices  designed 
to  store  as  much  moisture  as  possible  in  the  soil. 

Grazing  on  native  range  is  the  principal  land  use  in  New  Mexico. 
These  lands  provide  most  of  the  feed  for  over  one  million  cattle  and  an 
equal  number  of  sheep.  In  addition,  deer  and  other  wildlife  find  sub- 
sistance  on  the  grazing  land. 

The  major  conservation  requirement  is  grass  management.  Proper 
use  of  forage  plants  is  the  essential  practice  in  grass  management.  For 
proper  use  to  be  effective,  adequate  distribution  of  grazing  and  correct 
seasonal  use  are  necessary.  Important  facilitating  practices  to  grass 
management  are  stock  water  development,  fencing,  deferred  grazing, 
seeding,  brush  control,  pitting  and  furrowing,  and  erosion  control  struc- 
tures. 

New  Mexico's  privately  owned  timber  land  produces  lumber,  posts, 
and  poles.  To  get  maximum  production,  woodlands  must  be  managed 
in  a  conservative  way.  Farmstead  windbreaks  or  shelter  belts  provide 
protection  to  buildings,  livestock,  and  poultry.  They  also  provide  com- 
fort and,  in  many  cases,  fruit  for  the  family  farm. 

Many  conservation  practices  are  proving  highly  beneficial  to  wild- 
life in  New  Mexico.  Some  land  is  suited  only  for  wildlife  production. 
Other  land  may  be  used  for  wildlife  and  cash  crops,  hay  pasture,  or 
woods.  Still  another  land  may  be  used  for  water  storage  for  irrigation 
or  livestock  and  be  stocked  with  fish.  There  are  numerous  other  benefi- 
cial projects  being  carried  out  in  New  Mexico.  The  Soil  Conservation 
Service  co-operates  and  works  with  numerous  other  Federal  and  State 
agencies  in  the  soil  and  water  conservation  program  within  the  State. 
Minerals:  Rich  in  present  and  potential  mineral  wealth,  New 
Mexico  ranked  seventh  in  1960  among  the  States  with  a  mineral  produc- 
tion valued  in  excess  of  $656  million.  The  total  all-time  value  of  pro- 
duction is  approximately  eight  billion.  Petroleum,  potash,  natural  gas, 
uranium,  and  copper  accounted  for  89  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  all 


The  Land 


Shiprock  in  the  Navaho  Indian  Reservation 


Eagle  Nest  Lake  in  the  Moreno  Valley 

The  Rio  Grande  flowing  past  Black  Mesa 


Gypsum  dunes,  White  Sands  National  Monument 
Venus's  Needle,  northwest  of  Gallup 


•&>  ^ ^r     •«*     .-»  i  r~- 

•'x  •;  "^izt '  v  v  .*•'•>•  i 
^ ?***:-«-  ,*." 


Camel  Rock  near  Santa  Fe 


In  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains 


Enchanted  Mesa,  seen  from  nearby  Acoma 

Dog  Canyon  near  Alamogordo 


••  > 


The  Giant  Dome,  Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park 


Pecos  country  of  northern  New  Mexico 


THE    LAND       3! 

minerals  produced  during  1960.  The  principal  metals  recovered  in  the 
State  were  uranium,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  molybdenum,  vanadium,  man- 
ganese, iron,  beryllium,  gold,  and  silver. 

During  the  past  decade  uranium  discoveries  in  McKinley  and  Valen- 
cia counties  have  resulted  in  production  that  exceeds  in  value  all  other 
metals.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines'  1960  preliminary  annual  report 
listed  production  at  3,757,200  short  tons  of  ore  valued  at  $63,684,000. 

Grant  and  Hidalgo  counties  contain  the  great  bulk  of  the  State's 
known  copper  ores.  The  chief  production  came  from  the  Chino  open-pit 
mine  of  Kennecott  Copper  Corporation  at  Santa  Rita,  Grant  County. 
Other  substantial  producers  were  Continental  (Bayard  group)  in  Grant 
County,  and  Bonney  in  Hidalgo  County;  1960  production  for  New 
Mexico  was  listed  as  67,400  short  tons  (recoverable  content  of  ores) 
valued  at  $43,136,000. 

Zinc  and  lead  tend  to  occur  in  the  same  ores  and  they  are  produced  as 
co-products.  The  principal  zinc  producers  were  Hanover  Mine,  Grant 
County;  Lynchburg  Mine,  Socorro  County;  Atwood-Henry  clay  mine, 
Hidalgo  County;  and  Continental  Mine  (Bayard  Group),  Grant  County. 
Zinc  production  for  1960  was  13,800  short  tons  (recoverable  content  of 
ores),  valued  at  $3,560,000.  The  all-time  total  production  of  zinc  in 
New  Mexico,  amounting  to  about  2,400  million  pounds  with  a  value  of 
$227  million,  places  zinc  as  the  sixth  most  important  mineral  commodity 
the  State  has  produced  to  date.  In  total  value  of  production,  zinc  is  ex- 
ceeded only  by  petroleum  products,  potash,  copper,  uranium,  and  coal. 
Lead  production  for  1960  was  2,200  short  tons  (recoverable  content  of 
ores),  valued  at  $510,000. 

Molybdenum  was  recovered  as  a  by-product  from  copper  ores.  And  a 
large,  low-grade  molybdenum  deposit  is  being  explored  near  Questa,  Taos 
County.  Vanadium  is  recovered  as  a  by-product  from  uranium  ores. 
Manganese  has  been  produced  from  several  mines. 

In  the  past  large  amounts  of  iron  ore  have  been  produced.  In  1960 
production  was  negligible — 1,000  long  tons  valued  at  $23,000. 

Beryllium  concentrates  have  been  produced  mainly  from  the  Harding 
Mine,  Taos  County.  Production  for  1960  was  unlisted.  The  value  of 
New  Mexico's  production  for  the  past  decade  was  approximately  $300,- 
ooo. 

Gold  and  silver  are  associated  with  some  of  the  ores  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  lead,  and  are  recovered  as  by-products.  The  value  of  gold  production 
for  the  ten  years  of  195 1-60  was  approximately  $i ,  168,000 ;  and,  for  silver 
was  approximately  $2,552,000. 

Production  of  the  nonmetallic  minerals  has  increased  substantially  in 
the  past  decade.  The  principal  uses  are  for  chemical  and  structural 
materials. 

Potash  was  the  leading  nonmetallic  mineral.     Production  came  prin- 


32       NEW    MEXICO 

cipally  from  six  major  producers  located  in  Eddy  and  Lea  counties. 
Production  of  potassium  salts  (K2O  equivalent)  for  1960  was  listed  as 
2,422,000  short  tons,  valued  at  $83,330,000,  By-products  of  this  in- 
dustry are  the  production  of  magnesium  compounds  and  salt. 

Sand  and  gravel  were  the  leading  structural  materials,  amounting  to 
12,460,000  short  tons  in  1960,  valued  at  $13,332,000.  Highway  con- 
struction takes  the  bulk  of  the  production.  Bernalillo  County  leads  in 
production. 

Perlite  production  has  expanded  rapidly  during  the  past  decade,  and 
the  1960  production  of  235,105  short  tons  was  valued  at  $2,111,000. 
The  principal  production  came  from  the  Seven  Hills  area  in  Taos  County, 
Socorro  in  Socorro  County,  and  Grants  in  Valencia  County. 

A  total  of  282,000  short  tons  of  pumice  produced  in  1960  was  valued 
at  $718,000.  Volcanic  cinders  (scoria)  constituted  most  of  this  material, 
and  came  from  Rio  Arriba,  Sandoval,  and  Santa  Fe  counties. 

Stone  production  was  475,000  short  tons  in  1960,  valued  at  $550,000. 
The  major  item  was  limestone.  Minor  amounts  of  granite,  basalt,  marble 
and  other  stones  were  quarried.  Valencia  County  was  the  leading  pro- 
ducer. 

Lime  produced  in  1960  (36,000  short  tons),  was  valued  at  $461,000. 
Clays,  gem  stones,  barite,  and  micas  were  produced  in  1960  in  minor 
amounts  totaling  approximately  $120,000  in  value. 

Construction  of  the  Tijeras  cement  plant  of  the  Ideal  Cement  Com- 
pany was  completed  at  2.5  million  barrel  capacity  in  1960.  First  pro- 
duction was  in  1959.  This  is  the  first  cement  plant  in  the  State. 

Two  gypsum  building  products  plants  started  production  in  1960. 
These  were  the  Rosario  plant  of  Kaiser  Gypsum  Company,  Inc.,  and  the 
Albuquerque  plant  of  American  Gypsum  Company.  These  are  the  first 
plants  to  be  built  in  the  State  to  use  its  large  reserves  of  gypsum, 

Fluorspar  is  widespread  in  occurrence,  but  is  produced  in  minor 
amounts. 

Most  other  nonmetallic  minerals  occur  in  the  State,  but  have  not  been 
produced  in  quantity. 

The  hydrocarbons  or  mineral  fuels  constitute  the  largest  part  of  the 
mineral  wealth.  They  are  petroleum,  natural  gas,  natural  gas  liquids, 
helium,  carbon  dioxide,  and  coal. 

Mineral  Quantity  Value 

Petroleum  107,886,000  (42  gal.)  bbls  $312,869,000 

Natural  Gas  770,000  million  cu.  ft.  79,310,000 

LP  Gases  558,400,000  gals.  24,000,000 

Natural  Gasoline  316,000,000  gals.  20,220,000 

Helium  45,004,000  cut.  ft.  707,000 

Carbon  Dioxide  *  * 

Coal  334,000  short  tons  * 

*Data  not  available 


THE     LAND        33 

In  1960,  crude  petroleum  production  exceeded  100  million  barrels  for 
the  second  consecutive  year.  The  production  by  counties,  in  the  approxi- 
mate order  of  importance,  was  Lea,  San  Juan,  Eddy,  Chaves,  Rio  Arriba, 
Roosevelt,  McKinley,  and  Sandoval.  The  great  bulk  of  the  production 
has  been  from  Lea  County  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State.  In  recent 
years  exploration  in  western  New  Mexico  has  developed  substantial  re- 
serves, and  production  is  increasing. 

The  value  of  natural  gas  (at  wells)  has  increased  approximately  ten- 
fold since  1950.  The  quantity  of  natural  gas  from  dry  gas  wells  and  resi- 
dual gas  from  natural  gas  marketed  through  pipelines  has  increased  in 
conformity  with  the  general  increase  in  the  consumption  of  natural  gas 
both  inside  and  outside  of  the  State. 

Natural  gas  liquids  (natural  gasoline,  cycle  products  and  LP  gases) 
production  continues  to  expand.  Sulfur  and  carbon  black  have  recently 
become  by-products  of  the  processing  industry.  In  general  the  growth 
rate  for  the  oil  and  gas  industry  in  New  Mexico  should  continue  high  in 
the  next  decade. 

The  production  of  helium  has  assumed  new  importance  in  recent  years. 
Helium-rich  natural  gases  are  processed  at  the  Shiprock  helium  recovery 
plant  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines. 

Petroleum  exploration  led  to  the  discovery  of  carbon  dioxide  in  Hard- 
ing, Torrance,  Union,  Colfax,  and  Mora  counties.  The  gas  is  processed 
and  marketed  as  dry  ice  and  liquid  carbon  dioxide. 

Colfax  and  McKinley  counties  have  produced  the  bulk  of  the  coal  in 
the  past  decade.  However,  ten  of  the  thirty-two  counties  have  major 
coal  resources.  In  1953,  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  estimated  the  re- 
coverable reserves  of  coal  at  30.75  billion  tons. 

Game  and  Fish:  Hunting  and  fishing,  along  with  directly  related 
outdoor  sports,  constitute  the  third  largest  industry  in  New  Mexico. 
More  than  34  million  acres  are  available  for  unrestricted  public  hunting 
and  fishing  in  the  "Land  of  Enchantment."  This  is  an  area  45  times 
larger  than  the  state  of  Rhode  Island  and  is  44  per  cent  of  all  the  territory 
of  the  state.  Much  of  the  remaining  private  land  is  open  by  permission  of 
the  land  owners. 

Management  of  game  and  fish  in  New  Mexico  is  based  on  an  intensive 
scientific  study  of  the  species  involved,  whether  they  are  fish  or  game.  As 
a  result  of  this  scientific  management  by  trained  biologists,  hunting  apd 
fishing  are  at  an  all-time  high  in  New  Mexico. 

Some  100,000  hunters  annually  kill  about  50,000  deer  for  a  50  per  cent 
hunter  success  average,  one  of  the  highest  in  the  nation.  With  the  open- 
ing of  state  owned  land  through  a  special  easement,  more  than  5,000  ante- 
lope licenses  are  granted  each  year  with  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the 
antelope  hunters  being  successful. 

Elk,  the  State's  largest  game  animal,  have  increased  since  their  reintro- 


34       NEW     MEXICO 

duction  in  1915  to  the  point  that  nearly  2,000  licenses  are  issued  each  year 
for  the  taking  of  this  species. 

Other  prestige  hunts  held  each  year  are  for  the  Rocky  Mountain  big- 
horn sheep  and  the  Barbary  sheep,  an  import  from  North  Africa.  New 
Mexico  has  the  only  public  hunt  for  the  Barbary  sheep  in  the  Western 
World. 

A  general  hunting  and  fishing  license  entitles  a  resident  sportsman  to 
try  for  deer,  bear,  and  turkey,  all  species  of  game  and  fish,  all  species  of 
upland  game  birds  and  migratory  waterfowl,  if  the  licensee  buys  a  Fed- 
eral bird  stamp. 

Out-of-state  sportsmen  are  welcomed  to  try  for  deer,  bear,  turkey, 
antelope,  elk,  and  Barbary  sheep  as  well  as  fish  and  game  birds.  Licenses 
for  elk,  antelope,  bighorn  sheep  and  Barbary  sheep  must  be  applied  for  in 
advance  of  a  special  drawing  usually  held  in  late  August.  Non-resident 
sportsmen  have  the  same  chance  at  the  drawings  as  a  resident.  License 
fees  are  reasonable  and  in  keeping  with  those  charged  by  other  western 
states. 

Bird  hunting  in  New  Mexico  ranges  from  excellent  to  average.  Quail 
and  dove,  the  State's  most  popular  game  birds,  are  taken  in  record  num- 
bers because  of  the  modern  management  techniques  that  have  allowed 
larger  bag  limits  and  longer  seasons  on  these  species.  Pheasants,  prairie 
chickens,  and  grouse  are  hunted  with  excellent  results  considering  the 
limited  habitat  available  for  these  species.  Migratory  waterfowl  and 
sandhill  cranes,  the  newest  New  Mexico  game  bird,  are  plentiful  in 
limited  areas  of  the  State  and  present  variety  to  the  bird  hunter. 

Turkey  is  considered  a  big  game  animal  in  New  Mexico  and  the 
season  usually  runs  concurrently  with  the  annual  big  game  season. 

Fishing  in  New  Mexico  has  improved  until  it  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant outdoor  sports  in  the  State.  Introductions  of  walleye  and  white 
bass  in  the  warm  water  lakes  of  the  State  has  resulted  in  increased  year- 
round  fishing  pleasure.  New  Mexico's  trout  hatcheries  are  operating  at 
capacity  and  fish  are  planted  in  every  available  public  water  suitable  for 
the  species.  Warm  water  fish  are  raised  at  three  Federal  hatcheries  in  the 
State  and  are  adequately  distributed. 

The  Department  of  Game  and  Fish  is  carrying  on  an  intensive  stream 
improvement  program  and  has  rehabilitated  many  lakes  to  provide  for 
vastly  improved  fishing  in  most  areas  of  the  State.  Lakes  in  various 
areas  of  the  State  are  also  being  built  by  the  Department  of  Game  and 
Fish  where  conditions  permit. 

The  Game  Department  maintains  camping  and  recreation  areas  in 
suitable  locations  of  the  State  and  combined  with  such  areas  maintained 
by  other  agencies,  there  are  adequate  facilities  available  to  those  who  wish 
to  spend  some  time  under  New  Mexico's  blue  skies,  enjoying  outdoor 
sports. 


Archeology 


THE  southwestern  United  States,  New  Mexico  in  particular,  has 
been  the  scene  of  intensive  anthropologic  study.  The  reports  of 
early  explorers  contain  many  references  to  the  permanent  villages 
of  the  sedentary  Pueblo  Indians  and  the  countless  ruins  in  all  western 
and  central  parts  of  the  State.  The  literary  accounts,  the  concentration 
of  the  indigenous  population,  and  the  spectacular  cave  and  surface  ruins 
interested  such  students  as  Bandelier,  Gushing,  Fewfces,  and  Hewett  in 
the  archeology  and  ethnology  of  New  Mexico  soon  after  the  science  of 
anthropology  was  popularized.  Successive  studies  throughout  the  past 
sixty  years  have  improved  the  techniques  of  the  science  and  developed 
the  knowledge  of  the  prehistory  of  the  area  until  today  New  Mexico 
may  be  listed  with  such  centers  of  acknowledged  archeological  interest 
as  the  Nile  Valley  and  the  "Fertile  Crescent"  in  the  Old  World. 

In  New  Mexico  and  adjacent  southwestern  States  archeologists  have 
traced  the  sequence  of  human  occupation  from  the  nomadic  hunter  con- 
temporaries of  extinct  post-Pleistocene  animals  through  localized  hori- 
zons of  hunters  and  seed-gatherers  and  phases  of  sedentary  agriculturists 
to  the  organized  inhabitants  of  village  communities  that  survived  the 
Spanish  conquest.  Ethnologists  have  described  the  different  forms  of 
culture  possessed  by  the  present  day  settled  Pueblo  Indians  and  the 
formerly  hunting,  now  pastoral,  nomadic  Navaho  and  Apache.  Over 
20,000  Indians  in  New  Mexico  continue  to  live  in  much  the  same 
fashion  as  their  pre-Columbian  ancestors.  Physical  anthropologists 
have  studied  many  groups  of  the  indigenous  population  as  well  as  the 
wealth  of  skeletal  material  collected  in  the  course  of  ruin  excavations. 
They  have  established  several  physical  types  and  the  chronological  order 
of  the  appearance  of  the  types  in  New  Mexico.  Philologists  have 
recognized  at  least  four  linguistic  stocks  in  the  area,  each  of  which  may 
be  subdivided  into  a  number  of  dialects.  Anthropo-geographers  have 
appreciated  the  Southwest  as  one  of  the  largest  and  most  varied  regions 
in  the  United  States  in  which  to  study  the  inter-relationship  of  man  and 
nature;  the  influence  of  environment  on  human  physique  and  culture 
may  be  noted  in  three  ecological  zones. 

The  prehistory  of  New  Mexico  is  divided  into  three  general  culture 
periods:  the  Folsom,  the  Basket  Maker,  and  the  Pueblo.  The  nature 
and  age  of  the  first  complex  explains  the  elusiveness  of  the  remains;  the 
culture  period  was  the  last  to  be  established  and  is  the  least  known. 

35 


36         NEW     MEXICO 

Man  was  undoubtedly  native  to  the  Old  World;  evidence  is 
accumulating  which  indicates  that  the  Americas  were  invaded  via  the 
Bering  Strait  at  least  15,000  or  20,000  years  ago.  Just  what  the  first 
New  Mexican  looked  like  is  unknown,  as  no  authentic  human  remains 
have  been  found  of  sufficient  antiquity  to  furnish  information  of  the 
physical  characteristics.  However,  following  the  last  glacial  period 
some  types  of  modern  man  lived  in  New  Mexico  and  left  his  chipped 
stone  dart  points  embedded  in  fluvial  deposits  in  conjunction  with  the 
bones  of  animals  now  extinct. 

The  Folsom  culture  derives  its  name  from  the  site  of  discovery  in 
northeastern  New  Mexico.  A  number  of  chipped  stone  dart  points  of 
unique  shape  were  found  associated  with  the  skeletal  remains  of  a  post- 
glacial sub-species  of  bison.  The  artifacts  are  from  one  to  three  inches 
in  length ;  they  are  thin  and  leaf-shaped,  with  a  longitudinal  fluting  on 
each  face,  a  concave  base  with  ear-like  projections,  and  caret ully 
retouched  edges.  The  knapping  technique  developed  by  the  Folsom 
hunters  compares  favorably  with  the  percussion  and  retouching  method 
employed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Scandinavian  countries  during  the 
late  Neolithic  and  Early  Bronze  periods,  and  the  "ripple  flaking"  of 
craftsmen  belonging  to  the  pre-  and  early-Dynastic  Egyptian  horizons. 
During  the  past  ten  years  many  surface  finds  of  Folsom  points  have 
been  made  throughout  the  plains  from  Canada  to  Mexico;  and  two 
camp  sites  of  the  early  "Bison  Nomads"  have  been  discovered.  The 
encampment  about  fifteen  miles  south  of  Clovis,  New  Mexico,  in  one 
of  the  series  of  shallow  basins  known  as  Black  Water  Draw,  yielded  an 
assortment  of  stone  artifact  types  and  contained  the  remains  of  a  char- 
coal-filled hearth.  The  Folsom  people  hunted  such  animals  as  the 
giant  ground  sloth,  musk-ox,  three-toed  horse,  camel,  four-pronged 
antelope,  mammoth,  etc.,  which  existed  in  the  early  post-glacial  period. 
The  early  nomads  probably  frequented  the  country  that  is  now  New 
Mexico  approximately  10,000  to  15,000  years  ago. 

The  length  of  the  first  period  of  time  that  elapsed  between  the 
bison  hunters  of  the  Folsom  complex  and  the  first  Basket  Makers  is 
not  known.  The  short,  slender,  long-headed  Basket  Makers  may  have 
been  the  physical  descendants  of  the  early  hunters;  culturally  they  were 
the  intrusive  carriers  of  maize  agriculture  in  the  Southwest,  coming 
from  a  center  located  in  Mexico. 

The  Basket  Makers,  so  named  because  of  the  abundance  of  basketry 
found  in  their  cave  storage  cists,  burial  places,  and  habitation  sites, 
developed  a  succession  of  three  culture  levels  that  flourished  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era  to  the  eighth  century.  Little  is  known 
of  the  Basket  Maker  I  people.  Archeologists  believe  that  they  were  a 
partly  nomadic  group  of  hunters  who  possessed  semi-permanent  dwell- 
ings seasonally  occupied  while  maize  was  being  cultivated.  The  phase 


ARCHED  LOGY        37 

at  first  was  hypothetical,  assumed  in  order  to  explain  the  transition  from 
the  purely  hunting  and  collecting  to  the  agricultural  forms  of  culture. 
The  horizon  was  established  by  cave  finds  in  southern  Nevada  and 
southwestern  New  Mexico. 

The  distribution  of  the  Basket  Maker,  throughout  the  course  of 
their  second  culture  phase,  included  the  greater  part  of  what  is  now 
New  Mexico.  The  rock-shelter  and  cave  habitations  of  the  people  are 
particularly  numerous  in  the  San  Juan  drainage  in  northwestern  New 
Mexico  and  adjacent  areas.  Debris  accumulated  and  was  preserved  in 
a  state  of  extreme  dryness.  The  Basket  Maker  II  people  were  true 
agriculturists,  cultivating  beans,  squash,  and  a  soft  variety  of  maize. 

There  was  a  continuous  improvement  *n  the  style  of  dwelling. 
The  first  Basket  Makers  probably  lived  in  temporary  shelters  con- 
structed of  poles,  brush,  and  skins ;  in  inclement  seasons  they  took  refuge 
in  caves.  In  time  they ,  excavated  slab-lined  storage  cists  and  granaries 
in  the  floors  of  the  rock-shelters;  the  dead  were  buried  in  a  flexed 
position  in  some  of  the  pits.  The  people  of  the  Basket  Maker  III 
phase  enlarged  the  constructions  and  evolved  permanent  dwellings. 

The  Basket  Maker  II  people  excelled  in  weaving.  They  made  ex- 
cellent twined  and  woven  bags  decorated  with  geometrical  designs,  coiled 
baskets,  and  twined  and  woven  sandals  with  square,  and  later  with 
scalloped  and  rounded,  toes  from  such  materials  as  apocynum,  yucca, 
and  juniper  bark  fiber,  and  from  human  and  animal  hair.  In  addition 
to  sandals  the  men  wore  a  g-string  and  the  women  a  short,  apron-like 
skirt.  They  had  warm  robes  made  of  cordage  wrapped  with  rabbit 
fur,  and  leggings  and  sandal  padding  of  shredded  bark  and  corn  husks* 
Their  weapons  included  the  atlatl  (throwing  board  and  darts),  clubs 
of  wood  and  elk  antler,  and  hafted  stone  knives.  They  had  wooden 
planting-sticks  and  such  grinding  stones  as  troughed  metates  and  manos. 
Crude  unfired  clay  vessels,  tempered  with  vegetable  matter,  were  util- 
ized; but  fired  ceramics  were  unknown  to  the  forerunners  of  the 
Basket  Maker  III  phase. 

The  third  culture  phase  of  the  Basket  period  was  a  time  of  consider- 
able change.  Permanent  villages  were  established,  both  in  large  caves 
and.on  suitable  exposed  locations ;  fired  pottery,  the  bow  and  arrow,  and 
soft  varieties  of  maize  were  introduced.  In  the  Chaco  region  of  north- 
western New  Mexico  the  material  culture  shows  a  gradual  development 
leading  to  the  trait  complexes  of  the  subsequent  Pueblo  horizons;  a 
definite  demarcation  between  the  Basket  Maker  III  people  and  the 
following  Pueblo  I  inhabitants  seems  to  be  lacking.  Probably  increased 
numbers  of  intrusive  stocky  roundheads  absorbed  the  earlier  population 
and,  at  the  same  time,  adopted  and  elaborated  much  of  the  Basket 
Maker  III  culture  to  suit  their  own  needs. 

The  third  culture  period,  called  Pueblo  (Spanish;  village)  because 


38         NEW     MEXICO 

the  Spaniards  found  large  numbers  of  Indians  living  in  compact  com- 
munities when  they  entered  the  Southwest  in  the  sixteenth  century,  is 
divided  into  five  phases.  Pueblo  I  and  Pueblo  II  are  termed  Develop- 
mental; they  are  transitional  stages  from  the  Basket  Maker  period  to 
the  great  or  Classic  Pueblo  III  phase.  The  largest  surface  villages  and 
cliff  dwellings  were  built  in  Pueblo  III  times.  Pueblo  IV  is  called  Re- 
gressive ;  this  phase  was  flourishing  when  the  Spaniards  entered  what  is 
now  New  Mexico.  Pueblo  V,  the  Historic  phase,  pertains  to  the 
present-day  Pueblo  Indians. 

The  immediate  origin  of  the  roundheaded  Pueblo  people,  with 
skull  posteriors  artificially  flattened,  is  not  known.  Some  archeologists 
believe  that  consecutive  waves  pushed  south  along  both  sides  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  eventually  to  settle  in  the  northern  reaches  of  drain- 
ages in  the  southwestern  plateau.  The  majority  favor  the  more  tenable 
theory  that  the  roundheads  were  cognizant  of  agricultural  methods 
before  they  reached  the  Southwest,  coming  north  from  Mexico  with 
such  possessions  as  soft  varieties  of  corn,  the  domesticated  turkey,  and 
techniques  including  cranial  deformation,  coiled  pottery,  and  horizontal 
masonry. 

Professor  A.  E.  Douglass,  of  the  University  of  Arizona,  developed 
a  method  whereby  the  age  of  the  different  phases  of  the  Pueblo  period 
could  be  determined.  He  discovered  that  the  date  of  construction  of  the 
prehistoric  ruins  in  the  Southwest  could  be  established  accurately  by  the 
study  of  the  growth  of  tree  rings  in  beams  taken  from  ruins  and  old 
buildings.  Tree  rings  form  a  distinctive  pattern;  the  width  of  the 
rings  is  slight  in  dry  years  and  larger  in  years  of  greater  precipitation. 
On  this  basis  master  charts,  or  tree  ring  keys,  have  been  made  for 
several  of  the  southwestern  areas.  The  Rio  Grande  chart  has  been 
carried  back  to  930  A.D. 

A  change  of  house  type,  as  well  as  the  round  skull,  marks  the  arrival 
of  the  Pueblo  people.  The  pit  dwellings  used  by  the  Basket  Makers 
were  abandoned  and  rectangular  rooms  of  horizontal  masonry  were 
built  above  the  ground.  During  the  Pueblo*  I  period  these  houses  were 
crude,  unit-type,  one-storied  buildings,  usually  in  the  form  of  an 
elongated  rectangle,  E-shaped,  or  in  intermittent  patterns.  Generally 
a  square  or  circular  subterranean  or  semi-subterranean  ceremonial 
chamber  (perhaps  evolved  from  the  pit  house  of  the  Basket  Maker 
period),  known  by  the  Hopi  Indian  name  kiva,  was  associated  with  the 
earlier  dwelling-units;  and  as  the  size  of  the  structures  expanded,  the 
kivas  were  enlarged  and  their  numbers  increased. 

The  ruins  of  the  early  Pueblo  cultures  are  distributed  over  the  entire 
plateau  region  fiom  the  Colorado  River  to  eastern  New  Mexico,  includ- 
ing southern  Colorado  and  Utah.  This  fairly  large  population  occupied 
the  area  from  about  800  to  900  A.D. 


ARCHEOLOGY       39 

Cotton  was  added  to  the  list  of  cultivated  plants  and  was  woven 
into  cloth  garments.  Turkeys  were  domesticated,  and  a  type  of  feather 
robe  was  made.  Pottery  came  to  be  slipped,  polished,  corrugated,  and 
incised — all  of  which  were  treatments  unknown  to  the  Basket  Maker 
potter.  Finer  tempering  material  was  used.  The  black-on-white  pot- 
tery of  northern  New  Mexico  became  distinct  from  that  of  northern 
Arizona;  even  local  developments  and  fashions  became  recognizable. 

The  Mogollon  complex  flourished  in  southern  New  Mexico  con- 
temporaneous with  the  Developmental  Pueblo  phases  in  the  north.  It 
is  differentiated  from  the  true  Pueblo  development  by  the  continued  use 
of  pit  dwellings;  by  the  possession  of  such  accessories  as  the  three- 
quarter  grooved  ax  and  shell  gorgets  (which  may  show  affiliations  with 
peoples  to  the  East) ;  and  slate  palettes  and  pottery  vessels  bearing  the 
imprint  of  the  paddle-and-anvil  method  of  thinning  the  walls,  which  are 
characteristics  of  the  Hohokam  culture  period  of  southern  Arizona. 
Skeletal  remains  display  a  mixture  of  physical  types.  Possibly  the 
Mogollon  people  represented  a  mixture  of  intrusive  elements  that 
mingled  in  southern  New  Mexico  after  the  area  was  vacated  by  the 
northward-travelling  initial  waves  of  Pueblo  Indian  ancestors.  At  the 
end  of  the  Developmental  or  the  beginning  of  the  Classic  Pueblo  phases, 
southern  New  Mexico  received  direct  influence  from  the  Pueblo  cul- 
ture; this  contact  or  conquest  resulted  in  the  highly  evolved,  localized 
Pueblo  III  development  in  the  Mimbres  Valley. 

Pueblo  III,  known  as  the  Classic  or  great  Pueblo  period,  is  charac- 
terized by  the  building  of  the  large  surface  pueblos  and  cliff  dwellings 
of  the  San  Juan  area.  There  was,  between  950-1200  A.D.,  a  con- 
centration of  population  in  the  more  fertile  and  better  watered  valleys 
of  New  Mexico.  Many  of  the  scattered  small  villages  of  the  earlier 
periods  were  abandoned.  Large,  terraced  communal  dwellings,  some  of 
three  and  four  stories  and  containing  over  five  hundred  rooms,  were 
built.  Huge  circular  kivas  were  constructed,  some  reaching  the  amaz- 
ing diameter  of  more  than  sixty  feet.  This  tendency  toward  higher  and 
more  massive  buildings,  stronger  walls  and  fewer  exterior  openings 
indicated  the  appearance  of  enemies,  possibly  the  nomadic  Shoshoni  from 
the  north  and  northwest,  and,  a  little  later,  nomadic  Athapascans  from 
the  east  and  northeast. 

The  concentration  of  Pueblo  population  and  wealth  in  a  few  areas, 
accompanied  as  it  must  have  been  by  an  interchange  of  ideas  and  goods, 
produced  a  marked  acceleration  of  cultural  activity.  Not  only  were 
larger  communal  dwellings  and  ceremonial  structures  erected,  but  the 
style  of  masonry  was  improved.  The  finest  examples  are  found  in  the 
Chaco  area.  Here  worked,  sandstone  slabs  and  spalls  of  selected  size 
and  shape  were  used  to  face  a  rubble  core,  with  an  excellent  effect. 
Nowhere  else,  nor  at  any  other  time,  did  the  pre-Columbian  inhabitants 


4O        NEW     MEXICO 

of  the  Southwest  surpass  or  even  equal  the  masonry  of  the  Classic  period 
in  northwestern  New  Mexico.  For  this  reason  such  great  ruins  as 
Aztec,  Chetro-Ketl,  Pueblo  Bonito,  Penasco  Blanco,  and  others  have 
been  constituted  parts  of  National  Monuments  and  have  been  the  sub- 
jects of  extensive  excavations. 

There  were  changes  and  improvements  in  ceramics.  A  greater 
variety  of  colors  was  introduced,  and  the  execution  of  form  and  detailed 
design  reached  a  perfection  hitherto  unknown  in  Pueblo  culture.  The 
Pueblo  III  people  counted  their  wealth  in  turquoise,  shell,  quartz,  wood 
and  stone  beads,  gorgets,  bracelets,  pendants,  mosaics,  and  other  forms  of 
jewelry  as  well  as  in  pottery. 

During  the  period  between  1275-1300  there  occurred  a  marked 
drought  which  brought  about  the  abandonment  of  many  of  the  Pueblo 
areas  in  New  Mexico  and  elsewhere  in  the  Southwest.  Apparently  due 
to  the  lowering  of  the  water  table,  reduction  of  vegetal  cover  and  the 
consequent  increase  of  desiccation,  surface  denudation,  and  erosion,  such 
areas  as  the  western  Puerco,  Chaco,  and  San  Juan  drainages  became 
temporarily  less  suitable  to  the  Pueblos  than  other  regions  to  the  south, 
west,  and  east.  Large  movements  of  population  evidently  took  place 
which,  in  New  Mexico,  resulted  in  the  complete  abandonment  of  the 
northwestern  portion  of  the  State,  as  well  as  parts  of  the  upper  Gila, 
Mimbres,  Tularosa  Basins  and  other  recognized  Pueblo  III  areas. 
Thus  the  scene  was  laid  for  Pueblo  IV,  or  the  Regressive  period. 
The  Pueblo  IV  people  were  gradually  drawn  into  the  great  river 
valleys  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Little  Colorado.  The  Santa  Fe 
region  abounds  in  Pueblo  ruins  of  this  period;  and  the  site  at  Pecos, 
those  in  the  Galisteo  Basin  and  on  the  Pajarito  Plateau  may  be  taken 
as  examples. 

There  was  a  constant  restriction  of  area  during  this  Regressive 
period  due  to  the  onslaughts  of  the  alien  nomads,  and  later,  the  Spanish 
occupation.  However,  in  various  portions  of  New  Mexico  it  was 
actually  the  period  of  highest  cultural  achievement.  Large  communal 
dwellings  with  their  kivasf  scattered  small  houses,  and  cavate  lodges 
continued  to  be  built.  Among  the  most  notable  pueblos  of  this  period 
are  those  of  Hawikuh,  Halona  (old  Zuni),  and  the  villages  on  El 
Morro  in  the  Zuni  country;  Acoma  and  Humming  Bird  in  the  Puerco 
— San  Juan  drainage;  Giusewa,  Amoxiumqua,  and  Astialakwa  in  the 
Jemez  region;  Tsankawi,  Tchirege,  Tyuonyi,  Otowi,  and  Puye  in  the 
Pajarito  Plateau;  Paseoninge,  Poshuouinge  and  Sapawe  in  the  Chama 
drainage;  Tsiquna  and  Kuapoge  near  Santa  Fe;  San  Cristobal,  Pueblo 
Largo,  She,  Galisteo,  San  Lazaro,  Tunque,  Paako,  and  San  Marcos  in 
the  Galisteo  region;  Pecos,  Chilili,  Quarai,  Abo,  Pueblo  Colorado, 
Pueblo  Blanco,  and  Tabira  (Gran  Quivira)  in  the  Manzano-Chupadero 
Mesa  country;  Pilabo,  Kuaua,  Puaray,  Alameda,  Perage,  etc..  along  the 


ARCHEOLOGY        4! 

main  Rio  Grande.  Furthermore,  most  of  the  Indian  Pueblos  now- 
existing  were  at  or  near  their  present  sites  during,  not  only  the  later 
part  of  the  Regressive  period  (1540-1700  A.D.),  but  also  before  the 
coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

In  general  the  material  culture  of  early  Pueblo  IV  was  not  greatly 
different  from  that  of  Pueblo  III.  The  chief  change  is  in  the  intro- 
duction of  glaze  paints  in  the  decoration  of  pottery.  Both  polychrome 
and  glazed  paint  wares  were  made  in  great  quantities,  while  corrugated 
cooking  pots  and  black-on-white  decoration  tended  to  die  out. 

Turkeys,  maize,  beans,  and  squashes  continued  to  constitute  the 
bulk  of  the  Pueblo  people's  food,  augmented  by  such  game  as  bison,  deer, 
antelope,  and  rabbit;  and  wild  grass  seeds,  pifion  nuts,  and  berries. 
Probably  there  was  little  change  during  the  sixteenth  century,  but  with 
Ofiate's  colonization  came  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  turnips,  cabbage, 
carrots,  onions,  melons,  peaches,  pears,  apples,  grapes,  coffee,  tea,  etc., 
from  the  Old  World ;  and  "Irish"  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  chili  peppers, 
tomatoes,  chocolate,  from  the  countries  to  the  south.  Prehistoric  In- 
dians of  New  Mexico  smoked  wild  tobacco,  sumac,  and  other  herbs,  as 
their  stone  and  clay  tubular  and  elbow  pipes  indicate ;  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco  in  the  Southwest  was  introduced  by  the  Spaniards. 

A  varied  pattern  of  culture  was  created  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
Pueblo  IV  period  with  the  introduction  of  the  horse,  donkey,  cattle, 
sheep,  goat,  pig,  and  poultry;  and  there  occurred  important  changes  in 
textiles,  ornaments,  tools,  kitchen  wares,  weapons,  and  clothing.  The 
Plains  Indians  also  modified  Pueblo  culture,  when  they  introduced  their 
articles  of  dress  and  certain  dances  new  to  the  area  now  known  as 
New  Mexico. 

Pecos  Pueblo  ruin,  because  of  the  intensive  investigations  carried  on 
by  Dr.  A.  V.  Kidder  of  the  Andover  Academy,  affords  an  excellent 
example  of  the  Pueblo  IV  period.  It  is  known  to  have  been  occupied 
from  the  thirteenth  century  to  1838;  the  few  surviving  Pecos  Indians 
then  joined  the  Jemez  people.  The  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola  in  the  Zuni 
country  have  been  identified,  and  Hawikuh,  the  largest,  was  excavated 
by  Dr.  F«  W.  Hodge  of  the  Museum  of  The  American  Indian,  New 
York.  Zuni  is  a  concentration  of  the  villages  that  prompted  the  pene- 
tration of  the  northern  country  by  the  Spaniards. 

Archeology,  or  the  study  of  ancient  peoples  through  their  remains, 
dwellings,  and  artifacts  requires  various  techniques  of  research.  The 
excavation  of  rooms,  uncovering  of  skeletal  and  other,  materials,  and 
describing  the  finds  through  text,  photographs,  maps,  sketches,  and 
museum  displays  does  not  constitute  all  of  scientific  archeology.  Much 
valuable  information  has  been  lost  by  misinterpreted  interest  on  the  part 
of  enthusiastic  amateurs.  During  the  last  twenty-four  years  there  have 
been  developed  or  applied  for  the  first  time  in  New  Mexico  and  the 


42        NEW     MEXICO 

Southwest  techniques  that  require  trained  scientists.  The  result  of  their 
work  has  made  the  picture  of  the  past  cultures  possible  for  those  inter- 
ested in  New  Mexico  anthropology. 

The  Modern  Pueblo  period  (1700  A.D.-present)  also  referred  to  as 
Pueblo  V,  falls  within  the  field  of  history  and  must  be  considered  under 
the  division  of  Ethnology. 

Today,  in  the  pueblos  of  Taos,  Picuris,  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  San 
Ildefonso,  Nambe,  Tesuque,  Cochiti,  Jemez,  Santo  Domingo,  Zfa,  Santa 
Ana,  San  Felipe,  Sandia,  Laguna,  Acoma,  Zuni  of  New  Mexico,  as  well 
as  in  the  Hopi  villages  in  northern  Arizona,  the  visitor  will  be  able  to 
visualize  the  life  of  the  ancient  people  as  a  rounded  whole  and  to  gain 
some  conception  of  their  social  and  religious  life. 

The  National  and  State  Monuments  of  archeological  significance 
are  Aztec  Ruins  N.  M.  (see  Tour  9)  ;  Bandelier  N.  M.  (see  Tour 
2A)i  Chaco  Canyon  N.  M.  (see  Tour  6B) ;  Coronado  S.  M.  (see 
Tour  Ib)  ;  El  Morro  N.  M.  (see  Tour  6b)  ;  Gila  Cliff  Dwellings 
N.  M.  (see  Tour  18) ;  Gran  Quivira  S.  &  N.  M.  (see  Tour  15)  ; 
Jemez  S.  M.  (see  Tour  9)  ;  Pecos  S.  M.  (see  Tour  la)  ;  Quarai 
S.  M.  (see  Tour  15). 

Archeological  museums  are  maintained  at  several  of  the  above  men- 
tioned Monuments,  and  also  at  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico,  at  Santa 
Fe ;  at  the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology,  Santa  Fe ;  and  at  the  Museum 
of  Anthropology  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico,  Albuquerque. 
There  are  branch  State  Museums  at  Las  Vegas,  Carlsbad,  Silver  City, 
Raton,  Clovis,  Portales,  Lincoln,  Mountainair,  Farmington,  and  Las 
Cruces. 


Indians 


THE  peaceful  aspect  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico  at  the 
present  time  tells  little  of  their  strenuous  past.     Green  fields 
and  orchards  surround  their  villages,  strings  of  red  chili  festoon 
their  adobe  houses  in  autumn,  and  the  sweet  odor  of  burning  pinon  and 
juniper  drifts  across  winter  dance  courts.     The  people,  courteous  and 
reserved,   sell  their  pottery  to  visitors,  allow  them  to  attend  certain 
dance-ceremonials,  and  watch  them  depart  knowing  that  they  belong  to 
different  races,  and,  in  their  own  words,  "think  different  thoughts." 

Physically  the  Pueblo  Indians  belong  to  the  roundheaded  Mon- 
goloid people  who  followed  the  long-headed  Basket  Makers  into  the 
Southwest.  They  are  generally  shorter  and  stockier  than  the  nomadic 
tribes,  and  their  facial  expression  is  more  placid;  but  as  a  whole  the 
modern  Pueblo  Indians  are  not  a  homogeneous  group.  Actually  they 
represent  an  aggregation  of  peoples  brought  together  by  intermarriage 
and  cross  strains  of  acculturation  which  has  •  developed  under  environ- 
mental influences. 

The  first  contact  of  the  Spanish  Conquistadores  (1540)  with  the 
inhabitants  of  the  area  which  is  now  New  Mexico  was  with  the  Pueblo 
Indians.  The  land  was  claimed  for  the  Spanish  Crown  and  the  Indians 
considered  converts  of  the  Catholic  faith.  Because  of  Spanish  oppres- 
sion in  1680  the  Pueblos  united  and  revolted,  overthrowing  the  Spanish 
government  and  killing  and  driving  out  the  alien  settlers.  In  1692-93 
De  Vargas  reconquered  the  country  and  made  peace  with  the  Pueblos. 
During  the  first  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  came  a  certain 
expansion.  The  Pueblo  villages  with  their  outlying  farms  and  flocks, 
secured  from  the  Spaniards,  proved  tempting  prey  for  the  marauding 
Navaho,  Comanche,  Ute,  and  Apache.  These  nomadic  or  scattered 
Indians  found  it  convenient,  when  hunting  was  poor,  to  raid  the  Pueblo 
villages  whose  frugal  people  kept  stores  of  corn  against  drought  and 
times  of  need.  But  after  the  advent  of  the  military  garrisons,  first 
Spanish,  then  Mexican,  and  finally  those  of  the  United  States,  the 
Pueblo  Indians  began  to  enjoy  increasing  security.  Old  citadel  dwell- 
ings on  mesa  tops  were  gradually  abandoned,  and  villages  in  the  more 
fertile  valleys  were  built;  however,  many  of  these  still  retained,  to  a 
certain  degree,  the  compact,  defensive  type  of  structure  of  ancient  times. 
The  eighteen  pueblos  in  New  Mexico  today,  from  Taos  to  below 

43 


44         NEW     MEXICO 

Albuquerque  and  along  the  old  Coronado  trail  westward  from  Isleta 
to  Zuni,  occupy  approximately  the  same  lands  that  they  held  during  the 
early  Spanish  occupation.  Their  land  titles  originated  with  grants 
from  the  Spanish  Crown,  ratified  by  the  sovereignty  of  Mexico  and 
subsequently  confirmed  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  under  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  (1848).  The  Pueblo  Indians  thus  own 
their  lands  by  virtue  of  titles  antedating  American  supremacy,  differing 
in  this  respect  from  all  other  Indians  in  the  United  States.  The  one 
group  of  Spanish  land  grants  provided  for  a  tract  measuring  three 
leagues  in  each  direction  from  the  mission  church.  These  grants 
averaged  about  17,000  acres  for  each  pueblo.  Additions  from  time  to 
time  have  been  made  to  the  lands  of  various  villages  in  the  form  of 
Executive  Order  reservations  from  the  public  domain  and  by  purchase. 

Within  the  village,  farming  and  grazing  lands  are  assigned  for  use 
to  individuals,  and  the  tenure  is  allowed  only  as  long  as  ,the  land  is 
worked  or  employed  for  productive  purposes.  Because  of  the  complete 
security  of  the  pueblos  in  modern  times  the  tendency  has  been  to  build 
smaller  and  more  isolated  dwellings  closer  to  their  fields.  The  old 
Pueblo  IV  village  of  Acoma  is  an  excellent  illustration ;  the  pueblo  is 
almost  deserted  for  the  farming  areas. 

The  similarity  of  their  problems  and  needs  during  recent  years  and 
the  necessity  of  concerted  action  in  dealing  with  the  Indian  Bureau  have 
brought  the  Pueblos  together.  Their  elected  All-Pueblo  Council  meets 
at  intervals  to  discuss  their  general  welfare  and  their  contact  with  the 
Federal  government.  The  latter  supplies  such  facilities  as  schools  and 
hospitals,  instruction  in  modern  farming  methods,  appropriations  for 
soil  erosion  control  and  irrigation  projects,  seed  selection,  forestry, 
animal  husbandry,  care  of  grazing  lands,  and  other  matters. 

Ofiate  (1598)  is  known  to  have  given  the  Pueblo  chiefs  canes  or 
"rods  of  office"  in  recognition  of  their  authority.  In  1620,  a  "law  of 
the  Indies"  issued  from  the  Crown  at  Madrid  provided  that  the  Pueblo 
Indians  were  to  select  their  own  temporal  officers  without  interference 
from  the  Spaniards,  but  that  these  elections  had  to  be  approved  by  the 
local  Spanish  authorities,  to  whom  the  new  "governors"  of  the  villages 
displayed  their  canes.  This  custom  was  continued  after  the  American 
occupation  when  Abraham  Lincoln,  in  1863,  gave  ebony  canes  with 
silver  handles  to  the  Pueblo  governors,  designated  by  them  as  the 
Lincoln  canes. 

This  democratic  form  of  government  is  still  in  force.  A  governor 
and  his  lieutenants  are  elected  in  each  pueblo  just  before  the  New  Year, 
and  their  induction  into  office  occurs  with  great  ceremony  on  Twelfth 
Night,  or  "old  Christmas,"  the  gift-giving  day  of  the  Spaniards,  called 
by  some  Indians  the  "Day  of  the  Three  Kings."  The  Pueblo  governor 
is  the  civic  head  of  the  village,  dealing  with  the  United  States  officials 


INDIANS        45 

as  well  as  presiding  over  the  municipal  affairs  of  the  people.  However, 
the  cacique,  or  high  priest  of  their  old  religion,  who  keeps  in  the  back- 
ground, is  still  the  real  power. 

Under  their  own  system  the  people  in  some  pueblos  are  divided  into 
moities  or  halves,  called  the  Summer  and  Winter,  or  the  Calabazas 
(squash)  and  Turquoise  People,  each  of  which  holds  some  executive 
power  in  religious  participation  for  six  months.  At  times,  each  of  these 
moities  has  its  own  cacique,  and  each  is  composed  of  different  phratries 
or  clan-groups. 

The  religious  predicament  of  the  Pueblos  is  a  good  example  of  what 
ethnologists  call  acculturation.  Having  their  own  pagan  beliefs,  in- 
herited from  dim  antiquity,  they  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  the 
Franciscan  missionaries  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
The  result  of  this  conversion  was  to  drive  the  indigenous  religion  be- 
neath the  surface  and  to  superimpose  upon  the  belief  in  the  old  gods  of 
nature  a  whole  new  pantheon  of  saints.  Most  Pueblo  Indians  are 
baptized,  confirmed,  and  married  by  Catholic  priests,  yet  they  continue 
to  observe  the  old  ceremonies  and  take  part  in  certain  rites.  The 
Protestant  missions  in,  or  near,  several  pueblos  are  working  towards 
complete  conversion;  with  what  success  only  time  will  tell. 

There  is  a  marked  similarity  in  ceremonial  form,  dress,  and  organ- 
ization among  all  Pueblo  Indians.  Efficacy  in  the  different  rites  is 
believed  to  be  achieved  by  accurate  repetition.  Even  the  minute  details 
of  the  ceremonies  and  the  preparation  of  the  artifacts  used  in  them  are 
of  the  utmost  importance ;  and  each  prayer  and  act  is  directed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ancient  law  of  exactness.  Because  of  this  remarkable 
adherence  to  old  rules  visitors  today  are  privileged  to  witness  certain 
ceremonies  that  had  their  origin  in  an  early  primitive  culture. 

All  pueblos  hold  dance-ceremonials  at  appointed  periods  in  the  year. 
Each  village  celebrates  the  feast  day  of  its  Catholic  patron  saint  with 
tribal  dances,  and  the  dates  of  these  ceremonies  are  fixed  by  the  Church 
calendar;  however,  the  seasonal  or  impromptu  dances  occur  at  the 
instigation  of  the  cacique.  Many  pueblos  have  their  own  calendar,  and 
their  major  ceremonies  fall  on  dates  controlled  by  their  own  method  of 
count.  Actually  their  year  terminates  with  the  harvest,  October  being 
the  beginning  of  the  new  season  and  the  new  year  when  the  Winter 
People  assume  control  of  all  ceremonial  activities;  the  major  rites  are 
held  at  the  time  of  the  "turning-back-of-the-sun,"  or  winter  solstice. 
At  the  spring  equinox  the  Winter  People  turn  over  the  conduct  of 
ceremonial  affairs  to  the  Summer  moiety,  and  from  that  time  on  until 
the  harvest,  the  ceremonies  are  prayer-forms  for  growth,  fructification, 
and  rain. 

The  most  colorful  of  the  autumn  dances  is  given  at  Jemez  in  Novem- 
ber. This  fiesta  of  their  patron  saint,  San  Diego,  is  attended  by  Navaho 


46        NEW     MEXICO 

in  great  numbers,  and  often  by  a  few  Apache  as  well  as  Indians  from 
the  Rio  Grande  pueblos,  all  of  whom  come  to  trade  as  well  as  to  see  the 
elaborate  Harvest  Dance  held  on  this  occasion.  But  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  Pueblo  dances  is  that  of  the  Shalako  at  Zufii. 

Zuni,  probably  by  virtue  of  its  remoteness  and  the  fact  that  it  has 
resisted  both  the  Spanish  influence  and  that  of  the  Catholic  church,  has 
retained  more  of  its  ancient  ceremonialism  than  any  other  pueblo.  Al- 
though all  pueblos  have  masked  dances,  Zuni  is  the  only  one  in  New 
Mexico  in  which  the  general  public,  with  the  exception  of  Spanish- 
Americans,  is  admitted.  Hatred  of  the  Spaniards,  inherited  from 
Coronado's  time,  is  manifested  in  this  exclusion  today.  The  Shalako 
ceremony,  held  in  late  November  or  early  December,  ceremonially  closes 
the  year  as  well  as  dedicates  new  houses.  The  Shalako,  or  giant  mes- 
sengers of  the  rain  gods,  are  received  into  the  pueblo  at  sundown  and 
conducted  to  the  new  houses  where  they  are  entertained  throughout  the 
night  with  feasting  and  ceremonial  dancing.  They  depart  the  following 
evening.  The  preparation  for  this  ceremony  lasts  forty-nine  days.  The 
complexities  of  the  rites  attending  the  Shalakos*  presence  among  mortals 
are  staggering  but  the  beauty  and  reverence  of  the  ritual  does  not  escape 
even  the  most  cynical  observers.  From  the  time  of  the  departure  of  the 
Shalako  until  after  the  winter  solstice  visitors  are  not  admitted  to  the 
series  of  ceremonies  that  take  place  in  Zuni. 

Many  of  the  winter  dances  are  prayer-forms  for  abundant  game  and 
the  success  of  hunters,  with  offerings  to  the  guardian  spirits  of  the  game 
for  the  necessary  sacrifice.  The  Deer  Dance  at  Taos  and  the  Buffalo 
and  Deer  Dance  at  San  Felipe,  performed  with  symbolic  costumes  and 
pantomime,  are  beautiful. 

In  the  spring  the  Pueblo  Indians  pray  for  *ain  and  for  the  renewal 
of  life  everywhere.  Prayer-sticks  are  planted  in  the  fields,  and  dances 
are  held  in  the  kvoas,  or  ceremonial  chambers,  as  well  as  in  the  open, 
At  many  of  the  dances  of  this  period  the  attendance  of  white  people  is 
by  special  invitation  only. 

The  Corn  Dance  at  Santo  Domingo  on  August  4th  is  the  greatest 
of  the  summer  ceremonies  in  New  Mexico.  Both  the  Summer  and 
Winter  People,  or,  as  they  are  called  in  Santo  Domingo,  the  Calabazas 
and  Turquoise,  take  part.  Hundreds  of  Pueblo  people  dance  in  this 
ritual;  and  the  visiting  Indians,  Spanish-Americans,  and  Anglo-Amer- 
icans number  into  the  thousands. 

All  pueblos  have  their  religious  societies,  priests,  warriors,  medicine 
men  and  women,  and  delight  makers,  or  holy  clowns.  The  latter  are 
believed  to  have  brought  laughter  into  the  world  and  are,  therefore, 
beings  receiving  reverence  and  affection.  Their  costumes  are  varied; 
the  mud-heads  of  Zuni  are  totally  different  in  appearance  from  the  black 
and  white  painted  and  corn-husk  crowned  delight  makers  of  the  Rio 


INDIANS        47 

Grande  pueblos.  There  is,  however,  a  great  similarity  in  the  general 
dance  dress.  The  men  usually  wear  a  hand-woven  white  cotton  kilt 
embroidered  in  the  earth  colors  of  red,  green,  and  black  wool  and  an 
embroidered  sash  of  heavy  white  cotton  material,  or  a  so-called  Hopi 
rain  belt  of  braided  white  cotton  finished  with  a  long,  symbolically 
knotted  fringe.  A  kit-fox  skin  dangles  from  the  belt  at  the  back.  Their 
hair,  when  long,  hangs  loose.  Body-painting  as  well  as  headdress  and 
ornaments  varies  with  the  dances.  A  quantity  of  silver,  shell,  turquoise, 
and  coral  jewelry  is  worn;  and  in  most  dances  men  have  turtle-shell 
rattles  tied  below  the  left.  knee.  In  Santo  Domingo  the  men  wear  a 
shell-trimmed  band  called  a  bolso  (Sp.,  purse  strap)  over  one  shoulder 
which  crosses  the  chest  and  back  diagonally  and  is  fastened  at  the  belt. 
The  Pueblo  women's  ceremonial  costume  comprises  the  traditional 
hand-woven  black  woolen  square  fastened  over  the  right  shoulder; 
leaving  the  left  shoulder  bare,  it  hangs  to  the  knees  and  is  confined  at 
the  waist  with  a  long  woven  belt,  usually  red  in  color.  Their  hair 
hangs  loose,  the  bangs  covering  the  eyes.  The  tablita,  or  headdress, 
of  thin  wood,  painted  and  decorated  with  feathers,  and  the  details  of 
mantle  and  accessories,  change  with  the  ceremonies.  Much  jewelry  is 
worn.  Women  dance  barefooted  for  the  most  part  in  the  belief  that 
strength  (fertility)  is  drawn  from  the  earth. 

The  linguistic  division  of  the  Pueblos  presents  an  interesting  picture. 
The  eighteen  pueblos  in  New  Mexico  are  divided  into  three  linguistic 
stocks:  Tanoan,  Keresan,  and  Zunian.  The  languages  are  so  different 
that  they  cannot  be  understood  except  by  those  familiar  with  the  tongues. 
The  Pueblos  do  not  appear  to  have  been  greatly  handicapped  by  this 
disparity  of  languages,  for  trading  between  the  villages  has  always  been 
extensive. 

In  spite  of  the  persistence  of  the  old  ceremonies  among  the  Pueblo 
Indians  their  social  life  is  gradually  undergoing  a  marked  change. 
Modern  education  and  the  contact  with  the  Spanish  and  English  speak- 
ing people  who  have  settled  on  or  near  Pueblo  lands  have  influenced 
the  majority  of  the  Indians.  The  Tewa  pueblos  of  San  Juan  and 
Nambe  are  becoming  Spanish-American  villages;  Santa  Clara  is  adopt- 
ing Anglo-American  customs;  and  the  people  of  Isleta  market  in 
Albuquerque. 

The  little  Tortugas  settlement,  not  included  in  the  total  of  eighteen 
pueblos,  three  miles  south  of  Las  Cruces,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  survivors  of  the  aged  and  disabled  Indians  who  were  left  there 
by  Otermin  on  his  way  to  El  Paso  following  the  Pueblo  Revolt  in  1680. 
These  Mexicanized  Pueblo  Indians  offer  a  splendid  example  of  cul- 
tural change  within  historic  times;  they  no  longer  speak  their  ancestral 
language,  nor  do  they  hold  to  their  old  customs,  but  they  do  tell  legends 
of  their  Tigua  origin  that  are  unmistakably  Pueblo  in  character. 


48         NEW     MEXICO 

Some  of  the  Pueblos  will  not  tolerate  a  doctor  in  their  village. 
Their  medicine  men  and  women  have  an  extraordinary  knowledge  of 
the  properties  and  usage  of  herbs,  and  they  treat  certain  illnesses  with 
their  remedies  as  well  as  by  mental  suggestion.  They  practice  magic, 
believe  in  witchcraft,  and  resist  interference  either  from  church  or  state. 

Primarily  agriculturists,  the  Pueblo  Indians  were  pioneers  in  the 
use  of  irrigation  which,  in  view  of  the  comparative  aridity  of  their 
lands,  was  a  necessity.  Before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  their  crops 
were  confined  to  maize,  beans,  squash,  and  cotton;  after  their  contact 
with  Europeans,  wheat  and  other  cereals,  fruit,  and  vegetables  were 
added.  The  Pueblos  had  no  domesticated  mammal  save  the  dog;  antf 
the  turkey  was  their  only  domesticated  fowl.  With  the  introduction 
of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  and  poultry,  the  pattern  of  their 
culture  changed  and  enlarged. 

The  history  of  ceramics  in  New  Mexico  is  the  story  of  its  early 
inhabitants.  The  Pueblos  have  always  excelled  in  this  art.  The 
methods  and  materials  used  today  are  those  that  were  employed  at  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  They  have  never  known  the 
potter's  wheel,  but  build  their  jars  and  bowls  from  a  small  molded 
base  by  means  of  clay  coils,  obliterated  after  the  desired  form  is  deter- 
mined. The  pottery  is  decorated,  polished,  and  fired  in  open  kilns. 

After  the  Spaniards  brought  sheep  to  the  Southwest,  the  Pueblos 
to  some  extent  substituted  wool  for  cotton.  But  unlike  the  Navaho, 
who  still  make  sheep  raising  and  wool  weaving  their  major  industry, 
the  Pueblos  of  New  Mexico,  except  Zuni,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  Acoma 
and  Laguna,  no  longer  make  woolen  blankets  or  rugs. 

The  schools  are  precipitating  changes.  Boys  who  attend  govern- 
ment or  mission  schools  are  obliged  to  submit  to  the  cutting  of  their 
hain  European-type  clothes  are  issued,  and  the  young  Indian  is  in 
outward  appearance  just  another  American  school  boy.  His  own  tribal 
games  are  replaced  by  baseball  and  football,  and  his  interest  is  awak- 
ened in  automobiles  and  machinery.  For  girls  the  change  is  less  abrupt. 
They  adopt  the  required  form  of  dress  while  in  school  and  discard  it 
upon  their  return  home;  they  attend  classes  and  are  taught  the  usual 
domestic  sciences.  Each  year  more  young  Indians  apply  for  both  voca- 
tional training  and  college  scholarships. 

Pueblo  Indians  are  monogamous,  but  divorce  is  sometimes  easily 
procured,  for  family  ties  are  not  as  strong  as  those  of  clan.  Marriages 
are  not  permitted  between  members  of  the  same  clan.  The  line  of 
descent  is  matriarchal,  the  children  belonging  to  the  same  clan  as 
that  of  the  mother.  The  father's  affiliations  are  with  his  own  clan 
and  phratry. 

After  the  Revolt  of  1680,  the  Pueblo  Indians  continued  their  pre- 
vious decline  more  rapidly,  not  only  from  wars  but  from  pestilence 


INDIANS        49 

until  recent  times  when  security  and  enlightened  assistance  checked  their 
decrease  and  brought  about  a  slow  advance. 

Upon  acquaintance  the  Pueblo  Indians  are  not  unlike  any  other 
dwellers  in  small  places.  They  fear  gossip  and  ridicule  and  resist 
change.  But  they  offer  some  characteristics  that  are  theirs  by  right 
of  heritage — the  clan  wisdom  of  an  old  race  is,  perhaps,  the  underlying 
principle. 

The  economic  impact  of  Los  Alamos  on  the  Pueblo  of  San  Ildefonso 
has  been  important  and  generally  speaking  there  has  been  an  increase  of 
wage  work  among  the  Pueblos. 

The  pueblos  of  New  Mexico  are  Taos  (see  Taos)  ;  Picuris  (Tour 
&z)  ;  San  Juan  (Tour  7a)  ;  Nambe  (Tour  Sa)  ;  Santa  Clara  (Tour 
7 A) ;  San  Ildefonso  (Tour  %A)  ;  Tesuque  (Tour  Sa)  Santo  Domingo 
(Tour  Ib)]  San  Felipe  (Tour  Ib)  ;  Cochiti  (Tour  Ib)  ;  Santa  Ana 
(Tour  9)  ;  Zia  (Tour  9)  ;  Jemez  (Tour  9)  ;  Sandia  (Tour  Ib)  ;  Isleta 
(Tour  Ib)  ;  Laguna  Tour  6b)  ;  Acoma  (Tour  6 A)  ;  Zufii  (Tour  6b). 

THE  NOMADS 

The  term  nomadic  has  been  loosely  applied  to  the  Navaho  for  many 
years  and,  in  some  parts  of  the  Navaho  Country  families  may  have 
changed  residences  quite  frequently. 

In  remote  geological  times  the  three-toed  horse  disappeared  from 
the  western  hemisphere.  Early  Indians,  hunting  with  spear  and  bow 
and  arrow,  were  unaware  of  the  existence  of  an  animal  that  would 
carry  man.  The  dog  was  their  only  beast  of  burden ;  their  equipment 
was,  of  necessity,  simple,  and  their  progress  slow.  But  in  the  early 
years  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Spanish  colonizers  established 
ranches  around  Santa  Fe,  and  cultivated  maize  and  exotic  cereals,  and 
bred  horses  and  cattle  and  sheep.  The  nomads  were  quick  to  recog- 
nize the  value  of  horses,  and  there  followed  years  of  effort  in  procuring 
the  foreign  animals,  mainly  through  theft,  that  intensified  the  aggres- 
siveness of  their  already  belligerent  character. 

The  main  stocks  from  which  the  nomads  of  New  Mexico  came  were 
two ;  the  Southern  Athapascan  or  Apachean  peoples  and  the  Shoshonean 
of  northwestern  America.  The  Ute  and  Comanche  (whose  history  in 
New  Mexico  deals  with  their  power  in  the  past)  represent  important 
southern  divisions  of  the  great  Plateau  Shoshonean  family. 

Early  Spanish  writers  have  given  different  names  to  the  Apache; 
and  the  many  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  tribe  make  certain  errors 
comprehensible.  Coronado  met  bands  of  nomadic  Indians  whom  he 
named  Querechos.  In  1598,  the  great  colonizer,  Ofiate,  mentions 
Apache;  and  Benavides  (1630)  in  his  famous  "Relation"  tells  of  the 


50        NEW     MEXICO 

Vaqueros,  who  have  been  identified  as  Coronado's  Querechos.  The 
earliest  reference  to  the  Navaho  in  Spanish  chronicles  is  the  citation 
by  Benavides  of  the  Apaches  de  Narahu. 

In  order  more  fully  to  understand  the  division  of  the  Apache  tribe 
during  Spanish  rule  in  New  Mexico  it  is  necessary  to  see  the  divisions 
and  sub-divisions  of  the  Apachean  people: 

Querecho  or  Vaquero  Mescalero 

Navaho  Faraon 

Chiricahua  Llanero 

Pinaleno  Lipan 

Coyotero  White  Mountain 

Arivaipa  Final 

Gila  Gileno 

Tonto  Mimbreno 

Jicarilla  Mogollon 

The  sub-tribes  are  divided  again  into  bands,  and  the  bands  into 
groups  formed  by  families. 

The  fort-like  character  of  the  large  Pueblo  Indian  communal  dwell- 
ing testified  that  the  nomadic  tribes  preyed  upon  these  people  in  pre- 
Columbian  times ;  and  it  is  thought  that  it  was  through  Spanish  defense 
that  the  Pueblo  people  were  saved  from  extinction. 

For  example,  the  Navaho  Indians  comprise  the  largest  tribe  in  the 
United  States.  They  call  the  country  of  the  San  Juan  drainage  the 
ancient  land  of  the  Dine.  Among  their  ancestors,  and  represented  in 
their  clans,  are  Pueblo  IV  people  of  the  little  Colorado  and  San  Juan 
regions. 

In  1776,  Fr,  Escalante,  who  attempted  to  blaze  a  trail  from  Santa 
Fe  to  the  Pacific  coast,  describes  the  Province  de  Nabajoo  as  the  land 
lying  west  of  the  Jemez  range  in  north  central  New  Mexico.  On 
Escalante's  map  of  that  date  he  shows  the  northern  boundary  to  be 
the  San  Juan  River,  then  called  the  Rio  de  Nabajoo;  the  eastern  line 
followed  the  Jemez  range  west  of  Abiquiu,  and  the  western  drainage  of 
the  Rio  Puerco  as  far  south  as  the  Zuni  Mountains,  and  west  as  far 
as  the  Hopi  pueblos.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a 
Spanish  document  describes  the  Navaho  country  as  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  Hopi,  on  the  north  by  the  Ute,  on  the  east  by  the  Pueblos, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Gileno  and  Chiricahua  Apache.  It  was  stated 
that  the  Navaho  did  not  change  their  dwelling  places  as  did  the  rest 
of  the  Apache  nation,  but  lived  in  fixed  settlements  where  they  raised 
maize.  The  name  Navaho  probably  came  from  the  Tewa  word  mean- 
ing small  green  fields. 

In  the  year  1788  the  Spaniards  found  themselves  on  excellent  terms 


I  NDIANS        51 

with  the  Navaho  tribe.  They  hoped  to  achieve  a  lasting  peace  and 
conversion  of  the  Navaho  to  Christianity,  as  well  as  to  change  their 
semi-nomadic  mode  of  living  to  that  of  sedentary  Indians. 

According  to  tradition,  at  this  time  Antonio  el  Pinto,  head  chief 
of  the  Navaho  people,  built  ten  stone  towers  in  his  encampment  to  safe- 
guard the  women  and  families  from  the  continuous  invasions  of  the 
Gila  Apache.  This  chief  was  obeyed  and  respected  by  his  people,  and 
in  recognition  of  his  relations  with  the  Spaniards  was  given  the  title 
of  general.  The  lesser  chiefs  were  designated  as  capitancillos. 

But  peace  was  not  to  last.  The  Navaho,  fearing  the  quiet  of  pueblo 
life  and  Christianity,  joined  the  Apache  of  the  east.  During  the  years 
that  followed  the  depredations  of  these  tribes  upon  the  pueblos  of  the 
Rio  Grande  and  Zuni,  as  also  upon  the  Spanish  settlements,  created 
for  the  Spaniards  the  Indian  problem  inherited  and  aggravated  by  the 
impotent  Mexican  regime  in  1822,  and  encountered  by  the  United 
States  in  1846.  Treaties  were  made  which  some  Navahos  broke,  open 
warfare  existed,  and  it  was  not  until  Kit  Carson  with  a  regiment  of 
New  Mexican  soldiers  captured  a  number  of  the  tribe  in  the  Canyon 
de  Chelly  (1864)  that  they  began  to  surrender.  By  the  end  of  the 
year  over  7,000  Navahos  were  captured  and  moved  to  the  Bosque 
Redondo  in  east  central  New  Mexico.  There  the  government  tried 
to  make  farmers  of  them.  The  experiment  proved  a  dismal  failure; 
many  died  from  disease  and  malnutrition,  and  for  a  time  their  spirit 
as  well  as  their  health  was  broken. 

Again  in  their  own  land  the  Navaho  resumed  their  pastoral  way  of 
life.  Their  political  organization  was  again  based  on  the  traditional 
head  men,  chosen  as  leaders  by  local  groups  for  peaceful  purposes. 

At  the  present  time  over  26,000  Navahos  live  in  New  Mexico,  prin- 
cipally in  the  3,500,000  acres  of  reservation  land,  allotted  land  and  other 
types  of  land  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State.  But  their  phe- 
nomenal growth  since  the  time  of  their  captivity  has  brought  new  prob- 
lems. The  total  land  area  reserved  for  the  Navaho  was  expanded  to  over 
15,000,000  acres;  the  Navaho,  however,  increased  from  10,000  to  some 
90,000.  What  seems  to  be  an  immense  amount  of  land  for  the  tribe  be- 
comes understandably  inadequate  when  one  realizes  that  large  areas  of 
their  country  are  barren  and  treeless. 

Recently  oil  and  gas  resources  were  found  in  the  San  Juan  region  of 
the  Navaho  reservation ;  and  uranium  was  discovered,  both  during  and 
since  World  War  II.  The  tribal  council  has  wisely  decided  to  appropri- 
ate the  income  for  the  support  of  tribal  programs.  Roads  have  been 
improved,  water  wells  have  been  located  in  various  parts  of  the  entire 
reservation,  and  a  $10  million  scholarship  fund  has  been  established. 


52        NEW     MEXICO 

The  present  democratic  government  of  the  Navaho  by  an  elective 
tribal  council  operating  under  the  supervision  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs  and  the  superintendent  of  the  Navaho, 
deals  with  tribal  problems.  The  Navaho  capital  has  been  established 
at  Window  Rock,  Arizona.  Chapter-houses  have  been  built  over  the 
reservation  where  head-men,  council  delegates,  government  and  other 
representatives  meet  with  the  local  people  to  discuss  local  affairs.  Mem- 
bers of  the  tribal  council  are  chosen  from  these  local  precincts. 

The  Navaho  religion  presents  an  excellent  example  of  acculturation. 
These  nomadic  Indians  have  superimposed  Pueblo  creed  and  ritual 
upon  the  more  primitive  Athapascan  beliefs.  The  result  is  an  amaz- 
ingly rich  and  varied  ceremonialism  that  is  completely  their  own. 

Shamans  or  medicine  men  control  all  ceremonies.  These  elders 
of  the  tribe — priests,  doctors,  and  temporal  mediators — believe  that  the 
earliest  cultures  in  the  Southwest  occupied  the  area  of  the  San  Juan 
drainage  and  northern  New  Mexico.  They  guard  jealously  all  infor- 
mation regarding  locations  of  sacred  shrines  and  places  identified  with 
Pueblo  Indian  origin  which  are,  in  part,  their  own. 

Certain  rites  of  a  minor  character  accompany  every  happening  in 
Navaho  life,  but  the  great  ceremonies,  or  chants,  are  solemn  religious 
liturgies  held  for  curative  purposes  and  to  further  prestige.  These 
ceremonies  last  from  five  to  nine  days,  and  are  attended  by  thousands 
of  Navaho.  They  are  social  gatherings  as  well  as  rituals,  where  trad- 
ing, horse-racing,  and  display  of  finery  are  important  factors. 

The  sand,  or  dry  paintings,  an  extraordinary  art  in  itself,  are 
made  in  the  ceremonial  hogans  (houses)  by  shamans  and  their  assistants 
during  the  last  days  of  the  ceremonies.  These  sacred  paintings,  repre- 
senting elaborate  symbolic  figures  and  designs,  are  made  with  sands  and 
minerals  of  different  colors.  The  work  is  begun  not  long  after  sun- 
rise and  is  destroyed  and  carried  from  the  hogan  before  sunset. 

Two  of  the  greatest  ceremonies  of  the  Navaho  are  the  Mountain 
Chant  and  the  Night  Chant,  and  on  the  last  night  of  their  presentation 
occurs  one  of  the  most  spectacular  performances  of  modern  times.  An 
enormous  clearing  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  evergreens  against  which 
an  audience  of  probably  two  thousand  or  more  Navaho  stand  and  sit. 
From  sun-down  to  dawn  they  watch  a  succession  of  ceremonial  dances, 
jugglery,  and  legerdemain  which  takes  place  around  a  huge  fire  in  the 
center.  The  great  chants  are  usually  held  in  the  autumn  and  early 
winter  "after  the  thunder  sleeps." 

The  ceremonial  dress  of  the  Navaho  is  varied  as  they  have  freely 
borrowed  from  Pueblo  and  Plains  Indians.  There  is  always  a  certain 
barbaric  splendor  about  them,  for  even  in  their  usual  dress  their  love 


INDIANS        53 

of  rich  colors  and  wealth  of  silver  and  turquoise  jewelry  add  to  their 
picturesqueness.  The  Navaho  are  the  handsomest  of  the  Southwest 
Indians.  The  men  are  usually  tall  and  slender,  with  excellent  carriage ; 
the  women,  though  much  shorter,  have  a  natural  grace.  Their  wide, 
flounced  skirts  and  tightly  buttoned  velvet  blouses  were  introduced 
after  their  contact  with  white  women  in  the  past  century. 

Although  the  Navaho  Indians  derive  their  principal  income  from 
sheep,  goats  and  horses,  and  a  little  from  agriculture  and  the  making 
of  silver  and  turquoise  jewelry,  they  are  known  as  the  weavers  of  the 
famed  Navaho  blankets.  The  wool  used  in  the  weaving  is  usually  from 
their  own  sheep.  It  is  carded,  spun,  and  woven  into  blankets  on  ver- 
tical looms  by  the  women  of  the  tribe.  The  art  of  weaving  came  from 
the  Pueblos.  The  probability  is  that  the  first  Pueblo  refugees  during 
the  Revolt  of  1680,  and  the  captives  from  raids  on  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Zufii  villages,  happened  to  be  weavers;  and  thus  the  present  pas- 
toral pattern  of  Navaho  life  had  its  beginning. 

They  are  content  to  drive  their  herds  of  sheep  to  the  high  mountain 
pastures  in  summer,  living  in  crude  shelters  of  brush  and  pole.  The 
winter  hogans  are,  however,  distinctive  of  the  Navaho  landscape.  Built 
of  log  and  stone  and  covered  with  earth,  these  stout,  hive-like  structures 
are  scattered  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  and  three  among  the  pifion  and 
juniper  of  the  mesa  tops,  or  along  the  floors  of  canyons  near  springs 
or  arable  patches  of  land.  There  are  three  types  of  hogan — the  dwell- 
ing, the  ceremonial  lodge,  and  the  sweat  house;  but  with  modern  edu- 
cation rectangular  stone  houses  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor. 

From  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  present  day  the  Navaho's  prin- 
cipal means  of  transport  has  been  the  horse;  but  the  automobile,  or 
"chidi,"  is  replacing  herds  they  once  counted  part  of  their  wealth. 

Polygamy  was  practiced  even  after  the  Navaho  returned  from  the 
Bosque  Redondo.  It  may  exist  today  in  certain  areas,  but  the  custom 
is  dying  out  due  to  cultural  and  economic  conditions,  as  well  as  council 
ordinances  prohibiting  polygamy. 

The  Navaho,  as  a  people,  are  extremely  kind  to  all  children  and 
considerate  of  the  aged.  They  are  the  most  aggressive,  hard-working 
and  imposing  of  the  various  Athapascan  tribes  in  New  Mexico.  The 
majority  are  in  favor  of  education.  They  believe  that  the  future  of 
their  people  lies  in  the  possibility  of  chosen  members  of  the  tribe  meeting 
citizens  of  the  United  States  on  their  own  plane  of  civilization. 

The  picture  of  the  beginning  of  eighteenth  century  New  Mexico 
shows  the  Faraones  (called  the  Apache  hordes  of  Pharaoh),  who  were 
closely  related  to  the  Jicarilla  and  Mescalero  Apache,  located  in  the 
Sierra  de  Sandra  and  the  Sierra  de  los  Ladrones.  De  Vargas  died 
(1704)  while  pursuing  these  hostile  Indians  near  what  is  now  the 
town  of  Bernalillo.  Governor  Mogollon  declared  war  against  them 


54        NEW    MEXICO 

(1712-1714),  and  a  punitive  expedition  was  sent  against  them  in  1715. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  century  records  show  that  the  land  occupied 
by  this  belligerent  people  lay  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio 
Puerco.  The  country  of  the  Mescalero  bordered  it  on  the  east,  and 
to  the  south  extended  the  frontier  of  Nueva  Vizcaya. 

The  Jicarilla  Apache,  so  named  by  the  Spaniards  because  of  their 
proficiency  in  making  little  baskets  suitable  for  drinking  cups,  lived  on  or 
near  the  mountains  of  the  same  name  in  the  northern  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  New  Mexico,  now  southeastern  Colorado,  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  Comanche  drove  them  from  their  country  in  1716,  and 
into  the  mountains  and  canyons  between  Taos  and  Picuris.  For  a 
short  time  they  seemed  to  accept  Spanish  rule  and  the  Christian  faith, 
but  they  later  joined  the  Mescalero  and  harried  both  Pueblo  and  Span- 
ish settlements.  The  Jicarilla  learned  from  the  Pueblo  Indians  the 
manner  of  clearing  fields  and  raising  corn.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
their  rancherias  were  on  the  banks  of  the  Cimarron,  and  they  were 
considered  a  semi-agricultural  people. 

The  Mescalero  Apache  ("mescal  people"  from  their  custom  of  eat- 
ing mescal)  inhabited  the  mountains  near  the  Pecos  River  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  To  the  east  and  south  of  them  stretched  the  desert 
of  Bolson  Mapimi;  the  Plains  Indian  territory  lay  to  the  east,  and  to 
the  north  extended  the  "Comancheria."  The  land  of  the  Comanche 
also  bordered  the  Lipan  on  the  north.  At  that  time  the  Lipan  were 
considered  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  "savage"  nations.  Their  ter- 
ritory was  vast,  extending  east  to  the  province  of  Coahuila,  and  south 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

During  Spanish  rule  the  Gileno,  or  Gila  Apache,  inhabited  the 
mountains  near  the  Gila  River.  To  the  west  lay  the  land  of  the  war- 
like Chiricahua  Apache  (Arizona),  and  to  the  east  the  country  of  the 
Mimbreno.  The  Mimbreno  were  a  large  tribe  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. They  took  their  name  from  the  Mimbres  drainage  where  they 
lived.  They  were  closely  related  to  the  Gilerio  of  the  west  and  the 
Mogollon  Apache  north  of  their  own  territory. 

After  the  American  occupation  of  the  territory  of  New  Mexico 
(1846),  the  United  States  Government  soon  learned  that  they  had 
inherited  serious  problems.  Among  the  Apache  tribes  cattle  and  horse 
stealing  had  become  the  accepted  means  of  support.  Formerly  a  hunt- 
ing people,  they  simply  took  livestock  instead  of  game. 

In  1855,  Governor  Merriwether  made  a  treaty  with  the  Mimbreno 
and  Mescalero,  and  encouraged  them  in  developing  farm  lands.  A 
reservation  on  the  Upper  Gila  for  southern  Apache  was  recommended 
and  authorized  in  1860.  However,  a  general  outbreak  accompanied 
the  general  Navaho  uprising  in  1863.  After  the  successful  suppression 


INDIANS        55 

of  the  nomadic  Indian  revolt  General  Carleton  brought  400  Mescalero 
to  the  Bosque  Redondo  where  7,000  Navaho  were  incarcerated. 

Through  the  mismanagement  of  a  party  of  soldiers,  Cochise,  the 
great  Chiricahua  chief,  who  had  been  friendly  towards  Americans, 
became  the  leader  of  a  large  band  of  southern  Apache  whose  fanatical 
intent  was  to  drive  all  white  men  from  their  lands.  Believing  that 
the  withdrawal  of  troops  from  military  posts  in  their  territory  was 
an  acknowledgment  of  defeat,  Cochise,  and  later  Victorio,  with  a  large 
number  of  Mimbreno,  Mogollon,  and  Mescalero,  terrorized  the  inhabi- 
tants of  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  Chihuahua  until  1880.  Nana, 
Victorio's  successor,  was  joined  by  Geronimo  and  the  warfare  continued. 
It  was  evident  that  the  future  prosperity  of  the  Territory  of  New 
Mexico  would  depend  on  the  control  of  the  Apache  Indians.  The 
United  States  Government  made  clear  that  it  would  not  tolerate  the 
continued  plundering  and  murdering  of  its  citizens,  and  took  steps  to 
establish  order  through  military  force.  General  Crook's  experiment  in 
training  the  southern  Apache  in  the  ways  of  civilization  had  failed. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  their  farms  yielded  large  crops  the  first  year, 
Geronimo  incited  them  to  revolt.  General  N.  A.  Miles  compelled 
Geronimo 's  surrender  (1886)  and  the  Apache  tribes  were  finally 
conquered. 

After  years  of  administrative  juggling  two  Apache  reservations  were 
established  in  New  Mexico,  the  Jicarilla  reservation  of  750,000  acres 
in  Rio  Arriba  and  Sandoval  counties,  north  of  Santa  Fe;  and  the 
Mescalero  reservation  of  460,000  acres  in  northern  Otero  County. 

The  Jicarilla  Apache  Reservation  has  a  limited  amount  of  timber 
resources.  A  management  plan  has  been  developed  looking  toward  sales 
of  timber  on  a  sustained  yield  basis.  The  sheep  industry  furnishes  70  per 
cent  of  the  cash  agriculture  income  to  Jicarilla  Indians.  Some  50  family 
groups  or  approximately  14  per  cent  of  the  Jicarilla  Apache  families, 
derive  income  from  sheep  production.  Livestock  holdings,  including 
sheep,  cattle  and  goats,  valued  at  three  quarters  of  a  million  dollars, 
bring  annual  cash  returns  of  $177,500  to  18  per  cent  of  the  Indian 
families  on  the  reservation  in  addition  to  supplying  beef  and  lamb  prod- 
ucts for  home  consumption  valued  at  $38,288. 

The  Mescalero  Reservation  contains  some  of  the  best  grazing  country 
in  New  Mexico.  The  Cattle  Growers'  Inc.  makes  almost  exclusive  use 
of  the  range  and  runs  from  5,000  to  8,000  head  of  cattle.  The  reserva- 
tion also  contains  some  200  million  board  feet  of  salable  timber. 

The  physical  appearance  of  the  Apache  varies  greatly.  They  are, 
with  the  Navaho,  the  tallest  Indians  in  New  Mexico.  They  are  a 
shrewd  people,  honest  in  protecting  property  placed  in  their  care;  but 
their  aggressive  heritage  and  former  habit  of  support  through  plunder 
have  made  a  social  readjustment  within  three  generations  difficult. 


56        NEW     MEXICO 

Polygamy  is  less  general  than  formerly  when  warriors  took  wives  as  well 
as  bartered  for  them.  There  existed  an  ancient  cross-cousin  taboo  that, 
among  the  Jicarilla,  still  persists;  in  fact  polygamy  is  seldom  found 
among  the  Jicarilla  now. 

The  wickiup  was  the  most  typical  Apache  dwelling,  though  the 
southern  tribes  used  dome-shaped  shelters  consisting  of  a  frame  made  of 
boughs  covered  with  a  thatching  of  leaves  and  bark.  These  have  slowly 
been  replaced  and  today  this  type  of  domicile  is  seldom  used.  They 
live,  almost  exclusively  in  modern  frame  houses.  Within  the  past  few 
years,  the  tribe  has  built  30  modern  concrete  block  homes  for  the  people, 
and  modernization  is  continuing. 

In  times  past  .Apache  foodstuffs  consisted  of  the  products  of  the 
chase,  principally  buffalo,  and  roots  (mainly  maguey),  and  berries. 
Both  bear  and  fish  were  taboo,  although  among  some  bands  fish  was 
caught  and  eaten.  The  modern  foodstuffs  consist  of  mutton  and  corn 
supplemented  by  fruits,  and  such  staples  as  coffee,  etc. 

The  ritual  life  of  the  Jicarilla  Apache  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts;  the  shamanistic  or  personal,  and  the  traditional  or  "long  life" 
ceremonies.  The  power  of  the  shamans  is  continually  stressed ;  they 
practice  magic,  perform  cures,  and  direct  the  ceremonials  or  "sings." 
The  most  important  of  the  "long  life"  ceremonies  is  the  Bear  Dance. 
This  four-day  rite,  with  sand  paintings,  is  based  on  the  legend  of  the 
Bear  and  the  Snake  which  belongs  to  the  Navaho  as  well  as  the  Apache. 
The  ceremonial  relay  race  is  run  in  mid-September.  This  harvest  fes- 
tival, largely  a  time  of  trading  and  horse  racing,  is  the  principal  gather- 
ing of  the  Jicarilla.  The  fine  pageantry  of  the  Navaho  ceremonies  is 
lacking,  for  the  Jicarilla  regard  for  costuming,  as  shown  in  their  habitual 
apparel,  is  scant. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  Mescalero  ceremonials.  On  the  fourth 
of  July  they  hold  a  fiesta  followed  by  a  four-day  ceremony.  Medicine 
men  chant  in  a  huge  tepee  that  is  analogous  to  the  Navaho  ceremonial 
hog  an.  Visitors  are  not  welcome,  and  students  are  discouraged. 

Later  years  have  wrought  a  deplorable  change  among  the  Apache. 
Lacking  the  stamina  of  their  Navaho  relatives,  they  have  been  unable 
to  resist  both  tuberculosis  and  whisky  which  have  brought  about  a 
defeat  more  deadly  than  weapons  of  warfare.  With  hospitalization 
and  education,  progress  has  been  and  is  being  made.  The  Apache's 
land  is  more  productive  than  that  of  the  Navaho.  Successful  adoption 
of  the  ways  of  modern  civilization  has  brought  about  the  self-respect  so 
necessary  in  establishing  the  proper  morale  of  any  people. 

The  Ute  Indians  formerly  occupied  the  land  which  is  now  central 
and  western  Colorado,  eastern  Utah,  and  the  upper  San  Juan  drainage 
in  New  Mexico.  After  De  Vargas  reconquered  the  country  in  1692 
there  was  a  time  of  comparative  peace,  but  beginning  with  the  early 


INDIANS        57 

years  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Ute  joined  the  Comanche  in  per- 
petrating their  depredations.  In  1724,  the  Ute  were  at  war  with  the 
Jicarilla  Apache,  and  captured  one-half  of  their  women  and  children. 
Twenty-four  years  later  war  broke  out  between  the  Ute  and  Navaho. 

French  trappers  and  traders  had  some  influence  with  Ute  bands  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  but  little  or  none  with  the  Mouche,  Capote, 
and  Weminuche  bands  known  as  the  Southern  Utes.  The  Spaniards 
were  aware  of  threatened  French  intrusion  into  New  Mexico,  and  the 
Utes,  with  other  nomadic  tribes,  sold  horses,  cattle,  and  food  to  them. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Southern  Ute 
regarded  the  Jicarilla  Apache  country  as  their  own.  The  first  agency 
for  both  tribes  was  placed  at  Taos;  later  it  was  moved  to  Cimarron. 
The  agency  for  the  bands  called  Capote,  Mouche  and  Weminuche  was 
established  at  Abiquiu. 

After  the  American  occupation  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico 
the  first  treaty  with  the  Ute  Indians  was  made  in  1849.  Peace  and 
amity  were  promised.  Four  years  later  Governor  Lane  induced  250 
Ute  to  farm  on  the  Rio  Pecos;  but  the  Ute  had  little  liking  for  soil 
cultivation  and  were  easily  persuaded  to  join  the  Apache  in  an  outbreak, 
which  was  swiftly  and  effectively  dealt  with. 

The  Ute  and  the  Jicarilla  with  the  Pueblo  were  "Union"  Indians. 
A  provision  was  made  in  1861  for  the  Uintan  band  of  Utes;  and  in 
1863  the  Tabegauche  were  assigned  a  reservation.  The  final  treaty, 
however,  made  in  1868,  set  forth  the  boundaries  of  the  reservation  in 
Colorado.  Their  reservation  was  divided  in  1896  into  the  Southern  Ute 
and  Ute  Mountain  reservations,  with  the  latter  extending  into  New 
Mexico  northwest  of  Farmington. 

The  Ute  tribe  is  divided  into  three  main  groups :  the  Southern  Utes 
and  Ute  Mountain  Utes  of  southwestern  Colorado,  and  the  Northern 
Utes  of  the  Uintah-Ouray  reservation  at  Fort  Duchesne,  Utah.  The 
Northern  Utes  are  the  descendants  of  the  bands  formerly  known  as  the 
Uintahs,  the  Uncompahgres,  the  Yampas,  and  the  White  River  Utes. 
Physical  characteristics  of  the  three  tribes  today  are  similar,  although 
the  dialect  of  the  Southern  and  Ute  Mountain  Utes  differs  somewhat 
from  that  of  the  Northern  Utes. 

The  Southern  Utes  and  the  Northern  Utes  are  farmers  and  stock- 
men; the  Ute  Mountain  Utes  do  not  farm,  but  many  own  livestock. 
Economically,  all  three  are  better  off  than  many  Indian  groups.  All 
three  tribal  governments  have  some  oil  and  gas  income.  Children  of 
the  Ute  tribes  now  attend  public  schools  as  integration  with  the  public 
schools  is  an  accomplished  fact. 

Religious  beliefs  of  the  Ute  Indians,  like  those  of  the  other  Plains 


58        NEW     MEXICO 

tribes  of  Shoshonean  stock,  is  governed  by  the  Great  Spirit.     Their 
ceremonials  or  chants  are  of  secondary  importance. 

The  Ute  are  now  considered  Colorado  Indians,  but  they  still  own 
grazing  land  north  of  the  San  Juan  River  in  northern  New  Mexico. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Comanche  left 
their  country  in  southern  Wyoming  and  migrated  to  the  southern  plains 
where,  for  over  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  they  fought  other  nomadic 
tribes,  Pueblo  Indians,  Spaniards,  and  Americans.  They  were  first  seen 
in  what  is  now  New  Mexico  with  the  Ute  in  1705;  and  with  the  Ute 
they  attacked  Taos  pueblo;  they  raided  Jicarilla  Apache  settlement, 
pueblos  and  Spanish  ranches,  and  always  they  took  horses. 

The  hostilities  of  the  Comanche  more  than  those  of  any  other 
nomadic  tribe  prevented  the  Spaniards  from  establishing  settlements  in 
the  Arkansas  Valley.  However,  the  Spaniards  recognized  the  import- 
ance of  the  "Comancheria"  as  a  barrier  between  New  Mexico  and 
the  threatened  French  intrusion  in  the  northeast  and  promoted  friendly 
relations  with  the  tribe.  They  were  asked  to  attend  the  Taos  fair  in 
1748-49  where  they  traded  skins  and  captives  for  horses  and  foodstuffs. 
But  the  French  supplied  arms  through  the  Comanche  camps  in  Kansas 
and  depredations  continued.  Treaties  with  the  Spaniards  were  made 
and  broken,  and  it  was  not  until  Anza  became  governor  of  New  Mexico 
in  1778  that  the  Comanche  problem  was  properly  understood. 

There  existed  at  the  time  twelve  bands  of  Comanche,  each  led  by 
one  or  two  chiefs  who  believed  themselves  to  be  the  head  of  the  whole 
tribe.  No  sooner  would  one  chief  make  a  treaty  than  it  was  repudiated 
by  the  others.  Governor  Anza  adopted  the  aggressive  method;  he 
attacked  the  principal  settlement  of  Cuerno  Verde,  their  most  noted 
chief,  and  later  killed  him.  Peace  between  Spaniards  and  Comanche 
followed  the  year  1784.  In  1786,  Anza  was  instructed  by  General 
Ugarte  to  keep  this  peace  with  the  Comanche,  making  gifts  of  horses 
and  stores,  and  even  paying  salaries  to  certain  chiefs  who  would  make 
war  on  the  Apache. 

It  was  not  until  1850  that  the  Americans  discovered,  through  trial 
and  error,  the  Comanche  division  into  bands  with  little  or  no  coalescence. 
From  the  beginning  the  Comanche  were  the  terror  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail.  Military  protection  by  the  United  States  assured  the  further- 
ance of  the  commerce  of  the  prairies;  and  the  establishing  of  this  pro- 
tected road  through  the  Comanche  country  to  Santa  Fe  was  one  of  the 
steps  towards  the  American  occupation  of  the  territory  of  New  Mexico. 
The  Comanche  like  all  nomadic  tribes  gave  trouble  during  the  first 
twenty  years  of  the  new  government.  The  treaty  of  1867  provided 
for  a  Comanche  reservation  in  Oklahoma.  In  1874-75  the  Comanche 
joined  their  old  enemies  the  Apache  in  an  attack  which  was  quickly 
quelled,  thus  establishing:  the  supremacy  of  the  United  States  Govern- 


INDIAN  S 


59 


ment  for  all  time.  The  few  Comanche  left  in  New  Mexico  were  at- 
tached to  the  Kiowa  agency  in  Oklahoma. 

The  Comanche  are  a  copper-colored  people  with  a  pronounced  aqui- 
line nose  and  thin  lips,  black  hair  and  eyes,  and  little  beard.  They  are 
of  low  or  medium  stature,  well  built,  but  with  a  tendency  to  corpulence. 
The  women  usually  age  prematurely.  They  were  originally  nomads, 
and  lived  in  tepees  that  were  easily  carried  from  place  to  place  as  they 
followed  the  game.  Their  continued  travels  curtailed  the  development 
of  culture  and  religion. 

The  Comanche  religion  is  largely  an  individual  matter;  they  believe 
in  the  Great  Spirit  who  is  associated  with  the  sun.  Polygamy  was 
formerly  common.  Women  were  often  stolen  or  bartered  for,  and 
there  existed  little  ceremony  with  courtship  or  marriage.  Peyote,  an 
alkaloid  intoxicant  from  a  cactus  native  to  Mexico,  was  introduced 
in  comparatively  recent  times. 

Horses  were  their  medium  of  exchange,  and  in  horses  the  Comanche 
counted  their  wealth.  Their  first  horses  were  used  as  pack  animals; 
later  they  used  them  for  pursuing  game  and  in  war.  They  soon 
acquired  extraordinary  skill  in  horsemanship,  and  this  supremacy  more 
than  anything  else  made  them  the  greatest  and  most  feared  of  the  Plains 
Indians. 


History 


THE  story  of  the  discovery  of  New  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards,  as 
recounted  by  Castaneda,  starts  with  Nuno  de  Guzman,  Governor 
of  New  Spain  in  1528,  who  had  in  his  possession  an  Indian 
called  Tejo  (Te-ho)  who  told  of  going  northward  with  his  father  to 
trade  feathers  for  ornaments.  They  brought  back  large  quantities  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  saw  "seven  towns  so  large  that  they  could  be 
compared  in  size  to  Mexico  and  its  suburbs,  and  that  in  them  were 
whole  streets  occupied  by  silversmiths."  These  settlements  were  to  be 
reached  by  "traveling  northward  between  the  two  seas,"  and  "across 
a  grassy  desert  for  forty  days." 

Guzman  organized  an  army  of  400  Spaniards  and  20,000  friendly 
Indians  of  New  Spain,  and  set  out  in  December,  1529,  to  find  the 
fabled  Seven  Cities.  He  did  not,  however,  find  this  promised  land  of 
riches,  as  he  lost  his  way  and  followed  up  the  Pacific  Coast.  Before 
the  expedition's  return  to  Mexico  in  1531,  Guzman  established  Culiacan 
in  the  province  of  Sinaloa,  which  became  an  important  outpost  for  later 
exploring  expeditions. 

Interest  in  those  unknown  regions  flared  up  again  when  in  April, 
1536,  a  group  of  four  almost  naked  men  walked  into  the  village  of 
Culiacan.  Their  leader,  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  had  started 
out  from  Spain  for  Florida  in  1527,  as  royal  treasurer  of  the  Narvaez 
expedition  which  met  with  misfortune,  all  of  its  members  except  De 
Vaca  and  a  few  companions  being  lost  at  sea  or  killed  by  Indians. 
The  four  final  survivors,  De  Vaca,  Andres  Dorantes,  Alonso  de  Castillo 
Maldonado,  and  Estevan,  the  negro  slave  of  Dorantes,  wandered  from 
the  coast  of  Texas  to  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Gulf  of  California. 

The  story  of  De  Vaca's  experiences  was  the  first  definite  word  to 
reach  Mexico  City  about  the  northern  region  later  to  become  New 
Mexico.  Antonio  de  Mendoza,  first  viceroy  of  New  Spain,  determined 
upon  an  expedition  into  those  northern  lands.  But  first  he  planned 
to  send  out  a  small  exploring  party,  and  selected  as  its  leader  Marcos 
de  Niza,  a  Franciscan  friar  who  was  with  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of 
Peru,  and  later  a  frontier  missionary  in  the  northern  part  of  New 
Spain.  Estevan  accompanied  Marcos  as  guide;  they  took  six  Indian 
interpreters  and  others  as  servants. 

Marcos  set  out  from  Culiacan  on  March  7,  1539,  following  the 

60 


Indians 


Navaho  girl  with  her  pet  lamb 


Scene  in  San  Ildefonso  Indian  Pueblo 


Ancient  Pueblo  of  Taos 


JE: 


Colorfully  dressed  San  Ildefonso  Indians 


Zuni  olla  bearers  in  ceremonial  costumes 


Acoma  Pueblo  on  top  of  a  rocky  mesa 
Planting  in  "waffle  beds"  to  retain  scarce  water 


Navaho  silversmith  and  his  wife 


Mescalero  Apaches,  costumed  for  the  Crown  Dance 


Je*mez  Hoop  Dancer 


Surveying  the  Navaho  Indian  Reservation 


HISTORY        6l 

west  coast  to  the  Sonora  Valley  where  he  stopped  to  rest  and  sent 
Estevan  on  ahead  to  explore  and  report  back  to  him.  If  the  country 
was  unusually  good  Estevan  was  to  send  a  cross  two  hands  long;  if 
it  was  as  rich  and  populous  as  New  Spain,  a  still  larger  cross.  Four 
days  later  an  Indian  messenger  returned  with  "a  very  large  cross,  ay 
tall  as  a  man!"  The  Indian  told  of  seven  great  cities  in  the  first 
province  with  houses  two,  three,  and  four  stories  high,  ornamented  with 
turquoise  which  he  said  was  abundant.  Farther  on,  he  added,  there 
were  other  provinces  greater  even  than  the  Seven  Cities. 

Marcos  immediately  pressed  forward  over  the  deserts  of  Northern 
Mexico  and  southeastern  Arizona.  He  did  not  overtake  Estevan,  how- 
ever, who  reached  the  Zuni  pueblo  of  Hawikuh,  the  first  of  the  Seven 
Cities,  and  was  killed  there.  Fray  Marcos,  upon  learning  of  the 
Negro's  death,  did  not  turn  back  until  May,  1539,  when,  according  to 
his  account,  he  beheld  Hawikuh  from  the  top  of  a  nearby  mesa,  the 
Zuni  not  permitting  the  friar  to  approach  nearer.  Fray  Marcos 
erected  a  cross  and  took  formal  possession  of  the  country  for  Spain,  then 
returned  to  Mexico  City  and  reported  to  the  viceroy.  He  had  claimed 
a  whole  new  region  for  Spain;  had  seen  the  many-storied  houses  of 
the  Zuni;  and  Indians  who  wore  turquoise  suspended  from  their  noses 
and  ears.  From  these  Indians  on  the  way  he  had  heard  of  great  cities, 
populous  nations,  and  lands  abounding  in  wealth.  These  accounts  lost 
nothing  in  the  retelling  as  they  passed  from  one  adventurer  to  another. 

Mendoza,  the  viceroy,  immediately  began  preparations  to  conquer 
this  country.  He  selected  Compostela  as  the  assembling  place,  ap- 
pointed Francisco  Vasquez  Coronado  as  Captain-general  of  the  expedi- 
tion, and  Marcos  as  guide.  The  army  started  its  northward  march, 
February  23,  1540. 

Coronado  followed  the  route  of  Marcos  and  Estevan.  Going  ahead 
of  the  main  body,  Coronado  reached  Cibola  July  7,  and  captured 
Hawikuh,  which  he  named  Granada.  The  pueblo  contained  no  wealth 
but  an  abundance  of  provisions.  The  soldiers,  disappointed  at  finding 
no  treasures,  complained  so  bitterly  against  Marcos  that  he  returned 
to  New  Spain. 

During  the  summer  and  fall  exploratory  parties  penetrated  to  the 
Hopi  pueblos  and  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  River  in  Arizona, 
the  Rio  Grande  Pueblo  country  as  far  north  as  Taos,  and  east  to  the 
buffalo  plains  of  the  Llano  Estacado. 

In  September,  Coronado's  main  army  reached  Tiguex,  near  the 
present  town  of  Bernalillo,  where  Coronado  established  winter  head- 
quarters. The  Tiguex  Pueblos  revolted  and  were  subjugated  with 
such  severity  as  to  incur  Indian  hostility  to  the  Spaniards  for  gen- 
erations. 

An  eastern  plains  Indian  called  the  Turk,  a  captive  of  the  pueblo 


62        NEW    MEXICO 

of  Cicuye  (Pecos),  told  the  Spaniards  of  a  fabulously  rich  country 
far  to  the  east  named  Quivira.  Coronado  listened  eagerly  and  as  soon 
as  spring  came  started  eastward  with  his  entire  force.  Leaving  Tiguex 
for  the  Eastern  Plains  April  23,  1541,  the  army  stopped  at  Cicuye 
(Pecos),  and  continued  the  march  for  two  or  three  days,  when  in 
order  to  cross  the  Pecos  River  a  bridge  was  built  supposedly  near 
Puerto  de  Luna,  in  present  Guadalupe  County.  This  -was  the  first 
bridge  known  to  be  built  in  the  present  Southwest.  Coronado's  route 
led  towards  the  northeast  for  a  short  distance,  then  turned  in  a  general 
southeasterly  direction  to  a  point  presumably  near  the  headwaters  of 
the  Brazos  River  on  the  plains  of  Texas. 

After  thirty-seven  days  of  marching,  the  food  supply  was  almost 
exhausted  and  only  buffalo  meat  was  available.  It  became  apparent 
that  the  Turk's  directions  were  misleading — the  Spaniards  thought  de- 
liberately so.  Coronado  selected  other  Indian  guides,  sent  the  main 
army  back  to  Tiguex,  and  with  a  picked  body  of  thirty  men  marched 
towards  the  north,  which  the  new  guides  said  was  Quivira Js  true  loca- 
tion. Coronado  pushed  on  as  far  as  the  Quiviras  (Wichita  Indians) 
in  eastern  Kansas,  where  populous  cities  and  treasures  of  gold  failed 
to  materialize.  From  there  he  returned  by  a  more  direct  route  to 
Tiguex. 

Early  in  April,  1542,  after  a  winter  of  discouragement  and  dissen- 
sion, Coronado  and  his  army  started  back  to  New  Spain.  His  report 
to  Viceroy  Mendoza  in  1543  was  a  disappointment;  the  expedition  was 
considered  a  failure,  having  added  no  gold  to  Spain,  although  Spanish 
possessions  were  increased  by  a  vast  territory,  and  the  explorations 
formed  the  basis  of  the  first  definite  geographic  knowledge  of  the 
Southwest. 

Three  Franciscan  friars,  Juan  de  Padilla,  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  and 
Luis  de  Escalona,  who  had  accompanied  Coronado,  remained  among  the 
Pueblo  Indians  as  the  first  missionaries  and  martyrs  of  New  Mexico. 
Juan  de  la  Cruz  was  killed  by  Indians  at  Tiguex,  Luis  de  Escalona  at 
Cicuye  (Pecos),  and  Juan  de  Padilla  traveled  northeastward  to  Qui- 
vira (now  the  state  of  Kansas)  where  he  met  martyrdom  in  1544. 

The  next  expedition,  forty  years  after  Coronado 's,  was  initiated  and 
led  by  Agustin  Rodriguez  for  missionary  purposes.  Agustin  was  accom- 
panied by  Francisco  Lopez,  Juan  de  Santa  Maria,  and  twelve  soldiers 
under  Captain  Francisco  Sanchez  Chamuscado.  Proceeding  from  Santa 
Barbara  in  southern  Chihuahua,  they  blazed  a  new  trail  into  the  Pueblo 
country  up  the  Rio  Grande  to  Puaray,  one  of  the  pueblos  in  the  Prov- 
inces of  Tiguex  where  Coronado  had  made  his  headquarters. 

Eager  to  announce  their  discoveries,  Juan  de  Santa  Maria  started 
back  to  New  Spain  but  was  killed  by  Indians  on  the  way.  After  exten- 
sive explorations,  the  soldiers  returned  to  Mexico,  but  Francisco  and 


HISTORY       63 

Agustin  refused  to  leave,  and  remained  at  Puaray  where  shortly  after- 
wards they  were  put  to  death. 

To  ascertain  the  unknown  fate  of  these  Franciscans,  the  expedition 
of  Antonio  de  Espejo  and  Bernardino  Beltran,  1582-83,  was  under- 
taken. After  obtaining  definite  information  of  the  friars'  deaths,  the 
expedition  explored  a  large  part  of  the  Pueblo  country,  and  returned 
down  the  Pecos  River,  thus  opening  a  third  line  of  approach  to  the 
Pueblo  region  of  central  and  northern  New  Mexico.  Another  out- 
standing feature  of  the  expedition  is  that  Casilda  de  Anaya,  the  third 
white  woman  to  enter  New  Mexico,  made  the  trip  with  her  soldier 
husband.  Espejo  reported  the  region  as  abounding  in  great  mineral 
wealth,  good  grazing  country,  and  "lands  suitable  for  fields  and  gar- 
dens, with  or  without  irrigation."  His  report  was  influential  in  the 
settlement  of  the  new  province. 

The  name  "New  Mexico,"  the  oldest  State  name  in  the  Union 
except  Florida,  is  thought  to  have  been  first  applied  by  Francisco  de 
Ibarra  in  1565,  who  called  the  country  north  of  the  settled  Mexican 
provinces  un  otro  or  Nuevo  Mejico.  Following  the  Rodriguez  expedi- 
tion 1581-82,  the  name  was  used  permanently,  appearing  in  the  Gallegos 
account  of  that  expedition  written  and  presented  to  the  viceroy  in  1582. 
Nuevo  Mejico  was  also  used  on  the  title  page  of  Luxan's  journal  dated 
1583,  of  the  Espejo  expedition. 

The  first  attempt  to  colonize  New  Mexico  was  made  by  Caspar 
Castafio  de  Sosa,  159091,  who  with  170  persons,  including  women 
and  children,  and  a  wagon  train  of  supplies  entered  by  way  of  the 
Pecos  River.  After  about  a  year  among  the  Rio  Grande  pueblos, 
Castafio  was  arrested  by  Juan  Morlete  for  having  made  an  unauthor- 
ized entry,  and  was  returned  to  Mexico  City  in  chains. 

Humana  and  Bonilla  also  made  an  unauthorized  entry,  1593-94, 
visiting  the  pueblos  ^ind  traversing  the  northeastern  plains  probably  to 
the  Platte  River.  Humana  murdered  Bonilla,  and  Indians  killed  the 
rest  of  the  party  except  one  New  Mexican  Indian  called  Jusepe  who 
escaped  and  returned  to  Picuris.  His  story  is  the  only  account  of 
what  happened. 

Don  Juan  de  Ofiate,  a  wealthy  mine  owner  of  Zacatecas,  and  son 
of  a  pioneer,  made  the  next  attempt  to  colonize  the  new  region.  The 
government,  unable  and  unwilling  to  finance  his  proposal,  granted 
him  a  contract  September  21,  1595,  when  Ofiate  offered  to  equip  an 
expedition  at  his  own  expense. 

After  numerous  delays,  the  army  of  soldiers  and  settlers,  number- 
ing about  400,  a  baggage  and  supply  train  of  83  wagons  and  carts, 
and  7,000  head  of  stock,  left  Santa  Barbara,  February  7,  1598,  for  the 
north.  On  April  30,  Onate  took  formal  possession  of  New  Mexico 
at  a  point  on  the  Rio  Grande  below  El  Paso  del  Norte. 


64        NEW     MEXICO 

Near  Mount  Robledo  Onate  started  ahead  with  a  small  escort  to 
examine  the  country.  On  July  n  he  established  the  first  Spanish 
capital  in  New  Mexico  at  the  Tewa  Village  of  Yugeuingge  (called 
Yunqueyunque  by  Coronado),  on,  the  west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  christened  it  San  Juan,  adding  de  los  Caballeros  (St.  John  of  the 
Gentlemen)  "in  memory  of  those  noble  sons  who  first  raised  in  these 
barbarous  regions  the  bloody  tree  upon  which  Christ  perished  for  the 
redemption  of  mankind."  (Villagra,  Historia  del  Nuevo  Mcjico.) 

The  main  body  of  colonists  following  more  slowly  crossed  the  dread 
Jornada  del  Muerto  (Journey  of  Death),  and  arrived  five  weeks  later 
at  San  Juan,  thus  establishing  the  first  permanent  colony  in  New 
Mexico,  and  the  second  in  the  United  States  (the  first  being  St.  Augus- 
tine, Florida,  1565). 

Work  on  the  first  Spanish  irrigation  ditch  was  begun  August  1 1, 
1598,  and  on  the  first  church  in  New  Mexico,  August  23,  it  being  dedi- 
cated September  8,  to  San  Juan  Bautista.  The  next  day  Pueblo  chiefs 
of  the  region  submitted  and  agreed  to  receive  Christian  missionaries. 
The  Province  was  divided  into  seven  mission  districts  with  eight  Fran- 
ciscan friars. 

From  1598  until  1601  the  settlement  was  referred  to  as  San  Juan 
Bautista,  but  later  was  called  San  Gabriel  del  Yunque.  San  Juan  de 
los  Caballeros  generally  was  used  to  denote  the  Tewa  Pueblo  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  which  the  Indians  had  moved.  The 
Spanish  capital  remained  at  San  Gabriel  del  Yunque  until  its  removal 
to  Santa  Fe  in  the  winter  of  1609-10. 

The  first  winter  in  New  Mexico  was  fraught  with  hardships. 
Friendly  Indians  could  not  provide  sufficient  food  for  the  colonists  and 
mutiny  developed  among  the  soldiers.  The  colony  stood  firm,  however, 
due  to  the  courage  of  its  sturdy  pioneers. 

On  December  4,  the  Acoma  Indians  revolted,  trapping  Onate's 
nephew,  Juan  de  Zaldivar,  and  eighteen  of  his  men  in  their  famous  sky 
city  on  a  mesa.  Zaldivar,  ten  other  soldiers,  and  a  few  servants  were 
killed. 

To  punish  the  Acoma,  Ofiate  sent  Vicente  de  Zaldivar,  brother  of 
the  murdered  Juan,  with  a  picked  force  to  recapture  the  pueblo.  The 
battle  began  January  22,  1599,  and  raged  until  January  24,  when  the 
Spaniards  gained  the  mesa  top  and  were  victorious.  Setting  fire  to 
the  pueblo,  they  sent  the  inhabitants  to  settle  on  the  plains  below. 
This  ended  organized  Indian  resistance  to  Onate,  and  on  December 
24,  1600,  relief  forces  from  New  Spain  reached  San  Gabriel. 

Onate  left  San  Gabriel  for  Quivira,  June  23,  1601,  to  visit  that 
section,  going  probably  as  far  east  as  the  present  Wichita,  Kansas,  and 
traversing  sections  covered  by  Coronado  sixty  years  before. 

During  Onate's  absence  discontented  settlers,  soldiers,  and  all  of 


HISTORY        65 

the  missionaries  except  one  friar  abandoned  San  Gabriel  for  the  Santa 
Barbara  mines  or  elsewhere.  When  Onate  returned  November  24, 
the  settlement  was  all  but  deserted.  Vicente  de  Zaldivar  followed  the 
colonists,  secured  new  missionaries  and  settlers,  brought  back  some  of 
the  deserters,  and  San  Gabriel  flourished  again. 

Onate  set  out  for  the  South  Sea  (the  Pacific  Ocean),  October  7, 
1604,  with  thirty  horsemen  and  two  priests.  He  reached  the  Gulf  of 
California,  January  25,  1605,  and  took  possession  for  Spain.  The  party 
started  back  to  San  Gabriel,  saving  themselves  from  starvation  on  the 
way  by  killing  and  eating  their  horses.  On  the  return  trip,  Onate 
left  his  name  on  Inscription  Rock,  now  El  Morro  National  Monument, 
April  16,  1605,  instituting  a  practice  followed  by  subsequent  governors, 
soldiers,  and  priests. 

Extensive  expeditions,  campaigns,  and  the  exacting  duties  of  gov- 
ernor had  worn  Onate  out,  while  huge  expenditures  from  his  own 
private  fortune  reduced  him  to  poverty.  The  colony  needed  reinforce- 
ments which  Onate  could  not  supply  and  which  were  not  forthcoming 
from  Mexico  City.  March  31,  1605,  a  secret  report  was  made  on 
New  Mexico  and  Ofiate's  conduct,  which  doubtless  inspired  Philip 
Ill's  order  of  June  7,  1606,  that  no  more  explorations  be  made  in  New 
Mexico,  that  Onate  go  to  Mexico  City,  and  another  governor  be  ap- 
pointed. In  despair  Onate  resigned,  August  24,  1607.  The  viceroy 
accepted  his  resignation  but  cautioned  Onate  not  to  leave  New  Mexico 
without  further  orders,  which  should  arrive  in  December,  1609,  at  the 
latest. 

The  viceroy  chose  Juan  Martinez  de  Montoya,.  one  of  Onate's 
captains,  as  governor,  but  the  colonists,  for  reasons  which  they  consid- 
ered sufficient,  did  not  permit  him  to  serve.  They  elected  Onate  as 
governor,  but  he  declined;  then  they  chose  his  son,  Don  Cristobal. 
Sometime  before  March  5,  1609,  the  viceroy  appointed  Don  Pedro  de 
Peralta  governor  with  instructions  to  found  a  new  capital. 

To  Onate  was  due  the  permanent  settlement  of  New  Mexico.  He 
organized  the  first  mission  system  among  New  Mexican  Indians,  ex- 
plored the  Southwest  as  extensively  as  Coronado,  Espejo,  and  all  of  his 
predecessors  combined,  and  blazed  the  trail  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Villagra's  Historia  del  Nuevo  Mejico,  an  epic  poem  in  thirty-four 
cantos  describing  Ofiate's  conquest  and  settlement  of  New  Mexico, 
the  first  poem  written  about  any  section  of  the  United  States,  was 
published  at  Alcala,  Spain,  in  1610. 

Onate  and  his  son,  Don  Cristobal,  were  permitted  to  leave  New 
Mexico  after  the  arrival  of  Peralta,  which  they  did  in  the  spring  of 
1610,  but  Don  Cristobal  died  on  the  way  to  Mexico.  •  Onate  was 
charged  with  crimes  committed  in  New  Mexico,  including  refusal  to 
obey  royal  decrees,  lack  of  respect  for  the  friars,  mistreating  the  Indians, 


66        NEW    MEXICO 

murdering  some,  and  punishing  the  Acoma  and  Jumano  Indians  with 
especial  cruelty.  He  was  sentenced  with  De  Zaldivar  and  several 
others  in  Mexico  City,  May  13,  1614.  Ofiate  was  perpetually  banished 
from  New  Mexico  and  fined  6,000  Castilian  ducats.  Some  reason 
exists  for  believing  that  he  was  pardoned  before  1624,  as  at  that  time 
he  still  bore  the  title  of  adelantado,  and  was  entrusted  with  visitation 
of  mines  in  Spain. 

During  the  winter  of  1609  and  1610,  Peralta  founded  Santa  Fe 
and  moved  the  settlers  from  San  Gabriel  to  the  new  capital.  The 
mission  supply  service  between  Mexico  City  and  Santa  Fe  was  organ- 
ized for  sending  supplies  to  missionaries  and  Spanish  settlements  via 
pack  train  every  three  years. 

Colonization  during  the  seventeenth  century  was  slow.  Spanish 
authorities  were  interested  in  New  Mexico  principally  as  a  northern 
outpost.  The  region  'was  considered  a  failure  as  a  source  of  easily 
obtainable  gold,  and  became,  therefore,  primarily  a  venture  in  mission- 
ary work,  colonization,  and  frontier  protection. 

Eleven  mission  churches  had  been  established  by  1617.  The  Fran- 
ciscan Mission  Province  was  formed  into  the  custodia  of  the  conversion 
of  San  Pablo  in  1621,  with  Alonzo  de  Benavides  as  custodio.  Bena- 
vides,  also  agent  of  the  Inquisition,  arrived  in  Santa  Fe,  December 
1625.  The  progress  of  mission  work  was  remarkable.  By  1626  there 
were  43  churches  and  34,000  Christian  Indians. 

The  seventeenth  century  was,  therefore,  the  great  mission-building 
period-  San  Esteban  at  Acoma  is  an  outstanding  example.  The  mis- 
sions covered  a  wide  area,  east  as  far  as  Pecos,  west  to  Zufii  and  the 
Hopi  pueblos;  along  the  Rio  Grande  as  far  north  as  Taos,  and  south 
to  the  mission  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  Guadalupe,  founded  by  Franciscans 
from  New  Mexico  in  1659,  at  El  Paso  dfil  Norte  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Rio  Grande  (now  Juarez,  Mexico). 

Spanish  settlements,  even  though  the  population  was  relatively  small, 
were  spread  far  apart.  Until  1680,  Santa  Fe  was  the  only  Spanish 
villa,  or  incorporated  town.  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada,  north  of  Santa 
Fe,  was  the  second  important  village  at  that  time,  although  Spanish 
settlements  or  haciendas  extended  from  Taos  to  below  Isleta  on  the 
Rio  Grande. 

The  province  was  seriously  handicapped  by  continuous  friction  be- 
tween civil  and  religious  authorities.  Beginning  with  the  administra- 
tion of  Governor  Peralta  in  1610,  these  caused  grave  disturbances 
culminating  in  the  preparation  by  Santa  Fe's  Cabildo  (town  council) 
of  a  signed  statement  complaining  against  the  Franciscans,  and  a  letter 
sent  February  21,  1639,  to  Mexico  City  appealing  to  the  viceroy.  The 
friars  in  turn  made  serious  accusations  against  Governor  Rosas,  during 
whose  administration  this  occurred,  and  declared  that  he  persecuted 


HISTORY       67 

them.  These  incidents  assumed  proportions  of  a  major  and  often 
damaging  conflict.  As  a  result,  several  of  New  Mexico's  governors 
felt  the  heavy  hand  of  the  Inquisition  or  ecclesiastical  discipline  either 
during  or  immediately  following  their  terms  of  office. 

By  1660  the  conflict  had  become  so  grave  that  the  Franciscans 
threatened  to  abandon  the  entire  province.  Governor  Mendizabel  con- 
sequently fell  afoul  of  the  Inquisition,  and  he,  his  wife,  and  three  or 
four  lesser  officials  were  arrested  and  their  property  confiscated  by  the 
Holy  Office. 

Don  Diego  de  Penalosa,  who  succeeded  Mendizabel  as  governor 
from  1661-64,  forbade  exploitation  of  Indians  by  the  friars  in  "spinning 
and  weaving  cotton  manias.'"  At  the  conclusion  of  his  term  Penalosa 
was  charged  before  the  Inquisition  in  Mexico  City  with  offenses  against 
the  clergy.  A  ruinous  fine  was  imposed  upon  him  and  he  was  forced 
to  march  barefoot  through  the  streets  carrying  a  green  candle.  Unable 
to  obtain  redress  from  the  viceroy,  the  ex-governor  went  to  London 
and  later  to  Paris  where  his  schemes  for  conquest  of  the  Quivira  country 
east  of  New  Mexico  stimulated  La  Salle's  expedition  (1682),  by  which 
France  set  a  limit  to  the  expansiDn  of  Spanish  possessions. 

Exploitation  of  the  Indians  by  imposed  labor  or  tribute  continued 
alternately  by  friars  and  governors,  and  the  Indians'  resentment  of  the 
suppression  of  their  religion  led  to  a  series  of  sporadic  uprisings  begin- 
ning in  1640,  the  immediate  cause  being  the  whipping,  imprisoning, 
and  hanging  of  forty  Indians  who  would  not  give  up  their  own  religion. 
In  1643  tne  Jemez  Indians  were  discovered  plotting  with  the  Navaho 
to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  New  Mexico;  and  in  1650,  the  Pueblos 
of  Jemez,  Isleta,  Alameda,  San  Felipe,  and  Cochiti  conspired  with  the 
Apache  for  the  same  purpose.  These  and  the  Apache  outbreak  of 
1676,  with  the  leaders  and  participants  in  each  instance  hanged,  impris- 
oned or  sold  into  slavery,  culminated  finally  in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of 
August  10,  1680,  led  by  Po-pe. 

The  Pueblo  Indians  planned  with  Apache  aid  to  murder  or  expel 
all  Spaniards  and  to  destroy  Santa  Fe.  On  August  9,  two  days  before 
the  time  set  for  the  uprising,  the  plot  was  discovered  by  Governor 
Antonio  de  Otermm.  Apprised  of  this  discovery,  the  Indians  began 
their  slaughter  in  the  early  morning  hours  of  the  loth,  leading  even- 
tually to  the  deaths  of  over  four  hundred  Spaniards,  including  twenty- 
one  priests.  North  of  Santa  Fe  but  few  Spaniards  escaped  alive.  Set- 
tlers near  Santa  Fe  gathered  in  the  capital,  preparing  for  a  last  stand. 
Indian  hordes  gathered  around  the  village  and  sent  the  governor  two 
crosses,  one  white  and  one  red.  If  he  returned  the  white  and  promised 
to  abandon  the  country,  the  Spaniards  might  go  in  peace.  If  he  re- 
turned the  red,  meaning  that  the  Spaniards  would  fight,  the  Indians 
threatened  to  massacre  them  all. 


68         NEW     MEXICO 

The  Spaniards  refused  to  surrender  and  sent  back  the  red  cross* 
The  Indians  then  cut  off  Santa  Fes  water  supply  and  began  the  siege. 
Starvation  soon  threatened  the  white  men  who  sallied  forth  early  on 
August  20,  and  attacked  the  sleeping  Indians,  killing  three  hundred 
and  taking  forty-seven  captive.  About  one  thousand  five  hundred 
others  fled  to  the  hills. 

On  August  21,  which  date  marks  the  end  of  Spanish  rule  in  New 
Mexico  for  thirteen  years,  the  besieged  Spaniards,  numbering  about  one 
thousand  men,  women,  and  children,  abandoned  Santa  Fe  and  started 
towards  El  Paso  del  Norte.  Their  settlement  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Rio  Grande  was  the  beginning  of  modern  El  Paso,  Texas. 

When  the  Spaniards  were  gone,  the  Pueblos  celebrated  their  vic- 
tory. They  destroyed  official  records,  tore  down  and  burned  churches, 
washed  baptized  Indians  with  amole  (soapweed)  in  the  Santa  Fe  River 
to  cleanse  them  of  the  stain,  and  annulled  Christian  marriages. 

Several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  reconquer  the  province  were  made 
during  the  next  ten  years.  In  1690,  the  Viceroy  at  Mexico  City 
appointed  Don  Diego  de  Vaigas  Zapata  Lujan  Ponce  de  Leon  as 
Governor  of  New  Mexico.  August  21,  1692,  De  Vargas  set  out  from 
El  Paso  with  three  hundred  men  for  the  reconquest.  The  army 
reached  Santa  Fe  on  September  13.  The  Indians  blustered  and  threat- 
ened, but  surrendered  peacefully  before  night.  De  Vargas  raised  the 
royal  banner,  and  on  September  14,  1692,  repossessed  the  country  in 
the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He  subdued  the  remainder  of  the 
province  without  losing  a  man  or  fighting  a  battle  except  for  an  en- 
counter with  the  Apache,  and  then  returned  to  El  Paso. 

De  Vargas  left  again  for  New  Mexico  October  13,  1693,  with 
seventy  families,  one  hundred  soldiers,  and  seventeen  Franciscans,  and 
re-entered  Santa  Fe  December  16.  In  1695  the  Franciscan  missions 
were  re-established  and  the  Villa  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada  refounded. 
The  Pueblos  rebelled  again  in  June  1696,  but  were  subdued.  De 
Vargas  ordered  several  Pueblo  governors  shot  and  subsequently  the 
Pueblos  gave  little  trouble. 

Colonization  increased  and  Albuquerque  was  founded  in  1706,  by 
Governor  Don  Francisco  Cuervo  y  Valdes  and  named  in  honor  of  the 
Duke  of  Alburquerque,  viceroy  in  Mexico  City. 

As  war  existed  between  France  and  Spain  in  1719,  New  Mexico 
was  threatened  with  French  intrusion  from  the  east.  On  June  14, 
1720,  Captain  Pedro  Villasur  left  Santa  Fe  with  an  expedition  for 
the  Pawnee  Country  to  investigate  French  activity  there.  Near  the 
Platte  River  in  central  Nebraska,  Pawnee  Indians,  armed  by  French 
traders,  attacked  the  party,  killing  Villasur  and  forty-four  others.  Only 
thirteen  survived. 

In  1723  the  Spanish  government  forbade  trade  with  the  French, 


HISTORY        69 

and  limited  trade  with  Plains  Indians  to  those  coming  to  Pecos  and 
Taos,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  latter's  annual  fairs. 

The  Mallet  brothers  and  seven  or  eight  other  French  Canadian  fur 
traders  came  to  Santa  Fe  in  1739,  by  way  of  the  Missouri  and  Platte 
Rivers  through  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  southeastern  Colorado.  Some 
of  the  men  returned  across  the  Plains  to  Illinois;  others  down  the 
Canadian  and  Arkansas  Rivers  to  New  Orleans.  This  marked  a  new 
epoch,  as  the  traders  had  penetrated  to  New  Mexico  through  dangerous 
Indian  country  and  had  returned  in  safety.  They  also  carried  back 
the  first  definite  information  about  the  fur  trade  and  internal  conditions 
of  the  province. 

Results  were  immediate  and  far-reaching.  French  officials  in  Louisi- 
ana became  actively  interested.  More  traders  entered,  although  they 
were  opposed.  Toward  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War,  the 
ceding  by  France  to  Spain  of  all  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
solved  this  particular  frontier  problem.  The  French  peril  ceased  to 
exist,  but  there  remained  an  even  more  dangerous  one  to  guard  against 
— the  English. 

Meanwhile,  New  Spain  extended  its  missions  and  outposts  on  the 
California  coast.  In  July,  1776,  Escalante  and  Dominguez  with  eight 
companions  left  Santa  Fe  to  find  a  trail  to  the  new  missions  at  Mon- 
terey, California.  They  traveled  northwest  up  the  Chama  Valley  to 
Abiquiu,  across  the  upper  San  Juan  Basin,  through  southwestern  Colo- 
rado, across  the  Green  and  Grand  Rivers,  to  Utah  Lake  in  north  central 
Utah,  then  southwest  to  Sevier  Lake.  The  friars  mentioned  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  farther  north.  With  the  trail  to  California 
uncertain  and  the  rapid  approach  of  winter,  they  turned  back  through 
the  Grand  Canyon  and  Zuni,  reaching  Santa  Fe  January  22,  1777- 
Their  trail  from  Santa  Fe  into  central  Utah  became  the  first  stage  of 
the  Spanish  Trail  from  Santa  Fe  to  Los  Angeles. 

Lieutenant  Colonel  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza,  who  after  founding 
San  Francisco  in  1776  became  governor  of  New  Mexico,  instituted 
a  vigorous  campaign  (1779)  against  the  Comanche,  former  Spanish 
allies,  because  of  their  raids  led  by  Chief  Cuerno  Verde  upon  Spanish 
settlers  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  De  Anza's  command  consisted  of 
645  men,  including  85  soldiers  and  259  Indians.  In  a  battle  ninety-five 
leagues  northeast  of  Santa  Fe  in  the  present  state  of  Colorado,  the  cele- 
brated Comanche  chief  was  defeated  and  killed.  De  Anza's  route  led 
in  full  view  of  the  peak  named  later  for  Zebulon  Pike. 

In  1780  a  smallpox  epidemic  following  a  three-year  drought  broke 
out  among  the  Pueblos,  Moquis,  and  Spaniards.  Drought,  famine,  and 
pestilence  carried  off  5,025  Pueblo  Indians. 

Ever  since  the  founding  of  San  Antonio  (1718)  in  the  province 
of  Texas  (now  the  State),  the  Spaniards  needed  direct  communication. 


70        NEW     MEXICO 

with  Santa  Fe.  In  1787  a  trail  from  San  Antonio  north  to  the  region 
of  Wichita  Falls,  then  up  the  Red  and  Canadian  Rivers,  and  on  to 
Santa  Fe  was  traced  by  Pedro  (Pierre)  Vial,  a  French  frontiersman 
officially  sent  out  from  San  Antonio. 

Other  routes  to  the  East  were  opened  shortly  afterwards,  but  still 
there  was  none  to  St.  Louis  in  Spanish  Louisiana.  Vial  and  two  com- 
panions left  Santa  Fe  May  21,  1792,  with  orders  from  the  governor 
to  find  a  direct  route.  Vial  reached  St.  Louis  and  returned,  thus 
making  the  first  complete  journey  across  what  became  the  famed  Santa 
Fe  Trail. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  mineral  prospects 
received  new  attention,  although  little  actual  mining  was  done  during 
the  Spanish  era.  The  first  big  development  was  the  Santa  Rita  copper 
mine  discovered  about  1 800,  but  not  extensively  worked  until  1804. 

Spanish  officials,  thoroughly  aroused  by  the  westward  expansion  of 
the  United  States,  due  to  the  Louisiana  Purchase  in  1803,  and  by 
explorations  into  Spanish-American  territory,  were  fearful  lest  restless 
Anglo-American  pioneers  overrun  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  When 
news  reached  Governor  Joaquin  Alencastre  of  Lieutenant  Zebulon  M. 
Pike's  exploration  into  Spanish  territory,  and  of  his  erection  of  a  cot- 
tonwood  stockade — over  which  Pike  raised  the  American  flag — about 
five  miles  up  the  Rio  Conejos  in  Colorado  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  Alencastre  sent  out  a  party  of  horsemen  to  arrest  and  bring 
the  Americans  to  Santa  Fe,  where  they  arrived  March  3,  1807.  Pike 
was  sent  to  Chihuahua  under  guard,  and  later  escorted  to  the  Louisiana 
frontier.  Pike's  report  supplied  the  United  States  with  the  first  authen- 
tic information  about  the  Spanish  Southwest. 

Alencastre  instituted  measures  to  prevent  additional  American  in- 
fluences from  entering  New  Mexico.  Until  Mexico  gained  indepen- 
dence from  Spain,  attempts  to  open  trade  with  St.  Louis  were  unsuc- 
cessful and  the  traders  who  at  times  did  enter  the  province  were 
expelled  or  imprisoned. 

In  1810  Spain  was  overrun  by  Napoleon's  armies  and  turned  to  its 
American  colonies  for  support.  A  decree  was  issued  providing  for 
election  of  deputies  from  Spanish-America  to  the  Cortes  in  Spain.  On 
August  ii  Pedro  Bautista  Pino  was  chosen  to  represent  New  Mexico. 
He  was  the  province's  first  and  only  representative  to  Spain. 

UNDER  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  MEXICO 
1821-1846 

As  soon  as  Mexico  achieved  independence  from  Spain,  September 
27,  1821,  the  new  republic  was  ready  to  establish  relations  with  the 
outside  world,  a  policy  that  affected  New  Mexico. 


HISTORY        71 

William  Becknell,  of  Missouri,  a  trader  among  the  Comanche, 
was  the  first  American  to  take  advantage  of  the  change.  In  1822  he 
brought  the  first  wagons  loaded  with  goods  from  Missouri  across  the 
Plains  to  Santa  Fe,  and  earned  the  title,  "Father  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Trail."  He  was  also  the  first  trader  to  follow  the  Cimarron  route  to 
San  Miguel  and  Santa  Fe.  Two  years  later  the  spring  caravan  brought 
$30,000  worth  of  goods  to  New  Mexico;  the  traders  returned  with 
$180,000  in  gold  and  silver,  $10,000  worth  of  furs,  and  the  Santa  Fe 
trade  was  established. 

The  $10,000  of  furs  is  significant  as  it  relates  to  an  almost  forgotten 
phase  of  early  American  enterprise  in  New  Mexico.  James  O.  Pattie, 
a  Kentuckian,  with  a  party  of  western  frontiersmen  trapped  all  over 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  from  1824  to  1828.  In  1826  Ceran  St. 
Vrain,  veteran  trapper,  and  a  large  party  including  the  youthful  Kit 
Carson,  trapped  beaver  on  the  Rio  Grande,  the  Gila,  and  Colorado 
Rivers.  A  route  for  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  from  Missouri  to  Taos  was 
surveyed  by  the  United  States  Government  in  1825,  but  traders  refused 
to  follow  its  roundabout  course,  preferring  the  routes  already  in  use. 

The  treaty  of  1819,  regarding  boundaries  between  Spanish  posses- 
sions and  the  United  States,  signed  by  both  governments,  was  ratified 
by  the  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1828. 

In  1833  the  first  gold  lode  or  vein  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
was  discovered  and  worked  on,  the  Sierra  de  Oro  (mountain  of  gold), 
now  known  as  the  Ortiz  mine.  Actually,  however,  gold  was  known 
and  had  been  worked  in  the  Cerrillos  (little  hills)  of  Santa  Fe,  and 
the  arroyos  to  the  south  in  the  time  of  Governor  Don  Tomas  Velez, 
1749-54.  As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  lead  and 
some  silver  had  been  mined  in  the  region. 

The  first  newspaper  in  New  Mexico,  El  Crepusculo  de  la  Libertad 
(The  Dawn  of  Liberty),  was  published  in  the  summer  of  1834  at 
Santa  Fe  by  Antonio  Barreiro  on  the  first  press  in  New  Mexico — that 
owned  by  Don  Ramon  Abreu.  The  printer  was  Jesus  Baca.  *This 
press  was  subsequently  purchased  by  Padre  Antonio  Jose  Martinez  and 
moved  to  Taos  where  he  published  various  pamphlets  and  school  manuals 
for  his  students. 

An  uprising  caused  by  dissatisfaction  with  the  revised  Mexican 
constitution,  centralization  of  power,  and  imposition  of  taxes  to  which 
New  Mexicans  had  not  been  subject  before,  took  place  August  3,  1837, 
and  Lieutenant  Colonel  Albino  Perez,  unpopular  since  his  arrival  in 
Santa  Fe  as  governor,  was  assassinated. 

The  rebels  entered  Santa  Fe  August  10,  and  elected  Jose  Gonzales, 
a  native  of  Taos,  as  governor,  but  General  Manuel  Armijo  overthrew 
Gonzales  and  re-established  the  Mexican  government's  authority  with 
himself  as  governor,  January  28,  1838.  Armijo  continued  in  office, 


72        NEW    MEXICO 

except  from  April  28,  1844  to  November,  1845,  until  the  end  of  the 
Mexican  period  in  New  Mexico. 

The  year  1841  was  marked  by  the  attempt  of  Texas  to  get  some 
of  the  profitable  overland  commerce  going  into  New  Mexico,  and  pos- 
sibly as  a  concealed  purpose,  to  induce  the  New  Mexicans  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  of  Mexico  and  thus  establish  the  Texas  boundary  claim  to 
the  east  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

On  entering  New  Mexico  the  members  of  this  Texas-Santa  Fe  expe- 
dition were  arrested,  several  were  shot,  and  the  others  sent  by  Armijo 
to  prisons  in  Mexico  City.  They  were  soon  released  due  to  pressure  by 
the  United  States,  Texas,  and  British  Governments.  Accounts  of  the 
prisoners*  mistreatment  aroused  resentment  adding  to  the  strain  already 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 

President  Polk  announced  war  with  Mexico,  May  13,  1846,  and 
the  United  States  immediately  began  planning  to  invade  New  Mexico, 
Chihuahua,  and  California. 

AMERICAN  OCCUPATION— NEW  MEXICO  A  TERRI- 
TORY OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
1846-1912 

General  Stephen  W.  Kearny,  commanding  the  Army  of  the  West, 
entered  New  Mexico  at  Raton,  reaching  Las  Vegas  August  15,  1846, 
where  he  absolved  the  people  from  allegiance  to  Mexico  and  proclaimed 
himself  governor.  On  August  18  General  Kearny,  having  failed  to 
meet  the  expected  resistance  from  General  Armijo  in  Apache  Canon, 
occupied  Santa  Fe  without  a  shot  being  fired  in  his  bloodless  conquest, 
and  again  declared  the  end  of  the  Mexican  period  and  the  beginning 
of  the  American.  The  construction  of  Fort  Marcy,  the  first  American 
military  fort  in  New  Mexico,  was  begun  on  August  23,  on  the  high 
hill  northeast  of  Santa  Fe. 

On  September  22  General  Kearny,  hastening  to  organize  a  new 
government  for  New  Mexico  as  a  Territory  of  the  United  States,  ap- 
pointed officials  including  Charles  Bent  as  civil  governor,  and  Donaciano 
Vigil  as  secretary.  Bent  was  a  pioneer  with  influential  business  and 
social  connections,  having  come  to  Santa  Fe  in  1826.  He  was  a  partner 
in  the  firm  of  Bent  and  St.  Vrain,  the  largest  fur  trading  company  in 
the  Southwest. 

On  September  25  General  Kearny  set  out  for  California,  leaving 
Colonel  Alexander  W.  Doniphan  in  charge  of  New  Mexico  with  orders 
to  march  southward  to  assist  in  the  conquest  of  Chihuahua  as  soon  as 
Colonel  Sterling  Price  arrived  to  take  command  in  New  Mexico. 
Meantime,  however,  Navaho  raids  were  growing  so  bold  that  Colonel 
Doniphan  swept  across  the  Continental  Divide  into  the  very  heart  of 


HISTORY        73 

the  Navaho  country  in  the  northwest,  and  forced  them  to  make  a  treaty 
at  Bear  Spring  November  22,  the  first  United  States  treaty  with  the 
Navaho. 

Scarcely  more  than  a  month  later  Colonel  Doniphan's  forces  were 
victorious  at  Brazito,  where  the  only  battle  of  the  Mexican  War  fought 
on  New  Mexican  soil  occurred  on  the  afternoon  of  Christmas  Day. 
The  same  American  troops  occupied  El  Paso  del  Norte  which  sur- 
rendered without  a  struggle  December  28,  and  on  February  8,  1847 
began  their  advance  on  the  city  of  Chihuahua. 

With  General  Kearny  and  Colonel  Doniphan  both  out  of  the  terri- 
tory, malcontents  planned  a  sudden  blow  against  American  control 
before  it  became  too  firmly  rooted,  and  called  a  general  uprising  for 
midnight  of  December  19.  The  plot  was  discovered  and  the  leaders 
fled  or  were  imprisoned.  The  revolutionary  spirit  was  not  subdued, 
however,  and  flared  up  anew  in  the  Taos  Revolt  a  month  later  when 
Governor  Bent  was  murdered  in  his  home  at  Taos,  January  19,  1847, 
by  local  revolutionists  and  Indians  from  Taos  Pueblo.  Several  other 
officials  were  also  murdered  and  the  homes  of  Anglo-American  residents 
sacked. 

The  revolt  spread,  and  preparations  were  under  way  to  march  upon 
the  capital  itself.  Colonel  Price,  who  had  succeeded  Colonel  Doniphan 
in  command,  immediately  left  Santa  Fe  with  350  men  for  Taos,  which 
he  reached  on  February  3.  The  following  morning  the  troops  sur- 
rounded Taos  Pueblo  and  fired  on  insurgents  gathered  in  the  church. 
The  next  morning  the  Indians  begged  for  peace.  The  revolt  failed, 
ending  all  doubt  of  American  control,  and  placed  the  whole  Territorial 
government  in  the  army's  hands,  leaving  scarcely  more  than  the  name 
of  civil  government  for  the  next  four  years.  Coincidental  with  Ameri- 
can rule  was  the  starting  of  the  first  newspaper  in  New  Mexico,  printed 
in  English,  the  Santa  Fe  Republican,  September  4,  1847. 

The  close  of  the  Mexican  War  resulted  in  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe 
Hidalgo  signed  February  2,  1848,  providing  (i)  that  Mexico  give  up 
all  claim  to  territory  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  cede  New  Mexico 
and  upper  California  to  the  United  States;  (2)  that  the  United  States 
pay  Mexico  $15,000,000  besides  settling  American  citizens'  claims  of 
$3,250,000  against  Mexico;  (3)  that  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  territory 
become  American  citizens  unless  moving  out  or  formally  declaring 
within  a  year  their  intention  to  retain  Mexican  citizenship;  and  (4) 
that  they  be  "admitted  at  the  proper  time  (to  be  judged  by  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States)  to  the  enjoyment  of  all  rights  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States." 

On  October  10,  1848  a  convention  of  delegates  met  at  Santa  Fe, 
and,  protesting  against  the  Texas  claims  to  the  east  side  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  the  introduction  of  slavery,  petitioned  Congress  for  a  speedy 


74        NEW    MEXICO 

organization   of  a   civil   territorial   government.     When    the   petition 
reached  Congress  it  obtained  no  results. 

Another  convention  meeting  September  24,  1849  adopted  a  regular 
plan  of  territorial  civil  government  and  sent  a  delegate  to  Congress  to 
urge  its  acceptance,  but  he  was  denied  a  seat. 

During  the  same  year  a  regular  stage  line  was  established  between 
Independence  and  Santa  Fe,  making  the  round  trip  twice  monthly  and 
carrying  the  mail  by  yearly  contract.  Though  irregular  in  the  early 
years,  this  service  was  later  increased  to  once  a  week  and  finally  to 
three  times  a  week. 

A  constitutional  convention  met  in  Santa  Fe  in  May,  1850,  and 
framed  a  constitution  for  the  "State"  of  New  Mexico;  this  was  ratified 
June  20  by  a  decisive  vote  of  the  people,  and  submitted  to  Congress. 
A  legislature,  meeting  on  July  I  elected  United  States  senators,  and 
drew  up  a  memorial  to  Congress  denouncing  the  military  officials'  high- 
handed methods  of  controlling  the  government,  and  asking  admission 
as  a  State. 

This  effort  to  secure  statehood  failed  as  Congress,  on  September  9, 
passed  the  compromise  measures  of  1850,  one  feature  of  which  was  the 
Organic  Act  of  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico  by  which  New  Mexico 
became  a  territory  with  full  civil  government.  The  Organic  Act  also 
settled  the  long  standing  controversy  with  Texas  over  the  region  east 
of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  claim  of  Texas  had  always  been  shadowy  and 
uncertain,  while  that  of  New  Mexicans  who  had  occupied  the  territory 
for  two  centuries  and  a  half  was  definite  and  beyond  reasonable  doubt. 
Congress  organized  the  lands  east  of  the  Rio  Grande  as  part  of  the 
Territory  of  New  Mexico  and  paid  Texas  $10,000,000  to  relinquish 
all  claims.  Congress  also,  September  27,  1850,  authorized  monthly  mail 
routes  east  and  the  establishment  of  post  offices. 

March  3,  1851,  James  C.  Calhoun  (appointed  March  29,  1849,  first 
Indian  agent  west  of  the  Mississippi  River)  was  inaugurated  as  first 
Governor  under  the  Organic  Act. 

The  first  legislative  assembly  meeting  under  the  Organic  Act  in 
1851,  fixed  Santa  Fe  as  the  capital,  and  divided  the  territory  into  three 
judicial  districts;  and  at  its  second  session  the  territory  was  divided  into 
nine  counties.  Neither  session  passed  a  tax  law. 

In  the  summer  of  1851  the  Right  Reverend  John  B.  Lamy,  bishop 
of  the  newly  established  Roman  Catholic  Vicarate  Apostolic  of  Santa 
Fe,  reached  the  capital  and  took  charge  of  the  diocese.  Bishop  Lamy 
instituted  a  series  of  extensive  reforms  and  launched  a  program  of  edu- 
cation that  made  him  famous  in  the  Southwest. 

Congress  in  the  spring  of  1853  authorized  Jefferson  Davis,  Secretary 
of  War,  to  send  out  exploring  expeditions  to  determine  the  most  feasible 


HISTORY        75 

route  for  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific  coast.    Two  of  the  routes  were  sur- 
veyed through  New  Mexico, 

Later,  James  Gadsden  was  sent  by  the  President  to  Mexico  City 
as  a  special  commissioner  with  instructions  to  settle  the  boundary  dis- 
pute with  the  Mexican  government  by  buying  the  region  west  of  the 
Rio  Grande  and  south  of  the  Gila  River,  including  the  proposed  rail- 
way route  and  all  of  the  disputed  territory.  On  December  30,  1853, 
he  signed  a  treaty,  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  by  which  the  United  States 
paid  Mexico  $10,000,000  for  all  of  the  territory  along  the  present 
southern  boundary  of  the  United  States  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the 
Colorado  River. 

United  States  land  laws  were  extended  to  New  Mexico  by  act 
of  Congress,  July  22,  1854,  and  the  office  of  United  States  surveyor- 
general  for  the  territory  was  created.  Two  years  later  the  surveyor- 
general  investigated  Pueblo  Indian  land  claims  and  recommended  con- 
firmation of  titles  to  eighteen  Pueblos.  Fort  Wingate  was  established 
in  1857,  near  San  Rafael,  and  moved  in  1860  to  Shashbitgo  (Bear), 
now  known  as  Fort  Wingate. 

Mesilla  Valley  and  Arizona  applied  to  Congress  in  1859  for  estab- 
lishment of  a  new  territory  out  of  the  southern  half  of  New  Mexico 
to  be  known  as  Arizona.  Although  the  people  of  New  Mexico  fav- 
ored the  measure,  it  was  not  adopted.  Formation  of  the  Territory  of 
Colorado,  February  28,  1861,  reduced  New  Mexico  in  size,  its  north- 
eastern section  being  included  in  the  new  territory. 

The  controversy  between  North  and  South  leading  to  the  Civil 
War  was  not  of  vital  interest  in  New  Mexico,  nor  was  the  question  of 
Negro  slavery  an  outstanding  issue.  New  Mexicans  were  accustomed 
to  native  peonage  and  to  captive  Indian  slavery,  but  in  1861  there  were 
only  twenty-two  Negro  slaves  in  the  territory.  As  a  conquered-  prov- 
ince New  Mexico  had  formed  no  strong  attachment  to  the  Union. 
But  as  many  of  the  early  pioneers  and  traders  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail, 
and  many  American  officers  in  the  territory  were  Southerners,  the  in- 
clination was  toward  the  South. 

When  the  conflict  began,  numerous  resignations  and  desertions  from 
the  Union  Army  in  New  Mexico  took  place,  the  men  joining  the  South- 
ern forces.  However,  when  the  first  Southern  advance  came  from 
Texas  into  New  Mexico  popular  feeling  went  to  the  Union  as  the  long 
standing  controversy  with  Texas  had  bred  much  ill  feeling  and  Texans 
were  intensely  unpopular  with  the  average  New  Mexican. 

Confederate  territory  reached  to  El  Paso  and  the  Confederate  gov- 
ernment was  anxious  to  extend  it  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast.  As  a 
transcontinental  nation  the  Confederacy's  prestige  would  be  doubled 
and  its  credit  and  resources  increased  due  to  the  California  gold  mines. 
Accordingly,  Lieutenant  Colonel  John  R.  Baylor  of  the  Confederate 


76        NEW     MEXICO 

Army  came  up  by  Fort  Bliss,  July  I,  1861,  with  600  Texans,  occupied 
Mesilla  and  captured  Major  Isaac  Lynde's  entire  command  which  had 
abandoned  Fort  Fillmore. 

One  month  later,  August  I,  Lieutenant  Colonel  Baylor  organized 
by  proclamation  all  of  New  Mexico  south  of  the  34th  parallel  as  the 
Territory  of  Arizona,  which  was  recognized  by  the  Confederate  Con- 
gress. Governor  Connelly  issued  a  proclamation  September  9  calling 
for  volunteers  to  resist  invasion  "by  an  armed  force  from  the  State  of 
Texas, "  the  Confederacy  not  being  mentioned. 

Confederate  General  H.  H,  Sibley  with  an  army  of  2,300  entered 
New  Mexico  from  Texas  and  marched  northward  for  the  major  opera- 
tion in  the  Territory.  At  Valverde,  February  21,  1862,  he  met  U.  S. 
General  E.  R.  S.  Canby  with  a  force  of  about  3,800.  In  a  desperate 
all-day  battle  the  Confederates  were  victorious.  The  Confederate  forces 
captured  Albuquerque  and  marched  on  to  Santa  Fe,  which  they  occu- 
pied March  10  without  opposition,  the  territorial  officials  having  fled. 

The  Union  Army,  strengthened  by  Colorado  Volunteers  sent  into 
New  Mexico,  surprised  the  Confederates  on  their  way  to  Fort  Union  in 
Apache  Canon,  near  Glorieta,  15  miles  southeast  of  the  capital,  and 
a  fierce  engagement  took  place.  The  Confederates  retreated,  many 
being  captured  by  the  Union  forces.  Another  battle  occurred  on  March 
28  at  Pigeon's  Ranch,  during  which  the  Confederate  supply  train  en- 
camped at  Canoncito  was  completely  destroyed.  On  discovering  their 
loss,  the  Confederates  fell  back  to  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Federals  returned 
to  Fort  Union. 

Failure  of  the  advance  on  Fort  Union  ruined  Confederate  plans. 
General  Sibley  evacuated  Santa  Fe,  April  8,  retreating  down  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  Federal  forces  reoccupied  the  capital  three  days  later. 
On  April  15  the  Union  and  Confederate  forces  met  at  Peralta,  where 
a  skirmish  ensued,  and  the  Southerners  continued  their  retreat.  When 
the  "California  Column"  came  in  from  the  west,  July  and  August,  1862, 
the  Civil  War  in  New  Mexico  was  over. 

Due  to  abandonment  of  military  posts  in  1861  for  concentration 
of  U.  S.  Army  forces  at  strategic  points  during  the  Civil  War  period, 
the  major  portion  of  New  Mexico  was  exposed  to  attacks  by  Indians, 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  situation,  plundered  settlements,  murdered 
inhabitants,  and  drove  off  livestock. 

Consequently  an  Indian  policy  was  developed  for  the  Southwest. 
It  included  rounding  up  the  wild  tribes,  Apache  and  Navaho,  from  all 
parts  of  the  territory,  moving  them  to  the  Basque  Redondo  (circular 
grove  of  woods)  on  the  Pecos  River  near  Fort  Sumner.  There,  dis- 
armed and  subjugated,  they  were  to  be  taught  farming  and  made  par- 
tially self-supporting. 

Colonel  Kit  Carson,  the  great  pathfinder  and  scout,  was  sent  to 


HISTORY        77 

subdue  and  bring  in  the  Mescalero  Apache  and  Navaho.  Early  in  1863 
he  had  400  at  the  Bosque  Redondo,  and  200  more  by  the  end  of  the 
year.  In  1864  Colonel  Carson  marched  directly  into  Canyon  de  Chelly, 
the  Navaho  stronghold,  defeated  the  Indians  and  transferred  7,000  to 
the  Bosque  Redondo. 

The  depredations  of  these  nomadic  tribes  were  temporarily  checked, 
but  the  Bosque  Redondo  colonizing  scheme  did  not  work.  The  Indian 
nations  were  hostile  among  themselves,  disease  spread,  and  they  faced 
starvation  unless  fed  by  the  Government.  The  Mescalero  fled  from 
the  reservation  in  1866  and  went  on  the  warpath,  resulting  in  a  change 
of  Indian  policy.  A  peace  commission,  sent  from  Washington  in  1868, 
signed  a  treaty  with  the  Navaho  allowing  them  to  return  to  a  reserva- 
tion in  their  own  country,  northwestern  New  Mexico  and  northeastern 
Arizona,  the  latter  territory  having  been  formed  February  24,  1863,  out 
of  the  western  half  of  New  Mexico.  Fort  Sumner  was  consequently 
abandoned. 

Peonage,  or  debt  servitude,  not  covered  by  the  Emancipation  Procla- 
mation and  the  Thirteenth  Amendent  (which  applied  only  to  Negroes), 
was  formally  abolished  in  New  Mexico  by  Congress  March  2,  1867. 
During  the  same  year  the  Moreno  gold  district,  Colfax  County,  was  dis- 
covered, and  the  general  incorporation  act  for  mining  and  other  indus- 
trial pursuits  became  a  law.  Rapidity  of  communication  was  effected 
by  the  arrival  of  daily  mail  from  the  east  (1868),  and  the  completion 
of  the  military  telegraph  line  from  Fort  Leavenworth  to  Santa  Fe 
July  8,  1869,  an  epoch-making  event. 

The  alleged  sale  by  Governor  William  A.  Pile,  1869-71,  of  the 
Spanish  Santa  Fe  Archives  as  waste  paper  was  the  outstanding  feature 
of  his  administration.  Only  about  one-fourth  of  the  records  were  sub- 
sequently recovered. 

With  the  erection  of  the  diocese  of  Santa  Fe  into  a  metropolitan  see 
by  papal  bull,  February  12,  1875,  the  Right  Reverend  John  B.  Lamy 
became  Archbishop  of  the  Province. 

The  Lincoln  County  War,  beginning  in  1876,  was  a  bloody  feud 
involving  rival  cattlemen  and  political  factions  with  Billy  the  Kid 
(William  H.  Bonney)  taking  a  prominent  part.  As  Territorial  officials 
instituted  no  effective  measures  to  stop  this  outbreak,  President  Hayes 
on  October  I,  1878,  appointed  General  Lew  Wallace  Territorial  Gov- 
ernor for  the  specific  purpose  of  ending  the  Lincoln  County  War.  On 
October  7,  the  President  ordered  Federal  troops  to  reinforce  the  civil 
authorities,  but  the  war  ended  before  they  were  called  into  action. 

The  first  railroad  track  was  laid  inside  the  Territory  November  30, 
1878;  the  first  locomotive  crossed  the  summit  of  Raton  Pass  on  De- 
cember 7.  No  other  event  was  more  important  in  transforming  New 
Mexican  life.  A  new  era  of  progress  and  development  was  begun,  the 


78        NEW    MEXICO 

great  cattle  boom  of  the  eighties  resulting  directly  from  the  opening  of 
eastern  markets  by  rail. 

With  transportation  facilities  available  for  bringing  in  modern  min- 
ing machinery  and  exporting  mineral  products,  prospectors  and  capital- 
ists came  into  New  Mexico  creating  the  first  great  mining  boom, 
which  began  in  1879.  Mining  camps  at  Los  Cerrillos  were  established 
in  March,  the  White  Oaks  camp  in  September,  and  the  Rio  Arriba 
placer  mines  were  located. 

During  April  of  the  same  year  Chief  Victorio  and  his  band  of 
Apache  left  the  Mescalero  Reservation  and  went  on  the  warpath, 
spreading  terror  throughout  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  until 
Victorio  was  attacked  and  killed  in  1883  by  Mexican  troops  in  Chi- 
huahua, where  he  had  been  driven  by  American  forces.  His  death  was 
followed  by  General  George  Crook's  campaign  against  the  Apache. 

An  echo  of  the  Lincoln  County  War  and  an  effective  check  to  law- 
lessness in  northeastern  New  Mexico  was  the  shooting  of  Billy  the 
Kid,  July  14,  1 88 1,  by  Sheriff  Pat.  F.  Garrett. 

In  1885,  Geronimo,  one  of  the  last  outstanding  chiefs  of  the  Apache, 
fled  from  the  San  Carlos  Reservation  in  Arizona  and  took  up  the  bloody 
work  of  Victorio,  terrorizing  an  even  wider  range  than  his  predecessor. 
President  Cleveland  ordered  General  Nelson  A.  Miles  to  capture 
Geronimo  and  place  all  Apache  on  reservations.  Geronimo  surrendered 
on  September  3,  1886. 

When  the  cattle  boom  ended,  an  influx  of  eastern  farmers  began, 
followed  by  rapid  agricultural  development.  The  Pecos  Valley  be- 
came a  thriving  agricultural  center  through  the  discovery  in  1888  and 
1 890  of  quantities  of  artesian  water.  The  Pecos  Valley  Irrigation  and 
Investment  Company's  extensive  system  was  begun  in  1889,  followed 
by  other  extensive  irrigation  and  reclamation  projects. 

Education  in  New  Mexico  was  advanced  when  Governor  Edmund 
G.  Ross  signed,  on  February  28,  1889,  a  bill  creating  a  university  at 
Albuquerque,  an  agricultural  college  at  Las  Cruces,  and  a  school  of 
mines  at  Socorro. 

To  eliminate  confusion  and  uncertainty  relating  to  title  of  land 
grants  in  New  Mexico  and  other  States  within  territory  acquired  from 
Mexico  in  1848  and  i853>  Congress  approved  an  act,  March  3,  1891, 
for  establishing  a  Court  of  Private  Land  Claims,  which  confirmed  titles 
to  almost  2,000,000  acres  by  June  30,  1904.  The  Pecos  Forest  Re- 
serve was  created  by  order  of  the  President  January  II,  1892.  Seven 
national  forests  are  now  located  in  New  Mexico. 

When  the  capitol  building  burned  May  12,  1892,  many  public 
documents  were  completely  destroyed.  This  disaster,  coupled  with  Gov- 
ernor Pile's  alleged  sale  of  the  Santa  Fe  Spanish  Archives  as  wastepaper 
in  1869-70,  and  the  destruction  of  the  early  public  documents  by  Indians 


HISTORY        79 

during  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680,  has  made  the  task  of  New  Mexico's 
historians  extremely  difficult  and  given  rise  to  numerous  controversies. 

With  the  declaration  of  war  against  Spain,  President  McKinley 
called  on  New  Mexico,  April  23,  1898,  for  its  quota  of  340  volunteer 
cavalrymen  for  service  in  Cuba  as  Rough  Riders  under  Colonel  Leonard 
Wood  and  Lieutenant  Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt.  In  eight  days  the 
entire  quota  was  mustered  into  service.  The  Rough  Riders  landed  near 
Santiago  on  June  22,  in  time  for  action  two  days  later  at  Las  Guasimas, 
the  first  engagement  in  Cuba.  At  El  Caney  and  San  Juan  they  won 
brilliant  victories.  Leaving  Cuba  August  7,  they  were  discharged  from 
service  September  15. 

New  Mexico's  capitol  building  now  in  use  was  completed  and  dedi- 
cated June  4,  1900,  at  Santa  Fe. 

Floods  occurring  on  the  Mimbres  River,  Grant  County,  August  29, 
1902,  rendered  hundreds  homeless,  causing  the  Governor  to  ask  public 
aid.  During  September  and  October  two  years  later,  the  most  disas- 
trous floods  in  New  Mexico's  history  took  a  toll  of  many  lives  and 
demoralized  railroad  traffic  for  two  months. 

A  milestone  in  educational  development  was  reached  in  1909  when 
the  United  States  War  Department  classed  the  New  Mexico  Military 
Institute  as  "distinguished,"  this  being  the  first  national  recognition  ac- 
corded one  of  the  territory's  educational  institutions.  Oil  was  discov- 
ered during  the  same  year  in  encouraging  amounts  in  a  well  near  Day- 
ton, Eddy  County. 

New  Mexico's  attempt  to  attain  statehood  was  blocked  again  in 
1906,  when  proposed  joint  statehood  with  Arizona  was  submitted  to 
Congress  and  rejected  by  the  people  of  Arizona,  The  Territory's  long 
struggle  culminated  successfully,  however,  when  Congress  passed  the 
Enabling  Act  and  it  was  signed  June  20,  1910,  by  President  Taft. 
The  Enabling  Act  provided  for  the  admission  of  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona  into  the  Union  as  separate  States  after  each  had  adopted  State 
constitutions.  New  Mexico  lost  no  time  in  calling  a  convention  of  100 
members  to  draw  up  a  State  constitution.  It  was  completed  November 
21,  and  adopted  by  the  people  January  21,  1911,  but  fell  short  of  Fed- 
eral requirements  for  admittance  to  statehood. 

STATEHOOD 
1912 

Certain  constitutional  changes  asked  for  by  Congress  and  President 
Taft,  in  August,  1911,  were  duly  made;  and,  on  January  6,  1912,  New 
Mexico  was  admitted  as  a  State  into  the  Union — the  47th  State.  On 
January  15,  William  C.  McDonald  was  inaugurated  first  State  Gov- 
ernor. 


The  border  town  of  Columbus,  New  Mexico,  was  raided  March  9, 
1916,  by  Francisco  (Pancho)  Villa  and  800  or  1,000  of  his  followers, 
who  set  fire  to  houses  and  killed  several  citizens.  A  punitive  expedition 
of  6,000  under  Brigadier  General  John  J.  Pershing  crossed  the  border 
at  Columbus  less  than  a  week  later,  March  15,  with  orders  to  capture 
Villa  dead  or  alive.  A  clash  between  Mexican  and  American  troops 
followed  April  12,  at  Parral,  Mexico,  resulting  in  diplomatic  entangle- 
ments, and  the  United  States  Government  relinquished  the  chase. 
Villa's  raids  recurred  in  Texas  during  May,  and  the  President  called 
out  the  National  Guard  along  the  entire  Mexican  border.  The  Na- 
tional Guard  was  mustered  out  of  service  April  5,  1917,  after  Villa's 
band  ceased  its  raids  across  the  international  border. 

Following  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  World  War, 
the  New  Mexico  State  legislature  in  a  special  session,  opening  May  I, 
provided  for  defense  of  the  State  and  assistance  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment by  creating  the  State  Council  of  Defense  to  mobilize  and  organize 
New  Mexico's  total  resources,  made  provision  for  food  conservation, 
and  appropriated  $75,000  for  war  purposes. 

In  June,  1,300  guardsmen  were  mobilized  for  Federal  service  at 
Camp  Funston,  Albuquerque.  In  September,  the  first  detachment  of 
New  Mexicans,  popularly  known  as  "Battery  A"  (of  the  1 46th  Artil- 
lery), left  for  Camp  Greene,  North  Carolina,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  year  was  in  France — the  first  New  Mexican  unit  to  enter  the 
trenches  in  Europe.  The  State's  contribution  to  all  branches  of  the 
service  numbered  17,157  men,  larger  in  proportion  to  population  than 
the  average  for  the  whole  country. 

Food  conservation  as  a  war  measure  played  an  important  part  in 
influencing  a  majority  of  more  than  16,000  to  vote  for  the  prohibition 
amendment  to  the  State  constitution,  November  6,  1917. 

The  development  of  Hogback  and  Rattlesnake  oil  fields  on  Indian 
lands  in  San  Juan  County  during  1922-24,  provided  definite  assurance 
of  New  Mexico's  position  as  an  important  oil  State.  Artesia  oil  field, 
Eddy  County,  was  also  discovered  during  this  period. 

Three  miles  of  Carlsbad  Caverns  were  surveyed  in  1923  by  Robert 
Holly,  of  the  Federal  Land  Office,  and  Dr.  Willis  T.  Lee,  of  the  Geo- 
logical Survey,  and  later  in  the  same  year  were  proclaimed  a  National 
Monument  by  President  Coolidge.  Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park 
was  created  by  President  Hoover,  May,  1930.  In  1936,  the  State  of 
New  Mexico  counted  among  its  assets  seven  National  Forests  contain- 
ing approximately  9,000,000  acres. 

The  Pueblo  Indian  Lands  Board  was  created  by  act  of  Congress, 
June,  1934,  to  settle  non-Indian  claims  to  land  within,  or  in  conflict 
with,  Pueblo  Land  Grants. 

In  1933,  the  United  States  and  Mexican  Governments  ratified  a 


HISTORY       8l 

treaty  for  regulating  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  from  El  Paso  to 
Fort  Quitman,  and  for  building  the  dam  at  Caballo,  just  below  Ele- 
phant Butte  Reservoir,  to  assist  in  the  control  of  flood-waters  of  the 
lower  Rio  Grande. 

During  World  War  II  the  New  Mexico  National  Guard  unit 
was  entrapped  on  Bataan  and  suffered  heavy  casualties.  The  Bataan 
Memorial  Methodist  Hospital  at  Albuquerque  commemorates  their 
heroism. 

The  first  atomic  bomb,  produced  at  Los  Alamos,  was  exploded  at 
"Trinity  Site"  in  the  White  Sands  Proving  grounds  area  July  16,  1945, 
and  experimental  work  on  rockets  and  other  guided  missiles  is  also  being 
conducted  in  this  area. 

In  1948  a  constitutional  provision  denying  the  vote  to  Indians  was 
ruled  invalid,  and  in  1955  school  segregation  and  racial  discrimination 
was  practically  at  an  end. 

During  the  past  decade  annual  expenditures  for  highways  has  in- 
creased, from  c.  $23,000,000  to  $69,000,000.  Bank  deposits  have  grown 
from  c.  $350,000,000  to  c.  $713,000,000,  and  the  population  of  the 
State  has  almost  doubled  since  1940  to  951,023  in  the  1960  Census. 


Agriculture  and  Stock  Raising 

DESPITE  the  influx  of  new  industries  and  government  installa- 
tions in  New  Mexico,  agriculture  still  makes  a  major  contribu- 
tion— about  $250  million  annually — to  the  economy  of  the 
State.  And  agriculture  has  changed,  as  in  other  states,  to  a  rather  exact 
science,  using  all  the  new  methods  which  are  at  the  disposal  of  farmer 
and  rancher. 

Farming  has  been  carried  on  in  old  Mexico  for  centuries,  first  by 
the  Pueblo  Indians  who  are  still  farmers  primarily;  after  1598  by  their 
conquerors,  the  Spanish  Colonists;  and  later  by  the  descendants  of  the 
colonists,  among  whom  farming  and  stock  raising  have  always  been  of 
major  economic  importance.  Although  the  farms  were  small,  the  herds 
of  sheep  and  cattle  were  large,  owing  to  the  once  unlimited  free  graz- 
ing area. 

With  the  development  of  agricultural  areas  through  reclamation  and 
irrigation  projects,  farming  supplements  the  important  industry  of  stock 
raising  until  their  combined  product  exceeds  in  value  the  output  of  the 
State's  other  industries.  Dry  farming  (agriculture  wholly  dependent 
upon  rainfall)  occurs  in  the  northeastern  and  eastern  portions  of  the 
State,  where  the  average  rainfall  is  15.5  inches.  Irrigation  is  used  in 
the  Rio  Grande,  Pecos,  Mimbres,  Gila,  and  San  Juan  River  valleys 
and  wherever  water  can  be  obtained  from  small  streams.  Pump  wells 
are  used  as  additional  sources  in  Lea,  Hidalgo,  Roswell,  Chaves,  and 
Luna  counties  as  well  as  large  storage  reservoirs  as  those  impounded  by 
Elephant  Butte,  Conchas,  and  El  Vado  dams.  Completion  of  the 
Navajo  Dam  in  the  next  few  years  will  bring  several  thousand  addi- 
tional acres  under  irrigation  in  San  Juan  County.  The  Conchas  Dam 
in  San  Miguel  County  has  developed  considerable  acreage  in  Quay 
County  irrigated  by  the  Canadian  River. 

The  State  has  15,919  farms,  containing  46,243,077  acres  of  land, 
valued  in  1959  at  $940  million.  Corn  and  wheat  are  principal  crops, 
the  former  (dating  from  pre-Columbian  times)  being  the  main  crop  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians.  Chile  (peppers)  and  frijoles  (beans)  are  raised 
by  farmers  of  the  central  and  northern  plateaus.  Cotton,  first  grown 
by  the  Indians  along  the  lower  Rio  Grande  and  then  abandoned,  is  the 
major  crop  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  State  and  is  the 
State's  largest  in  value.  Grains,  sorghums,  alfalfa,  and  fruits  are  also 

82 


AGRICULTURE     AND     STOCK     RAISING        83 

grown  in  quantity.  A  peculiarly  New  Mexican  product,  shipped  to  most 
countries  in  the  Western  World,  is  the  pinon  nut,  native  to  the  foothills 
of  the  rough  lands.  The  crop  in  good  years — the  trees  bear  heavily  only 
once  every  four  or  five  years — has  a  monetary  value  running  into  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  dollars. 

The  1949-58  average  wheat  production  was  3,849,000  bushels  and 
the  ten-year  average  for  corn  was  1,170,000  bushels.  More  than  291,- 
ooo  bales  (500  Ibs.)  of  cotton  were  produced  in  1960.  Pinto  bean 
production  has  dropped  over  the  years,  but  sorghum  and  hay  production 
has  increased.  The  State  produced  more  than  nine  million  bushels  of 
sorghum  grain  in  1960  and  688,000  tons  of  hay.  Broomcorn  sorghum 
is  an  important  crop  in  Quay  and  Curry  counties,  while  peanuts  are 
one  of  the  major  products  of  Roosevelt  County.  Cotton  land  in  the 
Mesilla  Valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  in  southern  New  Mexico  is  worth 
$1,000  to  $1,500  an  acre. 

Characteristic  of  the  central  and  northern  portions  of  the  State  are 
the  small  irrigated  farms  of  the  Spanish-American  people  in  small  moun- 
tain valleys  and  mesas.  Individual  holdings,  divided  as  families  in- 
creased in  size,  have  become  so  small  that  now  often  half  of  the  adult 
male  population  of  the  rural  farming  communities  are  obliged  to  leave 
their  homes  for  as  much  as  half  the  year  to  seek  work  and  wages  in  the 
industrial  area.  This  native  Spanish-speaking  population,  comprising  ap- 
proximately 50  per  cent  of  the  State's  total,  is  naturally  pastoral  and 
agricultural  but  it  is  gradually  losing  its  land  as  more  of  the  public 
domain,  forest  lands,  and  ancient  grants,  formerly  freely  available  for 
grazing  purposes,  are  being  withdrawn  from  its  use.  Of  the  three 
population  groups  using  these  lands,  the  Anglo-American  minority  has 
access  to  and  controls  the  largest  proportion. 

Extensive  experimentation  and  development  of  methods  for  insect 
pest  control  are  carried  out  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of 
New  Mexico  State  University  in  co-operation  with  county,  State,  ^and 
Federal  agencies. 

The  major  insect  menace  in  New  Mexico  comes  from  Mexican  bean 
weevils,  the  wooly  aphis  (both  aerial  and  subterranean  forms),  the  giant 
apple-root  borer,  beetles,  cotton  bollworms,  grasshoppers,  cockroaches, 
onion  thrfps,  peach  twig  borers,  codling  moths,  and  tent  and  pine  tree 
caterpillars. 

For  the  purpose  of  combating  these,  as  well  as  garden  insects  and 
other  pests,  the  Experiment  Station  publishes  numerous  bulletins  giving 
methods  of  preventing  infestations  and  for  the  treatment  of  trees,  vege- 
tables, shrubs,  and  other  plant  life  with  sprays  and  chemical  dust  com- 
pounds for  which  formulas  are  furnished. 

The  New  Mexico  State  University  Extension  Service,  with  an  agri- 


84        NEW     MEXICO 

cultural  agent  in  each  county,  co-operates  with  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  times  of  insect  infestation.  For  instance,  the 
Extension  Service  distributes  necessary  material  for  grasshopper  control 
furnished  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Entomology.  The  materials 
are  prepared  under  supervision  of  county  extension  agents,  and  are 
delivered  to  the  farmers. 

The  livestock  industry  has  undergone  many  changes  in  New  Mexico 
since  the  first  horses  and  sheep  were  brought  into  the  province  by 
Coronado  in  1540.  Although  some  sheep  and  cattle  were  introduced 
into  the  region  by  subsequent  expeditions,  they  had  disappeared  before 
Juan  de  Onate  came  with  his  400  colonists  in  1598.  With  this  perma- 
nent settlement  the  livestock  industry  in  what  is  now  the  United  States 
may  be  said  to  have  begun.  Until  the  rush  of  cattlemen  into  the  region 
after  the  Civil  War,  sheep  dominated  the  agricultural  economy.  They 
fed,  clothed,  and  supported  the  people  and  were  every  man's  stock  in 
trade.  Vast  herds  were  owned  by  a  relatively  few  rr'cos  to  whom  the 
land  grants  had  been  made  by  Spain.  They  employed  herders  in  great 
numbers,  sometimes  on  a  wage  basis,  but  more  often  on  a  so-called 
partido  basis,  a  form  of  share  cropping  in  the  raising  of  sheep  which  is 
as  old  as  Spanish  colonization  in  New  Mexico  Although  the  system 
varies,  and  has  been  modified  in  recent  times,  it  remains  essentially  share 
cropping  with  certain  feudal  implications.  The  conditions  that  favored 
the  system  were  a  land  monopoly  by  the  few  and  the  existence  of  a 
large,  underprivileged  group. 

After  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  and  before  the  coming  of  the  rail- 
roads into  New  Mexico,  cowmen  who  were  engaged  in  the  raising  of 
livestock  in  other  parts  of  the  West  and  Southwest  were  attracted  to 
the  immense  unoccupied  grazing  lands  of  the  New  Mexican  Territory. 
The  only  serious  threat  to  the  business  in  those  days,  as  it  had  been  to 
the  Spaniards  and  Mexicans,  was  from  hostile  Indians.  The  long 
drives  first  to  army  posts  in  New  Mexico,  and  later  to  shipping  points 
on  the  railroads  in  Kansas,  were  made  at  the  risk  of  sudden  and  massed 
attacks  by  the  Apache  and  Comanche.  The  principal  railroad  shipping 
points  in  the  seventies  were  Dodge  City,  Abilene,  and  Newton,  Kansas, 
and  cattle  were  driven  to  these  points  from  the  great  ranges  and  ranches 
in  western  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  The  subjugation  of  the  roving 
Indians  and  their  confinement  on  the  reservations  removed  the  threat  to 
these  cattle  movements,  and  almost  simultaneously  the  railroads  pushed 
deeper  into  the  territory.  The  great  days  of  the  Chisholm  and  other 
famed  cattle  trails  were  not  many  but  they  gave  rise  to  a  wealth  of 
romance,  lore,  and  legend. 

The  end  of  the  colorful  cowmen,  the  somewhat  lawless  cowboys,  and 
the  vast  herds  was  discernible  at  an  early  day,  but  prophets  to  see  it 
were  few.  Stock  raising  as  an  industry  in  New  Mexico  climbed  to 


AGRICULTURE     AND     STOCK     RAISING        85 

lofty  figures  before  and  during  World  War  I,  but  the  factors  that  were 
to  tumble  it  from  such  heights  were  already  operating  in  the  land.  The 
public  range  was  being  opened  to  homesteaders ;  sheep  were  feeding  on 
ranges  where  cattle  could  no  longer  find  enough  to  eat;  squatters  and 
farmers  were  taking  up  the  water  rights  and  planting  wheat  on  the  great 
ranges  of  the  Llano  Estacado  (Staked  Plains)  ;  the  cattlemen  them- 
selves found  that  it  was  more  profitable  to  fatten  cattle  at  the  new 
rail-heads  and  shipping  points,  using  the  hay  and  grain  that  the  farmers 
raised  on  the  former  grazing  lands.  Fences  barred  vast  stretches  of 
what  had  been  anybody's  range,  and  the  cattlemen  fell  to  quarreling 
and  fighting  among  themselves.  After  World  War  I  the  bottom  fell 
out  of  the  cattle  market,  and  many  of  the  large  operators  were  ruined. 

A  general  view  of  the  stock  industry  today  presents  a  very  different 
picture.  The  modern  cattleman  is  a  businessman.  By  scientific  meth- 
ods he  has  developed  the  haphazard  practices  of  the  old-time  cowmen 
(who  turned  their  stock  loose  on  the  public  range  and  trusted  to  fortune 
and  nature  to  return  them  a  profit  on  it)  into  an  efficient  system  in  which 
the  stock  raiser  knows  the  value  and  number  of  his  herds,  is  familiar 
with  their  productiveness,  and  can  figure  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty 
his  yearly  profits.  In  the  old  days  the  "big"  cattleman  was  one  who 
owned  from  fifteen  to  thirty  thousand  head  of  cattle;  the  "big"  sheep- 
man owned  as  many  as  half  a  million  head.  Today  a  few  cattlemen 
own  more  than  three  thousand;  and  ten  or  twenty  thousand  sheep  is  a 
big  flock  for  one  man  or  firm. 

The  large  ranches  in  the  neighborhood  of  Magdalena  are  the  last 
outposts  of  the  great  ranches  and  the  open  range;  elsewhere  cattle  are 
generally  raised  in  small  herds  and  fattened  at  shipping  points  on  the 
railroads.  In  the  San  Juan  area  in  the  northwest,  the  huge  crops  of 
alfalfa  are  used  to  feed  cattle  in  small  herds.  Oil  and  gas  developments 
in  the  northwest  and  southeast  have  made  that  industry  more  profitable 
than  stock  raising;  and  in  some  areas  sheep  have  driven  out  cattle 
altogether.  Sheep  are  still  raised  in  great  flocks  in  some  areas  of  the 
State,  notably  those  in  the  north  and  the  southwest,  and  by  the  pastoral 
Indian  tribes — formerly  nomadic  huntsmen — the  Apache  and  Navaho. 

In  1959  there  were  992,386  sheep  and  lambs  and  1,079,376  cattle  on 
the  farms;  11,199  horses  and  mules,  and  hogs  totaled  61,578.  The 
number  of  tractors  totals  18,097;  motor  trucks  on  farms,  20,263;  and 
pick-up  trailers,  2,150. 


86 


M^xico 


Industry,  Commerce,  and  Science 


IN  THE  past  twenty  years  New  Mexico  has  experienced  profound 
socio-economic   change.     The   personality    of   the    population    has 
shifted  from  rural  and  agrarian  to  urban  and  industrial.     Further, 
much  of  the  government  activity  is  associated  with  advanced  scientific 
programs — especially  in  the  field  of  energy. 


Person  Per 
Population  Urban  Population  Square  Mile 

Total  Number  %  of  Total 

1940  53i,8i8  176,401  33-2  4-4 

1950  681,187  34^889  50.2  5.6 

1960  951,023  624,479  65.7  7.8 


Total  personal  income  in  1960  was  $1,730  million — 117  per  cent 
above  1950,  and  770  per  cent  above  1940. 

PERSONAL  INCOME 

Year  Total  (million)         Per  Capita 

1940  $    199  $    375 

1949  719  1,106 

1950  798  1,163 

1959  1,696  1,810 

1960  i>730  i, 812 


PERCENTAGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PERSONAL  INCOME  BY 
INDUSTRIAL  SOURCES 


Source  1940  Ipjp  IQ5Q 

Government  21.2  18.3  25.2 

Trade  18.2  19.3  15-5 

Services  11.2  10.0  15.2 

Construction  3.5  9.9  9-5 

Mining  8.8  8.0  8.3 

Agriculture  22.9  19.3  8.0 

Transportation  and  utilities  10.0  8.9  7.7 

Finance  1.2  2.1  4.3 

87 


88        NEW     MEXICO 

NEW  MEXICO  BUSINESS  IN  1960 

Mineral  production  $    656  million 

Manufacturing  value  added  246    (est.) 

Agricultural  marketings  228 

Transportation  &  utilities  sales  207 

Contractor's  sales  398 

Retail  sales  1,362 

Wholesales  513 

Services  195 

Bank  debits  5»957 

From  the  preceding  tables,  it  can  be  seen  that  the  standard  of  living 
in  New  Mexico  has  increased  substantially.  Mineral  production  is  the 
source  of  new  wealth  on  which  the  State  is  advancing.  In  addition,  the 
State  is  studying  a  program  that  looks  toward  encouraging  a  balanced 
and  integrated  development  of  all  elements  of  its  socio-economic  environ- 
ment. All  present  indications  are  that  New  Mexico  will  be  a  major 
source  of  mineral  wealth  for  its  region. 

With  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Fray  Cristobal  Mountains  in  1683, 
the  mining  industry  began.  Pedro  de  Abalos  recorded  the  Nuestra 
Senora  del  Pilar  de  Zaragoza  Mine,  which  he  discovered  while  on  the 
northern  campaign  of  Governor  Cruzate  for  the  reconquest  of  the  prov- 
ince, following  the  Pueblo  Indian  Rebellion  of  1680.  Turquoise  was 
mined  by  Aztec  and  Pueblo  Indians  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards ; 
an  old  mine,  the  Chalchilhuith,  in  the  Cerrillos  hills  near  Santa  Fe 
shows  the  workings  of  prehistoric  Pueblo  Indians  who  mined  with  stone 
hammers  and  axes.  Many  early  mines  are  mentioned  in  the  Spanish 
archives  in  Santa  Fe,  as  it  was  the  search  for  precious  metals  that  led  the 
Spaniards  to  the  conquest  of  the  land.  Miners  from  Mexico  found 
and  opened  the  great  copper  deposits  at  Santa  Rita,  near  Silver  City,  in 
1800.  Twenty  years  before  the  great  gold  excitement  at  Coloma,  Cali- 
fornia, and  thirty  years  before  the  finds  on  Cherry  Creek  in  Colorado, 
gold  was  mined  near  Santa  Fe  in  the  Ortiz  Mountains.  In  1833  the 
first  gold  lode  or  vein  discovered  and  worked  west  of  the  Mississippi  was 
on  the  famous  Sierra  del  Oro,  now  known  as  the  Ortiz  Mine;  but 
actually  gold  was  known  and  had  been  worked  in  the  Cerrillos  (Sp., 
little  hills)  south  of  Santa  Fe,  in  the  time  of  Governor  Don  Tomas 
Velez,  1749-54.  As  early  as  the  seventeenth  century  lead  and  some 
silver  had  been  worked  in  this  region. 

Mining  regulations  in  the  form  of  royal  decrees,  issued  by  various 
viceroys  in  Mexico,  date  back  to  the  seventeenth  century.  The  estab- 
lishment and  organization  of  mining  boards  and  tribunals,  relating  to 
silver  mines  in  operation,  was  a  matter  of  grave  importance  to  officials 
and  settlers  in  this  area,  as  well  as  to  those  farther  south  in  Mexico. 


INDUSTRY,     COMMERCE,     AND     SCIENCE        89 

At  present  nearly  all  of  the  gold  found  in  New  Mexico  comes  from 
base-metal  ores.  Practically  all  placer  districts  in  the  State  yield  small 
quantities  of  gold,  but  the  amount  from  this  source  during  recent  years 
has  been  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  total  gold  production.  In 
1915  gold  from  New  Mexico  was  valued  at  $1,461,000,  a  figure  which 
has  never  again  been  equalled.  Beginning  with  1918  it  dropped  con- 
siderably, due  to  impoverishment  of  resources  and  decreased  activity  in 
the  Elizabethtown,  Mogollon,  San  Pedro,  and  Oro  Grande  districts. 
During  the  five  year  period  from  1925  to  1929  the  value  of  gold  pro- 
duction varied  between  a  low  of  $405,803  in  1926  and  a  high  of  $727,- 
162  in  1929.  During  the  depression  the  value  fell  as  low  as  $479,753 
in  1932.  By  1934  it  had  increased  to  $954,380,  in  1935  it  had  reached 
$1,170,225,  and  in  1936  production  dropped  to  $1,156,295.  About  35 
per  cent  of  the  gold  represented  in  the  last  figure  was  produced  at  the 
Pecos  Mine  in  San  Miguel  County.  The  bulk  of  placer  gold  came  from 
the  Hillsboro  and  Pittsburg  districts  in  Sierra  County.  During  the 
1945-49  period,  the  value  fell  from  $196,140  in  1945,  to  $113,175,  in 
1949,  the  Atwood  Copper  Mine  in  Hidalgo  County  being  the  only  pro- 
ducer of  more  than  1,000  ounces  of  the  precious  metal  in  the  State. 
For  the  10  years  from  1950-61  the  value  of  gold  production  was  ap- 
proximately $1,168,000. 

Silver  production  reached  a  peak  of  $1,162,208  in  1916.  In  1918 
it  declined  considerably.  From  1926  to  1929  the  output  varied  between 
$281,383  in  1926  and  $597,784  in  1929.  The  lowest  figure  for  silver 
production  during  the  depression  was  reached  in  1932  when  the  output 
was  $322,143.  By  1934  it  had  increased  to  $686,400  and  in  1935  to 
$763,242.  In  1936  production  was  valued  at  $-900,941.  Over  50 
per  cent  of  the  recoverable  silver  output  in  1935  was  from  the  Pecos 
Mine  in  San  Miguel  County.  In  1949  the  value  of  silver  production 
was  $344,693,  principal  producers  being  the  Atwood,  Ground  Hog, 
and  Bonney-Miser's  Chest  (Banner)  mines.  Silver  production  from 
1950-61  was  approximately  $2,552,000. 

Copper  reached  its  maximum  output  in  1917  with  105,568,000 
pounds  valued  at  $28,820,064.  In  1929  and  1930  copper  accounted  for 
about  70  per  cent  of  the  value  of  New  Mexico's  total  mineral  output. 
An  enormous  decrease  in  copper  production  resulted  from  the  closing  in 
1934  of  the  Chino  Mines  in  Grant  County,  which  formerly  produced 
over  82  per  cent  of  the  State's  total  output.  In  1935  the  total  value  of 
the  copper  mined  in  New  Mexico  was  only  $373,915  compared  with 
$1,890,400  in  1934.  In  1936  this  rose  to  $582,544.  An  upsurge  in 
copper  production  brought  a  peak  of  $32,414,158  in  1948,  which  dropped 
to  $21,822,872  in  1949.  The  1960  production  of  copper  was  listed  as 
67,400  short  tons  (recoverable  content  of  ores),  valued  a:  $43,136,000. 

Zinc  reached  its  high  point  in   1929  with  $4,548,060.     Though  it 


90        NEW     MEXICO 

had  fallen  to  $3,145,392  in  1930,  in  that  year  it  represented  nearly  22 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  metals  produced  in  New  Mexico,  ranking 
next  to  copper.  In  1935  mine  production  of  zinc  was  $1,947,088;  in 
1936,  $2,066,800.  However,  the  decline  in  zinc  prices  caused  many 
zinc  and  zinc-lead  mines  to  shut  down  in  1949.  Production  fell  from 
$11,039,532  in  1948  to  $7,277,808  in  1949.  Production  of  zinc  in 
1960  was  13,800  short  tons  (recoverable  content  of  ores),  valued  at 
$3,560,000. 

Lead  has  always  held  a  somewhat  subordinate  position  among  New 
Mexico  metals,  reaching  its  height  in  1929  with  $1,402,431.  In  1930 
the  value  of  lead  was  only  7  per  cent  of  the  total  of  all  metal.  In 
1936  its  value  was  $609,592.  In  1949,  $1,470,032.  Lead  is  produced 
chiefly  from  complex  ores,  such  as  those  of  the  Ground  Hog  and  Bayard 
group  in  the  Central  district,  and  the  Kelly  group  in  the  Magdalena 
district.  Lead  production  for  1960  was  2,200  short  tons,  valued  at 
$510,000. 

One  of  the  richest  industries  in  New  Mexico  is  that  of  petroleum. 
In  1936  New  Mexico's  output  of  petroleum  products  was  26,804,000 
barrels;  the  fields,  mostly  in  southeastern  New  Mexico,  being  the  Hobbs, 
Jal,  Copper  Eunice,  and  Monument  in  Lea  County;  the  Hogback  and 
Rattlesnake  fields  in  San  Juan  County  and  the  Artesia- Jackson-Mai jamar 
fields  in  Lea  and  Eddy  counties,  among  others.  This  output  was 
valued  at  $22,033,000.  In  1945  the  total  value  of  petroleum  was 
$37,610,000;  in  1949,  $116,960,000.  In  1960,  crude  petroleum  pro- 
duction exceeded  100  million  barrels  for  the  second  consecutive  year. 
The  value  of  petroleum  produced  in  1960  was  $312,869,000. 

At  the  present  time  the  mineral  resource  base  is  estimated  to  be  such 
that  New  Mexico  should  ultimately  support  a  population  of  several 
million  people — estimates  now  range  as  high  as  ten  million.  Its  present 
population  is  approximately  one  million.  If  its  resources  are  efficiently 
developed,  New  Mexico  will  enjoy  a  leading  growth  rate  over  the  next 
few  decades. 

(Note:  See  page  30  for  detailed  information  on  current  mineral 
production. ) 

After  the  annexation  of  the  territory  by  the  United  States,  accord- 
ing to  the  historian  Ralph  E.  Twitchell,  the  only  currency  of  any 
volume  here  was  that  distributed  by  the  Federal  government  to  army  con- 
tractors and  troops.  Coin  of  all  kinds  commanded  a  big  premium,  and 
large  quantities  were  transported  across  the  plains  by  merchants  and 
traders,  with  little  loss  through  robbery  or  otherwise.  Long  credits 
were  given  by  these  merchants,  and  immense  quantities  of  merchandise 
were  handled  by  large  firms  whose  headquarters  were  in  Santa  Fe. 
Today  the  commercial  picture,  with  few  large  enterprises  and  countless 


Agriculture:  Industry 


Sheep  grazing  near  Cumbres  Pass 


Threshing  grain  near  the  village  of  Tres  Ritos 

Beef  cattle  in  loading  pens  at  the  Bell  Ranch 


Aerial  view  of  the  stockyards  at  Clovis 


Cotton  fields  in  southern  New  Mexico 


Small  farms  near  Albuquerque 


Gasoline  plant  near  Eunice 


Elephant  Butte  Dam  on  the  Rio  Grande 


Open-pit  copper  mine  at  Santa  Rita 

Potash  stored  in  warehouses  near  Carlsbad 


Adobe  brick  drying  in  the  sun 


Building  a  wall  at  Cochiti  Pueblo 


Aerial  view  of  Los  Alamos 


INDUSTRY,     COMMERCE,     AND     SCIENCE        QI 

small  ones,  with  banking  facilities  in  every  city,  county  seat,  and  town 
is  very  different  from  that  of  the  early  days. 

After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  organize  the  Bank  of  New  Mexico 
in  1863,  when  the  legislative  assembly  granted  a  provisional  charter  to 
a  number  of  prominent  citizens  of  New  Mexico,  no  attempt  to  institute 
a  bank  was  made  until  1870.  In  that  year  JLucien  B.  Maxwell,  having 
sold  the  famous  Beaubien  and  Miranda  land  grant,  applied  for  a  charter 
for  a  national  bank  which  was  organized  at  Santa  Fe  as  the  First  Na- 
tional Bank  of  Santa  Fe.  The  original  stock  certificates  of  this  bank 
bore  a  vignette  of  Maxwell  with  a  cigar  in  his  mouth;  and  "the  trust- 
ing nature  of  the  promoter  of  this  institution,"  says  Mr.  Twitchell,  "is 
well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  he  signed  in  blank  more  than  a  hundred 
of  the  stock  certificates,  so  that  his  absence  at  his  home  in  Cimarron 
might  not  interfere  with  the  expected  activity  in  stock  dealings." 

The  organization  of  banks  in  other  parts  of  the  State  progressed 
slowly  at  first.  Las  Vegas  had  one  in  1876  and  another  in  1879. 
Albuquerque  followed  with  a  new  bank  in  1881,  and  Silver  City,  at  this 
time  a  roaring  mining  town,  had  a  series  of  banks  of  uncertain  stability. 
The  Silver  City  National  Bank,  however,  has  weathered  all  the  financial 
storms  that  have  assailed  the  town.  After  the  turn  of  the  century,  bank- 
ing organization  proceeded  rapidly,  and  prospered  up  to  and  through 
the  World  War  period,  when  large  livestock  loans  were  made  on  a  basis 
of  prevailing  prices  which  ran  as  high  as  $60  and  $70  per  head.  After 
the  war,  when  the  extraordinary  demand  ceased  abruptly  and  deflation 
started,  prices  dropped,  many  stockmen  were  impoverished,  and  as  a 
result,  many  banks  failed.  Commerce  was  long  in  recovering  from  this 
blow,  and  the  cattle  industry  has  not  yet  regained  its  former  eminence 
in  the  State's  economic  structure. 

The  decline  of  agriculture  in  recent  years  is  probably  not  permanent. 
The  present  period  is  characterized  by  transition  from  hand  tool  meth- 
ods to  industrialized  agricultural  practices.  Meat  production  is  shift- 
ing from  purely  grazing  to  a  feeding  and  processing  industry.  New 
Mexico  is  rapidly  becoming  a  regional  supplier  of  processed  meat. 
Milk  production  is  in  transition  from  the  cow  barn  to  the  modern  "milk- 
ing parlor."  Poultry  and  egg  "factories"  are  located  near  population 
centers.  Farm  crop  production  is  being  increasingly  influenced  by  the 
needs  of  the  rapidly  developing  urban  shopping  centers. 

On  the  foundations  laid  in  the  1940*5  and  early  1950'$,  the  State 
acquired  a  new  population  and  new  goals.  The  State  leadership  en- 
couraged futuristic  enterprise  associated  with  its  large  uranium  de- 
posits and  rapid  development  of  a  forward-looking  scientific  complex. 
Research  for  development  started  in  the  early  1940*8.  Los  Alamos' 
laboratories  have  made  historic  contributions  in  the  field  of  nuclear  re- 
search. The  first  atomic  device  to  control  the  application  of  atomic 


92        NEW     MEXICO 

energy  was  tested  in  Socorro  County,  New  Mexico,  on  what  is  now 
the  White  Sands  Missile  Range,  and  recent  reports  suggest  that  nuclear 
propulsion  projects  are  part  of  the  research  being  undertaken  within  the 
State.  Because  of  its  very  extensive  energy  resources  of  all  types,  the 
State  should  continue  to  lead  in  the  field  of  energy  research  for  de- 
velopment in  the  coming  decades.  If  the  assumption  is  correct  that 
energy  is  a  prime  ingredient  of  all  socio-economic  enterprise,  New 
Mexico's  future  development  will  be  an  important  contribution  to  the 
nation's  progress. 


Transportation 


NEW  MEXICO,  fourth  youngest  and  fifth  largest  of  the  States, 
is  served  well  by  its  transportation  systems.  The  Santa  Fe  and 
the  Southern  Pacific  railways  cross  it;  and  branches  of  major 
lines  weave  in  and  out  of  canyons  to  mines,  oil  and  potash  fields,  and 
recreation  centers.  Caravans  of  freight  bus  lines  ply  the  highways  on 
regular  schedules,  including  a  considerable  number  of  oil  field  haulers, 
and  special  lines  transporting  petroleum  and  petroleum  products.  Nu- 
merous bus  lines,  both  intra-  and  interstate,  carry  the  traveler  over  the 
vast  and  colorful  expanse  of  the  State  to  almost  every  village  and  hamlet. 
For  those  who  prefer  to  journey  by  air,  transcontinental  planes  stop  regu- 
larly at  well-equipped  fields. 

The  history  of  transportation  in  New  Mexico  extends  back,  of 
course,  into  antiquity  when  goods  were  carried  on  human  backs.  Still 
later  the  dog  became  the  beast  of  burden,  but  both  of  these  methods 
still  prevailed  among  the  Indians  when  the  Spaniards  came.  After 
Coronado's  conquest  (1540),  the  horse,  mule,  burro,  and  ox  were  in- 
troduced ;  and  following  Onate's  permanent  settlement  of  New  Mexico 
(1598)  the  pack  train  came  into  general  use.  These  trains,  which 
slowly  made  their  way  from  Chihuahua  in  Mexico  to  Santa  Fe  over 
El  Camino  Real  (The  Royal  Road),  consisted  of  from  five  to  as  many 
as  five  hundred  burros  and  mules,  with  loads  securely  strapped  on  their 
backs.  Later  came  the  carreta,  with  solid  wooden  wheels,  and  ox- 
timbrils,  huge  two-wheeled  carts. 

El  Camino  Real  was  a  very  important  road  in  New  Mexico's  early 
development.  At  least  as  early  as  1581  it  was  traveled  by  three  mission- 
ary friars  and  their  escort.  From  Vera  Cruz  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Mexico,  this  famous  highway  ran  to  El  Paso,  and  thence  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  Socorro  and  Albuquerque.  From  Albu- 
querque it  climbed  northward  along  the  flank  of  the  Sandias,  ascended 
La  Bajada  to  the  mesa,  and  crossed  the  plateau  to  the  foothills  of  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  at  the  village  of  Santa  Fe. 

As  early  as  1609,  committees  representing  the  Church  and  State  met 
in  Mexico  City  to  decide  upon  a  definite  method  of  transporting  goods 
to  the  new  province.  This  new  service  became  known  as  the  Mission 
Supply.  Every  three  years  thereafter  a  train  was  organized  and  sent 
to  New  Mexico,  returning  to  Chihuahua  with  salt,  copper,  turquoise, 

93 


94        NEW     MEXICO 

blankets,  as  well  as  Indian  slaves  to  be  sold  in  the  mining  areas  of 
northern  Mexico.  Until  the  development  of  Santa  Fe  trade  with  the 
East,  this  service,  serving  the  settlements  as  well  as  the  missions,  was 
the  chief  means  of  bringing  merchandise  to  New  Mexico ;  and  the  trade, 
which  grew  to  enormous  proportions,  was  carried  on  until  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  over  the  oldest  highway  in  the  United  States. 

From  Coronado's  time  until  the  dawn  of  the  Santa  Fe  trade  with 
the  East,  no  important  advancement  was  made  in  the  type  of  trans- 
portation facilities  used.  It  remained  for  the  indomitable  will  of  the 
eastern  trader,  his  insatiable  curiosity  to  learn  what  lay  beyond,  and  his 
love  of  an  adventurous  life  to  make  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  with  its  eastern 
terminus  in  Independence,  Missouri,  a  great  and  living  artery  of  com- 
merce. Constant  improvements  in  ways  of  transportation,  initiated  by 
these  traders,  encouraged  and  hastened  the  development  of  modern  rail- 
roads and  bus  lines.  It  was  in  1821  that  Captain  William  Becknell, 
Father  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  assisted  by  four  companions,  freighted 
goods  by  pack-horses  from  Missouri  to  New  Mexico.  In  the  following 
year,  he  left  Franklin,  Missouri,  with  twenty-one  men  and  three 
wagons,  and  turned  the  first  wagon  wheels  over  the  thick  buffalo  grass 
of  what  was  to  become  a  famous  road.  Becknell  was  also  the  first 
trader  to  follow  the  Cimarron  route  to  San  Miguel  and  Santa  Fe. 
His  trail-blazing  marked  the  third  epoch  in  the  history  of  transporta- 
tion in  New  Mexico. 

Before  1821,  fur  traders  had  followed  up  the  Arkansas  River,  after 
striking  it  at  Great  Bend,  to  Las  Animas  River.  They  then  had  crossed 
the  divide  separating  the  Arkansas  from  the  Canadian,  and  had  gone 
down  the  Canadian  Valley  east  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains. 
When  the  route  was  changed  in  1822,  half  of  it  was  placed  within 
Mexican  territory.  Traders  then  crossed  the  Arkansas  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  Great  Bend,  entered  Cimarron  Valley,  and  crossed  the  divide  to 
the  Canadian  in  New  Mexico.  The  way  to  Santa  Fe  was  well  known, 
but  the  annual  caravan  established  the  principal  route. 

Despite  danger  from  Indians  and  trouble  with  the  Spanish  and 
Mexican  governments,  the  value  of  goods  carried  over  the  Trail  rose 
from  $15,000  in  1822  to  $450,000  in  1843,  and  to  more  than  $5,000,000 
by  1855.  The  long  and  dangerous  trek  over  deserts  and  mountains  was 
rewarded  by  the  high  prices  for  which  eastern  goods  were  sold,  as  well 
as  by  furs  acquired  for  a  song  and  carried  homeward.  When  the  Trail 
was  first  opened,  calico  sold  at  two  or  three  dollars  a  yard  in  Santa  Fe. 
The  new  route  was  less  dangerous  and  twelve  hundred  miles  shorter 
than  the  old  trail  to  Mexico,  and  tapped  a  rich  market  no  longer  avail- 
able to  El  Camino  Real.  In  consequence  of  this,  New  Mexico  began 
to  face  east  instead  of  south. 

Santa  Fe  was  a  hospitable  place,  and  when  the  whips  of  the  drivers 


TRANSPORTATION        95 

were  heard,  everyone  in  the  town  turned  out  in  welcome.  After  the 
goods  were  discharged  at  La  Fonda,  the  old  inn,  liquor  flowed  freely 
and  women  were  kind.  Gaming  tables  were  busy.  At  Santa  Fe,  goods 
from  the  East  were  reloaded  on  organized  wagon  trains,  which  there- 
upon proceeded  south  to  Chihuahua,  thereby  connecting  the  new  Trail 
with  the  old  one  to  Mexico  and  California.  The  covered  wagons  of 
Becknell's  time  were  replaced  by  the  improved  Conestoga  and  Murphy 
wagons,  accompanied  later  by  carriages  and  "Democrats,"  light  one-  or 
two-seated  spring  wagons.  Until  the  coming  of  the  railroads  in  the 
eighties,  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  was  one  of  the  main  highways  of  transcon- 
tinental travel.  Its  importance  can  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  in 
1860  trade  movements  over  the  Trail  involved  in  personnel  and  equip- 
ment the  following:  nine  thousand  and  eighty-four  men,  three  thousand 
and  thirty-three  wagons,  twenty-seven  thousand  nine  hundred  and 
twenty  oxen,  and  six  thousand  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  mules. 

Mules,  indeed,  were  an  important  factor  in  the  establishment  of  the 
route.  California  had  a  great  number  of  mules,  noted  for  their  size 
and  quality.  Some  of  the  New  Mexicans  took  woolen  blankets  to  Cali- 
fornia to  exchange  for  Indian  goods,  but  decided  instead  to  trade  them 
for  mules.  The  appearance  of  these  huge  beasts  in  New  Mexico  "caused 
quite  a  sensation"  (Warner,  Reminiscences  of  Early  California)  be- 
cause in  form  and  size  they  were  so  superior  to  those  used  in  freighting 
over  the  Trail.  Thereupon  there  sprang  up  a  trade  in  mules  "which 
flourished  for  some  10  or  12  years." 

An  experiment  in  transportation,  shared  by  New  Mexico,  was  the 
introduction  of  camel  trains  by  the  American  Army  in  1855.  At  first 
they  were  a  great  success,  making  faster  time  than  wagon  or  mule  pack 
trains.  But,  before  long  they  became  of  little  use  as  the  fine  sharp 
gravels  of  the  deserts  cut  and  lacerated  their  tender  hoofs,  and  turned 
them  into  limping  cripples.  In  addition,  they  were  a  nuisance  in  the 
fact  that  they  frightened  other  beasts,  especially  mules,  which  often 
brayed  incessantly  in  astonishment  and  terror. 

There  were  other  important  roads,  some  of  which  were  especially 
used  in  driving  great  herds  of  cattle  to  the  markets.  Charles  Goodnight 
and  Oliver  Loving  blazed  a  trail  to  Cheyenne.  This,  the  Goodnight 
and  Loving  Trail,  used  in  the  sixties,  lay  up  the  Pecos  from  Fort 
Sumner  to  Las  Vegas,  up  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  to  Raton  Pass,  and  by 
Trinidad  and  Pueblo  to  Denver.  Cooke's  Route,  which  opened  the 
first  wagon  road  across  the  continent  to  California,  was  the  path  of  the 
Mormon  Battalion  in  1847.  Beale's  Wagon  Road  was  one  of  the  first 
in  northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Blazed  in  the  fall  of  1857, 
it  followed  the  route  near  the  35th  parallel  surveyed  by  Whipple  in 
1853,  running  from  Fort  Defiance  in  New  Mexico  to  the  Colorado. 
Another  famous  thoroughfare  of  early  New  Mexico  was  the  Butterfield 


96        NEW     MEXICO 

Trail  which  connected  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco.  After  entering 
New  Mexico  through  El  Paso,  it  ran  northward  along  the  east  bank 
of  the  Rio  Grande  to  Mesilla,  crossing  the  river  there  and  running 
toward  Cook's  Peak  near  Deming,  and  thence  to  Shakespeare,  just 
below  Lordsburg,  and  across  the  present  boundaries  of  the  State.  "On 
its  better  stretches  fast  stage  coaches  could  travel  165  miles  in  24  hours." 

Wagon  and  pack  trains  carried  freight  and  a  few  passengers,  but 
credit  for  development  of  travel  and  mail  services  in  New  Mexico  dur- 
ing the  wagon  era  really  belongs  to  the  pony  express  and  stagecoach. 
In  1849,  the  year  of  the  California  gold  rush,  the  first  monthly  mail 
stage  began  to  operate  between  Santa  Fe  and  Independence,  Missouri. 
Another  monthly  mail  line,  connecting  Santa  Fe  and  San  Antonio, 
Texas,  was  of  considerable  importance  to  the  area  served  because  it 
made  better  time  than  the  stage  from  Missouri.  In  October  1857, 
service  on  both  the  western  mail  lines  was  placed  on  a  weekly  schedule, 
and  six-mule  instead  of  four-mule  coaches  were  used.  During  the  same 
year  was  established  the  Butterfield  mail  stage  to  towns  in  southern 
New  Mexico.  This  line  connected  with  that  from  San  Antonio.  The 
original  Overland  Pony  Express  did  not  cross  New  Mexico,  but  an 
independent  pony  express  from  Denver  to  Santa  Fe  was  established  in 
1 86 1.  This  service  over  the  old  Taos  Trail  lasted  only  one  year. 

The  Butterfield  system  was  discontinued  in  March  1861,  when 
provision  was  made  by  Congress  for  the  transfer  of  the  assets  of  the 
Butterfield  line  to  the  Central  Route;  but  stages  on  the  Santa  Fe,  Texas, 
and  several  small  intrastate  lines  continued  to  carry  passengers  and 
mail.  During  the  next  three  decades  improved  physical  equipment  made 
it  possible  for  wagon  trains  to  cover  the  route  in  shorter  time,  and 
with  pack  trains  they  carried  the  freight  until  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  descended  the  south  slope  of  Raton  Mountain 
in  January  1879.  The  era  of  wagon  transportation  in  New  Mexico 
ended  in  the  early  eighties. 

Meanwhile,  surveys  had  been  made  to  find  a  southern  rail  route  to 
the  coast.  Two  of  these  surveys,  those  on  the  32nd  and  35th  parallels, 
passed  through  New  Mexico,  and  both  were  reported  as  feasible.  But 
it  was  not  until  December  7,  1878,  that  the  first  locomotive  came  over 
Raton  Pass,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the  completion  of  the  Raton 
tunnel  (2,011  feet  through  Raton  Mountain)  in  the  fall  of  1879  that 
New  Mexico  was  opened  to  railway  service.  Las  Vegas  celebrated  the 
arrival  of  the  "iron  horse"  July  4,  1879;  and  on  February  9,  1880, 
Santa  Fe  was  reached  with  an  eighteen-mile  spur  from  Lamy.  The 
triumphant  entry  into  Santa  Fe,  853  miles  from  the  Missouri  River, 
was  marked  by  a  huge  celebration.  Eventually  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
was  extended  to  Albuquerque  and  then  south  and  west  to  Deming, 
where  it  linked  with  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  which  had  come  in 


TRANSPORTATION        97 

from  California  in  1 88 1.  A  branch  of  the  Santa  Fe  was  also  constructed 
to  El  Paso;  and  another  from  Albuquerque  crossed  the  State  Line 
through  Gallup  into  Arizona.  In  later  years  the  Helen  cut-off  from 
Texico  to  Dalies  created  a  cross-state  route  linking  the  New  Mexico 
trackage  in  a  transcontinental  system. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  building  of  the  Santa  Fe,  the  Den- 
ver and  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  was  extended  into  New  Mexico, 
entering  from  Antonito,  Colorado,  just  north  of  the  State  Line*  A 
branch  was  also  built  from  Antonito  to  Chama  in  Rio  Arriba  County, 
thence  to  Durango,  Colorado,  and  again  southward  to  Farmington, 
New  Mexico.  In  1880  the  main  line  was  extended  directly  south  to 
Espanola,  and  in  1885  to  Santa  Fe.  During  the  period  1880-1910  much 
trackage  was  laid  in  New  Mexico  to  mines,  lumbering  areas,  and  re- 
sorts, but  by  1920  the  smaller  lines  were  absorbed  by  the  three  main 
systems  now  existing  in  the  State. 

The  coming  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Southern  Pacific  completely  transformed  New 
Mexican  life.  New  towns  were  built.  Large  ranches  were  created, 
mines  were  opened,  land  values  boomed,  and  New  Mexico  began  to 
come  into  its  own. 

On  March  14,  1903,  the  legislature  passed  an  act  making  all  post 
roads  public  highways,  though  the  only  highway  taken  over  during  the 
territorial  period  was  El  Camino  Real.  It  extended  from  Raton  to 
Anthony,  fifteen  miles  north  of  El  Paso.  With  the  coming  of  the  auto- 
mobile the  need  of  good  roads  was  realized,  and  in  1913,  a  year  after 
New  Mexico  became  a  state,  the  legislature  authorized  a  $500,000  bond 
issue,  the  proceeds  of  which  were  allotted  pro  rata  among  the  counties 
for  highway  building  and  improvement.  Other  funds  were  raised,  but 
not  until  1919,  when  the  State  was  empowered  to  deal  with  the  Fed- 
eral government,  did  highway  building  begin  in  dead  earnest.  Today 
there  are  approximately  62,479  miles  of  road,  of  which  12,000  miles  are 
Federal  and  State  highways. 

Four  interstate  airlines  serve  New  Mexico.  Eastbound  and  west- 
bound planes  of  Transcontinental  Western  Airways,  Inc.,  traveling  be- 
tween Los  Angeles  and  New  York,  make  daily  landings  at  Albuquerque. 
Continental,  Frontier,  and  Pioneer  airlines  complete  the  network  cover- 
age of  the  State,  making  airway  travel  available  in  all  directions. 


Folklore 


THE  Indians  of  New  Mexico  have  no  written  language.     Their 
myths  have  passed  orally  from  generation  to   generation,   and 
one  of  the  principal  tasks  of  modern  ethnologists  has  been  to 
record  and  preserve  them.     In  detail  these  mythic  beliefs  vary  from  tribe 
to  tribe,   and  yet  throughout  the  land  occupied   by   the   Pueblo  and 
Navaho  Indians  there  are  fundamental  similarities  and  uniformities  that 
afford  a  basis  of  thought  for  a  lore  of  a  grandeur  and  beauty  comparable 
to  the  great  myths  of  the  world. 

The  mythic  core  of  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest  can  be  divided  into 
three  parts:  the  creation  myths,  the  legends  which  are  largely  epic 
narrations,  and  the  folktales  and  fables. 

The  Age  of  the  Beginning,  or  the  concept  of  the  origin  of  the  uni- 
verse held  by  the  Pueblo  and  Navaho,  explains  even  thing  in  their 
lives — the  heavens,  the  earth  with  its  plants  and  animals,  and  finally 
man.  It  explains  their  relation  to  one  another  and  their  tribal  origins. 
The  Pueblo  and  Navaho  alike  believe  that  they  emerged  from  a  series 
of  worlds  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  Pueblo  Indians  place 
the  point  somewhere  near  their  present  respective  domains,  while  the 
Navaho  relate  that  they  came  to  the  earth's  surface  through  a  sacred 
lake  located  in  the  La  Plata  Mountains  of  southwestern  Colorado. 
The  general  story  tells  of  world  levels  that  are  symbolic  of  the  stages  of 
development  in  the  evolution  of  life.  From  living  matter  in  water  the 
Mist  People,  who  filled  the  primal  dark  world,  evolved  through  insect, 
reptile,  bird,  and  mammal  forms.  Finally  man,  followed  by  his  broth- 
ers— the  lower  examples  of  animal  life — climbed  to  the  world  of  sun- 
light and  understanding  where  they  were  given  the  shapes  they  now 
possess.  Man  brought  with  him  a  tree,  maize,  and  magic. 

Closely  allied  to  the  creation  myths  are  the  legends  of  the  migrations 
and  the  parts  played  by  gods  and  heroes  in  the  early  history  of  the 
various  tribes.  This  period  is  called  the  Age  of  the  Gods  or  the  Great 
Age.  All  things  were  gigantic.  Colossal  birds  dwelt  on  peaks  and  huge 
serpents  lived  in  caves  and  canyons.  The  Twin  Gods  of  War  slew 
the  enemy  giants  and  beasts  who  preyed  upon  the  people.  Sober-faced 
Indians  today  will  point  to  the  lava  flows,  volcanic  necks,  and  dark 
buttes  found  throughout  the  mountain  regions  of  the  Southwest,  and 
say  that  they  are  the  blood  and  bones  of  the  monsters  of  this  period. 

98 


FOLKLORE        99 

Practically  every  strange  formation  in  New  Mexico  is  associated  in  one 
way  or  another  with  the  holy  people. 

The  greatest  single  factor,  however,  to  influence  the  whole  trend 
of  thought  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  was  the  cultivation  of  corn,  and  the 
stories  and  rituals  that  sprang  from  the  development  of  this  cereal 
formed  the  major  portion  of  the  second  group's  legends. 

THE  CORN  MAIDENS  OF  ZUNI 

Paiyatuma,  the  God  of  Dew,  Dawn,  and  Music,  brought  the  seven 
Corn  Maidens,  with  their  magic  wands,  to  the  land  of  Cibola.  When 
the  morning  mists  had  cleared  away  and  the  Dawn  God's  piping  faded, 
the  people  of  Zuni  found  seven  plants  of  corn  growing  in  their  dance 
court,  and  near  the  plants  stood  seven  maidens  lovelier  than  the  morning 
stars.  The  people  chanted  prayers  of  thanksgiving  to  Paiyatuma,  and 
they  promised  him  that  they  would  cherish  the  maidens  and  the  sub- 
stance of  their  flesh.  They  built  a  bower  of  cedar  branches  for  the 
Corn  Maidens  and  they  lighted  a  fire  in  the  bower.  All  night  the 
maidens  danced  to  the  music  of  the  chants  and  the  drum  and  the  rattle. 
They  danced  by  the  growing  corn  and  motioned  upward  with  their 
magic  wands,  that  the  people  of  Cibola  would  have  corn  and  plenty. 

But  as  time  went  on  the  people  were  not  satisfied.  There  were 
those  among  the  young  man  who  looked  upon  the  maidens  amorously. 
There  were  those  who  plucked  at  their  garments  as  they  danced.  The 
God  of  Dew  called  his  daughters  to  his  house  of  the  rainbow.  "Athirst 
are  men  ever  for  that  which  they  have  not,"  he  said.  "The  people  of 
Cibola  must  experience  want." 

There  followed  years  of  trial  and  famine.  Many  were  the  men 
who  went  in  search  of  the  lost  maidens.  Finally  four  holy  youths  were 
sent  to  the  Land  of  Summer.  There  they  found  Paiyatuma  playing 
upon  his  flute  and  butterflies  and  birds  flying  around  him.  There  also 
were  the  Maidens  of  Corn.  After  the  proper  offerings  and  promises 
were  made  the  God  of  Dawn  gave  the  four  youths  the  growing  plants 
with  the  substance  of  the  maidens'  flesh,  but  the  maidens  went  forth  as 
shadows  and  were  seen  no  more  of  men.  (Adapted  from  "Zuni  Folk 
Tales,"  by  Aileen  Nusbaum.) 

Today  corn  that  is  for  seed  is  held  by  the  Pueblo  Indians  as  sacred ; 
it  is  put  into  the  earth  reverently  and  watched  over  daily,  and  for  those 
who  remember  the  story  the  Corn  Maidens  come  at  dawn  and  motion 
the  plants  upward  toward  the  sun. 

The  Indian  folk  tales  and  fables  of  the  third  group  are  built  around 
culture  heroes  and  animals.  There  are  countless  stories  of  this  nature 
told  in  every  Indian  village  and  campsite.  The  Tewa  Tale  (E.  C. 
Parsons),  "Coyote  Steals  Fire,"  is  typical  of  this  series. 


100     NEW     MEXICO 

COYOTE  STEALS  FIRE 

Long  time  ago  (hao)  they  always  took  care  of  the  fire;  they  did  not 
let  them  blow  it  out,  they  always  kept  it  up.  At  Yungeowinge,  some 
people  were  living,  and  their  fire  went  out.  Down  at  Tekeowinge  they 
were  having  a  big  dance,  pokwashare.  They  said,  "Where  can  we  get 
fire?  Ours  is  all  gone.  Let's  go  and  tell  Coyote  to  go  with  us.  Maybe 
he  can  get  fire."  They  made  up  a  bundle  of  chips  and  rags,  to  burn 
well,  to  tie  on  his  tail.  They  said,  "Let's  not  let  him  know  it,  so  he 
will  bring  the  fire."  They  went  down  to  Tekeowinge  and  the  dance 
began,  man  and  woman,  man  and  woman,  man  and  woman  all  around. 
One  of  those  people  was  watching  his  fire,  sitting  near  the  fireplace. 
So  Coyote  old  man  began  to  dance  with  them.  The  man  keeping  the 
fire  was  watching  the  dancing.  Coyote  was  turning  round,  turning 
round,  he  put  his  tail  into  the  fire,  it  caught  fire.  He  began  to  run  and 
they  ran  after  him.  He  was  coming  to  Kosowe.  They  were  pretty 
nearly  catching  him.  There  was  Sawe.  Coyote  said,  "Tiupare,  help 
me !  They  are  nearly  catching  me."  So  Sawe  put  the  fire  on  the  back 
of  its  neck,  and  flew  up  the  tree.  Just  then  they  overtook  Coyote. 
Then  they  went  back  home,  and  when  they  went  back,  Sawe  brought 
down  the  fire  to  Coyote.  So  Coyote  brought  the  fire.  He  wanted  to 
cross  the  river  to  Yungeowinge.  He  could  not  cross.  He  said,  "If  I 
cross,  the  fire  will  go  out."  He  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  the 
fire.  He  saw  some  PoteyL  He  said,  "Won't  you  help  me?"  They  said, 
"All  right."  They  took  the  fire.  They  began  to  burn  their  hands  and 
they  said,  "r-r  rehro."  Just  the  same  they  still  say  in  just  the  same  way, 
"r-r  rehro."  Thus  Coyote  took  the  fire  to  Yungeowinge.  They  said, 
"Thank  you,"  and  they  paid  him  well.  And  after  that  they  did  not 
let  the  fire  go  out.  Thus  it  passed  at  Chamita. 

Among  the  Pueblos  sometimes  the  original  purity  of  the  Indian  folk 
tale  has  been  confused  by  Hispanic  influences  and  accretions,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  bulk  of  folk  material  is  amazingly  free  from  European 
dominance. 

Spanish:  The  Spanish  Colonists  in  the  Southwest  have  cultivated 
their  traditions  as  faithfully  as  any  other  linguistic  group  in  the  United 
States.  From  the  San  Luis  Valley  in  southern  Colorado,  down  the  Rio 
Grande  valley  of  New  Mexico  into  Texas,  may  be  found  vigorous  re- 
mains of  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  century  folklore.  Their  musical 
repertoire  includes  traditional  ballads  brought  from  Spain  by  the  early 
conquerors,  religious  songs  with  a  strong  flavor  of  the  Gregorian  Chant, 
and  lyric  canciones  or  songs  of  the  past  century.  The  philosophy  of  the 
common  people  is  still  contained  in  the  old  proverbios  or  proverbs,  simi- 
lar to  those  Cervantes  put  in  the  mouth  of  Sancho  Panza.  In  isolated 


FOLKLORE      IOI 

communities  where  modern  forms  of  entertainment  are  scarce,  the  folk 
tale  thrives  as  the  literary  entertainment  of  the  common  people. 

The  remote  source  of  Spanish-American  folk  tales  is  undoubtedly 
Spain,  but  the  more  immediate  source  is  Mexico.  There  seems  to  be 
surprisingly  little  Indian  influence,  although  there  were  certain  modifica- 
tions brought  about  by  the  geographical  conditions  and  the  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  new  country. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  a  New  Mexican  folk  tale  gath- 
ered from  oral  traditions  entirely.  It  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  Spanish- 
American  folk  tale  in  New  Mexico  as  it  survives  today: 

LOS  TRES  HIJOS 
(The  Three  Sons) 

"Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  an  old  couple  who  had  three  sons. 
The  father  gave  them  their  inheritance.  The  oldest  son  invested  his 
money  wisely  and  became  rich.  The  second  son  was  not  as  capable, 
but  he  managed  to  live  quite  happily  on  what  his  father  had  given  him. 
But  Juan,  the  youngest  son,  was  a  spendthrift.  He  soon  became  penni- 
less, and  then  started  to  seek  his  fortune. 

"On  his  way  Juan  met  an  old  man  who  promised  him  that  if  he, 
Juan,  would  live  with  him  for  seven  years,  during  which  time  he 
would  be  content  with  his  desert  home,  and  not  cut  his  hair,  or  trim  his 
nails,  or  shave,  he  would  be  allowed  to  wear  a  magic  coat  with  pockets 
always  filled  with  gold.  He  could  spend  the  money  or  bury  it,  yet 
the  pockets  would  never  be  empty.  For  nearly  seven  years  Juan  re- 
mained in  the  desert  and  every  day  he  buried  a  quantity  of  gold  pieces 
near  a  large  cactus.  He  grew  so  ugly  and  dirty  because  of  th«  condi- 
tions of  the  promise  that  he  frightened  people,  and  therefore  he  was 
arrested  and  put  into  prison.  In  jail  he  met  the  father  of  three  beauti- 
ful daughters.  They  formulated  plans  to  escape,  Juan  furnishing  the 
money  to  pay  the  jailer  for  their  release.  The  man  promised  Juan 
that  he  would  give  him  one  of  his  daughters  in  marriage  when  he  had 
completed  his  term  of  seven  years  in  the  desert. 

"Soon  after  the  expiration  of  the  term,  Juan,  cleansed  and  groomed, 
and  appearing  as  a  very  handsome  youth  presented  himself  at  the  house 
of  the  man  and  his  three  daughters.  They  invited  him  to  dine.  The 
youngest  daughter's  ring  fitted  him  perfectly,  and  it  was  understood 
that  this  was  the  girl  he  was  to  marry.  Juan  went  back  to  the  desert, 
uncovered  the  treasure  he  had  buried,  and  returning,  married  the  beau- 
tiful girl.  I  believe,"  the  narrator  concludes,  "that  they  are  still  living 
happily,  unless  they  are  dead." 

Although  there  are  elements  in  this  story  that  can  be  traced  to  bet- 


IO2      NEW     MEXICO 

ter  known  tales,  it  is  a  characteristic  Spanish-American  folk  tale  because 
of  the  blend  of  old  world  origin  and  new  world  setting. 

There  is  the  story  of  Juan  Catorce — John  Fourteenth,  a  local  vari- 
ant of  the  Paul  Bunyan  legend.  There  are  tales  of  princes  and  peasants, 
of  witches,  of  tricksters  and  saints,  that  enrich  the  store  of  New  Mexi- 
can folklore. 

The  Spanish  folk  song  is  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  Southwest,  No 
other  group  in  the  United  States  is  more  given  to  singing,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  southern  Negro,  than  the  Spanish-American 
people  of  New  Mexico.  They  have  today  a  three-fold  repertoire,  con- 
sisting of  [i]  the  traditional  ballads  brought  from  Spain  by  the  Con- 
querors, [2]  the  lyrical  canciones  or  songs  and  the  racy  corridos  or 
popular  ballads  that  in  the  last  fifty  years  have  found  their  way  up 
from  Mexico,  and  [3]  the  religious  ballads  and  songs  called  alabados. 

New  Mexican  folk  songs  have  changed  with  social  and  economic 
changes.  Songs  of  neighboring  areas  have  been  adapted  to  the  Spanish- 
American  people's  own  tempo  and  rhythm.  Even  the  words  may  be 
changed — a  proof  that  the  song  is  truly  popular  and  capable  of  rebirth 
in  a  different  soil. 

Pageants  and  plays  are  important  features  of  the  folkways  of  the 
country.  These  productions  are  intimately  associated  with  the  life  of 
the  people;  and  because  of  their  oral  transmission  and  the  many  local 
variations  they  are  colored  with  genuine  folk  influences. 

The  early  Spaniards  came  with  a  dual  mission  to  the  new  world — to 
conquer  and  to  convert.  To  hasten  conversions  the  first  missionaries 
utilized  adaptable  features  of  both  the  Christian  and  the  pagan  re- 
ligions. In  the  absence  of  a  common  tongue,  pantomime  and  mimicry 
were  resorted  to,  and  the  auto  sacramental  or  religious  plays*  served  to 
bridge  the  deficiency  of  speech.  Some  of  the  first  autos  to  be  given  in 
New  Mexico  bore  such  titles  as  A  dan  y  Eva  and  Cain  y  Abel.  The 
second  cycle  of  religious  plays  was  based  on  the  New  Testament.  This 
cycle  began  with  San  Josef  Saint  Joseph,  and  was  usually  followed  by 
Las  Posadas,  The  Inns.  Las  Posadas  dealt  with  the  Nativity,  beginning 
with  the  effort  of  Mary  and  Joseph  to  find  lodging'  in  Bethlehem. 
These  were  usually  followed  by  one  of  the  two  most  popular  of  the 
Spanish-American  plays,  Los  Past  ores,  The  Shepherds.  Los  Reyes 
Magos,  The  Magi  Kings,  and  El  Nino  Perdido,  The  Lost  Child 
(Jesus)  preceded  La  Pasion,  The  Passion,  which  completed  the  New 
Testament  cycle  with  the  death  of  Christ. 

In  addition  to  these  primarily  instructive  autos,  and  among  the 
other  old  plays  brought  from  Spain,  is  Los  Moros  y  Los  Cristianos,  The 
Moors  and  The  Christians,  enacted  on  horseback.  This  auto  was  first 
presented  in  New  Mexico  by  Ofiate's  soldiers  in  1.598.  It  represents 
the  defeat  of  the  Moors  bv  the  Christians, 


FOLKLORE     IO3 

Indigenous  to  the  New  World  is  La  Aparicion  de  Nuestra  Senora 
de  Guadalupe,  The  Apparition  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe.  This  play 
presents  the  miraculous  appearance  of  the  Virgin  to  the  Indian,  Juan 
Diego,  in  Mexico.  A  purely  native  New  Mexican  play,  Los  Comanckes, 
The  Comanches,  also  performed  on  horseback,  is  not  of  a  religious 
nature,  but  is  based  on  the  capture  by  the  Comanche  Indians  of  two 
daughters  of  a  prominent  Spanish  family.  Although  the  story  is 
generally  given  annually  in  Taos  and  Tome,  a  small  village  near  Albu- 
querque, it  is  also  performed  in  other  Spanish-American  villages. 

Today  religious  dramas  may  be  found  in  any  Spanish-American 
settlement  in  New  Mexico  where,  during  the  Christmas  season,  they 
are  presented  by  a  local  cast.  In  some  instances  the  comic  element  in 
the  play  is  the  source  of  the  greatest  entertainment,  for  sometimes  the 
best  actors  are  cast  in  these  roles.  In  the  transmission  of  the  popular 
plays  from  generation  to  generation  no  attempt  is  made  to  keep  them 
intact ;  in  fact,  entire  scenes  may  be  omitted  or  added ;  and  if  the  music 
usually  associated  with  a  similar  play  is  particularly  pleasing  to  a  direc- 
tor, he  may  unhesitantly  incorporate  it  in  his  own  production.  Thus 
are  these  folk  plays  preserved,  if  not  in  their  purest  form,  yet  as  a  living 
part  of  the  folk  life  in  New  Mexico. 

Anglo-Americans.  Tales  of  buried  treasure  have  contributed  their 
share  to  the  stock  of  New  Mexican  legends.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Spanish  occupation  it  was  believed  that  the  padres,  on  being  warned  of 
an  Indian  attack,  hurriedly  buried  their  church  vessels  and  relics  in 
caves  or  pits  near  their  missions,  leaving  crude  signs  or  maps  to  mark 
the  place.  Another  source  of  hidden  treasure  was  buried  loot  of  bandits. 
This  gold  and  other  coin  was  supposed  to  have  been  hidden  in  ruins  and 
caves  throughout  the  State.  Some  old-timers  say  that  a  blue  light  or 
flame  appears  at  night  above  the  location  of  such  treasures.  Be  that  as 
it  may,  the  numerous  excavations  in  church  ruins  and  caves  testify  to 
the  still  existing  credulity  of  treasure  seekers. 

The  story  of  the  Lost  Padre  Mine  of  Isleta  is  one  of  the  most  per- 
sistent tales  in  New  Mexico.  It  is  told  that  a  padre  at  the  Indian 
pueblo  of  Isleta  once  possessed  an  exceedingly  rich  gold  mine  in  which 
a  considerable  number  of  workers  were  employed.  During  an  attack 
by  Apache  Indians  the  Isleta  miners  refused  to  work,  and  abandoned 
the  mine.  The  padre,  needing  more  gold,  made  a  last  trip  to  the  mine. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Apache  and  died  in  captivity.  The  mine  has 
never  been  located. 

The  coming  of  Americans  from  the  East  introduced  new  elements 
into  the  already  rich  folk  legendry.  They  brought  a  more  vivid  point 
of  view  and  traditions  that  had  their  origins  in  other  frontier  regions. 
There  were  the  buffalo  hunters,  the  desert  rats,  and  the  cowboys.  Folk 
tales  concerning  the  adventures  of  early  explorers  and  mountain  men 


IO2      NEW     MEXICO 

ter  known  tales,  it  is  a  characteristic  Spanish- American  folk  tale  because 
of  the  blend  of  old  world  origin  and  new  world  setting. 

There  is  the  story  of  Juan  Catorce — John  Fourteenth,  a  local  vari- 
ant of  the  Paul  Bunyan  legend.  There  are  tales  of  princes  and  peasants, 
of  witches,  of  tricksters  and  saints,  that  enrich  the  store  of  New  Mexi- 
can folklore. 

The  Spanish  folk  song  is  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  Southwest.  No 
other  group  in  the  United  States  is  more  given  to  singing,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  southern  Negro,  than  the  Spanish-American 
people  of  New  Mexico.  They  have  today  a  three-fold  repertoire,  con- 
sisting of  [i]  the  traditional  ballads  brought  from  Spain  by  the  Con- 
querors, [2]  the  lyrical  canciones  or  songs  and  the  racy  corridas  or 
popular  ballads  that  in  the  last  fifty  years  have  found  their  way  up 
from  Mexico,  and  [3]  the  religious  ballads  and  songs  called  alabados. 

New  Mexican  folk  songs  have  changed  with  social  and  economic 
changes.  Songs  of  neighboring  areas  have  been  adapted  to  the  Spanish- 
American  people's  own  tempo  and  rhythm.  Even  the  words  may  be 
changed — a  proof  that  the  song  is  truly  popular  and  capable  of  rebirth 
in  a  different  soil. 

Pageants  and  plays  are  important  features  of  the  folkways  of  the 
country.  These  productions  are  intimately  associated  with  the  life  of 
the  people;  and  because  of  their  oral  transmission  and  the  many  local 
variations  they  are  colored  with  genuine  folk  influences. 

The  early  Spaniards  came  with  a  dual  mission  to  the  new  world — to 
conquer  and  to  convert.  To  hasten  conversions  the  first  missionaries 
utilized  adaptable  features  of  both  the  Christian  and  the  pagan  re- 
ligions. In  the  absence  of  a  common  tongue,  pantomime  and  mimicry 
were  resorted  to,  and  the  auto  sacramental  or  religious  plays*  served  to 
bridge  the  deficiency  of  speech.  Some  of  the  first  autos  to  be  given  in 
New  Mexico  bore  such  titles  as  Addn  y  Eva  and  Cain  y  Abel.  The 
second  c}rcle  of  religious  plays  was  based  on  the  New  Testament.  This 
cycle  began  with  San  Jose,  Saint  Joseph,  and  was  usually  followed  by 
Las  Posadas,  The  Inns.  Las  Posadas  dealt  with  the  Nativity,  beginning 
with  the  effort  of  Mary  and  Joseph  to  find  lodging"  in  Bethlehem. 
These  were  usually  followed  by  one  of  the  two  most  popular  of  the 
Spanish-American  plays,  Los  Past  ores,  The  Shepherds.  Los  Reyes 
Magos,  The  Magi  Kings,  and  El  Nino  Perdido,  The  Lost  Child 
(Jesus)  preceded  La  Pasion,  The  Passion,  which  completed  the  New 
Testament  cycle  with  the  death  of  Christ. 

In  addition  to  these  primarily  instructive  autos,  and  among  the 
other  old  plays  brought  from  Spain,  is  Los  Moros  y  Los  Cristianos,  The 
Moors  and  The  Christians,  enacted  on  horseback.  This  auto  was  first 
presented  in  New  Mexico  by  Onate's  soldiers  in  I  598.  It  represents 
the  defeat  of  the  Moors  bv  the  Christians. 


FOLKLORE     IO3 

Indigenous  to  the  New  World  is  La  Aparicion  de  Nuestra  Senora 
de  Guadalupe,  The  Apparition  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe.  This  play 
presents  the  miraculous  appearance  of  the  Virgin  to  the  Indian,  Juan 
Diego,  in  Mexico.  A  purely  native  New  Mexican  play,  Los  Comanches, 
The  Comanches,  also  performed  on  horseback,  is  not  of  a  religious 
nature,  but  is  based  on  the  capture  by  the  Comanche  Indians  of  two 
daughters  of  a  prominent  Spanish  family.  Although  the  story  is 
generally  given  annually  in  Taos  and  Tome,  a  small  village  near  Albu- 
querque, it  is  also  performed  in  other  Spanish- American  villages. 

Today  religious  dramas  may  be  found  in  any  Spanish-American 
settlement  in  New  Mexico  where,  during  the  Christmas  season,  they 
are  presented  by  a  local  cast.  In  some  instances  the  comic  element  in 
the  play  is  the  source  of  the  greatest  entertainment,  for  sometimes  the 
best  actors  are  cast  in  these  roles.  In  the  transmission  of  the  popular 
plays  from  generation  to  generation  no  attempt  is  made  to  keep  them 
intact ;  in  fact,  entire  scenes  may  be  omitted  or  added ;  and  if  the  music 
usually  associated  with  a  similar  play  is  particularly  pleasing  to  a  direc- 
tor, he  may  unhesitantly  incorporate  it  in  his  own  production.  Thus 
are  these  folk  plays  preserved,  if  not  in  their  purest  form,  yet  as  a  living 
part  of  the  folk  life  in  New  Mexico. 

Anglo- Americans.  Tales  of  buried  treasure  have  contributed  their 
share  to  the  stock  of  New  Mexican  legends.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
Spanish  occupation  it  was  believed  that  the  padres,  on  being  warned  of 
an  Indian  attack,  hurriedly  buried  their  church  vessels  and  relics  in 
caves  or  pits  near  their  missions,  leaving  crude  signs  or  maps  to  mark 
the  place.  Another  source  of  hidden  treasure  was  buried  loot  of  bandits. 
This  gold  and  other  coin  was  supposed  to  have  been  hidden  in  ruins  and 
caves  throughout  the  State.  Some  old-timers  say  that  a  blue  light  or 
flame  appears  at  night  above  the  location  of  such  treasures.  Be  that  as 
it  may,  the  numerous  excavations  in  church  ruins  and  caves  testify  to 
the  still  existing  credulity  of  treasure  seekers. 

The  story  of  the  Lost  Padre  Mine  of  Isleta  is  one  of  the  most  per- 
sistent tales  in  New  Mexico.  It  is  told  that  a  padre  at  the  Indian 
pueblo  of  Isleta  once  possessed  an  exceedingly  rich  gold  mine  in  which 
a  considerable  number  of  workers  were  employed.  During  an  attack 
by  Apache  Indians  the  Isleta  miners  refused  to  work,  and  abandoned 
the  mine.  The  padre,  needing  more  gold,  made  a  last  trip  to  the  mine. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Apache  and  died  in  captivity.  The  mine  has 
never  been  located. 

The  coming  of  Americans  from  the  East  introduced  new  elements 
into  the  already  rich  folk  legendry.  They  brought  a  more  vivid  point 
of  view  and  traditions  that  had  their  origins  in  other  frontier  regions. 
There  were  the  buffalo  hunters,  the  desert  rats,  and  the  cowboys.  Folk 
tales  concerning  the  adventures  of  early  explorers  and  mountain  men 


104      NEW     MEXICO 

and  Indian  scouts  who  charted  the  wilderness  sprang  up  almost  over- 
night; the  stories  of  Fremont,  Kit  Carson,  Doniphan,  and  old  Bill 
Williams  have  added  color  to  the  Anglo-American  conquest  of  New 
Mexico. 

Among  the  tales  of  the  early  plainsmen  and  buffalo  hunters  is  the 
story  of  the  hunter  on  the  Staked  Plains,  who,  with  a  party  killing 
buffalo,  was  overtaken  by  a  "norther"  (a  plains  blizzard)  while  far 
from  camp.  Having  scant  clothing,  no  shelter,  and  no  matches,  and 
being  bewildered  by  the  storm,  he  bethought  himself  to  crawl  inside  a 
green  buffalo  hide,  wrapping  it  tightly  about  him.  When  morning 
came  he  found  that  the  hide  had  frozen  stiff  and  that  he  was  unable  to 
move  or  extricate  himself.  Several  days  afterward  he  was  found  and 
released  by  his  companions.  Upon  being  questioned  as  to  how  he 
managed  to  survive  the  experience  he  explained  that,  had  it  not  been  for 
the  possession  of  a  quart  of  whisky  and  a  good  set  of  teeth,  he  * 'surely 
would  of  froze  to  death." 

In  more  recent  times  an  interesting  source  of  folk  stories  has  been 
New  Mexico's  bad  men — Billy  the  Kid,  Black  Jack  Ketchum,  "Buck- 
shot" Roberts,  Tom  O'Foliard,  and  other  gun-fighters  of  the  territorial 
days,  when  many  men  acted  on  the  theory  that  "the  law  didn't  come 
west  of  the  Pecos."  All  through  the  Ruidoso  country  stretch  the  trails 
of  "Beely  the  Keed"  or  "El  Cabrito,"  as  he  was  called  by  the  Spanish- 
speaking  people,  who  loved  him  too  well  to  betray  him.  The  wild 
escapades  of  this  outlaw  culminated  in  his  "capture  by  shooting"  by 
Sheriff  Garrett  of  Lincoln  County.  He  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-one 
after  gaining  the  reputation  of  having  killed  a  man  for  each  year  of  his 
life,  leaving  behind  him  a  lasting  legend  of  a  western  Robin  Hood.  A 
number  of  people  in  remote  parts  of  the  State  believe  that  the  Kid  is 
still  alive  in  Mexico,  despite  the  fact  that  the  circumstances  of  his  death 
are  well  authenticated. 

Typical  of  the  stories  told  of  those  reckless  days  is  an  incident  in  the 
career  of  Clay  Allison,  the  notorious  "Corpse-maker"  of  Colfax  County. 
One  day  a  desperado  named  "Chunk"  disagreed  with  Allison  over  a  bet. 
Chunk,  seeking  to  trick  Allison,  invited  him  to  dinner  at  the  hotel. 
Taking  their  places  at  the  table,  each  laid  his  pistol  beside  his  plate,  and 
when  coffee  was  served  in  large  mugs,  they  facetiously  used  their  guns 
for  spoons,  each  keeping  a  sharp  eye  on  the  other.  Chunk,  after  stirring 
his  coffee,  pretended  to  lay  his  weapon  aside,  but  instead  rammed  it 
under  the  table  and  fired  at  Allison.  His  bullet  went  wide.  One  shot 
from  Allison,  and  Chunk  fell  forward  on  his  plate,  dead. 

The  stories  of  these  early  outlaws  are  often  charged  with  dry  humor. 
One  of  the  numerous  yarns  told  about  rustlers  deals  with  one  Joe 
Asque.  Narrowly  escaping  a  sheriff's  posse  at  Lake  Valley,  he  hid  on 
Carrizo  flats.  At  this  point  there  was  much  good  water,  and  watching 


FOLKLORE      JO5 

the  stock  come  to  drink,  Joe's  itching  rope  longed  for  action,  and  so, 
choosing  a  string  of  five  fat  saddle  horses,  he  headed  them  east.  Fifteen 
miles  farther  he  came  to  a  wooded  canyon,  where  he  saw  a  wagon 
approaching  with  two  men  in  it.  He  prepared  to  greet  them  but  as  the 
team  came  abreast  it  stopped,  and  Joe  found  himself  gazing  into  the 
black  hole  of  a  Winchester.  "Put  them  up  and  get  down,"  the  men  told 
him.  Joe,  armed  only  with  a  six-shooter,  obeyed.  His  captors  tied  his 
hands  behind  him  and  slipped  his  own  rope  over  his  head.  Then  the 
wagon  was  driven  to  the  nearest  tree,  where  the  rope  was  tied  to  a 
branch,  and  Joe  forced  to  step  off  the  wagon,  where  he  was  left  hanging 
with  his  toes  just  clear  of  the  ground.  Joe  was  small  and  light,  which 
saved  his  life.  The  knot  in  the  rope  happened  to  be  under  his  chin,  and 
although  it  was  hard  for  him  to  breathe,  he  did  not  actually  choke. 
After  some  time  he  freed  his  hands,  and  with  his  pocket  knife  cut  the 
rope.  Later,  in  commenting  on  his  experience,  Joe  said  the  hanging 
was  not  so  bad,  but  riding  his  old  horse  bareback  for  a  hundred  miles 
to  his  home  range  certainly  made  him  mad. 

The  cowboys  have  left  many  ballads  which  reflect  the  hardy  life  of 
the  outdoors  and  the  camaraderie  of  trail  and  camp.  Many  of  the  tales 
of  cowboy  and  sheepmen  were  composed  around  the  campfire,  where 
men  talked  and  sang  under  the  stars.  The  popular  ballad,  "Little  Joe 
the  Wrangler,"  first  published  in  1908  and  claimed  for  various  writers 
in  the  Southwest,  was  composed  by  N.  Howard  (Jack)  Thorpe,  a 
cowboy,  around  such  a  campfire.  Others  originated  in  small  settlement 
supply  stores,  which  also  served  as  "hang-outs"  for  punchers,  cowmen, 
and  prospectors.  There  on  winter  nights  the  men  sat  around  a  big 
stove  and  "swapped  yarns."  Such  a  group  of  weather-beaten  men  were 
gathered  one  night  when  one  of  them  said:  "I  was  at  the  Seven  Springs 
Canyon  last  week  and  things  shore  look  bad.  That  old  dog,  Soldier, 
took  over  an  hour  to  travel  ten  feet  from  the  corral  to  the  house." 

"How  come?"  asked  several  of  the  boys. 

"W_e_l— \t  it  was  this-a-way.  You  know  old  Uncle  Johnnie  Root 
who  lives  there?  Though  he  has  a  bunch  of  cattle,  he  is  still  an  old 
prospector,  always  out  to  find  the  richest  gold  mine  ever,  and  he  had  a 
shaft  in  the  hill  by  his  house.  Well,  a  couple  of  weeks  ago  he  thought 
he  would  drive  his  shaft  a  little  deeper.  So  he  dug  up  his  fuse,  caps  and 
giant,  but  found  the  giant  had  bin  froze.  So  he  poked  six  sticks  into 
the  oven  to  thaw  out,  and  leaving  old  Soldier  in  charge,  started  for  the 
corral.  He  just  closed  the  gate  when  there  was  a  terrible  noise  and  he 
see  his  roof  blow  straight  up.  Johnnie  ambled  over  to  the  hole  in  the 
ground  where  his  house  had  bin  but  outside  of  a  box  of  crackers  and  a 
necktie,  he  couldn't  find  nothing. 

"Then  he  began  to  whistle  for  his  dog,  Soldier.  All  day  he  hunted 
and  late  in  the  evening  he  heard  a  whimper  and  spied  old  Soldier  on 


106     NEW    M  EXICO 

the  topmost  branch  of  a  big  pine,  where  he  had  been  tossed  by  the 
explosion.  That  dog  was  so  tickled  to  see  him  that  he  jumped.  He 
landed  on  his  four  feet  all  right,  but  that  two  hundred  foot  drop  drove 
all  four  legs  up  into  his  body,  leavin'  only  his  paws  sticking  out.  he 
seems  to  have  recovered  and  his  legs  are  firmly  knit,  but  you  can  see  if 
you  go  to  Seven  Springs,  he  can't  step  over  an  inch  at  a  time  and  it  take* 
him  a  hour  of  hard  work  to  crawl  ten  feet." 

Tales  of  the  cattle  trails  in  the  Staked  Plains  country,  of  early 
ranchmen  and  railroaders,  help  to  swell  the  volume  of  New  Mexico 
folklore.  Though  many  collections  of  cowboy  and  ranch,  of  Spanish 
and  Indian  folklore  have  been  published,  there  is  still  a  vast  fun4  of 
material  yet  to  be  recorded. 


Contributions  to  the  Language 

NEW  MEXICO  has  contributed  generously  to  the  idiomatic 
speech  of  the  United  States.  The  vernacular  of  the  State  took 
form  and  color  from  English,  Spanish,  French,  and  the  Amer- 
ican Indian  tongues.  It  has  not  only  broadened  the  everyday  speech  of 
New  Mexico  but  has  enriched  the  American  language  with  many  words 
of  universal  appeal.  These  various  language  influences  were  effective 
during  the  colonization  by  Spanish  Conquistadores  and  the  influxes  of 
French  and  Anglo-American  trappers,  traders,  trail  blazers,  and  pioneers 
who  absorbed  the  Spanish  idiom  and  added  their  own  to  the  region. 
Later,  the  cattle  empire  made  its  special  contributions. 

Since  New  Mexico  was  a  province  of  Spain  and  Mexico  for  more 
than  200  years,  Spanish  words  such  as  canon,  lariat,  stampede,  and 
barbecue  naturally  found  their  way,  with  but  slight  changes,  into  the 
English  vernacular.  Many  of  the  Spanish  or  Anglicized  words  of 
Spanish  origin  which  are  listed  as  belonging  to  the  New  Mexico  idiom 
may  be  in  general  use  elsewhere.  But  the  first  contact  between  Anglo- 
Americans  and  Spanish-speaking  population  occurred  in  New  Mexico 
and  also  at  a  date  earlier  than  in  the  surrounding  States.  Some  words 
now^in  common  usage  in  the  Southwest  date  back  to  the  era  when  New 
Mexico  was  the  home  of  various  Indian  tribes.  Among  these  words, 
still  preserved  in  something  like  their  original  form,  are  chimajd,  punche 
or  puncho,  tegua  or  tewas  and  tornbe. 

Many  other  Indian  words  found  in  the  regional  idiom  have  come 
into  English  through  a  form  of  Mexican-Spanish  that  derives  mainly 
from  the  original  Aztec  or  Nahuatl.  Examples  of  these  are  chicle,  chili, 
chocolate,  coyote,  jacal  (hacal),  mescal,  metate,  mesquite,  sotol,  tamale, 
tapadero,  tequila,  tomate  and  zacaton. 

French  fur  trappers,  as  early  as  1733,  and  continuing  through  Santa 
Fe  Trail  days,  left  their  mark  in  such  words  as  "cache,"  "fawche," 
"sashay,"  "travee,"  furnishing  another  artery  of  lingual  exchange  be- 
tween east  and  west. 

The  Anglo-American  trappers,  traders,  and  pioneers  liberally  sea- 
soned New  Mexico's  speech,  dating  this  period  with  "all  set,"  "big 
talk,"  and  "blaze  away."  Many  of  the  words  in  this  linguistic  heritage 
are  now  intrenched  in  our  national  vernacular.  They  recall  the  trail 
and  its  life  and  frequently  stem  from  Anglicized  variants  of  the  Spanish. 

107 


108      NEW     MEXICO 

Mining  activity  with  its  "high  grader,"  "hill  nutty,"  and  "pay  dirt," 
brought  a  small  but  richly  expressive  contribution.  The  era  of  early 
transportation  used  Spanish  terminology.  The  whole  pack-train  outfit, 
in  charge  of  a  mozo  or  arriero  was  known  as  the  atajo  (hatajo).  The 
animals,  burros,  mules,  or  horses,  made  up  the  remuda.  The  pack- 
saddle  and  equipment  (the  aparejo)  was  secured  to  the  animals  by 
cinchas  and  Idtigos,  while  the  halter  became  a  hackamore  (jdquima). 

The  cattle-raising  era,  following  frontier  trail  days,  was  responsible 
for  the  Anglicization  of  numerous  Spanish  terms  as  they  appear  in  that 
part  of  the  present  national  vocabulary  which  deals  with  this  industry. 
Practically  all  the  cowboy  equipment  was  obtained  from  Spanish-Amer- 
ican sources.  The  bronco  of  today  and  the  mustang  of  yesterday  came 
from  the  same  source,  and  the  names  of  the  animals  and  articles  used 
were  also  of  a  common  origin.  Fresh  mounts  were  secured  from  the 
remuda  or  caballada,  and  the  horse-wrangler  who  was  generally  a 
descendant  of  Mexican-Spanish  caballerango. 

One  outstanding  example  of  a  cowboy  term  of  Spanish  derivation  is 
"dogie,"  a  motherless  calf.  The  usual  explanation  of  the  term  is  that  it 
came  from  "doughie,"  "dough-guts,"  or  "dough-bellies,"  used  by  cow- 
boys in  referring  to  motherless  calves  with  abnormally  extended  bellies, 
the  result  of  being  forced  to  subsist  on  a  grass  instead  of  milk  diet. 
According  to  N.  Howard  (Jack)  Thorpe,  an  old  time  cowboy,  it  was 
derived  from  the  Spanish  word  dogal,  "to  tie  by  the  neck."  Spanish- 
American  vaqueros,  when  milking  a  cow,  tied  the  calf  with  a  rope  that 
allowed  it  to  nurse  only  one  teat,  leaving  the  rest  for  the  milker;  the 
name  which  the  milker  used  for  the  calf  was  "dogal,"  corrupted  by 
Anglo-American  cowboys  to  "dogie." 

Changes  in  Spanish  words  adopted  into  the  English  vernacular  were 
not  confined  solely  to  spelling  and  pronunciation :  sometimes  the  original 
words  also  acquired  different  meanings;  for  example,  rodeo  to  the 
Spaniard  and  early  border  ranchman  meant  a  roundup  of  livestock  on 
the  range.  The  present  day  application  of  rodeo  (Anglicized  to  rodeo) 
means  an  exhibition  of  professional  cowboy  contestants  before  paying 
spectators. 

The  general  adoption  of  common  Spanish  words  from  the  written 
language  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  General  Pike's  Journal  in 
1807,  and  to  have  continued  by  other  chroniclers  of  the  New  Mexican 
scene,  who  introduced  or  gave  baile,  fandango,  frijoles,  hacienda,  rancho, 
rebozo,  senoritas,  siesta,  and  tortillas  to  the  eastern  readers. 

The  significance  of  the  Mexican  War  and  the  American  occupation 
of  New  Mexico  (1846)  included  the  absorption  of  more  than  a  few 
Spanish  words  into  the  vocabularies  of  United  States  soldiers,  as  a  result 
of  their  daily  contacts  with  the  Mexicans. 

Two   outstanding  contributions,  gringo   and   "greaser''  terms   re- 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE     LANGUAGE      IO9 

spectively  designating  American  and  Mexican,  came  from  this  period. 
Contrary  to  common  fallacy,  the  origin  of  gringo  was  not  from  the 
popular  army  song  of  the  day  Green  Grow  the  Rushes  O,  but  was  a 
corruption  of  the  Spanish  word  griego — Greek.  It  was  first  used  as 
such  in  Spain  where  Greeks  employed  in  the  Spanish  Army  were  called 
gringos.  Ultimately  the  word  came  to  mean  all  foreigners  and  is  com- 
monly used  in  this  sense  today  in  Mexico  and  South  America.  In  New 
Mexico,  where  gringo  was  first  used  to  designate  all  non-Spanish  speak- 
ing peoples,  it  is  today  applied  particularly  to  Anglo-Americans. 

While  they  were  originally  used  to  designate  nationalities  alone, 
gringo  and  greaser  were  later  used  as  terms  of  contempt.  Whipple  in 
his  "Explorations"  (1856)  records  his  attendance  at  a  ball  where  the 
natives  were  "heard  talking  ...  of  gringos  .  .  .  ,"  and  he  adds  in  a 
footnote :  ff gringos  .  .  .  Mexican  term  of  contempt."  Today  in  Santa 
Fe,  Spanish-American  school  children  often  call  each  other,  if  freckle- 
faced,  gringo  salado;  and  in  games  of  robbers  and  police  the  robbers  are 
always  called  gringos. 

No  etymology  for  the  term  greaser  is  known.  It  appears  to  have 
been  coined  by  gringos  or  other  foreigners  of  the  early  American  occu- 
pation period  to  designate  the  Mexican  workman.  Stories  of  its  origin 
vary,  one  contending  the  name  was  given  because  of  their  love  of  greas- 
ing their  hair  to  intensify  the  dark  color ;  another  is  that  it  came  from 
the  excessive  use  of  oils  and  fats  in  Mexican  cookery.  Another  story 
also  relates  that  in  the  days  of  oxcarts  and  freight  wagons,  there  was 
always  a  Mexican  peon  assigned  to  grease  the  axles  and  he  was  called 
the  greaser.  The  present  use  of  either  gringo  or  greaser  is  considered  a 
taunt  or  term  of  contempt. 

The  Santa  Fe  Trail  freighters  of  the  early  sixties  recognized  two 
classes  among  Spanish  inhabitants,  the  ricos  (rich)  and  peones  (poor) 
To  the  latter  class  they  applied  greaser  contemptuously. 

The  revolution  in  Mexico,  in  1910,  with  Villa's  raids  into  New 
Mexico  and  General  Pershing's  pursuit  across  the  Rio  Grande,  gave 
Spanish  terms  a  new  interest,  especially  in  the  press  reports,  and  also 
served  to  revive  the  term  gringo. 

Contemporary  literature  relating  to  the  Southwest,  including  the 
prose  or  poetry  of  Charles  F.  Lummis,  Mary  Austin,  Willa  Gather,  J. 
Frank  Dobie,  Alice  Corbin,  Nina  Otero,  Harvey  and  Erna  Fergusson, 
and  N.  Howard  Thorpe,  demonstrates  how  spontaneously  the  native- 
born  or  naturalized  people  of  that  region  employ  the  language  handed 
down  from  the  Conquistadores.  Many  who  now  employ  these  words 
are  not  aware  of  their  Spanish  origin.  Spanish  continues  to  be  the  sole 
language  of  some  of  the  State's  native-born  Spanish-Americans,  while 
others  of  Spanish  extraction  use  English  and  Spanish  with  equal  facility. 


110      NEW     MEXICO 


GLOSSARY 


ABARROTE 

ABAJO 

ACEQUIA 

ADI6S 

ADOBE 

AGUA 

AGUARDIENTE 

ALAMOGORDO 

ALBONDIGAS 

ALFORJA 

ALGODONES 

ALTO 

AMIGO 

AMOLE 


ANCHO 
APACHF 

APAREJO 
ARENA 

ARRIBA 
ARRIERO 

ARROYO 
ATAJO 


(ah-bar-o'ta) 

(ah-bah'ho) 

(ah-sa'ke-ah) 

(ah-de-os') 

(ah-doba) 

(ah'wah) 

( ah-gwar-de-an'ta) 

( al-ah-mo-gor'do ) 

(al-bon-de'gahs) 

(ahl-for'hah) 

(ahl-go-do'nes) 

(ahl'to) 

(ah-me'go) 

(ah-rao'la) 


(ahn'cho) 
(ah-pah'cha) 

(ah-pah-ra'ho) 
(ah-ra'nah) 

(ah-re'bah) 
(ah-re-ar'o) 

(ah-ro'yo) 
(ah-tah'ho) 


Retail  grocery  (local  usage), 
Lower.  Rio  abajo,  lower  river. 
Canal,  thence  irrigation  ditch. 
Goodby. 

Unburnt,   sun   dried  bricks  of 
earth  mixed  with  straw. 
Water. 

A  term  for  whiskey  or  brandy. 
Round  (or  fat)  cotton  wood 
tree. 

Meat  balls. 
Saddle  bag. 
Cotton  fields. 

High.     Pino  alto,  tall  pine. 
A  friend,  Amigo   miot  my 
friend. 

Palmillo  plant  called  soap- 
weed;  soap  is  made  from  its 
roots. 

Broad.    Rinctin  ancno, 
broad  corner. 

Apache.     Indian  word  for 
enemy. 

Pack-saddle  and  equipment. 
Sand.     Llano    arenoso,  sandy 
plain. 

Upper.    Rio  arriba,  upper 
river. 

Mule  driver.  Especially  for 
pack-trains. 

Wash  from  flood  waters. 
A  short-cut. 


BAILE 

BAJADA 

BELIN'KA 

BIENVENIDO 

BIG  LOOP 

BONITO 

BOOTHILL 
BOOTZIES 

BOSQUE 

BOTAS 

BOX  CANYON 

BULTO 

BRAND-BLOTTER 
BREAKS 


(by'la) 
(bah-hah'dah) 

(be-an-va-ne'do) 
(bo-ne'to) 


(bos'ka) 
(bS'tahs) 

(bool'to) 


A  ball,  dance. 

A  sharp  descent. 

Navaho  for  American. 

Welcome. 

The  lasso  of  a  cattle-thief. 

Pretty.     Pueblo   bonito,  pretty 

pueblo. 

A  kind  of  burial  ground. 

Indian  term  for   Mexican 

sweet-cakes. 

Thickly  wooded  area. 

Boots. 

A  canyon  with  one  entrance* 

Bulk,  bust  (Scul.)  and  local!}  : 

image  of  saint  carved  in  wood. 

A  person  who  illegally  alters 

a  brand. 

Many  small  rough  canyons. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE     LANGUAGE      III 


BRONC-PEELER 

BROOMIES 
BRUJA 

BUENOS  DIAS 
BUENAS  TARDES 
BULLDOGGING 


CABALLADA 
CABALLERANGO 

CABALLERO 
CACHE 

CACIQUE 


(broo'hah) 

(bway'nos-de'as) 

(bway'nahs-tar'das) 


(cah-bah-yah'da) 
(cah-bah-yar-an'gd) 

(cah-bah-ya'ro) 
(kash) 

(kah-se'ka) 


CALABOZO 

(kah-lah-bo'so) 

CALIENTE 

(kah-le-an'te) 

CAMINO 

(kah-me'no) 

CAMPIffAS 

(kahm-peen'yas) 

CANADA 

(kahn-yah'dah) 

CANCI6N 

(kahn-se-6n') 

CA&6N 

(kahn-yon') 

CANTINA 

(kahn-teen'ah) 

CANTO 

(kahn'to) 

CANTORES 

(kahn-tor'as) 

CAPULfN 

(kah-pob-leen') 

CARNE 

(kar'na) 

CARRETA 

(kah-ra'tah) 

CASA 

(kah'sah) 

CENA 

(sa'na) 

CERRO 

(sa'ro) 

CHAMIZO 

(chah-me'so) 

CHAPAREJOS 

(chap-ah-ra'hds) 

CHAPARRAL 

(chah-par-rahl') 

CHAPARRAL  COCK 

CHAPS 
CHARRO 


CHICO 

CHIHUAHUA 

CHIMAJA 

CHONGO 


CHOUSING 
CHUCK  WAGON 


(chaps) 
(chah'ro) 


(che'ko) 

(che-wnVwha) 

(che-ma-ha') 

(chon'go) 


A  cowboy  who  tames  horses 

for  riding  and  range  work. 

Wild  horses. 

A  witch. 

A  greeting,  Good  day. 

Good  afternoon. 

To  throw  (a  steer)  by  seizing 

its  horns  and  twisting  its  neck. 

A  herd  of  horses. 
A  herdsman;   a  wrangler  of 
horses  (local  usage). 
A  gentleman;  a  horseman. 
To   hide   away.     A  place   of 
concealment. 

A  wiseman  or  councilman  of 
an  Indian  tribe. 
Jail. 
Hot. 

Road  or  highway. 
Fields. 

Land  between. 
A  song. 
A  ravine. 
A  saloon. 
A  chant. 
Official  chanters. 
Choke-berry  or  choke-cherry. 
Meat. 

Two  wheel  cart. 
House. 
Supper. 
Hill  or  peak. 

Brush  used  as  kindling  wood. 
Chaps. 

A  low  growing  brush. 
State    bird    of    New    Mexico. 
The  road-runner. 
Leather    protectors    used    by 
cowboys   (abbrev.). 
Gaudy  clothes  of  embroidered 
fabrics.  Also  an  ill-bred  per- 
son. 

'Small.    Rio  chico,  little  river. 
A  city  in  Mexico. 
A     medicinal     herb;     locally 
wild  celery. 

The  queue  style  in  which  hair 
is   worn   by   the   men   of   the 
Is! eta  Indian  tribe. 
Hurrying  cattle  or  horses. 
Wagon  used  during  a  roundup 
for  cooking  and  carrying  food- 
rtuffs. 


112      NEW     MEXICO 


CHUPADERO 
CfBOLA 
CIENEGA 
CIGARRITO 

CINCHAS 

CLAN 


COCINERO 
COLCH6N 


COMIDA 

COMO  LE  VA? 

COMPAftERO 

CONCHAS 

CONQUJSTADORES 

COUNT  COUP 

COWPOKE 
COW-WOOD 

COYOTE 


CREASED 

CRISTO 

CRITTER 

CRUCES 

CUMBRES 

CUNA 

CUTTING  CATTLE 

DfA 

DIABLO 

DINE 

'DOBE  DOLLARS 

DOGAL 

DOGIE 

DOS  REALES 

DRIFT 

DRIFT  FENCE 

DUEffA 
DULCE 
DUST  THE  TRAIL 

D.USTING  PAN 


(choo-pah-da'ro) 
(se'bo-lah) 
(se-a'na-gah) 
(se-gar-ree'to) 

(seen'chas) 


(ko-see-na'ro) 
(kol-ch5n') 


(ko-me'dah) 

(ko-mo-la-vah') 

(kom-pahn-yer'o) 

(kon'chahs) 

( kon-kees-tah-do'r  as ) 


(Sp.  ko-yo'ta) 


(kre'sto) 

(cru'ses) 

(koom'bras) 

(kod'nah) 


(de'ah) 

(de-ah'blo) 

(din-na) 


(do-gahl') 

(do'ge) 

(dos-ra-ah'las) 


(doo-an'yah) 
(dool'sa) 


Cattle  tick. 

Buffalo. 

A  marshy  place. 

Cigarette,    particularly    of 

cornhusk  paper. 

The  saddle  girth. 

An      Indian      group      usually 

named  for  animals,  seasons  or 

vegetables.    Each  pueblo  may 

have  several  clans. 

Cook. 

A  mattress.     In  early  days  it 

was  placed  on  floor  and  used 

as  bed. 

Dinner,  food. 

How  arc  you? 

Friend  or  companion. 

Shell  or  flat  silver  discs. 

The    early   Spanish   explorers 

of  New  Mexico. 

Trailsmen's  term  for  counting 

victims  of  a  battle. 

A  cowboy. 

Dried  manure  chips  used  for 

fuel. 

A     small     species     of     wolf. 

Common   to    plains    of    North 

America.     The  prairie  wolf. 

To  be   slightly   injured   by   a 

knife  or  bullet. 

Christ. 

An  animal. 

Crosses. 

A  mountain  ridge. 

Cradle;  also  a  kind  of  dance. 

Separating  cattle  from  a  herd. 

Day. 

Devil. 

The  people.  Navaho  name  for 

themselves. 

Mexican  dollars   (pesos). 

To  tie  by  the  neck. 

Motherless  calf. 

Twenty-five  cents;  two  bits. 

To  travel  aimlessly.^ A  drifter 

is  such  a  traveler. 

A  fence  erected  to  stop  cattle 

from  drifting. 

Chaperone. 

Sweet,  also  candy. 

To  travel  a  trail.   To  start  or 

leave. 

Pan  used  in  placer  mining. 


CONTRIBUTIONS     TO    THE     LANGUAGE      113 


EAR-MARK 

ESCONDIDO 

ESTUFA 


FAJAS 


(es-con-de'do) 
(es-too'fa) 


(fah'has) 
(fa'ro) 


FANDANGO 

FARO 

FEEL  LIKE  CHAWIN1 

FIESTA  (fe-es'ta) 

FILIGREE 


FLAME  THROWER 
FLOUR  GOLD 
FOFARRAW 


FONDA 

FREEZE  ON  TO  IT 

FRIJOLES 

FUZZIES 

GER6NIMO 

GILA  MONSTER 

GLORIETA 

GOLONDRINA 

GRACIAS 

GRACIAS  A  DIOS 

GRAMA 

GRAN  QUIVIRA 

GREASER 

GRIEGO 
GRINGO 


GROUNDING 


GRUB-LINE  RIDER 


GRUBSTAKE 


(fon'dah) 
(fre-ho'las) 


(Her-on'e-mo) 

(he'Iah) 

(glo-re-a'tah) 

(go-lon-dre'na) 

(grah'se-ahs) 

(gra'se-as  ah-de'os) 

( gr  ahn-ke-ve'rah ) 


(gre-a'go) 
(gren'go) 


To  cut  ears  of  cattle  for  iden- 
tification. 

Hidden.  Rincdn  escondido, 
hidden  corner. 

Indian  council  chamber,  like 
a  kiva.  (Derived  from  Span- 
ish stove  because  of  the  heat 
in  the  ill-ventilated  struc- 
tures.) 

Bright     girdles     woven     and 
worn  by  Indians. 
Dance. 

A  gambling  game. 
Trailsmen's  term  for  hunger. 
A    feast    and    celebration    of 
carnival  spirit. 
Mexican   ornaments   of    intri- 
cate,  lacy   designs,   woven   of 
gold  or  silver  wire. 
Cowboj'-  term  for  gun. 
Fine  gold  dust. 
Trailsmen's  term  for  fancy 
dress. 
Inn. 

Trailsmen's  term  to  hold  fasc. 
Beans. 
Poor  quality  horses. 

Jerome. 

A  poisonous  lizard. 
Bower,  arbor. 
The  swallow. 
Thanks. 

Thanks  to  God. 
A  wild  grass. 

New  Mexico  National  Monu- 
ment. 

Term  of  contempt  for  Mexi- 
can. 
Greek. 

A  term  of  contempt  for  Anglo- 
Americans  or  any,  except  In- 
dians, not  speaking  Spanish. 
Cowboy  term  for  letting  bridle 
reins  touch  ground ;  horse  then 
stands  without  tying. 
Usually  a  lazy  cowboy  who 
rides  from  one  ranch  to  an- 
other without  offering  to  work 
or  pay  for  his  food  or  shelter. 
Food  and  supplies  furnished  a 
prospector  for  interest  in  lo- 
cated mines. 


NEW     MEXICO 


GUACO 


GUITARRA 

HACIENDA 
HACKAMORE 
HAIR  BRANDING 


HATAJO 
HEELING 

HERMANO  MAYOR 
HERMOSO 

HIGH-GRADER 

HILL-NUTTY 

HOGAN 


HOMBRE 
HONDA 


HONDO 

HOORAW 
HUECO 

HUMP  YOURSELF 
HUNG  UP 


INDITA 
INJUN-BROKE 

HORSE 
ISLETA 

JACAL 
JAQUIMA 

JERKY 
JORNADA  DEL 

MUERTO 
JUMP  UP  A  LOT  OF 

DUST 

KAYAKS  (ki'aks) 

KIVA  (ke'vah) 


(gwah'-ko) 

(ge-tar'rah) 

(ah-se-an'dah) 
(hack'a-more) 


(ah-tah'ho) 
(ar-mah'no  mah-yor') 


(ho'gan) 


(om'bra) 
(on'dah) 


(on'do) 
(wa'ko) 


(en-de'tah) 

(es-la'tah) 

(ha-kahl') 
(ha'ke-mah) 


(hor-nah'-dah 
moo-ar'to) 


Bee  balm,  a  plant,  the  roots  of 
which    are   used   to   obtain    a 
dye  for  decorating  pottery. 
Guitar. 

A  ranch  house. 
Halter  or  headstall. 
Brand  made  by  burning  only 
hair.  A  temporary  brand  used 
on  trail  herds. 
Herd  or  flock. 

Roping  a  calf  by  hind  legs. 
Chief  brother,   headman. 
Beautiful.  Ojo  hermoso,  beau- 
tiful spring. 

One  who  steals  rich  ore  from 
mines. 

An  eccentric  miner  or  pros- 
pector. 

The   Navaho   house,   a   crude 
octagonal  structure  of   adobe- 
covered  logs. 
Man. 

Sling,  locally;  a  loop  or  ring 
on  lariat  end  to  slip  a  rope 
through  and  make  a  large 
slipknot. 

Deep.  Arroyo  hondo,  deep 
arroyo. 
Derision. 

Hollow.  Cerro  hucco,  hollow 
peak. 

Trailsmen's  term  for  haste  or 
diligent  work. 

An  accident  in  which  a  cow- 
boy is  unseated  from  his  horse 
and  his  foot  caught  in  a  stir- 
rup. 

Little  Indian;  a  kind  of  song. 
A  horse  broken  for  mounting 
from  either  side. 
Islet  or  little  isle. 

A  crude  hut. 

Headstall  or  halter   (same   as 

hackamore). 

Sun-dried  meat. 

Journey  of  death. 

A  big  roundup,  or  great  haste. 

Pack-saddle  bags. 
Indian     ceremonial     chamber 
with     entrance     by     ladder 
through  roof. 


KO-KO 
KOSHARE 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE     LANGUAGE      IIS 

Zuni  Indian  gods. 

(ko-shar'a)  Keres    Indian    for    ancestral 

spirits;  delight  makers. 


LADR6N 
LACUNA 
LAMY 


LARIAT 
LASSO 


LAS  VEGAS 
LATIGOS 
LINE  CAMP 

LINE-RIDER 


LLANO 

LOCO 

LOMA 

LONGHORN 


LUMINARIAS 


(la-dron') 

(la-goo'nah) 

(lah-rae) 


(lah'ri-at) 
(lah'so) 


(va'gahs) 
(lah'tego) 


(yah'no) 

(16'co) 

(lo'mah) 


(loo-me-nah're-ahs) 


Thief. 
Lake. 

John     B.     Lamy,     1814-1888. 
Archbishop    of   New    Mexico. 
Town  pron.  La'me. 
A  lasso. 

A  rope  used  to  catch  stock; 
made  of  buffalo  hide  or  raw- 
hide in  early  days.  Now  com- 
monly of  hemp,  forty  to 
seventy  feet  in  length.  (Sp. 
lazo.) 

The  meadows. 
Cinch-strap. 

A  camp  established  on  the  far 
boundaries  of  a  ranch. 
A  cowboy  who  guards  ranch 
boundaries,  turning  back  stray 
stock  and  repairing  fences. 
A  plain. 
Crazy. 

A  low  hill.  Loma  prieia,  dark 
hill. 

Spanish    cattle    brought    into 
Texas  from  Mexico;  so  desig- 
nated  because   of   their   long 
horns. 
Small  bonfires. 


MADRE 
MAGUEY 


MALPAIS 

MAffANA 
MANTA 
MANZANA 
MARIJUANA 


MATACHINES 
MAVERICKS 


MAYORDOMO 
MESA 


(mah'dra) 
(mah-ga') 


(mahl-pah-es') 

(mahn-yah'nah) 

(mahn'tah) 

(mahn-zahn'ah) 

(mar-e-whah'na) 


(ma-tah-che'nas) 


(ma-yor-do'mo) 
(ma'sah) 


Mother. 

Century   plant.     Lasso   ropes, 

sisal,  and  an  intoxicating  drink 

are  made  from  it 

Volcanic  rock  (lava). 

Tomorrow. 

Mantle  or  small  shawl. 

Apple. 

An  herb  of  the  hemp  family 

intoxicating  in  its  effect  when 

smoked. 

Aztec  drama  dance. 

Unbranded  range  stock.  Name 

derived  from  Sam  Maverick, 

a  Texan,  who  left  most  of  his 

cattle  unbranded. 

Foreman. 

Table.      High    table   or   table 

land. 


Il6     NEW     MEXICO 


MESQUITE 
MESILLA 
MESTIZO 
METATE 

MILPAS 

MIMBRES 

MOIETIES 

MONTE 
MORADA 

MORO 
MORRO 

MOUNTAIN 

CANARY 
MOZO 

MUERTE 
MUSTANG 


(mes-ket') 
(ma-se'ah) 
(raes-te'-so) 
(ma-tah'ta) 

(mel'pahs) 
(mem'bras) 
(moi'e-tes) 

(mon'ta) 
(mo-rah'dah) 

(mo'ro) 
(mo'rro) 


(mo'so) 


(mob-ar'ta) 


A  desert  shrub. 

Little  table  land. 

Indian  half-breed. 

Stone     upon    which    corn    5s 

ground  by  hand. 

Fields;  maize  lands. 

Place  of  willows. 

A   social   division    among  the 

pueblos. 

A  gambling  game.    (Sp.  forest 

or  hills.) 

A  meeting  or  chapter  house  of 

Penitentes. 

Moor. 

Headland,  bluff.  El  morro,  the 

headland. 

Nickname  for  a  burro. 
Young  man,  youth,  man  ser- 
vant. 
Death. 

Horses  directly  decended  from 
Spanish  mestanos  brought  by 
the  conquistadores.  An  un- 
broken horse. 


NESTERS 
NIGHT-HAWK 


NORTE 
NUEVO 


(nor'ta) 
(nob-a'vo) 


Homesteaders. 

Man   who  guards  the  saddle 

horses     at     night     during     a 

roundup. 

North. 

New. 


OCOTILLO 

OJO 

ON  THE  PROD 

ORO 


(o-ko-te'yo) 
(6'ho) 

(o'ro) 


A  wild  thorny  desert  shrub. 
Eye,  spring   (of  water). 
Angry — cowboy  ready  to  fight. 
Gold.    Cerro  orot  gold  hill. 


PADRE 

PAJARO 

PALAVER 

PASTORES 

PATIO 

PATR6N 

PAY  DIRT 

PE$A 

PESJASCO 

PENITENTE 


PE<3N 
PESO 


(pah'dray)  Father,  priest. 

(pa'ha-ro)  Bird. 

(pal-a'ver)  To  discuss. 

(pahs-to'ras)  Shepherds. 

(pah'te-o)  Inner  court  yard. 

(pah-tron')  Boss. 

Gold  bearing  sand. 

(pan'yah)  Rock. 

(pan-yas'co)  Large  rock. 

(pan-e-tan'ta)  A  secret  religious  order,  prac- 

ticing  flagellation    and   cruci- 
fixion. 

(paon)  A  poor  person  or  servant. 

(pa' so)  Mexican    and   other   Spanish- 

American  unit  of  currency. 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    LANGUAGE      117 


PEYOTE 

PENOLE 
PIKI 


PIftCN 
PINTO 
PLACITA 
PLAZA 

PALOVERDE 
POCO  TIEMPO 
POLVADERA 
PORTERO 

PRONTO 
PUERCO 

RAMRODDING  THE 

OUTFIT 
RANCHEROS 
RANCHO 
RAT6N 
REAL 
REBOZO 
REMUDA 

RIATA 

RICO 

RIDE  THE  RIVER 

WITH 
RfO 

ROAD  RUNNER 
RODEO 

RUN  MEAT 
RUNNING  IRON 

SALA 

SALADO 

SAN 

SANDfA 

SAN  FELIPE 

SANGRE  DE  CRISTO 

SAN  JUAN 

SANTA  ANA 

SANTA  CLARA 

SANTA  FE 

SANTOS 


(pa-yo'ta) 

(pa-no'la) 
(pe'ke) 


(pen-yon') 
(pen'to) 
(plah-se'ta) 
(plah'zah) 

(pah'lo-var'da) 
(po'kote'ampo) 
(pol-vah-da'rah) 
(por-ta'ro) 

(pron'to) 
(pob-ar'ko) 


(rahn-cha'ros) 

(rahn'cho) 

(rah-ton') 

(ra-ahl) 

(ra-bo'so) 

(ra-moo'dah) 

(re-ah'tah) 
(re'ko) 


(ro'da-o) 


(sah'lah) 

(sah-lah'do) 

(sahn) 

(sahn-de'ah) 

(sahn-fa-le'pa) 

(sahn'gra  da  cres'to) 

(sahn  whan') 

(sahn-tah'nah) 

(sahn'ta  klah'-ra) 

(sahn-tah  fa') 

(sahn'tos) 


A  species  of  cactus;  the  rip- 
ened seed  is  used  by  Indians 
in  ceremonials. 
Parched    Indian    corn    mixed 
with  cold  water. 
Indian    paper-thin    bread    of 
ground  corn;  baked  on  a  hot 
stone. 

An  edible  pine  nut. 
Spotted. 
A  little  plaza. 

A  square  park  around  which 
native  towns  are  often  built. 
A  green  bush. 
Pretty  soon,   short  while. 
Dusty. 

Porter.     Also  a  gap  between 
cliffs  or  fingers  of  lava  rocks. 
Right  away,  quick. 
Dirty.     Rio   Puerco,   dirty   or 
muddy  river. 

Bossing  the  range. 
Ranchers. 
Ranch. 
Mouse. 
Royal. 

Woman's  shawl. 
The  herd  of  horses   used  in 
a  roundup. 
Rope,  lasso. 
Rich;  "rich  people." 
Cowboy  term  for  trustworthi- 
ness. 
River. 

The  chaparral  bird. 
Public  performance  presenting 
the  chief  features  of  a  roundup. 
A  buffalo  hunt. 
A  straight  iron  rod  used  for 
branding. 

Reception  room  or  dance  hall. 

Salty.  Rio  sal  ado,  salty  river. 

Saint  or  holy. 

Watermelon. 

Saint  Philip. 

Blood  of  Christ. 

Saint  John. 

Saint  Anne. 

Saint  Clara. 

Holy  Faith. 

Images  of   Saints  painted   on 

wood,  cloth,  or  skins. 


Il8      N  EW     MEXICO 

SARAPE  (sah-rah'pa) 


SASHAY 

SCRATCHING 

SEffOR 

SESORA 

SESORITA 

SHALAKO 


SHAMAN 

SIERRA 

SIMPLE  AS  A  KIT 

BEAVER 
SIPAPU 


SOD-BUSTER 
SOLEDAD 

SOMBRERO 
SOPAPILLAS 

SPANISH  SUPPER 
SQUASH  BLOSSOM 


(san-yor') 
(san-yo'ra) 
(san-yor-e'ta) 
(shah'lah-ko) 


(shah'man) 
(se-arr'ah) 


(se-pah'poo) 


(so-la-dahd') 

(som-bra'ro) 
(so-pah-pe'yaas) 


A  blanket,  sometimes  used  by 
men  as  a  large  shawl  or 
covering. 

Exuberant  pantomime;  also  to 
travel. 

Cowboy  term  for  using  spurs. 
Mr. 
Mrs. 
Miss. 

Zuni  rain  messenger.  Zuni 
dance  of  the  new  house  cere- 
monies. 

Indian  medicine  man. 
Mountain. 

Trailsmen's  term  of  stupidity. 
Sipaphe,  the  land  of;  the  un- 
derworld in  certain  creation 
myths. 

A  homesteader  or  one  who 
plows. 

Solitary.     Pena  sole  dad,   lone 
rock. 
Hat. 

Squares  of  short  biscuit  dough 
fried  in  deep  fat  until  puffed 
up;  also  called  bunuelos 
(bfm-ya'los) 

Trailsmen's  term  for  a  meager 
meal. 

A  manner  of  wearing  the  hair 
in  large  loops  over  each  ear, 
formerly  affected  by  Hopi  In- 
dian maidens.  Also  Indian 
handmade  silver  ornaments  in 
the  form  of  squash  blossoms. 


TABLITA 

TRAIL  HERD 
TRAILSMEN 

TRAVEE 


(tah-ble'tah) 


(tr&'ve) 


Colored  plaques,   symbolically 
decorated    with    designs    and 
feathers,  worn  by  Pueblo  In- 
dian women  during  dance. 
Cattle  driven  for  long  distance 
from  range  to  market. 
Term  applied  to  frontier  trap- 
pers, mountaineers,  and  some- 
times to  people  of  the  overland 
wagon  trains. 

Travois;  two  long  poles 
strapped  to  a  horse,  one  end 
of  the  poles  dragging  the 
ground;  used  by  Indians  to 
transport  supplies  and  house- 
hold goodi. 


TRUCHAS 
TUMBLEWEEDS 


CONTRIBUTIONS    TO 
(troo'chahs) 


THE    LANGUAGE 

Trout. 

Ripened    Russian    thistle 

bunches. 


VADO 

VALSE  DESPACIO 

VAMOS 

VAQUERO 

VERDOSO 

VIGILANTE 

VILLA 
VINEGARROON 


VIVA  VIVA 

WHITE-FACES 
WRANGLER 


YE-BET-CHAI 
YESO 

YUCCA 


(vah'do) 

(vahl'sa  das-pah'se-o) 

(vah'mos) 

(vah-ka'ro) 

(ver-do'so) 

(ve-he-lahn'ta) 

(ve'ah) 
(vena-gah-roon') 


(ve-vah,  ve-vah) 


(ya'ba-tchi) 
(ya'so) 

(yuc'ah) 


A  ford  over  a  river. 
A  slow  waltz. 

Let's  go.  Am.  slang:  get  out. 
A  cowboy. 

Verdant.  Ojo  verdoso,  verdant 
spring. 

Frontier  citizens  organized  to 
control  lawlessness. 
Town. 

The  whip-scorpion.    So  called 
because    it   emits    a   vinegar- 
like  scent. 
Hurrah,  Hurrah. 

Hereford  cattle. 

Cowboy  who  tends  the  horses 

at  a  ranch  or  on  roundups. 

A  Navaho  dance. 
Gypsum.    Cerro  yeso,  gypsum 
hill. 

Spanish  bayonet  plant;  state 
flower  of  New  Mexico.  Used 
for  making  brushes  and  weav- 
ing baskets.  Root  used  for 
soap. 


ZACAT6N 


(sah-kah-ton'; 


Tall  wild  grass. 


Religion 


WHEN  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza  planted  the  cross  on  the  hill  near 
Hawikuh  in   1539  and  claimed  the  country  for  the  Spanish 
Crown  a  new  chapter  in  the  annals  of  the  promulgation  of  the 
Christian  faith  was  written. 

For  nearly  three  centuries  Franciscan  missionaries  had  journeyed  to 
the  far  corners  of  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  harvesting  souls.  Martyr- 
dom was  courted ;  fear  for  personal  safety  was  non-existent.  A  spirit  of 
service  in  the  Glory  of  God  fired  these  zealots;  and  following  Coro- 
nado's  conquest  in  1540  and  his  return  to  Mexico  two  years  later,  three 
Franciscans,  Frays  Juan  de  Padilla,  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  and  Luis  de 
Escalona,  remained  as  the  first  missionaries,  and  they  became  the  first 
martyrs  in  the  new  land.  When  the  Conquistadores  failed  to  find 
cities  or  mines  of  fabled  wealth  in  the  region  that  was  to  become  New 
Mexico,  the  country  was  saved  from  possible  abandonment  by  the 
courageous  Franciscan  friars.  In  June  1581,  Fray  Augustin  Rodriguez 
and  two  companion  Franciscans  with  twelve  soldiers  under  Captain 
Francisco  Sanchez  Chamuscado,  traveled  north  from  Mexico  to  explore 
the  region,  learn  the  languages,  and  convert  the  Indians.  When  the 
soldiers  withdrew,  the  friars  refused  to  leave,  and  all  were  killed. 
Concern  for  their  unknown  fate  inspired  the  relief  expedition  of  Antonio 
de  Espejo  and  Fray  Bernardino  Beltran  in  November  1582. 

The  first  church  was  built  in  New  Mexico  in  the  new  capital  at  the 
old  pueblo  of  Yunque-Yunque  across  the  Rio  Grande  from  the  present 
village  of  San  Juan  in  1598  by  Oiiate,  assisted  by  eight  priests  and  two 
lay  brothers,  religious  of  Saint  Francis.  This  church  was  dedicated  to 
San  Juan  Bautista.  The  Spaniards  called  their  first  capital  San  Juan, 
but  moved  to  San  Gabriel  about  a  year  later  and  in  1610  to  the  Royal 
City  of  Santa  Fe. 

By  1617  the  friars  had  built  eleven  churches  and  had  converted 
1,400  Indians.  New  Mexico  became  primarily  a  mission  area  and  its 
history  was  intimately  linked  with  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Under 
the  direction  of  the  Superior  of  the  College  of  Saint  Francis,  established 
in  the  City  of  Mexico,  the  missions  of  New  Mexico  were  elevated  to  a 
custodia  of  the  Franciscan  Order  in  1617  and  were  given  the  name  of 
Saint  Paul.  Fray  Alonzo  de  Benavides  was  appointed  custodian,  and 
the  territory  was  placed  under  the  bishopric  of  Durango.  In  Benavides' 

120 


RELIGION       121 

famous  "Memorial"  to  the  King  of  Spain,  Philip  IV,  in  1630,  he  states 
that  there  were  250  persons  living  in  Santa  Fe,  but  only  fifty  of  these 
were  armed. 

Finding  but  a  poor  chapel  in  connection  with  the  governor's  head- 
quarters in  Santa  Fe,  Benavides  built  a  church  and  convent — the  church 
he  called  the  Parroquia — and  re-established  numerous  missions  in  the 
Indian  Pueblos.  It  was  some  years  later  that  the  church  of  San  Miguel 
was  built  in  the  Indian  quarters  in  Santa  Fe  called  the  Analco  (see 
Architecture). 

Fray  Benavides  was  the  first  authorized  agent  of  the  Inquisition  in 
New  Mexico.  But  Bandelier  says  that  "the  Inquisition  had  no  manner 
of  sway  or  jurisdiction  over  the  American  Indians  ...  It  never  inter- 
fered nor  was  permitted  to  interfere  in  matters  of  faith  or  belief  of  the 
aborigines."  However,  serious  difficulties  arose  between  the  governors 
and  the  Franciscans,  the  latter  being  accused  of  assuming  extraordinary 
powers  as  ecclesiastical  judges  and  officials  of  the  Inquisition. 

Conflicts  arose  due  to  other  causes.  The  resettlement  of  Indian 
villages  in  larger  units  with  proper  churches  to  facilitate  religious  train- 
ing resulted  in  temporary  reduction  of  tribute  for  the  royal  treasury  and 
for  private  owners  of  large  land  grants  holding  Indians  in  encomienda 
(the  right  to  levy  tribute).  Employment  of  Indians  at  missions  caused 
dissension.  Colonists'  claims  to  Indian  labor  often  conflicted  with  those 
of  missionaries,  "conflict  between  Church  and  State  characterized  the 
administration  of  every  province  of  the  Spanish  empire  in  America.  In 
New  Mexico  it  was  the  most  important  phase  of  political  history  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  century,"  says  France  V.  Scholes  in  Church  and 
State  in  New  Mexico  in  1610-1650. 

The  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680  was  led  by  Po-pe,  a  Tewa  Indian 
medicine-man  and  a  native  of  San  Juan  pueblo.  Po-pe  and  his  followers 
impressed  upon  the  Pueblo  Indians  that  their  gods  had  ordered  the  revolt 
and  that  all  Spaniards  must  be  expelled  or  killed.  The  religion  of  the 
Pueblo  Indians  (see  Folklore  and  the  Indians)  was  based  upon  age-old 
myths  and  rituals  that  dictated  almost  every  act  of  their  lives;  and  for 
those  natives  who  had  been  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  the  throw- 
ing aside  of  the  new  teaching  was  not  difficult.  With  the  expulsion  of 
the  Spaniards,  the  pagan  beliefs  prevailed,  and  churches  were  desecrated 
and  destroyed.  It  was  not  until  De  Vargas  reconquered  New  Mexico 
in  1692  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  was  re-established. 

De  Vargas  was  given  100  soldiers  to  help  keep  the  peace.  Fray 
Salvador  de  San  Antonio  was  appointed  Custodian;  in  1695  the  new 
villa  and  church  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada  was  built  on  the  site  of 
the  old  village;  and  in  1706  Albuquerque  was  settled  and  the  church  of 
San  Felipe  de  Neri  was  established. 

It  was  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  the 


122     JN'EW     MEXICO 

Jesuits  accomplished  the  conversion  of  the  Pima  Indians  and  Father 
Kino  and  Father  de  Campos  built  their  chain  of  missions  in  that  part  of 
the  province  of  New  Mexico  that  was  later  to  become  Arizona. 

The  Franciscans,  however,  controlled  the  missions  around  Santa  Fe 
after  the  resettlement  of  New  Mexico.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  missions  did  not  thrive;  this  was  due  both  to 
the  temporary  success  of  the  rebellion,  when  the  Indians'  belief  in  their 
old  gods  held  sway,  and  to  the  controversies  that  raged  between  Fran- 
ciscans and  episcopal  authorities,  which  weakened  the  Church's  power. 
During  Spanish  rule,  no  bishop  visited  the  province  after  1760;  and 
subsequent  to  Mexico's  independence,  the  Church  suffered  considerable 
loss. 

A  movement  to  extend  religious  instruction  reached  New  Mexico  in 
1828  when  a  college  for  young  men  was  opened  in  Santa  Fe.  During 
the  same  year  several  missions  were  converted  into  parishes  and  pro- 
vided with  secular  priests  following  a  law  passed  by  the  Mexican 
Congress  expelling  all  native-born  Spaniards.  This  forced  many  Fran- 
ciscans to  leave  the  country. 

The  Church's  second  period  of  growth  in  New  Mexico  dates  from 
the  occupation  of  the  Territory  by  the  United  States  in  1846.  The 
Vatican  elevated  the  Territory  into  a  vicariate  apostolic  July  19,  1850. 
The  Reverend  John  B.  Lamy,  a  priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Cincinnati,  was 
consecrated  bishop.  Upon  his  arrival  in  Santa  Fe  in  1851,  because  he 
had  nor  been  previously  announced,  Juan  Felipe  Ortiz,  the  vicario  in 
charge,  refused  to  recognize  his  credentials,  and  it  was  necessary  for 
him  to  make  the  long  journey  to  Durango  in  Mexico  where  Bishop 
Zubiria  resigned  all  claim  to  the  American  portion  of  his  diocese.  Bishop 
Lamy  had  left  the  Reverend  Joseph  P.  Machbeuf,  the  able  lieutenant 
who  had  accompanied  him  from  the  East  and  was  later  to  become  Bishop 
of  Colorado,  in  Santa  Fe.  Upon  his  return  Bishop  Lamy  found  that 
severe  disciplinary  measures  had  to  be  taken:  Father  Gallegos  was 
removed  from  his  parish  in  Albuquerque  and  Father  Martinez  of  Taos, 
because  of  his  activity  in  political  quarters  as  well  as  opposition  to 
Church  authority,  had  to  be  excommunicated. 

Bishop  Lamy  instituted  extensive  reforms  and  carried  forward  heroic 
work  in  education.  Religious  conditions  improved  rapidly ;  sixteen  years 
after  his  arrival  Bishop  Lamy  had  repaired  the  majority  of  the  old 
churches  and  built  85  new  ones.  The  cornerstone  of  the  impressive 
Cathedral  of  Saint  Francis  of  Assisi  was  laid,  July  14,  1869,  in  Santa 
Fe.  This  large  stone  church  was  built  over  the  old  Parroquia. 

The  Jesuit  Order  was  introduced  in  the  Territory  in  1867,  the 
priests  founding  a  school  at  Albuquerque  and  a  college  at  Las  Vegas  in 
1877.  The  Jesuits  launched  the  publication  of  a  religious  newspaper 
Revista  Catolica  (Catholic  Review)  in  1875.  An  act  to  incorporate 


RELIGION      123 

the  Society  of  Jesuit  Fathers  of  New  Mexico  Was  passed  January  18, 
1878,  by  the  Territorial  Assembly  over  the  Governor's  veto,  but  it  was 
later  annulled  by  Congress  as  unconstitutional. 

The  Diocese  of  Santa  Fe  was  elevated  into  a  metropolitan  see  in 
February  1875  by  Pope  Pius  IX,  and  Lamy  became  Archbishop.  Ralph 
Emerson  Twitchell  wrote  of  Archbishop  Lamy,  who  died  February  14, 
1888,  that  he  was  ".  .  .  equally  at  home  in  the  hut  of  the  Indian,  the 
cabin  of  the  miner,  or  in  the  Vatican  at  the  feet  of  the  Pontiff."  Willa 
Gather  commemorated  him  as  Father  Latour  in  Death  Comes  for  the 
Archbishop. 

The  Penitentes  (Penitent  Brotherhood)  adhering  to  the  belief  of 
atonement  through  physical  suffering,  were  introduced  into  New  Mexico 
in  1598  by  Onate  and  the  Franciscans  accompanying  him.  This  cult 
stems  directly  from  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  of  which  Onate 
himself  was  a  member.  As  the  Third  Order  was  a  Franciscan  institu- 
tion of  lay  members  and,  according  to  its  constitution,  could  only  be 
governed  by  priests  of  the  order,  it  ceased  to  have  canonical  existence 
following  the  exodus  of  Franciscans  from  New  Mexico  in  1828.  The 
centuries-old  custom  of  religious  penance  was,  however,  too  deeply 
ingrained  to  be  given  up  by  the  native  people.  What  was  left  of  the 
Third  Order  in  New  Mexico  carried  on  as  local  brotherhoods  in 
isolated  communities;  and  during  the  Mexican  regime,  when  secular 
priests  were  all  too  few  to  administer  to  the  widespread  parishes,  the 
members  of  the  brotherhood  themselves  performed  many  priestly  rites, 
as  well  as  acts  of  mercy  and  charity  enjoined  in  the  precepts  of  the 
original  Third  Order,  of  which  religious  penance  was  only  one  phase. 

Following  the  American  occupation  and  the  elevation  of  New  Mex- 
ico into  a  bishopric  under  Bishop  Lamy,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  made  various  attempts  to  suppress  the 
Penitentes,  public  penance  having  been  banned  by  several  papal  bulls, 
some  of  them  even  antedating  the  introduction  into  America  of  such 
Old  World  customs.  But  in  spite  of  opposition,  the  Penitente  Brother- 
hood continued  to  exist,  and  still  exists  in  the  more  remote  communities 
of  New  Mexico,  although  the  severity  of  their  self-imposed  penance  has 
been  considerably  modified.  The  Brotherhood  is  divided  into  two 
classes:  the  Brothers  of  Light  consisting  of  the  Hermano  Mayor,  head 
of  the  organization,  the  Reader,  the  Healer,  etc.,  and  the  penitents, 
called  the  Brothers  of  Darkness.  These  men,  during  the  times  of  public 
penance,  cover  their  heads  with  a  black  cap  and  their  only  clothing 
consists  of  short  white  cotton  drawers.  They  are  the  flagellants  and 
cross  bearers  and  pull  the  Cart  of  Death. 

The  Penitentes  are  most  active  during  Lent.  Their  processions  to 
and  from  local  shrines  and  a  neighboring  cross-topped  hill,  symbolizing 
Calvary,  constitute  a  form  of  primitive  Passion  Play.  The  chanting  of 


124      NEW     MEXICO 

the  psalm  "Miserere,"  and  the  plaintive  notes  of  the  pitero  (small  flute) 
can  be  heard  near  the  mountain  villages  north  of  Santa  Fe  almost  every 
evening  during  Holy  Week.  The  Penitentes  resent  the  intrusion  of 
curious  onlookers,  although  certain  outdoor  ceremonies  and  processions 
may  be  witnessed  by  outsiders,  providing  they  gain  permission  and 
remain  at  a  respectful  distance;  but  the  ceremonies  of  initiation  and 
those  carried  on  in  the  morada  are  guarded  as  secret.  Guaranty  of 
religious  freedom  in  the  State  protects  the  Penitentes  in  their  religious 
rites;  and  the  Church's  former  unbending  opposition  has  been  modified 
to  a  more  tolerant  attitude  toward  what  is  a  genuine  and  deeply  sincere 
religious  folk-survival. 

Not  until  after  the  American  occupation  did  Protestant  missionaries 
come  to  New  Mexico.  Labor  as  they  would,  however,  the  early  mis- 
sionaries made  but  little  progress  until  the  i86o's  when  the  first  sub- 
stantial results  were  obtained.  Difficulties  encountered  were  due  partly 
to  natural  barriers  of  language  and  customs,  and  partly  to  the  relatively 
small  Anglo-American  population.  The  building  of  railroads  into  New 
Mexico,  causing  an  influx  of  eastern  immigrants,  was  of  great  assistance 
to  all  Protestant  denominations. 

Baptist  missionaries  were  first  in  the  new  field  with  the  arrival  of 
the  Reverend  Henry  W.  Read  at  Santa  Fe  in  July  1849,  and  the  first 
Protestant  church  in  the  Territory  was  also  Baptist,  being  dedicated  at 
Santa  Fe  on  January  15,  1854.  Following  these  came  the  Methodists 
with  the  Reverend  E.  G.  Nicholson,  who  reached  Santa  Fe  in  1850. 
The  successful  establishment  of  a  school  at  Watrous  in  1871  by  the 
Reverend  Thomas  Harwood  led  to  the  opening  of  other  Methodist 
mission  schools.  Then  came  the  Reverend  W.  T,  Kephardt,  sent  by 
the  Presbyterian  Missionary  Union  in  1851,  but  little  was  accomplished 
by  this  denomination  until  the  Civil  War  period. 

During  the  summer  of  1863,  the  Right  Reverend  J,  C.  Talbot, 
Missionary  Bishop,  held  the  first  service  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  at  Santa  Fe,  but  a  regular  organization  was  not  established 
until  1880.  The  same  year  a  congregational  organization  was  effected, 
the  first  church  being  erected  in  Albuquerque,  which  led  to  other 
churches  in  various  parts  of  the  Territory. 

Other  Protestant  denominations  in  New  Mexico  include:  Seventh- 
day  Adventists,  Brethren  (Plymouth),  Christadelphians,  Disciples  of 
Christian  Lutherans,  Christian  Reformed  Church,  Christian  Scientists, 
and  Salvationists. 

As  a  result  of  the  steady  increase  of  the  Protestant  population  in 
New  Mexico,  nearly  every  town  or  village  of  consequence  now  has  its 
Protestant  as  well  as  Roman  Catholic  church,  and  Indian  Protestant 
mission  schools  are  being  successfully  maintained  in  or  near  Indian 
pueblos  and  reservations. 


RELIGION      125 

An  influx  of  Mormon  families  into  New  Mexico  for  the  purpose  of 
colonization  began  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Among  these  was  a  group  of  families  setting  out  from  Utah  in  the 
winter  of  1877-78,  under  the  leadership  of  Luther  C.  Burnham.  Trav- 
eling in  covered  wagons,  some  drawn  by  oxen,  these  religious  pioneers 
were  three  months  in  making  the  hazardous  journey,  which  ended  with 
their  settlement  at  Ramah.  Later  Burnham  moved  to  the  Fruitland 
mesa  on  the  San  Juan  River,  where  he  and  nearly  all  the  other  settlers 
lived  in  a  long  fort-like  adobe  building  for  protection  against  hostile 
Indians.  Burnham  became  first  Mormon  Bishop  in  the  territory,  which 
was  known  as  "Burnham's  Ward." 

Another  Mormon  settlement  at  Luna,  six  miles  east  of  the  Arizona 
State  Line,  was  established  by  the  families  of  John  and  George  Earl 
and  John  and  William  Swapp  in  March  1883,  and  the  Mormon  com- 
munity of  Carson  was  founded  by  W.  K.  Shupe  in  1909.  These  and 
other  Mormon  communities  maintain  their  religion  and  traditions  to 
the  present  day. 

In  Las  Vegas,  in  1885,  was  built  the  first  Jewish  temple,  preceding 
by  several  years  the  one  in  Albuquerque. 

In  that  part  of  the  State  sometimes  called  "Little  Texas,"  because 
the  remote  communities  were  settled  by  people  from  central  Texas, 
there  exists  the  sect  of  Penticostals,  or  Holy  Rollers.  These  pioneers 
brought  with  them  their  equivalent  of  the  Penitentes'  emotional  release 
— the  one  through  penance  in  physical  suffering,  the  other  in  emotional 
excitation  in  religious  fervor — which  gave  drama  and  color  to  an  ordi- 
nary drab  and  emotionally  starved  existence.  It  is  highly  problematical 
whether  or  not  the  Holy  Rollers  would  have  gained  a  foothold  during 
the  days  of  Indian  attacks;  but  after  the  people  from  Texas  and  Okla- 
homa gained  physical  security  and  life  became  a  grim  battle  with  the 
land  and  boredom,  it  is  easy  to  understand  their  urge  for  emotional 
expression.  Today  their  three-day  singing  festivals  are  well  known 
throughout  southeastern  New  Mexico. 


Education 


PRIOR  to  the  coming  of  the  Franciscans,  who  brought  with  them 
the  Old  World  concepts  of  education,  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
west already  had  evolved  a  traditional  system  of  instruction  which 
was  suited  to  their  needs.     Indian  youths  were  taught  the  meaning  of 
tribal  dances  and  legends,  the  making  of  pottery,  the  construction  of 
dwelling  places,  the  preparation  of  food  and  herbs,  and  the  conversion 
of  pelts  and  hides  into  clothing. 

After  the  missionaries  converted  the  Indians  to  the  Christian  faith, 
the  neophytes  attending  early  mission  schools  were  taught  the  Mass  in 
Latin.  In  March  1609,  the  viceroy  instructed  Governor  Peralta  "to 
teach  all  the  Indians,  especially  the  children,"  the  Spanish  language. 
They  were  also  instructed  in  the  handicrafts  and  agriculture  of  the 
white  man.  No  provision  was  made,  however,  for  the  formal  education 
of  descendants  of  the  Spanish  conquistadores  until  August  1721,  when 
public  schools  were  established  in  New  Mexico  by  royal  decree.  Little 
came  of  this,  as  the  schools  were  closed  shortly  afterward  for  lack  of 
funds.  Not  until  Mexico  won  its  independence  from  Spain  was  a 
practical  movement  launched  toward  general  education  for  the  common 
people.  Meanwhile  instruction  of  both  Indians  and  Spaniards  was  left 
to  the  church.  This  led  to  the  founding  of  at  least  one  mission  school 
in  each  Spanish  settlement  and  similar  schools  in  most  of  the  Indian 
pueblos. 

On  April  27,  1822,  the  provincial  deputation  passed  a  law  to  estab- 
lish public  schools  in  New  Mexico;  yet  in  1832  there  were  only  six. 
Governor  Albino  Perez'  proclamation,  July  16,  1836,  relating  to  the 
institution  of  a  public  school  system,  was  the  first  of  its  kind  issued  by  a 
governor  of  New  Mexico.  The  proclamation  was  without  practical 
results. 

When  the  United  States  annexed  the  territory,  the  native  peoples 
were  found  to  be  generally  illiterate.  The  extreme  isolation  of  com- 
munities was  largely  responsible  for  this  condition,  and  from  1 800  until 
General  Kearny's  occupation  of  the  region  in  1846  education  had  been 
a  private  endeavor.  Within  a  few  years  this  condition  began  to  change, 
and  the  promotion  of  parochial  education  was  accelerated  by  Archbishop 
Lamy,  who  established  at  Santa  Fe  in  1851  the  first  English- school  in 
the  territory.  The  following  year  a  boarding  school  for  girls,  the 

126 


EDUCATION     127 

Loretto  Academy,  was  opened  in  Santa  Fe,  and  in  1859  a  similar  institu- 
tion for  boys,  St.  Michael's  College,  was  established  there.  In  1854 
the  United  States  Congress  granted  the  territory  46,080  acres  of  land 
for  aid  in  establishing  universities.  Yet  until  1889  there  was  not  a 
public  college  or  high  school  in  the  entire  territory. 

The  territorial  legislature  in  1856  provided  for  a  school  in  each 
settlement  to  be  supported  by  a  tax  of  fifty  cents  per  child.  This  was 
not  popular,  however,  as  peonage  still  prevailed  and  the  upper  class 
resented  being  taxed  for  the  education  of  the  peons.  In  1889  a  bill  was 
passed  by  the  territorial  legislature  providing  for  the  location  of  a 
university  at  Albuquerque,  a  school  of J  mines  at  Socorro,  and  an  agri- 
cultural college  at  Las  Cruces. 

The  University  of  New  Mexico  opened  its  doors  June  15,  1892. 
Congress  granted  111,080  acres  of  land  to  the  university  on  June  21, 
1898,  and  later  granted  200,000  acres  from  the  total  provided  by  the 
enabling  act  for  the  territory  approved  June  20,  1910.  Revenue  derived 
from  timber  sales,  and  from  oil,  gas,  and  other  mineral  leases,  goes  to 
the  support  of  the  university,  which  has  been  approved  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Universities  and  is  a  member  of  the  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  Its  extension  division 
is  a  member  of  the  National  University  Extension  Association.  The 
peak  enrollment  was  7,600  in  the  academic  year  1960-61.  The  univer- 
sity now  includes  ten  colleges,  an  extension  division,  graduate  school 
and  39  instructional  departments. 

Land  grants  for  revenue  for  the  New  Mexico  State  University,  at 
University  Park,  near  Las  Cruces  total  250,000  acres.  The  college 
has  charge  of  all  agricultural  activities — regulatory,  research,  extension, 
and  teaching. 

Courses  at  New  Mexico  Institute  of  Mining  &  Technology,  opened 
in  1892,  include  mining,  metallurgical  and  geological  engineering  (min- 
ing and  petroleum  options),  and  general  courses.  Revenue  is  derived 
from  200,000  acres  apportioned  to  the  school  from  Federal  land  grants. 
Its  situation  is  especially  fortunate,  as  field  geology  and  mine  surveying 
can  be  studied  to  advantage  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

In  1891  the  first  public  school  law  of  consequence  was  enacted,  with 
Amado  Chavez  as  superintendent  of  public  instruction;  and  under  his 
supervision  definite  progress  was  made.  A  successor,  Hiram  Hadley, 
1905-07,  is  credited  with  having  inaugurated  the  present  system  of  edu- 
cation. 

Common  schools  were  allotted  8,464,000  acres  of  public  lands  for 
revenue  from  the  two  Federal  land  grants.  During  the  present  century 
advancement  in  education  in  the  State  has  been  rapid.  In  1961  there 
were  676  public  schools,  with  148,978  scholars;  and  in  parochial  and 
private  schools  with  23,882.  Teaching  standards  have  risen  steadily,  at 


128     NEW     MEXICO 

least  four  years  of  college  work  is  now  required  of  all  applicants  for 
teaching  positions.  Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  revenue  collected  by 
the  State  sales  tax  is  apportioned  to  the  counties  for  educational  purposes. 

Because  of  the  existing  bilingual  problem — more  than  50  per  cent 
of  the  school  children  are  Spanish-speaking — an  educational  program 
for  New  Mexico  could  hardly  be  patterned  after  that  of  any  other 
State.  In  1930  the  San  Jose  Training  and  Experimental  School  was 
created  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  period  of  intensive  training  to  cadet 
teachers  in  methods  and  techniques  particularly  adapted  to  the  teaching 
of  the  non-English-speaking  child.  This  project  helped  greatly,  not  only 
toward  solving  the  problem  of  teaching  the  bilingual  child,  but  also 
toward  centering  State  and  national  attention  on  the  problem. 

In  the  late  summer  of  1936  the  State  Department  of  Education,  in 
co-operation  with  the  New  Mexico  Educational  Association,  the  State 
University,  and  the  General  Education  Board,  launched  a  three-year 
program  for  the  improvement  of  instruction.  Through  the  use  of 
laboratory -schools  it  was  planned  to  develop  a  special  curriculum  and 
technique  in  teaching  to  eliminate  the  high  rate  of  retardation  in  the 
elementary  grades,  due  in  large  measure  to  the  bilingual  problem. 

Vocational  training  has  been  introduced  in  some  public  schools,  so 
that,  with  a  less  formal  system  of  education,  larger  numbers  of  students 
will  remain  longer  in  school  and  be  encouraged  to  go  on  to  high  school 
work.  The  program  covers  vocational  education  in  home  economics, 
agriculture,  trade,  and  industrial  and  vocational  rehabilitation.  In  the 
trade  and  industrial  division  most  classes  are  held  in  conjunction  with 
high  schools.  Funds  made  available  by  Congress  through  Federal  en- 
actments for  vocational  education  are  used  in  connection  with  this  work 
and  are  administered  through  the  Federal  Board  of  Vocational  Edu- 
cation of  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  They  are  matched  dollar 
for  dollar  by  the  State  for  the  local  schools.  A  development  known 
as  the  community  type  of  vocational  school  has  also  been  made  a  part 
of  the  county  school  system,  and  practical  education  is  given  to  boys 
and  men  lacking  educational  advantages.  Handicraft  trades  have  been 
featured,  so  that  the  economic  level  of  the  community  can  be  raised. 
As  a  result,  exportation  of  handicraft  products  has  increased,  providing 
a  livelihood  for  many  in  villages  where  employment  formerly  had  been 
limited. 

State  institutions  in  addition  to  those  already  referred  to  include  the 
New  Mexico  Highlands  University,  Las  Vegas ;  the  New  Mexico  West- 
ern College,  Silver  City;  and  the  Northern  New  Mexico  Normal  School, 
El  Rito,  for  training  teachers  in  rural  Spanish-speaking  communities. 
Total  grants  of  public  lands  by  Congress  to  normal  schools  aggregate 
300,000  acres. 

New  Mexico  is  one  of  twenty-seven  States  now  providing  junior 


EDUCATION      129 

colleges.  The  Eastern  New  Mexico  University  was  originally  founded 
as  Eastern  New  Mexico  Normal  School  in  1934  at  Portales,  as  a  junior 
college,  but  now  offers  a  full  college  course,  including  a  general  educa- 
tional background  in  music,  art,  literature,  etc. 

The  New  Mexico  Military  Institute,  Roswell,  opened  September 
1898,  was  established  as  a  junior  college  in  1914.  It  is  now  a  two  year 
junior  college  as  well  as  a  preparatory  school.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  acres  of  public  lands  were  allotted  to  the  institute  by  Congress. 

The  College  of  St.  Joseph  on  the  Rio  Grande,  founded  in  1920  in 
Albuquerque  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  was  moved  to  a  site  five  miles 
south  of  the  city  in  1946,  where,  more  recently  since  1950,  new  build- 
ings have  been  erected.  St.  Joseph's  is  a  co-educational  liberal  arts 
college  stressing  teacher  education.  In  1947  the  Christian  Brothers 
obtained  a  portion  of  the  Bruns  Hospital  site  in  Santa  Fe  and  established 
St.  Michael's  College  as  a  four-year  institution  of  higher  learning  for 
men.  By  1961,  with  enrollment  passing  the  600  mark,  the  College 
has  embarked  on  a  major  building  program  which  saw  completion  of  a 
large  classroom-library  structure  and  beginning  of  construction  of  a  new 
dormitory  building  as  first  phases  of  a  long-range  development  program. 

Other  State  institutions  are  the  New  Mexico  School  for  the  Deaf, 
Santa  Fe;  the  New  Mexico  School  for  the  Visually  Handicapped,  Ala- 
mogordo;  the  Los  Lunas  Mental  Hospital  and  Training  School;  the 
New  Mexico  Industrial  School  for  Boys,  Springer;  and  the  Girl's  Wel- 
fare Home,  Albuquerque.  Public  land  allotments  to  the  deaf,  industrial, 
and  blind  schools  total  150,000  acres. 

During  the  school  year  1960-61,  the  average  enrollment  of  Indian 
children  in  New  Mexico's  public  schools  reached  a  total  of  7,169,  a 
figure  which  approximates  the  number  enrolled  in  the  Federal  schools 
located  in  the  State  and  which  constitutes  3  per  cent  of  the  total  public 
school  enrollment.  Intensified  efforts  are  being  made  to  remove  lan- 
guage barriers,  reduce  retardation  due  to  lack  of  opportunity,  and  to 
raise  the  educational  achievement  of  Indian  youth  to  a  level  comparable 
to  that  of  the  non-Indian  population.  Through  scholarship  programs, 
many  of  which  have  been  established  by  the  tribes  themselves,  qualified 
Indian  high  school  graduates  are  being  encouraged  to  continue  educa- 
tional training  in  higher  institutions  of  learning,  and  the  college  enroll- 
ment of  Indian  students  has  increased  conspicuously.  Vocational  train- 
ing is  also  being  emphasized  and  employment  opportunities  made 
available  to  those  with  abilities  and  preparation. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  private  institutions — colleges  and  prepar- 
atory schools — that  draw  their  pupils  from  the  East  and  Middle  West. 

Continuing  in  the  traditions  of  the  Franciscan  friars  who  first  brought 
education  to  New  Mexico,  the  Catholic  Church  maintains  many  grade 
schools,  high  schools,  and  colleges. 


Literature 


NEW  MEXICO'S  literary  tradition  begins  with  the  orally  trans- 
mitted myths,  legends,  and  rituals  of  the  Indians  who  were 
native  to  the  soil  when  the  Spaniards  came  and  who  still  inhabit 
it.     This  primitive  literature,  unrecorded  until  the  nineteenth  century, 
extends  far  back  in  time  and  is  still  an  integral  feature  of  contemporary 
literature. 

In  the  sense  of  the  written  or  printed  word,  New  Mexican  literature 
began  with  the  old  Spanish  chronicles  of  exploration  and  conquest. 
These  basic  sources  of  history  rank  among  the  great  original  adventure 
books  of  the  world.  In  human  interest  and  genuine  literary  flavor, 
these  straight-forward  tales  of  priests,  conquerors,  and  soldiers  seem 
today  as  fresh  and  modern  as  when  they  were  written — especially  so  in 
New  Mexico,  where  so  much  of  the  landscape  and  terrain  through 
which  adventurers  journeyed  remains  unchanged.  Because  of  the  barrier 
of  language,  less  has  been  known  of  these  Spanish  narratives  than  of 
similar  early  chronicles  of  the  eastern  colonies,  but  fine  English  transla- 
tions of  the  most  important  New  Mexican  narratives  have  been  made 
and  are  now  available  in  book  form. 

One  more  purely  creative  work  of  this  early  Spanish  period  is  the 
first  known  poem  conceived  on  the  soil  of  what  is  now  the  United 
States.  This  is  the  famous  Historia  de  la  Neuva  Mexico  by  Captain 
Don  Caspar  Perez  de  Villagra — an  epic  in  thirty-four  rhymed  cantos, 
celebrating  the  conquest  and  permanent  settlement  of  New  Mexico  in 
1598  by  Don  Juan  de  Onate. 

Villagra,  himself  a  member  of  Ofiate's  expedition,  shared  in  its 
hardships  and  glories,  as  recounted  in  his  poem,  culminating  in  the  battle 
of  Acoma,  1599,  in  which  he'  took  an  important  part.  His  book, 
addressed  to  King  Phillip  III  of  Spain,  was  published  in  Alcala,  Spain, 
in  1610.  An  English  prose  translation  by  Gilberto  Espinosa  has  recently 
been  published  by  the  Quivira  Society. 

Another  phase  of  early  Spanish  literature  in  New  Mexico  is  repre- 
sented in  the  religious  plays,  traditional  songs,  ballads,  and  folk  tales, 
brought  from  Old  Spain  and  still  surviving  among  the  descendants  of 
the  early  colonists. 

Little  distinction  exists  between  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  regimes, 
as  far  as  literary  influences  are  concerned,  since  the  old  traditions,  rooted 
in  Spain,  continued  to  flourish  on  the  new  soil. 

130 


LITERATURE      131 

English  literature  in  New  Mexico  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  the 
early  nineteenth  century  with  the  travel  books  of  Anglo-American  and 
European  visitors,  whose  recording  of  the  New  Mexican  scene  is  vari- 
ously sympathetic  or  biased,  due  to  the  vast  difference  in  background 
and  according  to  the  diverse  temperaments  of  the  observers.  These 
books,  with  a  few  exceptions,  overlap,  or  are  subsequent  to,  the  Mexican 
regime,  1821-46. 

An  early,  unwilling  visitor  to  New  Mexico  (who  withal  seems  to 
have  enjoyed  certain  features  of  his  stay)  was  Lieutenant  Zebulon  Pike. 
His  Journal  of  a  Tour  Through  the  Interior  Parts  of  New  Spain  covers 
his  arrest  and  enforced  march  from  the  upper  Rio  Grande  in  southern 
Colorado  through  Santa  Fe  and  on  to  Chihuahua  in  1807.  Throughout 
the  journey,  Pike  gives  intimate  and  vivid  pictures  of  the  manners  and 
customs  of  the  New  Mexican  people,  their  villages  and  settlements,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  an  outsider. 

Written  during  the  Mexican  era  and  almost  unknown  today,  is  a 
small  book  by  an  author  also  named  Pike,  but  not  to  be  confused  with 
Zebulon  Pike.  Albert  Pike,  of  Confederate  War  fame,  was  the  author 
of  what  is  widely  regarded  as  the  best  version  of  the  words  to  "Dixie," 
and,  in  later  life,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  modern  Masonry.  His 
Prose  Sketches  and  Poems,  Written  in  the  Western  Country,  published 
in  Boston  in  1834,  was  the  result  of  a  visit  to  New  Mexico  in  1831-33. 
His  poems,  a  quaint  mixture  of  Byronic  and  Shelleyan  influences  in  con- 
junction with  such  subjects  as  "The  Bold  Navaho"  or  "The  Vale  of 
Picurfs,"  represent  much  of  the  same  quality  that  is  found  in  early 
romanticized  American  landscape  painting.  Albert  Pike  was,  so  far  as 
known,  the  first  Anglo-American  poet  of  New  Mexico.  His  prose 
stories  and  sketches  convey  to  the  reader  today  the  same  strangeness  of 
scene  which  then  impressed  itself  upon  the  sensitive  young  poet  from 
the  East. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  days,  the  era  of  American 
pioneer  narratives  may  be  said  to  have  begun.  But  the  journals  of  the 
early  beaver-trappers  and  traders  preceded  the  later  regularly  organized 
trail  traffic.  Jacob  Fowler,  the  Patties,  and  others  recorded  their 
adventures  in  manuscript — to  be  printed  then  or  later.  Some,  like  Kit 
Carson,  told  their  stories — grudgingly,  under  pressure — long  after  the 
event.  The  great  book  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  is  Josiah  Gregg's  The 
Commerce  of  the  Prairies  (1844),  which  is  not  only  a  saga  of  the  trail 
— from  Leavenworth  to  Santa  Fe,  and  from  Santa  Fe  to  Chihuahua — 
but  an  illuminating  portrayal  of  everything  connected  with  it,  and 
particularly  valuable  for  its  description  of  life  in  New  Mexico  in  the 
1 830*8.  Another  book  of  pertinent  interest  is  Wah-to  Yah,  or  The  Taos 
Trail  (1850),  by  Lewis  H.  Garrard,  who,  as  a  young  man  bent  upon 
adventure,  joined  a  Santa  Fe  caravan  and  recorded  his  life  on  the 


132      NEW     MEXICO 

prairies  with  zest  and  exhilaration.  Garrard's  overland  trek  to  New 
Mexico  is  an  interesting  companion  piece  to  Richard  Henry  Dana's  sea 
voyage  around  Cape  Horn  to  Mexican  California  in  Two  Years  Before 
the  Mast  (1840). 

Meantime,  during  this  period,  many  travel  books  on  Mexico  by 
European  visitors,  Wislizenus,  Brantz  Mayer,  and  others,  devoted  con- 
siderable space  to  the  northern  province,  New  Mexico.  One  of  these 
travelers  was  the  young  Englishman,  George  Frederick  Ruxton,  who 
journeyed  up  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  in  the  fall  of  1846  and  visited 
Taos  just  a  short  time  before  the  uprising  of  1847.  His  Life  in  the  Far 
West  (1847)  and  Adventures  in  New  Mexico  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains (1848)  give  firsthand  pictures  of  his  experiences  in  New  Mexico 
at  that  time. 

Immediately  after  the  American  occupation,  1846,  another  class  of 
travel  books  is  found  in  the  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Army  officers  and  topo- 
graphical engineers  assigned  to  New  Mexico  and  the  Southwest.  The 
reports  of  Emory,  Abert,  Marcy,  Cooke,  Johnston,  Sitgreaves,  and 
others,  published  as  U.  S.  Senate  Executive  Documents,  are  anything 
but  dull.  Reading  them,  one  is  impressed  by  the  high  calibre  and 
general  cultural  background  of  the  young  officers  who  wrote  these 
reports.  A  book  of  more  popular  character  and  enduring  literary 
interest  is  El  Gringo,  or  New  Mexico  and  Her  People  (1854),  written 
by  W.  W.  H.  Davis  while  United  States  Attorney  in  the  early  terri- 
torial days.  This  book,  with  its  detailed  and  intimate  accounts  of  New 
Mexican  life  in  the  1850*8,  so  far  as  many  aspects  of  native  life  are 
concerned,  has  never  been  superseded.  It  was  largely  drawn  upon  by 
later  writers  of  the  native  scene.  Particularly  interesting  also  is  James 
F.  Meline's  Two  Thousand  Miles  on  Horseback  (1867).  Numerous 
other  books  of  the  territorial  era  have  furnished  source  material  for  the 
many  books  on  New  Mexico's  frontier  life  in  all  its  varying  phases. 

In  any  account  of  New  Mexican  writers,  the  name  usually  first 
mentioned  is  that  of  General  Lew  Wallace,  who  is  said  to  have  com- 
pleted his  novel  Ben  Hur  in  1880  in  the  Palace  at  Santa  Fe,  where  as 
territorial  governor  he  divided  his  attention  between  Christian  gladiators 
in  Rome  and  the  affairs  of  Billy  the  Kid  in  New  Mexico.  Ben  Hur 
of  course  owed  nothing  to  New  Mexico,  but  Wallace  is  usually  men- 
tioned as  the  first  New  Mexican  "author."  Mrs.  Lew  Wallace  (Susan 
E.)  meantime  was  recording  her  interesting  and  lively  impressions  of 
the  contemporary  scene  in  letters  to  an  eastern  newspaper,  later  pub- 
lished in  a  small  book  calle'd  The  Land  of  the  Pueblos  (1888). 

Hardly,  however,  was  Ben  Hur  off  the  press,  when  the  first  of  the 
Billy  the  Kid  books  began  to  appear;  notably  Sheriff  Pat  F.  Garrett's 
Authentic  Life  of  Billy  the  Kid  (1882),  who,  as  the  subtitle  naively 
remarks,  was  "captured  by  killing."  Since  then  the  Lincoln  County 


LITERATURE      133 

War  has  been  continuously  waged  in  print.  Other  famous  gunmen  of 
New  Mexico  have  been  celebrated  in  subsequent  New  Mexican  frontier 
narratives,  but  none  so  much  fought  over  or  provocative  of  immediate 
argument  as  Billy. 

The  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  characterized  by  the 
advent  of  historians,  archeologists,  and  ethnologists,  for  whom  New 
Mexico  presented  a  rich  field.  The  first  Anglo-American  histories  of 
New  Mexico  were  naturally  devoted  to  its  conquest  by  the  United 
States  and  were,  for  the  most  part,  written  by  men  who  had  shared  in 
the  campaigns  of  Generals  Kearny  and  Doniphan  and  James  Madison 
Cutts,  Philip  St.  George  Cooke,  F.  S.  Edwards,  J.  T.  Hughes,  and 
others.  Apparently  the  first  American  historian  to  turn  his  attention 
to  the  early  Spanish  history  of  the  newly  acquired  territory  was  W.  W. 
H.  Davis,  mentioned  above,  whose  Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico 
was  published  in  1867.  Hubert  Howe  Bancroft's  comprehensive 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (1889)  was  followed  by  the  work  of  resident 
historians:  L.  Bradford  Prince,  Benjamin  Read,  a  native  New  Mexican, 
William  G.  Ritch,  Ralph  Emerson  Twitchell,  and  Charles  F.  Coan. 
Since  then  much  important  work  in  special  fields  has  been  published  by 
later  historians,  among  whom,  in  New  Mexico,  Lansing  B.  Bloom  and 
George  P.  Hammond  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico  are  leading 
authorities. 

In  uncovering  New  Mexico's  past,  historians  and  archeologists 
naturally  had  to  work  hand  in  hand,  because  New  Mexico's  history  is 
closely  connected  with  its  archeological  sources  and  with  its  still  con- 
temporary aboriginal  life.  In  this  respect  the  work  of  Adolphe  F. 
Bandelier,  who  was  both  historian  and  archeologist,  is  outstanding. 
From  a  literary  point  of  view  the  works  of  such  men  as  Bandelier, 
Frank  Hamilton  Gushing,  and  Dr.  Washington  Matthews  are  particu- 
larly valuable.  Cushing's  Zuni  Creation  Myths  and  Zuni's  Folk-Tales, 
Dr.  Washington  Matthews'  Navaho  Legends  and  his  transcripts  of  the 
great  Navaho  Mountain  and  Night  Chant  ceremonials^  and  Bandelier's 
The  Delight  Makers  (1890),  a  vivid  re-creation  in  fiction  of  prehistoric 
America,  gave  a  new  and  larger  conception  of  the  aboriginal  scene  and 
stimulated  the  imagination  of  later  writers. 

One  of  the  first  to  feel  this  influence  was  Charles  F.  Lummis,  much 
of  whose  inspiration  was  gained  from  his  association  with  Bandelier, 
and  whose  series  of  popular  books  on  New  Mexico,  The  Land  of  Poco 
Tiempo,  Strange  Corners  of  Our  Country  f  The  Spanish  Pioneers  f  and 
many  others  are  still  favorite  introductions  to  New  Mexico.  Until  the 
turn  of  the  century,  indeed,  Lummis  seems  to  have  been  almost  the 
only  author  per  se  in  New  Mexico — except  the  cowboys.  After  the 
Indians  and  Spaniards;  the  Anglo-Americans  who  first  became  inti- 
mately related  to  the  soil  were  the  cowboys. 


134      NEW     MEXICO 

They  were  poets  first  in  their  own  right,  with  their  improvised 
night-herding  or  cattle-trail  songs;  and  then  books  began  to  be  written 
about  them.  In  1881  Emerson  Hough,  as  a  member  of  the  staff  of  the 
weekly  newspaper  Golden  Era,  at  the  boom  mining  town  of  White 
Oaks,  gathered  the  material  for  his  novel  Heart's  Desire  (1903)* 
incorporating  the  well-known  cowboy,  prospector,  and  eastern  magnate 
pattern — less  familiar  then  than  now.  Hough's  novels  were  followed 
by  his  substantial  books  on  the  western  frontier.  In  the  first  decade  of 
the  twentieth  century,  a  real  cowboy,  Eugene  Manlove  Rhodes,  who  had 
been  wrangling  horses  and  punching  cattle  for  the  Bar  Cross  on  the 
Jornada  del  Muerto,  had  his  first  stories  published  in  Lummis'  magazine 
Out  West.  In  1904  he  left  New  Mexico  for  the  East,  with  his  banjo 
and  a  suitcase  full  of  stories,  and  landed  in  the  fold  of  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post.  When  he  died  in  1934,  Rhodes  had  ten  books  to  his 
credit,  as  well  as  many  stories  not  yet  collected  in  book  form — all 
authentic  tales  of  the  veritable  soil  and  soul  of  the  New  Mexican  cattle 
range.  Swift-moving  and  keen  with  philosophic  wit,  his  books  will  out- 
live the  rank  and  file  of  mere  "westerns."  Rhodes  is  buried  on  the  top 
of  Rhodes  Pass — named  for  him  before  his  death — of  which  a  vivid 
description  is  given  in  one  of  his  novels,  Stepsons  of  Light  ('1921). 
The  scenes  and  characters  of  his  other  novels,  thinly  veiled  by  fictitious 
titles,  are  readily  discerned  by  old-timers. 

Cowboy  songs  are  classed  as  "folk,"  but  individual  authors  some- 
times become  folk-poets  before  they  know  it.  In  1908  N.  Howard 
(Jack)  Thorpe,  cow-puncher  and  rancher,  published  a  small  collection 
of  Songs  of  the  Cowboys,  including  several  of  his  own.  Among  these 
was  "Little  Joe  the  Wrangler,"  widely  sung  wherever  cowboys  con- 
gregate, as  well  as  over  the  radio  and  on  the  phonograph.  A  second 
enlarged  edition  of  Songs  of  +he  Cowboys  was  published  in  1921,  includ- 
ing more  of  his  own  songs.  Thorpe's  Tales  of  the  Chuck  Wagon 
(1926)  and  other  stories  published  in  magazines  reflect  more  than  forty 
years'  intimate  knowledge  of  New  Mexican  life  and  practically  every 
square  inch  of  its  terrain. 

An  early  novel,  with  the  scene  laid  in  southern  New  Mexico,  is 
Florence  Finch  Kelly's  With  Hoops  of  Steel  (1900).  The  stories  by 
Thomas  A.  Janvier  in  Santa  Fe's  Partner  (1907)  furnished  a  lively 
record  of  the  time  when  mail  and  passengers  were  transported  by  stage- 
coach from  the  railroad  terminus  at  Espanola  to  Santa  Fe,  with  one 
stop  for  lunch  at  the  Bouquet  Ranch  at  Pojoaque. 

In  the  second  decade  of  the  twentieth  century,  books  on  or  about 
New  Mexico  began  to  appear,  first  slowly  and  then  with  an  accelerated 
pace,  until  their  number  now  is  almost  bewildering.  These  are  about 
equally  divided  between  native-born  or  resident  New  Mexican  authors 
and  other  writers  for  whom  the  New  Mexican  scene  presents  some 


LITERATURE      135 

special  interest.  The  visitor,  first  impressed  by  the  composite  scene, 
usually  asks  eagerly:  "What  book  shall  I  read  to  tell  me  all  about  it?' 
There  isn't  any  one  book  that  can  do  this — the  field  is  too  varied.  The 
only  answer  is  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  bibliography  and  let  him  choose 
for  himself. 

Under  general  literature  many  nationally  known  names  are  included, 
indicating  that  New  Mexico's  literature,  although  regional  in  character, 
is  not  merely  regional  in  interest  or  quality.  Some  of  these  authors 
were  of  established  reputation  before  coming  to  New  Mexico  or  writing 
about  it;  as  for  instance  the  late  Mary  Austin,  who  came  to  live  in 
Santa  Fe  in  1918  and  was  subsequently  identified  with  New  Mexico  as 
she  had  previously  been  with  California;  or  Willa  Gather,  whose  Death 
Comes  for  the  Archbishop  was  the  result  of  a  literary  sojourn. 

One  interesting  feature  of  the  growth  of  New  Mexican  literature  is 
the  number  of  writers  who  have,  so  to  speak,  developed  on  the  soil.  It 
may  be  that  the  advent  of  eastern  writers,  during  and  after  the  World 
War,  had  something  to  do  with  awakening  native-born  New  Mexicans 
to  a  tardy  appreciation  of  their  own  soil,  just  as  the  soil  itself  had 
power  of  re-creating  the  imaginative  vision  of  the  newcomers.  In  either 
case,  or  both  cases,  modern  literature  in  New  Mexico  indicates  a  deepen- 
ing sense  of  reality  and  individual  vision. 

The  poets  were  among  the  first  to  feel  and  express  the  spirit  of  the 
country.  Books  of  verse  that  reflect  this  spirit  are:  Red  Earth  (1920), 
by  Alice  Corbin;  Breakers  and  Granite  (1921),  by  John  Gould 
Fletcher;  Caravan  (1922),  by  Witter  Bynner;  The  American  Rhythm 
(1923)  and  The  Children  Sing  in  the  Far  West  (1928),  by  Mary  Aus- 
tin; Birds,  Beasts  and  Flowers  (1923),  by  D.  H.  Lawrence;  Fandango 
(1927),  by  Stanley  Vestal;  Mountain  against  Mountain  (1928),  by 
Arthur  Davison  Ficke;  Along  Old  Trails  (1928),  by  William  Haskell 
Simpson;  Foretaste  (1933),  by  Peggy  Pond  Church;  Altantides  (i933)> 
by  Haniel  Long;  and  Horizontal  Yellow  (i935)>  by  Spud  Johnson. 
The  work  of  these  and  other  poets  of  New  Mexico  is  represented  in 
national  and  southwestern  anthologies. 

The  field  of  creative  fiction  is  comparatively  small  but  distinguished. 
Harvey  Fergusson,  of  Albuquerque,  grandson  of  Santa  ^Fe  Trail  pioneers, 
had  two  eastern  novels  to  his  credit  when  in  1921  he  turned  to  his 
native  scene  in  Blood  of  the  Conquerors — probably  the  first  realistic 
novel  of  contemporary  New  Mexico.  He  followed  this  with  four  other 
regional  novels,  including  Wolf  Song  (1927),  a  story  of  Spanish  and 
Anglo-American  life  in  Taos  of  the  Kit  Carson  era,  in  interesting  con- 
trast to  Willa  Gather's  Death  Comes  for  the  Archbishop,  published  the 
same  year.  Miss  Gather's  book  is  based  on  the  life  of  Archbishop  Lamy 
and  the  French  priests,  whose  advent  in  the  i85O's  did  so  much  to 
change  the  scene  in  Taos  and  elsewhere  in  New  Mexico. 


136      NEW     MEXICO 

Mary  Austin,  who  had  written  much  on  the  Southwest  before  her 
death  in  1934,  Save  her  usual  individual  touch  to  Starry  Adventure 
(I931)?  a  novel  in  which  the  landscape  itself  is  a  spiritual  force,  almost 
more  important  than  the  human  beings  motivated  by  it.  Her  One 
Smoke  Stories  (1934)  are  brief  pungent  tales  of  native  life — Indian  and 
Spanish.  In  these,  as  in  her  other  work,  as  well  as  in  her  autobiog- 
raphy, Earth  Horizon  (1933),  is  revealed  her  feeling  of  man's  close 
identification  with  the  spiritual  life  of  the  soil. 

Paul  Horgan's  novels,  notably  No  Quarter  Given  (1935),  envisage 
the  contemporary  scene  through  the  medium  of  characters  whose  psycho- 
logical problems  are  variously  solved  or  complicated  by  the  effect  of  a 
new  environment.  The  Royal  City  of  the  Holy  Faith  (1936),  in  a 
different  vein,  presents  in  fictional  form  three  separate  periods  in  the 
history  of  New  Mexico,  centered  in  the  Palace  of  the  Governors  in 
Santa  Fe. 

Also  imaginatively  projected  around  life  in  the  Palace  is  Eugene 
Manlove  Rhodes'  Penalosa  (1936),  a  reprint  of  a  chapter  from  his 
out-of-print  book,  West  is  West  (1927).  This  is  a  dramatic  picture  of 
the  Inquisition,  of  which  Penalosa,  during  his  term  as  Governor  (1661- 
64)  became  a  victim. 

Not  precisely  fictional,  but  in  the  realm  of  creative  prose — almost 
poetry — is  Haniel  Long's  Interlinear  to  Cabeza  de  Vaca  (1936),  which 
also  recasts  an  old  story  through  modern  interpretive  vision. 

Raymond  Otis,  whose  Fire  in  the  Night  (1934)  is  a  novel  of  Santa 
Fe's  younger  generation,  entered  a  new  field  in  his  Miguel  of  the  Bright 
Mountain  (1936),  the  story  of  a  young  novitiate's  mystical  absorption 
in  the  rites  of  the  Penitentes,  followed  by  The  Little  Valley  (1937), 
both  highly  sensitized  portrayals  of  life  in  small  Spanish  communities. 

Bandelier's  Delight  Makers  had  a  prehistoric  background,  but  mod- 
ern novelists  have  attempted  a  perhaps  even  more  difficult  literary  feat 
in  dealing  with  present-day  Indian  life.  Under  the  Sun  (1927),  by 
Dane  Coolidge,  and  Wind-Singer  (1930),  by  Frances  Gillmor,  are 
semihistoric  stories  of  Navaho  life,  leading  up  to  the  present.  Oliver 
La  Farge's  Laughing  Boy;  a  Navaho  Romance  (1929),  awarded  the 
Pulitzer  prize  for  that  year,  is  a  mixture  of  poetry  and  realism — the 
stark  aridity  and  commercial  cheapness  of  "white  man"  civilization  set 
against  the  age-old  religious  ceremonialism  of  Navaho  life,  with  the 
modern  Indians'  struggle  to  bridge  the  two.  His  short  stories  in  All 
the  Young  Men  (1935)  and  his  more  recent  novel,  The  Enemy  Gods 
0 937)>  carry  on  various  aspects  of  the  same  theme. 

A  new  note  is  added  to  New  Mexican  fiction  in  Conrad  Richter's 
Early  Americana  and  Other  Stories  (1936)  and  The  Sea  of  Grass 
(J937)'  The  latter  novel  is  a  skillfully  woven  piece  of  romantic- 
realism,  involving  the  lives  of  a  single  family,  against  the  primitive 


LITERATURE      137 

background  of  the  high  upland  range  of  desert  grass,  cut  and  ploughed 
and  destroyed  by  homesteaders. 

While  no  one  novel  or  story  of  the  late  D.  H.  Lawrence  can  be 
singled  out  as  definitely  New  Mexican,  the  spirit  of  the  country  is  a 
part  of  the  texture  in  several.  More  direct  impressions  are  recorded 
in  his  verse,  mentioned  above,  and  in  several  articles  on  New  Mexico. 
The  vivid  personality  of  this  strange  genius  has  left  its  impress  on  the 
mountain  slope  above  Taos,  where  he  spent  some  of  the  later  years 
of  his  life  and  where  he  is  buried.  Biographically,  also,  his  impress 
remains  in  three  books  written  about  him,  centering  largely  on  his  life 
in  Taos;  Lorenzo  in  Taos  (1932),  by  Mabel  Dodge  Luhan;  Lawrence 
and  Brett  (1938),  by  Honorable  Dorothy  Brett;  and  Not  I  but  the 
Wind  (1934),  by  his  wife,  Frieda  Lawrence. 

New  Mexico  has  probably  more  native  drama  than  any  state  in 
the  Union,  with  its  yearly  calendar  of  indigenous  Navaho  and  Pueblo 
Indian  dances  and  ceremonies,  as  well  as  Spanish  folk  plays — the  latter 
first  introduced  in  1598  and  still  performed  annually.  These  are  re- 
corded in  folklore  and  anthropological  publications. 

Modern  plays  on  New  Mexico  that  have  been  published  as  well  as 
produced  include:  El  Crist o  (1926),  a  one-act  folk  play  by  Margaret 
Larkin;  Night  over  Taos  (1932),  a  poetic  drama  based  on  the  Taos 
revolt,  by  Maxwell  Anderson;  and  Russet  Mantle  (1936),  a  play  of 
modern  life  in  Santa  Fe,  by  Lynn  Riggs. 

The  ever-increasing  number  of  books  on  frontier  life  and  adventure 
prove  that  the  "vanishing  frontier"  is  anything  but  vanishing,  so  far 
as  literary  popularity  is  concerned.  New  Mexico's  share  in  this  field 
includes  many  books  of  a  general  character,  as  well  as  several  first- 
hand accounts  of  territorial  days  which  pick  up  the  thread  of  frontier 
life  where  the  earlier  original  pioneer  narratives  left  off.  Of  especial 
interest  are  three  books  on  the  Socorro-Datil-Mogollon  section  of  New 
Mexico — a  region  rich  in  history,  romance,  and  beauty  but  apparently 
the  least-known  part  of  the  State. 

Fifty  Years  on  the  Old  Frontier  (1923),  by  James  W.  Cook;  Some 
Recollections  of  a  Western  Ranchman  (1928),  by  Honorable  William 
French;  and  Law  and  Order  Ltd.  (1928),  the  story  of  Elf  ego  Baca, 
by  Kyle  S.  Crichton,  cover  approximately  the  same  scene  and  period, 
from  different  angles  and  racial  backgrounds.  The  Honorable  William 
French,  of  French  Park,  Ireland,  was  one  of  a  number  of  "younger 
son"  Britishers  who  became  ranch  owners  in  New  Mexico  in  the 
i88o's.  Captain  James  W.  Cook,  an  American,  who  started  out  as 
a  guide  for  English  sportsmen  in  Wyoming,  became  manager  for  one 
of  them  on  the  W.  S.  ranch  at  Alma,  subsequently  acquired  by  French. 
Elfego  Baca,  an  enterprising  scion  of  an  old  Spanish  family  of  Socorro, 
figured  as  deputy  sheriff  in  the  celebrated  "Frisco  War,"  in  which  all 


I3§      NEW     MEXICO 

three  participated.  The  first  two  books  also  give  firsthand  accounts 
of  the  Apache  campaign  in  New  Mexico;  and  French's  book,  which 
goes  on  where  Cook's  New  Mexican  chapters  leave  off,  includes  his 
experiences  with  members  of  the  famous  "Wild  Bunch"  of  Montana, 
all  of  whom,  at  one  time  or  another,  while  hiding  out  from  the  law, 
found  employment  on  French's  ranch  and,  as  French  naively  remarks, 
proved  exceedingly  able  and  efficient  in  restoring  law  and  order  on  the 
ranch  while  there.  After  the  departure  of  the  "Wild  Bunch,"  French 
became  discouraged  by  the  general  lawlessness  in  that  part  of  the  country 
and  removed  to  Coif  ax  County  in  northeastern  New  Mexico,  where 
the  town  of  French  was  named  for  him. 

In  another  book  of  the  same  period,  Riata  and  Spurs  (1927), 
Charles  A.  Siringo,  the  cowboy-detective,  tells  of  tracing  the  "Wild 
Bunch"  all  the  way  from  Montana  to  Alma,  only  to  find  that  they  had 
left  Alma  before  he  arrived.  Siringo,  after  years  of  adventure,  settled 
on  a  ranch  near  Santa  Fe  in  the  later  part  of  his  life,  and  was  a  familiar 
figure  in  the  Plaza,  riding  his  white  horse,  Sailor  Gray,  accompanied 
by  his  favorite  Russian  wolf-hound. 

The  Lincoln  County  War  of  1877-81,  resuscitated  by  Walter  Noble 
Burns'  Saga  of  Billy  the  Kid  (1925),  came  actively  to  the  fore  again 
with  reprints  of  earlier  books  on  the  subject  and  with  new  books  such 
as  George  W.  Coe's  Frontier  Fighter  (1934)  and  the  Real  Story  of 
Billy  the  Kid  (1936),  by  Ex-Governor  Miguel  A.  Otero.  George 
Coe,  who  fought  and  rode  with  Billy  the  Kid,  is  still  living  near  Lin- 
coln, and  Governor  Otero  lives  in  Santa  Fe.  These  two  books  give 
valuable  firsthand  accounts  of  the  generally  misunderstood  background 
of  the  Lincoln  County  War  and  the  part  that  politics  as  well  as  the 
U.  S.  Army  played  in  it.  Much  evidence  supporting  the  true  back- 
ground is  also  supplied  in  Major  Maurice  Garland  Fulton's  annotated 
1927  edition  of  Pat  Garrett's  book  on  Billy  the  Kid,  mentioned  above. 
Governor  Otero's  book  includes  a  rare  photograph  of  the  idealistic 
young  Englishman,  John  G.  Tunstall,  whose  death  precipitated  the 
later  stages  of  the  war. 

Recent  studies  of  frontiersmen  include  Stanley  Vestal's  Kit  Carson 
(1^28)  and  Mountain  Men  (1937);  and  Old  Bill  Williams  (1936), 
by  Alpheus  A.  Favour.  Bill  Williams  was  one  of  the  early  group  of 
trappers  and  traders  who  worked  in  and  out  of  Taos,  but  his  early 
life  in  Missouri,  the  circumstances  of  'his  coming  to  New  Mexico  as 
guide  for  the  United  States  survey  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  in  1825,  and 
his  tragic  death  as  a  result  of  Fremont's  disastrous  fourth  expedition 
are  less  generally  known.  Other  pioneer  characters — trappers,  traders, 
prospectors,  cowboys,  outlaws,  and  "lady-wildcats" — are  vividly  por- 
trayed in  books  by  Duncan  Aikman,  Frederick  R.  Bechdolt,  Dane  Cool- 
idge,  Eugene  Cunningham,  T.  M.  Pearce,  and  N.  Howard  Thorpe. 


LITERATURE      IJQ 

Historical  accounts  of  the  frontier,  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  and  cattle  range, 
are  given  by  Will  C.  Barnes,  R.  L.  Duffus,  J.  Evetts  Haley,  Emerson 
Hough,  William  McLeod  Raine,  and  others. 

Edwin  L.  Sabin's  Kit  Carson  Days,  1809-1867,  published  in  1914, 
is  probably  the  most  authoritatively  complete  account  of  Carson's  life 
and  his  period,  with  abundant  indication  of  Carson's  extraordinary 
military  services  to  the  Government  through  two  wars  and  as  Indian 
Agent.  Incidents  of  his  earlier  life  are  simply  and  directly  told  in 
Kit  Carson  s  Own  Story  of  his  Ltfe,  as  dictated  to  Colonel  and  Mrs. 
D.  C.  Peters  about  1856-57.  The  original  manuscript,  a  straight- 
forward narration  of  facts  published  by  Blanche  Grant  in  1926,  lacks 
the  heroics  supplied  by  Peters  in  his  book,  which  so  greatly  annoyed 
Carson. 

Books  of  general  descriptive  interest  by  New  Mexican  writers 
include  The  Land  of  Journey's  Ending  (1924)  by  Mary  Austin; 
Caballeros  (1931)  by  Ruth  Laughlin  Barker;  Rio  Grande  (1933)  by 
Harvey  Fergusson;  The  Sky  Determines  (1934)  by  Ross  Calvin;  and 
When  Old  Trails  Were  New  (i934)  by  Blanche  Grant.  Two  books 
with  special  emphasis  on  the  Spanish  background  are  Old  Spain  In  Our 
Southwest  (1936)  by  Nina  Otero;  and  Brothers  of  Light,  The  Peni- 
tentes  of  the  Southwest  (1937)  by  Alice  Corbin  Henderson. 

Among  popular  books  on  contemporary  Indian  life  may  be  men- 
tioned: Acoma,  the  Sky  City  (1926)  by  Mrs.  W.  T.  Sedgwick;  Desert 
Drums  (1928),  by  Leo  Crane;  The  Rain  Makers  (1929)  and  The 
Navaho  Indians  (1930)  by  Mary  Roberts  and  Dane  Coolidge;  and 
Erna  Fergusson's  Dancing  Gods  (1931),  an  account  of  Indian  cere- 
monials in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  D.  H.  Lawrence's  Mornings 
in  Mexico  (1927)  also  includes  two  vividly  impressionistic  chapters  on 
Pueblo  Indian  dances. 

For  a  general  introduction  to  Indians  and  archeology,  Indians  of 
the  Southwest  (1913)  by  Earle  Pliny  Goddard  is  an  authentic  and 
convenient  handbook.  Dr.  A.  V.  Kidder's  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Southwestern  Archaeology  (1924),  Edgar  L.  Hewett's  Ancient  Life 
in  the  American  Southwest  (1930),  and  Indians  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley  (1937)  by  Edgar  L.  Hewett  and  Adolph  Bandelier  present  the 
results  of  modern  research  in  readable  form  for  the  layman  and  whet 
the  serious  student's  appetite  for  the  many  monographs  and  books  of  a 
more  scientific  nature  on  these  subjects. 

Folklore,  appealing  alike  to  adult  or  juvenile  reader,  is  well  repre- 
sented in  New  Mexico  literature.  Indigenous  Indian,  Spanish,  and 
Anglo-American  myths,  legends,  and  folk  tales  are  significantly  inter- 
mingled in  many  popular  books.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned: 
Indian  Stories  from  the  Pueblos  (1929)  and  Native  Tales  of  New 
Mexico  (1932)  by  Frank  G.  Applegate;  Zuiii  Indian  Tales  (1926) 


I4O     NEW     MEXICO 

by  Aileen  Nusbaum;  Coronado's  Children  (1930)  by  J.  Frank  Dobie; 
Navaho  Tales  (1927)  by  William  Whitman;  Tewa  Firelight  Tales 
(1927)  by  Ahlee  James;  Waterless  Mountain  (1931)  and  Dark  Circlt 
of  Branches  (1933)  by  Laura  Adams  Armer;  Tay-Tays  Tales  (1922) 
and  Tay-Tay's  Memories  (1924)  by  Elizabeth  Willis  DeHuff;  and 
The  Burro  of  Angelitos  (1937)  by  Peggy  Pond  Church.  Charles  F. 
Lummis  and  Frank  Gushing  were  earlier  contributors  to  this  field.  For 
the  erudite  student,  a  wealth  of  material  is  furnished  in  the  publications 
of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  the  Journal  of  American  Folk- 
lore,  and  the  American  Anthropologist. 

In  the  publishing  field,  New  Mexico  has  several  book-publishing 
firms  and  monthly  or  quarterly  publications.  The  former  class  in- 
cludes :  The  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  Albuquerque ;  the  Quivira 
Society  (publishers  of  translations  of  original  Spanish  narratives,  edited 
by  Dr.  G.  P.  Hammond  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico)  ;  The 
Rydal  Press,  Santa  Fe  (publishers  of  limited  editions) ;  and  Writers' 
Editions,  Santa  Fe.  The  last  named,  sponsored  by  a  group  of  South- 
western writers,  is  incorporated  as  a  nonprofit  co-operative  publishing 
enterprise — said  to  have  been  unique  in  the  United  States  when  founded 

in  1933- 

Magazines  include  the  New  Mexico  Historical  Review  (quarterly)  ; 
El  Palacio  (monthly),  a  news  bulletin  and  commentary  on  archeological 
activities;  the  New  Mexico  Quarterly,  of  general  literary  interest,  pub- 
lished by  the  University  of  New  Mexico;  the  State-published  magazine 
New  Mexico  (monthly),  featuring  illustrated  articles  of  contemporary 
and  historic  interest. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  perhaps  the  outstanding  feature  of  contemporary 
literature  in  New  Mexico  is  its  largely  regional  character.  This  seems 
due  less  to  intention  than  to  an  instinctive  reaction  on  the  part  of  the 
writers  to  the  influence  of  the  native  soil  and  scene.  Incidentally,  the 
difference  between  sectionalism  and  true  regionalism  may  be  recognized 
by  reference  to  the  regional  character  of  much  great  literature.  The 
claim  for  New  Mexican  literature  is,  not  that  it  is  great,  but  that  it 
is  largely  genuine  and  a  direct  product  of  the  soil. 

(For  selected  titles  since  1940,  see  page  439;  since  1950,  see  page 
47I-) 


Music 


THE  music  of  the  early  Indian  nowhere  appears  to  be  better  pre- 
served than  in  New  Mexico,  where,  among  the  Pueblo,  Navaho, 
and  Apache  Indians,  it  has  been  handed  down  by  rote  from  one 
generation  to  another  from  prehistoric  times.  Since  Indian  music  is 
not  characterized  by  Western  concepts  of  harmony,  no  comparison  with 
European  music  is  possible.  To  ordinary  white  ears,  says  D.  H.  Law- 
rence, the  Indian's  song  sometimes  sounds  like  a  rather  disagreeable 
howling  around  the  drum. 

Singing,  to  the  Indian,  like  dancing,  is  part  of  ceremony,  part  of 
ritual.  Against  the  backdrop  of  the  mesas  and  the  mountains,  in  the 
center  of  the  plaza  of  his  pueblo,  the  Indian  sings  as  he  dances  for 
rain,  for  favor  in  the  hunt,  to  make  the  corn  grow. 

Lawrence,  who  lived  for  many  years  in  Taos,  describes  a  Taos 
Indian  dance  as  follows: 

"The  Indian  singing,  sings  without  words  or  vision.  Face  lifted 
and  sightless,  eyes  half  closed  and  visionless,  mouth  open  and  speechless, 
the  sounds  arise  in  the  chest.  He  will  tell  you  it  is  a  song  of  a  man 
coming  home  from  the  bear-hunt:  or  a  song  to  make  rain:  or  a  song 
to  make  the  corn  grow:  or  even,  quite  modern,  the  song  of  the  church 
bell  on  Sunday  morning.  ... 

"The  dark  faces  stoop  forward,  in  a  strange  race-darkness.  The 
eyelashes  droop  a  little  with  insistent  thuds.  And  the  spirits  of  the 
men  go  out  in  the  ether,  vibrating  in  waves  from  the  hot,  dark,  inten- 
tional blood,  seeking  the  creative  presence  that  hovers  forever  in  the 
ether,  seeking  identification,  following  on  down  the  mysterious  rhythms 
of  the  creative  pulse,  on  and  on  into  the  germinating  quick  of  the  maize 
that  lies  under  the  ground,  there,  with  the  throbbing,  pulsing,  clapping 
rhythm  that  comes  from  the  dark,  creative  blood  in  man,  to  stimulate 
the  tremulous,  pulsating  protoplasm  in  the  seed-germ,  till  it  throws 
forth  its  rhythms  of  creative  energy  into  the  rising  blades  of  leaf  and 
stem." 

For  every  occasion  there  is  a  song  and  a  dance ;  the  Indian  repertoire 
is  as  extensive  as  that  of  the  white  man.  In  some  ceremonies  lasting 
several  days,  definite  groups  of  songs  are  sung,  with  only  rare  instances 
of  repetition.  Among  these  are  the  Shalako  of  the  Zuni,  the  Yebechai 
of  the  Navaho,  and  the  corn  dance  of  the  Santo  Domingo  Pueblo, 

141 


142     N  EW     MEXICO 

where  as  many  as  six  hundred  performers  faultlessly  synchronize  their 
movements  into  a  superb  pageant. 

Songs  of  one  tribe  differ  from  those  of  another  in  various  ways, 
as  the  native  folk  music  of  Europe  differs  among  the  nations.  Not  only 
does  the  melodic  style  and  rhythmic  composition  vary,  but  its  manner 
of  execution  may  also  be  vastly  different.  The  Pueblo  songs  are  pitched 
in  medium  and  low  voice,  while  those  of  the  Navaho  are  often  high. 

Types  of  songs  may  also  bear  a  tribal  identity.  The  Eagle,  Buffalo, 
Deer,  Corn,  Basket,  and  Turtle  dances  belong  to  the  Pueblos.  The 
Navaho,  besides  their  healing  songs  in  the  Night  and  Mountain  chants, 
sing  round  or  circle  dance  songs.  Plains  Indian  songs  adopted  by  the 
Pueblo  Indian  differ  greatly  from  their  own  in  tempo  and  melody. 
The  -Apache,  in  addition  to  their  distinctive  Devil  and  Bear  dance 
songs,  enjoy  back  and  forth  and  circle  dance  songs. 

Hunting,  traveling,  work  songs,  and  lullabies  are  found  varying 
greatly  in  composition  and  interpretation  in  all  of  the  New  Mexico 
tribes. 

With  the  tribal  ceremonies,  the  percussion  accompaniment  varies, 
rattles  being  used  for  the  Navaho  Night  and  Mountain  chants  and 
some  of  the  Pueblo  ceremonies,  while  the  drum  is  used  by  the  Pueblos 
in  the  Corn  and  other  dances.  Apache  use  the  drum  also,  preferring 
soft  toned  ones  similar  to  the  water  drum  of  the  Indians  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  Of  late  years  the  Apache  use  drums  made  of  lard  buckets, 
in  preference  to  the  Pueblo  wooden  drum,  for  they  carry  a  louder,  more 
resonant  tone. 

With  the  advent  of  the  United  States  Government  Schools,  the 
missionary  activities  of  various  religious  organizations,  passing  of  the 
patriarchs  of  the  tribes,  and  with  the  consequent  loss  of  ancient  melo- 
dies, musicians  fear  the  disappearance  of  much  of  this  invaluable  tribal 
music  unless  it  is  scientifically  recorded  before  it  is  too  late. 

Some  such  recordings  have  been  made:  notable  is  a  collection  of 
Zuni  songs  by  Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  of  the  Hemenway  Archeological 
Expedition  (1890).  These  were  made  on  phonograph  cylinders,  from 
which,  with  the  aid  of  a  harmonium  (small  organ  with  metal  reeds) 
Mr.  Benjamin  Ives  Oilman  recorded  some  of  the  melodies,  including 
the  "Song  of  the  Rabbit  Hunt,"  and  the  sacred  dance  of  the  Ko-Ko, 
and  published  in  A  Journal  of  American  Ethnology  and  Archaeology, 
Vol.  /. 

A  collection  of  Santo  Domingo  Pueblo  songs,  by  Frances  Densmore, 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  has  been  published  (1938)  by  the  South- 
west Museum,  Los  Angeles. 

More  than  two  thousand  Navaho  sacred  ceremonial  songs  have  been 
made  on  phonograph  records  under  the  sponsorship  of  Miss  Mary  C. 


MUSIC      143 

Wheelright.  These  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  Navajo  Cere- 
monial Art,  at  Santa  Fe. 

Natalie  Curtis,  in  her  The  Indian's  Book,  has  recorded  many  of  the 
songs  of  New  Mexico's  Pueblo  Indians,  while  composers  like  Thurlow 
Lieurance,  Charles  Wakefield  Cadman,  Jean  Jeancon,  and  others  have 
recorded  some  melodies,  transposing  them  to  fit  our  musical  scale,  but 
in  the  process  losing  much  of  the  Indian  characteristics. 

There  remains  much  still  to  be  done  to  preserve  for  future  genera- 
tions this  valuable  music,  not  alone  for  the  Indian,  but  also  as  a  point 
of  departure  for  aesthetic  achievements  in  the  field  of  true  American 
music. 

SPANISH  MUSIC 

Spanish  music  was  first  introduced  when  Cortes  came  to  the  Ameri- 
can continent  in  1519,  bringing  with  him  the  folk  songs  of  the  mother 
country,  where  for  centuries  trovadores  and  juglares  had  been  compos- 
ing and  singing  romances  or  ballads  built  around  the  lives  of  their 
heroes,  or  dealing  with  subjects  of  love,  religion,  or  war. 

The  Spanish  ballad  of  the  sixteenth  century  used  sixteen  syllables 
to  a  verse  and  was  usually  assonated  instead  of  rhymed.  The  sixteen- 
syllable  verses  were  unpliable,  so  they  eventually  were  broken  down 
into  octosyllabic  meter  which,  with  greater  variety  of  themes,  was 
employed  in  a  subsequent  composition  known  as  the  decima.  This 
decima  consisted  of  forty-four  lines,  a  four-line  introduction  followed 
by  four  stanzas  of  ten  lines  each,  with  the  first  line  of  the  introduction 
becoming  the  last  line  of  the  first  stanza,  the  second  line  of  the  intro- 
duction becoming  the  last  line  of  the  second  stanza,  and  so  on.  This 
stanzaic  form  was  first  used  by  Lope  de  Vega  in  Spain  and  is  still 
recited  as  poetry  in  New  Mexico,  though  not  so  frequently  sung. 

As  the  spirit  of  conquest  moved  the  Spaniards  on  to  new  lands, 
their  songs  went  with  them,  Coronado  and  his  men  bringing  them  into 
New  Mexico.  But  it  was  not  until  the  first  colonizing  expedition  of 
Juan  de  Ofiate,  in  1598,  that  they  became  a  part  of  New  Mexican 
culture.  Since  the  Spanish  expeditions  were  made  for  the  glory  of 
God,  as  well  as  the  acquisition  of  land  and  wealth  for  the  Crown,  the 
Franciscan  missionaries  were  a  vital  part  and,  in  some  instances,  the 
dominating  force  of  each  expedition.  Among  these  missionaries,  who 
had  been  well  trained  in  letters  and  in  the  arts,  were  found  some  musi- 
cians of  ability,  and  it  is  to  them  that  credit  for  the  introduction  of 
European  music  in  the  New  World  must  be  given. 

From  Spanish  historical  documents  we  find  that  the  first  music 
teacher  was  Fray  Cristobal  de  Quinones.  He  is  credited  with  having 
brought  the  first  organ  into  what  is  now  the  United  States ;  he  installed 
an  organ  in  the  chapel  of  the  monastery  at  San  Felipe  Pueblo  and 


144     NEW     MEXICO 

trained  the  Indians  to  sing  the  church  services.  He  died  in  1609. 
Thus, 

At  the  time  that  Jamestown  was  founded  and  thirteen  years  before  the 
Pilgrims  set  foot  on  the  Massachusetts  coast,  New  Mexico  could  not  only  boast 
of  a  music  teacher  who  had  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  a  musical  education  such  as 
the  church  schools  of  the  day  afforded,  but  was  in  possession  of  an  organ.  .  .  . 
Before  1630  many  schools  were  in  operation  which  included  music  in  their  cur- 
riculum. The  first  boys'  choirs  within  the  present  United  States  were  those 
which  supplied  the  music  for  the  mission  churches  of  New  Mexico.  Churches 
and  monasteries  were  supplied  with  organs  which  were  transported  overland 
from  Mexico  City,  a  six  months'  trip  in  those  days.  A  century  before  Boston 
claims  to  have  had  an  organ  (1713)  there  were  many  organs  in  the  "Great 
Unknown  North,"  as  the  Spaniards  termed  the  land  of  the  Pueblos.  As  far  as 
Spanish  dominion  extended,  there  was  music. 

The  second  teacher  was  Bernardo  de  Marta,  a  Spaniard  who  came 
into  New  Mexico  about  1600. 

One  form  of  Spanish-American  folk  song  prevalent  at  that  time, 
and  still  heard  today,  is  the  alabado>  a  religious  ballad,  an  outgrowth 
of  Gregorian  Chant.  This  form  has  little  melodic  interest,  is' primitive 
and  monotonous,  but  very  moving  when  sung  by  a  large  number  of 
voices.  The  Penitentes  still  use  this  form  of  song  in  their  services, 
often  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  crude  flute.  It  is  used  also  at  wakes. 

Other  song  forms  which  have  developed  within  New  Mexico  are 
the  inditctj  cuando,  corrida,  and  lastly  the  cancion  popular.  The  indita 
dates  approximately  from  the  time  of  Maximilian  and  is  a  combination 
of  song  and  dance.  The  words  tell  a  story,  the  refrain  is  lyric  and 
amorous.  It  is  composed  of  eight  syllable  rhymed  verses.  The  cor- 
ridoj  always  heroic  in  its  subject  matter,  is  a  modern  development  of 
the  ballad.  Its  music  pattern  is  a  definite  one  in  four-quarter  rhythm, 
usually  with  guitar  accompaniment,  and  is  never  danced.  It  is  often  a 
melodramatic  narrative  almost  always  naming  the  day  and  date  of  the 
episode  with  which  the  poem  deals.  The  cuando  has  no  definite  pat- 
tern and  is  practically  obsolete  now;  formerly  it  told  of  adventures 
and  always  ended  each  stanza  with  the  word  cuando  (when).  Out 
of  these  earlier  forms,  since  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
has  developed  the  canciones  populares,  literally,  popular  songs,  very 
singable  in  melody  and  rhythm.  These  date  from  the  first  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century  and  are  common  to  every  locality.  In  all  of 
this  Spanish-American  folk  music  very  little  Indian  influence  is  felt, 
with  the  exception  of  the  indita. 

Nowhere  else  in  the  United  States  has  the  study  of  Spanish-Ameri- 
can music  been  more  seriously  'followed  than  at  the  University  of  New 
Mexico.  Dr.  Arthur  L.  Campa,  Director  of  Research  in  Folklore 
and  Professor  in  Modern  Languages,  with  financial  help  from  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  and  the  late  Senator  Bronson  Cutting,  has  made 


MUSIC      145 

recordings  and  subsequent  transcriptions  of  a  large  number  of  folk 
songs  which  illustrate  the  different  types  found  within  New  Mexico. 
Aurelio  Espinosa's  great  contribution  to  research  in  this  field  has  been 
widely  recognized. 

With  co-operation  from  some  Latin-American  organizations  and 
through  the  public  schools  both  children  and  adults  are  now  given  an 
opportunity  to  learn  these  songs  and  sing  them  under  musical  direction. 
Frequently  a  small  amount  of  folk  dancing  accompanies  the  singing. 
Also,  to  those  who  want  itt  instruction  is  given  in  playing  stringed 
instruments  which  comprise  the  native  tipica  orchestra. 

ANGLO-AMERICAN  MUSIC 

"All  lonely  people  sing,"  says  Margaret  Larkin  in  Singing  Cowboy, 
"and  much  of  the  cowboy *s  work  is  done  in  solitude.  Singing  relieves 
the  monotony  of  the  night  watch,  or  the  day's  ride  on  the  range."*  To 
the  new  frontier  of  the  West,  after  the  Civil  War,  came  men  and 
boys  from  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  and  Ohio;  with  them  they 
brought  their  folk-tunes — English  and  Scottish  ballads,  Irish  reels, 
Negro  spirituals,  and  sentimental  songs  of  the  day — and  to  these  they 
added  words  that  told  of  their  experiences  in  cow  camp  and  cattle 
range. 

Miss  Larkin  says, 

There  always  were  one  or  two  fellows  in  an  outfit  who  were  said  to  have  a 
voice,  and  they  sang  the  solo  stanzas  while  the  rest  of  the  group  joined  in  with 
Whoopee  ti  yi  yo,  or  the  yell  that  took  the  place  of  the  chorus.  If  there  was  any 
accompaniment,  it  was  the  guitar,  supplemented  by  fiddle  and  an  accordion  at 
dances.  Fiddling  and  singing  were  highly  regarded  accomplishments,  and  the 
cowboy  who  could  do  either  was  in  demand  in  frontier  celebrations. 

Some  of  the  most  popular  cowboy  songs  sung  on  the  New  Mexican 
ranges  were  "The  Strawberry  Roan,"  "Little  Joe  the  Wrangler," 
"When  the  Work's  All  Done  This  Fall,"  "Jack  O'  Diamonds,"  "The 
Santa  Fe  Trail,"  "By  the  Silvery  Rio  Grande,"  and  "Ridin'  Down 
That  Old  Texas  Trail."  The  songs  are  usually  sentimental,  dealing 
with  loneliness  and  death.  Typical  is  the  last  stanza  of  "When  the 
Work's  All  Done  This  Fall": 

Poor  Charlie  was  buried  at  sunrise,  no  tombstone  at  his  head, 

Just  a  little  slab-board,  and  this  is  what  it  read, 

Charlie  died  at  daybreak,  he  died  from  a  fall, 

And  the  boy  won't  see  his  mother  when  the  work's  all  done  this  fall. 

To  the  tune  of  "The  Little  Old  Log  Cabin  in  the  Lane,"  Jack  Thorpe, 
one  of  the  venerable  old-timers  on  New  Mexico  ranges,  wrote  "Little 
Joe,  the  Wrangler." 


146      NEW     MEXICO 

It  was  little  Joe,  the  wrangler,  he  will  wrangle  never  more, 
For  his  days  with  the  roundup  they  are  o'er; 
'Twas  a  year  ago  last  April  when  he  rode  up  to  our  camp, 
Just  a  little  Texas  stray  and  nothing  more. 

The  song  tells  how  they  taught  little  Joe  to  wrangle  horses,  and  then 
one  day  while  camping  on  the  Pecos,  a  storm  came  up,  the  herd  stam- 
peded, and  in  a  flash  of  lightning  they  saw  Little  Joe  out  in  front  of 
the  herd  bravely  trying  to  head  them  off;  the  next  morning  he  was 
found  in  a  washout  mangled  to  a  pulp. 

Many  of  the  songs  are  based  on  actual  experiences;  there  probably 
was  a  * 'Little  Joe"  whose  death  inspired  Jack  Thorpe.  The  song  was 
the  way  the  cowboy  told  of  an  important  event,  and  even  relayed 
news.  One  of  the  most  famous  New  Mexican  songs  is  "Billy  the  Kid." 

I'll  sing  you  the  song  of  Billy  the  Kid, 
I'll  sing  of  the  desperate  deed  that  he  did; 
Way  out  in  New  Mexico  long,  long  ago, 
When  a  man's  only  chance  was  his  old  forty-four. 

In  some  sections  of  the  State,  particularly  in  the  east,  old-time 
singing  conventions  are  popular.  These  are  well  organized  into  local, 
county,  and  district  groupings,  and  furnished  by  their  all-day  Sunday- 
singings,  a  recreational  activity  which  is  thoroughly  enjoyed.  It  is  an 
interesting  observation  that  most  of  these  groups  still  prefer  to  use 
shaped  notes  for  sight  singing,  a  carry-over  from  southern  United 
States. 

Despite  the  basic  wealth  of  folk  music  in  New  Mexico,  the  develop- 
ment of  music  as  a  fine  art  has  been  exceedingly  slow.  Within  the 
last  ten  years,  however,  great  strides  have  been  made  in  music  education 
through  higher  State  institutions  of  public  instruction  and  city  school 
systems.  In  the  latter  there  has  been  an  especially  noticeable  impetus 
in  instrumental  instruction.  Most  of  the  schools  in  incorporated  towns 
and  cities  now  have  orchestras  or  bands.  In  Albuquerque  an  annual 
program  is  given  by  the  public  schools  in  which  five  hundred  children 
participate  in  band  and  orchestral  ensemble.  School  credit  is  allowed 
in  many  of  these  places  for  instrumental  study  as  well  as  glee  club 
and  chorus  participation.  Music  departments  of  State  institutions  have 
steadily  grown  stronger  and  within  the  last  year  the  University  of 
New  Mexico  has  developed  its  music  department  until  it  now  awards 
a  Bachelor  of  Music  degree. 

A  State  Federation  of  Music  Clubs  exists  with  chapters  in  various 
towns  of  the  State.  Some  civic  orchestras  exist,  notably  the  one  in 
Albuquerque,  with  a  membership  of  approximately  seventy  pieces,  and 
one  in  Raton  with  fifty  pieces.  In  Albuquerque,  a  Junior  Orchestra 
with  twenty-five  members  is  also  maintained.  In  some  places  there  are 
community  choral  organizations  directed  by  competent  leaders  in  which 


MUSIC      147 

music  lovers  may  participate.  Organizations  of  this  character  are  doing 
distinguished  work  in  Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  and  Clovis.  At  least 
four  cities  in  the  State  now  have  thriving  community  organizations 
which  sponsor  concerts  of  high  artistic  merit  by  nationally  known  artists. 


Architecture 


ACHITECTURE  more  than  almost  any  other  art  reflects  the 
history  and  culture  of  the  people  and  region  to  which  it  is 
related.     The  architecture  of  New  Mexico  based  on  forms  and 
materials  indigenous  to  the  State  is  particularly  representative,  modifica- 
tions having  occurred  with  successive  invasions  and  subsequent  changes 
in  social  conditions. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  history  of  New  Mexico  divides  itself  into 
three  great  periods,  accompanied  by  major  cultural  changes.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  prehistoric,  or  pre-Columbian,  era  extending  from  the 
dim  horizons  of  antiquity  to  the  invasion  by  Coronado  in  1540.  This 
was  followed  by  the  Spanish  era  which  began  with  the  conquest  and 
extended  through  three  centuries  of  Latin  influence,  including  the  period 
under  Mexican  administration,  until  the  American  occupation  in  1846. 
The  last  period,  beginning  with  this  date  and  extending  to  the  present, 
may  be  subdivided  into  two  parts:  the  Territorial,  which  lasted  more 
or  less  until  the  advent  of  the  railroads,  and  the  modern,  reflecting  the 
vast  cultural  changes  due  to  improved  technology. 

The  buildings  discovered  by  the  first  Spanish  explorers  were  evolved 
by  inhabitants  who  had  lived  in  this  country  for  unknown  centuries. 
Built  of  materials  found  in  the  desert  and  adjoining  mountain  regions, 
the  plans  and  shapes  of  those  structures  resulted  from  adaptation  of 
materials  to  the  needs  of  the  builders.  Since  there  was  no  influence 
present  extraneous  to  the  American  continent,  these  edifices  may  be  said 
to  be  truly  American,  and  as  their  influence  can  still  be  felt  in  contem- 
porary New  Mexican  architecture,  the  latter  possesses  a  unique  heritage 
in  the  United  States. 

As  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest  were  a  sedentary  agricultural 
people  instead  of  nomadic,  they  were,  more  or  less,  permanently  attached 
to  definite  sites  near  their  fields.  Archeologists  find  that  probably  the 
earliest  habitations  were  caves,  and  that  later,  although  sometimes 
concurrently,  houses  large  enough  to  care  for  the  whole  community 
were  erected.  These  would  correspond  to  modern  apartment  houses 
and  were  occupied  by  groups  rather  than  by  individuals  due  to  the  neces- 
sity for  defense  against  enemies  tempted  by  the  corn  stored  in  them. 
The  necessity  for  defense  was  one  of  the  principal  factors  in  the  plan- 
ning and  form  of  the  buildings. 

148 


ARCHITECTURE      149 

The  basic  unit  of  these  structures  was  a  rectangular  cell-like  room, 
a  shape  which  permitted  the  greatest  number  of  units  in  a  given  area. 
The  units  were  arranged  in  terraces  four  or  five  stories  high,  each  tier 
receding  the  depth  of  one  room.  Lower  and  inner  rooms  were  used 
for  storage,  the  upper  and  outer  ones  as  living  quarters.  In  certain 
instances,  especially  where  the  apartments  were  built  around  a  central 
court,  the  outer  walls  were  kept  flush,  only  rooms  facing  the  court  being 
set  back  in  receding  tiers. 

By  eliminating  large  openings  in  walls  of  the  ground  floor,  the 
structure  was  easily  converted  into  a  stronghold  by  the  simple  process 
of  withdrawing  the  ladders  which  provided  access  to  the  upper  terraces. 

Walls  were  built  either  of  stone  or  adobe,  depending  upon  which 
was  more  easily  available.  When  the  walls  were  of  stone,  they  were 
often  made  of  tabular  slabs  readily  obtainable  from  near-by  ledges.  The 
slabs  were  laid  in  adobe  mortar,  sometimes  being  fitted  with  such  care, 
as  at  Pueblo  Bonito,  that  little  mortar  was  required,  especially  when 
the  joints  were  filled  with  a  mosaic  of  spalls  which  left  hardly  a  chink 
between  the  main  stones. 

Adobe,  apparently  used  from  time  immemorial,  was  cast  or  puddled 
into  place  in  the  walls  in  stratified  layers  in  a  most  ingenious  fashion. 
The  walls  were  then  finished  with  a  smooth  coating  of  adobe  inside 
and  out.  The  interior  of  the  rooms  was  also  coated  with  white  gypsum 
or  a  light  colored  clay  and  often,  especially  in  ceremonial  rooms,  deco- 
rated with  a  contrasting  color. 

Roofs  were  formed  by  placing  round  logs,  or  vigas  as  they  are 
referred  to  locally,  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  at  regularly  spaced 
intervals  across  two  opposite  wall  tops.  Over  these  were  placed  smaller 
poles  crossed  at  right  angles  on  which  long  grasses,  rushes,  small 
branches,  or  split  sticks  were  laid  closely,  and  over  all  a  thick  layer  of 
mud  was  spread.  These  roof  surfaces  also  served  as  floors  for  the 
rooms  above. 

To  provide  drainage  the  entire  roof  sloped  gradually  to  openings 
in  the  side  wall  in  which  canales  (water  spouts)  were  placed  extending 
out  over  the  wall  to  carry  off  rain  water. 

The  main  supporting  vigas  were  cut  and  trimmed  laboriously  with 
primitive  stone  axes.  Because  of  the  work  involved,  old  timber  was 
re-used  wherever  possible.  When  a  viga  so  used  did  not  fit  its  new 
position,  it  was  permitted  to  protrude  beyond  the  exterior  wall,  thus 
producing  a  characteristic  feature  of  Pueblo  Indian  architecture:  the 
projecting  mga. 

Wooden  doors  were  not  used,  openings  probably  being  covered  with 
blankets  or  hides.  Access  to  rooms  on  the  ground  floor  was  possible 
only  through  trap  doors  in  the  roof.  The  upper  floors  were  reached 
by  ladders  or  masonry  steps  on  the  exterior.  Windows  were  simply 


150      NEW     MEXICO 

small  holes  with  no  sash  of  any  kind  and  were  used  principally  to  let 
the  smoke  out  and  the  air  in;  they  also  were  probably  used  to  shoot 
arrows  through. 

Apparently  no  chimneys  were  employed  during  the  prehistoric  era, 
fires  usually  being  built  in  a  sunken  or  raised  pit  in  the  floor,  the  smoke 
escaping  through  a  hole  in  the  roof.  Rudimentary  fireplaces  existed, 
but  they  had  no  chimneys. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  multiple-house  as  described  is  typical, 
but  there  were  many  variations  of  the  main  type.  The  principal  fea- 
tures of  this  main  type,  however,  have  survived  to  the  present  day  as 
buildings  of  stone  masonry  or  adobe  in  this  style  are  still  being  erected. 
The  adobe's  characteristic  softness  of  outline,  due  to  erosion  and  bat- 
tered exterior  walls,  is  an  important  feature  of  the  New  Mexico  land- 
scape. The  rectangular  terraced  masses,  flat  roofs,  protruding  vigas, 
wood  ceilings,  and  white  exterior  walls  are  a  heritage,  from  time  im- 
memorial, of  the  early  inhabitants  of  New  Mexico. 

The  kivas  (ceremonial  chambers),  usually  subterranean  and  circular, 
had,  contrary  to  the  general  rule  of  no  chimneys,  highly  complicated 
ventilating  flues  connected  with  fireplaces.  The  great  kiva  of  pre- 
historic times  stood  apart  from  other  buildings  and  projected  above 
ground  only  far  enough  to  insure  drainage.  The  roof  in  which  a 
hatchway  provided  the  only  entrance  to  the  interior  was  either  flat  or 
cribbed,  and  rested  on  pillars  which  rose  at  intervals  from  a  continuous 
bench  around  the  circular  wall  within. 

Kivas  as  found  today  do  not  greatly  vary  from  this  traditional  plan. 
Excellent  examples  of  the  old  circular  type  built  partly  above  ground 
are  to  be  found  in  the  south  plaza  of  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo,  at  Nambe, 
Santo  Domingo,  and  Cochiti;  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  and  Tesuque 
have  the  rectangular  type  attached  to  other  buildings.  The  kivas  at 
Taos  are  below  ground  with  tops  and  entrances  slightly  above  ground. 
Fine  examples  of  the  prehistoric  type  of  underground  kiva  are  present 
in  the  cave  in  Bandelier  National  Monument,  at  Aztec  National  Monu- 
ment, and  Chetro  Ketl  in  the  Chaco  Canyon  National  Monument. 

The  kivas  which  have  been  brought  completely  above  ground  are 
still  circular  within  although  enclosed  in  rectangular  walls  and  joined 
to  other  unrelated  buildings.  Kivas  are  of  the  greatest  interest  archi- 
tecturally, but  have  not  influenced  subsequent  architecture  in  the  State 
as  have  the  great  pueblos,  or  multiple-houses. 

When  the  Spanish  soldiers  and*  priests  came  to  New  Mexico  im- 
portant architectural  changes  occurred,  but  these  changes  were  due  only 
to  new  plan  requirements,  improved  tools,  and  methods  of  construction ; 
the  materials  remained  the 'same  until  the  advent  of  the  Anglo  Ameri- 
cans. Retention  of  the  same  materials  accounts  for  the  harmonious 
blending  of  the  old  and  new. 


ARCHITECTURE      151 

Unquestionably  the  greatest  architectural  influence  was  at  first 
exerted  by  the  priests  who  must  have  been  persons  of  extraordinary 
ability  and  fortitude,  judging  by  the  many  great  churches  they  built 
under  adverse  conditions  throughout  New  Mexico.  These  structures 
are  still  used  as  precedents  for  monumental  buildings  in  the  Pueblo- 
Spanish  style.  The  priests  brought  a  knowledge  of  European  building 
methods  and  an  enthusiasm  kindled  by  memories  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Spain.  The  basis  for  comparisons  in  this  category  is  the  great  church 
and  adjacent  monastery  at  Acoma.  Missions  at  Laguna  Pueblo,  San 
Felipe  Pueblo,  and  others  are  also  noteworthy. 

As  the  priests  started  their  churches,  they  were  brought,  however, 
face  to  face  with  the  fact  that  the  Indians  who  were  to  build  them 
were  conservative,  had  their  own  building  traditions,  and  that  the 
ancient  materials  imposed  limitations  beyond  which  they  could  not  go. 
The  priests  may  have  wanted  to  introduce  vaulted  ceilings  and  arches, 
but  it  was  simpler  to  stay  within  the  construction  methods  known  to 
the  people  and  safer  to  avoid  arches  when  using  material  so  easily 
weathered  as  adobe.  In  general  they  even  avoided  the  arch  where 
stone  was  used.  This  practice  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  differ- 
ences between  New  Mexico  and  the  later  California  missions. 

Certain  changes  were  made,  nevertheless.  The  plan  of  Christian 
churches,  usually  coffin  shaped,  narrowing  at  the  sanctuary  or  else  cruci- 
form, was  adopted.  Where  adobe  was  used  (as  in  the  majority  of 
cases)  the  priests  introduced  a  novel  method  to  the  Indians,  the  making 
of  adobes  in  the  form  of  pre-cast  bricks  mixed  with  straw  and  sun 
dried.  This  became  the  standard  method  of  adobe  construction,  the 
old  method  of  puddling  being  gradually  abandoned.  The  walls  of  the 
churches  were  greatly  thickened  in  contrast  with  the  rather  thin  walls 
formerly  constructed.  The  spans  were  increased  to  accommodate  large 
congregations,  and  heavier  timbers  were  necessarily  brought  into  use 
even  though  the  roof  construction  remained  essentially  the  same. 

One  of  the  greatest  innovations  was  the  introduction  of  the  iron 
axe  and  adze.  With  these  tools  vigas  were  no  longer  confined  to  the 
round  form  previously  used  but  were  rectangular  in  section;  they  also 
made  possible  the  shaping  of  decorative  capitals  to  crown  pillars  or 
columns  and  corbels,  often  in  the  form  of  pilaster  caps,  for  support  of 
the  roof-beams.  Finally  and  most  important,  doors,  windows,  and 
frames  of  wood  could  be  made ;  these,  however,  were  probably  not  used 
generally  by  the  Indians  in  their  community  houses  until  they  began 
to  feel  safe  from  enemies;  but  at  an  early  date  the  Indians  began  the 
use  of  selenite  in  window  openings — an  innovation  possibly  suggested 
by  the  oriests. 

A  typical  mission  church  is  characterized  by  massive  dignity  and 
simplicity,  often  relieved  by  detail  of  grace  and  charm  (see  Tour  6A* 


152      NEW     MEXICO 

A  coma).  The  nave  was  lighted  by  rectangular  windows  placed  high 
in  the  walls,  frequently  on  one  side  only.  The  walls  of  the  sanctuary 
were  usually  carried  higher  than  that  of  the  nave,  thus  permitting 
a  one-story  opening  above  and  in  front  of  the  altar  which  illuminated 
it  from  an  invisible  source  of  light.  This  effect  produced  a  feeling  of 
mystery  and  reverence  in  the  beholder.  The  interior  walls  were  invari- 
ably plastered  smooth  with  adobe  and  whitened  with  gypsum.  Designs 
were  painted  on  them  with  colored  earths  in  the  form  of  dadoes,  or 
bands  at  the  base  of  walls,  and  embellishments  usually  in  traditional 
Indian  patterns.  The  vigas  were  richly  carved  in  many  cases,  the 
designs  being  more  reminiscent  of  Moorish  Spain  than  of  the  Indian 
world.  This  was  also  true  of  the  corbels  supporting  the  ceiling  beams, 
the  capitals  over  the  columns  supporting  the  choir  loft,  and  the  beams 
of  the  exterior  portales  or  porches  of  the  mission  facade  or  the  cloister 
of  an  adjacent  monastery.  These  portales,  so  characteristic  of  New 
Mexican  architecture,  were  probably  introduced  by  the  priests  but  may 
have  came  in  with  secular  buildings. 

Native  materials  and  methods  of  construction,  with  the  modifica- 
tions outlined  above,  were  also  adopted  for  secular  buildings.  The 
Spanish  house  plan  was  suitable  for  use  in  New  Mexico  due  to  the 
similarity  in  climates.  The  typical  house  of  the  better  type  was  built 
around  a  patio  with  portales  facing  the  enclosure — an  arrangement 
providing  shelter  from  wind  and  sun  and  also  a  measure  of  defense 
in  case  of  attack,  an  important  consideration  in  past  centuries. 

The  houses  were  rarely  built  more  than  one  or  two  rooms  wide, 
communication  being  from  room  to  room.  Windows,  not  glazed  in 
the  early  days,  were  usually  small,  barred  with  wooden  grilles,  and 
provided  with  wooden  shutters  on  the  inside.  Few  doors  opened  to 
the  outside,  usually  one  at  the  front  and  one  at  the  back,  leading  to 
the  corral. 

Shutters  and  doors  were  sometimes  paneled  and  beautifully  carved, 
but  more  often  were  simple  hand-hewn  planks  held  together  with  cross 
bars.  They  were  not  hinged,  as  iron  was  scarce,  but  secured  to  the 
frame  by  pivots  made  by  extending  the  stile  into  pockets  in  the  frame. 
Floors  were  of  earth  or  covered  with  thin  stone  slabs.  Fireplaces  with 
chimneys  came  into  general  use,  commonly  being  built  into  corners  with 
the  walls  used  as  supports  for  chimneys.  High-walled  corrals  for  safe- 
keeping of  livestock  in  time  of  trouble  were  usually  attached  to  the 
houses. 

Many  variations  of  the  above  plan  occurred,  including  houses  with 
no  portales,  others  with  portales  across  the  front  with  flanking  wings. 
Some  houses  were  two-storied,  as  evidenced  by 'the  so-called  oldest 
house  in  Santa  Fe,  but  certain  features  were  common  to  all :  the  uneven 
contours  of  earthen  walls,  rectangular  masses,  flat  roofs,  wood  ceilings, 


Missions 


Santo  Tomas,  in  the  village  of  Trampas 


Old  Acoma  Mission  at  Acoma  Pueblo 

Mission  church  at  the  abandoned  Quarai  Pueblo 


Carved  pulpit  in  three-hundred-year-old  Santo  Tomas 


I*.  P    -~'+&  >;  -•*"  '^-*^;^*-^ 

Country  chapel  near  Cimarron 
Chapel  reredos,  Chimay6  Reredos,  Cristo  Rey  Church 


'  •  *   *i* 


-  >*H 


Cristo  Rey  Church  in  Santa  Fe 


Church  of  San  Felipe  de  Neri  in  Albuquerque 


Church  of  San  Antonio  de  Isleta  at  Pueblo  Isleta 
Santuario  de  Chimay6  at  Chimayo 


Ranches  de  Taos  Church 


ARCHITECTURE      153 

and  white  interior  walls,  characteristic  of  buildings  in  pre-Columbian 
times. 

Few  architectural  changes  other  than  those  already  referred  to  took 
place  during  the  three  centuries  of  Latin  domination.  Homes  of  the 
wealthy  hadendados  or  ricos  up  and  down  the  Rio  Grande  Valley 
were  finer  than  those  of  the  poorer  people,  but  the  difference  was  doubt- 
less mainly  only  in  size  and  detail.  As  communication  with  Mexico 
became  more  regular  and  established,  iron,  tin,  glass,  and  other  refine- 
ments of  living  were  imported  which  led  to  slight  modification  of  the 
buildings,  but  in  essentials  they  remained  the  same. 

A  variant  in  the  prevailing  rectangular  mass  was  the  occasional 
torreon  (round  tower)  used  for  watch  towers  or  defense.  An  example 
exists  at  Manzano,  but  like  the  round  kivas  of  the  Indians  and  their 
pre-Columbian  watchtowers,  these  structures  did  not  influence  the  main 
current  of  architectural  development. 

The  raising  of  the  American  flag  in  1846  signaled  the  beginning  of 
profound  changes  in  the  architecture  of  New  Mexico.  These  changes 
were  slow  at  first  and  keyed  to  the  tempo  of  caravans  crossing  from  the 
United  States  into  the  new  Territory.  As  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  became 
safer  for  travel,  increasing  numbers  of  Anglo-Americans  began  to  arrive 
with  new  materials  and  architectural  ideas  based  on  those  of  the  com- 
munities from  which  they  came. 

Millwork  and  brick  were  imported  from  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City. 
The  small  grilled  and  glassless  windows  began  to  give  way  to  double- 
hung  glazed  sashes  often  provided  with  slatted  shutters  on  the  outside. 
Slender,  squared  columns  replaced  the  heavy  hewn  ones;  portal  para- 
pets were  ornamented  with  wood  trim.  Door  and  window  openings 
were  also  trimmed.  Painted  woodwork  further  helped  to  recall  eastern 
precedents.  Finally,  with  the  introduction  of  brick  kilns  and  lime 
plaster,  the  old  adobes  were  capped  with  a  protecting  cornice  of  brick 
in  ornamental  patterns,  and  walls  were  coated  with  lime  stucco. 

Nevertheless,  since  these  changes  occurred  relatively  slowly  and  were 
made  with  the  original  structures  as  a  base,  the  fundamental  rectangular 
mass  and  the  old  plan  remained  with  many  of  the  characteristic  details. 

The  changes  described  above  produced  a  type  similar  in  detail  to 
the  architecture  of  Monterey,  California,  but  still  fundamentally  New 
Mexican  as  to  essentials  of  construction.  The  style  is  extensively  used 
and  is  known  as  Territorial  to  distinguish  it  from  Pueblo-Spanish.  Ex- 
amples of  the  former  are  present  in  Santa  Fe,  notably  Sena  Plaza  and 
two  homes  near  the  intersection  of  Canyon  Road  and  Camino  del 
Monte  Sol.  The  remodeled  State  Capitol,  the  Public  Welfare  Building, 
the  State  Supreme  Court  Building,  and  the  Municipal  Building  in  Santa 
Fe  are  in  this  same  style  found  also  throughout  the  State. 

Some  changes,  even  though  not  always  extensive,  occurred  in  most 


154      NEW     MEXICO 

houses,  especially  the  introduction  of  glazed  sash.  Even  the  ancient 
communal  houses  of  Indians  felt  the  new  influence.  The  Indians 
gradually  began  to  feel  comparatively  safe  from  enemies,  and  the  result- 
ant tendency  was  no  longer  to  build  terraces  and  fortress-like  houses 
but  to  break  up  into  individual  smaller  units  where  they  could  be  nearer 
their  fields.  Thus  the  difference  between  an  Indian  pueblo  and  a 
Spanish-American  village  tended  to  decrease. 

In  towns,  especially  Santa  Fe,  where  land  was  relatively  expensive, 
two-story  buildings  were  common  and  often  had  a  two-story  porch  in 
front.  The  Plaza  at  one  time  was  almost  completely  surrounded  by 
such  buildings.  In  some  sections,  notably  Las  Vegas  and  the  east  slope 
of  the  Rockies,  many  houses  of  this  type  are  present,  further  modified 
by  a  wood  shingle  roof  in  place  of  the  traditional  flat  dirt  one. 

With  the  advent  of  the  railroad  in  1878,  two  outstanding  factors 
which  had  influenced  the  architecture  of  the  State  were  changed. 
Builders  were  no  longer  dependent  on  local  or  native  materials,  and 
buildings  were  no  longer  subject  almost  exclusively  to  the  native  tradi- 
tion. As  a  result,  buildings  of  every  type  and  description  were  erected 
and  the  newer  towns  began  to  resemble  the  Middle  West  and  the  East 
— reflecting  Anglo-American  culture  rather  than  that  of  New  Mexico. 

During  this  period  many  important  public  buildings  were  erected, 
including  the  first  State  capitol  in  Victorian  Gothic  style,  replaced  later 
by  the  remodeled  and  enlarged  capitol  in  Territorial  style. 

The  tendency  to  build  outside  of  the  local  tradition  had  actually 
begun,  however,  even  before  the  railroad  was  introduced,  one  of  the 
most  notable  examples  being  the  great  Cathedral  of  St.  Francis  in 
Santa  Fe,  a  stone  Romanesque  structure,  which  replaced  the  original 
old,  adobe  Parroqma. 

Not  even  the  venerable  Palacio  Real,  or  Governor's  Palace,  in  Santa 
Fe  escaped  unscathed.  This  building  is  so  old  that  some  of  its  walls 
are  constructed  of  puddled  adobe,  a  technique  typical  of  the  pre-Colum- 
bian era,  although  the  walls  were  probably  built  or  rebuilt  by  Indians 
after  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680.  Nevertheless,  even  this  building  was 
trimmed  and  modernized  to  the  extent  of  including  a  delicate  Victorian 
balustrade  across  the  length  of  the  parapet 

During  the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century  a  reaction  set  in 
and  certain  individuals  began  to  realize  that  the  ancient  traditional 
forms  not  only  had  aesthetic  values,  but  were  admirably  adapted  to 
the  climatic  conditions  of  the  country.  Appropriately,  among  the  first 
buildings  to  reflect  this  reaction  was  the  Governor's  Palace.  Under 
the  competent  direction  of  archeologists  this  structure  was  brought  back 
to  a  state  approximating  the  original  based  upon  a  plan  found  on  an 
old  map  in  the  British  Museum.  So  successful  was  this  venture  that 
from  then  on  the  State's  native  architecture  has  been  adopted  increas- 


ARCHITECTURE      155 

ingly.  Notable  examples  are  the  New  Mexico  State  Art  Museum,  the 
Laboratory  of  Anthropology,  the  Headquarters,  National  Park  Service, 
Santa  Fe,  the  new  New  Mexico  University  -buildings,  Lovelace  Clinic, 
and  Bataan  Memorial  Methodist  Hospital. 

Certain  problems  have  arisen  in  adapting  such  rigid  modern  mate- 
rials as  brick  to  forms  characterized  by  softness  of  contour  due  to  use 
of  the  hands  instead  of  trowels  in  plastering  and  to  the  erosion  of  adobe. 

One  solution  is  to  lay  the  brick  by  eye  instead  of  plumb  or  level 
as  adobes  are  laid,  and  to  clip  corners  where  rigid  lines  are  too  harsh. 
Another  solution  is  the  adoption  to  a  large  extent  of  the  modified  Ter- 
ritorial style  which  permits  far  more  rigid  lines.  Another  legitimate 
solution  is  frank  expression  of  the  structural  materials  used.  This  tends 
to  produce  a  "modern"  structure  but  the  characteristic  features  of  the 
ancient  forms  can  be  retained  in  the  adoption  of  rectangular  masses, 
flat  roofs,  set-backs,  and  much  of  the  detail.  Where  adobe  is  still  used 
— as  it  is  to  a  large  extent  because  of  its  economy  and  unique  insulating 
qualities — no  such  problems  exist. 

That  the  renascence  of  indigenous  building  has  proved  eminently 
practical  as  well  as  fitting  is  borne  out  by  the  large  number  of  public 
and  private  structures  in  Pueblo-Spanish  style  erected  since  the  first 
decade  of  the  present  century.  In  Santa  Fe  and  Taos,  where  the  move- 
ment has  been  most  persistent,  any  number  of  modern  houses  reveal  the 
successful  use  of  the  old  traditions.  The  Carlos  Vierra  house  in  Santa 
Fe  is  often  cited  as  an  excellent  example  of  domestic  architecture  in 
the  Pueblo-Spanish  style. 

It  may  be  the  objection  of  some  that  in  this  article  too  much  stress 
has  been  laid  upon  local  traditional  types  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
probably  the  majority  of  buildings  in  New  Mexico  are  not  in  the  tradi- 
tion. This  extensive  architecture  not  based  on  the  old  forms  does  not 
harmonize  with  indigenous  types  and  a  detailed  description  of  such 
buildings  would  not  be  specifically  characteristic  of  New  Mexico.  No 
extraneous  architecture  of  significant  interest  has  appeared  in  the  State. 
Furthermore,  as  nowhere  else  in  the  United  States,  can  a  style  of  archi- 
tecture be  found  which  traces  its  descent  in  an  unbroken  line  from 
aboriginal  American  sources ;  this  unique  and  valuable  heritage  is  worth 
stressing. 


New  Mexican  Art 


A, MOST  anywhere  in  New  Mexico  one's  boot  might  turn  up 
from  the  earth  potsherds  with  fragments  of  the  design  still 
visible.  These  are  the  ancient  remains  of  the  art  of  the  Pueblo 
Indians,  a  sedentary  and  grain-growing  people,  living  in  adobe  villages 
along  the  water  courses  of  New  Mexico  who  developed  the  art  of  deco- 
rating and  firing  clay  pottery.  Even  today  every  village  has  its  own 
distinctive  designs,  despite  friendly  intercourse  among  the  Pueblo  tribes. 
From  the  day  she  is  able  to  walk,  the  Indian  girl  is  taught  to  make 
a  spherical  bowl  by  coiling  layers  of  clay  one  above  the  other  and  polish- 
ing the  whole  to  smoothness  with  an  inherited  polishing  stone.  Often 
to  her  brother  falls  the  task  of  applying  the  designs  and  firing.  Taking 
a  slender  brush  of  yucca  fibre  between  his  fingers,  and  dipping  it  into 
vegetable  or  mineral  color,  he  applies  it  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the 
unfired  pot.  So  much  are  these  strong  geometric  designs  and  sure 
whorls  part  of  the  mental  configurations  of  the  Pueblo  Indian  that  they 
were  not  affected  by  the  transplanted  designs  of  Renaissance  Spain  or 
the  later  Machine  Age.  For  a  kiln,  a  circle  of  sturdy  tin  cans  is 
formed,  and  a  few  strips  of  iron  act  as  modern  supports,  replacing  the 
green  branches  and  stones  of  ancient  use.  Into  this  the  pottery  is 
placed,  covered  by  sheep-dung  to  maintain  a  hot,  even  fire. 

Attempts  to  introduce  the  potter's  wheel  and  a  modern  kiln  have 
failed,  and  museum  workers  and  private  groups  interested  in  encourag- 
ing the  art  have  emphasized  the  quality  of  the  pottery  and  the  revival 
of  authentic  designs,  made  in  the  old  way.  Today  the  pottery  of  such 
people  as  Marie  and  Julian  Martinez  of  San  Ildefonso  pueble  sets 
such  a  high  standard  of  skill  and  beauty  that  appreciation  of  the  genuine 
art  is  increasing  and  the  souvenir  "rain  god"  and  clay  "Mexican  som- 
brero" are  falling  into  disfavor. 

At  the  outdoor  Indian  market,  such  as  the  one  held  during  the 
summer  months  before  the  Palace  of  Governors  in  Santa  Fe,  a  com- 
parison of  the  designs  of  the  various  pueblos  is  possible.  From  the 
northern  pueblos  of  Picuris  and  Taos  come  bean  pots  of  micaceous 
gold  clay.  From  San  Ildefonso  and  Santa  Clara  come  bowls,  jugs, 
and  plates  of  luminous  black  and  earthy  red,  some  of  them  so  highly 
polished  as  to  shine  like  metal.  On  the  Rio  Grande  the  old  villages 
of  Santo  Domingo  and  Cochiti  produce  bold  black  geometric  designs 

156 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      157 

on  a  creamy  buff  background.  Zia  draws  upon  its  pottery  conven- 
tionalized deer,  birds,  flowers,  and  seeds,  naively  and  yet  harmoniously 
arranged.  From  the  western  pueblo  of  Zuni  comes  pottery  of  cold 
red,  with  brown  and  white  designs  that  unite  complex  triangular  figures 
with  rotund  whorls.  The  close-knit  geometries  of  the  hardfired  Acoma 
pottery,  and  the  accurate  cross  hatching  of  fine-line  work  of  the  neigh- 
boring Laguna,  make  the  pottery  of  the  part  of  New  Mexico  lying 
between  Albuquerque  and  Gallup  one  of  the  most  interesting  ceramic 
sections  in  the  world. 

Pueblo  pottery  is  comparatively  soft  and  porous^  for  too  much  heat 
is  apt  to  warp  it  and  destroy  its  color  and  finish.  A  well-fired  pot  rings 
clearly  when  tapped.  In  good  pottery,  the  decorations,  in  black,  white, 
the  ochreous  clays,  and  the  Acoma  types  of  orange,  red,  and  yellow, 
are  painted  on  before  the  pot  is  fired.  Colors  like  blues,  greens,  and 
purples,  painted  on  after  firing,  denote  pottery  made  solely  for  the  tour- 
ist trade. 

Navaho  Weaving.  It  is  believed  that  the  Navaho  women  actually 
learned  to  weave  from  the  Pueblos,  even  as  the  men  learned  silver- 
smithing  from  the  Spanish  colonists;  but  long  ago  they  outgrew  their 
teachers  and  forgot  them,  and  today  the  arts  of  weaving  and  silver- 
smithing  are  Navaho  arts.  Although  the  Spaniards  brought  the  sheep 
as  well  as  the  horse  to  the  new  country,  a  Spanish  official  recorded  in 
1795  the  fact  that  already  Navaho  weaving  was  "of  more  delicacy  and 
taste  than  that  of  the  Spaniards." 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  Navaho  blankets  evolved  from  the 
narrow  horizontal  striped  designs  of  the  Pueblos  and  became  the  fine 
patterns  of  rhythmic  stripes  and  terraces.  To  her  own  subtle  gamut 
of  vegetable  dyes,  the  Navaho  woman  added  tropical  indigo  which  she 
obtained  by  trade  from  the  Spaniards,  and  sometimes  combined  with 
it  the  brilliant  cochineal  red  of  Bayeta,  an  imported  English  red  flannel; 
blankets  made  with  this  flannel  came  to  be  called  "Bayeta."  Li  the 
1850*8  a  Navaho  sarape  was  one  of  the  most  desired  garments  on  the 
frontier;  it  brought  $60  on  the  open  market,  and  was  so  tightly  woven 
it  could  hold  a  bucket  of  water.  It  was  sought  by  hadendados  far  be- 
low the  Mexican  border,  and  the  so-called  "chief  blanket"  of  broad  bold 
red,  white,  and  blue  stripes  was  traded  and  treasured  by  Indians  as 
far  north  as  Canada. 

The  Navaho  loom  of  that  Golden  Age  of  weaving  is  the  same  as 
the  loom  of  today:  two  sturdy  upright  poles  with  the  necessary  cross 
poles.  The  women  commence  weaving  from  the  bottom,  working 
upward,  placing  the  weft  threads  through  the  suspended  net  of  strong 
warp  threads  and  "battening"  down  with  a  flat  stick  each  thread  as 
it  is  placed.  If  the  battening  is  done  thoroughly  and  the  warp  is  of  a 
strong,  tightly-spun  wool,  a  firmly  woven  blanket  is  the  result.  Dur- 


158     NEW     MEXICO 

ing  the  pre-Civil  War  period  the  Navaho  loom  produced  unbordered 
blankets  in  horizontal  stripes  and  terraces.  At  this  period  the  rhythmic 
spacing  of  stripes,  never  monotonous,  was  the  highest  achievement  of 
the  Navaho  weaver.  It  has  never  since  been  equaled.  For  a  good 
example  of  such  a  striped  blanket  a  collector  today  will  gladly  pay 
$2,500. 

In  1863  the  free-roaming  Navaho  tribe  was  brought  into  its  first 
sustained  contact  with  civilization.  Kit  Carson  was  commissioned  by 
the  United  States  Government  to  round  up  the  tribe,  destroy  its  sheep, 
and  conduct  the  remaining  Indians  to  a  forty-mile  tract  of  farm  land  in 
the  eastern  section  of  the  State  at  Bosque  Redondo.  For  four  years, 
while  Indians  attempted  to  become  farmers,  the  army  officers  provided 
the  women  with  brightly  dyed  machine  yarns  and  requested  rugs  made 
in  their  own  souvenir  designs.  That  was  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
bordered  rug. 

In  1867  the  7,000  remaining  Navahos  were  given  4,000  head  of 
inferior  sheep  and  sent  back  to  their  old  country.  Aniline  dyes  and 
Germantown  yarns  were  introduced.  From  the  i86o's  to  the  1890*8, 
serrated  diamond  patterns  appeared  in  the  blankets  woven  by  the  In- 
dians for  their  own  use.  By  the  end  of  the  century  traders  introduced 
among  them  cotton  string  for  warps  and  gaudy  package  dyes.  No 
longer  did  the  old  harmonious  rhythm  of  stripes  dominate  the  loom. 
Instead,  a  central  heterogeneous  pattern  enclosed  by  a  rectangular  bor- 
der prevailed.  The  clumsy  thick  weaving  on  a  cotton  string  warp, 
poorly  dyed,  had  one  major  result:  the  Navaho  ceased  wearing  the 
product  of  his  own  loom.  The  introduction  of  lightweight,  factory 
woven  blankets  for  sale  on  the  reservation  relegated  the  Navaho  loom 
to  the  further  production  of  rugs  for  the  tourist  market.  Symbolic 
stories  and  designs  were  conceived  by  the  traders,  colors  were  dictated, 
and  Navaho  weaving  was  wholly  directed  into  the  tourist  channel. 
Present  day  blankets  show  the  result  of  this  forced  evolution.  Although 
the  intricate  designs  a  Navaho  woman  weaves  today  are  far  more  com- 
plex than  those  woven  by  her  grandmother,  she  has  not  yet  learned  to 
arrive  at  beauty  and  harmonious  proportion  through  her  often  bizarre 
patterns. 

Some  efforts  have  been  made  to  encourage  the  Navaho  weaver  to 
return  to  the  more  simple  designs  and  colors  of  the  past.  "Revival" 
blankets  of  vegetal  dyes  have  generally  not  proved  successful.  Their 
wan  colors  have  never  duplicated  the  warmth  and  brilliance  of  the  past. 
Better  aniline  dyes  have  been  introduced;  the  degenerating  quality  of 
the  wool  on  the  reservation  has  called  forth  some  effort  to  save  the 
old  Navaho  sheep  from  extinction.  The  kinky  wool  of  modern  sheep 
is  best  suited  to  factory  spinning. 

In  the  Two  Grey  Hills  district,  traders  have  sent  wool  to  Boston 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      159 

for  factory  scouring  and  carding.  Rugs  from  this  section  are  note- 
worthy for  their  enduring  quality.  Their  designs,  unfortunately,  are 
not  comparable  with  their  quality.  Just  so  long  as  the  hurrying  public 
believes  that  a  Navaho  rug  must  be  gaudy  to  be  Indian — just  so  long 
must  both  weaver  and  purchaser  suffer. 

Present  day  Navaho  blankets  that  best  uphold  the  old  tradition  of 
tight  weaving  and  dignified  design  are  the  saddle  blankets  still  widely 
in  use  among  all  Indians  and  westerners.  About  the  size  of  the  aver- 
age bathroom  rug  they  are  purchasable  for  about  five  dollars,  and  one 
seldom  sees  among  them  a  poor  design,  poor  weaving,  or  fantastic  color- 
ing. The  diamond  twill,  the  herringbone,  the  simple  small  stripe, 
characterize  most  of  these  blankets,  with  large  yarns  of  tassel  at  the 
four  corners.  It  is  hoped  that  in  time  the  grotesque  designs  of  large 
modern  Navaho  rugs  will  be  modified  by  the  weavers  themselves  into 
a  more  unified  and  harmonious  whole. 

Navaho  Silver  smithing.  Itinerant  Spanish  silversmiths  taught  the 
Navaho  the  art  of  working  in  metal  about  a  century  ago.  In  1864 
while  the  tribe  was  confined  by  the  United  States  Army  at  Bosque 
Redondo,  coils  of  brass  and  copper  wire  were  issued  to  the  Indians 
who  lost  no  time  in  hammering  the  metal  into  bracelets.  After  the 
tribe's  release,  when  silver  coins  began  to  find  their  way  to  the  reserva- 
tion, the  Navaho  converted  the  white  man's  money  into  silver  buttons, 
harnesses,  squash  blossom  necklaces,  and  into  the  large  flat  silver  shells 
(called  conchas)  which  they  strung  on  a  leather  strap  and  wore  about 
the  waist.  With  such  ornament  they  could  fare  far  and  wide,  cutting 
off  a  button  when  it  became  necessary  to  purchase  a  bag  of  tobacco. 
Silver  jewelry  became  the  medium  of  exchange.  And  at  that  time — 
when  the  Navaho  hammered  his  silver  into  artistic  forms  for  himself 
and  his  family  to  wear — the  most  beautiful  silver  was  made.  Today 
it  may  be  seen  in  museum  collections,  and  occasionally  bought  from 
traders  who  universally  refer  to  the  old  silver  as  "pawn."  The  Indians' 
perpetual  indebtedness  to  the  trader  leads  to  the  trader's  acceptance  of 
Indian  jewelry  in  pawn.  The  silverwork  of  this  period  is  character- 
ized by  its  substantial  weight  and  its  boldness  and  simplicity  of  design. 

About  1900  the  Navaho  learned  of  the  better  silver  content  in 
Mexican  pesos,  and  for  thirty  or  more  years,  most  Navaho  jewelry 
was  made  of  this  malleable  money.  The  early  years  of  the  twentieth 
century  evolved  the  use  of  turquoise  (the  ancient  precious  stone  of 
Southwestern  Indians)  massively  combined  with  the  white  metal. 

Traders  took  a  growing  interest  in  the  silver  work,  and  it  was  intro- 
duced to  early  railroad  tourists  as  souvenirs  of  the  Indian  country.  To 
conform  to  tourist  demands  the  jewelry  was  steadily  reduced  in  cost 
(and  thus  in  weight  of  silver)  so  that  an  essential  quality  of  the  old 
jewelry — its  substantial  weight — was  lost.  In  conforming  to  popular 


l6o      N  EW    MEXICO 

imagination  about  "symbolic"  Indian  designs,  the  trader  introduced 
among  the  Indians  new  dyes,  swastikas,  thunderbirds,  etc. — which  had 
never  been  a  part  of  the  old  silversmith's  kit,  but  which  are  still  widely 
publicized  and  purchased  as  symbolic  Indian  jewelry. 

Today  there  are  three  main  groups  of  Indians  working  in  silver: 
[i]  the  scattered  group,  of  about  500  smiths,  living  mostly  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Navaho  reservation  adjacent  to  Highway  66,  who 
are  strongly  influenced  by  the  traders  who  supply  them  with  silver  and 
designs;  [2]  the  equally  large  and  shifting  population  of  young  men 
(of  all  tribes)  who  work,  on  a  weekly  salary,  in  the  benchwork  system 
of  city  souvenir  shops;  [3]  the  young  Indians  who  are  being  trained 
in  the  best  tradition  of  their  grandfathers  at  the  United  States  Indian 
schools. 

Reservation  silversmiths  still  work  with  a  hammer  bought  from  the 
trader,  and  a  piece  of  railroad  iron  picked  up  along  the  tracks  for  an 
anvil.  Mexican  pesos,  no  longer  available,  have  been  replaced  by  the 
little  one-ounce  slugs  of  silver  supplied  by  the  trader.  Sandpaper, 
pliers,  tongs,  punches,  nippers,  vices,  hammers,  shears — all  are  obtained 
from  the  trader.  Where  once  the  Indian  soldered  his  silver  work  with 
silver  dust  mixed  with  his  own  saliva  and  native  alum  got  from  the 
ground,  he  now  asks  for  borax  at  the  store.  To  decorate  the  surface 
of  his  hammered  silver,  the  reservation  Navaho  employ  dies  which  they 
themselves  have  filed  from  bits  of  scrap  iron.  These  dies  are  little 
design  "elements"  which  they  press  into  the  warm  silver.  These  small 
elements-of-the-design  possess  no  description:  in  their  very  namelessness 
lies  their  authenticity.  Although  reservation  traders  have  demanded 
mass-production  of  low-priced  souvenirs  in  "symbolic"  designs,  there  are 
still  Navaho  making  traditional  silver  jewelry  for  their  own  and  their 
family's  use.  Such  silver  is  generally  heavy  in  weight,  simple  in  design, 
with  a  soft  surface  polish  obtained  by  patient  rubbing  with  buckskin. 
There  are  still  old  smiths  who  pour  liquid  silver  into  a  sandstone  mold 
to  form  those  buckles  and  bowguards  which  they  themselves  wear. 
And  "file"  work — the  beautiful  bracelets  of  pure  silver,  in  a  series  of 
painstakingly  filed  ridges — can  be  found  in  the  more  remote  trading 
posts.  Gradually  the  gasoline  blow  torch  (instead  of  charcoal)  is  being 
introduced  on  the  reservation,  and  it  is  in  itself  a  factor  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  changing  of  design,  for  it  makes  possible  the  quick  solder- 
ing of  commercial  silver  wire,  and  other  small  surface  ornaments,  which 
the  trader  has  introduced. 

Since  the  tremendous  increase  in  travel,  souvenir  shops  and  souvenir- 
producing  factories  have  sprung  up  in  most  Southwestern  cities.  Young 
Indian  silversmiths  can  find  employment  at  their  trade,  but  it 'neces- 
sitates working  in  an  assembly  line.  Here  they  are  paid  weekly  salary 
to  monotonously  stamp  out  hundreds  of  catalogue  bracelets  and  rings 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      l6l 

from  large  sheets  of  silver.  They  have  little,  if  any,  control  over  the 
design,  and  the  amount  of  hand-hammering  and  hand-polishing  that  is 
required  of  commercial  silver  wire,  and  commercial  "boxes"  that  hold 
the  machine-polished  turquoise,  is  at  a  minimum. 

With  the  loss  of  originality  and  the  beautiful  proportion  that  char- 
acterized old  Navaho  design  has  come  a  perfection  of  technique  both 
on  the  reservation  and  in  the  city  shop.  Technically,  the  modern 
Indian  silversmith,  though  less  of  an  artist,  is  a  more  finished  workman. 

The  Government,  in  its  effort  to  encourage  traditional  Indian  silver- 
smithing,  maintains  three  very  good  schools  for  Indian  craftsmen  in 
New  Mexico.  Silver  working  shops  may  be  visited  in  United  States 
Indian  schools  at  Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  and  Fort  Wingate.  Here 
young  Navaho  and  Pueblo  boys  become  expert  craftsmen  in  all  the  old 
skills  and  designs  of  their  people  working  under  master  Navaho  silver- 
smiths, and  producing  the  finest  present-day  Indian  silverwork.  Un- 
fortunately, a  large  percentage  of  the  boys  on  leaving  school  enter 
bench-work  shops  in  the  city  where  they  have  little  opportuntiy  to  de- 
velop their  hand  training. 

The  United  States  Indian  Arts  and  Crafts  Board  has  established 
standards  for  judging  Indian  jewelry,  and  sometimes  the  Board's  stamp 
of  authenticity  may  be  found  on  the  underside  of  the  jewelry.  To 
meet  its  approval  a  piece  of  Indian  jewelry  must  [l]  be  hand-hammered 
of  silver  slugs  not  less  than  900  fine;  [2]  be  fashioned  by  hand-made 
dies  which  contain  only  one  single  element  of  design  which  is  applied 
with  hand  tools;  [3]  contain  appliqued  ornaments  made  by  hand;  [4] 
contain  genuine  turquoise,  handcut  and  polished;  [5]  be  of  hand- 
polished  silver. 

Indian  Painting.  The  most  recent  art  to  attain  high  development 
among  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  is  painting  in  water  color.  This 
ancient  technique  had  its  origins  in  the  paintings  on  cliff  dwellings, 
in  the  decorating  of  ceremonial  rooms  or  kivas,  and  in  the  painting  of 
leather  shields  and  cotton  dance  kilts. 

The  old-age  precision  with  which  the  Pueblo  Indians  decorate  pot- 
tery and  the  Navaho  make  their  intricate  sand  paintings,  has  influenced 
the  fine  draughtsmanship  and  sense  of  decoration  that  characterizes 
Indian  pictures.  The  art  of  painting  a  portable  picture  or  filling  a 
rectangle  of  paper  with  color  and  movement  dates  almost  wholly  from 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  and  illustrates  how  quickly  and 
keenly  this  naturally  artistic  race  can  adapt  itself  to  a  new  medium  of 
expression. 

Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett  and  other  present-day  archeologists  in  the 
Southwest  were  the  first  to  place  paints  and  paper  in  the  hands  of 
Indians.  Indifferent  to  European  laws  of  perspective,  placing  simply 
that  which  was  in  the  distance  above  that  which  was  in  the  foreground, 


1&2      NEW     MEXICO 

the  early  painters  gradually  evolved  in  draughtsmanship  and  complexity, 
until  today  a  very  strong  and  individual  American  Indian  school  of 
painting  has  taken  root. 

In  1922  Doctor  Hewett  wrote:  "The  Indian  race  may  attain  to  a 
place  equal  to  that  of  the  Orientals,  whose  art  in  many  respects,  such 
as  its  flat,  decorative  character,  absence  of  backgrounds  and  foregrounds, 
freedom  from  our  system  of  perspective,  unerring  color  sense  and 
strangely  impersonal  character,  it  strongly  resembles." 

Three  full-blooded  Indian  youths,  painting  in  their  own  style,  were 
given  special  encouragement.  The  boys  were  Awa  Tsireh,  of  San 
Ildefonso,  Fred  Kaboti,  a  Hopi,  and  Ma-Pe-Wi,  from  Zia  pueblo.  In 
1925  the  Newberry  Library  in  Chicago  showed  a  score  of  Awa  Tsireh's 
water  colors.  In  1927  Ma-Pe-Wi,  Awa  Tsireh,  Tonita  Pena,  and 
Crescendo  of  San  Ildefonso  had  paintings  at  the  International  Art 
Center  in  New  York  City. 

In  the  United  States  Indian  Schools  as  late  as  1928,  Indian  children 
were  prohibited  from  painting  Indian  subjects,  until  a  United  States 
Congressman  expressed  the  changing  sentiment,  slow  but  sure  in  com- 
ing to  the  surface:  "Who  wants  to  go  West  to  buy  a  picture  painted 
by  an  Indian  of  three  apples  on  a  plate?" 

In  1929  a  Sunday  edition  of  a  newspaper  in  Madrid,  Spain,  acclaimed 
a  water  color  of  a  "Zuni  Basket  Dance"  shown  among  the  paintings  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians  in  the  Congress  of  Folk  Arts  held  at  Prague.  By 
1931  Oqwa  Pi  of  San  Ildefonso  was  exhibiting  in  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art  in  New  York  City. 

But  it  was  September  of  1933  before  the  Indian  Bureau  in  Wash- 
ington decided  upon  the  need  of  a  department  of  painting  in  the  Santa 
Fe  Indian  School.  The  paintings  of  the  students  have  been  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Art  in  London,  at  the  Trocadero  in  Paris, 
in  shows  all  over  the  European  and  American  continents.  Large 
murals  have  been  executed  by  the  Indian  youths  in  their  laboratories 
and  dining  rooms;  and  in  Government  and  private  buildings,  depicting 
ceremonial  dances,  scenes  of  the  hunt,  of  wild  life,  and  of  typically 
Indian  industries.  A  permanent  exhibit  is  usually  to  be  found  at  the 
Santa  Fe  Indian  School,  while  adult  Indians  will  show  you  their  paint- 
ings in  their  own  homes.  The  nominally  priced  pictures  may  be  ob- 
tained from  artists  living  in  the  pueblos,  from  the  Indian  Schools,  the 
Santa  Fe  Art  Museum,  the  better  shops,  and  the  professional  galleries. 

SPANISH  COLONIAL  ART 

During  the  period  of  Spanish  colonization  of  New  Mexico,  Spain 
was  at  the  height  of  her  artistic  glory.  It  was  the  period  of  Velasquez 
and  El  Greco,  and  among  the  lesser  artists  Ribera  (who  /isited  Italy 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      It>3 

and  had  been  converted  to  the  style  of  Corregio) ;  Zubaran,  a  painter 
of  religious  pictures,  who  leaned  toward  ecstatic,  saintly  heroes;  and 
Montanez,  an  eloquent  sensualist  and  head  of  the  school  of  Spanish 
sculpture.  In  1617  the  gentle  Murijlo  was  born  in  Seville,  which 
became  the  center  of  Spanish  art,  and  where  the  Italian  Rennaisance 
took  root.  His  pictures  of  the  Virgin  were  tempered  with  tenderness 
such  as  the  colonists  of  New  Mexico  found  sadly  lacking  in  the  new 
province.  Despite  difficult  transportation  over  the  trail  from  Mexico, 
the  first  Spanish  settlers  imported  many  religious  paintings  and  carv- 
ings. Thus  the  local  art  derived  from  sources  in  the  mother  country, 
and  for  a  long  time  pictures  like  those  of  Murillo  were  models  for  the 
early  creative  efforts  of  New  Mexican  artists. 

To  supply  the  great  love  the  colonists  felt  for  religious  art,  paint- 
ings were  executed  under  the  direction  of  missionary  priests.  These 
pictures  were  not  rendered  in  the  accomplished  style  of  the  Continental 
artists.  They  were  painted  on  hand-hewn  wood  or  on  skins,  with  earth 
colors  and  vegetable  dyes  used  by  the  Indians.  There  was  a  deliberate 
effort  to  cling  closely  to  the  traditions  and  refinement  of  the  European 
models;  but  the  artists  were  untutored.  The  result  was  a  primitive 
adaptation  of  Spanish  painting. 

In  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680,  the  churches  were  razed,  the  paint- 
ings brought  from  Europe  were  arrow-holed,  and  many  possessions  dam- 
aged. The  reconstruction  period  moved  the  local  artists  toward  a  more 
native  expression,  since  they  could  no  longer  rely  on  imported  models. 
As  generations  passed,  the  minds  of  the  artists  strayed  from  tradition, 
and  they  relied  more  on  their  own  conceptions,  drawn  from  environ- 
ment. 

The  saintly  images  called  santos  became  primitive  in  feeling  and 
technique.  A  local  school  of  art  developed,  with  its  own  style  and 
in  the  native  mediums.  It  was  an  art  of  passionate  extremes,  sensual, 
yet  morbidly  ascetic  and  stoical.  It  was  a  folk  art,  adapted  to  its 
environment  with  simplicity  of  design. 

The  New  Mexican  carvings  were  of  several  types.  The  bultos 
were  carved  of  soft  wood,  generally  the  roots  of  cottonwood,  coated 
with  gesso  and  colored.  Other  bultos  were  made  by  impregnating  a 
cloth  or  a  skin  with  gesso  and  stretching  it  over  a  framework  of  reeds. 
The  cloth  was  molded  to  the  framework  and  decorated.  The  cruci- 
fixes were  classed  with  bultos.  Often  a  crucifix  has  several  carved 
objects  at  the  base  of  the  pedestal. 

The  retablos  were  paintings  on  wood,  generally  hand-hewn  pines. 
The  wood  was  shaped,  then  the  surface  treated,  covered  with  gesso 
and  painted.  The  retablos  varied  in  size  from  miniatures  to  the  large 
reredos,  the  back  screen  of  an  altar  consisting  of  several  retablos.  Still 
other  santos  were  painted  on  tin  and  canvas. 


164      NEW     MEXICO 

The  altars,  when  carved,  followed  a  simplified  baroque  of  the  Span- 
ish schools.  The  side  altars  often  contained  locally  painied  saints. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  carving,  the  pieces  were  painted  to  represent 
carving.  The  altarin  the  church  at  Laguna,  rich  in  color,  with  twisted 
columns  dividing  the  panels  of  Saints,  is  considered  by  many  the  finest 
in  New  Mexico.  In  the  church  at  Ranches  de  Taos  is  a  large  retablo 
which  suggests  the  New  Mexican  school  in  many  carvings — the  San 
Miguel,  the  San  Ysidro,  and  the  agonizing  Cristo  on  the  Cross. 

New  Mexicans  were  so  strongly  devoted  to  their  old  images  that 
they  regarded  them  as  holy  relics.  Later  the  French  priests  brought 
pasty-looking  French  pieces.  Then  began  an  influx  of  Currier  and 
Ives  prints  and  European  lithographs,  ridiculously  embellished  to  tease 
the  Latin  fancy.  But  the  Penitentes  never  accepted  the  importation 
and  their  moradas  contain  many  of  the  original  retablos  and  bultos, 
safe  from  collectors. 

There  were  many  carved  and  panelled  chests  (cajas).  The  carv- 
ings were  simple  geometric  designs,  yet  often  a  border  was  used  with 
birds  and  animals  cut  in  repeated  half-circles.  There  were  great  un- 
adorned chests  for  food  and  smaller  ones  for  clothing,  often  painted 
in  popular  flower  motifs.  Often  the  household  had  only  one  large 
chair,  reserved  for  the  priest.  Since  his  visits  were  infrequent,  the 
chairs  were  little  used  and  many  of  them  passed  on  from  father  to  son. 
Furniture  had  two  styles:  the  formal  uprightness  of  the  Spanish 
and  the  grace  of  the  Empire.  There  seems  to  be  no  native  example  of 
the  rococo,  such  as  was  used  in  table  supports  in  Spain.  In  fact  there 
are  no  examples  of  tables  except  small  ones,  with  supports  hand  carved 
in  imitation  of  turnings.  The  cupboard  (trastero)  often  possessed  an 
imposing  height,  with  paneled  and  grilled  doors  swung  to  a  center 
fastening.  A  fancy  carving  in  relief  often  graced  the  top.  Hinges 
were  embracing  hooks  of  iron. 

Little  dating  of  furniture  can  be  done  except  by  American  occupa- 
tion. The  early  craftsman  used  the  full  mortise  and  tenon  for  strength 
in  the  soft  wood.  Later  the  hard  pieces  of  eastern  manufacture  were 
brought  in  by  wagon  trains,  and  the  craftsman  discontinued  this  type 
of  joinery,  seeing  it  was  not  used  in  the  importations. 

One  of  the  most  fascinating  means  of  decorative  embellishment  was 
the  use  of  straw  laid  on  a  coat  of  pitch.  Used  on  chests  and  crosses,  its 
golden  scheme  made  a  splendid  contrast  with  the  blackness  of  the  pitch. 
Little  of  the  craft  has  been  revived,  except  recently  at  the  Spanish- 
American  Normal  School  at  El  Rito  and  on  the  New  Mexico  Art 
Project. 

The  Conquistadores  depended  upon  the  Indians  for  spinning  and 
weaving.  In  1804  the  viceroy  wfote  to  Mexico  asking  for  master- 
weavers  to  instruct  the  local  craftsmen.  His  request  was  granted  and 


NEW     MEXICAN    ART      165 

the  Bazan  brothers,  Don  Ricardo  and  Don  Juan,  came  to  New  Mexico. 
After  a  short  stay  in  Santa  Fe  they  settled  in  Chimayo  which  became 
the  center  of  the  weaving  industry.  The  best  blankets,  of  handspun 
wool,  colored  with  vegetable  dyes,  were  done  about  1850.  Indigo, 
brazil  wood,  and  cochineal  were  imported  from  Mexico;  others  were 
made  from  local  plants. 

The  pattern  sources  varied.  A  popular  one  was  the  zig-zag  which 
Mary  Austin  attributes  to  the  influence  of  Indian  pottery.  Older  pieces 
use  repetitive  design  with  variations,  and  a  color  harmony  resulting 
from  limitations  of  the  hues.  Some  patterns  are  derived  from  Mexico; 
others,  from  local  sources,  are  quite  primitive. 

After  the  American  occupation  the  old  craft  gradually  fell  into 
discard.  It  has  been  somewhat  preserved  in  Chimayo  due  to  the  de- 
mand for  the  blankets  by  curio  companies.  Commercial  dyes  were  used 
in  the  i88o's  as  they  were  easier  to  use  than  the  old  vegetable  dyes. 
The  machine-spun  wool  was  used  a  great  deal  after  the  turn  of  the  cen- 
tury, when  Chimayo  blankets  were  made  for  the  tourist  trade. 

The  revival  of  weaving  came  after  the  contemporary  artists  became 
interested  in  native  crafts.  The  revival  was  slow  because  little  informa- 
tion was  available  on  the  older  practises.  Vegetable  dyes  were  occa- 
sionally used  but  with  results  far  inferior  in  color  and  durability  to 
those  used  by  early  workmen.  Later,  private  enterprises  bought  and 
sold  blankets  with  the  result  that  the  demand  far  exceeds  supply. 
Weaving  again  became  a  highly  perfected  art;  at  no  time  have  the 
standards  of  workmanship  been  lowered  to  meet  the  demand,  and  the 
craftsmen  in  the  vilkges  of  New  Mexico  are  again  producing  their 
woven  materials  of  handspun,  vegetable  dyed  yarn  which  is  equal  to 
the  best  of  the  former  period. 

The  women  practised  embroidery  in  a  beautiful,  decorative  manner. 
Animal  and  plant  forms  were  used  as  motifs.  The  art  was  probably 
practised  less  professionally  than  weaving,  being  part  of  the  education 
of  the  leisure  class  women.  Colchas  (bedspreads)  and  altar  cloths  were 
thus  embroidered.  The  long  coarse  stitchery,  caught  down  with  a  short 
cross  stitch,  was  executed  upon  handspun  cloth  called  jerga,  and  com- 
posed an  all-over  pattern.  The  sabanilla  or  altar  cloth  was  an  all-over 
embroidery. 

The  paper  flower  is  a  very  popular  art  in  New  Mexico  today. 
Girls  master  it  early  in  life.  New  flowers  are  made  to  adorn  altars 
at  fiesta  time,  and  they  are  also  used  in  weddings.  Before  the  manu- 
facture of  crepe  paper,  colored  tissues  were  used.  A  hundred  years 
ago  chicken  feathers  were  put  to  decorative  uses  of  this  kind,  a  practise 
that  probably  came  from  Mexico.  These  flowers  were  often  arranged 
on  bultos  and  the  whole  protected  by  cases  made  of  tin  and  glass. 

The  blacksmith  made  iron  locks  and  hasps,  spear  heads,  axes,  knives, 


l66      NEW    MEXICO 

copper  or  brass  kettles,  and  an  occasional  article  of  tin  such  as  a  lantern 
or  a  candle  holder.  Tin  craft  flourished  with  the  importation  of 
European  lithographs  and  Currier  and  Ives  prints.  The  prints  were 
fragile  and  to  protect  them  tin  frames  were  worked  into  forms  of  stars, 
birds,  and  leaves,  combined  with  spiral  ropings  made  from  thinly  cut, 
twisted  strips. 

From  tin  are  made  decorative  mirrors,  candelabra,  flower  pots, 
pitchers,  crosses,  and  boxes  with  painted  glass  sides.  The  painting  of 
the  glass  had  a  delicate  charm  of  which  few  examples  are  left.  Designs 
were  usually  in  simple  colors  combed  into  waves  while  the  paint  was 
wet.  These  undulations  often  formed  a  background  for  more  formal 
patterns.  It  is  thought  that  tin  came  into  use  largely  because  of  the 
use  of  silver  by  the  rich. 

Iron  and  tinsmithing  have  been  corrupted  least  of  all  the  crafts 
by  the  machine  age,  and  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  new  pieces  from  old 
examples  as  to  quality,  design,  and  workmanship. 

The  jewelry  in  gold  and  silver,  known  as  filigree,  emphasized  deli- 
cacy of  ornamentation.  Much  of  the  silver  filigree  doubtless  came  from 
Mexico,  where  that  metal  is  plentiful  and  cheap.  Although  brooches, 
rings,  combs,  and  earrings  were  made  both  in  Europe  and  Mexico,  they 
did  not  have  such  fine  tracery  as  was  turned  in  New  Mexico.  It  re- 
mained in  vogue  until  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century  when  the 
silver  made  by  the  Indians  replaced  it  in  popularity. 

Frank  Applegate  was  one  of  the  first  artists  to  take  a  major  interest 
in  local  crafts.  The  Spanish-Colonial  Art  Society,  organized  by  him 
and  Mary  Austin,  has  been  active  in  preserving  the  older  objects,  and 
the  State  Department  of  Vocational  Education  has  done  much  to  pro- 
mote the  revival  of  local  folk  art.  In  1932  the  University  of  New 
Mexico  became  interested  in  the  program  and  formed  a  department  to 
study  old  pieces  and  their  practicability  for  modern  use.  Photographs 
and  drawings  were  made  of  private  collections  and  furnished  to  the 
vocational  schools  teaching  various  folk  crafts*  These  schools  supply 
the  State  and  elsewhere  with  an  array  of  fascinating  articles,  useful 
and  decorative,  in  the  traditional  Spanish-Colonial  design. 

Through  the  arts  of  the  native  people,  the  contemporary  artists  who 
visited  New  Mexico  found  a  deeper  fulfillment  than  is  afforded  by  mere 
"picturesqueness."  During  a  time  when  it  was  proper  to  go  to  Europe 
for  traditional  background,  they  stumbled  upon  sources  which  made 
them  feel  at  home  in  North  America,  the  sources  existing  in  the  Span- 
ish-Americans. It  gave  to  those  modern  explorers  a  sense  of  art  heritage 
which  they  could  not  find  in  any  other  place  in  their  homeland. 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      167 

THE  MODERN  ART  MOVEMENT 

In  the  fall  of  1898  two  young  artists,  Bert  Phillips  and  Ernest  L. 
Blumenschein,  driving  a  camp  wagon  on  a  sketching  trip  from  Denver 
to  Mexico  City,  stopped  at  the  Taos  pueblo,  and,  fascinated  by  the 
paintable  landscape  and  the  colorful  Indians,  they  sold  their  team  and 
remained  to  begin  the  Taos  Art  Colony.  True,  a  number  of  painters 
had  been  through  the  area  before — the  Kern  brothers  who  came  with 
the  U.  S.  Army  in  1846;  Sauerwine,  painter  of  Indians;  Remington, 
famous  for  his  Montana  cowboys  and  scenes  from  army  life;  but 
Blumenschein  and  Phillips,  by  their  exhibitions  throughout  the  coun- 
try, popularized  the  region.  Blumenschein  spent  the  winters  in  New 
York,  but  Phillips  became  a  ranger  in  the  Carson  National  Forest,  and 
his  paintings  mirror  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  country. 

Other  painters  followed — Joseph  Henry  Sharp,  Irving  Couse  from 
New  York,  Oscar  Berninghus  from  St.  Louis,  Walter  Ufer  from 
Chicago.  In  1914  the  Taos  group  organized  the  Taos  Society  of 
Artists  which  held  regular  spring  and  autumn  exhibits  in  art  centers 
like  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia.  Fame  of  the  Taos  colony 
spread  to  the  Old  World,  and  from  Russia  came  Nicolai  Feschin  and 
Leon  Gaspar,  from  Austria  Joseph  Fleck,  and  from  England  came 
John  Young-Hunter,  the  portrait  painter,  and  Dorothy  Brett. 

In  1923  a  group  called  the  New  Mexico  Painters  was  formed 
which  combined  both  the  Taos  and  the  Santa  Fe  colonies,  with  Mr. 
Blumenschein  as  secretary.  It  included  Victor  Higgins  and  Walter 
Ufer  of  Taos,  and  Frank  Applegate,  William  P.  Henderson,  Jozef 
Bakos  and  B.  J.  O.  Nordfelt  of  Santa  Fe.  This  organization  sent  paint- 
ings on  circuits  of  the  entire  country. 

In  1925  Burt  Harwood  settled  in  Taos  and  erected  an  art  gallery 
which  housed  the  paintings  and  art  objects  he  had  collected  in  years  of 
travel  in  Europe.  At  his  death  the  gallery  was  left  to  the  town  as  an 
art  and  community  center,  and  named  the  Harwood  Foundation. 
Around  this  central  building  smaller  studios  were  erected  for  use  by 
visiting  artists.  In  1930  the  Harwood  Foundation  was  taken  over 
by  the  University  of  New  Mexico  for  its  summer  art  school,  and  in 
1932  it  was  named  the  Taos  School  of  Art. 

Santa  Fe  followed  Taos  as  an  art  center,  through  the  efforts  of 
George  Bellows,  Robert  Henri,  and  Albert  Groll,  who  lived  there  in 
the  second  decade  of  the  century.  Other  Santa  Fe  artists  were  Warren 
E.  Rollins,  Sheldon  Parsons,  William  P.  Henderson,  Gustave  Baumann, 
Gerald  Cassidy,  Louise  Crow,  Kenneth  Chapman,  Carlos  Vierra,  Frank 
Applegate,  and  Olive  Rush.  In  191?,  Edgar  L,  Hewett,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  Henri  and  Bellows,  established  the  Santa  Fe  Art  Museum 


l68      NEW     MEXICO 

policy,  truly  unique  in  the  history  of  American  art  of  free  exhibition 
space  to  all  artists.  The  museum  itself  was  built  largely  through  the 
financial  assistance  of  Frank  Springer,  famous  paleontologist,  who  had 
befriended  Donald  Beauregard.  Beuregard's  paintings  now  line  the 
walls  of  the  second  floor  of  the  museum,  and  he  made  the  sketches  for 
the  murals  in  St.  Francis  Auditorium  adjoining  the  museum,  but  his 
untimely  death  prevented  his  execution  of  them,  and  Kenneth  Chapman 
and  Carlos  Vierra  collaborated  on  the  final  work. 

In  the  1920*5  a  number  of  artists  came  to  Santa  Fe  to  settle,  among 
them  John  Sloan,  Randall  Davey,  Julius  Rolshoven,  Allan  True,  Ray- 
mond Jonson,  Alfred  E.  Hayward,  Albert  H.  Schmidt,  Howard  Ash- 
mun  Patterson,  Datus  Myers,  Henry  Balink,  Bruce  Saville,  Allan 
Clark,  Eugenie  Shonnard,  and  D.  Paul  Jones.  In  1920  the  Santa  Fe 
Arts  Club  was  organized;  it  sponsored  exhibits  in  various  parts  of 
the  country.  Also  in  1920  came  five  young  painters  who  called  them- 
selves Los  Cinco  Pint  ores:  Jozef  Bakos,  Walter  Mruk,  Fremont  Ellis, 
Willard  Nash,  and  Will  Shuster.  Thev  bougrht  land  on  the  Camino 
del  Monte  Sol,  and  built  adobe  homes  and  studios,  joining  the  colony 
of  artists  and  writers  who  now  live  in  that  section  of  Santa  Fe.  They 
exhibited  together  in  various  parts  of  the  country  for  about  five  years 
when  in  1926  they  joined  with  the  Taos  artists  in  the  New  Mexico 
Painters  Society. 

A  new  group  of  painters  came  around  1930,  consisting  of  Gina 
Knee,  Charles  Barrows,  E.  Boyd,  Cady  Wells,  and  Jim  Morris.  They 
formed  the  Rio  Grande  Painters,  who  exhibited  together  for  a  few 
years,  despite  the  diversity  of  their  talents  and  interests. 

Considerable  activity  developed  in  Albuquerque  around  the  Art  De- 
partment of  the  University  of  New  Mexico  and  the  New  Mexico  Art 
League.  The  Art  League  was  formed  in  1929  by  a  group  of  faculty 
members  and  students  who  have  since  then  held  yearly  exhibits  on  the 
campus  of  the  university.  The  University  Art  Department,  founded 
in  1928,  is  headed  by  Ralph  W.  Douglass,  painter  and  former  cartoonist 
for  the  Chicago  Daily  News.  The  faculty  consists  of  Raymond  Jonson 
of  Santa  Fe,  Loren  Mozley  of  Taos  (who  directed  the  summer  sessions 
in  Taos),  Mela  Sedillo  Brewster,  in  Spanish  Colonial  Arts  and  Crafts, 
and  F.  E.  Del  Dosso,  teacher  of  design. 

A  number  of  individual  artists  work  in  Albuquerque.  These  include 
Brooks  Willis,  Howard  Schleeter,  Gisella  Loeffler  Lacher,  and  Edma 
Pierce.  Known  particularly  for  his  Indian  dance  designs  in  tempera, 
Paul  Flying  Eagle  Goodbear,  a  Cheyenne  Indian,  has  attained  con- 
siderable fame.  Of  the  artists  who  have  come  to  draw  upon  the  his- 
tory and  landscape,  there  are  Carl  von  Hassler,  Carl  Redin,  Winifred 
D.  Thompson,  Inez  B.  Westlake,  and  Jim  McMurdo. 

Scattered  across  the  State  are  various  artists  who  have  attained 


NEW     MEXICAN     ART      169 

national  recognition.  In  San  Patricio  is  Peter  Kurd;  Fritz  Broeske 
is  in  Las  Vegas;  in  Texico  is  Pedro  Cervantez,  a  strong  primitive, 
former  student  of  Vernon  Hunter,  who  spent  his  formative  years  in 
Texico  and  has  painted  some  of  the  most  significant  pictures  of  the 
Southwest. 

Most  recent  organization  of  artists  in  New  Mexico  is  the  Trans- 
cedental  Painting  Group,  founded  at  Taos  in  the  summer  of  1938. 
The  purpose  of  the  movement  is  to  carry  painting  beyond  the  appear- 
ance of  the  physical  world,  through  new  concepts  of  space,  color,  light, 
and  design,  to  imaginative  realms  that  are  idealistic  and  spiritual.  The 
members  of  the  group  are  Raymond  Jonson,  one  of  the  world's  leading 
non-objective  painters,  Bill  Lumpkins,  well-known  modernist,  Ernil  Bist- 
tram,  one  of  America's  leading  experimenters  and  teachers,  Robert 
Gribbroek,  Lawren  Harris,  the  famous  Canadian  artist,  Florence  Miller, 
and  H.  Towner  Pierce. 

Despite  the  number  of  artists,  the  various  colonies,  and  the  groups 
that  formed  and  reformed  during  the  last  three  decades,  there  is  no 
characteristic  school  of  art  in  New  Mexico.  The  forces  of  Europe  and 
the  East  are  strong  in  the  State  because  most  of  the  artists  came  from 
other  places,  and  brought  their  training  and  temperaments  with  them. 
The  painted  record  of  New  Mexico  scenes  has  already  become  stereo- 
type :  an  adobe  house  making  a  pattern  of  light  and  shade,  the  terraced 
lines  of  a  pueblo,  village  scenes  and  country  landscapes  at  various  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  and  in  different  lights,  deep-lined  Indian  faces  and 
scenes  from  the  lives  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Onate,  and  Coronado.  Today 
the  artists  of  the  State  are  trying  to  catch  the  life  of  New  Mexico  in 
free  rhythms  and  modern  moods. 

With  the  passing  of  time  there  are  always  changes  in  the  art  picture 
in  New  Mexico  as  elsewhere.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  artists  have 
passed  from  the  scene,  although  their  works  live  on.  The  activity  of 
the  Transcendental  Painting  Group,  mentioned  above,  has  ceased,  as  has 
the  New  Mexico  Art  Project,  born  of  the  WPA  days,  and  which  had  a 
strong  influence  in  accelerating  the  art  movement  in  New  Mexico. 
Taos,  Santa  Fe,  and  Albuquerque  still  remain  the  centers  of  activity, 
where  there  are  numerous  galleries  and  many  artists  of  renown.  In 
Taos  there  are  some  18  galleries  and  over  40  resident  artists,  while  in 
Albuquerque,  there  are  three  major  galleries  plus  numerous  exhibit  spaces 
in  libraries,  theaters  and  public  buildings.  Santa  Fe,  with  its  superb 
New  Mexico  Art  Gallery  on  the  Plaza,  has  many  resident  artists  of 
prominence,  and  there  are  younger  groups  in  Corrales  and  elsewhere 
throughout  the  State.  The  Fine  Arts  Center,  being  planned  for  the 
University  of  New  Mexico  in  Albuquerque,  is  being  built,  and  will  add 
impetus  to  the  campus  and  to  the  area  in  general.  To  name  the  many 
new  artists  of  prominence,  and  to  mention  those  named  in  the  above 


^jjgbtijb^Mji 


PART  II 
A  City,  a  Capital,  and  an  Art  Center 


Albuquerque 


Railroad  Station:  Santa  Fe  Station,  Silver  Ave.  at  ist  Street,  SW.  for  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Ry. 

Bus  Stations:  Albuquerque  Bus  Co.,  Continental  Trailways,  Greyhound  Lines, 
Inter-City  Transit  Lines,  Inc.,  New  Mexico  Transportation  Co.,  Inc.,  Suburban 
Bus  Lines,  Inc. 

City  Busses:    Fare  15^  regular  service. 
Taxis:     Fare  65^  first  mile,  40^  per  mile  thereafter. 

Airports:  Municipal  Airport,  3  m.  SE.  of  city  on  Yale  Ave.  (off  Highway  66) 
for  TWA,  Continental,  Pioneer  and  Frontier  Lines;  also  Carco  Flying  Service 
charter  lines;  West  Mesa  Airport,  Airport  Road,  NW.  for  Cutter-Carr  charter 
service,  Coronado  Airport;  Paradise  Acres  Airport. 

Traffic  Regulations:  Speed  limit  zoned  from  center  of  city  from  20  up  to  55 
m.p.h.;  15  m.p.h.  at  schools.  Regulation  traffic  lights  on  busier  corners.  Sec- 
ond, Third,  Fifth  and  Sixth  Streets  and  Gold  and  Copper  Avenues  are  one-way 
only.  No  L.  or  U  turns  on  Central  Avenue,  West  from  ist  to  8th. 
Street  Numbering:  Quadrant  system  using  Central  Avenue  and  Santa  Fe  R.  R. 
track  as  axis.  NE.,  NW.,  SE.,  SW.  quadrants. 

Accommodations:     Five  major  hotels,  thirty-three  small  hotels;  140  tourist  courts, 
19  trailer  parks,  several  boarding  houses,  10  convalescent  homes. 
Information  Service:     Chamber  of  Commerce,  Civic  Center;  New  Mexico  Motor 
Club,  605  Yale  Blvd.,  SE. ;  New  Mexico  State  Police,  7013  Central  Ave.,  NE. 
Radio-TV    Stations:     Include,     KABQ,     KDEF,     KGGM,     KHAM,     KHFM, 
KMGM,   KOB,  KQEO,  KARA,  KOAT. 
Travel  Service:     Bowman,  Globetrotters,  Shepherd. 

Theatres  and  Motion  Picture  Houses:  Albuquerque  Little  Theatre,  San  Pas- 
quale  Ave.,  SE. ;  Rodey  Theatre,  University  Campus;  San  Felipe  Playhouse,  San 
Felipe  Hotel  Building;  Summerhouse,  San  Felipe  Hotel  Building;  Sandia  Base 
Little  Theatre,  Sandia  Base  (East  of  city),  for  dramatic  productions.  Carlisle 
Gymnasium,  University  Campus,  concerts,  conventions,  etc.;  New  Mexico  State 
Fair,  Central  Avenue  at  San  Mateo,  NE.,  fairs,  races;  Albuquerque  High  School 
Auditorium,  Southern  Union  Hospitality  Room,  San  Felipe  Hotel  Building,  etc., 
for  public  lectures;  seventeen  motion  picture  houses. 

Athletic  Fields:  Zimmerman  Stadium,  University  Campus;  Lincoln  Stadium, 
Coal  Ave.,  SE.;  Tingley  Field,  Rio  Grande  Park,  i4th  St.,  SW.;  numerous  tennis 
courts;  one  bowling  alley. 

Swimming:  Municipal  Swimming  Pools;  Rio  Grande,  i4th  &  Iron.;  Y.M.C.A., 
Central  Ave.  at  First  St.,  NW. ;  Acapulco  Swim  Club,  Miles  Avenue,  SE ;  others. 
Golf:  Albuquerque  Country  Club,  601  Laguna  Blvd.,  SW.;  Four  Hills  Country 
Club,  Four  Hills  Village,  SE.;  Los  Altos  Park,  Lomas  &  Wyoming,  NE.;  UNM 
Public  Course,  1041  B.  Stanford  Dr.,  NE. 

Riding:     Numerous  private  stables   (consult  Chamber  of  Commerce). 
Hunting,  Fishing,  Outdoor  Sports:     Pheasant,  quail,  goose,  duck  and  rabbit  hunt- 
ing in  season  within  short  driving  radius  of  city;  fresh  water  angling  in  ad- 
jacent irrigation  canals  in  season;  hiking  and  picnic  areas  in  Sandia  and  Man- 
zanos  Mountains — few  miles  east. 

Skiing:  La  Mad  era  Ski  Run,  Sandia  Mountains  (ask  Chamber  of  Commerce 
about  road  conditions). 

Baseball:  Tingley  Field,  Rio  Grande  Park,  i4th  St.,  SW.  Albuquerque  Dukes 
Professional  Team. 

Annual  Events:     Easter    Sunrise    Services   of  the   Albuquerque    Choral    Club; 

173 


174      NEW     MEXICO 

Fiesta  de  San  Felipe  de  Neri;  Old  Town  Plaza  and  other  fiestas;  New  Mexico 
State  Fair;  Indian  dances  and  ceremonials  in  nearby  pueblos;  All  Albuquerque 
Art  Show  (New  Mexico  Art  League  event)  ;  Southwest  Folk  Festival;  University 
Homecoming  Celebration ;  Christmas  Lighting  Contests — luminaries,  etc.;  Aspen- 
cade  to  nearby  mountains;  Snowcade  in  winter;  Baile  de  Bellas  Artes  (first 
Saturday  after  Lent)  (New  Mexico  Art  League). 

ALBUQUERQUE  ( Al-boo-kur-keh,  4,950  alt.,  1953  est.  201,189 
pop.),  New  Mexico's  largest  city  and  principal  banking,  industrial,  rail- 
road, and  air  lines  center,  owes  much  of  its  commercial  development  to 
an  equable  climate  and  to  the  rich  timber,  mineral,  and  agricultural  re- 
sources in  its  vicinity  and  a  growing  industrial  development. 

In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  where  the  river  sweeps  in 
a  broad  curve  from  the  north,  the  city  is  flanked  east  and  west  by 
tawny  mesas  and  blue  mountains.  Fifteen  miles  to  the  east  the  Sandia 
Mountains  rise  6,000  feet  above  the  surrounding  mesas  to  form  the 
eastern  ramparts  of  the  valley.  To  the  west,  beyond  the  Rio  Grande, 
snow-capped  Cebolleta  (Mt.  Taylor)  reaches  an  altitude  of  11,389 
feet.  Nearer  the  city,  to  the  northwest,  five  extinct  volcanic  cones 
accent  the  horizon.  Other  ranges  northward  and  to  the  south  are  dis- 
tantly visible  above  the  reaches  of  the  valley. 

There  are  two  Albuquerques,  the  old  and  the  new.  Old  Albuquer- 
que, locally  called  Old  Town,  the  third  villa  established  by  the  Spanish 
after  their  conquest  of  the  province  of  Nuevo  Mejico  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  their  reconquest  in  the  seventeenth,  was  the  center  of  the 
trade,  religion,  and  culture  of  the  Spanish  Province  for  almost  two 
hundred  vears,  and  it  still  retains  much  of  the  color  of  this  earlier 
leisurely  period.  The  new  Albuquerque,  today's  modern  business  sec- 
tion, is  more  than  seventy  years  old,  but  already  it  serves  a  wide  trade  area 
and  is  brisk  with  transcontinental  traffic.  Tne  two  places,  so  different 
in  tempo  and  appearance,  are  joined  by  Central  Avenue  (US  66),  where 
the  architecture  from  Old  Town  eastward  to  the  business  district 
records  the  periods  through  which  the  towns  have  passed,  from  the  low 
squat  adobe  Provincial  days,  through  the  Victorian  era,  to  the  modern 
downtown  skyscraper. 

Cottonwoods,  tamarisks,  and  poplars  line  miles  of  streets  and  park- 
ways squarely  laid  out;  parks  are  numerous  and  neat.  There  are  many 
beautiful  houses  with  patios  and  broad  landscaped  lawns  and  gardens. 
In  various  sections  an  effort  has  been  made  to  harmonize  modern  struc- 
tures with  a  semblance  of  territorial  or  Spanish-Pueblo  design.  The 
newer  suburban  districts  and  part  of  the  business  section  follow  this 
trend,  though  sometimes  at  the  expense  of  unity  of  style.  The  older 
districts  often  have  row  after  row  of  adobe,  stucco,  and  brick  homes. 
Frame  dwellings  are  comparatively  rare,  and  buildings  are  usually  one 
or  two  stories  in  height,  although  in  the  business  sections  higher  struc- 
tures break  the  skyline. 

The  streets  of  Old  Town  and  the  outlying  districts  are  lined  with 
ancient  flat-roofed  houses  typical  of  an  earlier  day.  The  plan  of  Old 


ALBUQUERQUE     175 

Albuquerque  with  its  central  Plaza  was  that  of  all  early  Spanish  towns 
in  the  Province  of  New  Mexico.  The  thick-walled  adobe  church, 
convento,  and  other  houses  facing  the  enclosure  formed  a  fortlike 
protection  against  marauding  Indians.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the 
livestock  was  corralled  there  at  night;  at  a  later  period  the  Plaza  was 
used  as  the  market  place  for  overland  freight  wagons.  Spanish  folk- 
ways are  still  evident  in  the  fiestas  and  bailes  (native  dances),  and  espe- 
cially on  religious  holidays,  when  participants  in  elaborate  raiment  carry 
the  image  of  their  patron  saint  in  solemn  procession  and  chant  softly 
to  violin  or  guitar  accompaniment.  Today  the  Old  Plaza  is  content 
with  memories,  while  the  vigorous  young  town  to  the  east  marches  on. 

Youth  seems  to  predominate  on  the  crowded  streets  downtown,  for 
the  city  is  a  very  important  educational  center.  The  business  man,  the 
health  seeker,  soldiers  and  airmen  from  nearby  Sandia  Special  Weapons 
Base  and  Kirtland  Air  Force  Base,  scientists,  government  workers  and 
retired  executives  jostle  tourists  en  route  east  or  west;  and,  mingling 
with  them,  Indians  in  gaudy  blankets  offer  for  sale  the  turquoise  and 
silver  jewelry  and  the  pottery  they  make.  Occasional  cowboys  in  boots 
and  ten-gallon  hats  mingle  with  a  sprinkling  of  Spanish-Americans.  In 
the  evenings  the  streets  are  ablaze  with  the  kaleidoscopic,  changing  lights. 

Although  inhabited  for  generations  by  the  Indians,  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley  at  the  site  of  present-day  Albuquerque  was  first  seen  by  white 
men  when  a  detachment  of  Coronado's  troops  under  Hernando  Al- 
varado  explored  it  in  1540.  Other  explorers  followed,  and  after  Onate's 
time  (1598),  ranches  developed  in  this  vicinity,  but  no  towns  were 
founded.  The  ranches  and  haciendas  were  destroyed  during  the  Pueblo 
Rebellion  (1680)  when  the  Spanish  were  driven  from  the  province  and 
sought  refuge  in  El  Paso. 

Albuquerque  was  founded  in  1706  by  Don  Francisco  Cuervo  y 
Valdes,  twenty-eighth  Governor  and  Captain-General  of  New  Mexico, 
who  removed  thirty  families  from  near-by  Bernalillo  and  located  them 
on  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte  (fierce  river  of  the  north),  as  the  Rio 
Grande  was  then  known,  "in  a  goodly  place  of  pasturage."  He  hon- 
ored his  patron  saint,  Francisco  Xavier,  and  the  Duke  of  Alburquerque, 
viceroy  of  New  Spain,  by  naming  the  villa  San  Francisco  de  Albur- 
querque, from  which  came  the  common  appellation  of  the  "Duke  City." 
Because  the  villa  was  founded  without  consulting  King  Philip  V,  how- 
ever, the  viceroy  diplomatically  renamed  it  San  Felipe  de  Alburquerque, 
Felipe  being  Spanish  for  Philip.  Eventually  the  first  "r"  was  dropped, 
and  it  became  Albuquerque*  One  of  the  first  structures  was  the  Church 
of  San  Felipe  de  Neri,  now  a  landmark,  erected  on  the  north  side 
of  the  plaza  in  1706. 

Governor  Cuervo  y  Valdes  had  progressive  ideas  regarding  sanitation 
and  protection  which  he  put  into  practise  in  the  new  villa,  with  the 
result  that  it  rapidly  surpassed  neighboring  settlements  both  in  size 
and  in  population,  and  soon  became  a  place  of  considerable  importance 
in  trade  routes.  With  a  population  periodically  augmented  by  settlers 


176    NEW  MEXICO 

seeking  protection  from  possible  attacks  by  marauding  Indians,  the  town 
grew  slowly  but  steadily.    In  1790,  the  population  was  5,959. 

The  villa  was  an  important  military  post  during  the  Spanish  and 
Mexican  regimes,  second  in  importance  only  to  Santa  Fe  and  El  Paso 
del  Norte.  After  the  American  occupation  in  1846  it  was  one  of  the 
important  outposts  of  the  US  Military  Department  until  1870,  when 
it  was  the  headquarters  for  General  Phil  Sheridan.  Many  famous 
American  army  men  were  stationed  here  during  this  time,  among  them 
Generals  Rucker,  Miles,  Sherman,  and  Sibley,  and  the  peaceful  plaza 
of  the  old  Spanish  town,  usually  scene  of  the  gay  communal  life,  a 
market  place  by  day  and  a  fiesta  scene  by  night,  became  a  drill  ground 
for  American  troops. 

Albuquerque  was  still  an  isolated  frontier  town  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  the  sympathies  of  the  residents  fluctuated.  Although  several 
skirmishes  occurred  in  the  vicinity,  the  post  was  alternately  occupied  by 
Union  and  Confederate  forces  with  only  a  few  shots  fired.  In  1862 
Captain  Enos,  with  a  small  Union  command,  was  informed  of  the  ap- 
proach of  Confederate  General  Hopkins  Sibley  with  a  large  force. 
Realizing  that  defense  was  impossible,  Enos  loaded  all  available  wagons 
and  started  them  for  Santa  Fe,  then  fired  the  army  storage  houses  to 
destroy  remaining  supplies.  After  his  departure,  Southern  sympathizers 
extinguished  the  blaze  and  saved  much  of  the  provisions,  which  they 
turned  over  to  General  Sibley.  He  occupied  the  post  without  opposi- 
tion for  two  months,  but  on  learning  that  strong  Union  forces  were 
advancing  under  Colonel  R.  S.  Canby  to  take  the  town,  Sibley  hastily 
evacuated,  burying  eight  heavy  howitzers,  or  Napoleon  guns,  which  he 
had  previously  captured  from  Union  forces.  Two  of  these  cannon, 
later  unearthed,  are  now  in  Robinson  Park. 

Sibley  *s  sudden  departure  left  the  town  in  confusion.  Suspicion 
and  jealousies  were  rampant,  and  public  officials  abused  their  power  by 
"legally  confiscating"  property  of  "accused'1  persons  who  had  no  re- 
course when,  at  public  auctions,  their  effects  were  purchased  by  their 
accusers  at  far  below  actual  value. 

The  decade  following  the  Civil  War  brought  an  influx  of  eastern 
and  mid-western  farmers  and  livestock  raisers  who  were  looking  for 
cheap  land,  and  many  who  were  attracted  by  the  fertile  valley  and  high 
grassy  mesas  settled  in  Bernalillo  County. 

Outside  connection  by  telegraph  first  came  in  1875.  Completion 
of  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  (1881)  gave  impetus 
to  the  town's  growth,  and  under  direction  of  the  New  Mexico  Town 
Company,  a  railroad  subsidiary,  New  Albuquerque  was  surveyed  and 
platted  in  November  1880.  The  obstinacy  of  a  landowner  near  Old 
Albuquerque  in  the  matter  of  a  right-of-way  and  the  desire  for  a  road- 
bed along  the  higher  levels  near  the  foothills  away  from  the  river 
made  it  necessary  for  the  railroad  to  route  two  miles  east,  and  the 
location  of  new  Albuquerque,  like  that  of  many  other  western  towns, 
was  conditioned  by  the  route  of  the  railroad.  In  the  usual  procedure 
of  the  frontier,  the  first  city  lots  were  sold  from  a  railroad  flatcar. 


ALBUQUERQUE      177 

Because  of  the  considerable  number  of  Union  and  Confederate 
veterans  who  remained  after  the  Civil  War,  there  was  for  many  years 
ill  feeling  between  Northern  and  Southern  sympathizers.  Further  dis- 
tinctions were  sharply  drawn  between  Americans  and  Spanish-American 
settlers,  when  the  latter  were  forced  into  a  minor  role  in  civic  affairs. 
The  new  town  began  at  once  to  be  important  commercially  to  a  larger 
territory  through  connections  with  the  East  by  rail  and  wire.  A  mass 
meeting  to  discuss  incorporation  was  held  July  28,  1884,  and  the  first 
mayor,  Henry  Jaffa,  was  elected  in  1885.  In  1890  the  town  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city. 

From  the  time  .when  the  Conquistadores  introduced  a  few  hundred 
sheep,  wool  growing  had  been  a  principal  industry  of  the  region.  The 
wool  was  brought  from  surrounding  ranches  to  Albuquerque  by  ox- 
drawn  wagons,  horses,  and  even  burros;  buyers  came  from  Boston,  St. 
Louis,  and  Philadelphia.  The  earliest  banking  was  done  by  merchants, 
who  accepted  the  wool  growers'  cash  for  safe  keeping  and  advanced 
them  trade  credit.  As  wool  growing  assumed  increasing  importance  in 
the  vicinity,  Albuquerque  became  a  commercial  banking  center.  Today 
the  gross  annual  sale  of  sheep  and  lambs  is  over  $10,000,000. 

These  early  days,  typical  of  western  towns,  saw  colorful  and  some- 
times fatal  events,  but  by  degrees  the  unruly  element  was  subdued, 
chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Governor  Stover's  Vigilante  Committee. 
Albuquerque's  amusement  facilities  ran  the  gamut  from  the  neisy, 
flamboyant  honky-tonk  to  the  imposing  opera  house  of  the  period. 
Among  the  stars  appearing  at  the  latter  were  Nordica,  Pavlova,  and 
Paderewski.  Most  of  the  saloons  had  faro  layouts,  roulette  wheels,  and 
poker.  Faro  was  the  most  popular  with  miners  fresh  from  the  diggin's, 
cowboys,  cattle  buyers,  and  drummers  from  the  East.  These  places, 
gleaming  with  glassware  and  polished  bars,  bore  such  picturesque  names 
as  The  Bucket  of  Blood,  The  White  Elephant,  and  The  Free  and  Easy. 
The  hamlet  of  the  i88o's,  ultimately  lost  its  boisterousness  as  it  grew 
from  village  to  town  and  from  town  to  thriving  city. 

By  1870  parochial  schools  had  been  founded,  but  the  most  significant 
educational  advance  came  in  1889,  when  the  territorial  legislature 
created  the  University  of  New  Mexico.  The  census  of  1890  showed  a 
population  of  3,785,  but  twenty  years  later  the  city  had  grown  to  11,020. 
In  1917  the  commission  manager  form  of  government  was  adopted. 

The  expansion  of  irrigation  projects  in  the  valley  region  added  to 
the  wealth  of  the  Albuquerque  area  and  led  to  the  establishment  of 
packing  plants  and  canning  factories  for  agricultural  products,  espe- 
cially fruit.  Grazing  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  valley  support  thriving 
wool  and  livestock  industries,  bringing  an  annual  income  of  millions  of 
dollars,  two-thirds  of  which  is  locally  controlled.  Many  vineyards  and 
orchards  dot  the  valley,  and  from  the  near-by  mountains  come  several 
million  pounds  of  pinon  nuts  annually  shipped  all  over  the  United 
States. 

The  city's  industries  also  include  sawmills,  sash  and  door  factories, 
sheet  metal,  brick,  and  tile  works,  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  shops,  and  oil 


178        NEW     MEXICO 

refinery,  and  oil  distributing  plants.  At  the  junction  of  three  Santa  Fe 
lines — one  from  Chicago,  one  from  El  Paso,  and  one  from  the  Pacific 
Coast — the  Santa  Fe  shops  and  division  point,  with  a  yard  trackage  total- 
ing 50  miles,  employ  several  thousand  men.  In  addition  there  are  many 
smaller  industries,  and  the  city  is  noted  for  its  ornamental  metal  and 
woodwork  plants;  also  Indian  and  Mexican  handicrafts,  trailer  manu- 
facturing, car  and  foundry  work,  clothing  manufacture,  leather  and  crafts 
production.  The  Sandia  Base  Special  Weapons  Project  has  been  a 
tremendous  addition  to  the  growing  industry  of  the  city.  Average  bank 
clearings  of  $1,730,475,865  indicate  its  financial  importance,  and  a 
municipal  airport  ranking  in  area  with  the  largest  ports  in  the  country 
gives  the  city  facilities  for  transcontinental  air  traffic. 

Long  ago  physicians  realized  the  benefits  that  Albuquerque's  year- 
round  climate  offered  sufferers  from  pulmonary  ailments,  particularly 
tuberculosis.  Many  millions  have  been  invested  in  sanatoria  and  con- 
valescent homes,  and  the  Federal  Government  has  established  hospitals 
here  for  Indians  and  for  war  veterans.  The  city's  reputation  as  a  health 
resort  is  significant  as  a  factor  in  the  business  and  social  structure. 

There  are  many  city  schools,  eight  parochial  schools,  several  denomi- 
national and  preparatory  schools,  and  a  U.  S.  Indian  training  school. 
There  are  120  churches  of  various  denominations,  civic  clubs,  numerous 
fraternal  and  church  societies,  and  various  women's  organizations.  Civic 
co-operation  has  established  a  mile-long  fresh-water'  bathing  beach,  a 
municipal  zoo,  a  dozen  parks,  a  Little  Theatre  building,  and  a  city 
beautification  plan  that  includes  the  planting  of  vacant  areas.  There 
are  also  choral  clubs,  a  city  band,  and  a  civic  symphony  orchestra.  Play- 
ground and  recreational  facilities  have  been  developed  in  some  seventy 
parks  and  various  activities  in  three  Community  Centers. 

THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY 

Situated  on  E.  Central  Ave.,  extending  from  University  Ave.,  east 
to  Girard  Ave.,  and  from  E.  Central  Ave.,  north  to  E.  Roma  Ave.,  is 
the  University,  the  State's  foremost  institution  of  learning.  On  the 
high  east  mesa,  overlooking  the  city,  about  a  mile  from  the  business  sec- 
tion, the  university  campus  consists  of  550  acres,  with  large  shade  trees, 
shrubs,  and  spreading  lawns,  against  the  background  of  foothills  and  the 
Sandia  Mountains.  The  buildings  are  all  Pueblo  Indian  style,  domi- 
nated by  the  new  massive  University  Library  building^ 

The  university  was  created  as  a  territorial  institution  by  act  of  the 
legislature  on  January  28,  1889,  due  largely  to  the  efforts  of  Bernard 
S.  Rodey,  who  has  been  called  the  father  of  the  university  and  in  whose 
honor  Rodey  Hall  was  named.  The  new  institution  was  opened  June 
15,  1892,  in  rented  rooms  as  a  summer  school;  it  began  regular  year- 
round  instruction  when  the  first  building  was  erected  on  the  campus  in 
September  of  that  year.  The  early  buildings  were  in  general  of  Vic- 


ALBUQUERQUE     179 

torian-Gothic  style,  but  in  1905,  under  President  Tight's  administration, 
the  modified  type  of  Pueblo  architecture  was  adopted  and  the  university 
buildings  as  a  group  became  unique  among  those  of  American  educa- 
tional institutions.  When  New  Mexico  was  admitted  to  statehood  the 
university  became  a  State  institution.  A  land  grant  of  732,709  acres, 
including  the  timber,  oil,  mineral,  and  other  rights,  was  made  to  the 
University  at  the  time  the  State  was  admitted  to  the  Union. 

Growth  of  the  University  has  been  very  rapid.  The  University  has 
eleven  fully  accredited  colleges,  including  Arts  and  Sciences,  Education, 
Business  Administration,  Law,  Pharmacy,  Engineering,  Fine  Arts,  Uni- 
versity College,  Nursing,  Medicine,  and  the  Graduate  School.  Peak 
UNM  enrollment  was  5,498  in  1948-49,  dropping  to  around  4,000  in 
1950.  The  institution  expects  an  average  of  some  15,000  regular  day- 
time students  around  1970. 

Under  the  leadership  of  President  Thomas  L.  Popejoy,  the  Uni- 
versity has  constructed  26  new  buildings  within  the  past  13  years,  cost- 
ing some  $15,000,000.  In  addition  to  the  outstanding  work  of  several 
departments  such  as  art,  anthropology,  physics,  and  biology,  there  are 
several  departments  devoted  entirely  to  research :  the  Bureau  of  Business 
Research,  Division  of  Government  Research,  Research  and  Development 
Program,  and  the  Institute  of  Meteoritics. 

From  a  handful  of  graduate  students  in  1927,  the  institution  now 
registers  upward  of  1,200  persons  working  for  higher  degrees.  These 
students  come  from  every  part  of  the  nation  and  from  some  40  foreign 
nations.  The  Ph.D.  degree  is  offered  in  14  departments. 

A  nine-story  library  houses  over  300,000  volumes  with  another 
40,000  books  in  the  law  library. 

The  Division  of  Foreign  Studies  has  been  active  in  bringing  students 
from  all  parts  of  the  globe  to  Albuquerque  under  the  Point  Four  Program. 

The  ROTC  units,  the  Air  Force  and  the  Navy,  enroll  approximately 
1,000  students  in  their  departments.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Air  Force 
sends  each  year  a  delegation  of  special  meteorology  students  for  special 
study  under  the  UNM  department  of  physics.  Some  120  weather  air- 
men from  Chanute  Air  Force  Base  finished  a  40  weeks  course  at  the  Uni- 
versity in  August  of  1952.  A  second  group  of  weather  students,  all  of 
them  college  graduates  and  reserve  officers  in  the  Air  Force  registered 
for  study  in  the  fall  of  1952  for  a  52-week  period  of  study. 

In  addition  to  making  its  facilities  available  to  the  other  49  state" 
and  foreign  nations,  the  University  runs  two  special  colleges  for  towns- 
people who  work  during  the  day  but  can  spare  early  evenings  for  study. 

The  University  also  reaches  off  the  campus  with  extension  courses 
and  a  full-fledged  summer  school  for  artists  at  Taos.  Crafts  classes  are 
also  part  of  the  Harwood  Foundation,  a  UNM-owned  building,  at  Taos. 

Far  from  being  cramped  by  metropolitan  Albuquerque,  the  UNM 
campus  has  more  than  ample  room  for  expansion.  On  this  55O-acre 
campus,  over  and  above  the  space  allotted  for  buildings,  the  University 


1 82      NEW     MEXICO 

has  an  i8-hole  golf  course  which  is  open  to  the  public.  All  regular  col- 
lege sports  are  played  on  the  campus.  These  include:  football,  basket- 
ball, track,  baseball,  tennis,  golf,  ice  hockey,  swimming,  and  wrestling. 
A  tour  of  the  campus  following  the  new  street  names,  would  reach 
the  following  important  buildings : 

1.  Along  Yale  Avenue  NE  (off  Central),  first  building  on  the  left, 
JOURNALISM  which  houses  all  student  publications,  News  Bureau, 
Pack  Foundation,  journalism  department  and  the  UNM  Printing  Plant. 

2.  BIOLOGY,  next  on  left,  and  GEOLOGY.     Back  of  them  are 
MARRON  HALL  and  NORTH  HALL,  formerly  residence  halls  for 
women  and  now  faculty  offices. 

3.  CARLISLE  GYMNASIUM,  on  left,  now  used  by  women's 
physical  education  classes,  and  ZIMMERMAN  STADIUM,  on  right, 
now  replaced  by  the  3O,ooo-seat  University  Stadium  seven  blocks  south 
of  Central  on  the  new  1 5O-acre  campus. 

4.  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY,  now  housing  more  than  300,000 
books  not  counting  the  40,000  in  the  library  of  the  School  of  Law. 

5.  The  PRESIDENT'S  HOME  on  the  right  which  is  built  in  the 
modified  pueblo  style  of  architecture  in  keeping  with  the  other  65  per- 
manent structures  on  the  UNM  campus. 

6.  The  INFIRMARY  on  the  right  in  the  next  block  on  Yale. 

7.  Across  Lomas,  the  METEORITICS-PHYSICS   building  and 
off  to  the  left  the  UNM  MAINTENANCE  WAREHOUSE. 

8.  Beginning  again  on  Central  East  on  Terrace,  going  north,  first 
on  the  right  is  SARA  RAYNOLDS  HALL,  home  of  home  economics 
and  built  in  the  early  19205. 

9.  First  on  the  left  is  the  ART  BUILDING,  formerly  the  UNM 
library. 

10.  Next  on  the  left  is  the  MUSIC  BUILDING  and  opposite  on 
the  right  is  the  COLLEGE  OF  PHARMACY. 

11.  CRAFTS  ANNEX,  next  on  left,  houses  departments  of  art  and 
studios  for  music. 

12.  STATE  HEALTH   LABORATORY,  next  on  left,   is  on 
UNM  land  but  is  operated  by  the  State. 

13.  CHEMISTRY  BUILDING,  next  on  right. 

14.  ORTEGA  HALL,  on  left,  home  of  modern  and  classical  lan- 
guages, formerly  the  women's  dining  hall. 

15.  Last  on  the  left  is  the  new  ALUMNI  MEMORIAL  CHAPEL, 
built  in  honor  of  the  UNM  students  who  were  killed  in  the  wars. 

1 6.  Beginning  again  on  Central  on  University  Avenue,  first  on  the 
left  is  HODGIN  HALL,  first  and  oldest  building  on  the  UNM  campus. 
Formerly  red  brick  and  in  the  Gothic  style,  it  has  been  remodeled  into 
the  unique  style  of  architecture  of  all  the  permanent  buildings  on  the 
campus.     Alongside  Hodgin  Hall  is  the  University  Theater,  known 
popularly  as  RODEY  HALL. 

17.  Next  on  the  left  is  a  second  building  housing  part  of  the  Uni- 


Cities  and  Towns 


Aerial  view  of  modern  Albuquerque 
View  of  Old  Town,  original  part  of  Albuquerque 


Canyon  Road  in  Santa  Fe 


The  Sena  Plaza  in  Santa  Fe,  circa  1840 


State  Capitol  in  Santa  Fe,  completed  1953 
Governor's  Residence  in  Santa  Fe 


Carved  entrance  doors  in  old  Santa  Fe 


Patio  and  garden  in  Santa  Fe 


Cornpr  firpnlan*  in  thp  Tanc  Tnn 


Old  Mesilla 


Taos  Valley  Art  School 


Wilson  Hall,  New  Mexico  Military  Institute,  Roswell 
Gymnasium,  New  Mexico  State  University,  Las  Cruces 


Library,  University  of  New  Mexico,  Albuquerque 

Pueblo-style  home  in  the  Hondo  Valley 


ALBUQUERQUE     183 

versity  Theater,  the  DRAMA  BUILDING,  formerly  the  structure 
known  as  Industrial  Arts. 

18.  Next  on  the  left  is  part  of  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING 
followed  in  turn   by  CIVIL  ENGINEERING  and   CHEMICAL 
ENGINEERING.     East  of  these  two  buildings  are  ELECTRICAL 
and  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING.     Still  farther  east  is  the  old 
SCIENCE  LECTURE  HALL. 

19.  Next  east  of  Chemical  Engineering  is  the  HEATING  PLANT 
which  furnishes  heat  for  all   UNM  buildings  except  the   President's 
home. 

20.  Last  on  the  right  on  University  Avenue  is  the  ANTHRO- 
POLOGY BUILDING,  formerly  the  old  Student  Union  Building. 

21.  Turning  east  on  Roma,  first  on  left  is  the  building  for  KNME- 
TV,  educational  television,  and  the  Speech  Department. 

22.  First  on   right  is   the  ADMINISTRATION   BUILDING, 
housing  all  the  executive  offices,  extension,  Registrar,  and  business  office. 

23.  To  the  left,  just  before  crossing  Yale,  is  CLARK  HALL,  home 
of  the  Bureau  of  Business  Research.     Then  comes  the  President's  Home 
and  back  of  it,  still  on  the  left,  is  the  UNM  SCHOOL  OF  LAW 
with  the  UNM  LIBRARY  on  the  right. 

24.  At  the  corner  of  Cornell  and  Roma  on  the  east  side  is  HOKONA 
HALL,  new  residence  hall  for  630  women  students. 

25.  Turning  south  on  Cornell,  first  on  the  left  is  MESA  VISTA 
HALL,  home  of  450  men  students.     First  on  the  right  is  the  new  NEW 
MEXICO  UNION,  taking  the  place  of  the  old  SUB— student  union 
building. 

26.  Some  200  yards  east  of  Mesa  Vista  is  the  newest  residence  hall 
for  men  students,  CORONADO  HALL,  on  Girard  NE. 

27.  Last   on   the   left    on    Cornell   before   arriving   at    Central   is 
JOHNSON  GYMNASIUM. 

28.  West  of  Mesa  Vista  and  the  New  Mexico  Union  on  the  left  on 
Ash  is  MITCHELL  HALL,  classroom  building.     Opposite  Mitchell 
Hall  on  the  right  is  YATOKA  HALL,  home  of  the  College  of  Busi- 
ness Administration. 

29.  Off  the  campus  proper  are  the  GOLF  ADMINISTRATION 
CLUB    HOUSE    and    the    OBSERVATORY    for    astronomy    and 
meteoritics,  both  on  land  adjoining  the  public  golf  course. 

OTHER  POINTS  OF  INTEREST 

17.  OLD  TOWN  PLAZA,  W.  Central  Ave.  (US  66),  N.  2 
blocks  on  San  Felipe  Road,  is  the  central  portion  of  the  original  land 
grant  made  by  the  King  of  Spain,  when  Governor  Cuervo  y  Valdes 
founded  the  villa  in  1706.  Here  it  was,  according  to  old  archives,  that 
the  Governor,  his  secretary,  and  witnesses  plucked  up  stones  and  grass, 
flung  them  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  at  the  same  time  shouting: 
"Long  live  the  King!"  The  plaza  was  originally  surrounded  by  an 


1 84     NEW     MEXICO 

adobe  wall;  in  1881,  it  was  enclosed  by  a  picket  fence,  and  in  1937 
the  present  stone  wall  was  erected  as  a  WPA  project.  The  plaza  has 
always  been  the  center  of  communal  life  in  Old  Town  and  the  scene 
of  many  historical  events.  Four  flags  have  flown  from  its  tall  flagpole 
as  Spain,  Mexico,  the  Confederacy,  and  the  United  States  claimed  the 
territory. 

18.  CHURCH  OF  SAN  FELIPE  DE  NERf,  NW.  corner  of 
Plaza,  except  for  a  remodelled  facade  and  other  minor  changes,  stands 
exactly  as  it  was  built  by  Father  Manuel  Moreno  and  thirty  families, 
who  came  with  Governor  Cuervo  y  Valdes  when  he  founded  Albuquer- 
que in  1706.     It  was  built  originally  to  withstand  firebrands  and  bat- 
tering rams,  such  as  were  used  during  Indian  uprisings.    Thus  the  win- 
dows are  twenty  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  adobe  walls  are  more 
than   four   feet   thick.     The   original    ceiling  support    is    still   used. 
Around  a  spruce  tree  trunk  is  built  a  spiral  stairway  leading  to  the 
choir  loft.     Hand-carved  confessionals,  altars,  and  various  images  and 
statues  of  unknown  age  produce  an  Old  World  medieval  mood.     In 
some  of  the  side  rooms  are  the  original  floors,  worn  thin  and  splintered. 
In  the  parish  registers,  dating  from  its  founding,  an  almost  complete 
record  of  the  church  in  old  Spanish  script  is  found.    According  to  these 
records,   consecutive   Sunday  services  have   been   held   in   the   ancient 
edifice  without  missing  a  single  Sunday  since  the  church  was  opened 
by  Father  Moreno  (1706). 

19.  ORIGINAL  CONVENTO  OF  SAN  FELIPE  DE  NERI 
CHURCH,  NE.  corner  of  Plaza,  built  shortly  after  the  church,  was 
used  for  more  than  a  century  as  the  abode  of  the  Franciscan  mission- 
aries in  this  region.    At  times,  while  Albuquerque  was  a  military  post, 
soldiers  were  quartered  in  the  building.     It  has  been  brick-faced  and  a 
second  story  added  in  recent  years.    At  present  it  serves  as  the  parish 
house. 

20.  The  CASA  DE  ARMIJO,  E.  side  of  Plaza,  once  belonged  to 
the  wealthy  Armijo  family.     A  greater  portion  of  the  building  is  ap- 
proximately two  centuries  old,  the  front  section  having  been  remodeled 
from  time  to  time.     During  the  Civil  War  the  old  Casa  became  the 
headquarters  for  both  Union  and  Confederate  officers.     At  present  it 
is  occupied   by  artists,   writers,   and  crafts  shops;   still    retaining   its 
Spanish  dignity,  for  the  carved  wooden  doorways,  deep-sunk  windows, 
and  an  ancient  patio  lend  charm  to  thick  adobe  walls. 

21.  HUNING  CASTLE,  1424  W.  Central  Ave.,  now  a  private 
day  school,  was  for  many  years  an  impressive  landmark.     It  was  in- 
spired by  castles  in  Hanover,  Germany,  the  native  land  of  the  builder, 
Franz  Huning.     Mr.  Huning,  grandfather  of  Erna  and  Harvey  Fer- 
gusson,  New  Mexico  authors,  was  a  prominent  figure  in  the  progress 
of  Albuquerque.     Emigrating  from  Germany  he  reached  St.  Louis  in 
the  gold  rush  'days  of  '49  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  joined  a  freighting 
caravan  and  traveled  overland  to  Santa  Fe,  later  coming  to  Albuquer- 
que.    His  home,  the  "Castle,"  was  a  show  place  in  territorial  days. 
The  main  walls  of  the  building  are  five  feet  thick.    The  finished  lumber 


ALBUQUERQUE      185 

was  freighted  from  Illinois,  some  materials  were  brought  from  Eng- 
land, 'and  the  castle  was  five  years  in  the  building,  due  mainly  to  slow 
travel  over  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

22.  The  VINCENT  WALLACE  HOUSE,   1429  W.  Central, 
across  the  street  trom  the  old  Huning  Castle,  is  one  of  the  two  first 
residences  built  in  new  Albuquerque  (1882).     Vincent  Wallace  was  a 
relative  of  General  Lew  Wallace,  author  of  Ben  Hur  and  governor  of 
the  Territory  of  New  Mexico.    It  is  believed  that  Lew  Wallace  wrote 
portions  of  his  historical  novel  in  this  house,  and  here  also,  the  famous 
composer  Puccini  wrote  sections  of  the  scores  of  La  Boheme  and  The 
Girl  of  the  Golden  West. 

23.  ROBINSON  PARK,  W.  Central  Ave.  and  8th  St.,  (1880)  is 
a  triangular  area  of  greenery  and  huge  shade  trees  providing  a  restful 
spot  near  the  business  district.     It  was  reserved  as  a  park  when  the 
townsite  of  new  Albuquerque  was  laid  out.     Two   brass  howitzers 
(cast  in  Boston,  1853),  captured  and  later  buried  by  Confederate  Gen- 
eral Sibley  in  old  Albuquerque,  until  recent  years  stood  in  the  park, 
where  there  is  now  a  fountain  built  in  tribute  to  John  Braden  who  gave 
his  life,  in  Territorial  days,  to  save  the  lives  of  a  group  of  children  caught 
in  a  fire  on  a  Fourth  of  July  float.     Braden  managed  to  stop  the  run- 
away horses,  but  died  from  severe  burns. 

24.  The  RIO  GRANDE  PARK  AND  ZOO,  S.  on  Laguna  Blvd., 
facing  Tingley  Drive  along  the  Rio  Grande   (admission  free),  is  an 
8o-acre  landscaped  area  containing  many  beautiful  trees.     There  are 
playgrounds  for  children,  tennis  courts,  several  wild  fowl  ponds,  and 
a  representative  collection  of  animals  and  birds  native  to  the  Southwest 
region. 

25.  The  MUNICIPAL  BATHING  BEACH,  Laguna  and  Ting- 
ley  Drives,  just  west   of   Rio   Grande   Park,   is   an   artificial   lake  of 
constantly  changing,  pure  water,  diverted  underground  from  the  Rio 
Grande,  with  depths  from  two  to  fifteen  feet.    There  are  modern  hous- 
ing facilities,  with  lifeguards  in  attendance  along  the  three  miles  of 
white  sand  beach. 

26.  THE  HARVEY  INDIAN  MUSEUM,  adjoining  the  Al- 
varado  Hotel,  Gold  Ave.  and  1st  St.  (8:30-6 — adm.  free),  may  be  en- 
tered through  the  hotel,  or  from  the  corridor  facing  the  railroad  at  the 
Santa  Fe  Railroad  station.     Housed  in  a  California  Mission  type  of 
building,  the  museum  occupies  several  large  rooms  and  contains  fine 
examples  of  authentic  early  Indian  arts  and  crafts  from  Mexico  and 
New  Mexico.     Indian  craftsmen  demonstrate  silversmithing  and  Na- 
vaho  weavine. 

27.  The  U.  S.  VETERANS'  HOSPITAL,  end  of  Ridgecrest  Drive, 
almost  a  small  village  in  itself,  is  built  so  that  the  ensemble  is  a  fair 
reproduction  of  the  Taos  Indian  pueblo.     The  massive  buildings,  with 
recessed  story-levels,  constitute  a  striking  landmark  on  the  high  mesa 
several  miles  east  of  the  city.    The  capacity  is  574  beds. 

28.  The  U.  S.  INDIAN  HOSPITAL,  1  m.  NE  on  Dartmouth 
Ave.,  an  imposing  modern  structure  surrounded  by  trees,  shrubs,  and 


l86     NEW     MEXICO 

velvety  lawns,  is  devoted  to  the  Government's  medical  aid  for  Indians. 
The  capacity  is  150  beds. 

SANDIA  LOOP  AND  RIM  DRIVE 

Albuquerque — Tijeras  Canyon — Sandia  Crest — Bernalillo — Albu- 
querque. 

US  66;  Rim  Drive;  US  85.    65.5  m. 

This  drive,  which  can  be  made  in  five  hours  or  less*  passes  into  the 
rugged  Sandia  Mountains  to  an  observation  point  (two  miles  above 
sea  level)  where  a  vast  panorama  of  the  State  can  be  seen.  Several 
public  camping  and  picnicking  grounds  along  the  route.  Crest  Road 
open  from  May  to  November. 

ALBUQUERQUE.  From  Central  Ave.  and  ist  St.,  0  m.,  pro- 
ceed eastwardly  on  Central  Ave.  (US  66),  entering  TIJERAS  CAN- 
YON (5,800  alt.),  at  10.1  m.,  and  continuing  through  TIJERAS 
VILLAGE  (770  pop.)  15.1  772. 

At  16.2  is  junction  with  NM  ip  (L)  which  tour  follows  for  5.9  m. 
perfect  sandstone  dome  with  an  incline  from  the  surrounding  cliffs 
which  form  a  natural  corner.  On  the  walls  of  the  formation  are  nu- 
merous pictographs  of  prehistoric  origin. 

FOREST  PARK  18.5  m.  (R)  is  a  mountain  resort,  privately  owned, 
where  meals,  cabins,  and  saddle  horses  are  available. 

At  22.1  77z.  is  the  junction  with  NM  10  (R).  Proceed  (L)  on 
Loop  Drive  through  Tejano  Canyon  past  TREE  SPRINGS,  27.6  m.,  above 
which  point  is  the  winter  sports  region  where  ski  and  toboggan  tourna- 
ments are  held. 

At  29.6  7/7.  is  junction  (L)  with  Sandia  Crest  Road  (8,652  alt.).  Up- 
ward over  this  road  through  forests  of  aspen  to  SANDIA  CREST  OBSERVA- 
TION POINT,  34.2  m.  (10,678  alt.).     Leave  car  at  parking  level  and 
walk  20  yards  to  top.    Most  of  the  mountain  ranges  in  the  State  visible 
from  this  point. 

Returning,  retrace  to  junction  (L)  with  Loop  Drive  42.5  m.t  de- 
scend into  Las  Huertas  Canyon  and  proceed  to  BERNALILLO  51.2 
772.  (see  Tour  Ib)  and  junction  with  US  85  (L).  Proceed  south- 
westwardly  to  Albuquerque  and  junction  with  US  66  at  4th  St.  and 
Central  Ave.,  then  (L)  over  Central  Ave.  to  point  of  beginning,  65.5  m. 

OPTIONAL  RETURN :  Retrace  route  from  Observation  Point 
to  Albuquerque. 

OTHER  POINTS  OF  INTEREST  IN  ENVIRONS 

Isleta  Indian  Pueblo,  12  m.  (see  Tour  11) ;  Sandia  Pueblo,  13.4  m.;  Cibola  Na- 
tional Forest,  16  m.;  Coronado  State  Monument,  18.6  m.;  Santa  Ana  Pueblo, 
29  m.;  San  Felipe  Pueblo,  29  m.;  Zia  Pueblo,  37  m.;  Jemez  Pueblo,  51  m.;  Santo 
Domingo  Pueblo,  40  m.;  Laguna  Pueblo,  51  i».  (see  Tour  6b) ;  Acoma  Pueblo, 
67  m.  (see  Tour  6 A). 


Santa  Fe 


Railroad  Stations:  Cor.  E.  of  San  Francisco  and  Shelby  Sts.  for  busses  to  Lamy 
for  all  trains  of  Atchison,  Topeko  and  Santa  Fe  Ry. 

Bus  Stations:  Union  Bus  Depot,  126  Water  St.,  for  Southwest  Greyhound  Lines, 
New  Mexico  Transportation  Co.,  Intercity  Transit  Lines,  Chama  Valley  Lines; 
Cor.  E.  San  Francisco  and  Shelby  Sts  .for  Indian  Detours,  Inc.;  Union  Bus  Depot 
for  Santa  Fe  Trailways. 

Airport:  Municipal  Airport,  10  m.  SW.  city  off  Albuquerque  Road  (ITS  85); 
taxi  fare  $1.00.  Daily  flights  by  Continental. 

Taxis:     50^  upward,  according  to  distance  and  number  of  passengers. 
City  Bus  Service. 

Traffic  Regulations:  Turns  permitted  either  direction  at  intersections  except 
one-way  sts. ;  vehicle  on  the  right  has  the  right-of-way;  parking  limits  desig- 
nated on  st.  signs  and  orange  curbs;  one-way  to  R.  around  the  plaza  except  on 
N.  side;  make  way  for  police  and  fire  cars. 

Accommodations:  Hotels,  tourist  camps,  boarding  houses;  dude  ranches  in  en- 
virons. 

Information  Service:    Chamber  of  Commerce,    112   Shelby  St.;    New  Mexico 
Tourist  Bureau,  State  Capitol  Building. 
Radio  Stations:    KVSF  (1310  kc.) ;  KTRC  (1400  kc.). 

Theatres:     Five  motion  picture  houses  on  San  Francisco  St.,  and  two  drive-in 
theatres  nearby;  occasional  plays  by  Santa  Fe  Players  and  other  groups. 
Annual  Events:     Santa  Fe  Fiesta,  three    days,  Labor  Day  week-end;   Corpus 
Christi,  ist  Thurs.  after  Trinity  Sun.;  De  Vargas  Memorial  Procession,  follow- 
ing week;  Annual  Horse  Show;  New  Mexico  Kennel  Club  Dog  Show,  spring; 
Feast  Day  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  Guadalupe,  Dec.  12 ;  Feast  Day  of  St.  Francis 
of  Assisi,  Oct.  4;  Rodeo  de  Santa  Fe,  July. 
Skiing:    At  Santa  Fe  Basin,  16  miles,  in  winter. 

SANTA  FE  (6,996  alt.,  34*676  pop.),  capital  of  New  Mexico,  started 
life  in  1609  with  the  florid  title  of  the  Royal  City  of  the  Holy  *'aith  ot 
Saint  Francis— La  Villa  Real  de  la  Santa  Fe  de  San  Francisco.  It  has 
been  a  capital  continuously  for  more  than  300  years,  and^the  flags  of 
four  nations — Spain,  Mexico,  the  Confederacy,  and  the  United  States- 
have  flown  over  its  ancient  Palace  of  the  Governors,  a  building  which 
still  stands  along  the  north  side  of  the  plaza  and  whose  history  is  the 
history  of  Santa  Fe  and  New  Mexico.  It  is  the  oldest  capital  within 
the  boundaries  of  the  United  States. 

Never  an  industrial  city,  and  even  now  sixteen  miles  from  the 
main  line  of  the  railroad,  Santa.  Fe  nestles  in  the  little  valley  of  the 
Rito  de  Santa  Fe  where  it  emerges  from  the  foothills  of  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Mountains  on  the  east.  To  the  south  are  the  Sandia  Moun- 
tains; in  the  west  is  the  Jemez  Range.  Surrounded  by  those  snow- 
covered  mountain  pealcs,  in  a  land  of  vast  distances  and  deep  colors,  this 

187 


l88     NEW     MEXICO 

spot,  from  ancient  times,  has  been  a  magnet  for  travelers.  Today  its 
major  industry  is  the  tourist  and  vacation  trade.  The  summer  nights 
are  cool,  and  in  winter  the  noon  hours  are  warm.  Snow  lies  on  the 
high  mountain  peaks  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  until  late  in  June.  In 
July  the  summer  rains  bring  mountain  freshness  to  the  valley.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  13.72  inches.  The  year-round  average  mean 
temperature  is  48.9  degrees  F.  (winter  average  low  29.3  degrees,  sum- 
mer average  high  68.7  degrees.) 

The  charm  of  the  Royal  City  is  quickly  felt.  The  ancient  narrow 
streets  and  the  brown  adobe  houses  are  thick  with  deeds  and  memories. 
In  the  evening  the  fragrance  of  pinon  smoke  fills  the  air,  for  Santa  Fe 
is  a  city  of  fireplaces.  It  is  a  town  of  patios  where  hollyhocks  nod, 
where  towering  cottonwoods  spatter  with  shade,  here  a  crumbling  gate- 
way, there  an  ancient  wall  whose  adobe  bricks  show  through  the  broken 
earthen  plaster.  From  the  eminence  of  a  near-by  hill  is  visible,  sun- 
washed  in  the  daylight,  thick  on  the  floor  of  the  valley  and  scattering 
to  the  foothills,  clusters  of  flat,  rectangular  adobe  houses  along  winding 
roads ;  and  in  the  center  of  town,  above  the  roof  tops  and  the  occasional 
smokestacks  and  the  arms  of  the  cottonwoods,  the  glistening  dome  of 
the  State  capital.  From  the  same  hill  at  night  the  town's  glimmering 
lights  are  a  handful  of  stars  flung  across  the  valley. 

Santa  Fe  has  seen  much  history  in  its  crooked  streets  and  venerable 
plaza ;  it  has  seen  wars  'and  rebellions,  Catholic  feasts  and  devout  pro- 
cessions; Spanish  men-at-arms,  soldiers  of  Mexico,  the  Confederacy, 
and  the  Union;  the  bull-whackers  and  caravans  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail; 
Spanish  women  in  black  shawls,  and  the  Indians  from  the  near-by  pueb- 
los wrapped  in  blankets;  for  here  are  blended,  as  nowhere  else  in  the 
United  States,  the  full  rich  patterns  of  three  distinct  cultures — Indian, 
Spanish,  and  American. 

The  settlement  was  founded  in  the  winter  of  1609-10  by  Don  Pedro 
de  Peralta,  third  governor  of  the  Province  of  Nuevo  Mejico,  at  a  spot 
known  to  the  Pueblo  Indians  as  Kuapoga,  or  "the  place  of  the  shell 
beads  near  the  water."  Ruins,  almost  obliterated  when  the  Spaniards 
came,  showed  that  it  was  once  the  site  of  a  Tano  Indian  village.  To- 
day's dwellers,  in  digging  foundations  for  their  homes,  frequently  un- 
earth remnants  of  the  prehistoric  past  in  the  form  of  pottery  fragments, 
implements,  and  human  bones. 

When  Peralta  came  to  Santa  Fe,  he  built  the  palacio  for  a  fortress, 
laid  out  the  plaza,  and  planned  a  walled  city.  At  various  places  today 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  wall  may  still  be  seen.  In  the  Palace,  built 
the  year  the  town  was  founded,  sixty  Spanish  governors  ruled  the  vast 
territory  over  a  period  of  212  years,  and  maintained  the  Spanish  border- 
Jan  ds  against  invasion  from  the  north.  From  the  time  of  its  founding 
to  the  present  day,  the  town  has  been  a  continuous  seat  of  government. 

By  1617,  with  only  forty-eight  Spanish  soldiers  and  settlers  in  the 
province— a  province  which  extended  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Pa- 
cific, from  Mexico  as  far  north  as  people  roamed — the  Franciscan 
friars  had  built  eleven  churches,  had  converted  14,000  Indians  to  the 


SANTA     FB      l89 

Roman  Catholic  faith,  and  had  prepared  as  many  more  for  conversion. 
Throughout  the  Spanish  times  Santa  Fe  was  the  center  of  both  the 
explorations  and  the  missions  to  the  Indians.  From  Chihuahua  through 
El  Paso  del  Norte  came  caravans  and  settlers  on  a  route  which  came  to 
be  known  as  El  Camino  Real,  The  Royal  Highway.  But  trouble  with 
the  Indians  continued  throughout  the  seventeenth  century,  for  though 
they  nominally  accepted  conversion,  they  persisted  in  their  old  forms  of 
worship.  Bancroft  says  that  in  1645  there  was  a  rising  of  the  Indians 
near  Santa  Fe  because  forty  of  their  'number  had  been  flogged  and 
hanged  by  the  Spaniards  for  refusing  to  give  up  their  faith.  From 
year  to  year  conditions  grew  more  serious  until,  in  1680,  under  the  San 
Juan  Indian,  Po-pe,  the  northern  Pueblos  revolted.  The  Spanish 
colonists  who  were  not  killed  by  the  Indians  sought  refuge  in  the  Palace 
of  the  Governors  where  they  were  besieged;  and  though  they  succeeded 
in  beating  off  the  Indians,  they  saw  that  it  was  impossible  to  continue 
to  hold  the  town.  They  abandoned  it  and  fled  to  El  Paso  del  Norte. 

For  twelve  years  the  Indians  held  Santa  Fe;  they  occupied  the 
Palace  of  the  Governors,  had  their  own  Indian  governor,  and  turned 
the  chapel  into  a  kiva  where  they  worshipped  their  gods  in  their  old 
way.  Then,  in  1692,  De  Vargas,  the  newly  appointed  governor  of  the 
province,  marched  on  Santa  Fe  and  made  a  peaceful  entry.  He  spent 
the  rest  of  the  year  subduing  the  Indians  of  the  northern  province,  and 
returned  to  Mexico.  The  next  year  when  he  returned  to  Santa  Fe,  he 
brought  with  him  a  little  statue  of  the  Virgin,  called  La  Conquistador  a. 
Pausing  before  his  entry  on  the  spot  where  Rosario  Chapel  now  stands, 
he  made  a  vow  that  yearly  homage  would  be  paid  to  "Our  Lady  of 
Victory"  in  remembrance  of  her  aid.  This  vow,  fulfilled  without 
omission  in  the  streets  of  the  Royal  City  today,  is  known  as  the  De 
Vargas  Procession. 

Since  then,  in  many  ways,  the  Catholic  faith  of  the  Spaniards  has 
colored  the  life  of  the  town.  In  June,  on  Corpus  Christi  Sunday,  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  carried  beneath  a  golden  canopy  for  public  venera- 
tion, an  event  decreed  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  The  De  Vargas  Procession 
follows  on  the  next  Sunday,  in  which  the  statue  of  La  Conquistadora  is 
carried  to  Rosario  Chapel.  A  novena  of  Masses  is  said  between  this 
procession  and  the  returning  of  the"  statue  to  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Francis,  her  permanent  abode.  Since  1875  Santa  Fe  has  been  the  seat 
of  a  Holy  See.  Archbishop  Lamy,  the  "Bishop  Latour"  in  Willa 
Gather's  Death  Comes  for  the  Archbishop,  built  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Francis  in  1869  on  the  site  of  the  old  adobe  Parroquia.  Today  Santa 
Fe,  the  City  of  the  Holy  Faith,  remains  one  of  the  great  centers  of 
Catholicism  in  North  America. 

When  Mexico  gained  independence  from  Spain  in  1821,  and  the 
flag  of  the  new  republic  was  raised  over  the  Palace  of  the  Governors, 
the  plaza  was  named  La  Plaza  de  la  Constitution.  Always  the  social 
and  commercial  center  of  life  in  the  town  in  Spanish  Mexican  times, 
the  plaza  was  "an  open  space  of  mud  dirt,"  the  marketplace  for  Indian 
wares  and  garden  produce.  Here  the  captains  and  the  ricos  had  their 


190     NEW     MEXICO 

homes,  while  their  servants  lived  across  the  river  in  a  little  settlement 
called  Analco,  an  Aztec  word  meaning  "on  the  other  side  of  the  water," 
clustered  about  the  old  chapel  of  San  Miguel.  After  the  entry  of  Gen- 
eral Kearny,  the  Americans  planted  trees  and  alfalfa  in  the  plaza,  and 
so  it  remained  for  many  years;  in  recent  times  flagstones  have  been  laid 
among  the  old  trees.  During  the  Mexican  regime,  the  governors  con- 
tinued to  live  in  the  Palace. 

On  the  1 8th  of  August,  1846,  General  Kearny  marched  his  United 
States  troops  into  Santa  Fe,  and  after  taking  supper  with  the  Mexican 
Lieutenant-Governor,  hoisted  the  American  flag  over  the  Palace  of  the 
Governors,  and,  in  a  bloodless  victory,  New  Mexico  became  a  province 
of  the  United  States.  From  that  time  down  to  the  present  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  have  flown  above  the  ancient  Palace,  except  for  two  weeks 
during  the  Civil  War  when  Santa  Fe  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Con- 
federates. On  February  18,  1862,  after  the  Confederate  victory  at  the 
battle  of  Valverde,  the  Southern  forces  under  General  Sibley  marched 
to  Albuquerque  and  then  to  Santa  Fe,  where  valuable  Federal  supplies 
had  been  concentrated.  The  Union  forces  retreated  to  Fort  Union, 
and  in  the  ensuing  battle  at  Apache  Canyon,  the  Federal  army  chased 
the  Confederates  down  the  Rio  Grande,  and  re-entered  Santa  Fe. 

Mexican  Independence  in  1821  opened  Santa  Fe  trade  with  the 
States.  Before  this  time  all  the  trade  had  been  with  Chihuahua  in  Mex- 
ico by  way  of  the  Camino  Real,  and  the  Spanish  governors  guarded  this 
trade  route  jealously  against  encroachment  from  the  North.  But  the 
Mexican  governors  were  lenient  and  American  traders,  following  Wil- 
liam Becknell,  "the  father  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,"  were  unmolested. 
On  November  6,  1822,  Becknell  brought  a  wagonload  of  goods  from 
Missouri  for  which  he  had  paid  $150  and  sold  for  $700,  thereby  discov- 
ering rich  profit  in  the  overland  trade.  Despite  the  hardships  of  the 
journey,  the  danger  from  Indians  along  the  way,  and  the  exorbitant 
imposts — as  well  as  bribes — the  trade  flourished. 

Gregg,  in  his  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  describes  the  entrance  of  a 
caravan  into  the  Royal  City: 

The  arrival  o£  the  caravar  always  was  productive  of  great  excitement 
among  the  natives.  "Los  Americanos!  Los  Garros!  La  entrada  de  la  cara- 
van a!"  were  to  be  heard  in  every  direction.  Crowds  of  women  and  boys  flocked 
around  to  see  the  newcomers.  .  .  .  Each  wagonner  must  tie  a  brand  new 
"cracker"  to  the  end  of  his  whip,  for  on  driving  through  the  streets  and  the 
plaza  publica  everyone  strives  to  outvie  his  comrades  in  the  dexterity  with 
which  he  flourishes  this  favorite  badge  of  authority. 

The  caravans  were  unloaded  at  La  Fonda,  the  inn  at  the  end  of  the 
Trail,  under  the  eyes  of  dark  girls  who  hid  their  faces  in-  lace  mantillas, 
lounging  soldiers  from  the  barracks,  and  expressionless  Indians  wrapped 
in  blankets.  After  the  travelers  were  refreshed  there  were  bailesf 
gambling  halls,  and  bar  rooms,  where  men  laughed,  danced,  gambled, 
and  sought  friendly  black  eyes  smiling  behind  shawls. 

In  1849  a  stage  line  was  established  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  be- 
tween Independence,  Missouri,  and  Santa  Fe.  In  the  sixties  the  Santa 


SANTA     FE      IQI 

Fe  Trail  was  mostly  a  military  road  connecting  Missouri  and  New 
Mexico.  In  the  seventies,  with  the  coming  of  the  railroads,  the  freight- 
ers and  stagecoaches  fcegan  to  disappear,  and  by  the  eighties  the  old 
Santa  Fe  Trail  was  dead. 

In  1879  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  crossed  Raton  Pass  and  came  down 
toward  Santa  Fe.  But  it  was  found  that  a  main  line  through  the  town 
would  necessitate  an  expensive  stretch  of  road  uphill  from  Glorieta 
Pass  to  Santa  Fe,  so  the  Santa  Fe  junction  was  placed  at  Lamy,  then 
eighteen  miles  south  of  the  town ;  today  the  only  connection  with  Santa 
Fe  that  the  road  maintains  is  a  freight  track.  Passengers  travel  by 
motorbus. 

The  coming  of  the  railroad  in  the  eighties  brought  a  period  of  pros- 
perity to  the  town.  It  was  during  the  next  thirty  years  that  the  con- 
glomerate of  architectures  which  face  the  plaza  was  built  up.  Today 
the  ancient  Palace  of  the  Governors  still  stands  guard  over  the  north 
side  of  the  plaza.  On  the  other  three  sides  are  store  fronts  on  the 
street  level  of  one-  and  two-story  brick  buildings  of  the  style  of  the 
nineties,  which  rub  elbows  with  Spanish-Pueblo  buildings  and  even 
with  the  pseudo-Greek  temple  of  the  town's  only  bank.  It  was  only 
in  the  last  decade  that  the  town  became  conscious  of  the  unique  type 
of  architecture  which  is  its  heritage  and  returned  to  the  authentic 
Pueblo  style.  Variations  upon  the  Pueblo  style  are  the  Art  Museum 
built  in  1917  and  the  new  La  Fonda  built  in  1929  at  opposite  corners 
of  the  plaza. 

With  statehood  in  1912  New  Mexico's  capital  began  a  new  chapter 
in  its  history.  Federal  as  well  as  new  State  buildings  were  erected, 
schools  were  built,  and  a  permanent  population  of  government  employees 
came  to  live  in  the  town.  Between  1880  and  the  admission  of  New 
Mexico  to  the  Union,  the  population  had  been  static,  hovering  between 
five  and  six  thousand.  But  by  1920  it  had  jumped  to  7,236,  by  1930 
it  was  11,176,  and  today  it  is  said  to  be  over  30,000.  In  recent  years 
the  town  has  experienced  a  minor  building  boom. 

The  native,  Spanish-speaking  population,  which  composes  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  townspeople,  separates  the  colorful  from  the  drab ;  expensive 
mansions  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  primitive  adobe  houses  on 
the  same  sunny  hillsides,  following  the  same  simple  lines.  Spain  is 
stamped  upon  the  town,  for  to  Spain  the  Royal  City  was  tied  through 
two  centuries  by  the  Chihuahua  Trail.  The  cowboys  who  clicks  along 
the  sidewalk  in  his  high-heeled  boots  inherited  his  trade,  his  horses, 
his  outfit,  his  vocabulary,  and  his  methods  from  the  Spaniards;  the  old 
man  who  takes  his  siesta  on  a  bench  in  the  plaza  may  count  among  his 
ancestors  a  Spanish  don  who  owned  a  rancho  as  big  as  Delaware.  The 
low,  flat-roofed  houses,  the  masses  of  rectangular  walls,  and  the  small 
windows  are  Spanish  architecture  modified  by  the  aboriginal  Indian 
culture  which  found  expression  in  adobe  building.  And  in  the  rooms 
of  the  Palace  stalk  the  ghosts  of  conqueror,  peon,  and  slave.  Today 
children  on  the  street  still  chatter  in  Spanish,  and  families  still  bear  old 
Conquistador  names  like  Delgado,  Otero,  Ortiz,  and  Sena. 


192      NEW     MEXICO 

Although  painters,  musicians,  and  novelists  have  come  since  1900 
to  absorb  the  beauty  of  the  town  and  its  surroundings,  archeologists 
are  credited  with  having  discovered  the  ancient  city  for  the  nation  as  a 
whole,  for  it  is  located  in  the  center  of  one  of  the  most  interesting  cul- 
ture areas  on  the  continent.  These  scholars  came  and  dug  in  the  ruins 
and  lived  with  the  Indians,  and  at  least  one  of  them,  Adolph  Bandelier, 
left  writings  which  are  minor  classics  in  the  field.  His  The  Delight 
Makers  is  a  fictionalized  story  of  the  life  in  the  prehistoric  cliff  dwell- 
ings of  the  near-by  Rito  de  Los  Frijoles. 

Santa  Fe  has  many  celebrations  during  the  year,  due  in  part  to  the 
love  of  song  and  dance  of  the  Spanish  population,  and  in  part  to  the 
fondness  of  local  artists  and  writers  for  a  good  time.  Christmas  Eve 
bonfires  are  lighted  in  front  of  the  Cathedral,  around  the  plaza,  and 
before  many  of  the  houses;  lights  are  placed  around  the  roof  tops. 
But  the  town's  gayest  scenes  come  in  September  when  the  community 
fiesta,  ordained  by  the  Marques  de  la  Pefiuela  in  1712  to  commemorate 
the  reconquest  of  New  Mexico  by  De  Vargas,  turns  the  ancient  square 
into  a  carnival  ground.  For  three  days  the  place  is  given  over  to  street 
dancing,  native  and  Indian  markets,  tribal  dances  by  Pueblo  Indians, 
and  parades.  The  original  purpose  of  the  celebration  is  recalled  by  a 
solemn  march  to  the  Cross  of  the  Martyrs  and  in  the  historical  pageant 
in  which  De  Vargas  rides  again,  entering  the  city  and  planting  the  cross 
and  the  royal  banner  once  more  in  the  plaza  before  the  Palace  of  the 
Governors  while  the  Alcalde,  in  brocaded  satin  coat,  reads  the  ancient 
edict. 

In  season  and  out,  on  the  streets  and  in  the  stores  and  homes,  one 
meets  people  from  everywhere  in  the  world,  drawn  here  by  a  rich  his- 
toric past,  a  wealth  of  archeological  material,  the  blended  cultures  of 
three  races,  and  the  flood  of  sunshine  on  mountain,  valley,  and  desert. 


POINTS  OF  INTEREST 


i.  THE  PLAZA,  bounded  by  Palace  Ave.  on  the  N.,  San  Fran- 
cisco St.  on  the  S.,  Washington  Ave.  on  the  E.,  and  Lincoln  Ave.  on 
the  W.,  is  the  center  of  town,  and  from  it  most  of  the  streets  radiate. 
It  is  a  peaceful  old  square,  with  trim  flagstones,  walks,  and  benches,  and 
pleasant  arching  trees.  In  Spanish  times  it  was  much  larger  and  in- 
cluded the  whole  block  now  occupied  by  the  post  office  and  the  build- 
ings along  the  east  side;  it  was  then  unpaved,  a  lake  of  dust  in  dry 
times,  a  sea  of  mud  in  wet ;  it  was  the  market  place  for  the  produce  of 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  sold  by  Indians  and  Spaniards.  When  the 


SANTA     FE      193 

Americans  came,  they  enclosed  it  in  a  white  picket  fence,  planted  it  to 
alfalfa,  reduced  it  to  its  present  size,  and  built  two-story  adobe  buildings 
with  portals  supported  by  spindly  columns  on  the  three  sides  confronting 
the  Palace.  It  was  at  the  Plaza  that  the  wagon  trains  ended  their 
strenuous  journeys  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  and  here  the  ox-drivers, 
cowboys,  and  gamblers  caroused  in  and  out  of  the  eight  saloons  that 
at  one  time  graced  the  square;  here  criminals  were  locked  in  stocks  or 
flogged  in  public  view;  here  Billy  the  Kid  once  sat  in  chains.  Today, 
except  for  the  Palace,  the  Plaza  is  surrounded  by  an  odd  assortment 
of  buildings ;  some  ugly  remnants  of  the  early  railroad  days  which  now 
house  business  establishments ;  others,  more  recent,  built  in  the  more  in- 
digenous Pueblo  and  Spanish  styles.  In  the  center  of  the  square  is  the 
SOLDIERS'  MONUMENT,  erected  after  the  Civil  War  by  the  citizenry, 
which  reads  on  the  south  side,  "To  the  heroes  of  the  Federal  Army,  who 
fell  at  the  battle  of  Valverde,  fought  with  the  rebels,  Febuary  (sic) 
21,  1862."  On  the  west  side  the  word  "rebels"  occurs  again,  a  designa- 
tion of  the  enemies  of  the  Republic  which  probably  does  not  occur  on 
such  an  inscription  elsewhere  in  the  country.  A  granite  slab  marker  de- 
noting the  end  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  erected  by  the  D.  A.  R.  of  the 
Territory  in  1910,  is  a  few  paces  east  of  the  monument.  In  the  north- 
east sector  of  the  square  rests  a  pair  of  old  cannon,  dating  from  the 
American  occupation.  Along  the  north  sidewalk  near  by  stands  the 
marble  marker  designating  the  spot  where  General  Kearny,  on  August 
19,  1846,  read  his  proclamation  of  the  "peaceful  Annexation  of  New 
Mexico."  The  bandstand  which  stands  directly  opposite  the  entrance 
to  the  Palace  is  the  eminence  from  which,  on  summer  Sunday  evenings, 
the  Conquistadores  band  holds  forth  to  the  delight  of  as  many  Spanish- 
speaking  people  as  can  crowd  into  the  plaza. 

2.  THE  PALACE  OF  THE  GOVERNORS,  N.  side  of  the 
Plaza  (Open  week  days,  g-12  and  1-5,  Sundays,  2-4,  adm.  free),  is 
an  adobe  structure  that  has  reputedly  stood  since  the  winter  of  1609-10, 
After  a  number  of  renovations,  it  was  finally  restored  to  its  present 
state  in  1909,  from  some  old  plans  found  in  the  British  Museum. 
Originally  the  Palace  was  the  most  imposing  and  important  part  of  the 
royal  presidio,  an  all-purpose  fortress  built  by  the  followers  of  Don 
Pedro  de  Peralta.  It  extended  east  and  west  along  the  north  side  of 
the  plaza  for  a  distance  of  400  feet,  and  north  and  south  more  than 
double  that  distance.  The  whole  area  was  surrounded  by  an  adobe 
wall,  and  all  the  buildings  within  this  enclosure  were  known  in  ancient 
Spanish  times  as  Casas  Reales,  or  Royal  Houses.  These  included  the 
palace  proper,  quarters  for  the  soldiery,  and  several  buildings  used  for 
governmental  purposes.  A  pair  of  low  towers  stood  at  either  end  on 
the  plaza  side ;  the  west  tower  was  used  for  the  storage  of  powder  and 
military  equipment  and  the  east  tower  housed  a  chapel  for  the  use  of 
the  garrison.  Adjoining  and  connecting  with  the  tower  at  the  west 
end  were  the  dungeons.  A  portal,  or  covered  porch,  under  which  many 
an  Indian  and  Spanish  prisoner  of  war  was  hanged,  extended  the  whole 
length  of  the  building  along  the  south  facade  in  much  the  same  manner 


194     NEW     MEXICO 

as  the  present.    The  two  ends  of  the  building  were  shortened  and  the 
towers  removed  during  the  later  Spanish  occupation. 

In  the  great  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680,  the  presidio  was  besieged  for 
five  days  by  a  force  of  3,000  northern  Pueblo  Indians.  The  Spanish 
governor  of  the  time,  Don  Antonio  Otermin,  heard  of  the  rebellion  in 
time  to  strip  the  churches  of  sacred  images  and  to  summon  all  loyal 
persons  to  the  shelter  of  the  presidio:  but  his  precautions  availed  little. 
With  a  force  of  barely  150  armed  men  he  led  the  colonists  in  a  surprise 
attack  upon  their  besiegers,  cut  his  way  out  of  the  city  and  left  all  to 
the  Indians,  who  burned  much  property  of  the  hated  oppressors.  Church 
buildings  were  razed  and  their  contents  burned ;  the  Palace  was  cleared 
of  archives  and  furnishings,  which  were  also  burned  in  the  Plaza,  and 
the  building  itself  was  made  over  into  a  pueblo,  the  chapel  desecrated 
and  turned  into  a  kiva.  So  great  was  this  blow  to  Spanish  prestige  and 
power  that  twelve  years  passed  before  a  successful  attempt  to  recon- 
quer the  province  was  made.  With  the  arrival  of  Captain-General  De 
Vargas  and  his  successful  assault  on  the  walled  pueblo  that  the  Indians 
made  of  the  Casas  Reales,  the  next  130  years  of  Spanish  rule  from  the 
Palace  began.  The  building  was  restored,  but  the  friars  refused  to  use 
the  profaned  chapel  for  Christian  purposes  until  De  Vargas  reminded 
them  that  the  Moors  in  Spain  had  similarly  desecrated  the  churches. 
Unrest  among  the  Pueblo  tribes  persisted  for  some  years,  and  el  palacio 
was  the  scene  of  endless  councils  seeking  a  plan  for  the  subjugation  of 
the  Indians,  Intrigue  among  his  own  officials  caused  the  imprisonment 
of  De  Vargas,  but  he  was  later  exonerated  by  his  king  and  reappointed 
governor  of  the  province  in  1701.  He  died  in  Bernalillo  and  was  buried 
in  Santa  Fe  in  1704. 

The  story  of  the  Palace  during  the  eighteenth  century  is  a  narrative 
of  military  activities  and  a  monotonous  succession  of  Spanish  governors, 
28  in  number.  The  Mexican  regime,  which  lasted  for  25  years,  quar- 
tered its  governors  in  the  Palace,  as  Spain  had.  Until  1907,  when 
the  present  executive  mansion  was  built,  the  Palace  was  occupied  by 
American  Territorial  governors  from  the  time  of  General  Stephen 
Watts  Kearny's  peaceful  conquest  of  the  region  from  Mexico  in  1846. 
By  act  of  the  New  Mexico  Legislature  in  1909,  THE  MUSEUM  OF  NEW 
MEXICO  was  established  and  located  in  the  Palace.  Since  that  date  it 
has  also  been  the  headquarters  for  the  SCHOOL  OF  AMERICAN  RESEARCH 
of  th?  Archeological  Institute  of  America  and  the  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY 
OF  NEW  MEXICO. 

The  architecture  of  this  building  represents  the  earliest  application 
of  Spanish  methods  and  ideas  to  indigenous  materials  and  limitations. 
Arches  are  notably  absent,  for  the  adobe  bricks  of  which  the  walls  are 
made  were  believed  incapable  of  supporting  the  arch  construction.  The 
use  of  flat  roofs  and  vigas,  or  roof  beams,  was  borrowed  directly  from 
the  Indians.  Indeed,  the  whole  structure,  with  the  exception  of  doors 
and  windows  and  the  covered  portal  along  the  front,  which  were  Span- 
ish innovations,  is  constructed  in  the  aboriginal  style  of  Pueblo  building. 
The  existence  of  "puddled"  adobe  walls,  a  method  similar  to  the  modern 


SANTA     FE      195 

practice  of  pouring  concrete  between  forms,  an  example  of  which  is 
shown  under  glass  in  the  Territorial  Room,  has  given  rise  to  the  con- 
jecture that  parts  of  the  building  were  pre-Spanish.  This  work  might 
have  been  done,  however,  during  the  Indian  occupation  of  the  premises 
after  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680.  The  molding  of  adobe  into  bricks 
was  a  process  unknown  to  the  Indians  until  after  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards. 

The  building  is  a  hollow  rectangle  with  a  grassy  patio  in  the  center. 
In  the  east  rooms,  on  the  right  of  the  entrance  hall,  where  murals  by 
Carl  Lotave  are  shown,  are  exhibits  by  the  Historical  Society  of  New 
Mexico  of  every  era  in  New  Mexican  history.  The  TERRITORIAL 
ROOM  (1846-1912),  is  the  first  one  encountered  east  of  the  entrance. 
Here  are  displayed  among  many  objects  of  the  American  occupation,  a 
painting  by  the  late  Gerald  Cassidy  of  the  Santa  Fe  Plaza  as  it  was 
thought  to  have  looked  about  1850,  a  portrait  bust  of  Lew  Wallace, 
Territorial  Governor  in  1878,  and  the  chair  he  used  while  working  on 
the  novel,  Ben  Hur.  Paintings  and  photographs  on  the  walls  show  the 
appearance  of  the  early  plaza  and  palacio.  Also  displayed  is  a  piano 
brought  across  the  plains  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  by  oxcart  in  1871. 

In  the  MEXICAN  ROOM  (1822-1846),  adjoining  on  the  east,  are  cases 
displaying  textiles  of  the  period,  hooked  rugs,  Mexican  blankets  of 
wool,  and  colchas,  or  counterpanes,  distinctly  a  New  Mexican  achieve- 
ment. On  a  sheet  of  hand-woven  cloth  was  worked  an  all-over  pattern 
in  wool  with  tapestry  stitch,  in  free  designs  usually  taken  from  native 
pottery.  Other  objects  manufactured  or  in  use  during  this  period  are 
also  shown  here. 

A  narrow  hallway  east  of  this  room  contains  the  portraits  of  all  the 
territorial  and  state  governors  who  have  held  office  since  Kearny's  entry 
in  1846. 

The  ECCLESIASTICAL  ROOM,  occupying  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
building,  contains  the  collections  of  the  Spanish  Colonial  Arts  Society, 
consisting  of  religious  objects  from  the  entire  historical  period  of  Santa 
Fe.  A  display  of  early  Spanish  ecclesiastical  paintings  on  skins,  canvas, 
and  thin  slabs  of  wood,  santos  or  retablos,  are  shown,  together  with  a 
carved  stone  retablo,  and  many  bultos,  or  images  carved  in  the  round. 
A  beautiful  old  reredos,  from  a  former  church  at  Llano  Quemado,  a 
village  near  Ranchos  de  Taos,  stands  against  the  south  wall. 

The  LIBRARY  extends  from  this  corner  north  to  the  northeast  cor- 
ner of  the  building.  It  contains  the  collections  of  the  Genealogical 
Library  of  the  Stephen  Watts  Kearny  Chapter  of  the  D.  A.  R.  and 
the  combined  libraries  of  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico,  Historical  So- 
ciety of  New  Mexico,  and  the  School  of  American  Research.  Note- 
worthy are  the  books  of  the  Benjamin  Read  Historical  Collection.  The 
most  valuable  items  in  this  collection,  a  group  of  forty-one  Spanish 
documentos  ineditoSj  are  now  stored  in  the  vault.  A  fine  portrait  of 
New  Mexico's  first  poet,  Don  Caspar  de  Villagra,  by  the  late  Gerald 
Cassidy,  hangs  on  the  north  wall.  Rooms  along  the  north  wing  are 
occupied  by  offices  and  are  not  open  to  the  public. 


LEGEND 

l),S,Higtiwoys 
""'       Gonnfictino  StfB6ts 


igS    NEW   MEXICO 

West  from  the  Ecclesiastical  Room  is  the  LATE  SPANISH  COLONIAL 
ROOM  (1693-1821)  where  objects  of  local  manufacture  used  during 
that  period  are  exhibited.  This  adjoins  the  EARLY  SPANISH  COLONIAL 
ROOM  (1539-1680),  where  the  earliest  historical  objects  are  displayed. 
The  crude  articles  shown  indicate  the  early  Spaniards*  poverty  in 
tools.  In  this  room  are  also  some  archives  bearing  the  signatures  of  De 
Vargas  and  the  Duke  of  Alburquerque.  Portraits,  by  Gerald  Cassidy, 
of  the  Duke  of  Alburquerque  and  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza,  Spanish  gov- 
ernor from  1778  to  1789,  hang  on  the  east  wall  of  this  room. 

The  remaining  exhibition  rooms  are  given  over  to  Indian  displays. 
In  the  PECOS  ROOM  adjoining  are  found  pottery  and  artifacts  from  the 
ruins  of  Pecos  pueblo,  until  1838  an  occupied  Indian  village.  In  the 
PUYE  ROOM  to  the  west  are  more  specimens  of  pottery  and  artifacts 
from  the  great  cliff  dwellings  at  Puye,  excavated  by  the  Museum  of 
New  Mexico  from  1907  to  1911.  On  the  walls  above  the  cases  are 
mural  paintings  by  Carl  Lotave,  depicting  the  ruins  and  their  environ- 
ment. Paintings  by  this  artist  also  adorn  the  walls  of  the  RITO  DE  LOS 
FRIJOLES  ROOM  adjoining.  Here  are  displayed  remains  recovered  from 
the  ruins  in  the  Bandelier  National  Monument.  In  this  room,  formerly 
divided  by  a  partition,  Governor  Lew  Wallace  is  said  to  have  worked 
on  the  last  three  chapters  of  Ben  Hur, 

In  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Palace  is  the  HALL  OF  ARCHEOLOGY. 
General  archeological  exhibits  here  reveal  examples  of  the  Classic  period 
of  Pueblo  culture,  which  varies  in  different  localities  from  1000  to 
1600  A.D. 

The  first  room  in  the  west  wing  is  the  CHACO  CANYON  ROOM  con- 
taining specimens  gathered  by  the  Museum  excavators  in  the  area  in 
1920,  1921,  and  1922,  and  by  the  University  of  New  Mexico  since 
1929.  Three  plaster  reproductions  of  typical  kivas  of  the  region  stand 
against  the  east  wall.  Many  photographs  of  the  ruins  hang  on  the 
walls,  and  cases  filled  with  objects  of  archeological  interest  repay  in- 
spection. 

The  last  room  on  this  side  is  the  MIMBRES  AND  CHIHUAHUA 
ROOM,  exhibiting  pottery  and  artifacts  from  the  Mimbres  area  in  south- 
west New  Mexico  and  the  Chihuahua  section  lying  south  of  it,  largely 
in  the  Mexican  State  of  that  name. 

The  rooms  on  the  left  of  the  main  entrance,  originally  the  public  and 
private  offices  of  the  governors,  are  the  executive  offices  of  the  Museum 
and  Historical  Society.  The  fireproof  vault  recently  completed  to 
house  the  priceless  collection  of  archives  dating  from  the  De  Vargas 
occupation  in  1693  adjoins  the  private  office  of  the  director.  These 
archives  have  had  a  checkered  history,  some  of  them  reputedly  having 
been  sold  at  one  time  by  a  Territorial  governor  for  wrapping  paper 
and  only  a  part  of  them  recovered. 

3.  The  MUSEUM  OF  NEW  MEXICO  ART  GALLERY  is 
on  the  NW.  corner  of  the  Plaza,  at  Palace  and  Lincoln  Aves.  (  Open 
week  days,  p-$,  Sun.,  2-4,  adm.  free.)  Dominating  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  Plaza,  the  museum  building  was  erected  in  1917  on  the 


SANTA     FE      199 

site  of  the  old  Ft.  Marcy  military  headquarters  building,  which  had 
been  used  for  military  purposes  since  early  Spanish  times.  Like  the 
Palace  across  the  street,  it  is  administered  jointly  by  the  State  of  New 
Mexico  and  the  School  of  American  Research  of  the  Archeological  In- 
stitute of  America.  Funds  for  its  construction,  in  the  amount  of  $120,- 
ooo,  were  raised  by  public  subscription  and  individual  donations, 
matched  by  the  State  Legislature.  Since  the  people  own  the  building, 
the  Museum  offers  any  artist  the  use  of  its  exhibition  space,  making  it 
free  to  the  exhibitor  and  the  visitor. 

The  New  Museum,  as  it  has  come  to  be  called,  is  an  architectural 
composite  of  six  of  the  ancient  Spanish  missions  built  by  Franciscan 
friars.  Designed  by  the  firm  of  Rapp  &  Rapp,  of  Santa  Fe,  with  a 
number  of  local  artists  as  consultants,  the  towers  and  balcony  were 
inspired  by  the  church  at  Acoma;  the  missions  in  the  pueblos  of  San 
Felipe,  Cochiti,  Laguna,  Santa  Ana,  and  Pecos  contributed  details  of 
the  exterior. 

Built  around  a  grassy  patio  with  cloistered  walls,  the  museum  has 
gallery  space  for  more  than  200  pictures.  The  entrance  hall  displays 
examples  of  Indian  art  in  all  its  forms,  including  the  latest  development, 
water-color  paintings  by  such  outstanding  Indian  artists  as  Awa-Tsireh, 
Fred  Kabotie,  Ma-Pa-Wi,  Tonita  Pena,  and  Otis  Polelonema.  The 
galleries  forming  the  east  wing  are  given  over  to  monthly  exhibits  by 
resident  and  visiting  artists.  The  long  room  on  the  north  houses  the 
museum's  permanent  collection,  with  works  by  such  nationally  known 
artists  as  Gerald  Cassidy,  Birger  Sandzen,  Donald  Beauregard,  J.  H. 
Sharp,  John  SlOan,  W.  Herbert  Dunton,  Julius  Rolshoven,  George 
Bellows,  Frank  Sauerwine,  W.  H.  Holmes,  Carl  Lotave,  Cartaino 
Scapitta,  and  Bush-Brown.  The  annual  Fiesta  exhibition  in  Septem- 
ber fills  all  the  available  gallery  space. 

4.  ST.  FRANCIS  AUDITORIUM,  like  an  old  chapel  turned  to 
different  uses,  occupies  the  entire  west  end  of  the  museum  building. 
Here  are  found  the  mural  paintings  depicting  scenes  from  the  life  of 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  sketched  and  planned  by  the  artist  Donald  Beaure- 
gard and  finished,  after  that  artist's  untimely  death,  by"  Kenneth  M. 
Chapman  and  Carlos  Vierra. 

Upstairs  over  the  east  wing  is  another  gallery  which  contains  the 
first  gift  to  the  permanent  collection,  a  group  of  paintings  by  Donald 
Beauregard,  given  to  the  museum  by  Frank  Springer,  its  principal  bene- 
factor. The  room  over  the  north  side  is  used  by  the  Women's  Museum 
Board. 

5.  The  CITY  HALL,  on  the  corner  of  Washington  Avenue  and 
Marcy  Street,  one  block  N.  of  the  plaza,  was  erected  in  1937  with 
Federal  aid.     Designed  by  John  Gaw  Meem,  of  Santa  Fe,  it  is  a 
Spanish-Colonial  two-story  structure,  built  of  hollow  tile  and  plaster. 
The  north  wing  houses  the  mayor's  office,  the  council  chambers,  and 
other  city  government  offices ;  the  south  wing  is  used  by  the  police  de- 
partment, and  on  the  second  floor  of  this  wing  is  the  city  jail. 


200      NEW     MEXICO 

6.  The  FEDERAL  BUILDING,  at  the  N.  end  of  Lincoln  Ave., 
two  blocks  from  the  Plaza,  was  started  before  the  Civil  War.     The 
first  appropriation  of  $20,000  was  made  by  the  Congress  in  1850,  and 
four  years  later  $50,000  additional  funds  were  appropriated   for  ^  its 
completion..  The  money  was  sufficient,  however,  to  raise  the  building 
only  one  story  and  a  half.    The  Civil  War  interrupted  both  the  work 
and  the  funds  to  carry  it  on,  and  it  was  not  until  the  late  eighties  that 
enough  money  to  finish  the  structure  was  appropriated.     The  building 
now  houses  the  U.  S.  District  Court  rooms  and  other  federal  offices. 
Recently  a  new  wing  was  added;  also  an  underground  sprinkling  system 
was  installed. 

7.  The  KIT  CARSON  MONUMENT  stands  in  front  of  the 
Federal  Building  at  the  S.  entrance.    Although  Kit  Carson's  grave  is  in 
Taos,  this  memorial  was  erected  by  the  members  of  the  local  post  of  the 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. 

8.  The  SCOTTISH   RITE   CATHEDRAL,   at   the  corner  of 
Washington  Ave,  and  N.  Federal  Place,  is  a  large  red  stucco  building 
of  Moorish  design.    The  structure  contains  a  lobby,  classrooms,  banquet 
hall  and  kitchens,  an  auditorium,  and  a  completely  equipped  stage. 
Occupying  the  entire  space  above  the  proscenium  arch  is  a  mural  paint- 
ing representing  Boabdil  delivering  the  keys  of  the  Alhambra  to  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella. 

9.  OLD  FORT  MARCY  AND  THE  GARITA,  dominating  the 
city  from  this  hilltop,  are  now  only  a  group  of  mounds.    Here,  however, 
was  erected  in  1 846  by  the  Volunteer  American  soldiers  of  the  American 
Army  of  Occupation  an  elaborate  system  of  earthworks  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  town.    The  fort  was  named  for  Captain  Marcy  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,  the  discoverer  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Canadian  River.     The 
site  affords  a  splendid  panorama  of  the  city  and  surrounding  country. 
The  Garita,  somewhat  lower  on  the  slope,  was  a  diamond-shaped  prison 
with  towers  at  the  corners.     It  was  a  Spanish  stronghold  for  prisoners 
condemned  to  hang,  later  used  by  the  Americans  for  a  guardhouse. 

10.  ALLISON- JAMES  SCHOOL,  NE.  corner  Federal  Place  and 
US  64,  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions  of  the 
Presbyterian  church,  was  established  here  in  1866.     It  is  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  for  Spanish-American  children  of  junior  and  senior 
high  school  age.     The  six  buildings  on  18  acres  of  land,  valued  at 
$195,000,  are  California  Mission  style. 

u.  The  CROSS  OF  THE  MARTYRS,  crowning  a  low  northern 
summit  of  the  city,  W.  of  US  64,  was  erected  by  community  effort  in 
recent  years  to  commemorate  the  slaying  of  twenty-one  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680. 

12.  The  CHURCH  OF  SANTO  ROSARIO,  or  Rosario  Chapel, 
stands  in  a  sandy  plain  to  the  S.  of  Griffin  St.,  about  two  miles  from 
the  plaza.  It  is  said  to  be  a  part  of  the  chapel  which  De  Vargas  raised 
in  his  camp  after  the  reconquest  of  Santa  Fe  in  1692.  The  image  of 
the  Virgin,  La  Conquistadora,  which  De  Vargas  reputedly  brought 


SANTA    FE     2OI 

with  him  at  the  time  and  which  he  credited  with  his  victory,  is  carried 
annually  to  this  chapel  in  the  early  summer  and  left  for  a  week. 

13.  ST.  CATHERINE'S  INDIAN  SCHOOL,  on  Griffin  St.  W. 
of  Rosario  Chapel,  stands  on  historic  ground.     This  Catholic  school  is 
an  order  established  by  Mother  Catherine  Drexel  of  Philadelphia  for 
the  education  of  Indian  children  in  the  West  and  Negro  children  in  the 
South. 

14.  The  NATIONAL  CEMETERY,  across  the  road  from  St. 
Catherine's  Indian  School,  is  the  burial  place  of  New  Mexico  veterans 
of  every  American  war. 

15.  The  PUBLIC  LIBRARY,  121  Washington  Ave.  (Hours,  noon 
to  g>  Sat.  from  10  to  0)  was  started  in  1907  by  the  Santa  Fe  Women's 
Board  of  Trade.    The  collection  of  belletristic  and  Southwestern  litera- 
ture comprises  more  than  25,000  volumes,  kept  up  to  date  by  regulat 
purchases.    Reading  rooms  with  tables  are  provided.    The  building  was 
remodelled  in  the  Territorial  style  in  1932.    Decorations  of  the  entrance 
hallway  are  in  true  fresco  by  the  Santa  Fe  artist,  Olive  Rush. 

1 6.  SENA  PLAZA,  one  block  E.  of  the  Palace,  on  Palace  Ave.,  is 
a  successful  restoration  of  the  old  Sena  home  (circa  1840)  in  the  original 
spirit  of  a  typical  and  old  building,  constructed  around  a  patio.     The 
architectural  style  is  Territorial,    distinguished   by   the  slender   posts 
supporting  the  portal,  and  the  coping  of  brick  surmounting  the  walls. 
It  is  now  an  office  building.    W.  P.  Henderson  was  the  architect. 

17.  The  U.  S.  POST  OFFICE,  on  the  W.  side  of  Cathedral  Place, 
was  built  in  1921  under  the  supervision  of  James  A.  Wetmore,  architect, 
with  local  consultants.     It  is  a  good  example  of  the  Spanish-Pueblo 
style  of  architecture  applied  to  a  modern  building,  and  is  significant  as 
one  of  the  few  Federal  buildings  done  in  local  architectural  style.    The 
structure  houses  the  U.  S.  Land  Office,  the  Weather  Bureau  and'other 
offices  in  addition  to  the  postal  department. 

18.  ST.  VINCENT'S  HOSPITAL,  210  E.  Palace  Ave.,  half  a 
block  E.  from  Sena  Plaza,  founded  by  Archbishop  Lamy  with  the  aid 
of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Cincinnati,  an  all  new  hospital  at  a  cost  of 
$3»5OO,ooo  was  completed  in  1952.    Designed  by  J.  G.  Meem,  it  is  in 
the  traditional  Santa  Fe  style. 

19.  The  CATHEDRAL  OF  SAINT  FRANCIS,  opposite  the 
Post  Office,  stands  as  an  enduring  monument  to  Archbishop  Lamy,  his 
priests,  and  the  Catholic  people  of  New  Mexico.    The  cornerstone  was 
laid  in  1869,  eighteen  years  after  Archbishop  Lamy  arrived  in  Santa 
Fe.     The  site  chosen  by  him  was  occupied  first  by  the  church  and 
monastery  erected  in  1622  by  Friar  Alonso  Benavides  and  destroyed  by 
the  Indians  in  1680,  and  a  second  church,  or  Parroquia,  was  built  there 
in  1713.    In  constructing  his  cathedral,  Archbishop  Lamy,  whose  statue 
stands  at  the  entrance  to  the  cathedral,  built  the  new  walls  around  this 
old  second  edifice  and  used  it  during  the  construction  operations  so  that 
not  a  Mass  was  missed  while  the  cathedral  was  rising.    The  sacristy  in 
the  rear  of  the  cathedral  is  an  actual  part  of  the  old  Parroquia.    The 


202     NEW     MEXICO 

native  sandstone  used  in  the  walls  has  a  richness  of  color  which  adds  to 
the  beauty  of  the  cathedral's  Romanesque  lines.  The  height  of  the 
middle  nave  is  fifty-five  feet,  the  ceiling  is  arched  in  the  Roman  style 
and  made  of  a  very  light  volcanic  stone  obtained  from  the  summit  of  a 
hill  about  twelve  miles  from  Santa  Fe.  The  interior  of  the  cathedral 
is  dominated  by  the  high  altar,  under  which  Archbishops  Lamy,  Sal- 
pointe,  and  Esquillon  lie  bu'ried.  Tradition  has  long  placed  the  remains 
of  the  great  re-conqueror,  De  Vargas,  under  the  cathedral  altar,  but 
late  researches  indicate  that  he  lies  elsewhere. 

To  the  left  of  the  altar  in  the  Sacred  Heart  Chapel  is  the  STATUE 
OF  LA  CONQUISTADORA,  over  two  hundred  years  old,  which  is  carried 
through  the  streets  of  Santa  Fe  to  Rosario  Chapel  in  the  annual  De 
Vargas  Procession  in  June.  The  chapel  to  the  right  is  dedicated  to 
San  Antonio,  where  a  painting  done  by  Pascualo  de  Veri  in  1710  de- 
picts Christ  at  Gethsemane. 

Back  of  the  high  altar,  through  the  sacristy  and  behind  a  locked 
door  which  will  be  opened  upon  request,  is  the  MUSEUM  where  one  of 
the  finest  pieces  of  ecclesiastical  art  in  America  was  formerly  kept.  This 
is  the  stone  reredos,  removed  from  the  old  Military  Chapel,  La  Cas- 
trense,  which  stood  in  the  middle  of  the  block  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Plaza  until  about  1850.  It  was  given  by  Don  Antonio  Marin  del 
Valle  and  his  wife  in  1760.  The  rare  beauty  and  grace  of  the  old  stone 
carving  can  now  be  appreciated  for  it  has  been  removed  from  its  former 
cramped  surroundings  to  the  Cristo  Rey  (Christ  the  King)  Church 
completed  early  in  1940.  The  museum  contains  also  a  collection  of 
primitive  paintings  and  caivings  in  wood  from  old  churches,  and  a 
carved  stone  panel  of  Our  Lady  of  Light,  to  whom  the  military  chapel 
was  dedicated.  Two  friars  who  came  to  New  Mexico  more  than  three 
hundred  years  ago  lie  buried  beneath  board  markers  set  into  the  east 
wall  of  this  room.  These  are  the  only  known  graves  of  the  fifty-three 
Franciscans  who  came  with  the  Conquistadores. 

20.  LA  FONDA,  San  Francisco  and  Shelby  Sts.,  at  the  SE.  corner 
of  the  Plaza,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  old  Fonda,  or  Inn,  the  adobe 
building  which  served  for  hotel  purposes  from  the  beginning  of  the 
American  occupation  in  1846  and  marked  the  end  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail. 
The  old  structure  was  the  most  notable  landmark  of  the  Trail  days, 
and  was  the  rendezvous  of  Spanish  grandees,  trappers,  traders,  pioneers, 
merchants,  soldiers,  and  politicians.  Like  most  of  the  buildings  of  the 
time  it  was  one-story  high  and  built  around  a  central  patio,  with  a  large 
corral  and  stables  on  the  south.  During  the  American  military  occupa- 
tion, Santa  Fe,  centered  at  this  inn,  was  noted  for  the  brilliance  of  its 
society.  The  patronage  of  the  old  place  dwindled  as  more  modern 
accommodations  were  provided,  and  the  building  fell  into  disrepair.  A 
large  part  of  the  old  building  stood  until  1925,  when  a  modern  hotel, 
financed  by  a  group  of  Santa  Fe  citizens,  was  raised  on  the  site.  Three 
years  later  the  structure  was  purchased  by  a  private  company,  enlarged, 
redecorated,  and  remodelled,  but  the  old  name  was  retained. 


SANTA    F  E     2O3 

21.  LORETTO  ACADEMY,  S.  of  La  Fonda  on  College  St.,  Is 
one  of  the  oldest  educational  institutions  in  the  West.    The  first  build- 
ing of  the  academy  was  erected  in  1853;  today  there  are  five  buildings, 
one  of  which,  the  chapel,  is  severely  Gothic.    Above  the  altar  in  the 
chapel  is  a  golden  statue  of  the  Virgin,  and  a  spiral  staircase,  winding 
apparently  without  support — which  has  given  rise  to  mystic  legends 
about  its  construction — leads  to  the  gallery  above.    Today  the  academy 
is  devoted  to  the  education  of  Catholic  girls  of  grammar  and  high 
school  age* 

22.  SAN   MIGUEL   CHURCH,   SE.   corner   College  and   De 
Vargas  Sts.  (adm.  2$$),  is  one  of  the  oldest  churches  standing  in  the 
United  States.    Built  about  1636  for  the  use  of  the  Indian  slaves  of  the 
Spanish  officials,  the  church  was  all  but  destroyed  by  the  Indians  in  the 
Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680.     De  Vargas  partially  restored  it  when  he  re- 
captured the  province  in  1693;  and  later,  in  1710,  it  was  completely 
restored  by  the  Marques  de  la  Penuela,  the  Spanish  governor  at  the 
time.     The  exterior  of  the  building  has  changed  its  appearance  many 
times  since,  but  the  walls  are  the  same,  and  the  back  of  the  church 
retains  its  original  massive  lines.    After  ringing  thrice  at  the  door,  one 
is  admitted  by  a  Brother  who  will  point  out  the  ancient  beam  carved 
with  this  legend :  El  Senor  Marques  de  la  Penuela  hizo  esta  fabrica,  el 
Alfres  Real  Don  Augustin  Flores   Vergara,  su  criado,  A  no  de  1710 
(The  Marques  de  la  Penuela  erected  this  building,  the  Royal  Ensign 
Don  Augustin  Flores  Vergara,  his  servant.    The  year  1710.) 

The  church  contains  among  others,  large  rectangular  paintings  of 
the  Annunciation  by  Giovanni  Cirnabue  on  the  altar.  The  color  of 
these  ancient  pictures  remains  rich  and  beautiful  in  spite  of  their  age, 
and  in  one  of  them  are  two  narrow  holes  said  to  have  been  made  by  the 
arrows  of  hostile  Indians  when  the  painting  was  being  carried  in  an 
outdoor  procession. 

San  Miguel  church  is  now  used  only  by  the  Christian  Brothers  and 
the  students  of  St.  Michael's  College,  which  adjoins  it  on  the  south,  for 
their  chapel.  It  is  opened  for  public  worship  only  on  St.  Michael's  Day 
and  on  Holy  Thursday. 

23.  ST.  MICHAEL'S  COLLEGE,  facing  College  St.  between  De 
Vargas  and  Manhattan  Sts.,  was  founded  in  1859  by  the  Christian 
Brothers  as  a  Catholic  school  for  boys.     It  was  incorporated  by  the 
Territorial  Legislature  in  1874,  and  in  1887  the  present  dormitory  was 
built,  a  quaint  building,  with  long  narrow  windows,  grey  shutters, 
balcony,  and  pegged  railings.     The  later  additions  are  modern  brick 
buildings.     The  gymnasium  is  one  of  the  largest  and  best  equipped  in 
the  State,  and  the  auditorium  has  a  seating  capacity  of  2,000. 

24.  The  SUPREME  COURT  BUILDING,  on  the  NE.  corner 
of  De  Vargas  and  Don  Gaspar  Sts.,  houses  the  Supreme  Court,  the 
State  Law  Library,  the  offices  of  the  Attorney  General,  and  the  State 
Treasurer.     It  is  a  Spanish-Colonial  building,  with  well-kept  gardens 
in  the  rear,  and  was  built  in  1937  at  a  cost  of  $320,000.    All  of  the 
windows  are  trimmed  with  bronze  and  adorned  with  the  Zia  sun 


2O4     NEW     MEXICO 

symbol.     This  is  one  of  the  many  completely  air-conditioned  buildings  in 
the  State.    The  architect  was  Gordon  F.  Street. 

25.  The  STATE  CAPITOL  BUILDING,  on  Galisteo  St.,  at 
Montezuma,  stands  on  the  site  of  the  first  State  capitol,  which  was  built 
by  the  authorization  of  the  Territorial  Legislature  in  1 884,  after  a  long 
struggle  to  keep  the  capital  at  Santa  Fe.     It  was  a  towering  Victorian 
structure  of  stone,  surrounded  by  a  low  stone  wall  and  open,  treeless 
fields.     This  building  burned  to  the  ground  in  1892  and  another  struc- 
ture, composed  of  two  wings  and  a  large  central  dome,  was  built  in 
1900.     Between  the  years  1950  and  1953  this  building  was  entirely  re- 
modeled and  enlarged  in  the  Spanish-Territorial  style  of  architecture. 
It  houses  the  principal  offices  of  the  State  government  as  well  as  the  two 
houses  of  the  legislature. 

26.  The  NEW  MEXICO  PUBLIC  WELFARE  BUILDING, 
across  from  the  capitol  on  the  W.  side  of  Galisteo  St.,  was  built  with 
FERA  funds  and  dedicated  in  1935.     John  Gaw  Meem  was  the  archi- 
tect.    Paintings  by  WPA  artists  adorn  the  corridors.     The  architecture 
of  the  building  is  interesting  as  a  successful  adaptation  of  the  New 
Mexico  Territorial  style  to  modern  usage. 

27.  The  SANTA  FE  COUNTY  COURTHOUSE,  located  on 
the  SW.  corner  of  Grant  and  Johnson  Sts.,  two  blocks  west  of  the 
Palace,   was  built  at   a  cost   of  $202,000,    including  equipment   and 
architect's  fee,  and  dedicated  on  January  7,  1940.     Forty-five  per  cent 
of  the  cost  was  a  grant  from  PWA,  the  remainder  being  owners'  fund 
(bond  issue).     Designed  by  John  Gaw  Meem,  it  is  a  large  two-story 
structure  in  modified  Spanish-Pueblo  style. 

28.  The    MUSEUM    OF    NAVAHO    CEREMONIAL    ART 
(Open  Q  to  12  and  I  104:30  weekdays,  ex.  Mon.,  and  2  to  $  Sun.,  adm. 
50$  weekdays,  Sun.  Free),  2  m.  SE  of  the  Plaza  on  Camino  Lejo,  off 
the  old  Pecos  Road,  is  "an  interpretation  in  modern  form  of  a  Navaho 
Ceremonial  Hogan."     Its  purpose  is  stated  as  follows:  "It  is  planned  as 
an  integral  background  for  the  exhibition  of  sand  paintings  and  as  a 
repository  for  the  myths,  music,  poetry,  sacred  lore,  and  objects  connected 
with  the  Navaho  religion ;  the  intention  being  to  perpetuate  for  the  gen- 
eral public,  for  research  students,  and  for  the  Indians  themselves,  this 
great  example  of  a  primitive  people's  culture."     The  house  is  the  gift 
of  Miss  Mary  Cabot  Wheelwright,  and  was  designed  by  William  P. 
Henderson  as  a  synthesis  of  the  types  of  Navaho  ceremonial  hogans.     It 
contains  the  most  important  and  complete  collection  of  reproductions  of 
Navaho  sand  paintings  in  the  world* 

29.  The  LABORATORY  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY,  E.  of  the 
Museum  of  Navaho  Ceremonial  Art.     (Admission  is  free  at  all  times. 
The  laboratory  hours  are  9-12  and  7-5  and  it  is  open  daily  to  visitors 
except  Saturdays  and  Sundays.)     The  laboratory,  on  a  fifty-acre  site, 
was  organized  in   1923  when  a  small  group  of  enthusiastic  citizens 
of  Santa  Fe,  fearful  that  in  another  decade  the  opportunity  might  be 


SANTA     F  E      2O5 

gone  forever,  started  to  assemble  by  gift  and  purchase  a  collection  of 
Indian  pottery  of  the  Southwest  which  would  demonstrate  scientifically 
and  chronologically  the  development  of  the  art  from  earliest  Spanish 
times  to  the  present.  Under  the  name  of  the  Indian  Arts  Fund,  they 
incorporated  their  organization,  maintained  and  even  increased  the 
collection  through  many  financial  vicissitudes.  This  remarkable  ac- 
cumulation of  pottery,  and  the  idea  which  brought  it  into  being,  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology  when  the  latter  institu- 
tion was  incorporated  in  1927  as  a  privately  conducted  scientific  and 
educational  institution,  dedicated  broadly  to  the  purpose  of  research  in 
every  phase  of  man's  activities  in  the  Southwest,  from  earliest  prehistoric 
times  to  the  present.  Built  in  1931,  in  the  early  Spanish-Pueblo  style 
of  architecture,  the  buildings  include  a  museum,  lecture  hall  and  labora- 
tory unit,  a  garage-storage  unit,  and  the  director's  residence.  Designed 
by  John  Gaw  Meem,  the  architect's  plans  include  numerous  other  units, 
to  be  added  as  occasion  requires. 

Four  halls,  equipped  with  the  latest  type  of  cases,  are  devoted  to 
exhibits  resulting  from  the  research  of  staff  members  and  to  displays  of 
choice  specimens  illustrating  the  archeology  and  ethnology  of  the  South- 
west. These  rooms  are  on  the  left  of  the  entrance  hall  and  from  them 
the  lecture  room  opens.  On  the  right  of  the  entrance  is  the  LIBRARY 
planned  to  hold  10,000  volumes,  with  a  reading  room  open  to  the 
public.  The  4,000  items  already  catalogued  are  devoted  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  general  subject  of  Anthropology,  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  the  history  of  man  in  the  Southwest.  Offices  of  the  staff  occupy 
the  remaining  space  on  the  main  floor. 

Important  as  a  museum  feature  of  the  laboratory  are  the  great 
collections  of  Pueblo  pottery,  Navaho  and  Pueblo  textiles,  silver,  bas- 
ketry, and  the  arts  and  crafts  of  other  tribes.  Each  specimen  has  been 
carefully  selected  to  show  some,  particular  phase  in  the  development  of 
Indian  art  in  the  Southwest.  These,  owned  and  used  co-operatively  by 
the  Laboratory  and  the  Indian  Arts  Fund,  Incorporated,  are  shown  to 
visitors  under  the  guidance  of  museum  attendants  who  also  supervise 
their  use  by  pupils  of  Indian  schools,  adult  Indian  crafts  workers,  and 
by  artists,  writers,  students,  and  all  who  can  in  any  way  promote  an 
interest  in  the  revival  and  improvement  of  native  arts. 

The  bulk  of  these  collections  is  kept  on  the  lower  floor,  where  storage 
space  and  vaults  are  provided  for  safekeeping.  Also  on  the  lower  floor 
are  the  workrooms  of  the  research  staff  where  studies  in  progress  include 
an  archeological  survey  of  the  Southwest,  studies  of  Southwestern 
Indian  Art,  Technology  of  Southwestern  Ceramics  and  the  Dendro- 
chronology of  the  Rio  Grande  area.  This  latter  work  consists  of  tree- 
ring  dating  of  ruins  by  analysis  of  wood  remains. 

The  laboratory  offers  to  the  fullest  extent  possible  its  facilities  and 
co-operation  of  Federal,  State,  and  private  institutions  and  agencies  con- 
ducting studies  in  the  Southwest. 

30.  The  NATIONAL  PARK  SERVICE  REGIONAL  HEAD- 
QUARTERS, located  near  the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology  on  the 


2O8     N  EW     ME  XICO 

old  Pecos  Road,  is  one  of  the  largest  all-adobe  structures  in  the  United 
States,  With  its-  patio,  it  covers  an  acre  of  ground,  and  more  than 
200,000  adobe  bricb  were  used  in  its  construction.  It  houses  the  offices 
of  Region  III  of  the  National  Park  Service,  which  includes  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  Arkansas,  and  the  southern  parts 
of  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada. 

31.  CRISTO  REY  CHURCH   (open  6:30  a.m.  to  7:00  p.m.), 
upper  Canyon  Road,  is  the  largest  adobe  structure  in  the  nation,  weigh- 
ing over  fifteen  million  pounds,  with  walls  from  two  to  seven  feet-  thick. 
Its  world  famous  stone  reredos,  dating  from  1761,  were  moved  here 
from  the  older  part  of  St.  Francis  Cathedral,  hand-carved  from  native 
stone,  an  excellent  example  of  earlv  native  ait. 

32.  CAMINTO  DEL  MONTE  SOL  takes  its  name  from  a  conical 
hill  near-by,  called  Monte  Solt  so  named  because  of  its  prominence  and 
position,  where  it  catches  the  first  and  last  rays  of  the  sun.    The  street 
was  once  known  as  the  center  of  the  artist  colony.     Houses  of  artists 
lined  the  street  on  both  sides  and  were,  for  the  most  part,  built  by  the 
late  Frank  Applegate,  beloved  artist  and  writer.    At  439  Camino  del 
Monte  Sol  is  the  MARY  AUSTIN  HOUSE,  which  is  now  the  property  of 
Arsuna,  an  art  center. 

33.  EL    CAMINO   DEL  CA5k3N   is   an  ancient   thoroughfare 
extending  R.  from  the  Alameda,  following  the  Santa  Fe  River  into  the 
mountains  for  10  or   12  miles.     In  pre-Spanish  days  it  is  said  to  have 
been  the  Indian  trail  from  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  to  Taos.    The 
road  has  been  closed  to  traffic,  however,  beyond  the  eastern  city  limits 
in  the  interests  of  public  health,  for  the  area  contains  a  reservoir  for  the 
city  water  supply  and  the  drainage  which  flows  into  it.    Turning  left 
at  the  point  where  the  Camino  del  Monte  Sol  joins  it,  on  the  return  to 
the  Plaza,  one  passes  many  fine  native  adobe  houses  which  often  enclose 
garden  patios, 

34-  GUADALU^,  CHURCH,  on  the  corner  of  Agua  Fria  and 
Guadalupe  Sts.,  is  the  spiritual  and  social  center  of  a  very  old  section 
of  Santa  Fe,  a  region  which  has  been  little  affected  by  the  change  of 
modern  times.  Deeply  shaded  by  trees,  the  doorway  is  decorated  by  a 
panel  of  Mexican  tiles  depicting  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  the  patron 
saint  of  Mexico.  Although  the  present  church  is  relatively  new,  having 
been  restored  in  1880  and  again  remodeled  in  1918  after  a  fire,  its 
history  goes  back  to  the  early  I  SOD'S,  when  the  original  Guadalupe 
Church  was  built.  Its  present  style  suggests  that  of  the  California 
missions,  particularly  because  of  the  stone  walls  which  surround  it  and 
the  many  trees  within  its  enclosures.  Over  the  high  altar  is  a  copy  of 
the  original  painting  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe,  and  beside  it  are 
paintings  so  old  that  their  subjects  are  no  longer  discernible;  fine  old 
carved  vigas  and  corbels  adorn  the  high  ceiling. 

35-  The  GOVERNOR  PEREZ  MONUMENT,  about  2  m.  W. 
of  the  Plaza  on  Agua  Fria  St.,  is  a  limestone  marker  erected  by  the 
D.A.R.,  on  the  spot  where  Governor  Albino  Perez  was  assassinated  in 
1837.  Enclosed  by  an  iron  rail,  the  stone  commemorates  a  rebellion 


SANTA     FE     209 

evoked  by  a  vicious  system  of  taxation  under  Mexican  rule.  Taxes 
were  levied  on  each  vehicle  bringing  foreign  merchandise  into  the  city, 
on  each  animal  employed  by  foreign  merchants  to  carry  such  goods,  and 
a  tax  of  25  $  per  head  on  all  sheep  and  cattle  sold  in  the  city.  En- 
couraged by  General  Manuel  Armijo  of  Albuquerque,  a  rich  man  of 
great  power,  the  citizens  rose  in  revolt  against  the  tyranny  of  the 
system.  The  Governor,  resisting,  met  defeat  north  of  Santa  Fe  and 
fltd  to  the  Palace,  to  make  good  his  escape  from  the  city  on  the  following 
day.  His  enemies  overtook  him  in  flight  near  Santa  Fe,  however,  and 
he  fell  before  the  lances  of  the  Indians.  He  was  decapitated,  and  his 
head,  impaled  on  a  spear,  carried  triumphantly  to  the  plaza. 

^36.  AGUA  FRIA  RANCHES,  an  area  W.  of  Santa  Fe  on  Agua 
Fria  St.,  was  formerly  a  prosperous  ranch  community  with  farms 
plentifully  watered  by  the  Santa  Fe  River.  With  the  growth  of  the 
city,  however,  the  water  needed  for  irrigation  was  diverted  for  city 
uses,  and  the  Agua  Fria  District  passed  as  farming  land  except  for  the 
few  who  were  able  to  dig  wells  and  pump  water.  It  will  be  noticed 
while  driving  west  on  the  old  road  that  the  ranches  become  scattered 
and  the  buildings  are  for  the  most  part  in  need  of  repair.  Names  on 
the  mail  boxes  that  dot  the  roadside  are  mostly  Spanish,  and  some  recall 
the  great  names  of  the  Conquistadores. 

^37.  The  OLD  SCHOOLHOUSE  RUIN,  on  the  S.  side  of  Agua 
Fria  4.4  m.  from  the  Plaza,  is  the  site  of  a  prehistoric  Indian  settlement. 
Although  a  number  of  late  adobe  houses  have  been  built  on  the  site,  the 
mounds  can  be  seen  extending  a  considerable  distance  eastward.  Here 
is  ample  evidence  that  Indians  had  settled  the  little  valley  long  before 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  for  slightly  beyond,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Rito  de  Santa  Fe,  partly  excavated  and  plainly  visible  from  the 
road,  is  Pueblo  Pindi. 

38.  PUEBLO  PINDI,  a  ruin,  was  named  Pindi  (Tewa  Indian 
turkey)  because  of  the  profusion  of  turkey  bones,  eggshells,  and  turkey- 
pens  found  on  the  site*    A  tree-ring  analysis  shows  the  pueblo  to  have 
been  occupied  for  about  seventy-five  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
inhabitants  are  thought  to  have  moved  across  the  river  to  the  above- 
mentioned  schoolhouse  site.     Part  of  the  pueblo  has  been  washed  away 
by  the  river,  which  often  runs  in  flood  during  the  summer  rains,  but 
enough  remains  to  indicate  that  the  pueblo  once  stood  three  or  four 
stories  high  in  places,  with  massive  blocks  of  rooms  terraced  like  the 
present  pueblo  of  Taos.     Two  hundred  rooms  were  excavated,  five 
kivas  were  uncovered,  and  several  plazas  located.     It  is  estimated  that 
there  may  have  been  as  many  as  250  rooms  in  the  pueblo  originally. 

39.  AGUA  FRIA  CHURCH,  5  m.  from  the  Plaza  of  Santa  Fe  on 
the  Agua  Fria  Road,  was  the  center  of  the  old  village  of  Agua  Fria. 
The  church  is  still  used  by  the  people  of  the  district,  who  celebrate  their 
fiesta  on  June  24th.    The  Feast  of  San  Isidro,  their  patron  saint,  is 
celebrated  on  May  15,  and  San  Pedros  Day  on  June  29.     The  place 
is  gay,  too,  at  Christmas  time,  when  the  church  is  garlanded  with  paper 
flowers  and  festooned  with  red  Christmas  bells.    Small  bonfires  burn  all 


21O     NEW    MEXICO 

about  on  Christmas  Eve,  just  as  they  do  in  the  city  only  five  miles 
away — but  it  seems  far  more  remote  than  that.  The  old  wood  carver, 
Celso  Gallegos,  has  his  house  here.  He  has  earned  a  small  portion  of 
fame  for  his  saints  and  figures  fashioned  from  knots  of  pine  and  juniper. 
Spreading  cottonwoods  line  the  ditches,  now  too  often  dry. 

40.  The  UNITED  STATES  INDIAN  SCHOOL,  2  m.  SW. 
from  the  Plaza  on  the  R.  of  Cerrillos  Road  (Albuquerque  highway), 
was  started  in  1899  with  a  Congressional  appropriation  of  $31,000.    Its 
1 06  acres  were  donated  by  citizens  of  Santa  Fe.     Since  the  school  is 
supported  by  the  Federal  government,  no  tuition  is  charged,  and  the 
enrollment  is  limited  to  400  Indian  boys  and  girls.    The  students  do 
institutional  work  to  pay  for  their  room  and  board.     Indian  children 
from  the  Southwest,  principally  the  Pueblo,  Navaho,  and  Apache,  are 
here  given  the  opportunity  to  appreciate  and  understand  the  best  of  their 
own  inheritance,  and  to  borrow  from  the  white  man's  civilization  those 
things  which  prove  advantageous  and  useful  to  them  after  leaving 
school. 

The  school  emphasizes  arts  and  crafts,  including  painting,  designing, 
weaving,  beadwork,  basketmaking>  potterymaking,  silversmithing,  and 
woodcarving.  On  the  grounds  is  the  Charles  F.  Lummis  Indian  Hospi- 
tal, where  Indians  from  the  pueblos  and  reservations  in  northern  New 
Mexico  receive  free  medical  treatment;  it  is  also  headquarters  for  the 
public  health  work  of  the  U.  S.  Indian  Service  in  this  area. 

41.  The  NEW  MEXICO  STATE  POLICE  BUILDING  is  on 
the  S.  side  of  Cerrillos  Road,  about  1.5  m.  from  the  Plaza.    The  build- 
ing, erected  with  WPA  funds,  and  designed  by  W.  C.  Kruger,  was 
finished  in  1936.     The  structure  contains  cells,  a  fingerprint  room, 
dormitories  for  officers,  offices,  and  a  target  practice  pistol  range. 

42.  The  NEW  MEXICO  SCHOOL  FOR  THE  DEAF,  on  the 
N.  side  of  Cerrillos  Road,  about  I  m.  from  the  Plaza,  is  a  State  institu- 
tion, founded  in  1887.    With  the  aid  of  WPA  funds  the  school  has 
been  enlarged  since  1935  with  three  new  buildings,  one  devoted  to 
agricultural  training,  another  to  administration,  and  a  third  for  a  dining 
hall  and  library. 

43.  The  NEW  MEXICO  STATE  PENITENTIARY,  10  miles 
south  of  Santa  Fe,  on  State  Highway  10.     Construction  on  new  peni- 
tentiary was  begun  in  1953,  and  completed  in  1956,  replacing  the  orig- 
inal penitentiary  built  in  1884,  when  a  bill  authorizing  its  location  in 
Santa  Fe  was  passed  by  the  territorial  legislature. 


POINTS  OF  INTEREST  IN  ENVIRONS 

Bishop's  Lodge,  3  m.;  Circle  Drive,  views  of  Rio  Grande  Valley,  2  m.;  Tesuque 
Indian  Pueblo,  10  m.;  Nambe  Indian  Pueblo,  23  ».;  San  Ildefonso  Indian  Pueblo, 


SANTA     FE     211 

25  m.;  Bandelier  National  Monument,  cliff  ruins  in  Rito  de  los  Frijoles  Canyon, 
45  m.;  Los  Alamos  Scientific  Laboratory,  35  m.;  Santa  Cruz,  26  m.;  Chimayo, 
32  m.;  Truchas,  38  m.;  San  Juan  Indian  Pueblo,  30  m.;  Santa  Clara  Indian 
Pueblo,  28  m.;  Puye  Cliff  Dwellings,  40  m.;  Taos  and  Taos  Indian  Pueblo,  75  m.; 
Turquoise  Mines,  15  m.;  Cochiti  Indian  Pueblo,  30  m.;  Santo  Domingo  Indian 
Pueblo,  30  m.;  San  Felipe  Indian  Pueblo,  40  m.;  Apache  Canyon,  20  m.;  Pecos 
Pueblo  Ruin,  30  m.;  Pecos  River  Valley,  for  fishing,  mountain  scenery,  35  m~; 
Hyde  Park,  for  skiing,  7  m.;  Santa  Fe  Ski  Basin,  16  m.;  horseback  trails  to  Hyde 
Park,  Little  Tesuque  Canyon,  over  the  divide  to  Cowles,  Lake  Peak,  Windsor 
Trail,  and  other  trails  mostly  unmarked ;  services  of  guides  desirable. 


Taos 


Bus  Station:     North  Plaza,  for  Continental  Trailways  and  Valley  Transit  lines. 

Taxis:     One  taxi  line;  Sight-seeing  service,  year-round. 

Traffic  Regulations:     Slow  traffic  in  narrow,  winding  streets  at  intersections; 

one-way  traffic  around  central  plaza ;  one-way  streets  indicated. 

Accommodations:     Five  hotels,  10  motor  courts;  5  guest  ranches. 

Information  Service:     Hotels  and  motor  courts;  Chamber  of  Commerce  Visitors' 

Service. 

Motion  Picture  Houses:     One. 

Swimming:    Ponce  de  Leon  Hot  Springs,  7  m.  SE.  of  city,  outdoor  pool  bathr 

houses. 

Riding:     Inquire  locally  about  horses. 

Fishing:     Canyon  of  Rio  Grande  River,  15  m.  S.;  Hondo  Canyon,  14  m.  NW.; 

Taos  Canyon,  3  m.  E. ;  other  small  streams  in  vicinity. 

Pack  Trips:     Guides  and  equipment  available  for  two-day  to  two-week  trips 

through  mountains;  inquire  locally. 

Skiing:    Agua  Piedra  Recreational  Area,  27  m.  S. 

Annual  Events:     King's  Day,  Buffalo  or  Deer  Dance,  Jan.   6;    Good  Friday, 

Passion  Play  at  Talpa  Penitente  Chapel;  Indian  Fiesta,  Corn  Dances,  May  3; 

San  Antonio  Day,  Corn  Dance,  June  13;  San  Juan  Day,  Corn  Dance,  June  24; 

Santiago  Day,  Corn  Dance,  July  25;  Spanish-Colonial  Fiesta,  July  25-26;  Santa 

Ana  Day,  Corn  Dance,  July  26;   Fiesta  of   San   Geronimo,    Sept.   29-30,    and 

County  Fair  Fire  Dance,  Oct.  1-2;  All  Saints'  Day  Procession,  Nov.  i;   Night 

Procession  with  pine  bonfires,  Dec.  24;  Deer  Dance  or  Matachines,.  Dec.  25. 

Indian  Dances  every  Mon.  and  Fri.  night;   Spanish-Colonial   Folk   Dances, 
Wed.  nights,  June  is-Sept.  i. 

TAOS  (pronounced  to  rhyme  with  house)  is  in  reality  three  towns — 
the  Spanish  town  (Don  Fernando  de  Taos),  the  Indian  Pueblo  (San 
Geronimo  de  Taos),  and  the  old  Indian  farming  center  (Ranchos  de 
Taos  (see  Tour  So) — all  separate  entities,  yet  from  the  beginning 
closely  knit  together  in  interest. 

In  the  vicinity  of  these  three  villages  are  other  smaller  settlements, 
from  one  to  five  miles  apart,  all  properly  members  of  the  Taos  com* 
munity,  representing  extensions  of  Spanish  colonization  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century;  the  melodious  Spanish  names,  such  as  Talpa, 
Canon,  Placita,  Cordoba,  Prado,  and  Cordillera,  suggest  their  Old- 
World  character.  The  two  principal  villages,  the  Indian  pueblo  of  San 
Geronimo  and  the  Spanish  Don  Fernando  de  Taos,  the  latter  generally 
called  simply  Taos,  lie  close  against  the  base  of  a  section  of  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Mountains  rising  abruptly  east.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of 
approach  no  railroads  have  been  built  to  them.  Visitors  enter  Taos  over 

212 


TAOS     213 

highways  through  beautiful  canyons  by  bus  or  motorcar  ninety-nine 
miles  southwest  from  Raton,  or  seventy-five  north  from  Santa  Fe.  But 
whether  they  enter  the  plateau  through  the  Cimarron  Canon  with  its 
pine  trees,  its  eastern  approach,  or  through  the  Rio  Grande  Canyon 
with  its  huge  igneous  rock  cliffs,  its  southern  portal,  the  ascent  is  almost 
as  thrilling  as  Prometheus'  cerulean  adventure  must  have  been  to  him 
when  he  climbed  up  into  the  land  of  the  gods. 

The  first  impression  upon  emerging  on  to  the  plateau  is  that  of  the 
freshness  and  purity  of  the  rarefied  atmosphere,  the  clearness  of  the 
light,  making  all  colors  pure  and  luminous,  and  the  quietness,  with  the 
little  villages  lying  peacefully,  seemingly  asleep,  the  tall,  blue  mountains, 
screen-like,  behind  them. 

Many  towns  are  situated  near  great  mountains;  but  most  of  them 
are  right  in  the  mountains,  or  so  close  under  them  that  they  do  not  have 
the  wide  panorama  that  Taos  commands,  which  prompted  D.  H. 
Lawrence,  on  his  first  visit,  to  write :  "I  think  the  skyline  of  Taos  the 
most  beautiful  of  all  I  have  ever  seen  in  my  travels  around  the  world." 

In  appearance  like  scattered  stones  carelessly  thrown  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  backstop,  the  light-colored  houses — square  and  hard  as 
stones,  but  not  made  of  stone — are  fashioned  of  mud  (adobe).  The 
thick  layer  of  creamish,  tannish,  or  reddish  mud  filling  all  the  cracks 
makes  the  houses  as  snug  as  birds'  nests.  Every  year  or  two  they  must 
be  replastered  with  mud  mixed  with  sand  and  straw.  More  straw  is 
used  in  Taos  than  in  other  places  in  the  State,  giving  the  houses  a  golden 
glint  in  the  sunshine.  Nevertheless,  they  have  a  gloomy  look.  They 
seem  to  be  crouching  close  to  the  ground  for  protection  from  some 
unknown  thing,  and  seem  little  taller  than  the  hollyhocks  screening 
their  tawny  walls. 

Don  Fernando  de  Taos  (7,050  alt.,  2,309  pop.),  of  which  80  per 
cent  is  Spanish-American  and  20  per  cent  Anglo-American,  is  the  seat 
of  Taos  County,  where  three  languages  and  three  races,  Indian,  Spanish, 
and  Anglo-American,  intermingle;  it  is  also  the  home  of  the  Taos  art 
colony. 

The  village  is  a  small  trading  center  for  the  surrounding  ranches. 
Its  flat-roofed,  one-story  stores  cluster  around  and  front  upon  three  sides 
of  the  small  plaza,  or  town  square,  where  the  life  and  much  of  the 
history  of  the  village  centers.  Parked  in  solid  flanks  facing  the  shops 
(parking  against  plaza  enclosure  used  to  be  prohibited)  are  automobiles 
of  residents,  of  ranchmen  and  tourists,  trucks  from  near-by  ranches  and 
from  distant  cities,  freight-laden,  sometimes  interspersed  by  horse-drawn, 
covered  wagons  from  the  pueblo  or  the  ranches  close  bv. 

The  plaza  sleeps  undisturbed  in  the  sun,  the  old  well  in  the  center 
and  the  bandstand  ordinarily  giving  no  sign  of  life.  Life  and  interest 
in  the  town's  activities  are  evident  along  the  uneven  sidewalks,  fronting 
the  stores  where  white-robed  Indians  lean  against  a  sunny  corner  to 
watch  the  Anglos  pass  or  to  visit  among  themselves,  Spanish-speaking 
residents  from  near-by  ranches  here  to  barter  produce  for  manufactured 
necessities,  and  sightseeing  tourists  peering  in  curio  windows.  Artists 


214     NEW     MEXICO 

laden  with  sketch-easel  and  paint  box,  or  new  canvases  to  hang  in  the 
gallery,  thread  their  way  among  the  others,  or  stop  to  arrange  a  posing 
date  with  one  of  the  Indians. 

In  the  plaza,  the  heart  of  Fernando  de  Taos,  as  of  every  Spanish 
town,  the  light  skin  of  the  English-speaking  residents,  the  dusk  of  the 
soft-spoken  Spanish,  and  the  blanketed  bronze  of  the  Indian  prove 
exciting  contrasts  in  the  brilliance  of  the  New  Mexico  sun.  Occupying 
today  the  spot  around  which  the  first  small  group  of  settlers  built  their 
homes,  the  plaza  is  still  the  center  of  communal  life,  and  the  oldest  walls 
of  the  earliest  houses  are  now  hidden  behind  modern  buildings.  Some 
of  the  rooms  in  La  Fonda  (hotel)  on  the  south  side  were  in  use  in 
1832  as  the  Bent  and  St.  Vrazn  Store,  but  the  long  portales  which  were 
built  over  the  sidewalks  after  the  fire  of  1932,  when  many  buildings 
had  to  be  restored,  give  to  the  plaza  a  quaint,  old-time  look.  Two  roads 
have  recently  been  paved  to  the  village  limits — and  despite  many  pro- 
tests the  plaza,  too,  was  oiled. 

Relatively  bare  of  trees  in  Spanish  times,  except  in  the  vicinity  of 
water  courses  and  ditches,  the  town  now  has  many  beautiful  ones. 
Those  in  the  plaza  are  of  recent  planting,  their  predecessors  having  been 
destroyed  by  the  fires  that  razed  the  buildings  at  various  times  in  recent 
years.  The  rows  of  cottonwood  trees  over-arching  Pueblo  Road  were 
planted  by  an  Anglo-American  citizen  in  the  1890*8 — for  in  almost 
every  instance  in  New  Mexico  it  has  been  the  Anglo-American  who  has 
been  the  planter  of  trees  for  their  own  sake. 

The  citizens  have  had  the  wisdom  to  preserve  the  architectural  tradi- 
tions of  the  village,  to  keep  the  walls  of  their  houses  low  and  the  roofs 
flat,  to  use  the  native  materials,  adobe  and  crude  pine  beams.  Conse- 
quently, Fernando  de  Taos  is  distinctive,  its  buildings  and  dwellings 
almost  uniformly  appropriate  to  the  land,  the  beauty  which  nature  has 
bestowed  only  occasionally  marred  or  spoiled  by  extraneous  architectural 
intrusions.  Some  oi  the  modern  interpretations  of  the  Spanish-Pueblo 
style  are  wild  in  detail,  but  the  whole  effect  is  preserved  by  adherence 
to  the  fundamental  structural  principles. 

Fernando  de  Taos  has  surrendered  less  to  the  powerful  current  of 
Americanization  than  any  town  of  its  importance  in  New  Mexico. 
Nowhere  in  the  State  do  the  three  cultural  elements,  Indian,  Spanish- 
American,  and  Anglo-American  live  in  such  close  proximity  and,  in  the 
main,  with  such  tolerant  disdain  for  one  another.  The  Indians  work 
for  wages  in  the  town,  tinker  with  the  white  man's  automobile  in  some 
garage,  but  they  go  home  to  the  pueblo  at  night  to  immerse  themselves 
in  the  timeless,  Pueblo  traditions. 

Fernando  de  Taos  is  thought  to  have  been  named  for  Don  Fernando 
de  Chaves,  one  of  its  leading  citizens  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but 
also  it  has  been  called  Fernandez  de  Taos  and  San  Fernandez  de  Taos. 
Since  1884,  however,  when  a  young  postmaster,  finding  too  many 
different  addresses  going  through  his  hands,  despairingly  suggested  to 
Washington  that  the  town  be  listed  as  "Taos,"  the  shorter  term  has 
been  used,  though  Don  Fernando  de  Taos  is  the  legal  name. 


TAGS      215 

Don  Fernando  de  Taos  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1932,  and 
since  then  has  acquired  a  water  system,  electricity,  a  sewage  disposal 
plant  and  fire  trucks.  In  later  years  fire  has  been  the  scourge  of  Taos; 
a  series  of  disastrous  conflagrations  levelled  two  sides  of  the  plaza  on 
successive  occasions;  and  on  December  15,  1933,  tne  Don  Fernando 
Hotel,  which  occupied  the  southwest  corner,  burned.  Without  adequate 
fire  protection  it  was  impossible  to  stop  these  blazes  which  at  the  time 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  town. 

Fernando  de  Taos  has  no  factories.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
population  is  occupied  in  local  trade  or  in  the  creative  arts,  the  native 
crafts  including  carding  and  spinning,  weaving,  tin  work,  wood-carving 
and  the  making  of  Spanish-Colonial  pine  furniture. 

The  Loma  (Spanish  hillock)  west  of  the  plaza,  once  the  village 
pasture,  overlooks  the  village  and  a  great  expanse  of  Taos  valley  south. 
Here  many  of  the  artists  live,  in  low-built  adobe  houses  crowding  in 
with  the  one-  and  two-room  Spanish-American  homes.  In  appearance 
a  black  gash  of  studio  window  is  often  all  that  distinguishes  them. 

Above  a  history  full  of  revolutionary  bloodshed  and  sturdy  insistent 
pioneering,  Fernando  de  Taos  has  held  its  head.  For  security  against 
enemies,  the  Spaniards  who  first  settled  the  valley  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  built  their  houses  close  to  the  Indian  pueblo  which  had 
been  discovered  in  1540  by  their  compatriot,  Hernando  de  Alvarado, 
whose  followers  had  been  so  attracted  to  the  valley  that  within  a  few 
years  some  of  them  returned.  Later,  colonists  from  Onate's  little  com- 
munity at  San  Gabriel  on  the  Rio  Grande,  forty  miles  south,  sought  the 
fertile  lands  and  plentiful  waters  of  the  region  around  the  pueblo.  The 
Indians  were  friendly  and  the  settlers,  most  of  whom  had  been  soldiers 
in  Onate's  command,  set  up  their  homes  and  farms  unmolested. 

In  succeeding  years  the  Indians,  becoming  alarmed  at  the  growth  of 
the  Spanish  community  in  their  midst  and  displeased  at  the  frequency 
of  intermarriages  between  the  girls  and  boys  of  the  two  races,  decided 
in  council  to  ask  the  Spaniards  to  move  "a  league  away"  from  the  con- 
fines of  the  pueblo — which  the  newcomers  did  with  good  grace.  Thus 
the  two  villages  separated. 

For  long,  however,  the  interests  of  the  Spanish  town  and  the  Indian 
pueblo  lay  close  together:  they  needed  the  mutual  protection  of  arms 
on  the  one  hand  and  of  numbers  on  the  other,  for  the  roving  tribes  of 
Apache,  Ute,  Comanche  and  Navaho  Indians  made  frequent  attacks 
upon  both,  seeking  food  and  captives  for  slaves  and  uniting  the  destinies 
of  the  two  for  about  three  hundred  years.  As  settlement  increased  and 
the  need  for  farm  lands  became  greater,  small  groups  settled  near  their 
farm  centers,  bringing  into  being  small  villages  clustering  about  the 
first  villages. 

Although  Fray  Pedro  de  Miranda  built  a  church  on  the  edge  of  the 
pueblo  before  1617  for  the  combined  settlements,  bad  blood  appeared 
between  the  Indians  and  the  Spaniards,  and  in  1631  this  priest  and  two 
Spanish  soldiers  forfeited  their  lives.  This  ill-feeling  increased  until  in 
1650  a  great  revolt  against  Spanish  rule  was  planned  from  the  Taos 


2l6     NEW     MEXICO 

Pueblo  only  to  come  to  naught  because  the  Hopi,  far  away  in  Arizona, 
refused  to  join  in  the  plot.  However,  thirty  years  later  (1680),  led  by 
Po-pe  of  San  Juan,  who  made  his  headquarters  at  Taos  Pueblo,  the 
Indians  successfully  rebelled  and  cast  the  Spanish  from  the  land_  (see 
History).  It  was  not  until  Captain-General  De  Vargas,  after  his  re- 
conquest  in  1692,  marched  up  the  Rio  Grande  to  Taos,  visiting  all 
pueblos  on  the  way,  that  the  settlement  was  re-established  on  the  old 
site. 

Fernando  de  Taos  was  endangered  by  the  hostility  and  attacks  of 
the  Apache,  Ute,  Navaho  and  Comanche,  the  latter  particularly  causing 
trouble.  In  1760  a  band  of  them  attacked  the  town  and  carried  away 
fifty  women  and  children  who  were  never  recovered.  Soldiers  were 
sent  after  them  and  four  hundred  of  the  Indians  were  massacred.  From 
that  time  on  the  Comanche  left  the  town  alone  and  there  was  never 
another  Comanche  raid  in  Taos  Valley.  However,  the  rear  walls  of 
the  houses  in  Don  Fernando  were  joined  together  to  form  a  rectangular 
fortress,  with  only  two  gates  through  which  cattle  and  sheep  were 
driven  at  evening. 

An  agricultural  settlement,  Don  Fernando  became  early  in  its 
history  a  trading  center.  During  the  eighteenth  century  its  annual  trade 
fair  was  the  meeting-place  of  the  Plains  and  Pueblo  Indians,  traders 
from  Mexico  and  Old  Spain,  and  hadendados  and  villagers  from  all 
over  the  Southwest.  The  fairs  rapidly  outgrew  the  new  policy  of  seek- 
ing the  friendship  and  trade  of  the  Plains  Indians,  for  whom  Taos 
Pueblo  had  always  been  the  nearest  source  of  supplies  of  blankets,  corn, 
and  later  of  Mexican  goods.  A  motley  array  gathered  there  each  sum- 
mer, and  Taos  became  the  busiest  village  in  the  province.  Gradually 
French  trappers  came,  and  after  1802,  when  Thomas  Jefferson  con- 
cluded the  Louisiana  Purchase  and  all  the  center  of  the  continent  fell 
into  the  possession  of  the  United  States,  the  American  trappers  swarmed 
into  New  Mexico.  From  1815  to  1837  the  "Mountain  Men"  (as  they 
wer  called)  trapped  fur-bearing  animals,  fought  Indians,  and  opened 
new  lands.  These  trappers,  a  race  of  men  apart,  who  did  so  much  for 
the  development  of  Fernando  de  Taos,  were  solitary,  courageous,  and 
hardy,  preferring  the  life  of  hardship  on  mountain  trails  to  the  soft 
amenities  of  civilization.  They  were  men  of  action,  whose  speech  was 
as  picturesque  as  their  dress.  Many  nationalities  were  represented 
among  them:  French,  French-Canadian,  English,  and  American.  Their 
names  are  clues  to  the  complex  of  natures  and  nationalities  found  in 
Don  Fernando  de  Taos  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century:  the 
Robidoux  Brothers,  Bill  Williams,  Christopher  (Kit)  Carson,  Milton 
Sublette,  Bautiste  LaLande,  the  Bent  brothers,  Ceran  St.  Vrain,  Richens 
Wootton,  Jedediah  Strong,  and  others. 

Contemporaneous  with  these  mountain  men  and  traders  was  a 
Spanish  priest,  Padre  Antonio  Jose  Martinez,  born  in  Abiquiu,  who 
came  to  Fernando  de  Taos  in  1826  and  for  forty  years  championed  the 
cause  of  his  people  and  strove  to  bring  enlightenment  and  education  to 
their  lives.  Single-handed,  he  fought  ignorance  and  superstition,  started 


TAOS     217 

a  school  for  boys  and  girls,  the  first  co-educational  venture  in  the  South- 
west. He  operated  a  printing  press,  said  to  be  the  first  brought  to  New- 
Mexico,  and  published  a  paper  called  El  Crepusculo  (the  dawn),  and 
further  advanced  his  people's  interest  by  serving  in  the  first  general 
territorial  assembly  at  Santa  Fe.  Although  unfrocked  by  Archbishop 
Lamy  in  1854,  after  a  quarrel,  Padre  Martinez  never  forsook  his  own 
people,  fighting  to  the  last  to  improve  them.  It  has  never  been  settled 
whether  in  the  violent  times  after  American  annexation  he  favored  or 
resisted  the  new  regime.  He  was  accused  of  helping  to  foment  the 
uprising  of  1847,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Charles  Bent,  but 
evidence  tends  to  exonerate  him  of  this  charge. 

More  trouble  was  ahead  for  the  settlement.  In  1837  the  alcalde 
(mayor)  was  arrested  on  some  trivial  pretext  and  imprisoned  by  the 
Mexican  government.  All  the  town  rose  to  arms  and  marched  upon 
Santa  Fe.  The  government,  caught  off  its  guard,  was  ready  to  agree  to 
anything.  At  the  instigation  of  Manuel  Armijo,  a  leading  politician, 
the  insurgents  elected  as  governor  an  Indian  from  the  Taos  pueblo  I 
But  Armijo  quickly  shot  him  and  stepped  into  his  office. 

Another  rebellion  followed  when  the  Spanish  residents  planned  to 
overthrow  the  new  government  (see  History).  Arousing  the  Taos 
Indians,  who  had  no  grievance  against  the  United  States,  by  giving  them 
plenty  of  aguardiente  (liquor — Taos  lightning)  an  attack  was  made  on 
the  new  Governor,  Charles  Bent,  who  was  scalped  alive  and  then  mur- 
dered in  his  home  (see  below). 

Still  another  flurry  of  excitement  promised  a  different  kind  of 
reputation  for  Fernando  de  Taos  before  the  village  settled  down  to  its 
present  character  of  peaceful  refuge.  As  early  as  1866  gold  was  found 
in  quantity  in  the  mountains,  north,  known  as  the  Red  River  Country, 
but  the  incessant  dangers  from  Indian  attacks  prevented  its  exploitation 
until  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Prospectors  roamed  the  hills 
for  fifty  years,  getting  grubstakes  in  Taos  village  and  vanishing  into 
the  wilderness;  but  eastern  capital  was  not  attracted  until  the  1890'$. 

To  the  basic  and  underlying  character  of  Fernando  de  Taos  these 
alarms  and  excursions  added  little.  It  remained  a  small  Spanish  town 
in  the  United  States,  a  fact  which  made  few  demands  upon  it  save  in 
such  emergencies  as  the  Civil  and  Spanish  Wars.  In  the  former  in- 
stance, Kit  Carson  and  some  other  citizens  nailed  the  Union  flag  to  a 
cottonwood  pole  in  the  plaza  and  stood  by  for  a  while  to  see  that  it 
stayed  there — and  that  seemed  to  settle  the  matter.  In  the  Spanish 
unpleasantness  in  1898  there  developed  some  antagonism  toward  Amer- 
icans, and  racial  hatred  flared  dangerously.  Two  artists,  new  arrivals, 
were  jailed;  the  sheriff,  a  Spanish-American,  was  shot,  and  for  a  few 
days  threats  to  "make  sausage  of  the  Americans"  were  heard  on  the 
plaza.  The  trouble  blew  over,  however,  and  Fernando  de  Taos  began 
to  feel  the  power  of  law  and  order.  The  bad  men  of  both  sides  decided 
to  leave,  and  the  village  settled  down  to  a  well-behaved  existence. 

The  fame  of  Fernando  de  Taos  today,  apart  from  the  beauty  of  its 


2l8     NEW     MEXICO 

setting,  bears  little  relation  to  that  of  its  past.  As  the  place  of  residence 
of  some  thirty  nationally-known  writers  and  artists,  it  is  known  through- 
out the  land  as  an  art  colony.  The  first  known  writer  to  come  was 
Lewis  H.  Garrard,  then  eighteen  years  old,  who  arrived  in  1845,  two 
years  before  the  massacre  of  Governor  Bent.  He  wrote  about  his 
experiences  in  a  book  called  fPah-toryah,  or  the  Taos  Trail,  a  volume 
that  remains  the  most  authentic  record  of  the  time.  The  first  artists 
to  arrive  were  two  brothers,  E.  M.  and  R.  H.  Kern,  who  accompanied 
Colonel  J.  C.  Fremont  in  1848.  Fernando  de  Taos  is  a  place  to  which 
artists  and  writers  have  been  attracted  ever  since,  for  it  is  remote  from 
those  elements  of  American  civilization  that  tend  to  make  cities  so 
inhospitable  to  creative  work. 

Fernando  de  Taos  as  an  art  colony  grew  out  of  one  man's  enthusiasm 
for  a  village  he  had  never  seen,  and  a  broken  wagon  wheel.  Joseph 
Henry  Sharp,  a  young  painter  sketching  in  New  Mexico  in  1880,  so 
enthusiastically  reported  what  he  had  heard  about  the  charm  of  remote 
Taos  village  that  his  two  friends,  Bert  Phillips  and  Errtest  L.  Blumen- 
schein,  determined  to  seek  western  adventure  and  follow  the  sun  to 
Mexico,  stopping  on  the  way  to  visit  the  little  New  Mexican  village 
of  Sharp's  glowing  enthusiasms.  Accordingly,  going  by  train  to  Denver, 
they  bought  a  camping  outfit  and  headed  south,  painting  as  they  jour- 
neyed. Thirty  miles  from  Fernando  de  Taos  a  wheel  was  broken  and, 
on  the  flip  of  a  coi^  Blumenschein  was  elected  to  ride  horseback  and 
carry  the  wheel  into  town  for  repairs.  Phillips  remained  to  g^iard  the 
camp  outfit.  Three  days  were  required  to  make  the  round  trip  and  have 
the  wheel  repaired.  Blumenschein,  thrilled  with  the  place,  decided  that 
here  their  journey  ended  and  here  they  remained.  Later,  Sharp  joined 
them,  followed  by  Irving  Couse.  •  For  many  years  they  were  the  only 
painters  working  here.  For  exhibition  purposes  they  organized  the 
Taos  Society  of  Artists,  sending  exhibitions  to  eastern  art  centers  carry- 
ing the  charm  of  New  Mexico  and  attracting  the  interest  and  attention 
of  other  artists.  Thus  began  a  regular  pilgrimage  to  this  out-of-the- 
way  spot  where  is  found  in  the  Indian  culture  a  definite  American 
esthetic  source,  and  in  Spanish  an  established  religious  art  tradition 
which  has  had  its  effect  upon  the  art  of  the  United  States,  as  Barbizon, 
Fontainebleau  and  other  continental  art  movements  had  on  contempo- 
rary European  art. 

SAN  GER6NIMO  DE  TAOS,  familiarly  called  simply  Taos  Pueblo, 
the  oldest  of  the  three  towns  bearing  the  name  Taos,  is  situated  two 
and  a  half  miles  north  of  Don  Fernando  de  Taos.  It  is  reached  by  the 
Pueblo  Road,  leading  from  the  plaza.  Permission  to  use  a  camera  must 
be  obtained  from  the  Governor  bait  the  privilege  does  not  carry  per- 
mission to  photograph  individuals.  (Parkin?  fee  25$.) 

The  ruins  of  the  old  mission,  erected  1704,  can  be-  seen  on  the  east 
edge  of  the  pueblo.  The  standing  walls  are  four  feet  thick,  with 
remains  of  twin  towers  in  the  ruined  pile  of  adobe.  The  present  small 
adobe  mission  built  about  1848,  at  the  pueblo  entrance,  faces  the  plaza, 


TAGS     219 

and  stands  on  the  traditional  site  of   the  original  church,   built   by 
Fray  Pedro  Miranda  in  1617,  but  destroyed  in  1680. 

Two  large  adobe  communal  houses,  four  and  five  stories  in  height, 
today  appear  much  as  they  did  at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  in  1540. 
They  face  each  other,  separated  by  Taos  Creek  which  flows  through 
the  larger  central  plaza.  Immense  pine  logs,  hand  hewn,  provide  foot 
bridges  across  the  stream  at  each  end  of  the  plaza*  Here  on  moonlight 
nights  young  men  come  and  sing. 

Until  about  1890,  the  only  entrance  to  the  terraced  rooms  was  by 
means  of  ladders  leading  to  hatchways  in  the  roofs.  As  the  danger  of 
attack  decreased  and  finally  disappeared,  doors  and  windows  were  cut 
in  the  adobe  walls,  but  ladders  remain  on  the  outside  since  the  great 
dwellings  contain  no  inside  stairways.  The  large  main  groups  are 
surrounded  by  smaller  houses  and  by  pole-supported  tapestes  (Spanish, 
platforms),  used  for  the  storage  of  alfalfa,  corn  and  other  produce. 
Firewood  is  sometimes  stored  in  the  space  beneath  the  platform. 
Hornos  (Spanish,  ovens)  for  baking  are  near  the  houses,  and  tall  ladder- 
ends  protruding  indicate  the  presence  of  underground  kvuasf  where  the 
men  of  the  tribe  hold  their  meetings  and  teach  the  boys  the  ancient  cere- 
monies and  traditions.  Women  enter  the  kivas  only  on  certain  cere- 
monial occasions.  Visitors  are  not  allowed. 

They  teach  their  children  early  in  the  ways  of  the  Indian,  shield 
them  from  too  close  contact  with  strangers,  and  preserve  the  ancient 
ways  and  modes  of  thought  with  vigor  seldom  found  in  a  primitive 
people  amidst  modernism  and  change.  They  are  a  handsome,  dis- 
tinguished, and  independent  people,  always  courteous,  but  never  curry- 
ing favor  with  the  white  man. 

They  are  chiefly  farmers  and  stockmen,  though  a  few  keep  small 
stores  generally  designated  by  a  blanket  hung  up  outside  the  door. 
Several  are  painters,  others  are  workers  in  beads  and  drum-makers. 
As  among  all  Pueblos,  the  women  are  the  heads  of  the  families  and 
keep  the  homes.  Very  little  pottery  is  made  here,  the  traditional  kind 
being  cooking  pots  and  large  storage  jars  in  brown  with  scant  decora- 
tions in  applied  designs  of  the  clay  in  the  same  color.  Both  sexes  are 
employed  as  servants  in  Fernando  de  Taos,  the  men  also  serve  as  gar- 
deners, garagemen,  and  models  for  artists.  But  they  take  great  pains  to 
guard  themselves  against  the  influences  and  changes  to  which  they  are 
exposed  by  their  proximity  to  white  people. 

The  pueblo  abounds  in  ancient  ceremonialism.  The  dances  of  Taos 
are  noted  for  their  beauty  and  precision.  The  Deer,  Buffalo  and  Turtle 
Dances,  as  well  as  the  very  interesting  Los  Matachines,  are  always 
beautiful  and  elaborate,  combining  dramatic  symbolism  with  ritualistic 
movements  of  great  beauty.  The  Corn  Dance  is  also  given  as  in  other 
pueblos,  and  there  are  many  dances  for  rain. 

The  Sun-Down  Dance  is  always  performed  on  the  eve  of  the  Fiesta 
of  San  Geronimo,  their  patron  Saint,  September  30,  the  most  important 
event  of  the  year.  With  green  aspen  branches  held  upright  in  their 


22O     NEW    MEXICO 

hands,  the  Indians  dance  in  thanksgiving  for  harvests,  dance  to  the  sun, 
giving  an  effect  of  a  small  green  branch  rhythmically  dancing. 

Next  morning  after  Mass  in  the  church,  the  traditional  race  between 
the  north  and  south  pueblos  is  run,  always  on  the  courses  leading  into 
the  upper  end  of  the  north  pueblo.  The  winning  side,  ^it  is  popularly 
said,  gains  the  right  to  name  the  governor  for  the  following  year.  The 
Indians  themselves  say  that  the  race  is  for  the  purpose  of  assuring  the 
Sun  Father  of  their  ability  and  willingness  to  lend  him  their  strength  ^to 
augment  his  waning  vigor.  However,  this  may  be  not  the  real  signifi- 
cance but  only  a  reason  given  to  satisfy  inquirers.  The  secrets  of  the 
ceremonies  are  carefully  guarded, 

POINTS  OF  INTEREST 

(DON  FERNANDO  DE  TAOS) 

I.  The  PLAZA  around  which  the  first  Spanish  settlers  built  their 
homes  is  still  the  center  of  life  in  the  village.  The  buildings  around  it 
today  are  nondescript  pseudo-territorial  and  pseudo-Spanish-Colonial. 
Where  the  flagpole  now  stands  the  first  residents  drew  water  from  a 
community  well.  Here,  after  the  massacre  of  1680,  when  the  rear 
walls  of  the  houses  were  joined  to  make  a  rectangular  fortress,  sheep 
and  cattle  were  driven  at  night  for  safety.  Here  the  covered  wagons 
of  trail  days  rumbled  warily  in,  to  be  greeted  by  the  cheers  of  the 
villagers,  noted  for  their  hospitality,  their  fandangos,  and  their  brew  of 
raw  whiskey,  called  "Taos  lightnin'  "  by  the  mountain  men.  The  roads 
branching  out  from  the  plaza  are  still  in  use,  as  winding  and  narrow  as 
the  original  cow-paths.  Most  of  them  follow  the  old  trails.  The 
Navaho  Trail,  which  led  west  across  the  Rio  Grande  at  Wamsley 
Crossing  to  the  great  plateau  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  where  wild 
horses  once  roamed,  is  now  a  well  traveled  road  to  La  Otra  Banda,  as 
the  county  west  of  the  river  is  called.  The  Picuris  Trail  led  to  the 
pueblo  of  that  name  and  probably  followed  much  the  same  course  as 
the  present  highway  to  the  south.  The  Kiowa  Trail  ran  along  the  base 
of  the  mountains,  and  the  old  Taos  Trail  followed  the  route  of  the 
present  NM  3,  north  of  the  Colorado  line,  and  east  to  Bent's  Fort  on 
the  Arkansas  River.  The  Santa  Fe  Trail  followed  the  route  of  US  64, 
and  the  Cimarron  Route  was  the  same  until  it  turned  east  to  pass 
through  the  present  town  of  Springer.  Thus  the  plaza  is  the  hub  of 
the  wheel  of  activity  in  Taos  County;  the  spokes  are  the  trails  which 
converge  in  it  Over  these,  past  and  present-day  travelers  have  passed 
to  Taos  where  the  Old  West  is  entrenched,  and  out  again  into  the 
world. 

2.  The  COURTHOUSE,  a  two-story  building  near  the  center  of 
the  N.  side  of  the  plaza,  is  the  third  building  on  the  same  site  to  be  used 
as  a  hall  of  justice  and  seat  of  government  for  Taos  County,  the  first 
dating  from  the  Mexican  era  and  the  second  from  1880.  The  present 
building,  built  in  the  fall  of  1933  (the  former  razed  by  fire  in  1932),  is 
notable  for  the  fresco  paintings  by  the  Taos  artists  Lockwood,  Bisttram, 


Tor1 

Raton 

DON  FERNANDO  DE  TAOS 

1940 

LEGEND 

U.S.  Highways 
Connecting  Streets 

Cemetery 


300200 100  0         °      300 
Feet 


5 


222     NEW    MEXICO 

Phillips,  and  Higgins,  which  were  done  on  a  WPA  Project.  The 
compositions  are  allegorical  because  the  historical  events  of  Taos  are  yet 
subjects  of  bitter  controversy.  The  largest,  by  Victor  Higgins,  depicts 
Moses,  the  Law  Giver;  Aspiration  is  by  Emil  Bisttram;  Avarice  Breeds 
Crime,  and  Justice  Begets  Content  by  Ward  Lockwood;  and  Obedience 
Casts  Out  Fear  by  Bert  Phillips.  Five  other  panels,.  Transgression  and 
Reconciliation  by  Emil  Bisttram,  Superfluous  Laws  Oppress  and  Suffi- 
cient Law  Protects  by  Ward  Lockwood,  and  The  Shadow  of  Crime  by 
Bert  Phillips,  complement  the  first. 

3.  The  TAOS  INN,  located  on  Pueblo  Road  at  Bent  Street,  was 
formerly  the  home  of  Dr.  J.  P.  Martin,  pioneer  Taos  County  physician 
and  surgeon. 

4.  LA  FONDA  HOTEL,  occupying  most  of  the  S.  side  of  the 
plaza,  was  in  former  times  the  old  Bent  and  St.  Vrain  store,  established 
in  1832. 

5.  The  KIT  CARSON  HOUSE,  on  the  N.  side  of  Kit  Carson 
Ave.,  is  part  of  a  group  of  buildings  built  around  a  patio.    The  house  at 
the  front,  labelled  The  Kit  Carson  House,  now  belongs  to  the  Bent 
Lodge,  No.  42,  of  the  Masonic  Order.     From  1858  to  1866  this  was 
Kit  Carson's  headquarters,  office,  and  home.    Carson  lived  in  rooms  at 
the  back  of  the  patio  and  used  the  front  for  offices  and  commissary.    In 
recent  years  an  old-style  portal  has  been  added  to  the  house,  otherwise 
very  plain  in  design. 

6.  KIT  CARSON  CEMETERY  lies  at  the  end  of  Dragoon  Lane, 
extending  N.  from  Kit  Carson  Ave.    Here,  Kit  Carson  and  Padre  Jose 
Martinez  are  buried.    The  tombstone  on  the  Carson  grave  was  put  up 
by  the  Masons  in  the  1 880*5.    In  1952  the  State  purchased  the  cemetery 
and  19  additional  acres  to  establish  the  Kit  Carson  Memorial  Park. 

7.  HARWOOD  FOUNDATION  (open  weekdays  10-12  and  2-5, 
free),   S.  side  of  Ledoux  St.,  consists  of  a  group  of  studio  apartments  in 
Pueblo  type  architecture,  a  library,  and  a  large  exhibition  room.     The 
Foundation  was  established  in  1923  by  Mrs.  Lucy  Case  Harwood  in 
memory  ot  her  husband,  Bert  C.  Harwood,  a  painter,  who  came  to  Taos 
in   1917,  and  died  here.     Many  of  his  paintings  are  in   the  gallery. 
Artists  of  Taos  exhibit  jointly  in  the  large,  well-lighted  hall.     Mrs. 
Harwood  bequeathed  the  Foundation  to  the  University  of  New  Mexico, 
and  it  is  now  open  as  a  community  center.    University  Field  School  of 
Art  is  held  there  in  summer  and  in  autumn  University  Field  School  of 
Arts  and  Crafts  with  extension  courses  during  other  months. 

8.  The  TRUJILLO  HOUSE  (pronounced  Tru-hee-yo)  on  Ran- 
chitos  Road  facing  the  placita  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  Church, 
one  block  W.  of  the  plaza,  is  an  outstanding  example  of  the  original 
flat-roofed  type  of  Spanish-Colonial  house  with  a  portal  supported  by 
posts.  This  house  was  built  in  1856  and  was  used  as  a  storehouse 
by  Antonio  Jose  Valdez;  it  represents  the  type  of  structures  which  at 
one  time  surrounded  the  plaza. 


TADS      223 

9.  The  MONTANER  HOUSE,  on  Padre  Martinez  St.,  three 
blocks  W.  of  the  plaza,  was  one  of  a  group  of  buildings,  including  a 
near-by  chapel  which  belonged  to  Padre  Antonio  Jose  Martinez,  who 
lived  in  Taos  from  1826  until  his  death  in  1867.  The  house  occupies 
the  site  of  his  school  for  boys  and  girls* 

ip.  The  MANBY  HOUSE,  on  the  E.  side  of  Pueblo  Road,  oppo- 
site Governor  Bent  St.,  and  adjoining  the  Martin  Hotel,  was  the  home 
of  A.  R.  Manby,  an  English  eccentric  and  adventurer  who  came  to 
Taos  in  1894-5.  His  decapitated  body  was  found  in  his  house  on  the 
evening  of  July  3,  1929.  The  incident  stands  today  as  one  of  Taos' 
unsolved  murder  mysteries.  The  house  has  been  greatly  altered. 

u.  The  HOUSE  OF  GOVERNOR  CHARLES  BENT  in 
Spanish-Colonial  one-story  type  of  architecture,  is  on  Governor  Bent 
St.,  where  Governor  Bent  was  scalped  during  the  insurrection  of  1847. 
His  family  escaped  by  digging  through  the  adobe  wail  to  the  house 
next  door. 

POINTS  OF  INTEREST  IN  ENVIRONS 

Placitas,  0.7  m.;  Ranches  de  Taos,  4.4  m.;  Arroyo  Hondo,  12  m.;  Kiowa  Ranch, 
D.  H.  Lawrence  Shrine,  17.5  m.  (see  Tour  Sa). 


III 
Afost  Accessible  Places 


Tour  i 

(Trinidad,  Colorado) — Raton — Las  Vegas — Santa  Fe — Albuquerque — 
Los  Lunas — Socorro — Las  Cruces — Anthony — (El  Paso) ;  US  85  and 
US  85-80. 
Colorado  Line  to  Texas  Line,  491  #z. 

Two-lane  and  four-lane  bituminous-paved  roadbed.  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 
Fe  Railway  roughly  parallels  entire  route.  Accommodations  in  principal 
towns. 

North  and  east  of  Santa  Fe  US  85  follows  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail 
and  south  of  Santa  Fe  approximates  El  Camino  Real  (the  royal 
road).  Both  have  played  important  parts  in  the  history  of  the  State. 
Over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  came  the  first  white  men  to  enter  New  Mexico 
from  the  East  (French  fur  traders  and  trappers)  followed  by  pack 
trains  and  wagon  trains.  General  Kearny  marched  his  Army  of  the 
West  in  1846  through  the  valleys  and  passes  between  Las  Vegas  and 
Santa  Fe  where  later  the  Union  armies  defeated  the  Confederates  and 
thwarted  their  plan  to  block  the  flow  of  gold  from  California  to  the 
Union  government. 

South  of  Santa  Fe  is  the  country  traversed  by  explorers,  colonizers, 
and  those  engaged  in  trade  between  Santa  Fe  and  Chihuahua,  Mexico; 
in  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  the  famished  Spaniards  first  came 
upon  the  Indian  fields  of  corn,  beans,  and  pumpkin.  El  Carmino  Real 
was  the  name  given  the  route  taken  from  Chihuahua  by  Augustm 
Rodriguez  in  1581. 

Section  a.     COLORADO  LINE  TO  SANTA  FE,  180  m. 

The  northern  part  of  US  85  goes  through  Raton  Pass  and  crosses 
alternating  mountains  and  plains,  connecting  occasional  villages  of  adobe 
hpuses.  The  magnificent  views  with  their  vast  expanses  of  sky  and 
level,  grassy  lands  that  sweep  clear  to  the  mountains  are  characteristic 
of  the  entire  route. 

US  85  crosses  the  NEW  MEXICO  LINE,  0  m.,  which  is  15 
miles  south  of  Trinidad,  Colorado,  over  Raton  Pass,  so  named  for  the 
many  pack  rats  on  the  mountainside. 

The  WOOTTON  RANCH  HOUSE,  immediately  north  of  the  New 
Mexico-Colorado  Line,  was  rebuilt  by  Colonel  Owensy  on  the  exact 
spot  where  Uncle  Dick  Wootton  obstructed  the  highway  with  heavy 
chains  to  insure  payment  of  toll  for  the  twenty-seven  miles  of  road  he 
had  constructed  in  1 866  over  Raton  Pass,  until  that  time  the  most  diffi- 
cult section  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

The  usual  charge  for  wagons  was  $1.50  and  old-timers  relate  how 
Uncle  Dick  would  hitch  his  mules  outside  the  combination  general  store 

227 


228     NEW     MEXICO 

and  bank  in  the  nearest  town  while  he  carried  in  a  whisky  keg  full 
of  silver  dollars. 

Through  his  gate  passed  freighters,  soldiers,  homeseekers,  outlaws, 
and  Indians.  Only  the  latter  were  not  asked  for  payment.  Wootton 
believed  they  would  not  understand  the  toll  system  and  wanted  to 
avoid  angering  or  delaying  them.  But  those  Spanish-speaking  travelers 
who  also  found  his  barrier  objectionable  had  their  protests  settled  with 
diplomacy  or  a  club.  Cattle  thieves  were  a  source  of  trouble  to  Uncle 
Dick.  Often  they  would  seek  employment  at  his  ranch  house  in  order 
to  steal  the  animals  of  travelers  who  were  spending  the  night  there. 

Dick  (Richens  Lacy)  Wootton  had  many  ventures  beside  his  toll 
road.  He  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1816,  given  a  "fair  business  educa- 
tion," and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  worked  on  a  tobacco  plantation;  a 
year  later  he  was  employed  on  a  Mississippi  cotton  field  where  he  heard 
stories  of  adventures  in  the  West  that  led  him  to  Independence,  Mis- 
souri, starting  point  for  caravans  leading  over  the  Santa  Fe  Trail. 
The  money  being  made  in  furs  appealed  to  young  Dick  who  became 
a  trapper  with  headquarters  at  Fort  Bent  (now  Colorado). 

From  this  point  in  1838  Dick  Wootton  and  a  dozen  kindred  spirits 
set  forth  on  a  trapping  adventure  that  took  them  into  the  far  north- 
west, then  into  California.  When  several  days  distant  from  the  fort 
the  discovery  was  made  that  no  one  had  an  almanac,  so  a  Frenchman 
named  Charlefou  was  elected  to  keep  track  of  time  by  cutting  a  notch 
on  a  stick  for  each  day.  Charlefou  had  cut  thirty-one  notches  when 
his  horse  failed  in  a  leap  across  a  chasm  and  both  crashed  down  a 
hundred  feet.  When  Dick  Wootton  and  others  arrived  at  the  place 
several  hours  later  they  found  the  Frenchman  with  both  legs  broken 
lying  on  top  of  a  dead  horse.  The  plainsmen  got  Charlefou  out  of 
the  chasm  by  nightfall  and  yanked  the  bones  of  his  legs  together  then 
completed  the  job  by  using  branches  from  saplings  as  splints.  They 
carried  Charlefou  in  a  litter  for  two  months,  or  what  they  estimated 
to  be  two  months,  for  the  board  on  which  the  notches  had  been  cut 
was  lost.  Soon  it  came  to  be  a  joke  that  no  track  could  be  kept  of 
the  days  and  they  agreed  to  give  up  the  attempt.  ^When  they  arrived 
in  California  they  thought  the  seasons  had  been  advanced  two  months, 
only  to  reach  another  conclusion  when  on  the  way  east  they  were  caught 
in  a  snow  storm.  They  were  absent  from  Fort  Bent  a  year  and  a 
half  and  upon  arrival  learned  that  their  "dead  reckoning"  was  six 
weeks  too  fast. 

For  a  time  Dick  Wootton  served  as  hunter  for  the  fort.  He 
described  the  herds  of  buffalo  as  extending  to  the  horizon  and  the  plains 
at  times  appeared  to  be  undulating  fields  of  black.  He  rescued  an 
Indian  woman  who  was  embedded  in  a  snowdrift  and  dying  and  thus 
won  the  friendship  of  the  Arapahoe. 

Wootton,  now  known  as  Uncle  Dick,  turned  his  attention  to  a 
buffalo  farm  where  the  young  were  nourished  by  milch  cows.  Once 
when  caught  in  a  snow  storm  he  became  so  hungry  that  he  swam  the 
South  Platte  to  retrieve  a  goose  he  had  shot  the  afternoon  before.  He 


TOUR     I      229 

learned  while  in  a  Ute  village  that  the  chief  was  dying  and  that  custom 
required  the  killing  of  a  stranger  when  a  chief  died — so  he  made  a 
hurried  departure.  Once  while  trapping  with  several  others  he  was 
cornered  by  Indians  who  rolled  rocks  down  on  the  white  men  and 
injured  several.  He  won  a  fight  against  wolves  and  another  time  had 
difficulty  in  balancing  his  240  pounds  in  a  tree  where  he  was  imprisoned 
for  several  hours  by  a  grizzly  bear. 

Following  the  murder  of  Governor  Charles  Bent  and  other  Ameri- 
cans, Wootton  led  a  party  of  volunteers  that  assisted  regulars  in  crush- 
ing the  Taos  revolution.  Again  he  led  volunteers  who  sought  the 
Indians  that  perpetrated  the  massacre  of  stagecoach  passengers  on  the 
Santa  Fe  Trail  and  abducted  Mrs.  White,  her  child,  and  a  Negro 
nurse.  By  watching  the  flight  of  ravens  Wootton  directed  the  soldiers 
to  the  Indians'  camp  and  during  the  fight  that  followed  his  life  was 
saved  by  a  suspender  buckle  over  his  heart.  Learning  that  sheep  were 
selling  in  California  at  ten  times  the  cost  price  in  New  Mexico,  Uncle 
Dick  with  four  assistants,  eight  goats,  and  a  shepherd  dog  drove  nine 
thousand  head  to  Sacramento;  the  trained  goats  led  the  way  across 
rivers.  Attacked  by  Utes,  Wootton  grabbed  Chief  Uncotash  around 
the  waist,  wrestled  with  him,  then  sat  on  the  chief's  stomach,  a  knife 
in  hand,  until  peace  was  promised. 

In  1852  Uncle  Dick  was  invited  to  visit  at  the  home  of  Brigham 
Young  in  Salt  Lake  City.  He  was  worried  about  his  attire  because 
he- expected  to  meet  several  Mrs.  Youngs.  His  buckskin  trousers  had 
stretched  every  time  he  crossed  a  stream  and  he  had  cut  off  the  bottoms 
little  by  little.  In  the  dry  air  of  Utah  they  shrank  until  they  came 
up  to  his  knees.  He  made  the  visit  but  did  not  meet  any  feminine 
Youngs. 

After  his  return  to  Fort  Bent,  Uncle  Dick  carried  $14,000  in  gold 
in  his  saddle  bags  to  St.  Louis.  Once  more  in  New  Mexico  he  joined 
Tom  Tobin  in  hunting  the  bandit  Espinosa  and  a  companion.  Both 
resisted  and  were  shot  down.  Tobin  cut  off  their  heads  which  he 
carried  in  a  bag  to  Santa  Fe  and  thus  made  sure  of  the  rewards. 

Uncle  Dick  Wootton's  next  enterprise  was  equipping  a  freight 
train  to  travel  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  a  freight  train  nearly  a  mile  long, 
comprising  thirty-six  prairie  schooners  with  five  pairs  of  oxen  to  each, 
and  an  ambulance  that  carried  anyone  who  was  sick,  also  passengers. 
Forty  drivers  and  herders  were  on  the  train  which  averaged  16  miles 
a  day  and  each  round  trip  netted  Uncle  Dick  $10,000.  He  also  organ- 
ized a  rapid  transit  stagecoach  line;  fourteen  days,  Santa  Fe  to  Inde- 
pendence, Missouri,  one-way  fare  $250;  passengers  were  fed,  usually 
pork  and  beans,  by  the  company;  no  stops  were  made  at  night  and 
travelers  were  compelled  to  sleep  sitting  up. 

The  new  US  85  cut-off  from  Wootton  has  shortened  the  distance  to 
Raton  (see  below).  The  old  highway,  now  largely  impassable,  was 
more  picturesque.  It  skirted  sheer  cliffs  and  cutaways  as  it  wound  over 
Raton  Pass  (7,800  alt.)  and  afforded  views  of  Bartlett  Mesa  to  the  east, 
of  the  vast  plains  to  the  south,  and  coal-bearing  lava-capped  rocks  to  the 


23O     NEW     MEXICO 

west,  behind  which  loom  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Culebra  (snake)  Moun- 
tains. As  it  descended,  it  afforded  a  magnificent  outlook,  extending  over 
a  hundred  miles,  with  Johnson  Mesa,  a  stark,  lava-capped,  table-topped 
mountain  conspicuous  in  the  east. 

RATON,  7  ?n.  (6,666  alt.,  8,241  pop.),  the  seat  of  Colfax  County, 
is  a  stock-raising,  railroading,  and  coal-mining  town.  A  government 
forage  station  was  established  here  in  the  1860*5  at  the  Willow  Springs 
Ranch  on  Raton  (formerly  Willow)  Creek.  Accessibility  to  a  limited 
water  supply  soon  made  this  point  the  logical  watering  place  between 
the  Wootton  Ranch  on  the  Pass  and  the  Canadian  River  to  the  south. 
In  May  1871  Charles  B.  Thacker  moved  his  family  from  Colorado 
into  a  small  vacant  jacal  (Mex.,  plaited  wood  and  mud  hut)  here  and, 
after  sinking  a  well  to  supplement  the  meager  water  supply,  began 
raising  cattle.  In  1879  the  railroad  was  built  to  Otero,  five  miles 
south  of  Willow  Springs  Station,  and  the  latter  developed  so  rapidly 
as  a  railroad  junction  that  the  population  of  Otero  moved  here.  Raton, 
renamed  for  the  Pass,  has  prospered  with  the  development  of  near-by 
coal  mines.  Its  population  consists  mostly  of  Spanish-Americans,  though 
there  are  many  Anglo-Americans  and  a  few  Greeks,  Italians,  Central 
Europeans,  and  Negroes. 

Somewhat  more  than  a  mile  from  Raton  is  Goat  Hill.  From  this 
point  there  is  a  very  fine  view  of  vast  plains,  lava-capped  rocks  and  the 
lofty  peaks  of  the  Culebra  (snake)  Mountains. 

The  NEW  MEXICO  MINERS'  HOSPITAL  AND  HOME  FOR  OLD 
MINERS  here,  accommodating  50  persons,  is  maintained  by  the -State. 

In  Raton  is  the  junction  with  US  64  (see  Tour  2)  which  unites 
with  US  85  between  this  point  and  Hoxie.  Occasional  traces  of  the 
old  Santa  Fe  Trail  are  visible  along  US  85  south  of  Raton:  MESA 
NEGRA  (black  tableland)  of  malpais  (bad  lands  or  lava)  formation, 
volcanic  in  origin,  is  on  the  left,  A  series  of  flat  mesas  and  conical 
hills  of  lava  are  near  Raton  and  extend  southward  three  miles.  Sand- 
stone foothills  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  are  on  the  right. 

Grama  grass  plains  gradually  open  up,  become  more  expansive  and 
sandy,  and  stretch  to  the  horizon.  Grama  grass  is  the  name  given 
to  the  many  species  of  the  genus  Bouteloua,  but  in  New  Mexico  it 
refers  to  those  perennial  grasses  on  the  cattle  ranges,  especially  the 
side-oats  grama  so  valuable  for  feed.  Sagebrush,  yucca,  and  cactus 
are  sparsely  scattered  over  the  plains.  A  towering  windmill  and  ranch 
house  break  the  monotony  of  the  tawny  grazing  lands,  domains  of 
great  cattle  kings  of  the  past  century. 

A  short  distance  from  the  highway  at  14  m.,  just  south  of  the 
Canadian  River  are  the  ruins  of  the  CLIFTON  HofrsE  (R),  a  hostelry 
and  stage  station  for  the  Barlow  and  Sanderson  Stage  Line  which 
traversed  the  plains  of  Kansas  and  continued  to  New  Mexico  during 
the  i86o's.  Built  in  1867  by  Tom  Stockton,  a  rancher,  as  headquarters 
for  the  cattle  roundups  in  that  section,  it  attracted  attention  of  stage 


TOUR     I      231 

officials  who  subsequently  leased  it,  added  a  blacksmith  shop  and  stables, 
and  made  it  an  overnight  stop  for  travelers.  '  The  Clifton  House  was 
one  of  the  West's  best  known  stop-overs. 

In  HOXIE,  22  ;;/.,  is  the  southern  junction  with  US  64  (see  Tour 
2b}  which  branches  R. 

The  valley  of  the  Canadian  (locally  known  as  the  Red)  River 
and  its  several  tributaries  fed  from  the  snowy  summits  of  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Mountains  to  the  west  was  cow  country  until  the  turn  of 
the  century,  its  lush  grazing  land  having  been  dominated  by  the  Max- 
well Land  Grant  Company  and  several  other  large  ranch  interests. 
The  impounding  of  water  and  subsequent  development  of  beet,  fruit, 
alfalfa,  and  grain  crops  since  1900  have  brought  wealth  to  the  heirs  of 
the  original  owners.  The  old  cow  lands  have  been  fenced  and  sub- 
divided; near  the  highway,  but  not  in  sight,  are  nine  reservoirs  that 
impound  nineteen  thousand  acre-feet  of  water  and  feed  all  lands  adja- 
cent to  US  85  (L)  as  far  south  as  Maxwell.  Other  similar  irrigation 
projects  extend  almost  to  Las  Vegas. 

MAXWELL,  34  ///.  "(5,555  alt.,  408  pop.),  named  for  Lucien 
Maxwell,  is  a  shipping  center  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  farm  produce.  In 
the  late  eighties  the  Maxwell  Land  and  Irrigation  Company,  an  organ- 
ization of  Hollanders,  began  making  surveys  of  the  district  for  irrigation 
purposes.  A  general  store,  still  operating,  together  with  a  saloon,  hotel, 
and  livery  stable  marked  the  beginning  of  the  town.  The  original 
land  company  sold  out,  and  with  the  change  of  management  many 
Hollanders  left  for  other  States. 

The  vicinity  of  Maxwell  is  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  sugar 
beets  and  for  a  decade  this  was  a  flourishing  industry.  A  refinery  built 
just  outside  the  city  limits  was  abandoned  later  when  grain  and  legume 
crops  supplanted  beet  raising. 

Left  from  Maxwell  on  a  dirt  road  to  CHICO,  22.3  m.t  and  the  INGERSOLL 
RANCH,  until  1892  the  home  of  Colonel  Robert  R.  Ingersoll  (1833-99).  The 
ranch  and  grazing  lands  formerly  belonged  to  ex-Senator  Dorsey  and  came 
into  possession  of  Ingersoll  as  a  fee  for  successfully  defending  Dorsey  (1883) 
in  a  "Star  routes"  mail  case.  The  place  now  has  several  owners,  and  the  two 
ranch  houses  are  unoccupied. 

From  Maxwell  are  good  views  of  TINAJA  (Sp.,  bowl)  and 
EAGLE  TAIL  PEAKS,  slightly  to  the  northeast  (L) ;  the  former  is 
6,965  feet  high  and  the  latter  7,000. 

FRENCH,  39  m.  (5,804  alt.)  lies  L.  2  777.  on  a  side  road,  and  is 
today  almost  a  ghost  town.  It  was  a  frame  town  that  suddenly  sprang 
into  prominence  when  this  point  on  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  became  a 
junction  with  the  Southern  Pacific,  which  ran  northwest  to  Dawson 
and  its  mines  (see  Tour  2b).  Irrigated  lands  around  the  junction  have 
been  developed  to  produce  beets,  grain,  and  fruits,  and  French  has 
become  a  trading  and  shipping  point.  From  this  point  is  an  exception- 
ally fine  view  (R)  of  the  snow-clad  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  in 
Colorado. 


232       NEW     MEXICO 

SPRINGER,  47  m.  (5,810  alt,  1,566  pop.),  which  is  a  thriving 
crossroads  town,  was  named  for  Frank  Springer,  prominent  scientist  and 
lawyer.  In  1882  it  was  made  the  seat  of  Coif  ax  County  but  in  1897, 
after  a  protracted  and  bitter  political  fight,  the  seat  was  moved  to  Raton 
and  the  Supreme  Court  denied  Springer's  appeal.  At  that  time  the  popu- 
lation was  more  than  fifteen  hundred  but  approximately  five  hundred 
residents  left  during  the  following  year.  Then,  as  now,  it  was  the  trad- 
ing center  for  a  wide  cattle-  and  sheep-raising  area. 

The  New  Mexico  Industrial  School  for  Boys  is  in  Springer. 

Left  from  Springer  on  US  56,  which  is  a  paved  road,  to  a  junction  with 
NM  39,  a  paved  road,  20  m.;  R.  to  ROY,  46  m.;  L.  from  Roy  on  NM  120,  a 
graded  road,  to  BUEYEROS,  91  m.,  heart  of  the  extensive  DRY  ICE  FIELDS  of 
Harding  County.  Discovery  of  carbon  dioxide  gas  seeping  from  crevices  in  an 
extensive  anticline  leads  many  to  believe  that  dry  ice  may  become  an  im- 
portant item  of  commerce  from  this  region. 

Besides  its  uses  for  refrigeration  and  air  conditioning,  dry  ice  has  been 
employed  by  physicians  for  many  purposes  and  by  moving-picture  directors  to 
create  fog. 

The  rock  formation  of  the  CORNUDOS  (horned)  HILLS,  55  m. 
(6,250  alt.),  is  popularly  known  as  Wagon  Mound  because  it  resem- 
bles a  covered  wagon.  This  pile  of  rock  was  one  of  the  notable  land- 
marks on  the  Cimarron  branch  of  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

Between  Springer  and  Las  Vegas  are  several  railroad  sidings,  sta- 
tions, and  abandoned  villages,  now  containing  not  more  than  one  or 
two  families  each.  They  testify  to  the  optimism  of  early  settlers  who 
came  when  the  railroad  pushed  its  way  along  the  valley.  In  many 
instances  buildings  in  these  mushroom  settlements  were  loaded  on  flat 
cars  and  transported  several  miles  to  communities  that  had  grown  in 
size  and  importance. 

COLMOR,  58  m.  (5,800  alt.,  25  pop.),  a  shipping  point,  consists 
of  a  feed  store  and  several  small  dwellings. 

WAGON  MOUND,  71.9  772.  (6,250  alt.,  1,132  pop.),  was  founded 
in  1850  by  stockmen  who  were  attracted  by  pasturage  possibilities. 
They  first  named  their  settlement  Santa  Clara  for  their  patron  saint. 
It  is  now  a  flourishing  trading  center  and  a  wool-  and  stock-shipping 
point  for  Ocate  Valley  (R)  and  Mora  Valley  (L).  Wagon  Mound 
has  an  exciting  history.  Plains  or  mountain  Indian  tribes,  out  forag- 
ing or  passing  by  on  buffalo  hunts,  met  here,  and  raiding  Indians 
attacked  overland  traffic  many  times  at  this  point. 

Dr.  H.  White,  a  popular  resident  of  Santa  Fe,  returning  with  his 
wife  and  child  from  a  visit  to  the  Ea^t,  had  reached  a  point  near  Wagon 
Mound  on  May  10,  1850,  when  he  was  attacked  by  Indians.  White 
and  eleven  of  his  party  were  murdered  and  scalped,  and  his  wife,  child, 
and  nurse  .were  kidnapped.  When  news  of  the  outrage  reached  Santa 
Fe  ten  days  later,  Congress  appropriated  $1,500  for  recovery  of  the 
prisoners,  and  a  large  body  of  volunteers  joined  the  regulars  and  started 
in  pursuit  of  the  marauders.  William  Kroenig,  in  later  years  a  resident 


TOUR     I      233 

of  the  Mora  Valley  below  Wagon  Mound,  was  at  Santa  Fe  at  the 
time  and  he  thus  described  efforts  made  by  the  punitive  force: 

"The  Apaches  and  Utes  were  very  bad.  I  joined  the  company  at 
Santa  Fe.  We  went  by  way  of  Las  Vegas  to  get  the  Indians  who 
had  killed  Dr.  White  and  captured  his  wife.  After  a  long  march 
toward  Taos  we  arrived  at  a  place  where  the  Indians  had  camped  the 
day  before.  It  was  about  two  hours  before  sunset  when  we  struck 
the  Indians'  trail.  Our  captain,  Jose  Maria  Valdez,  sent  me  to  the 
major  commanding  the  regulars  for  two  shift  horses  to  locate  the  camp 
before  night ;  our  request  was  refused  at  first  but  later,  about  sunset,  he 
gave  us  the  horses,  but  it  was  now  too  dark  and  the  Mexicans  lost 
the  trail  and  returned  to  camp.  At  daylight,  the  pursuit  was  renewed 
and  after  a  chase  of  more  than  twenty  miles  the  Indians  were  over- 
taken and  charged  by  the  regulars.  In  this  charge  the  commanding 
officer  was  struck  in  the  chest  by  a  stray  bullet,  but  owing  to  the  fact 
that  he  had  a  pair  of  heavy  gauntlets  in  his  blouse  the  bullet  was 
deflected.  The  regulars  now  dismounted,  waiting  for  the  volunteers, 
the  latter  securing  a  position  between  the  Indians  and  their  horses.  A 
skirmish  was  kept  up  for  some  time,  the  Indians  having  made  the  tem- 
porary stand  in  order  to  permit  the  escape  if  possible  of  their  families. 

"The  Indians  finally  made  their  escape  and  during  the  pursuit  I 
saw  the  body  of  Mrs.  White  lying  against  a  willow  tree,  pierced  with 
arrows.  The  color,  however,  had  not  entirely  left  her  face,  showing 
that  she  was  murdered  during  the  skirmish.  Some  Indian  children 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  nurse  and  child  of  Dr.  White  were  never 
recovered.  .  .  ." 

The  volcanic  rock  that  covers  the  plains  (R)  for  several  miles  be- 
ginning at  84  772.  has  interested  geologists  because  it  is  different  from 
outcroppings  in  the  surrounding  terrain. 

Between  Wagon  Mound  and  Watrous  the  TURKEY  MOUN- 
TAINS (R),  a  series  of  sandstone  foothills,  are  visible  about  five  miles 
from  the  highway.  US  85  passes  through  plains  country  where  the 
grazing  lands  (R)  are  given  over  to  cattle  and  a  small  herd  of  buffalo 
owned  by  a  cattle  company. 

At  94  772.  near  Watrous  is  the  old  TRADING  STATION  (now  a 
private  residence)  erected  in  1848  by  Samuel  B.  Watrous,  pioneer 
trader.  His  old  store,  built  in  sections,  was  a  rendezvous  for  Fort 
Union  soldiers  on  leave  and  here  they  mingled  with  Spaniards,  Mexi- 
cans, Indians,  and  cowbows. 

At  94.2  772.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  to  VALMORA  SANATORIUM,  4  m.,  in  the  Traverse  Valley  of  the 
Mora  River,  protected  on  three  sides  by  green  hills.  Consisting  of  a  central 
hospital  and  numerous  cottages,  it  accommodates  60  patients.  Valmora  is 
financed  by  several  large  wholesale  houses  in  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  for  the 
benefit  of  their  employees. 

WATROUS,  94  772.  (8,398  alt.,  200  pop.),  at  the  junction  of 
the  Sapello  and  Mora  rivers,  is  a  trading  and  shipping  center  serving 
a  farming  and  ranching  community  and  the  Valmora  Sanatorium. 


234     NEW     MEXICO 

Large  lumber  shipments  from  Mora  or  Shoemaker  Canyon  to  the  east 
were  loaded  here. 

Right  from  Watrous  on  a  paved  road  to  the  RUINS  OF  FORT  UNION,  8  m.f 
in  a  broad  valley  at  the  base  of  the  Turkey  Mountains.  Started  in  1851  it 
became  headquarters  of  the  Ninth  Military  Department  which  was  transferred 
from  Santa  Fe  by  Colonel  Sumner  and  remained  here  until  the  fort  was  aban- 
doned February  27,  1891.  Fort  Union  was  built  with  Army  labor  on  a  reserva- 
tion eight  miles  square.  The  principal  buildings  were  erected  around  the 
parade  ground,  in  the  center  of  which  was  a  bandstand.  Close  to  the  fort  were 
the  quarters  for  traders,  freighters,  and  storekeepers,  and  a  Good  Templar's 
building  was  within  its  boundaries.  During  the  i86o's  the  sutler's  store  did  a 
business  of  $3,000  daily;  and  more  than  a  thousand  carpenters,  wagon  builders, 
smiths,  harnessmakers,  and  laborers  were  constantly  employed. 

A  half  mile  west  of  the  fort  was  the  arsenal  with  a  separate  commanding 
officer.  The  badly  eroded  walls  of  the  arsenal,  hospital,  and  barracks  still  stand, 
although  the  supporting  timbers  have  been  removed.  Stark  chimneys  contribute 
to  the  desolate  appearance.  In  the  jail  cells,  still  standing,  it  is  said  Geronimo 
and  Billy  the  Kid  were  once  imprisoned. 

The  fort  strategically  placed  to  protect  traffic  along  the  Santa  Fe  Trail 
was  the  most  important  post  in  this  section,  both  as  a  supply  center  for  minor 
forts  and  as  a  base  for  troop  movements.  It  was  the  heart  of  a  military 
region  comprising  an  area  of  more  than  five  hundred  square  miles.  During 
the  Civil  War  Fort  Union  became  the  principal  objective  of  the  Confederate 
troops  under  General  Sibley.  But  the  Confederates  were  defeated  at  Pigeons' 
Ranch,  Glorieta,  and  Apache  Canyon  (see  below)  by  troops  from  the  fort 
and  the  Colorado  Volunteers,  and  Sibley  was  forced  to  abandon  his  campaign 
in  New  Mexico.  Fort  Union  in  the  i86o's  had  all  the  conveniences  of  a  small 
town  and  was  a  lively  social  center.  Kit  Carson  served  during  this  period 
as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  New  Mexican  Volunteers.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  Fort  Union  are  still  visible,  stretching  across  the  prairies,  the  deep  ruts 
and  wagon  marks  of  tne  old  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

At  114.6  772.  is  the  junction  with  NM  3,  an  improved  road  (see 
Tour  11),  and  NM  St.  65  to  Conchas  Dam  St.  Park. 

LAS  VEGAS  (sp.,  the  meadows),  114.6  m.  (6391  alt.,  13,763 
pop.),  was  originally  known  as  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Dolores  de  Las 
Vegas  (Our  Lady  of  Sorrows  of  the  Meadows)  after  the  patron  saint 
of  the  town.  In  1821  Luis  Maria  C.  de  Baca  petitioned  the  Mexican 
government  for  a  grant  of  land  here  bordering  the  Rio  Gallinas — then 
called  the  Vegas  Grandes — for  himself  and  his  17  sons.  Though  the 
grant  was  made  in  1823,  it  was  never  completely  occupied  because  of 
encroachment  from  Indians. 

In  his  Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  Dr.  Josiah  Gregg,  describing  the 
places  along  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  in  1831,  related  that  after  leaving  the 
Mora  River  he  reached  "the  Gallinas,  the  first  of  the  Rio  del  Norte 
waters — here  the  road  stretches  over  an  elevated  plain  unobstructed 
by  any  mountain  ridges.  At  Gallinas  Creek  we  found  a  large  flock 
of  sheep  grazing  upon  the  adjacent  plain;  while  a  little  hovel  at  the 
foot  of  the  cliff  showed  it  to  be  a  rancho."  This  was  the  rancho  of 
the  De  Bacas  and  the  beginning  of  the  present  town. 

The  first  settlement  of  any  size  was  established  in  1833  when  a 


TOUR     I      235 

group  of  men  from  San  Miguel  del  Bado  on  the  Pecos  River  petitioned 
for  a  grant.  The  tract  was  given  under  the  conditions  that  a  plaza 
be  erected  for  protection  against  Indians  and  as  a  meeting  and  market 
place.  This  settlement  seems  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  Old  Town 
or  West  Las  Vegas,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Gallinas  River  which 
divides  the  present  city.  Dr.  Wislizenus  in  his  Memoir  of  a  Tour 
Through  Northern  Mexico  in  1846-47  found  the  settlement  about  a 
mile  from  the  Gallinas  and  described  it  as  a  place  of  "100  odd  houses 
and  poor  dirty-looking  inhabitants."  It  was  in  this  latter  year  that 
General  Kearny  arrived  with  his  Army  of  the  West  and  from  a  house- 
top on  the  plaza  issued  a  proclamation  taking  possession  of  the  territory 
for  the  United  States.  A  military  post  was  established,  and  Las  Vegas 
was  a  seat  of  military  operations  until  the  erection  of  Fort  Union 
in  1851- 

Until  the  coming  of  the  railroad  Las  Vegas  was  a  typical  adobe 
town,  a  stopover  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  and  a  trading  center.  About 
1879  New  Town  (now  East  Las  Vegas)  harbored  one  of  the  worst 
gangs  of  rascals  and  cut-throats  that  ever  infested  the  West.  A  list 
of  their  aliases  includes  Caribou  Brown,  Dirty-face  Mike,  Hoodoo 
Brown,  Scar-face  Charlie,  Pawnee  Bill,  Kickapoo  George,  Jack-knife 
Jack,  Flyspeck  Sam,  Mysterious  Dave,  Hatchet-face  Kit,  Durango  Kid, 
Pancake  Billy,  Cockeyed  Frank,  Rattlesnake  Sam,  Split-nose  Mike, 
Web-fingered  Billy,  Wink  the  Barber,  Doubleout  Sam,  Jimmie  the 
Duck,  Flapjack  Bill,  Buckskin  Joe,  Cold-deck  George,  Pegleg  Dick,  Red 
River  Tom,  Hog  Jones,  Long  Lon,  Soapy  Smith,  Stuttering  Tom,  and 
Tommy  the  Poet.  After  the  respectable  citizens  were  aroused,  a  wind- 
mill in  the  plaza  center  became  the  favorite  gibbet  used  by  the  Vigi- 
lantes. March  24,  1882  a  placard  announced: 

"Notice  to  thieves,  thugs,  fakirs  and  bunko-steerers  among  whom 
are  J.  J.  Harlin,  alias  'Off  Wheeler/  Saw  Dust  Charlie,  Wm.  Hedges, 
Billy  the  Kid,  Billy  Mullin,  Little  Jack  the  Cutter,  Pock-marked  Kid 
and  about  twenty  others:  if  found  within  the  limits  of  this  city  after 
ten  o'clock  p.m.  this  night  you  will  be  invited  to  attend  a  grand  neck- 
tie party,  the  expense  of  which  will  be  borne  by  100  substantial  citi- 
zens." Hangings  became  so  numerous  that  the  owner  of  the  windmill 
had  it  dismantled. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  town,  wealthy  dons  were  accustomed  to 
take  advantage  of  impoverished  citizens,  seize  huge  tracts  of  land,  and 
run  the  tenants  off.  According  to  the  original  grant,  lands  not  allotted 
to  persons  were  to  be  used  as  public  grazing  areas.  The  Herrera  family 
after  their  lands  had  been  confiscated  organized  an  order,  Los  Caballeros 
de  Labor  (gentlemen  of  labor),  whose  purpose  was  to  destroy  all  fences 
so  that  livestock  of  poor  men  could  find  forage.  They  worked  secretly 
at  night  wearing  white  robes  and  pointed  caps  and  so  became  known 
as  Gorras  Blancas  (white  caps).  The  order  became  so  powerful  that 
the  lands  again  came  into  possession  of  the  community. 

Today  Las  Vegas  is  a  shipping  point  and  supply  depot  for  140,000 
acres  of  irrigated  land  and  the  large  ranches  in  the  counties  of  Mora 


236     NEW     MEXICO 

and  San  Miguel  that  graze  hundreds  of  thousands  of  sheep  and  cattle 
on  more  than  a  million  acres.  The  town  is  also  noted  for  the  number 
and  quality  of  its  schools  and  Highlands  University  and  for  its  climate 
which  is  heneficial  to  sufferers  from  pulmonary  diseases. 

On  the  OLD  PLAZA,  freighters  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  unloaded 
their  goods.  Back  of  the  plaza  is  the  courthouse  and  jail,  site  of  first 
courthouse-jail  where  Billy  the  Kid  spent  a  few  anxious  hours.  OUR 
LADY  OF  SORROWS  CHURCH  on  Church  St.,  erected  in  1836,  is  now 
occupied  by  a  grocery  store.  CHURCH  STREET  in  Old  Town  was 
formerly  known  as  Sodomia  and  La  Calle  de  la  Amargura  (the  road 
of  suffering  and  bitterness).  Its  walks  were  flanked  by  bawdy  houses, 
dance  halls,  and  saloons;  many  were  robbed  and  murdered  along  this 
street.  In  American  Legion  Park,  i  mile  north  on  NM  3  is  held 
the  Annual  Cowboys'  Reunion,  first  weekend  in  August,  and  San  Miguel 
County  Fair  (Sept.).  From  1906  to  1911,  the  old  race  track  was  in 
Gallinas  Park  near  the  Montezuma  Hotel  (see  below). 

Right  from  Las  Vegas  on  NM  65,  a  paved  road  to  MONTEZUMA  HOT 
SPRINGS,  5.5  m.,  and  the  MONTEZUMA  HOTEL,  now  used  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Archdiocese  of  Santa  Fe  as  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  priests. 
For  many  years,  commencing  in  1880,  several  hotels  occupying  this  site  in 
succession  served  as  playgrounds  for  millionaires  from  the  East,  as  well  as 
for  famous  and  infamous  westerners.  The  original  castle-like  Montezuma 
Hotel,  one  of  the  first  million  dollar  resort  hotels  of  the  West,  was  built  in 
1880  by  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  to  accommodate  the  many  visitors  attracted  by 
the  springs.  The  first  unit  incorporated  a  bathhouse  that  surrounded  23  springs 
and  had  a  capacity  of  1,000  baths  daily.  The  springs,  ranging  in  tempera- 
ture from  50°  to  144.°  Fahrenheit,  contain  lithia,  sulphur,  and  sodium  com- 
pounds. % 

After  this  hotel  burned  in  1881  and  another  erected  on  the  site  proved  too 
small,  the  management  built  still  another  structure  which  covered  three  dares 
?nd  contained  300  rooms  set  on  six  elevations.  Vast  wine  cellars,  card  rooms, 
a  dining  room  seating  500,  and  a  casino  for  1,000  were  included  in  the  new 
undertaking.  Walls  were  covered  with  oak  paneling,  fireplaces  were  of 
marble,  and  the  furnishings  were  valued  at  $1,000,000.  In  1885  a  third  fire  was 
followed  by  another  rebuilding.  The  erection  of  El  Tovar  in  Grand  Canyon 
drew  heavily  from  the  Montezuma's  clientele,  and  the  Santa  Fe  found  it  im- 
possible to  maintain  two  such  establishments,  so  closed  the  Montezuma  on 
October  13,  1903. 

Since  that  time  it  has  changed  hands  several  times.  First  it  was  sold  to 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  for  a  dollar;  next  it  was  given  to  the 
Bible  Film  Company  for  use  as  a  location.  In  1921  it  became  a  Baptist  college 
and  was  so  used  for  a  decade. 

At  118  7w.  US  85  crosses  a  series  of  foothills  over  a  winding  course. 
Scattered  over  the  hillsides  are  many  squatters'  shacks  and  adobe  houses, 
mainly  inhabited  by  workmen  employed  at  Las  Vegas. 

A  few  miles  south  the  highway  cuts  through  the  rugged  granite  of 
Kearny's  Gap,  opening  on  fertile  valleys  in  the  foothills  south  of  the 
Gallinas  River.  This  aperture  was  named  for  General  Stephen  W. 
Kearny,  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  West,  who  passed  through  here 
August  17,  1846,  on  his  journey  to  Santa  Fe.  Here  he  prepared  to 
meet  a  large  force  of  Mexicans  reported  to  be  marching  against  him, 
but  they  never  were  encountered. 


TOUR     I      237 

In  ROMERO VILLE,  120  m.  (6,287  alt.,  215  pop.),  a  cross- 
roads trading  center,  are  the  ruins  of  the  old  ROMERO  RANCH  HOUSE 
(R),  built  by  Don  Trinidad  Romero  in  1880.  It  is  a  two-story  adobe 
structure  with  a  dozen  high-ceilinged  rooms  paneled  in  walnut  and 
costing  $100,000.  Here  Don  Trinidad,  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Congress,  entertained  President  and  Mrs.  Hayes  and  General  Sherman. 
After  the  house  was  sold  by  the  Romero  family,  it  became  a  sanitarium, 
then  a  dude  ranch,  and  finally  burned  in  1932.  Only  the  walls  remain. 

West  of  Romeroville  is  the  ROMEROVILLE  CANYON,  a  gorge 
cut  eight  hundred  feet  deep  in  the  mesa  south  of  Las  Vegas. 

TECOLOTE  (Aztec,  ground  owl),  125  m.  (6,010  alt.,  104  pop.), 
is  a  trading  center  settled  in  1824  by  Salvador  Montoya.  Dur- 
ing the  U.S.  Army  campaigns  against  the  Indians  in  the  last  century, 
Tecolote  was  one  in  a  chain  of  posts  established  to  furnish  forage  and 
corn  to  Army  units.  The  ruins  of  the  headquarters  buildings  and  the 
large  stables  still  remain. 

Crossing  the  bridge  over  Tecolote  Creek  at  the  edge  of  the  village, 
US  85  traverses  the  old  Tecolote  Grant  and  rises  gradually  to  the 
long  slopes  of  hard  sandstone  characteristic  of  this  region. 

BERNAL,  130  m.  (6,068  alt.,  241  pop.),  first  called  Bernal  Springs, 
was  the  first  station  on  the  Las  Vegas-Santa  Fe  section  of  the  old  stage 
lines.  Today  it  comprises  only  a  store,  gas  station,  and  a  church  built 
around  a  plaza. 

There  is  a  view  (L)  of  STARVATION  PEAK  (7,000  alt.) 
where,  it  is  said,  120  colonists — men,  women,  and  children — took 
refuge  from  pursuing  Indians  and  starved  to  death.  A  Penitente  cross 
surmounts  the  highest  point. 

Between  Bernal  and  San  Jose  the  highway  passes  three  large  ranches 
(R),  private  estates  of  wealthy  eastern  landowners.  On  the  left  is  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Glorieta  Mesa. 

At  137  m.  is  a  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  SAN  MIGUEL  DEL  BADO  (St.  Michael  of  the  Ford), 
2.8  m.  (6,000  alt,  108  pop.),  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  New  Mexico.  Originally 
settled  by  a  group  of  Indians  who  had  been  cast  out  of  their  tribes  because 
of  their  conversion  to  Catholicism,  it  soon  became  an  active  and  well-settled 
community  augmented  by  the  influx  of  Mexican  herders  and  farmers.  During 
the  era  of  Mexico's  sovereignty,  San  Miguel  was  the  seat  of  the  third  division 
of  the  Central  District.  The  present  county  was  named  for  the  town.  Padre 
Jose  Francisco  Leyba,  the  first  resident  priest,  is  buried  on  the  gospel  side  of 
the  altar  of  the  CHURCH  OF  SAN  MIGUEL  DEL  BADO.  He  served  the 
settlements  of  the  Pecos  Valley,  traveling  the  entire  territory  on  horseback 
through  hostile  Indian  country  for  32  years.  His  ministry  was  a  saga 
of  service.  The  CHURCH  OF  SAN  MIGUEL  DEL  BADO,  built  in  1806,  is  of  rock. 
It  was  constructed  by  the  Indians  of  the  parish  under  direction  of  the  priests. 
Its  walls  were  three  feet  in  thickness  and  twenty  feet  high.  Gold  and  silver 
donated  by  the  faithful  were  cast  into  two  bells  which  today  are  in  the  care 
of  the  parish  priest.  The  first  floor  of  the  church  covers  the  coffins  of  wealthier 
inhabitants  of  the  village.  The  pews  are  all  hand-hewn  and  decorated.  Many 
old  statues,  the  work  of  the  parishioners,  are  incorporated  in  the  church 
appointments.  The  records,  intact  for  many  decades,  give  the  religious  and 
civil  history  of  this  section.  San  Miguel  was  an  important  way-stop  on  the 


2j8      NEW    MEXICO 

Santa  Fe  Trail.    Here  many  Texans  were  imprisoned  when  they  invaded  New 
Mexico  in  1347. 

Residents  of  SAN  JOSE,  139  m.  (6,387  alt.,  556  pop.),  0.5  772. 
north  of  highway,  on  the  banks  of  the  Pecos  River,  depend  on  farm- 
ing for  a  livelihood.  Many  of  the  houses  are  of  native  architecture 
but  have  peaked  corrugated  iron  roofs  that  detract  from  their  charm, 
but  prevent  melted  snow  from  dripping  in.  The  corrida  del  gallo 
(chicken  pull)  is  an  annual  event  (June  24)  still  popular  in  New- 
Mexico  among  Indians  and  whites.  From  surrounding  villages  come 
men  with  their  best  trained,  fleetest  horses  and,  after  a  series  of  elimina- 
tions, a  representative  of  each  community  is  chosen.  The  final  test  is 
to  ride  a  horse  from  a  starting  point  to  a  fat  live  rooster  partly  buried 
in  the  sand,  snatch  it  while  still  mounted  and  successfully  defending 
possession  of  the  fowl,  gallop  back  to  the  starting  point.  The  winner 
is  guest  of  honor  at  a  feast  and  dances  with  the  prettiest  senorita  in 
the  village. 

San  Jose  was  a  camping  site  for  General  Kearny  on  his  march  to 
Santa  Fe, 

West  of  San  Jose  the  highway  winds  over  gently  undulating  coun- 
try; small  ranches,  usually  perched  on  the  higher  spots,  break  the 
monotony  of  the  terrain.  The  land  is  channeled  by  the  inevitable 
arroyo,  carved  out  of  the  brown  and  gray  shales  that  make  up  the  sur- 
face to  the  north.  To  the  south  (L)  is  the  main  part  of  Glorieta 
Mesa,  a  tableland  of  gray  sandstone  that  extends  to  the  Sangre  de  Cristo 
Range.  This  mesa  presents  a  continuous  line  of  cliffs  with  a  level. 
sandstone-capped  crest  which  descends  to  the  valley  of  the  Pecos. 

At  ROWE,  152  m.  route  follows  Alt.  US  85,  right. 

At  155  TO.  to  KOSLOSKIE'S  RANCH,  founded  by  Andrew  Kosloskie 
later  owner  of  the  first  store  in  Rowe,  as  a  main  stop  for  the  Barlow  and 
Sanderson  Stages  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail.  A  large  spring  in  a  dense  copse,  300 
yards  from  the  ranch  house  and  corral,  provided  water  for  horses  and  pas- 
sengers. To  this  place  the  Union  forces  retreated  after  the  first  day's  battle 
with  the  Confederates  in  Apache  Canyon  and  were  joined  by  300  reserves,  regu- 
lars of  the  Union  Army,  who,  with  the  full  complement  of  Colonel  Slough's 
Colorado  Volunteers,  had  come  in  from  Bernal  during  the  night.  Throughout 
the  battles  in  Apache  Canyon,  Kosloskie's  was  used  as  Union  headquarters. 

At  156  7/2.  is  junction  with  a  road. 

Left  on  this  road  within  the  Pecos  State  Monument  to  the  RUINS  OF  THE 
PECOS  PUEBLO,  0.7  m.f  the  strongest  pueblo  in  the  fourteenth  century  and  the 
most  eastern  inhabited  Indian  village  in  the  days  of  the  Spanish  Conquest. 
Always  a  trading  point  between  the  Plains  Indians  and  the  Pueblos,  its  situa- 
tion was  good  economically;  the  land  was  productive,  the  water  supply  ample, 
and  the  proximity  to  the  buffalo  country  a  great  advantage. 

The  pueblo,  a. quadrangular  structure  built  on  a  sandstone  formation  about 
1348  (according  to  the  tree-ring  date  of  a  beam),  consisted  of  two  great  com- 
munal dwellings  of  four  stories  each;  they  contained  respectively  585  and  517 
rooms.  From  the  balconies  of  these  rooms  the  entire  circuit  of  the  village 
could  be  made  without  setting  foot  on  the  ground.  The  Pecos  people  once 
numbering  about  two  thousand  were  rich,  proud,  independent,  and  war-like; 


TOUR     I      239 

but  the  situation  of  their  city  was  not  as  good  defensively  as  it  was  economi- 
cally. In  1540  it  was  conquered  by  Coronado  and  in  1541  Fray  Luis  de  Esca- 
lona  voluntarily  remained  as  a  missionary  at  Pecos.  The  belief  is  that  he  was 
killed  soon  afterward,  becoming  the  first  Christian  martyr  in  New  Mexico. 
Pecos  then  remained  unvisited  until  1583,  when  Antonio  de  Esjftjo  stopped 
at  the  pueblo  for  a  brief  time.  In  1590  Castano  de  Sosa  and  his  handful 
of  soldiers  (plus  two  brass  cannon)  attacked  the  well-fortified  pueblo,  which 
surrendered.  After  Onate's  settlement  in  1598,  it  became  the  seat  of  a  mission. 
The  massive  adobe  walls  of  NUEGTRA  SENORA  DE  Los  ANGELES  (Our  Lady  of 
the  Angels)  CHURCH,  which  was  built  in  1617,  are  visible  from  the  highway. 
In  1680  the  priest  at  Pecos,  Fray  Fernando  de  Velasco,  was  killed  within  sight 
of  the  Galisteo  pueblo  where  he  had  hurried  to  warn  his  superior  of  the 
Pueblo  Revolt.  Pecos  participated  in  this  uprising,  and  the  tree-ring  dating 
shows  that  the  church  was  either  restored  or  rebuilt  after  the  revolt. 

Although  harshly  treated  by  Coronado,  who  referred  to  the  village  by  its 
Tewa  name  Cicuye,  Pecos  suffered  less  from  the  Spaniards  than  did  some 
of  the  other  pueblos  and  offered  no  resistance  to  the  reconquest  by  De  Vargas 
(1693).  Until  1720  the  town  prospered,  but  attacks  by  marauding  plains 
tribes — chiefly  Apache  and  Comanche — had  considerably  reduced  the  popula- 
tion by  1750  when  Pecos  sent  its  entire  man  power  to  carry  war  into  the 
enemy  country.  This  force  was  ambushed  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Comanche, 
only  one  man  escaping.  In  1768  an  epidemic  of  smallpox  left  only  180  sur- 
vivors; and  in  1805  attacks  of  mountain  fever,  a  form  of  typhoid  (or  dysentry)v 
prevalent  throughout  the  mountain  region  at  that  time  (from  impure  water), 
further  reduced  it  to  104;  and  it  was  finally  abandoned  in  1838,  when  17 
survivors  joined  their  kindred  at  Jemez  (see  Tour  9}.  There  are  believed  to 
be  about  two  hundred  descendants  of  the  Pecos  refugees  now  living  at  Jemez; 
until  recently  a  few  of  them  were  said  to  make  a  ceremonial  visit  twice  each 
year  to  their  sacred  cave  in  the  upper  Pecos  Valley.  After  the  exodus  Pecos 
fell  rapidly  into  decay,  a  process  aided  by  those  living  near  who  robbed  it 
of  beams  and  timber  for  firewood.  The  north  building  kept  its  form  for  a  few 
years,  and  its  plaza  served  as  a  prison  to  hold  Texans  captured  by  Armijo  in 
1841.  In  1869  the  beams  of  the  church  were  removed  and  used  as  corral 
posts,  and  its  unprotected  walls  gradually  disintegrated.  The  pueblo  proper 
went  to  pieces  even  more  rapidly;  its  upper  walls  fell,  the  timbers  below 
rotted  away  or  were  pulled  out,  and  not  until  a  sheltering  mound  had  formed 
itself  over  the  lower  stories  was  the  process  of  ruin  arrested. 

In  1915  Mr.  Barry  Kelley,  owner,  deeded  the  ruins  to  the  Museum  of  New 
Mexico.  Since  then  extensive  excavations  sponsored  by  Phillips  Academy  of 
Andover  have  been  made,  and  the  great  mission  repaired.  Among  the  most 
interesting  objects  found  are  pipes  and  figurines;  the  pipes  included  the  plain 
tubular  form  of  very  early  times  and  the  large  elaborately  carved  and  incised 
types  of  the  historic  period.  The  figurines  are,  small  clay  representations  of 
human  beings,  birds,  and  animals.  Although  crude  they  are  noteworthy  be- 
cause objects  of  this  nature  have  so-  jarely  been  found  in  Southwestern  ruins. 
Other  excavations  show  that  the  population  of  Pecos  kept  moving  about  from 
one  part  of  the  mesa  to  another,  building  and  rebuilding.  Ruin  is  piled  upon 
ruin,  presenting  a  vivid  history  of  a  people  that  practiced  arts  and  crafts, 
created  a  government,  and  participated  in  religious  ceremonies  resembling 
those  in  the  pueblos  of  today. 

The  Indians  have  a  legendary  explanation  of  Pecos'  decline.  Like  most 
of  the  pueblos,  Pecos  regarded  the  snake  as  a  beneficent  ^deity.  A  huge  one 
was  kept  in  the  kiva,  regular  offerings  being  made  to  it,  including,  according 
to  Spanish  tradition,  human  sacrifice — supposedly  young  children.  A  sacred  fire 
necessitating  constant  care  was  kept  alive  on  the  kiva  altar.  As  the  Indians 
drifted  away  from  their  paganism  into  Christianity,  the  sacred  fire  went  out, 
and  the  sacrifices  were  almost  abandoned.  The  climax  was  reached  when  a 
particularly  disastrous  epidemic  carried  off  most  of  the  small  children  of  the 
pueblo.  The  cacique  after  ceremonial  fasting,  hoping  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  the  gods,  called  for  a  child  to  be  sacrificed.  Exercising  his  rights  of  office, 


24O     N  E  W     M  E  X  I  C  0 

he  chose  the  son  of  his  war  captain.  Having  already  given  one  of  his  children 
and  having  only  one  left  (owing  to  the  epidemic),  the  war  captain  gave  his 
son  to  the  priest  to  hide  and  substituted  a  kid  for  the  sacrifice.  The  sacred 
snake,  however,  was  not  deceived.  Deciding  that  his  people  were  definitely 
abandoning  their  religion  for  that  of  the  alien,  the  huge  reptile  crawled  from 
the  kivat  then  on  to  the  Rio  Grande  which  he  followed  to  its  mouth  and  dis- 
appeared in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Galisteo  River  (see  below)  is  said  by 
the  Indians  to  be  the  path  made  by  the  snake  on  its  way  out.  This  marked 
the  final  fall  of  Pecos.  The  native  inhabitants  of  the  Pecos  Valley  today 
tell  of  the  Indian  boy,  the  son  of  the  war  chief,  who  was  brought  up  without 
knowledge  of  his  origin  under  the  care  of  the  priest.  He  married  among 
their  people  and  had  a  family  whose  descendants  still  live  in  the  vicinity,  but 
the  Pecos  Indians  have  never  learned  of  the  deception. 

PECOS,  159  m.  (6,800  ^lt.,  1,366  pop.  including  vicinity),  named 
after  the  Pecos  Indians,  is  a  trading  center  for  stock  and  dude  ranches. 
It  is  also  the  starting  point  for  many  hunting  and  fishing  expeditions 
into  the  Pecos  River  Valley.  Outfits  and  guides  can  be  procured. 


Right  from  Pecos  on  graveled  NM  63  which  winds  along  the  banks  of  the 
Pecos  River,  crossing  and  recrossing  it,  to  Cistercian  Abbey,  1.7  m. 

The  countryside  is  part  of  the  SANTA  FE  NATIONAL  FOREST.  Heavy 
pine,  aspen,  and  fir  clothe  the  mountain  sides.  This  region  is  a  hunting  and 
fishing  ground;  trout  are  abundant;  turkey,  grouse,  bear,  deer,  and  elk  mingle 
with  alpine  marmot  and  pika.  Efforts  of  the  State  Game  Department  have  re- 
plenished the  area  with  beaver. 

North,  the  highway  enters  the  broad  river  canyon  which  after  a  short  dis- 
tance narrows  considerably.  Here  are  irrigated  farms,  with  hardy  willows  and 
cottonwoods  along  the  cultivated  fields. 

Lisboa  Springs  Fish  Hatchery,  2.2  m.,  is  one  of  the  principal  units  of  the 
State's  fish  propagation  system  established  in  1921.  This  hatchery  propagates 
rainbow,  brown  and  cut-throat  trout 

Beginning  at  7.4  ;«.,  the  mountains  crowd  close  to  the  highway,  and  the  Pecos 
River  tumbles  over  a  rocky  bed. 

In  Field's  tract  Public  Campground  9.6  m.,  the  Forest  Service  maintains 
ample  parking  space,  picnic,  and  camping  facilities.  At  various  points  tourist 
camps  are  available  at  reasonable  rates. 

Directly  across  the  river  is  the  Brush  Ranch,  11.7  m.  (hunting  and  fishing: 
riding  and  pack  trips). 

In  Holy  Ghost  Canyon  are  numerous  private  summer  houses  as  well  as  a 
public  campground  maintained  by  the  Forest  Service  on  Spirit  Lake  at  the  head 
of  the  canyon.  Rito  Espiritu  Santo  (Holy  Ghost  Creek)  enters  the  canyon  from 
the  left  and  tumbles  into  the  Pecos. 


West  of  Pecos,  Alt.  US  85  traverses  foothills  covered  with  pinon 
and  juniper  and^  crosses  a  railroad  spur  that  goes  north  (R)  to  the 
mill  of  the  American  Metals  Company.  The  highway  enters  the  mouth 
of  APACHE  CANYON,  west  of  Glorieta  Pass,  scene  of  a  battle  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War. 


TOUR     I      241 

Field  headquarters  for  the  Union  forces  was  at  PIDGIN'S  RANCH 
(R),  also  called  Pigeon's,  164  m.,  owned  and  operated  by  Alex 
Valle,  a  Frenchman  who  cut  fancy  "pigeon's  wings"  at  dances.  The 
old  adobe  ranch  house  is  still  standing,  and  the  adobe  corral  with  its 
port  holes  is  just  east  of  a  steep  rocky  bluff  that  projects  out  toward 
the  highway.  Topped  with  an  American  flag,  the  bluff  is  marked 
with  a  tablet  commemorating  the  first  encounter  with  Confederate 
forces  in  the  canyon.  The  battlefield  itself,  west  of  the  ranch  house, 
centered  around  an  arroyo  that  threads  across  the  highway  now  crossed 
by  a  bridge.  It  was  not  far  from  this  point  that  the  Union  cavalry 
was  forced  to  leap  its  horses  sixteen  feet  across  the  same  arroyo  after 
the  Confederates  had  destroyed  the  log  bridge. 

165   772.  J.  of  Alt.  US  85  with  US  85  which  tour  now  follows. 

In  a  small  forest  of  pinon  and  jack  pine  is  GLORIETA,  164  772. 
(7,432  alt.,  500  pop.),  a  trading  center  and  loading  station  for  the 
Santa  Fe  railway  near  the  highest  point  in  the  canyon  at  the  beginning 
of  GLORIETA  PASS.  In  this  gateway  through  the  Sangre  de  Cristo 
Mountains  to  Santa  Fe  and  the  West  a  large  uninscribed  boulder  (R) 
marks  the  site  of  another  encounter  between  the  North  and  South. 

In  March  1862  after  the  defeat  of  the  Union  forces  at  the  Battle 
of  Valverde  (see  below)  Confederate  General  Sibley  advanced  on  Santa 
Fe.  The  small  Union  detachments  in  the  area  fell  back  to  Fort  Union 
after  having  destroyed  all  government  stores  in  the  capital  to  prevent 
their  falling  into  the  Confederates'  hands.  These  Union  troops  were 
later  joined  by  Colorado  units  under  Colonel  Slough,  who  assumed 
command  of  the  forces  at  Fort  Union  and  advanced  against  the  Con- 
federates, who  had  by  that  time  captured  Santa  Fe.  From  Bernal 
(see  above)  Slough  sent  Major  Chivington  forward  with  a  small  force 
to  check  the  Confederates.  On  March  26,  in  Apache  Canyon,  about 
15  miles  from  Santa  Fe,  Chivington's  troops  engaged  the  enemy.  The 
Federal  loss  in  this  encounter  was  5  killed,  and  14  wounded;  the  Con- 
federate loss  was  32  killed,  43  wounded,  and  71  prisoners.  On  the 
28th  when  the  main  forces  of  both  sides  met  in  Apache  Canyon,  Colonel 
Slough  held  the  main  body  of  the  Confederates  in  the  canyon  and  sent 
Major  Chivington  on  a  wide  sweep  around  the  flank  of  the  Southern 
Army.  The  major  succeeded  in  destroying,  without  the  loss  of  a  man, 
the  Confederate  ammunition  and  supply  train  which  was  at  Johnson's 
ranch.  The  main  battle  was  indecisive,  but  the  loss  of  all  of  his  trains 
and  supplies  forced  the  Confederate  commander  to  retreat  to  Santa  Fr 
in  a  demoralized  and  destitute  condition.  Colonel  Slough,  having 
stopped  the  Confederate  advance  toward  Fort  Union,  retired  to  that 
place,  his  aim  accomplished. 

US  85  leaves  the  canyon  at  CASfONCITO,  167  m.f  where  the 
detachment  of  Major  Chivington's  Union  forces  captured  the  Con- 
federate supply  trains.  During  occupation  by  the  Army  of  the  West 
in  1846,  General  Kearny  passed  through  the  canyon  at  this  point.  It 
was  here  Governor  Armijo  drew  up  his  forces  to  oppose  the  invaders, 
only  to  flee  to  Galisteo  before  the  arrival  of  United  States  troops. 

At  the  foot  of  the  hill  at  Canoncito  is  an  old   ranch  house  and 


242     NEW     MEXICO 

church  (R).  The  adobe  house  (L)  was  an  old  stage  station,  JOHN- 
SON'S RANCH,  important  on  the  stage  and  freighter  lines,  and  the  last 
stop  on  the  old  Trail  before  reaching  Santa  Fe.  It  was  the  last  station 
closed  before  the  abandonment  of  the  stage  lines  from  the  East. 

At  170  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  285  (see  Tour  7b)  which  unites 
with  US  85  between  this  point  and  Santa  Fe. 

US  85  winding  over  rolling  country  passes  through  heavy  stands 
of  pinon  and  cedar,  following  the  old  Pecos  Trail.  Just  east  of  Santa 
Fe  three  mountain  ranges  are  seen:  the  Sandia  and  Manzano  to  the 
south  behind  the  cone-shaped  Cerrillos  Hills,  the  Jemez  Range  to  the 
west,  and  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  to  the  east. 

SANTA  FE,  180  m.  (7,000  alt.),  (see  Santa  Fe). 

Points  of  Interest:  The  Plaza,  Palace  of  the  Governors,  Museum  of  New 
Mexico  and  Art  Gallery,  State  Capitol  Building,  and  others. 

Section  b.    SANTA  FE  to  SOCORRO,  187  m. 

This  section  of  the  route,  like  the  first,  contains  mountains,  plains, 
farms,  grazing  land,  here  and  there  a  stream,  with  the  overspreading, 
brilliant  sky  to  hold  it  all  together  and  make  it  sparkle;  it  also  has 
coal  and  turquoise  mines  and  Indian  pueblos  whose  residents  are  not 
only  farmers  and  craftsmen  but  excellent  artists  as  well.  The  highway 
borders  the  Rio  Grande — on  whose  banks  the  Pueblo  Indians  have 
built  some  of  their  villages — which  runs  swiftly  through  the  land  it 
rules,  a  headstrong,  benevolent  despot,  bestowing  largess  on  the  tilled 
fields  and  giving  hope  when  the  sky  withholds  it.  At  flood  stage  it  is 
unpredictable  and  earns  the  other  name,  Bravo,  the  Spaniards  gave  it, 
meaning  fearless,  bullying,  savage,  wild,  fierce,  or  untractable — all  of 
which  it  is. 

Southwest  of  Santa  Fe,  0  m.t  US  85  crosses  the  SANTA  FE 
PLATEAU.  To  the  south  (L)  are  the  little  Cerrillos  Hills  outlined 
against  the  Ortiz  Mountains,  with  the  Sandia  (watermelon)  Moun- 
tains looming  along  the  horizon.  Detached  buttes  stud  the  lava-capped 
mesas  which  slope  to  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  (R),  from  one-half 
to  five  miles  from  the  highway.  All  farming  in  this  area  is  subsistence 
and  is  carried  on  along  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Corn  and  beans 
are  the  main  crops ;  melons,  peas,  and  other  vegetables  are  also  raised. 

At  9  77z.  is  a  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  into  the  Cerrillos  region,  an  area  noted  for  its  minerals. 
Turquoise  was  mined  here  by  the  Pueblo  Indians  long  before  the  discovery  of 
the  country  by  the  Spaniards,  while  gold  was  mined  here  as  early  as  1722 
at  La  Mina  de  la  Tierra  (the  mine  of  the  earth)  on  a  Spanish  grant  of  1696. 
There  was  an  exciting  gold  discovery  here  thirty  years  before  the  184.9  strikes 
on  Cherry  Creek  in  Colorado.  In  addition  to  turquoise  and  gold  the  area 
contains  lead,  zinc,  silver,  and  a  little  copper;  yet  today  the  region  is  mined 
only  for  coal  in  the  shale  upthrusts. 

Foundation  stones  of  a  house,  1.5  m.,  are  all  that  remains  of  BONANZA, 
once  a  town  with  two  thousand  inhabitants.  The  strike  that  boomed  the  town 


TOUR     I     243 

occurred  in  1879  though  the  site  was  staked  out  in  1800  after  the  discovery  of 
sulphide  ores,  lead,  zinc,  and  silver.  The  two-story  structure  was  a  hotel  and 
gaming  house  that  lingered  after  the  town  had  crumbled  and  was  used  as  a 
rendezvous  for  thieves  and  outlaws. 

At  3.2  m.  is  a  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  3.4  m.  past  the  ruins  of  Carbonateville,  Chalchihuitl,  Cash 
Entry,  and  Mina  de  la  Tierra  Mines  to  the  Gem  Turquoise  Mines,  the  most 
extensive  of  the  mines  near  Santa  Fe,  formerly  owned  and  worked  by  the 
Tiffany  interests.  The  Indians  probably  found  this  mine  by  following  a  seam 
of  turquoise  exposed  by  erosion  and  they  worked  downward,  breaking  the 
ledge  with  stone  hammers.  Three  hundred  or  more  of  these  hammers  have  been 
found  here.  The  whole  Cerrillos  region  is  pitted  with  old  Indian  turquoise  dig- 
gings, some  of  which  were  mined  later  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  mines  opened  during  the  last  half  century,  including  the  Sky  Blue, 
Gem,  Morning  Star,  Blue  Bell,  and  Costello  Claims,  have  produced  turquoise 
of  highest  quality,  being  harder  than  most  varieties  of  turquoise  and  truer 
in  color  with  the  copper  matrix  laced  through  in  intricate  patterns.  Turquoise, 
representing  the  "Sky  Powers,"  has  always  had  deep  significance  for  the  In- 
dians. Even  today  groups  have  been  seen  at  several  old  workings  performing 
ceremonies  which  end  with  the  planting  of  prayer  plumes.  Gems  from  the 
Cerrillos  Hills,  identified  by  their  peculiar  color  and  hardness,  have  been 
found  in  southern  Mexico  where  they  were  undoubtedly  carried  by  traders. 
When  Pedro  de  Tovar,  one  of  Coronado's  men,  visited  the  Hopi  in  Arizona 
during  the  first  entrada  of  1540,  they  presented  him  with  splendid  gifts  of 
turquoise  which,  it  is  claimed,  came  from  the  Cerrillos  region. 

There  are  other  interesting  mines  in  this  area,  but  they  are  almost  im- 
possible to  find  without  local  guides. 

The  graded  dirt  road  continues  to  a  junction  with  NM  10  (see  Tour  75) 
at  9  m. 

US  85  gradually  descends  and  declines  sharply  at  LA  BAJADA 
(the  descent)  HILL,  19.2  m.f  a  sheer  bluff  capped  with  black  basalt 
at  the  end  of  LA  BAJADA  MESA. 

At  22  772.  is  the  junction  with  a  graded  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  toward  the  Jeraez  Mountains  and  across  a  fiat  plain 
bordered  (R)  by  La  Bajada  basaltic  cliffs  to  a  junction  with  a  graded  dirt 
road  at  3.2  m.  Right  on  this  to  LA  BAJADA  (descent),  52  m.,  a  small  hamlet 
at  the  base  of  La  Bajada  Hill.  In  Spanish  Colonial  days  La  Bajada  was  a  visita 
of  Pena  Blanca  and  later  a  stage  station  and  overnight  stopping  place  on  the 
road  to  Santa  Fe.  Continuing  westward  across  the  flat  plain,  the  dirt  road 
traverses  the  northern  part  of  the  Santo  Domingo  Pueblo  Grant.  On  this 
flat  the  Indians  graze  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  (drive  carefully).  In 
springtime,  especially  following  a  winter  of  much  snow,  the  entire  flat  is  purple 
with  locoweed  (Astragalus  mollissimus)  which  causes  a  nervous  disorder  in 
cattle  that  eat  it. 

Clumps  of  wild  four  o'clock  (Mirabilis)  provide  shade  for  the  horned  toad 
and  sand  lizards.  Few  snakes  are  found  here,  but  rabbits  and  field  mice 
scurry  to  cover  as  a  car  glides  by  at  night.  Hawks,  meadow  larks,  field  spar- 
rows, and  mocking  birds  share  the  plain  with  a  few  road  runners  fchaparral 
cocks)  and  prairie  foxes,  whose  pelts  are  included  in  ceremonial  dance  cos- 
tumes. This  country  below  La  Bajada  was  known  to  the  early  Spanish  colo- 
nists as  Rio  Abajo  (down  river),  and  on  account  of  its  sheltered  position  and 
proximity  to  the  Rio  Grande  was  seriously  considered  in  the  late  seventeenth 
century  as  a  site  for  the  provincial  capital. 

At  7  m.  the  road  crosses  the  fence  boundary  of  the  Cochiti  Pueblo  Grant 
and  8  77z.  is  a  fine  view  of  the  expansive  RIO  GRANDE  VALLEY,  with 


244     NEW     MEXICO 

cultivated   fields   in    the   foreground.    The   descent   into   the    valley    from   Las 
Lomas  de  la  Pena  Blanca  (the  hills  of  white  rock)  begins  here. 

PEftA  BLANCA,  8.5  m.  (5,042  alt.,  2,036  pop.),  settled  in  the  early  seven- 
teenth century,  was  a  Spanish  wedge  driven  between  the  two  Keresan  villages 
of  Santo  Domingo  on  the  south  and  Cochiti  on  the  north,  and  was  always  a 
bone  of  contention;  both  pueblos  claiming  ownership  of  the  land.  One  or  two 
cases  arising  from  the  conflicting  land  claims  were  so  complicated  they  had 
to  be  sent  to  Spain  for  adjudication  by  the  King.  In  1867  the  parish  of  Pena 
Blanca  was  taken  from  the  Franciscans  and  given  to  the  Jesuits  who  main- 
tained it  till  1910,  when  it  was  returned  to  the  Franciscans.  Unlike  members 
of  their  order  in  other  parts  of  the  State  who  were  of  French  descent,  the 
Franciscans  here  were  German.  Until  1876  Pena  Blanca  was  the  seat  of 
Santa  Ana  County,  one  of  the  seven  original  counties  into  which  the  terri- 
tory was  first  divided;  and  during  the  semiannual  terms  of  the  district  court 
Pena  Blanca  was  a  busy  place. 

After  a  flood  on  July  24,  1930,  had  inundated  almost  the  entire  town,  de- 
stroying 30  or  40  houses  and  adjoining  fields  and  doing  nearly  $50,000  damage, 
dikes  were  built  at  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  village. 

At  11.1  m.  the  side  route  follows  a  street  between  small  adobe  houses; 
corn  and  wheat' fields  beyond  lie  between  the  road  and  the  Rio  Grande  (L). 
The  road  crosses  the  broad  dry  sandy  stream  bed  of  the  Santa  Fe  Wash 
(dangerous  when  water  is  flowing)  at  11.9  m, 

COCHITf  PUEBLO  (Governor  of  pueblo  sells  permits  to  photographj 
cars  must  be  left  in  open  space),  16.5  m.  (,5,600  alt,  426  pop.),  is  a  pre-Colum- 
bian Keresan  pueblo,  with  one-story  adotfe  houses  built  around  a  plaza;  near 
by  are  a  government  day  school,  a  seventeenth-century  Catholic  mission,  and 
two  large  half-sunken  circular  kivas.  Just  south  of  the  village  a  tree-covered 
island  in  the  river  is  used  for  pasturage  and  maize  cultivation.  Cochiti's  old 
Spanish  lan.d  grant  of  1689  was  confirmed  by  the  United  States  December  22, 
1858,  surveyed  for  more  than  twenty-four  thousand  acres  in  1859,  and  patented 
in  1864.  Though  land  has  been  bought  and  sold  at  various  times,  the  present 
holdings  of  the  pueblo  are  about  the  same  as  in  1864.  In  I598  Onate  found 
the  Indians  living  on  this  site  and  from  their  old  Keresan  word,  Kot-fe-te 
(of  obscure  etymology)  gave  them  the  name  Cochiti.  The  first  Spanish  mis- 
sion, San  Buenaventura  de  Cochiti,  was  established  early  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  Juan  de  Rosas  was  placed  in  charge,  but  little  is  known  of  its 
earliest  history. 

In  1650  when  the  Cochiti  conspired  with  Jemez  Pueblo  (see  Tour  9)  and  with 
the  Apache  to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  the  country,  Captain  Baca  discovered 
the  plot  and  notified  Governor  Hernando  de  Ugarte  y  la  Concha,  who  hanged 
some  of  the  leaders  and  sold  others  into  slavery.  Although  the  Cochiti  took 
part  in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680,  no  priest  was  killed  there.  According  to  a 
legend  the  Cochiti  priest  was  warned  by  the  Indian  sacristan  of  the  church. 
In  1681  the  people  fled  before  the  army  of  Governor  Otermin — who  was  at- 
tempting reconquest  of  New  Mexico — and  with  their  kinsmen  from  San 
Felipe  and  Santo  Domingo  took  refuge  at  Potrero  Vie  jo,  a  massive  rock  that 
towers  700  feet  above  the  canyon  about  twelve  miles  east  of  here.  They  re- 
mained there  until  1683  or  1684,  when  they  returned.  At  the  approach  of  De 
Vargas  in  1692,  the  people  of  Cochiti  joined  by  those  from  San  Felipe,  San 
Marcos,  and  some  tribes  from  the  north  again  fled  to  Potrero  Viejo  and  on 
its  summit  built  a  stronghold  named  Cieneguilla  (little  marshy  meadows)  by 
the  Spaniards.  De  Vargas  visited  them  there  and  persuaded  them  to  return 
to  their  homes.  But  after  a  brief  time  the  Cochiti  again  returned  to  the  rock. 
On  April  14,  1694,  De  Vargas  marched  to  the  Potrero  with  70  soldiers,  20 
colonists,  and  loo  Indian  allies  from  San  Felipe,  Santa  Ana,  and  Zia.  He 
drove  the  Cochiti  from  their  stronghold,  destroyed  Potrero  Viejo,  and  re- 
turned to  Santa  Fe  with  a  large  quantity  of  corn  and  over  150  captive  women, 
who  were  liberated  after  the  Cochiti  warriors  had  returned  to  their  pueblo 
here.  Fray  Antonio  Carbonel  was  given  charge  of  the  missionary  work;  and 
SAN  BUENAVENTURA  DE  COCHITI  MISSION,  which  had  been  destroyed  between 


History 


Inscription  Rock,  El  Mono  National  Monument 


San  Miguel  Mission  in  Santa  Fe 


Oldest  house  in  the  United  States,  Santa  Fe 
Mission  ruins  (1629-80),  Gran  Quivira  National  Monument 


Ancient  pueblo  of  Kuaua  near  Bernalillo 

Pre-historic  Pueblo  Bonito,  Chaco  Canyon  National  Monument 


V*. 


Palace  of  the  Governors,  Santa  Fe 
Old  Santa  Fe:  La  Fonda  Hotel  and  St.  Francis  Cathedral 


Old  Lincoln  County  Courthouse,  1870 


Tombstone  of  Billy  the  Kid 


--      TDK 
.  O'FCLLIAPD 
'ED  DEC. 


BCNNEY 
ADAS 
"BILLY 
B1ED  JULY 
CHATLIE  EOf/DRE 
DIED  DEC.  |fl» 


Old  grist  mill  in  Cimarron 


Parlor  of  Kit  Carson's  house  in  Taos 


Repair  area  for  prairie  schooners  in  Old  Fort  Union 


End  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail 
in  the  plaza  at  Santa  Fe 


TOUR     I      245 

1680  and  1682,  was  rebuilt  in  1694  by  De  Vargas  on  the  same  site.  This  build- 
ing, still  standing,  is  34.  feet  wide  and  more  than  100  feet  long,  a  fine  example 
of  early  Spanish-Indian  mission  architecture.  The  exterior  has  been  remodeled 
in  recent  years.  The  old  flat  roof  and  Franciscan  belfrey  have  been  replaced 
by  corrugated  iron  and  a  pointed  steeple.  The  outside  balcony  has  been  re- 
moved and  the  entrance  enclosed  by  an  adobe  porch  having  three  arches—the 
only  attempt  at  decoration — but  the  interior  is  still  typical  of  the  early  Indian 
mission.  Old  tin  candlesticks  brought  from  Chihuahua,  Mexico  long  before 
New  Mexico  was  part  of  the  United  States,  still  firmly  hold  lighted  tapers. 
Above  the  altar  a  large  painting  of  San  Buenaventura  adorns  the  center  of  the 
wall,  while  the  Nativity,  the  Transfiguration,  the  Last  Supper,  and  three 
scenes  of  the  Crucifixion  are  on  the  reredos.  The  ceiling  of  the  chancel  is 
decorated  with  moons,  horses,  and  other  figures  which  the  Cochiti  executed  in 
yellow,  black,  and  red.  Thirty-eight  great  *uigas,  most  of  them  with  Indian 
carving,  support  the  roof.  The  church  possesses  three  wooden  statues  repre- 
seating  San  Buenaventura,  the  patron  saint  of  the  pueblo.  The  largest  of 
these  statues  is  of  French  workmanship,  the  next  in  size  was  done  by  a  Mexi- 
can Indian,  and  the  smallest  and  most  revered  is  an  antique.  In  their  pottery 
the  Cochiti  confined  themselves  to  black-on-white  ware  until  the  recent  re- 
vival of  pueblo  arts,  when  they  included  some  reds.  The  designs  represent- 
ing rain,  planting,  growing,  and  harvesting  frequently  appear  all  over  the 
vessels. 

Cochiti's  fiesta  is  July  i4th,  when  the.  annual  Festival  of  San  Buenaventura, 
patron  saint,  is  held  in  connection  with  the  Corn  Dance.  During  the  early 
morning,  Mass  is  said  by  a  priest  from  Pena  Blanca.  Late  in  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Cochiti  people  were  converted  to  Roman  Catholicism,  but  they  still 
retain  their  ancient  Indian  rites  and  traditions.  The  rather  elaborate  Mass 
is  a  prelude  to  their  dance  for  rain,  the  Green  Corn  Dance  as  it  is  sometimes 
called.  Outside  the  church  are  stationed  an  Indian  with  a  rifle  and  another 
with  a  large  drum.  At  the  close  of  Mass  the  crack  of  the  rifle  and  boom  of 
the  drum  summon  members  of  the  kiva  group  who  climb  up  the  ladder  through 
the  hole  in  the  roof  of  their  kiva.  Led  by  the  bearer  of  the  staff  fetish,  they 
march  in  single  file  to  the  plaza  where  a  large  booth  hung  with  Navaho 
blankets  has  been  built  to  shelter  the  statue  of  San  Buenaventura  carried  from 
the  church  after  Mass.  Following  the  dance,  the  participants  slowly  march 
to  the  statue  and  each  member  kisses  the  robe  of  the  patron  saint  before 
retiring  to  the  kiva.  Sometimes  as  many  as  fifty  take  part  in  the  dance.  The 
men  dressed  in  white  rain  kilts  with  fox  skins  hanging  behind  have  their  legs 
and  the  upper  part  of  their  bodies  painted.  Hopi  rain  belts  and  strings  of 
sleigh  bells  are  around  their  waists.  A  gourd  rattle  is  carried  in  one  hand,  a 
bundle  of  pine  twigs  and  a  branch  waved  rhythmically  with  the  other.  On 
their  feet  are  moccasins  topped  with  skunk  pelts;  and  at  the  knees,  woven 
bands  and  a  turtle  rattle.  The  women  wear  the  black  Hopi  skirt  with  long 
red  belts  wound  around  their  waists;  on  their  heads  are  tablltas  (headdresses 
carved  from  a  board  and  painted  in  bright  colors.)  Small  girls  and  boys 
similarly  dressed  follow  at  the  end  of  the  line.  A  man  with  a  large  drum 
leads  a  chorus  of  male  singers  dressed  in  velveteen  and  brilliant  silk  or  rayon 
shirts,  with  printed  calico  or  white  cotton  trousers  and  buckskin  moccasins; 
some  are  adorned  with  handmade  silver  belts,  and  all  wear  long  necklaces  of 
turquoise,  coral,  shell,  or  silver.  Some  have  buckskin  "leggins,"  but  all  wear 
gay-colored  head  bands.  Koshares  (delight  makers)  wearing  only  a  black 
breech  clout  and  a  headdress,  their  bodies  painted  white  and  black,  dance 
at  the  side  of  the  procession.  The  groups  dance  alternately  until  late  after- 
noon, then  sometimes  join  for  the  final  dance. 

The  highway  passes  over  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  at  22.2  772.  and  just 
beyond  that  crosses  Galisteo  Creek  in  its  arroyo-like  bed,  a  lazy  rivulet 
in  dry  seasons,  of  practically  no  use  for  irrigation,  but  in  flood  times 
a  torrent,  dangerous  along  its  entire  length. 


246     NEW     MEXICO 

At  26.2  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road,  4  m.t  to  the  large  PUEBLO  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO 
(obtain  permission  to  photograph].  This  village  is  inhabited  by  one  of  the 
most  rigidly  integrated  of  all  tribes  whose  dances,  similar  to  those  of  Cochiti, 
are  considered  exceptionally  fine.  On  August  4.  is  their  fiesta  and  magnificent 
Corn  Dance.  These  people  are  a  sturdy,  handsome  tribe  and,  though  re- 
served, are  hospitable  and  welcome  all  visitors  who  behave  with  consideration. 

The  long  concrete  bridge  over  Arroyo  Tonque,  32.8  m.t  marks  the 
junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  here  by  HAGAN  JUNCTION,  2.2  m.,  formerly  a  station  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway,  and  across  the  bridge  over  the  Rio 
Grande  to  SAN  FELIPE  PUEBLO  (alt  5,700,  pop.  856)  2.8  m.  These  hos- 
pitable and  friendly  people  (obtain  permit  to  photograph)  hold  their  most 
interesting  dances  on  their  May  first  fiesta  and  on  Christmas  Eve,  when  they 
dance  in  the  SAN  FELIPE  CHURCH,  an  adobe  building  erected  in  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  entrance  portal  is  flanked  by  twin  towers 
with  open  belfries  and  protected  from  the  sun  by  a  wooden  gallery  with  lattice 
railing.  A  shed  roof  over  the  gallery  is  supported  by  a  large,  wooden  beam 
resting  on  decorative  brackets  at  either  end.  The  severity  of  the  exterior  side 
walls  is  relieved  only  by  the  projecting  ends  of  the  ceiling  vlgas. 

ALGODONES  (cotton),  37.7  m.  (5,088  alt.,  1,073  pop.  of  town- 
ship), a  small  trading  center  for  ranchers,  was  named  according  to 
local  tradition  for  cotton  fields  that  existed  here  at  one  time. 

The  highway  at  37.9  m.  dips  slightly  over  a  wide  arroyo,  which  in 
flood  times  is  dangerous.  (Do  not  cross  when  water  is  high.) 

A  farming  settlement  of  Santa  Ana  Indians,  locally  known  as  EL 
RANCHITO  (the  little  ranch),  is  (R)  at  42.1  m.  (see  Tour  9). 
At  43.1  7W.  is  the  junction  with  NM  44  (see  Tour  9). 

BERNALILLO  (little  Bernal),  45.4  m.  (5,050  alt.,  2,574  pop- 
of  township),  seat  of  Sandoval  County,  is  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  It  was  settled  in  1698  by  the  descendants  of  Bernal  Diaz 
del  Castillo  who  was  associated  with  Cortes  in  his  conquest  of  Mexico. 
Bernalillo  marks  the  approximate  site  of  Coronado's  headquarters, 
154042,  and  of  his  departure  for  Qu;vira  (Kansas)  in  1541.  This 
region,  long  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  was  the  province  of  the  Tiguex 
Indians,  one  of  whose  pueblos  Coronado  occupied  as  his  headquarters. 
Isolated  Spanish  ranches  and  haciendas  existed  in  the  neighborhood 
before  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680;  six  years  after  reconquest  by 
De  Vargas  in  1692,  a  Spanish  village  called  Barnalillo  was  founded  by 
settlers  and  a  garrison  of  soldiers.  In  this  place  De  Vargas  died  in 
1704  leaving  a  will  that  directed:  "If  His  Divine  Majesty  shall  be 
pleased  to  take  me  away  from  the  present  life,  I  desire  and  it  is  my 
will  that  a  Mass  be  said  while  the  corpse  is  present  in  the  church  of 
this  town  of  Bernalillo  .  .  ."  Situated  in  a  rich  part  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley,  the  town  is  now  a  trading  center  for  Indian  and  white  farmers, 
a  shipping  point  for  cattle  and  lumber  from  the  Jemez  country,  and 
retains  some  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  old  Spanish  days. 


TOUR     I     247 

South  of  Bernalillo  the  highway  traverses  the  fertile  fanning  lands 
of  the  Sandi  Pueblo  Grant. 

At  48.9  m.  is  a  junction  with  an  improved  road. 

Left  on  this  road,  0.4  m.,  to  SANDfA  PUEBLO  (197  pop.),  a  village  of 
Tigua  speaking  Indians,  remnant  of  the  once  populous  Tiguex  province  of 
Coronado's  time.  Nafait  or  Nafaid  (Ind.  dusty  place),  the  native  name  of 
this  village,  was  recorded  as  Napaye  by  Onate  in  1598.  The  pueblo  on  a  grant 
of  more  than  24,000  acres  had  a  government  day  school,  a  cluster  of  low  one- 
story  adobe  houses  enclosing  a  plaza,  and  an  adobe  mission  dedicated  to 
St.  Anthony  of  Padua  who  had  been  a  Franciscan,  on  whose  day,  June 
13,  is  the  annual  fiesta  and  dance.  The  old  mission  and  monastery,  estab- 
lished by  Father  Estevan  de  Perea  in  the  early  seventeenth  century,  is  now 
nothing  but  a  heap  of  adobes.  It  was  here  that  Governor  Don  Pedro  de 
Peralta,  having  displeased  the  officers  of  the  Inquisition  in  the  Royal  Villa, 
was  imprisoned  in  1710  for  a  year  with  Father  Perea  his  jailer.  Sandia's 
mission,  dedicated  to  St.  Francis,  continued  in  importance  until  the  Pueblo  Re- 
volt of  1680  when  the  Indians,  according  to  the  old  chronicles,  burned  and  de- 
stroyed the  church  and  convent,  "committing  many  outrages"  and  "desecrat- 
ing the  holy  altars  in  the  most  indecent  manner."  Following  the  reconquest 
(1692)  by  De  Vargas,  the  Sandia  Indians  scattered  rather  than  submit  again 
to  the  Spaniards,  some  fleeing  to  the  Hopi  pueblos  in  Arizona,  where  they 
stayed  for  62  years.  In  174.2  they  were  persuaded  by  the  Franciscan  mis- 
sionaries to  return  to  the  ruins  of  their  old  home.  According  to  report, 
3,000  or  more  left  and  only  441  returned.  In  1748  by  petition  of  Father  Juan 
Manchero,  Governor  Don  Joachin  Codallas  y  Rabal  set  aside  lands  and  re- 
newed the  old  grant  for  the  pueblo.  This  was  confirmed  by  Congress  in  1858. 

ALAMEDA  (poplar  grove),  55  772.  (5,000  alt.,  1,792  pop.  of  town- 
ship), lines  both  sides  of  the  highway.  So  thickly  populated  is  the 
highway  between  Alameda  and  Albuquerque  that  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  village  boundaries.  Farms  here  are  irrigated  by  a  series  of 
modern  canals  recently  constructed  by  the  Middle  Rio  Grande  Con- 
servancy District.  Alfalfa,  chili  peppers,  fruits,  grains,  and  sorghums 
are  the  principal  crops.  On  the  mesa  east  of  the  village,  discernible 
from  the  highway  (L),  is  the  4O-bed  psychiatric  NAZARETH  SANI- 
TARIUM, a  large  modern  hospital  supervised  by  the  Third  Order  of 
Dominican  Sisters. 

West  of  the  village  (R)  at  the  river's  edge  are  the  Alameda  Pueblo 
Ruins,  a  pre-Columbian  Indian  village,  one  of  the  original  Tiguex 
pueblos. 

US  85  winds  through  the  typical  cluster  of  small  homes  set  in 
garden  patches,  through  lanes  of  gas  stations,  stores,  roadside  stands, 
and  restaurants  on  the  outskirts  of  Albuquerque. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  62  m.  (4,943  alt.,  201,189  pop.),  (see  Albu- 
querque ) . 

Points  of  Interest:  State  University  of  New  Mexico,  Old  Town  Plaza,  Church 
of  San  Felipe  de  Neri  and  Convento  of  San  Felipe  de  Neri  Church,  Harvey 
Indian  Museum,  Casa  de  Armijo,  U.  S.  Veterans'  Hospital,  and  Huning  Castle. 

In  Albuquerque  is  the  junction  with  US  66  (see  Tour  6). 
US  85  crosses  Barelas  Bridge  over  the  Rio  Grande  and  traverses 
the  level  river-bottom  plains  composed  of  fertile  alluvial  deposits.     This 


248     NEW     MEXICO 

region  is  given  to  small  farms  and  orchards,  irrigated  and  intensely 
cultivated  under  an  agricultural  program  conducted  by  county  agents. 

Coronado  and  many  of  the  conquistadores  passed  up  and  down  this 
valley,  and  in  the  historical  records  mention  is  made  of  many  Indian 
communities  whose  ruins  border  the  highway. 

ARMIJO,  65.3  m.  (4,950  alt.),  which  is  a  suburban  community 
of  Albuquerque,  is  a  group  of  ranchitos  closely  packed  along  the  west 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande.  These  little  farms  in  the  rich  bottom  lands 
are  watered  by  a  new  system  of  irrigation  ditches  planned  by  the  State's 
soil  conservancy  program.  The  highway  is  lined  with  filling  stations, 
roadstands,  and  small  stores.  The  two  PUEBLO  RUINS  (R)  together 
with  a  score  of  others  dotting  the  river  valley  as  far  north  as  Bernalillo 
antedate  the  Spanish  Conquest.  The  larger  of  the  two  was  the  site 
of  a  Tewa  pueblo,  called  Los  Guajolotes  (turkeys)  by  Espejo  in  1582. 
All  estancias  and  haciendas  in  this  vicinity  were  destroyed  in  the  Indian 
uprising  of  1 680. 

"PAJARITO  (Sp.,  small  bird),  69.5  m.  (4,900  alt.,  1,117  pop.)  is 
surrounded  by  ranchitos  on  both  sides  of  the  river  and  on  the  table- 
lands between  the  Manzano  Mountains  and  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  highway  leaves  the  river  bottom  south  of  Pajarito  and  traverses 
a  higher  country  along  the  Mesa  de  Los  Padillas  (R),  where  are  the 
RUINS  OF  PURETUAY  PUEBLO,  a  6o-room  settlement  of  the  Tiguez 
Province. 

LOS  PADILLAS,  in  early  times  known  as  SAN  ANDRES  DE  Los 
PADILLAS  (Andrew  of  the  Padillas),  72.5  ?«.  (1,842  pop.),  was  settled 
by  the  Padillas  family  in  1705.  Small  ranches  surround  it. 

Southward  a  tableland  mesa  rises  directly  out  of  the  plain,  a  part 
of  the  Isleta  Pueblo  Indian  Reservation  which  stretches  to  the  right 
and  left.  Two  adobe  trading  posts  are  at  74.3  m. 

LOS  LUNAS,  82.1  m.  (4,800  alt,  1,186  pop.),  seat  of  Valencia 
County,  named  for  the  Luna  family,  was  founded  early  in  Spanish 
colonial  days.  Some  of  the  New  Mexico  dishes  popular  today  are 
from  this  section.  Two  of  these  are  enchiladas  ^:rved  with  beans 
(frijoles)  and  posole,  which  is  hominy  cooked  with  pork. 

Los  Lunas  is  on  the  San  Clemente  Grant,  granted  to  Don  Felix 
Candelaria  in  1716,  two  years  after  his  mother  petitioned  for  the  land; 
subsequently  it  was  owned  by  the  Luna  family  and  granted  to  their 
heirs  in  1899  by  the  United  States. 

Among  the  old  Spanish  Archives  (No.  462)  are  the  papers  of 
Antonio  de  Luna,  "dying  intestate  at  the  hands  of  the  enemy  Apaches 
on  June  9,  1779.*'  The  following  inventory  of  his  possession  was 
made  so  his  children's  share  in  his  estate  could  be  determined:  "one 
tract  of  land  in  said  place  of  Los  Lunas;  13  cornfields,  small  ones  and 
large  ones;  three  rooms  of  an  adobe  house;  two  small  houses  and  one 
house  lot;  five  pictures  of  3  handbreadths  painted  in  oil  colors  with 
their  frames  and  one  Infant  Jesus  in  sculpture  of  3  fingerbreadths; 
one  hoe  of  medium  weight;  one  plow  with  equipment;  one  medium 
sized  kettle  and  one  iron  griddle,  both  very  old;  one  mortar;  one  spit; 


TOUR     I      249 

two  benches;  one  pair  of  trousers  of  scarlet  cloth  and  one  jacket  of 
black  cholula  cloth;  one  old  cloak  of  Queratano  cloth;  one  pair  of  use- 
less blunderbusses;  one  branding  iron;  one  horse  and  one  mule;  one 
cart;  four  oxen;  two  cows  with  calves;  four  bulls  two  years  old;  eight 
calves  one  year  old;  600  breeding  ewes  and  412  lambs  born  in  that 
year."  All  this  was  appraised  at  3,607  pesos.  In  accounting  for  the 
property,  the  widow  reported  that  the  hoe  had  worn  out;  she  had  paid 
the  trousers  for  four  masses,  receipt  for  which  she  had  lost;  she  had 
given  the  jacket  for  twelve  masses  and  the  horse  for  twenty  masses; 
the  cloak  was  worn  out  in  service;  she  sold  the  mule  for  one  yoke  of 
oxen;  the  cart  was  entirely  useless;  300  sheep  died  because  of  careless- 
ness and  the  plague  of  lice;  she  had  given  40  ewes  as  a  burial  fee  for 
her  deceased  husband;  118  were  lost  by  the  major-domo  of  the  herd, 
"which  he  still  owes";  2  oxen  were  killed  by  the  enemy  (Indians); 
one  ox  she  gave  for  the  shroud. 

Los  Lunas  was  made  the  county  seat  in  1875,  hut  it  was  not  until 
1914  that  modern  county  buildings  were  constructed.  In  a  region 
given  to  raising  alfalfa,  grains,  and  sheep,  Los  Lunas  is  a  trading  and 
exchange  center. 

South  of  Los  Lunas  the  highway  runs  along  the  Rio  Grande's 
fertile  bottom  lands.  Along  the  river  bank  and  irrigation  ditches  are 
farms  with  the  usual  adobe  ranch  homes. 

LOS  CHAVEZ,  87.8  m.  (538  pop.),  a  trading  center,  is  another 
small  cluster  of  adobe  houses  and  corrals. 

BELfiN,  93.2  772.  (4,800  alt.,  5,031  pop.),  first  named  BELfiM 
(Bethlehem),  was  a  settlement  provided  by  the  Spanish  authorities 
for  Genizaros  (Sp.,  begotten  by  parents  of  different  nations),  captives 
ransomed  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  Apache  and  Comanche  Indians 
and  subsequently  released  from  slavery.  The  Genizaros  also  included 
the  Spaniards'  prisoners,  whose  status  was  that  of  slaves,  but  who 
eventually  were  redeemed  or  released.  Though  the  pueblo  here  was 
destroyed  in  the  revolt  of  1680  some  settlement  continued,  for  when 
land  here  was  granted  to  24  petitioners  by  the  "Mayor  of  Albur- 
querque,"  about  1740  the  Genizaros  of  the  pueblo  protested  that  the 
land  was  already  occupied.  An  archive  (No.  1,226)  reveals  that  the 
settlement  of  Genizaros  at  Belen  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of  a  partido 
(district)  in  the  late  eighteenth  century  and  that  the  natives  were  aid- 
ing the  Spaniards  in  their  campaign  against  the  hostile  Indians. 

In  the  heart  of  the  most  fertile  section  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley 
modern  Belen  is  a  shipping  and  trading  center  for  the  near-by  agricul- 
tural and  more  remote  grazing  lands  and  also  a  railroad  center,  with 
large  railroad  yards,  roundhouse,  repair  shops,  loading  pens,  coal  chutes, 
ice  plant,  and  the  largest  flour  mill  in  the  State.  The  main  east  and 
west  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  crosses  the  main  north  and  south  line  here, 
a  division  point  which  holds  the  record  in  New  Mexico  for  tonnage 
and  number  of  cars  handled  on  the  Santa  Fe  Railway.  In  this  rich 
sandy  loam  four  or  five  cuttings  of  alfalfa  a  year  are  the  rule,  cereals 
do  exceptionally  well,  and  wheat  grown  here  has  taken  first  prize 


250      NEW     MEXICO 

repeatedly  at  many  fairs.  Corn,  oats,  and  fruit  are  also  important 
crops.  The  large- Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Belen  houses  ecclesiastical 
records  begun  in  1793.  Little  remains  of  the  ruins  of  the  original 
church  near  by.  The  Don  Chavez  Mansion,  within  the  city  limits  was, 
until  destroyed  by  fire,  long  a  landmark.  The  barn,  surmounted  by  a 
high  cupola,  was  used  as  a  lookout  in  the  days  when  the  Apache  made 

repeated  raids. 

South  along  US  85  are  irrigated  sections  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 
To  the  east,  miles  in  the  distance,  the  Manzano  Mountains  (L)  loom 
against  the  horizon ;  toward  the  west  are  high  mesa  lands  covered  with 
luxuriant  grasses  that  feed  sheep  and  cattle. 

In  JARALES,  97.2  m.  (L)  (4,000  alt.,  890  pop.),  a  trading  center 
with  a  population  almost  entirely  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  descent,  old 
customs  are  still  faithfully  observed. 

99  m.  to  the  east,  on  NM  47,  BOSQUE  (4,770  alt.,  299  pop.),  a 
farming  community,  was  started  in  the  eighteenth  century  as  a  small 
Genizaro  settlement  (see  above}.  The  Federal  government  has  estab- 
lished a  resettlement  project  here  to  rehabilitate  farmers  from  drought- 
stricken  areas.  Twenty-four  hundred  acres  have  been  cleared  and  irri- 
gated and  homes  built  for  300  families,  each  with  a  well-watered  five- 
acre  tract  of  farm  land  suitable  for  intensive  cultivation.  A  modern 
school  and  community  hall  serve  the  new  project. 

US  85  now  begins  to  traverse  the  old  Apache  country.  For  a 
century  this  nomadic  tribe  harassed  the  colonists,  stole  their  flocks,  and 
raided  their  homes. 

SABINAL  (Sp.,  place  of  cedar  thickets),  99.7  m.  (282  pop.),  is 
a  small  hamlet  formerly  the  home  of  a  large  band  of  Apache  who 
settled  here  in  1791,  after  signing  a  peace  treaty  with  the  Spanish 
authorities.  But  the  "Apaches  de  Sabinal,"  notwithstanding  the  so- 
called  peace  treaty  of  1791,  again  became  hostile  and  continued  their 
depredations  and  guerilla  warfare  until  the  Apache  were  finally  sub- 
dued by  the  campaigns  of  Generals  George  Crook  and  Nelson  A.  Miles 
in  the  i88o's. 

LADRON  (robber)  PEAK,  visible  from  the  highway  (R)  south 
of  Sabinal,  was  a  rendezvous  for  the  Navaho  and  Apache  horse  thieves 
long  before  the  advent  of  American  rustlers.  It  is  the  highest  summit 
in  the  Ladrones  Mountains,  a  lateral  range  whose  slopes  on  the  north 
wall  in  the  Rio  Salado  (salty),  one  of  the  main  tributaries  of  the  Rio 
Grande  from  the  west.  South  of  the  Rio  Salado  are  the  Bear  Moun- 
tains, a  short  range,  backed  farther  west  by  the  Gallinas  (chickens) 
and  Datil  (date)  Mountains,  two  great  uplifts  that  redden  the  high 
country  which  stretches  far  to  the  west.  These  three  ranges,  all  in 
the  Cibola  National  Fojrest,  are  contiguous  to  the  southern  banks  of 
the  Rio  Salado,  and  abound  in  game,  fish,  and  fowl. 

BERNARDO,  110  m.t  is  the  junction  with  US  60  (Tour  8a)  which 
unites  with  US  85  between  this  point  and  Socorro.  Across  the  Rio 
Grande,  (L)  which  continues  its  course  to  the  south,  gently  rolling 
country  gives  way  to  the  bulk  of  the  Manzano  and  Pinos  Ranges. 


TOUR     I      251 

Through  the  southern  and  northern  extremities  of  these  two  ranges,  the 
Belen  cutoff  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  makes  its  trail  to  the  east. 

This  colorful  arid  country  has  lazily  rolling  hills  and  an  occasional 
mesa  that  rises  abruptly.  Mesquite,  yucca,  desert  willow,  and  wild 
verbena  abound;  and  south  of  here  is  creosote. 

At  123  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  side  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  SAN  ACACIA,  2  m.  (208  pop.)  a  Spanish-Mexican 
hamlet  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  SAN  ACACIA  DAM,  con- 
structed here  by  the  Middle  Rio  Grande  Conservancy  in  1934,  differs  from 
most  dams  in  that  it  is  a  floating  one,  erected  on  a  soft  alluvial  bottom  and 
aed  to  a  concrete  blanket  by  a  series  of  cables  strung  along  both  banks  of 
the  river.  In  case  of  a  washout  of  the  dirt  bottom,  the  main  part  of  the  dam 
would  be  held  securely  by  the  cables. 

The  highway  passes  through  a  fertile  valley  lined  with  groves  of 
tamarisks  whose  fluily  pink  blossoms  in  springtime  add  a  vivid  touch 
to  the  predominant  beige  of  the  land. 

POLVADERA  (dusty  place),  127  m.  (6,000  alt.,  295  pop.), 
another  hamlet  where  Spanish  customs  still  prevail,  takes  on  color 
only  in  late  summer  and  fall  when  strings  of  crimson  chili  hang  in 
the  sun  from  the  beams  of  the  adobes,  and  in  early  summer  when  the 
prickly  pear  and  cactus  abound  with  flame-colored  blooms.  The  ruins 
of  the  SEVILLETA  PUEBLO,  the  most  northerly  settlement  of  the  Piro 
Indians,  are  just  west  of  the  present  village.  Onate  visited  this  place 
in  1598  and  called  the  village  Nueva  Sevilla.  The  pueblo  was  evi- 
dently destroyed  by  the  Apache  before  1629,  for  Benavides  describes 
rebuilding  the  pueblo  in  that  year  and  founding  the  mission  of  San 
Luis  Obispo.  In  1681  when  Otermin  passed  through  he  found  the 
pueblo  as  deserted  as  it  is  today.  Also  on  the  Rio  Grande  at  this  point 
are  the  ruins  of  Fort  Connelly,  one  of  the  early  United  States  Army 
forts,  established  in  territorial  days. 

LEMITAR,  130  m.  (5,000  alt.,  387  pop.),  is  on  the  Rio  Grande 
opposite  the  almost  leveled  ruins  of  the  Piro  Indian  village  of  TEY- 
PANA,  where  in  1541  Coronado  with  30  of  his  men  camped  and  in 
May,  1598,  Onate  was  hospitably  received  and  given  a  supply  of  much- 
needed  corn.  In  recognition  of  this  friendly  reception  and  welcome 
aid  the  Spanish  Conquistador  named  this  settlement  Socorro  (succor) 
in  honor  of  Nuestra  Senora  del  Socorro  (Our  Lady  of  Succor). 

SOCORRO,  137  m.  (4,616  alt.,  5,271  pop.),  seat  of  Socorro 
County,  is  built  on  the  site  of  the  Piro  Pueblo,  Pilabo  (or  Piloque, 
as  the  Onate  documents  record  it).  The  name  Socorro  was  applied 
to  the  present  city  by  Friar  Alonso  de  Benavides  under  whose  direction 
the  Franciscan  mission  was  erected  here  in  1628  (see  below). 

Socorro  is  in  the  nearly  level  secondary  bottom  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley,  at  the  foot  of  a  projecting  range  of  hills  (R).  The  Socorro 
Mountains,  about  3  miles  west  of  town,  are  in  the  foreground  (R) 
and  farther  west  loom  the  Magdalena,  Datil,  and  Black  Ranges,  with 
the  San  Mateo  Range  to  the  southwest.  These  magnificent  mountain 
masses  do  not  run  in  parallel  ridges  but  consist  of  apparently  inde- 


252      NEW     MEXICO 

pendent  groups  thrown  up  in  haphazard  fashion.  Rich  in  everything 
that  mountain,  mesa,  and  valley  can  yield,  this  region  is  best  known 
as  a  producer  of  minerals,  shipping  out  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  galena, 
and  zinc.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  horses  are  raised  on  the  grassy 
plains.  Fruit,  truck,  cotton  and  grain  farms  fill  the  valley  drained  by 
streams  that  are  fed  from  the  mountains,  wfiere  much  big  game  abounds. 
The  streams,  stocked  with  fish,  are  visited  by  numerous  waterfowl. 

Socorro  was  a  focal  point  in  the  events  of  the  Spanish  occupation, 
the  Pueblo  rebellion,  and  the  re-conquest  by  De  Vargas.  For  pro- 
tection against  the  Apache  it  was  the  policy  of  the  friars  to  segregate 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Piro  Pueblos  into  concentrated  areas,  one  of 
which  was  Socorro,  and  from  the  time  of  its  founding  more  or  less 
peaceful  terms  were  maintained  between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Piro 
in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley;  although  it  is  recorded  that  in  1665  warriors 
of  these  opposing  tribes  banded  together  on  two  occasions  to  drive  out 
the  Spaniards.  But  the  Piro  living  at  Socorro  took  no  part  in  the 
Pueblo  Revolt  in  1680.  They  feared  retribution  from  the  northern 
Pueblo  Indians  and  joined  Otermin  in  his  retreat  to  El  Paso,  where 
Socorro  del  Sur  (Succor  of  the  South)  was  established  for  them  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Rio  Grande.  During  their  absence,  the  northern 
Indians  of  the  rebellion  attacked  the  deserted  pueblo.  Otermin  and 
his  men,  returning  the  following  year  (1681),  found  the  pueblo  partly 
ruined  and  ordered  the  remaining  buildings  demolished  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  occupying  them. 

It  was  not  until  1817  that  the  ancestors  of  the  present  families 
settled  in  Socorro.  In  a  grant  from  the  Spanish  Crown,  21  families 
including  the  Montoyas,  Bacas,  Abeytas,  Garcias,  Padillas,  Gallegos, 
Lunas,  Vigiles,  and  others  now  prominent  in  New  Mexico's  affairs 
were  given  holdings  to  encourage  th*»  permanent  colonization  of  the 
land.  Dependent  upon  agriculture,  cattle,  and  sheep  raising  exclusively, 
they  settled  on  the  hillside  and  valley  floor,  irrigating  their  crops  from 
mountain  springs  and  the  Rio  Grande,  and  lived  a  leisurely  life  until 
1 86 1  and  1862  when  the  officers  of  the  Union  garrison  at  Fort  Craig 
made  Socorro  their  rendezvous.  The  freighting  and  storing  of  supplies 
here  for  the  Civil  War  campaign  created  a  bustling  activity  that  com- 
pletely transformed  the  town. 

After  silver  was  discovered  near  by  in  1867,  Socorro  began  to  grow 
so  steadily  that  during  the  1880*5  it  was  the  largest  city  in  New  Mexico. 
As  the  center  of  one  of  the  richest  mining  areas  in  the  country,  it  had 
44  saloons  lining  its  thoroughfares  and  was  a  supply  and  shipping  point 
for  the  200  wagon  trains  that  served  the  mines.  This  mining  activity 
continued  until  the  middle  of  the  1890*5  when  the  price  of  silver  de- 
clined. Since  then  the  mines  have  been  worked  only  at  intervals  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  hydrocarbons  and  zinc  ores,  with  discourag- 
ing results. 

The  CHURCH  OF  SAN  MIGUEL,  situated  in  the  exact  center  of 
Socorro,  is  one  of  the  oldest  churches  en  the  North  American  Con- 
tinent. It  is  a  fine  example  of  early  Spanish-Indian  mission  archi- 


TOUR     I      253 

tecture,  having  been  remodeled  twice;  one  of  its  present  walls  being 
the  wall  of  the  first  Franciscan  mission  built  in  1598.  It  has  massive 
five-foot  walls,  hand-hewn  rafters,  old  paintings,  and  sacred  ornaments. 
In  May  1598  when  Onate  stopped  at  Teypana,  he  had  in  his  expedi- 
tion Fray  Salazar  and  Fray  Martinez  of  the  Franciscan  Order  who 
remained  behind  when  the  main  expedition  resumed  its  march  to  the 
north.  A  small  edifice  was  erected  at  Pilabo  (present  site  of  Socorro), 
the  nearest  large  Piro  Indian  settlement  south  of  Teypana,  and  from 
here  the  Indian  communities  were  served.  When  this  was  burned  or 
destroyed  at  the  turn  of  the  century,  the  present  mission  at  Socorro 
was  founded  by  Friar  Garcia  de  San  Francisco  Zufiiga  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  In  1628  Friar  Alonso  de  Benavides,  the  first 
custodio  of  an  organized  mission  field  north  of  Mexico,  visited  Pilabo, 
found  this  Franciscan  mission  established,  and  dedicated  it  to  Nuestra 
Senora  del  Socorro  de  Pilabo,  to  commemorate  the  aid  given  Onate 
by  the  Piro  Indians  in  May  1598.  This  building  was  badly  damaged 
in  1680  by  the  northern  Indians,  and  in  1692  De  Vargas  describes 
sleeping  in  a  cell  of  the  tumble-down  convent.  It  was  almost  a  century 
later  that  settlers  rebuilt  the  mission. 

The  old  PARK  HOTEL  (1836)  just  west  of  the  plaza  has  housed 
many  prominent  men  including  General  Lew  Wallace,  sent  to  New 
Mexico  to  check  the  Lincoln  County  War.  During  1861-62  this  was 
headquarters  for  the  Union  forces.  (Razed  in  1960  for  new  building.) 

The  NEW  MEXICO  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  &  TECHNOLOGY,  founded 
here  by  the  Territorial  Legislature  of  1889,  has  a  campus  of  32  acr&  on 
the  western  outskirts  of  the  city. 

In  Socorro  is  the  southern  junction  with  US  60  (see  Tour  8b). 

Section  c.    SOCORRO  to  TEXAS  LINE,  174  ™* 

Footprints  of  men  and  women  who  made  New  Mexico  history, 
ruts  of  their  wooden-wheeled  carts,  and  tracks  of  the  blooded  horses 
of  caballeros  determined  this  route.  Much  of  El  Camino  Real,  of 
which  US  85  approximates  portions,  was  the  main  artery  of  New 
Mexico.  Early  Spanish  and  Mexican  colonists  built  their  homes  in 
the  valley  through  which  this  route  lies.  Few  strayed  from  it,  few 
wanted  to.  This  was  enemy  territory,  and  safety  demanded  they  keep 
together.  To  the  east  across  the  Rio  Grande  was  the  dreaded  Jornada 
del  Muerto  (journey  of  death)  across  90  miles  of  desert  and  lava 
beds,  with  little  or  no  water — a  grueling,  heart-breaking  experience 
that  required  mort  than  courage  and  demanded  the  utmost  in  strength. 
The  Santa  Fe  Railway  now  dashes  through  this  area,  and  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Rio  Grande  automobiles  rush  by  over  a  modern  road; 
irrigation  systems  enrich  the  region;  and  the  Royal  Road,  no  longer 
imprinted  in  the  sand  or  bottom  lands,  has  been  lifted  to  the  low  table- 
lands by  engineers  and  paved. 

South  of  Socorro,  0  m.,  US  85  runs  through  areas  of  creosote  and 
cactus  with  mountains  on  both  sides. 


254     NEW     MEXICO 

SAN  ANTONIO,  10.8  m.  (4,500  alt.,  500  pop.),  is  a  trading 
point  for  ranchers  on  the  site  of  the  Piro  settlement,  Senecu,  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  aboriginal  Tzenocue.  The  Spanish  San  Antonio  is  a  sur- 
vival of  the  name  applied  to  the  mission  here  in  1629  by  Fray  Antonio 
de  Arteaga  and  Fray  Garcia  de  Francisco  de  Zufiiga,  its  founders. 
Bandelier  records  that  the  remains  of  the  latter  are  buried  at  Senecu. 

The  banks  of  the  Rio  Grande  are  level  on  both  sides  here  and  water 
is  available  by  gravity  flow  and  pumping.  Alfalfa  and  cotton  are  im- 
portant crops  raised  in  the  approximately  6,300  acres  under  cultivation 
in  this  area.  West  of  the  town  is  the  beautiful  boxlike  Nogal  Canyon 
with  walls  ranging  perpendicularly  from  300  to  i,OOO  feet  high. 

San  Antonio  is  at  the  junction  with  US  380  (see  Tour  l%b). 

At  18  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  past  SAN  MARCIAL,  2.1  m.  (15  pop.),  formerly  a  station 
on  the  Santa  Fe  Railway,  to  the  VALVERDE  BATTLEFIELD,  6  m.  Sub- 
sequent to  the  American  occupation  of  New  Mexico,  a  number  of  army  posts 
were  built  along  the  Rio  Grande  by  the  several  commanders  of  the  United 
States  Army  and  nearly  all  of  the  forts  were  garrisoned  until  the  final  subjuga- 
tion of  the  Apache  in  1886  by  General  Nelson  A.  Miles.  Two  of  these  were 
Fort  Conrad,  a  few  miles  north  of  here  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  Fort  Craig 
about  five  miles  south  of  here  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river.  At  Fort  Craig 
occurred  the  first  encounter  between  the  Union  and  Confederate  forces  in 
New  Mexico,  beginning  February  16,  1862,  when  General  H.  H.  Sibley  and  his 
Texans  appeared  before  the  fort  and  were  engaged  by  Union  cavalry  from  the 
garrison.  The  Confederates  then  withdrew  and  on  the  iQth  crossed  the  river; 
the  following  day  a  force  of  Federal  troops  crossed  and  made  a  feint  of  attack 
on  the  Confederates.  This  attempt  was  beaten  off  without  much  loss  to  either 
side.  Some  troopers  in  one  of  Kit  Carson's  companies  of  New  Mexico  volun- 
teers even  lassoed  a  Confederate  cannon  cowboy  style  and  dragged  it  into  the 
Union  camp.  On  the  night  of  the  2oth  Captain  Paddy  Graydon  who  com- 
manded an  independent  company  of  scouts  was  permitted  to  make  a  night  attack 
on  Sibley's  camp.  He  equipped  two  old  mules  with  packs  containing  explosives 
attached  to  short  fuses.  Then  with  several  of  his  men  he  approached  the 
Confederate  camp,  lit  the  fuses,  and  started  for  home  after  impelling  the  mules 
toward  the  sleeping  bivouac.  The  mules,  instead  of  continuing  toward  the 
camp,  followed  their  masters,  who  fled  the  faster.  The  perambulating  bomb- 
shells finally  blew  up  and  awakened  the  Confederates,  thus  making  a  surprise 
attack  out  of  the  question. 

The  same  Paddy  Graydon  had  an  ingenious  method  of  filling  his  ranks. 
Whenever  one  of  his  men  was  killed,  wounded,  or  just  went  over  the  hill,  he 
would  find  some  inoffensive  peon,  accost  him  under  the  name  of  the  missing 
man,  and  put  him  into  the  service  as  the  other  man,  paying  no  attention  to 
the  impressed  victim's  howls  of  protest.  In  consequence  Captain  Graydon 
at  the  time  his  troop  was  mustered  out  had  not  only  a  full  complement  of  men 
but,  judging  from  their  recorded  names,  the  same  men  the  troop  had  originally 
contained. 

On  the  morning  of  the  2ist,  Sibley  moved  his  camp  up  the  river  to  a  point 
about  a  mile  east  of  this  site.  While  Sibley's  men  held  the  fords  at  the  foot 
of  the  Mesa  de  la  Contadera,  the  Union  troops  appeared  in  force  on  the 
western  bank. 

The  Federals  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  here  and  drove  the  Confederates 
back  from  their  positions  on  the  river  bank.  Toward  noon,  when  the  battle 
had  been  fiercely  contested  for  two  hours,  the  main  force  of  the  Texans  came 
on  the  field.  Two  charges  were  made,  one  against  the  left  flank  of  the  Fed- 
erals being  successful  while  the  charge  against  the  right  flank  was  thrown 


TOUR     I      255 

back.  This  latter  was  met  with  a  countercharge  which  scattered  the  Con- 
federate troops.  Meanwhile  the  Union  left  flank  was  stormed  and  the  bulk  of 
the  army's  artillery  was  captured.  The  whole  battlefield  resembled  nothing 
so  much  as  a  swinging  door  with  the  left  flanks  of  each  retreating  and  the 
right  advancing.  By  good  management  and  considerable  luck,  the  Federals 
who  had  their  backs  to  the  river  managed  to  withdraw  to  Fort  Craig,  while 
Sibley  went  on  to  take  Albuquerque  and  Santa  Fe. 

US  85  south  of  the  junction  with  the  road  to  San  Marcial  leaves 
the  route  of  El  Camino  Real  which  until  1919  turned  east  from  San 
Marcial,  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  and  traversed  the  dreaded  Jornada 
del  Muerto,  a  trackless  desert  valley  that  had  been  the  bed  of  the  Rio 
Grande  until  lava  in  Quaternary  times  diverted  the  river  to  the  west. 

The  width  of  the  Jornada  is  approximately  35  miles  and  its  length 
exceeds  90  miles.  Only  two  places  were  known  in  the  old  days  where 
water  could  be  found:  one  at  the  Ojo  del  Muerto  (spring  of  death) 
in  a  steep  canyon  of  the  Fray  Cristobal  Mountains  and  the  other  at 
Laguna  del  Muerto  (lake  of  death),  a  mere  sinkhole  occasionally 
filled  during  the  rainy  season.  For  the  journey  over  the  Jornada,  full 
water  kegs  were  necessary.  Records  left  by  several  of  the  conquista- 
dores,  early  Spanish  colonists,  and  Indian  fighters  reveal  the  hardships 
of  the  trip.  The  "old  road,"  as  it  is  now  known,  is  used  only  by 
local  residents.  Between  the  junction  of  the  side  road  to  San  Mar- 
cial and  Truth  or  Consequences,  US  85  parallels  the  ELEPHANT 
BUTTE  RESERVOIR  (L),  a  lake  45  miles  long  made  by  the  waters 
of  the  Rio  Grande  impounded  by  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  (officially 
named  Wilson  Dam)  five  miles  north  of  Truth  or  Consequences.  From 
this  lake  thousands  of  acres  of  land  in  this  area  are  irrigated. 

Visible  ahead  are  the  Magdalena  Mountains  and  the  San  Mateos 
(R)  ;  left  of  the  highway  the  Fray  Cristobal  and  Caballo  ranges  push 
their  rugged,  colored  peaks  and  escarpments  into  white  clouds  and 
misty  halos.  The  first  mine  registered  in  New  Mexico  (1685)  is 
believed  to  be  the  Nuestra  Sefiora  del  Filar  de  Zaragonza  (Our  Lady 
of  Filar  of  Zaragonza),  supposed  to  be  a  gold  claim  in  the  Fray  Cris- 
tobal range.  It  was  discovered  and  registered  by  Pedro  de  Abalos, 
who  accompanied  Cruzate  in  1683  for  the  reconquest  of  the  Province. 
Southward,  US  85  dips  and  crosses  numerous  gulches,  canyons,  and 
arroyos,  up  and  down  over  the  plateau-like  terrain.  This  topography 
is  so  cut  up  by  small  streams  and  arroyos  that  it  is  readily  apparent 
why  the  conquistador es  and  Spanish  colonists  used  the  Jornada  on  the 
east  rather  than  the  west  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande.  An  Indian  trail 
had  long  existed  on  the  west  bank  but  was  seldom  used  until  American 
occupation  when  General  Kearny  took  his  column  down  this  side  and 
over  the  mountains  to  the  west. 

The  western  bank  was  also  followed  by  the  first  wagon  road  across 
the  continent,  established  in  1846-47  by  the  Mormon  Battalion  of 
infantry,  400  strong,  commanded  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  Philip  St. 
George  Cooke.  Early  in  that  year,,  when  war  with  Mexico  seemed 
inevitable,  the  Church  oi  Latter-day  Saints  had  become  involved  in 
difficulties  in  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  Arkansas,  and  Brigham  Young 


256      NEW     MEXICO 

decided  to  move  his  flock  west.  The  battalion  was  organized  to  blaze 
the  way,  and  when  Brigham  Young  offered  its  services  to  the  War 
Department,  Cooke  was  put  in  command  with  instructions  to  join 
Kearny's  main  body  at  the  Gila  River  near  where  that  stream  crosses 
from  New  Mexico  into  Arizona.  In  Cooke's  journal  which  covers 
day  by  day  this  memorable  march  to  the  Pacific,  it  is  stated  that  the 
battalion  was  completely  formed  at  Santa  Fe  on  October  13,  1846 
and  a  few  days  later  a  march  south  was  begun.  When  200  miles  had 
been  covered  word  came  from  Kearny,  now  breveted  a  major  general, 
that  he  had  abandoned  his  wagons,  acting  upon  advice  given  by  Kit 
Carson,  and  was  proceeding  westward  with  supplies  on  pack  mules. 

Cooke,  having  in  mind  instructions  that  he  establish  a  wagon  road, 
consulted  his  guides  and  decided  not  to  attempt  a  meeting  with  Kearny ; 
he  continued  another  200  miles  in  a  southward  direction  before  turn- 
ing due  west. 

Though  the  Mormon  Battalion  left  .Santa  Fe  with  no  knowledge 
of  military  tactics,  it  was  drilled  on  the  way  and  marched  into  San 
Diego  Mission  on  January  29,  1847  a  well-organized  unit  of  the  United 
States  Army.     That  evening  Lieutenant  Colonel   Cooke  reported  to 
General  Kearny  at  San  Diego  six  miles  from  the  mission.     Next  morn- 
ing, in  "Order  No.  i"  issued  to  the  battalion,  Cooke  commended  his 
men  thus:  "The  lieutenant-colonel  commanding  congratulates  the  bat- 
talion on  their  safe  arrival  on  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  the 
conclusion  of  the  march  of  over  two  thousand  miles.     History  may  be 
searched  in  vain  for  an  equal  march  of  infantry.     Nine-tenths  of  it 
has  been,  through  a  wilderness  where  nothing  but  savages  and  wild 
beasts  are  found,  or  deserts  where,  for  want  of  water,  there  is  no  living 
creature.     There,  with  almost  hopeless  labor,  we  have  dug  deep  wells 
which  the   future  traveler  will   enjoy.     Without   a   guide   who   had 
traversed  them,  we  have  ventured  into  trackless  prairies  where  water 
was  not  found  for  several  marches.     With  crowbar  and  pick  and  ax  in 
hand  we  have  worked  our  way  over  mountains  which  seemed  to  defy 
aught  save  the-  wild  goat,  and  hewed  a  passage  through  a  chasm  of 
living  rock  more  narrow  than  our  wagons.     To  bring  these  first  wagons 
to  the  Pacific  we  have  preserved  the  strength  of  our  mules  by  herding 
them  ever  over  large  tracts,  which  you  have  laboriously  guarded  with- 
out  loss.     The   garrisons   of   four  presidios   of    Sonora,    concentrated 
within  the  walls  of  Tucson,  gave  us  no  pause.     We  drove  them  out 
with  their  artillery,  but  our  intercourse  with  the  citizens  was  unmarked 
by  a  single  act  of  injustice.     Thus,  marching  half  naked  and  half  fed, 
and  living  upon  wild  animals,  we  have  discovered  and  made  a  road  of 
great  value  to  our  country."     Though  Cooke   failed  to  mention   it, 
several  members  of  the  battalion  wrote  stirring  descriptions  of  their 
one  battle  which  took  place  in  the  San  Pedro  Valley  when  the  battalion 
was  attacked  by  wild  bulls.     Sixty  or  seventy  bulls  had  been  killed 
one  or  two  pack  mules  gored  to  death,  and  several  of  the  battalion 
injured  before,  as  the  battalion  poet  expressed  it: 


TOUR     I      257 

Whatever  cause,  we  did  not  know 
But  something  prompted  them  to  go; 
When  all  at  once  in  frantic  fright 
The  bulls  ran  bellowing  out  of  sight. 

With  the  opening  of  the  silver  mines  around  Deming,  the  western 
bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  was  used  more  frequently  and  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  became  definitely  a  roadway. 

West  of  the  highway  is  the  BLACK  RANGE  (R),  an  unbroken 
chain  of  mountains  120  miles  in  length  which  extends  laterally  north 
and  south,  a  treasure  house  of  minerals.  Its  prominent  peaks  attain  an 
altitude  of  8,000  to  10,000  feet.  The  slopes  and  valleys  are  covered 
with  thick  growths  of  pine  and  other  valuable  timber,  the  dark  appear- 
ance of  which  has  given  rise  to  its  name.  Bear,  deer,  and  other  wild 
game  abound.  Mining  has  been  carried  on  in  this  region  since  1880. 
The  lands  that  stretch  west  of  the  highway  to  and  into  the  Black  Moun- 
tains are  fine  for  grazing;  this  being  one  of  the  best  stock  regions  in 
the  State.  There  is  a  good  underground  water  supply  and  sheep  and 
goats  do  well,  especially  Angoras.  Does  and  bucks  from  several  of  the 
goat  ranches  have  won  many  prizes. 

At  68  m.  is  the  junction  with  NM  52. 

Right  on  this  road  to  CUCHILLO  (knife),  7  m.  (145  pop.),  a  small  com- 
munity composed  of  several  stores  and  dwellings.  CHLORIDE,  25.7  m.  (183 
pop.),  ^as  started  in  1879  as  a  mining  camp  by  Harry  Pye,  who  hauled  freight 
to  military  posts  in  the  West.  Pye  knew  something  about  minerals  and  -while 
traversing  this  terrain  with  a  pack  train,  espied  a  quantity  of  ore  where 
Chloride  now  stands.  He  took  a  sample,  had  it  assayed,  and  found  he  had 
made  a  silver  strike.  When  his  contract  with  the  government  was  completed, 
he  and  a  party  of  friends  returned  to  this  site  and  began  working.  The  name 
Chloride  was  given  to  the  mining  camp  because  of  the  character  of  the  ore. 
Pye  did  not  live  to  enjoy  his  wealth  as  roaming  Apache  killed  him  and  sev- 
eral settlers  shortly  thereafter.  Today  there  is  little  activity  in  this  area 
but  it  has  been  steadily  productive. 

TRUTH  OR  CONSEQUENCES,  77  m.  (4,200  alt.,  4,269  pop.), 
the  largest  town  in  Sierra  County  and  a  trading  center  for  the  surround- 
ing mining,  stock  raising,  and  farming  areas,  has  good  stores,  cafes,  hotels, 
modern  camp  grounds,  sanitary  bathhouses,  and  up-to-date  motion  pic- 
ture theaters.  It  is  a  health  resort  and  its  population  is  increasing 
rapidly.  The  town  is  underlaid  with  hot  rocks;  at  a  depth  of  120  feet 
a  temperature  of  120°  is  encountered.  The  Springs  of  Palomas,  now 
called  Hot  Springs,  furnish  an  uninterrupted  supply  of  hot  mineral 
water  highly  alkaline  and  nonlaxative.  Hot  mineralized  mud  and  water 
baths,  with  competent  attendants  in  charge,  are  available  at  all  times. 
THE  CARRIE  TINGLEY  HOSPITAL  for  crippled  children,  a  Work  Proj- 
ects Administration  project,  was  erected  (1937)  at  a  cost  of  $1, 000,000 
for  the  treatment  of  infantile  paralysis  cases.  This  is  a  modern,  fireproof 
hospital  with  a  capacity  of  one  hundred  beds.  The  grounds  which 
comprise  118  acres  are  owned  by  the  State.  President  Franklin  D. 
Roosevelt  took  an  active  interest  in  its  construction. 


258       NEW     MEXICO 

Three  miles  east  of  Truth  or  Consequences  is  Elephant  Butte  Lake, 
held  by  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  on  the  Rio  Grande.  Fine  fishing  for  bass, 
crappie,  bream,  perch,  wall-eyed  pike  and  catfish.  Elephant  Butte  Re- 
gatta held  annually  first  weekend  in  June. 

The  Black  Range  (R)  is  heavily  timbered  and  there  is  good  hunting 
for  deer,  bear,  turkey  and  other  small  game. 

At  86  TW.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  LAS  PALOMAS  (Sp.,  the  doves),  0.8  m.  (140  pop.),  a 
primitive  hamlet  near  the  ruins  of  a  pueblo.  Almost  deserted  today,  it  was 
until  recent  years  a  bustling  health  resort.  Indians,  Spanish  colonists,  cow- 
boys, and  miners  stopped  here  before  there  were  any  accommodations  at  Hot 
Springs.  The  name  refers  to  the  thousands  of  doves  that  lived  in  the  cot- 
tonwoods  along  the  river  and  around  the  springs. 

CABALLO,  91  m.  One  mile  south  is  the  junction  with  NM  180 
(see  Tour  1A). 

To  the  west  at  112  m.  are  the  MIMBRES  MOUNTAINS,  ex- 
tending from  the  terminus  of  the  Black  Range  to  the  northernmost 
point  of  Cooks  Range,  a  continuation  of  this  immense  north-to-south 
uplift. 

SALEM,  112  m.  (520  pop.),  a  small  trading  center,  was  an  early 
Spanish  village  named  Plaza,  but  in  1908  a  group  of  New  Englanders, 
mainly  from  Salem,  Massachusetts,  settled  here  and  renamed  it. 

US  85  crosses  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  west  bank  at  115  m. 

The  approximate  SITE  OF  FORT  THORN  is  at  125  m.  At  this  mili- 
tary post,  established  in  1853  and  abandoned  in  1859,  General  Sibley 
in  1862  joined  his  several  columns  of  Confederates  and  marched  north. 
The  Rio  Grande  Valley  now  broadens ;  and  the  Mesilla  Valley,  a  fertile 
plain  dotted  with  numerous  farms  yielding  fine  crops,  stretches  far  to 
the  west. 

The  highway  recrosses  the  Rio  Grande  at  c.  140  m.  and  nearby 
are  the  ruins  of  FORT  SELDOJST  (L)  with  massive  unroofed  adobe  walls, 
all  that  is  left  of  a  very  important  post  established  in  1865  as  a  means 
of  protection  against  raids  by  Gila  Apaches. 

South  of  Fort  Seldon  is  MOUNT  ROBLEDO  (R),  named  for 
Pedro  Robledo,  a  member  of  Onate's  1598  expedition  who  was  buried 
near  it.  This  mountain  was  used  by  the  United  States  Army  as  a 
heliograph  station  during  the  campaigns  against  the  Apache  and  other 
Indians,  the  messages  being  flashed  from  Fort  Bliss  to  Fort  Seldon. 
Later  it  was  used  as  an  astronomical  observation  point  (1882)  to  study 
the  transit  of  Venus. 

The  land  on  both  sides  of  the  highway  is  planted  with  cotton,  which 
yields  an  exceptionally  good  crop. 

At  144  7w.  is  the  junction  with  an  asphalted  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  DONA,  ANA,  1.3  m.  (851  pop.),  a  Spanish-Mexican 
settlement  untouched  by  time  and  modernity.  The  old  church  was  erected  with 
the  founding  of  the  town  in  1843  by  Don  Jose  Maria  Costales,  who  with  116 
settlers  received  from  the  governor  of  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  a  grant  on  the  east 


TOUR     I      259 

bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  known  as  El  Ancon  de  Dona  Ana  (Dona  Ana  bend). 
After  an  influx  of  Texans  many  of  the  old  settlers  decided  to  seek  homes 
under  Mexican  jurisdiction.  In  March,  1850,  they  moved  across  the  river 
to  the  west  bank  and  colonized  the  Mesilla  Grant,  several  miles  south.  Within 
two  decades  the  Americans  moved  out,  and  Dona  Ana  became  again  the  Span- 
ish-Mexican village  that  it  is  today.  Colonel  Doniphan  and  Lieutenant  Colonel 
Gilpin  in  December,  1846,  stopped  at  Dona  Ana  after  a  hard  march  through 
the  Jornada  del  Muerto.  They  and  their  armies  rested  here  for  two  days, 
purchased  supplies,  and  then  continued  their  journey  southward. 

LAS  CRUCES  (the  crosses),  151  m.  (3,895  alt.,  29,367  pop.),  is 
the  seat  of  Dona  Ana  County.  A  caravan  of  oxcarts,  en  route  from 
Chihuahua,  was  attacked  by  Indians  at  the  point  where  the  city  now 
stands  and  was  entirely  destroyed.  A  few  days  later  another  freight 
party  from  Dona  Ana  found  the  bodies,  buried  them,  and  erected 
crosses  over  the  graves.  From  that  time  the  site  has  been  known  as 
Las  Cruces. 

Settled  in  1848  it  has  become  a  prosperous  city  in  the  center  of  a 
rich  agricultural  district  with  fine  schools  and  churches,  a  State  Farm 
Bureau,  two  banks,  many  civic  and  social  clubs,  a  country  club,  and  a 
golf  course.  Several  trails  lead  from  Las  Cruces  to  the  mountains  east 
and  west  and  to  the  Mesilla  Valley,  a  land  of  beauty  and  of  vast  re- 
sources, agricultural  and  mineral.  The  AMADOR  (lover)  HOTEL  on 
Amador  Street  was  built  by  Don  Martin  Amador,  a  Santa  Fe  Trail 
stage  driver  in  1853,  an<^  was  furnished  with  massive  walnut  pieces  of 
the  1850*8  brought  by  oxcarts  from  the  East.  In  addition  to  the  fine 
old  furniture,  girls'  names  over  the  doors — La  Luz,  Maria,  Esperanza, 
Natalia,  Dorotea,  Muneca  and  others,  23  in  all — recall  the  days  when 
the  casa  was  the  rendezvous  of  officers  and  men  from  Fort  Seldon  to 
the  north  and  Fort  Fillmore  to  the  south.  There  were  a  variety  theater, 
dance  hall,  and  games  of  chance — a.  frontier  stopping  place  typical  of 
the  time.  Court  was  held  in  the  dining  room  and  the  kitchen  was  con- 
verted into  the  jail — the  jury  debating  over  a  murder  verdict  to  the 
rhythm  of  the  vals  or  the  Varsoviana  in  the  great  hall  adjoining.  The 
displays  in  the  great  hall  include  old  paintings,  lace  mantillas,  fans 
under  glass,  pre-historic  pottery,  and  other  relics. 

One  of  the  oldest  branches  of  the  Loretto  Academy  for  Girls, 
founded  in  1852,  was  in  Las  Cruces.  In  1870  five  members  of  the  Sisters 
of  Loretto  Order  and  the  Reverend  Father  Bernal  started  the  school. 
The  Academy  buildings  were  torn  down  in  1959. 

The  THOMAS  BRANNIGAN  MEMORIAL  LIBRARY  houses  a  noted 
collection  of  books  and  manuscripts. 

Las  Cruces  has  enjoyed  a  marked  growth  in  recent  years.  There  has 
been  a  population  increase  of  over  17,000  in  the  decade  following 
1950.  Cotton,  alfalfa,  corn,  cantaloupes,  onions,  chili,  pecans,  and 
various  fruits  are  grown  in  the  surrounding  irrigated  lands.  Fine  dairy 
herds  are  also  found  in  this  area. 

South  of  Las  Cruces  2  m.  on  US  80-85  to  NEW  MEXICO  STATE  UNI- 
VERSITY, founded  with  17  pupils  in  1888  as  Las  Cruces  College  and  a  State 


2&0     NEW     MEXICO 

institution  since  1889.  Approximately  4,000  students  are  enrolled  in  the  four 
undergraduate  colleges — arts  and  sciences,  agriculture  and  home  economics, 
engineering,  teacher  education — and  the  Graduate  School.  In  addition  to  ex- 
perimental farms,  it  does  applied  research  in  missile  and  space  programs,  and 
a  large  program  of  basic  research,  primarily  in  mathematics,  the  physical 
sciences,  and  astronomy.  Of  interest  to  the  visitor  are  extensive  recreational 
facilities,  the  Ledding  Cactus  Gardens,  and  works  of  art. 

At  Las  Cruces  is  junction  with  US  70  (see  Tour  lOb)  ;  and  US  80; 
also  Alt.  80-85.     Continuing  on  Alt.  US  80-85  to  Anthony. 
At  152  772.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road.     NM  28. 

Right  on  this  road,  2.8  m.f  to  OLD  MESILLA  (3,857  alt.,  1,500  pop.),  whose 
old  plaza  and  surrounding  flat-topped  adobe  houses  sleep  in  the  sun,  dreaming 
of  the  days  when  this  was  the  capital  of  a  vast  new  state  that  combined  the 
lower  part  of  New  Mexico  with  all  of  Arizona;  of  the  days  of  Emperor 
Maximilian  who,  according  to  local  tradition,  sought  sanctuary  here;  and  of 
the  days  of  Billy  the  Kid  and  the  Lincoln  County  War.  After  the  close  of 
the  Mexican  War  a  group  of  New  Mexicans  who  preferred  to  remain  under 
Mexican  protection  settled  at  this  site,  then  a  part  of  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  and 
in  1853  they  received  the  land  under  the  Mesilla  (little  tableland)  Colony 
Grant.  The  settlement,  nevertheless,  became  a  part  of  the  United  States  when, 
by  terms  of  a  treaty  signed  here,  Mexico  received  $10,000,000  and  the  United 
States  an  additional  strip  of  land  known  as  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  that  in- 
cluded the  entire  Mesilla  Valley.  On  Nov.  16,  1854,  there  was  a  flag-raising 
ceremony  in  the  plaza  at  La  Mesilla  in  confirmation  of  the  treaty.  Governor 
Merriwether  from  Santa  Fe  was  present,  as  were  troops  from  Fort  Fillmore 
and  a  large  crowd  of  citizens.  In  1857  Mesilla  became  a  central  point  on  the 
Overland  Mail  route  established  by  John  Butterfield  to  run  between  Missouri 
and  California,  and  a  wager  was  laid  as  to  which  coach  would  reach  Mesilla 
first — the  one  from  the  East  or  the  one  from  the  West.  The  latter  won.  A 
newspaper,  The  Mesilla  Times,  was  started  in  1860.  In  July,  1861,  Lieutenant 
Colonel  Baylor  of  the  Confederate  Army,  after  capturing  Fort  Fillmore  with 
little  resistance,  made  his  headquarters  at  Mesilla,  proclaiming  himself  mili- 
tary governor  and  Mesilla  the  capital  of  the  new  territory  of  Arizona,  which 
included  all  of  New  Mexico  south  of  the  34th  parallel,  a  part  of  Texas,  and 
all  of  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  California.  After  August,  1862,  when  the  Con- 
federates fled  before  the  California  Column  under  General  James  H.  Carleton, 
La  Mesilla  was  made  headquarters  of  the  Military  District  of  Arizona  under 
the  United  States. 

The  adobe  structure  where  Billy  the  Kid  was  tried,  still  stands  on  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  Plaza.  Opposite  is  La  Posta,  historic  inn  famous  for  New 
Mexican  food.  Main  interest  of  the  town  is  in  the  historic  plaza,  the  church, 
and  territorial  homes  and  patios.  La  Mesilla  Association  conducts  the  Terri- 
torial Pilgrimages  each  year,  first  Sunday  in  May,  to  historic  homes. 

At   Christmas  the   candlelight  procession   of  the  peregrinos,   the   travelers 
(Mary  and  Joseph),  seeking  lodging  for  the  birth  of  the  Christ  Child,  winds 
its  way  through  the  streets.     Known  as  Las  Posadas,  it  begins  on  the  night  of  •• 
Dec.  15,  and  lasts  through  Christmas  Eve. 

At  156  m.  on  Alt.  80-85  is  the  junction  with  an  asphalt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  the  TORTUGAS  INDIAN  VILLAGE,  0.5  m.f  built 
around  a  small  nondescript  plaza,  with  a  handsome  stone  church  in  modern- 
ized Gothic  style.  They  speak  no  native  Indian  language,  but  still  cling  to 
their  tribal  myths  and  legends.  Little  is  known  about  them,  but  E.  W.  Gifford, 
curator  of  the  Museum  of  Anthropology  and  associate  professor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Southern  California,  says  they  are  descendants  of  Indians  who  were 
expelled  from  Isleta  del  Sur,  south  of  El  Paso,  several  generations  ago.  Ac- 
cording to  local  tradition,  their  ancestors  were  Isleta  Indians,  who  at  the  time 
of  the  Pueblo  Revolt  (1680)  were  taken  from  their  home  near  Albuquerque 


TOUR     I  A     26l 

by  Governor  Otermin  retreating  to  El  Paso.  Though  most  of  them  were  set- 
tled by  him  at  the  present  Indian  village  of  Isleta  del  Sur  about  18  miles 
southeast  of  El  Paso,  a  few  who  were  too  old  or  too  ill  to  continue  the  journey 
settled  here  and  were  the  founders  of  Tortugas. 

BRAZITO  SCHOOL  HOUSE  (L),  158  /;*.,  marks  the  site  of  the  only 
Mexican  War  battle  that  occurred  on  New  Mexico  soil.  After  United 
States  troops  under  Colonel  Doniphan  had  defeated  a  force  here  under 
General  Ponce  de  Leon  on  Christmas  Day,  1846,  Colonel  Doniphan *s 
march  into  Mexico  was  without  opposition. 

In  Conklings  Cave  near  MESQUITE,  162  m.  (3,430  alt.,  552 
pop.),  at  the  southern  end  of  the  ORGAN  MOUNTAINS,  bones  of 
ancient  sloths,  camels,  and  cave  bears  have  been  found. 

At  the  REGISTRATION  STATION  (all  trucks  must  stop),  173  m.,  out- 
of-state  trucks  pay  a  road  tax. 

In  ANTHONY,  174  777.,  US  85  crosses  the  Texas  Line,  20  miles 
north  of  El  Paso,  Texas. 


Tour  i A 


Caballo — Hillsboro — Santa  Rita — Junction  with  US  260;  NM  180. 
66  m. 

Two-lane,  41  miles  bituminous-paved;  balance  gravel. 

Route  crosses  a  spur  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  at  Santa 

Rita. 

This  route  is  up  from  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  and  across  the  Black 
Range  with  its  exceptionally  fine  panoramas,  hunting,  and  fishing,  past 
the  very  large  open-pit  copper  mines  at  Santa  Rita  that  are  visible  from 
the  road,  and  on  to  Silver  City,  largest  town  in  this  area.  Parts  of  the 
road  are  through  Gila  National  Forest,  which,  like  the  rest  of  the  route, 
was  the  camping  and  hunting  ground  of  the  Gila  Apache  and  is  rich 
in  Indian,  mining,  and  historical  lore  of  the  frontier.  The  Mogollon 
Range,  beyond  Silver  City,  has  many  pueblo  and  cliff  dwelling  sites  of 
pre-Columbian  days,  as  well  as  habitations  of  a  more  recent  period,  and 
is  an  exciting  region  for  the  archeologist ;  and  no  less  interesting  to  the 
hunter  and  fisherman  who  must  pack  in  to  reach  the  best  spots.  There 
are  many  places  where  pack  trips  into  the  areas  inaccessible  by  auto- 
mobile can  be  arranged,  especially  in  the  Gila  Wilderness,  which  is 
being  kept  primitive. 

Prom  junction  with  US  85,  1  m.  south  of  CABALLO,  and  15  in. 
south  of  Truth  or  Consequences  (Tour  Ic),  NM  180  runs  west  over  a 


2&2      NEW     MEXICO 

barren  stretch  to  the  foothills  of  the  Black  Range,  away  from  the 
Sierra  Caballos  (ridge  of  the  horses)  across  the  Rio  Grande,  a  wide, 
blue  reservoir  at  this  point.  A  series  of  curves  precede  a  long  stretch 
over  a  wide  plain  covered  with  creosote  bushes  that  hide  the  chaparral 
cock,  sand  lizards,  and  various  reptiles,  while  the  sparse  grass  provides 
food  for  the  grazing  flocks. 

HILLSBORO,  17.9  m.  (5,238  al*->  2I^  P°P-),  wa.s  ^he  seat  of  Sier.ra 
County,  once  the  center  of  a  rich  mining  district.  Millions  in  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  other  ores  have  been  taken  from  the  surrounding  hills.  Large 
flocks  of  goats  and  sheep  and  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the  slopes  and 
plains.  Hillsboro's  history  began  in  1877  when  two  prospectors  dis- 
covered gold  near  by.  They  were  joined  later  by  other  prospectors 
working  in  the  near-by  Mimbres  Mountains.  Each  miner  had  a  name 
for  the  new  site,  so  each  wrote  his  choice  on  a  slip  of  paper,  placing  it 
in  a  hat.  One  member  drew  from  the  lot  and  the  name  Hillsborough 
was  chosen,  contracted  in  later  years  to  Hillsboro.  The  main  thor- 
oughfare of  the  town  is  lined  with  cottonwood,  and  the  old  stores,  all 
landmarks  of  the  earlier  camp,  are  still  the  hangouts  of  citizens  who 
lived  and  knew  the  boom  days  of  the  town.  The  picturesque  Gold  Pan- 
Restaurant,  in  which  the  proprietor  fed  chuck  to  bearded  prospectors  of 
the  gold  rush  days,  has  unfortunately  disappeared.  So  has  the  old, 
scarred  bench  that  stood  in  front  of  the  store  where  much  of  the  mining 
was  done.  It  was  studded  with  nails  to  protect  it  against  the  assault 
of  whittlers. 

The  LAKE  VALLEY  REGION,  south  of  Hillsboro,  was  one  of 
the  best  ore  producers  in  the  Southwest  and  is  still  potentially  valuable. 
The  history  of  all  the  finds  in  this  district  is  full  of  action;  joy,  heart- 
break, and  battles  with  the  Indians  being  a  part  of  it.  This  section  was 
the  part-time  home  of  Victorio,  the  Apache  chief,  and  his  lieutenants, 
Loco  and  Nana.  The  silver  ore  is  of  high  grade,  and  a  strike  in  the 
district  furnished  an  illustration  of  the  romance  connected  with  mining 
in  New  Mexico.  Two  miners  in  the  early  l88o's  struck  an  ore  vein 
near  the  settlement  of  Lake  Valley  and  sold  out  for  $100,000.  Two 
days  after  the  sale,  the  lead  ran  into  what  is  known  as  the  Bridal 
Chamber,  a  subterranean  room  and  the  working  of  which  produced 
upwards  of  $3,000,000  in  horn  silver.  A  spur  track  from  the  rail- 
road was  run  into  the  room  and  the  silver  loaded  directly  into  cars. 
The  expense  of  working  this  room  was  so  small  that  one  man  offered 
the  owners  a  large  sum  for  the  privilege  of  entering  the  mine  and  tak- 
ing down  all  the  silver  he  could  pick  single-handed  in  one  day. 

In  the  mining  boom  days,  stagecoaches  were  the  means  of  transport 
and  the  one  from  Hillsboro  to  Lake  Valley  was  the  busiest.  Sadie 
Orchard,  still  living  in  Hillsboro  (1939),  was  owner  and  one  of  the 
drivers.  She  came  to  the  territory  in  1886  from  London  when  Hills- 
boro was  teeming  and  Kingston  a  wild  town  of  5,000  people;  the  silver 
boom  was  at  its  height  and  dance  halls  and  saloons  in  full  swing.  It 
was  in  this  setting  that  she  and  her  husband,  with  two  Concord  coaches 
and  an  express  wagon,  started  their  stage  and  freight  line  to  the  out- 
lying mining  camps.  Sadie  took  her  full  turn  at  the  lines,  driving 


TOUR     I  A     263 

every  day  from  Kingston  to  Hillsboro  to  Lake  Valley.  She  proudly 
boasts  that  her  stage  was  never  in  a  holdup.  One  of  her  coaches  is  now 
on  display  in  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  at  Santa  Fe. 

Between  Hillsboro  and  Kingston,  the  highway  traverses  PERCHA 
CANYON,  a  rugged,  niche-like  channel  cut  through  mountains  that 
tower  on  both  sides.  This  stretch  in  the  early  days,  as  Sadie  Orchard 
relates,  was  "always  troublesome  for  us  stage  drivers;  Indians  lurked 
along  the  way  and  the  road  was  surely  trying." 

The  GILA  NATIONAL  FOREST  is  entered  at  25  777. 

KINGSTON,  26.7  m.  (6,353  alt.,  63  pop.),  with  only  one  store, 
the  old  hotel,  and  several  frame  buildings,  was  a  beehive  of  activity  in 
the  i88o*s,  the  contiguous  country  having  produced  approximately 
$10,000,000  in  silver  and  related  ores.  The  highway  passes  the  store, 
but  the  old  town  (R)  is  hidden  from  view  by  the  trees.  The  first 
mineral  discovered  near  Kingston  was  in  1880;  the  news  of  the  find 
started  a  boom,  and  within  five  years  the  town  had  a  population  of 
7,000.  Several  landmarks  stand,  one  the  fire  bell,  used  in  those  days  to 
summon  the  volunteers,  today  calling  the  few  settlers  for  their  mail. 
The  Victorio  Hotel  (see  below),  built  in  1882,  still  stands;  the  register, 
in  use  since  1887,  still  serving.  A  story  is  told  of  an  old  Washington 
Hand  Press  that  was  used  during  the  gold  rush  days.  It  had  been 
brought  hundreds  of  miles  overland  to  Old  Mesilla  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
where  a  small  newspaper  was  published  (see  Tour  Ic).  During  the 
Civil  War,  after  the  capture  of  Mesilla  by  the  Confederates,  the  press 
was  thrown  into  the  Rio  Grande  where  it  lay  in  the  sand  for  many 
years.  With  the  activity  at  Kingston  it  was  retrieved,  and  itinerant 
printers  got  out  crude  newspapers  and  hand-bills  on  it,  first  at  Kingston 
and  then  at  other  boom  towns  in  the  area.  It  is  still  in  operation 
(i939)»  publishing  a  small  newspaper  in  the  town  of  Hatch  (see 
Tour  Ic).  Sheba  Hurst,  Mark  Twain's  humorous  character  in  Rough- 
ing It,  was  the  wit  of  Kingston;  a  plain  pine  slab  bearing  the  name 
"Sheba"  marks  his  last  resting  place  in  the  old  graveyard  outside  the 
town.  Victorio,  the  Apache  raider,  and  his  cohorts  paid  several  sur- 
prise visits  to  Kingston,  but  the  tough  miners  were  too  much  for  them. 
Their  victories  made  them  generous,  and  they  named  the  three-story 
hotel  Victorio.  In  its  prime,  Kingston  had  22  saloons,  several  dance 
halls,  a  theater  at  which  Lillian  Russell  and  her  troupe  once  played; 
many  stores,  three  hotels,  and  three  newspapers.  It  was  suggested  that 
the  town  needed  a  church,  so  hats  were  passed  in  saloons.  Dance  hall 
girls  tossed  diamond  rings  into  them;  gamblers  dropped  money  and 
stickpins,  and  miners  weighted  the  kitty  with  gold  nuggets.  The  collec- 
tion totaled  $1,500,  which  built  the  church.  The  walls  of  stone  are 
still  standing,  and  behind  the  altar  the  appropriate  sign,  The  Golden 
Gate,  still  blazons. 

West  of  Kingston,  NM  180  gradually  ascends  the  east  slope  of  the 
BLACK  RANGE,  through  extensive  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  juni- 
per, passing  from  Sierra  into  Grant  County.  The  highway  trails  over 
the  mountain  slopes  with  expanded  views  of  mountain  and  plain. 


264     NEW    MEXICO 

Wooded  canyons  thick  with  mountain  flowers  and  quiet  meadows 
crossed  by  mountain  streams  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  Black  Range 
Highway.  A  number  of  United  States  game  refuges  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  Black  Range,  but  special  permits  for  hunting  and  fishing 
outside  these  areas  may  be  obtained  from  any  forest  officer.  The 
highway  leaves  the  Gila  National  Forest  at  45.1  m.,  drops  down  in  the 
Mimbres  Valley,  and  crosses  the  Mimbres  River.  San  Lorenzo,  a  small 
trading  center,  is  reached  at  52  m.  Here  is  the  junction  with  NM  61. 

Left  on  this  road  is  MIMBRES  HOT  SPRINGS,  10  m.t  a  quiet,  isolated 
health  resort  in  a  ranch  country  of  great  natural  beauty.  Modern  buildings 
are  clustered  about  20  springs  of  hot  water  ranging  in  temperature  from  120° 
to  144°  F.  Nearby  is  a  group  of  Indian  pueblo  ruins.  The  springs  are  not 
active  now. 

The  KNEELING  NUN,  a  pinnacle  rock  formation  rising  abruptly 
from  a  mesa  some  distance  (L)  tis  a  landmark  visible  at  61.2  m. 

SANTA  RITA,  62.3  m.  (6,311  alt.,  1,772  pop.),  site  of  the  large 
open-pit  copper  mines,  is  a  small  city  practically  surrounded  by  its  own 
excavations.  Two  immense  bowls,  worked  at  different  benches  (shelf- 
like  levels)  have  produced  many  thousand  tons  of  copper  yearly  since 
1 800.  These  bowls,  created  by  continuous  digging,  lie  in  a  well-defined 
widening  of  the  Santa  Rita  Valley,  the  rim  of  the  basin  being  highest 
at  the  Santa  Rita  Mountain  (7,365  alt.).  The  remainder  of  the  basin 
rim  was  originally  formed  by  a  series  of  hills  rising  100  to  450  feet 
above  the  basin  floor.  Some  of  the  hills  have  been  removed,  wholly  or 
in  part,  by  steam  shovels.  Two  bowls  now  joined  into  one  pit. 

The  Santa  Rita  mine  was  discovered  in  1800  by  Lieutenant  Colonel 
Manuel  Carrisco,  a  Spanish  commandant  in  charge  of  military  posts 
in  this  section  of  New  Mexico.  The  Spaniards  had  made  Santa  Rita 
a  penal  colony,  and  it  is  said  that  convict  labor  was  employed  in  de- 
veloping the  property  under  the  ownership  of  Don  Francisco  Manuel 
Elguea,  of  Chihuahua,  who  bought  the  mine  from  CarriscQ.  The  copper 
was  of  so  fine  a  quality  that  the  Royal  Mint  contracted  for  the  output 
to  be  used  in  coinage.  The  metal  was  transported  to  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico on  pack  mules,  300  pounds  loaded  on  each  animal,  and  it  is  recorded 
that  100  mules  were  constantly  employed  in  this  work.  In  1807, 
Zebulon  Pike,  American  explorer,  told  of  a  copper  mine  in  this  part 
of  the  Territory  (undoubtedly  Santa  Rita),  "producing  20,000  mule 
teams  of  copper  annually." 

Don  Francisco  died  in  1809,  and  the  mine  was  worked  until  1822 
under  various  leases  made  with  his  widow.  Robert  McKnight  held 
it  from  1826  to  1834.  Because  of  the  Apache,  the  mine  was  aban- 
doned for  a  few  years,  but  from  1840  to  1860  it  was  worked  by 
Siqueiros.  In  1862,  when  all  the  mines  in  the  Territory  were  closed 
down,  Sweet  and  LaCosta  were  proprietors.  At  various  periods  from 


TOUR     2     265 

1862-70,  it  was  worked  by  Messrs.  Sweet,  LaCosta,  Brand,  and  Fresh, 
using  for  their  labor  Mexicans  from  Chihuahua  and  as  a  smelter  a 
small  Mexican  blast  furnace  with  a  capacity  of  about  2,000  pounds  of 
refined  copper  per  month. 

The  mass  development  of  the  Santa  Rita  Copper  Camp  really  dates 
back  to  1873,  when  it  came  under  American  management.  Work  con- 
tinued steadily  until  the  early  i88o's  when  a  decline  in  price  caused  the 
mines  to  close  down  until  the  late  1 890*3.  Then  the  Hearst  estate 
secured  an  option  which  in  1899  was  sold  to  the  Amalgamated  Copper 
Company  for  $1,400,000.  Now  the  mine  is  owned  by  the  Kennecott 
Copper  Corporation,  and  the  ore  is  treated  at  Hurley,  10  miles  south 
of  Santa  Rita,  where  the  concentrate  is  also  smelted  and  refined. 

Evidence  of  old  Spanish  and  Mexican  workings  have  been  found 
in  the  mines,  even  skeletons  and  old  fills  together  with  many  old  tim- 
bers. Since  the  beginning  of  steam  shovel  operations,  there  have  been 
further  developments.  In  stripping  the  Romero  section  the  skeleton 
of  a  very  tall  man  of  the  Indian  type  was  unearthed,  the  skull  and 
teeth  practically  replaced  by  carbonate  of  copper.  Two  copper  bars 
three  feet  in  length  were  also  found.  They  had  been  punched  with  a 
hole  at  the  end  and  showed  that  they  had  been  hammered  into  shape. 
Several  vessels  of  hammered  copper  have  been  unearthed,  also  mining 
tools  and  bullets.  On  the  northern  extremity  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Hearst  pit,  while  stripping,  50  skeletons  were  taken  out  from  a  depth 
of  6  feet  above  the  natural  slope  and  about  15  feet  under  an  old 
dump.  Legend  has  it  that  at  one  time  50  convict  miners  were  im- 
prisoned in  this  mine  by  a  cave-in  and  their  bodies  never  recovered. 

Passing  the  pit  of  the  mine  the  highway  leads  westward,  joining 
US  260  at  Central,  68  m. 

At  68.5  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  260  (fee  Tour  18). 

US  260  and  NM  180  are  united  to  Silver  City  (see  Tour  IS). 


Tour 


(Kenton,  Oklahoma)  —  Valley  —  Folsom  —  Raton  —  Hoxie  —  Col- 
fax—  Cimarron— Taos ;  NM  325,  NM  72,  US  64. 
Oklahoma  Line  to  Taos,  193.7  m. 

Bituminous-paved  roadbed  between  Raton  and  Taos ;  elsewhere  two-lane  graded 
graveled. 


266      NEW     MEXICO 

Atchison,   Topeka   &    Santa    Fe   Railway    parallels    route    between    Raton    and 

Hoxie. 

Hotels    at   Raton    and    Taos;    accommodations    at   Folsom    and    Capulin;    gas 

stations  at  short  intervals. 

This  route  traverses  mountainous  terrain  and  rolling  prairie  with 
farms  and  typical  New  Mexico  villages  of  adobe  houses  and  passes  a 
volcanic  cone  incredibly  perfect.  Warriors,  trappers,  traders,  thieves, 
spendthrifts,  and  exploiters  have  all  left  their  mark  on  this  country. 
The  route  between  Colfax  and  Taos  should  be  driven  carefully.  Some- 
times it  is  very  slippery;  sometimes  rocks  fall;  and  snowdrifts  make  it 
dangerous  in  Cimarron  Canyon. 

Section  a.     OKLAHOMA  LINE  to  RAT6N,  95  m. 

On  the  Carrizozo  Creek  Bridge  NM  325  crosses  the  NEW  MEX- 
ICO LINE,  0  772..,  2.3  miles  west  of  Kenton,  Oklahoma,  and  winds 
through  high,  rolling  prairie  cut  by  many  canyons.  The  road  gains 
altitude  across  the  northern  part  of  Union  County,  paralleling  the 
Cimarron  (wild)  River  between  hills  and  mountains  as  far  as  Folsom. 
This  river,  fed  by  small  creeks  and  innumerable  springs,  is  often  re- 
ferred to  locally  as  the  Dry  Cimarron  because  it  flows  underground  for 
most  of  its  course.  Mesas,  evenly  formed  buttes,  and  rugged  cliffs 
present  an  ever-changing  picture  of  enchanting  beauty  with  black  rim- 
rock  and  reddish  earth  and  rocks  sharpening  the  contrasts. 

At  1  //I.  is  junction  with  NM  18  (L)  to  the  town  of  Clayton  (39 
miles). 

VALLEY,  23.6  ??i.y  is  a  placita  with  a  population  of  92  persons. 
DEVOY'S  PEAK  (R),  48.5  m.f  a  formation  covered  with  pinon  and 
juniper  trees,  rises  from  the  center  of  a  high  mesa  named  for  one  of 
the  earliest  settlers  of  the  Dry  Cimarron  region.  Michael  Devoy, 
known  as  the  Father  of  the  Cimarron,  came  to  Madison — near  the  pres- 
ent Folsom — about  1870  and  founded  the  first  post  office  in  what  was 
to  become  Union  County.  He  bought  a  ranch  eight  miles  northeast 
of  Madison  where  he  lived  till  his  death  in  1914.  He  operated  a  small 
store  for  cowboys  and  raised  prize  short-horn  cattle,  the  first  in  north- 
east New  Mexico.  Near  Devoy's  Peak  are  a  few  Indian  graves,  and 
many  believe  that  treasure  was  buried  on  the  mesa  by  outlaws  in  the 
days  of  the  Wild  West.  Between  the  peak  and  Folsom  there  is  good 
fishing  in  the  Cimarron. 

At  54  m.  is  a  fine  view  (L)  of  EMERY'S  PEAK  (9,000  alt.), 
which  like  the  gap  west  of  it  and  the  vanished  town  of  Madison  at  its 
foot,  was  named  for  Madison  Emery  (see  below).  The  rocky,  tim- 
bered slopes  of  the  peak  and  the  adjacent  hills  were  often  used  by  the 
settlers  as  retreats  when  they  heard  rumors  of  Indian  attacks. 

Through  TOLL  GATE  CANYON  (R),  55.3  772.,  which  is  a 
four-mile  branch  of  the  Dry  Cimarron  Canyon,  Bill  Metcalf,  a  fron- 


TOUR    2     267 

tiersman,  built  a  toll  road  in  the  early  1870*8.  The  ruins  of  his  com- 
bination toll  house,  grocery  store,  and  saloon  are  still  visible  in  the 
canyon.  This,  one  of  the  few  good  wagon  roads  between  Colorado 
and  northeastern  New  Mexico,  is  said  to  have  brought  Metcalf  so 
much  wealth  that  he  handled  his  money  with  a  shovel. 

At  56.3  7/z.,  a  few  hundred  yards  from  the  highway,  are  The  Falls. 
They  are  located  about  3  miles  from  Folsom  and  afford  excellent  trout 
fishing  and  swimming. 

FOLSOM,  59.2  m.  (6,500  alt.,  206  pop.),  named  for  President 
Cleveland's  wife  Frances  Folsom,  and  surrounded  by  unusually  beauti- 
ful mountains,  is  a  typical  western  cattle-  and  sheep-shipping  town. 
Half  the  population  speaks  Spanish  and  the  other  half  English.  Near 
by  is  the  site  of  the  former  village  of  Madison,  settled  in  1865  by  Madi- 
son Emery,  who  came  here  first  in  1862  when  the  grass  in  the  Cimarron 
valley  grew  so  high  that  it  nearly  hid  a  man  on  horseback,  and  the  hills 
were  covered  with  pine,  pinon,  and  juniper  trees,  and  wild  game  and  fish 
were  abundant.  As  various  families  continued  to  settle  here,  Madison 
acquired  a  store,  saloon,  blacksmith  shop,  flour  mill,  and  post  office. 

Though  trouble  with  Indians  was  frequent,  the  villagers  sometimes 
barricaded  themselves  in  their  houses  only  to  learn  that  rumors  were  the 
cause  of  their  anxiety,  or  that  the  Indians  on  the  warpath  were  on  the 
trail  of  an  enemy  tribe.  If  an  Indian  even  camped  near  the  town  there 
was  alarm.  On  one  occasion  Bud  Sumpter,  Emery's  stepson,  found  an 
Indian  lying  apparently  asleep,  behind  the  store.  Rolling  him  over  he 
discovered  that  the  man  had  died  of  too  much  "fire-water!"  Emery 
hearing  of  the  tragedy  and  fearing  trouble  called  the  chief  to  his  house 
for  a  conference.  Just  as  the  chief  stepped  inside  Emery's  door,  a  shell 
accidentally  thrown  into  the  stove  exploded.  It  took  a  great  deal  of 
explaining  to  convince  the  chief  he  was  not  going  to  be  assassinated. 
Finally  the  tribe  was  given  the  fattest  cow  Emery  possessed,  and  the 
death  of  the  Indian  was  soon  forgotten. 

Coe  and  his  notorious  outlaws  whose  headquarters  were  at  "Robbers 
Roost,"  north  of  Kenton,  Oklahoma,  frequently  visited  Madison,  then 
the  settlement  nearest  their  hide-out.  Upon  arrival  at  the  town  the 
bandits  would  turn  their  horses  loose  and  force  some  one  to  unsaddle 
and  feed  them.  They  demanded  food  at  Mrs.  Emery's  and  lodged  as 
a  rule  at  a  bunkhouse  belonging  to  the  Emerys. 

United  States  cavalry  companies  from  Fort  Union,  New  Mexico 
and  Fort  Lyons,  Colorado,  also  were  frequent  visitors  while  seeking  the 
bandits.  Coe  was  finally  captured  and  jailed  at  Fort  Lyons  but  es- 
caped and  made  his  way  to  Madison  on  a  pony  stolen  from  an  Indian. 
He  came  to  Mrs.  Emery,  demanding  food  and  lodging.  As  soon  as  he 
was  asleep,  Mrs.  Emery  sent  her  eldest  son  Bud  on  his  pony  to  the 
encampment  of  the  Fort  Union  troops,  who  were  seeking  Coe.  Bud 
brought  them  back  to  town,  and  Coe  surrendered  peacefully.  As  he 
was  being  led  away,  he  noticed  Bud's  pony,  and  said:  "That  pony 
has  had  a  hard  ride."  Believing  that  Coe,  should  he  escape  again,  would 
return  to  Madison  and  murder  Mrs.  Emery,  her  son,  and  possibly 


268      NEW     MEXICO 

others  in  town,  vigilantes  took  him  from  the  jail  at  Pueblo,  Colorado, 
where  he  had  been  locked  up,  and  lynched  him.  Years  later  a  skeleton 
was  found  with  a  ball  and  chain  on  its  feet  and  handcuffs  on  its  wrists. 

The  advent  of  the  Colorado  &  Southern  Railroad — which  reached 
Folsom  in  1887-88  and  was  the  only  railroad  in  the  northeastern  part 
of  the  State  until  1901 — marked  Madison's  end  and  Folsom's  begin- 
ning. From  a  railroad  construction  camp  called  Ragtown  because  the 
saloons,  restaurants,  and  houses  were  all  tents,  Folsom  soon  developed 
into  a  bustling  town  and  for  a  time  had  the  largest  stockyards  north 
of  Fort  Worth.  By  1895  Folsom  had  two  mercantile  stores,  three 
saloons,  and  other  business  establishments  and  was  contributing  to  the 
outlaw  history  of  New  Mexico's  early  Anglo-American  settlements. 

W.  A.  Thompson,  proprietor  of  the  Gem  Saloon  and  deputy  sheriff, 
left  Missouri  with  a  price  on  his  head,  charged  with  murder  of  a  man 
in  his  home  town.  Insanely  jealous  and  hot-tempered  he  piled  up  as 
bloody  a  record  as  any  man  in  the  West.  On  one  occasion  he  shot  a 
man  because  he  "had  the  nerve"  to  become  intoxicated  in  a  rival 
saloon.  John  King,  owner  of  a  grocery  store  and  a  saloon,  loved  to 
taunt  Thompson  by  setting  men  up  to  drink  at  his  bar.  One  morning 
after  King  had  treated  a  native  boy  to  a  drink  Thompson  started  after 
the  lad  who  dashed  around  the  corner  of  a  house  belonging  to  Mrs. 
George  Thompson  and  started  to  cross  the  yard.  Thompson  fired  and 
the  bullet  entered  Mrs.  Thompson's  kitchen,  barely  missing  her.  She 
ran  out  just  as  the  gunman  shot  again,  and  saw  the  boy  fall  to  his 
knees.  While  she  was  berating  Thompson,  the  lad,  uninjured,  took  to 
his  heels.  Thompson  returned  to  his  store,  got  a  shotgun  and  came  out 
again.  Seeing  Billy  Thatcher,  a  fellow-officer  and  bitter  enemy,  he 
began  to  fire  at  him.  As  Jeff  Kehl  came  out  of  King's  store  to  see  what 
was  going  on,  a  bullet  pierced  his  abdomen,  and  he  died  that  night. 

A  gun  fight  followed,  with  Thatcher  using  a  revolver,  and  the  rifle 
was  shot  from  Thompson's  hands.  He  ran  to  his  saloon,  barricaded 
himself  in  the  basement,  and  began  drinking.  The  entire  town  was  out 
to  lynch  him  but  could  not  get  him  out  without  burning  his  saloon  and 
with  it  the  entire  block  of  buildings.  That  evening,  however,  Thomp- 
son, dead  drunk,  surrendered  and  was  taken  into  custody.  He  was 
placed  in  the  Clayton  jail  for  safe  keeping,  then  removed  to  the 
Springer  jail.  Released  on  bond,  he  returned  to  Folsom  and  disposed 
of  his  business.  When  tried,  he  was  acquitted,  went  to  Trinidad,  and 
married  the  girl  because  of  whom  he  had  committed  his  first  murder. 
They  went  to  Oklahoma  where  Thompson  killed  another  person,  was 
again  acquitted,  and  there  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

The  decline  of  Folsom  as  a  shipping  center  began  in  1908  when  a 
flood  swept  away  most  of  the  buildings  and  drowned  seventeen  persons. 
Near  the  north  end  of  the  town  is  the  foundation  of  an  old  telephone 
exchange,  marking  the  SITE  OF  THE  HOME  OF  SARAH  J.  ROOKE  of 
whose  heroism  the  townspeople  still  speak.  On  a  night  in  August, 
1908,  Sarah,  a  telephone  operator,  heard  the  buzz  on  her  switchboard 
and  answering  it,  was  told:  "The  river  has  broken  loose!  Run  for  your 


TOUR    2     269 

life!"  She  did  not  run.  Realizing  that  many  persons  were  unaware 
of  the  impending  disaster  she  called  them,  one  by  one,  till  the  flood 
swept  her  cottage  away;  her  body  was  found  in  the  wreckage  eight 
miles  below  the  town.  In  the  Folsom  cemetery  a  granite*  monument 
to  Sarah  Rooke  was  paid  for  by  over  4,000  contributors. 

Folsom  is  the  junction  with  NM  72.  The  tour  continues  straight 
ahead  over  NM  72' 

Left  on  road  7  m.,  is  a  junction  with  a  good  graded  road.  Left  here  on  road 
to  the  CAPULIN  MOUNTAIN  NATIONAL  MONUMENT  (8,268  alt.).  This 
area,  supervised  by  the  National  Park  Service,  contains  MOUNT  CAPULfN 
(8,368  alt.)  and  nine  smaller  extinct  volcanic  craters.  Mount  Capulin,  a  huge 
cinder  cone  of  geologically  recent  formation,  is  described  as  the  most  nearly 
symmetrical  volcanic  cone  in  North  America.  It  is  about  a  mile  in  diameter 
at  the  base  and  1,450  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top.  The  road  completely  en- 
circles the  mountain  to  the  rim,  6  m.f  where  a  trail  leads  into  the  crater,  which 
is  700  feet  deep  and  overgrown  with  grasses  and  brush.  Capulin  is  the 
name  of  a  Mexican  cherry.  Some  believe  the  mountain  was  named  for  fruit 
trees  that  formerly  grew  in  its  crater.  The  Indian  explanation  of  the  name 
is  a  legend  about  Capulin,  the  son  of  a  chief  whose  tribe  lived  on  the  slopes 
of  the  mountain.  Capulin  was  sent  on  a  mission  of  peace  by  his  father  and 
during  his  absence,  Oogah,  his  brother,  shot  and  killed  the  powerful  Thun- 
derbird,  guardian  of  the  mountain.  On  Capulin's  return,  he  found  the  entire 
tribe  wiped  out  by  volcanic  eruptions  which  he  interpreted  as  a  punishment 
from  God.  He  made  his  way  to  the  top  of  the  crater,  gazed  into  the  molten 
depths  and  cried:  "O  Great  Spirit!  If  my  life  will  atone,  it  is  thine!"  Then 
he  threw  himself  into  the  seething  mass.  Many  years  later  when  other  Indians 
ventured  up  to  the  crater's  rim,  they  saw  a  pine  tree  growing  from  the  heart 
of  the  crater,  and  as  the  wind  moaned  through  its  branches,  the  C^reat  Spirit 
whispered:  "Capulin,  Capulin!" 

Main  road  continues  to  junction  with  US  87-64  in  Capulin    (see  Tour  4)- 

Right  from  Folsom,  NM  72  traverses  JOHNSON  MESA,  a  lava- 
capped  tableland  that  extends  most  of  the  distance  between  Folsom  and 
Raton  which  was  named  for  Lige  Johnson,  a  pioneer  cattleman  who 
owned  a  ranch  on  its  southern  slopes.  The  mesa  was  seldom  scaled  by 
other  cowboys  before  1887,  when  a  settler,  Marion  Bell,  attracted  by  the 
cowboys'  reports  of  the  rich,  crumbling  soil,  the  springs  of  pure  moun- 
tain water,  the  perpetual  sunshine,  and  the  magnificent  scenery  built 
a  house  on  its  top. 

At  62  m.  is  a  junction  with  an  unimproved  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  is  the  CROWFOOT  RANCH  of  J.  L.  Johnson  and  Sons  13  m. 
where  the  Folsom  point  finds  in  1926  gave  evidence  that  man  was  living  here 
more  than  10,000  years  ago  (see  Archeology']. 

BELL,  76  m.  (8,460  alt.,  32  pop.),  on  the  Mesa,  was  settled  in 
1887  by  a  group  of  dissatisfied  miners  from  Bossburg,  New  Mexico 
who  wanted  to  farm  and  followed  Bell  up  the  steep  canyon  leading 
to  the  mesa  and  settled  on  this  island  above  the  clouds.  Here  in  a 
strange  new  world  nearly  20  miles  long  and  4  to  6  miles  wide,  they 
built  their  homes,  school,  and  church.  Most  of  the  houses  are  con- 
structed of  stones  and  earth,  for  protection  against  snows  and  blizzards, 
as  temperatures  of  30°  to  40°  below  zero  are  not  infrequent.  The 


270      NEW     MEXICO 

soil  is  remarkably  rich,  and  regular  rains  and  the  spring  flows  keep  it 
well  watered.  Potatoes  and  oals  are  the  principal  crops.  Not  far  from 
here,  under  the  north  rim  of  the  Johnson  Mesa,  are  the  ICE  CAVES 
discovered  in  1934,  when  Eli  and  Fred  Gutierrez  of  Raton  entered 
them  by  descending  from  the  top  of  the  mesa  by  a  rope.  Later  with  two 
other  adventurers,  they  found  a  second  entrance.  In  the  caves  are 
rooms  with  solid  ice  floors  and  walls.  Strata  of  dust  alternate  with 
ice,  and  through  these  it  may  be  possible  to  date  the  formation  of  the 
caves.  In  one  cave  there  is  no  ice,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  enter 
since  it  is  necessary  to  crawl  over  jutting  ledges  and  across  fissures, 
and  there  is  a  drop  of  about  200  feet.  In  April  1936,  Dr.  S.  B.  Tal- 
mage  of  the  New  Mexico  School  of  Mines  discovered  in  the  caverns 
the  miniature  TALMAGE  GLACIER,  which  is  slowly  flowing  through 
breaks  in  the  lava  rock  that  forms  the  top  of  the  mesa.  The  glacier 
is  about  200  feet  long,  over  30  feet  thick  in  places,  and  from  2  to  25 
feet  in  width.  Seepage  of  melting  snow,  augmenting  the  ice  of  the 
glacier  serves  to  keep  it  moving. 

YANKEE,  87  m.  (6,710  alt.,  101  pop.),  was  started  as  a  coal 
town  by  A.  D.  Ensign,  representing  eastern  investors  who  promoted  the 
Santa  Fe,  Raton  &  Eastern  Railroad  from  Raton  to  Yankee.  The  ven- 
ture failed  and  the  town  was  abandoned,  but  since  then  a  few  families 
have  moved  into  some  of  the  abandoned  houses  and  now  dig  their  own 
coal. 

RATON,  95  m.  (8,241  pop.),  is  at  a  junction  with  US  85  (see 
Tour  la)  which  unites  with  US  64  between  Raton  and  Hoxie. 


Section  b.     RAT6N  to  TAOS,  98.7  m. 

Between  Raton  and  Eagle  Nest,  and  for  12  ?n.  east  of  Taos,  the 
road  is  bituminous;  remainder  gravel.  It  is  among  the  most  attractive 
routes  in  the  State.  US  64  continues  southwest  through  level  plains 
country,  following  a  route  of  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail.  To  the  north  and 
west  the  foothills  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountain:;  are  visible.  Be- 
cause of  numerous  dips  in  the  road  and  straying  cattle  and  horses,  it 
is  well  to  drive  carefully. 

At  28.2  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  is  DAWSON;  5.4  m.  (7,500  alt.,  1206  pop.),  a  busy 
coal  mining  camp,  now  owned  by  Phelps-Dodge  interests.  J.  B.  and  L.  S.  Daw- 
son,  brothers,  who  came  to  New  Mexico  between  1867  and  1870,  had  a  ranch 
here  till  coal  was  discovered  on  the  property  about  1895;  some  of  J.  B.  Daw- 
son's  ranch  houses  are  still  standing.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  enough 
undeveloped  veins  at  Dawson  to  last  for  more  than  50  years.  Besides  Amer- 
icans, the  population  consists  of  Slavs  and  Italians. 

Northwest  of  Dawson  the  road  is  unimproved  and  at  times  almost  impass- 
able. It  follows  the  Vermejo  River  to  its  source  near  the  Colorado  State  Line. 
VERMEJO  (vermilion)  PARK,  26  m.f  is  a  magnificent  private  club  and  game 
preserve  extending  eastward  40  miles  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Mountains.  W.  H.  Bartlett,  millionaire  grain  operator  of  Chicago, 
bought  the  ranch  in  1900  after  his  physician  had  warned  him  concerning  his 


TOUR    2     271 

health,  and  lived  here  for  18  years.  Bartlett  built  a  home  for  himself  and  for 
each  of  his  sons,  with  guest  houses,  an  electric  plant,  an  ice  plant,  a  fish 
hatchery  and  made  other  improvements.  The  streams  were  stocked  with  bass 
and  trout  and,  operating  under  a  park  license,  Bartlett  drew  up  his  own  game 
and  fish  laws.  After  Bartlett  and  his  sons  had  died  in  1918  the  property  was 
in  the  care  of  trustees  until  1927,  when  a  group  of  Los  Angeles  capitalists, 
headed  by  Harry  Chandler,  president  of  the  Los  Angeles  Times-Mirror,  pur- 
chased the  ranch  and  incorporated  it  into  a  private  club,  using  Bartlett's 
home  as  clubhouse.  The  original  75  members  included  Will  Rogers,  Cecil  B. 
De  Mille,  Douglas  Fairbanks,  Max  C.  Fleischman,  Will  Hays,  and  Andrew 
Mellon.  The  property  totals  nearly  a  half  million  acres.  Today  the  ranch 
includes  a  large  game  preserve,  where  5,000  elk,  15,000  mule-deer,  20,000  wild 
turkeys,  pheasants,  bears,  wildcats,  and  other  animals  roam  freely. 

COLFAX,  28.5  m,  (6,550  alt.,  13,806  pop.),  comprises  a  gas  sta- 
tion, general  store,  a  dilapidated  and  abandoned  school  house,  and  a  few 
dwellings.  The  nearest  post  office  is  at  Dawson. 

Southwest  of  Colfax  the  highway  continues  almost  in  a  straight  line 
through  sagebrush,  where  fine  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  graze  and  oc- 
casional ranch  houses  are  seen. 

CIMARRON,  39.5  772.  (6,427  alt.,  1,000  pop.),  divided  into  New 
Town  and  Old  Town  by  the  Cimarron  River,  is  on  the  narrow  shelf 
of  land  that  divides  the  Rayado  and  Cimarron  Valleys  from  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  Range  and  is  well  protected  from  mountain  gales.  To  the 
north  and  west  rise  lofty  mountains,  and  to  the  south  and  east  are  two 
of  the  most  fertile  valleys  in  the  State.  In  addition  to  the  Cimarr6n 
River,  the  water  of  the  Ponil  and  the  Cimarroncito  (little  wild)  Can- 
yons supply  adequate  water  for  the  town  and  the  irrigation  of  crops. 
Near-by  mountains  provide  ample  fuel,  timber,  and  game  and  there  is 
good  trout  fishing  in  the  surrounding  streams.  Cimarron  has  had  sev- 
eral gold-mining  booms  but  no  "strike"  of  importance.  Large  stock 
ranches  near  here  produce  excellent  cattle,  particularly  purebred  Here- 
fords.  Since  the  year  1933  a  fine  race-horse  stable  has  been  estab- 
lished, and  eight  large  ranches  are  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  thorough- 
breds. 

The  filing  of  a  petition  for  the  Beaubien  and  Miranda  Grant,  one 
of  the  largest  in  all  New  Mexico  (in  1841),  marked  the  beginning  of 
settlement  here.  In  that  year  Carlos  Beaubien,  a  French  trapper,  and 
Guadalupe  Miranda  of  Taos  requested  the  land  from  Governor 
Armijo,  but  it  was  not  until  41  years  later  that  the  litigation  concern- 
ing the  grant  finally  ended.  About  1849  Lucien  B.  Maxwell,  origi- 
nally of  Kaskaskia,  Illinois,  a  hunter  and  trapper  who  had  accompanied 
General  Fremont  on  his  first  and  third  expeditions  and  had  married 
Beaubien's  daughter,  settled  on  the  grant  and,  after  Beaubien's  death 
at  Taos  in  1864,  bought  out  the  remaining  heirs.  By  1865  Maxwell 
and  his  wife  were  the  sole  owners  of  1,714,765  acres,  a  territory  three 
times  the  size  of  Rhode  Island.  The  Maxwell  Grant,  as  it  was  called, 
included  the  site  of  Springer,  French,  Maxwell,  Otero,  Raton,  Ver- 
mejo  Park,  Ute  Park  (see  below),  Elizabethtown ;  and  in  Colorado, 
Vigil,  Stonewall,  Torres,  Cuarto,  Tercio,  Primero,  and  Segundo.  Max- 
well was  a  powerful  man,  an  expert  horseman;  he  loved  gambling, 


272      NEW     MEXICO 

drinking,  and  almost  any  extravagance.  Buying  costly  furniture  was  a 
hobby.  In  the  days  of  his  greatest  prosperity  he  had  500  peons  working 
on  the  grant,  with  several  thousand  acres  of  land  under  cultiyation. 
Thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep  grazed  on  the  fertile  plains.  Travelers 
held  up  by  storms  were  entertained  lavishly.  For  many  years  he  did 
a  thriving  business  with  the  government,  selling  livestock  to  near-by 
army  posts. 

He  started  many  a  small  rancher  in  the  stock  business,  giving  him  a 
herd  of  cattle,  sheep,  or  horses  and  a  small  ranch  to  be  run  on  shares. 
The  agreement  was  always  a  verbal  one,  and  sometimes  two  or  three 
years  would  pass  without  a  division.  Then  when  Maxwell  needed  more 
stock,  hay,  or  grain  to  fill  his  government  contracts,  he  would  call  in 
his  shareholders,  ask  for  an  accounting,  always  verbal,  and  direct  them 
to  bring  in  the  surplus  to  him,  which  was  done  without  question.  In 
1860-62  Maxwell  was  associated  with  "Buffalo  Bill"  Cody  in  a  goat 
and  sheep  ranch  near  Cimarron.  The  finding  of  gold  on  the  grant  in 
1867  was  disastrous  for  Maxwell  who  invested  a  fortune  in  the  venture, 
which  failed.  In  1870  the  grant  wa$  sold  to  three  financiers  for  a  sum 
believed  to  have  been  between  $650,000  and  $750,000.  Three  months 
later  it  was  purchased  by  an  English  syndicate  for  a  reported  price  of 
$1,350,000. 

MaxwelPs  next  venture  was  banking.  He  founded  the  First  Na- 
tional Bank  of  Santa  Fe,  today  the  only  one  in  the  capital.  In  Decem- 
ber 1870,  when  the  charter  was  granted,  stock  certificates  bore  a 
vignette  of  Maxwell  with  a  cigar  in  his  mouth.  But  his  lack  of  bank- 
ing experience  (on  the  Maxwell  Grant  he  had  always  kept  his  money 
in  a  cowhide  trunk  in  his  bed  room)  caused  him  to  sell  out  in  1871  and 
invest  $250,000  in  bonds  of  a  corporation  formed  for  the  construction 
of  the  Texas  Pacific  Railroad.  This  proved  to  be  a  complete  loss,  and 
Maxwell  died  in  comparative  poverty  on  July  25,  1875.  He  was 
buried  in  the  old  military  cemetery  at  Fort  Sumner,  where  his  son  Peter 
and  Billy  the  Kid  were  also  interred  (see  Tour  8a). 

The  MAXWELL  HOUSE,  now  in  ruins,  was  built  about  1864  by  the 
former  trapper.  As  large  as  a  city  block,  it  housed  a  gambling  room, 
billiard  room,  and  dance  hall,  as  well  as  a  rear  section  which  the  women 
were  not  allowed  to  leave.  Every  evening  sums  of  money  changed 
hands  as  the  gambling  gunmen  and  ranchers  gathered  to  play  faro, 
roulette,  monte,  cunquien,  poker,  and  dice.  Maxwell's  soon  became  the 
principal  stopping  place  for  travelers  on  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  and  the 
starting  point  for  prospectors,  hunters,  and  trappers,  as  well  as  the  "cow- 
boy capital"  of  northern  New  Mexico.  Its  guests  are  said  to  have 
included  Kit  Carson,  Ceran  St.  Vrain,  Jesus  Abreu,  Charles  Bent,  Davy 
Crockett,  Clay  Allison,  "Buffalo  Bill"  Cody,  Tom  Boggs  (grandson  of 
Daniel  Boone),  and  many  others.  In  the  same  year  in  which  the 
mansion  was  built,  there  was  erected  a  stone  GRIST  MILL  in  which 
was  ground  the  wheat  grown  on  the  ranch.  It  is  row  used  by  the 
owner  for  storing  grain  and  hay,  etc.  After  Maxwell  had  been  ap- 
pointed a  U.  S.  Government  Indian  agent,  he  used  it  to  house  provi- 


TO  17  R    2     273 

sions  for  the  Ute.  Across  from  the  Maxwell  House,  the  St.  James 
Hotel,  now  operated  as  the  DON  DIEGO  TAVERN,  was  built  in  187080 
and  run  by  Henry  Lambert,  who  before  coming  to  New  Mexico  had 
been  chef  for  General  Grant  and  Abraham  Lincoln.  This  inn  was 
frequented  by  outlaws  and  was  the  scene  of  26  killings.  Whenever  a 
man  was  shot  in  the  hotel,  townspeople  would  sly,  "Lambert  had  a  man 
for  breakfast."  The  Las  Vegas  Gazette  once  reported:  "Everything 
is  quiet  in  Cimarron.  Nobody  has  been  killed  for  three  days."  As  the 
gunmen  of  the  Southwest  continued  to  come  to  Cimarron,  15  saloons, 
4  hotels,  a  post  office,  and  a  newspaper,  the  Cimarron  News  and  Press, 
were  established.  The  paper,  housed  in  a  warehouse  used  as  the  In- 
dian Agency  Headquarters,  was  said  to  have  been  printed  on  the  press 
brought  to  New  Mexico  by  Padre  Antonio  Jose  Martinez  and  first  used 
by  him  in  1835  to  print  school  books,  religious  propaganda,  and  a  Taos 
paper,  El  Crepusculo  (the  dawn).  It  is  related  that  one  evening  Clay 
Allison  and  some  of  his  cohorts,  angered  by  an  item  in  the  newspaper, 
battered  in  the  door  of  the  building,  smashed  the  press  with  a  sledge 
hammer,  and  finally  dumped  the  type  cases  and  office  equipment  into 
the  Cimarron  River.  Not  satisfied,  Allison  and  one  of  his  men  went 
back  to  the  plant  next  morning,  found  a  stack  of  the  previous  day's 
papers,  and  went  from  bar  to  bar  selling  the  papers  at  25^  a  copy. 
As  if  Cimarron  did  not  have  enough  of  its  own  gangsters,  "Black 
Jack"  Ketchum  of  western  Oklahoma  frequently  dropped  into  town  be- 
tween train  robberies.  He  was  finally  hanged  at  Clayton  (see  Tour  4). 

It  was  in  Chnarron  that  Buffalo  Bill  organized  his  famous  Wild 
West  show,  roilnding  up  almost  all  of  the  Indians  and  pinto  ponies 
in  the  region.  Whenever  possible,  he  would  spend  Christmas  here  giv- 
ing a  party  for  children  at  the  St.  James  Hotel.  On  one  occasion  each 
child  received  a  plush-seated  tricycle,  and  some  of  the  recipients  still 
keep  these  gifts  as  cherished  mementoes. 

Cimarron  was  the  home  of  Frank  Springer,  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  State  Museum  of  Art  at  Santa  Fe.  Coming  from  Iowa  in  1873, 
he  settled  here  and  became  one  of  the  leading  lawyers  of  the  Southwest. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  numerous  works  on  paleontology,  a  member 
of  the  Archeological  Institute  of  America,  and  the  outstanding  patron 
of  the  School  of  American  Archeology  at  Santa  Fe.  He  contributed 
generously  to  the  expense  of  building  the  Art  Museum  in  the  capital  and 
donated  spme  of  the  finest  collections  in  both  Santa  Fe  museums.  His 
brother,  Charlie  Springer,  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  State's  most 
prominent  citizens. 

Cimarron  was  the  seat  of  Coif  ax  County  from  1872  to  1882  but 
declined  with  the  transfer  of  the  county  seat  to  Springer.  A  new  wave 
of  prosperity  came  in  1905-06,  when  a  branch  line  was  built  by  the  St. 
Louis,  Rocky  Mt.  &  Pacific  Railroad  (later  sold  to  the  Atchison,  To- 
peka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway)  to  Cimarron  and  Ute  Park  (see  below). 
The  Cimarron  Townsite  Company  bought  a  tract  of  land  on  the  north 
side  of  the  river  called  New  Town  and  sold  residence  lots  to  the  home- 
seekers  who  came  in  with  the  railroad.  In  addition  to  the  two  hotels 


274      NEW     MEXICO 

Cimarron 's  interesting  buildings  include:  the  AGENCY  WAREHOUSE, 
built  1848,  still  in  good  condition  and  now  occupied  as  a  residence;  the 
old  COUNTY  JAIL  AND  COURTHOUSE,  both  built  in  1854.  The  NA- 
TIONAL HOTEL  built  in  1858,  the  first  hotel  in  town,  is  behind  the  Don 
Diego;  in  Old  Town,  is  an  interesting  relic  called  SWINK'S  GAMBLING 
HALL,  built  in  1854,  now  a  garage.  Swink's  Hall  rivaled  Maxwell's 
home  as  the  best  place  in  Cimarron  for  one  to  become  rich — or  poor — 
overnight.  In  the  CIMARRON  CEMETERY  graves  of  many  pioneers  of 
Colfax  County  are  marked  by  wooden  headpieces,  many  of  them  illegible. 
The  remains  of  Davy  Crockett,  the  desperado,  killed  in  September  1876, 
when  he  refused  to  surrender  to  Deputy  Sheriff  Joe  Holbrook,  are  in  a 
grave  whose  marker  was  stolen  by  a  stranger  claiming  to  be  his  relative. 
The  Race  Track  is  at  the  west  end  of  New  Town.  Here  is  held  a 
non-profit,  Fourth  of  July  Rodeo  for  working  cowboys. 

Left  on  NM  2r  past  the  PHILMONT  RANCH,  1.8  m.t  originally  owned  by 
Waite  Phillips  of  Oklahoma,  a  private  game  preserve  where  buffalo,  elk,  an- 
telope, and  other  animals  are  protected  by  a  12-foot  fence.  It  had  formerly 
been  Kit  Carson's  Rayado  Ranch,  established  in  1849  when  the  noted  scout 
hoped  to  settle  down.  His  services  were  too  valuable  to  the  government,  how- 
ever, and  he  spent  only  a  short  time  here.  CARSON'S  HOME,  a  two-room  adobe, 
was  recently  restored  and  put  in  good  condition.  Beyond  the  Philmont  Ranch 
is  a  junction  with  a  dirt  road,  3.1  m.  Right  on  this  road  is  a  rock  called  the 
TOOTH  OF  TIME,  4.2  m.,  an  eroded  formation  resembling  an  immense  incisor, 
a  landmark  for  miles  around.  For  several  years  a  glass  jar  has  been  left  there, 
in  which  visitors  deposit  slips  of  paper  with  the  name  and  date  of  their  visit. 
In  1941  Mr.  Waite  gave  the  ranch  to  the  National  Boy  Scouts. 

At  40.3  m.  is  junction  with  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  is  CHASE  RANCH,  3.1  m.f  a  large  estate  occupied  by  Lew 
Wallace  (one  time  governor  of  New  Mexico)  when  he  was  working  on  Ben 
Hur. 

CIMARR6N  CANYON,  44.8  m.,  is  a  narrow,  twisting  gorge 
whose  stone  walls  seem  to  hang  over  the  highway.  Scrub  pine,  juniper, 
and  aspen  cover  the  sides  coming  do\vn  to  the  very  edge  of  the  roa"d. 
Fine  camping  spots  privately  owned  are  along  the  highway  (50$  charge 
for  camping). 

The  north  walls  of  Cimarron  Canyon  are  chiefly  of  Cretaceous  sand- 
stone, while  those  of  the  south  side  are  broken  with  diorite,  making 
alternate  ridges  and  gulches  that  slope  to  the  river. 

CIMARRONCITA  CAMP  (L),  50  w.,  a  camp  for  girls  established  in 
1931,  is  near  the  site  of  a  fierce  battle  between  the  Ute  and  Comanche. 

UTE  PARK,  54  m.  (7,413  alt.,  zoo  pop.),  was  named  for  the 
Ute  Indians,  who  lived  on  the  east  slope  of  nearby  Mount  Baldy.  The 
rebellious  Ute  resisted  their  white  oppressors,  and  an  Indian  Agency 
and  military  force  were  maintained  at  Cimarron  to  keep  them  subdued, 
until  they  were  finally  moved  to  a  reservation  in  southern  Colorado  and 
Utah.  Ute  Park  has  a  post  office,  grocery  store,  curio  shop,  service 
station  and  summer  ranch  camp  for  girls  and  boys. 


Along  the  Highway 


The  yucca,  state  flower  of  New  Mexico 


A  red-rock  mesa  in  northwestern  New  Mexico 

Mesa  country  near  Grants,  off  U.  S.  Highway  66 


Seminary  near  Las  Vegas,  formerly  a  resort  hotel 


Horseback  riding  in  Lincoln  National  Forest 

Water  sports  at  Conchas  Dam 


Skiing  in  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains 


Organ  Mountains,  northeast  of  Las  Cruces 


Strings  of  chili  ripening  in  the  sun 
Cemetery  at  the  old  mining  town  of  Kingston 


Twin  bridges  over  the  Rio  Grande,  outside  Albuquerque 

Pecos  River  and  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains 


TOUR     2     275 

West  of  Ute  Park,  US  64  follows  the  twisting  Cimarron  River 
through  a  region  that  abounds  in  thick  pine  and  aspen  forests.  The 
CIMARRCN  PALISADES  (R),  a  formation  of  red  sandstone  that 
rises  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  highway.  In  certain  lights  the 
Palisades  are  a  mass  of  color,  and  even  on  cloudy  days  their  strength 
and  beauty  of  form  are  striking. 

After  two  hairpin  turns,  the  highway  climbs  over  the  hills  into 
MORENO  VALLEY,  and  at  64.6  m.  (L)  EAGLE  NEST  LAKE 
(boats  and  tackle  for  rent)  is  visible.  Considered  by  some  the  best 
trout  lake  in  the  State,  this  body  of  water  is  annually  visited  by  hun- 
dreds of  fishermen.  The  lake  is  owned  by  Charles  Springer  Cattle  Co., 
and  is  operated  by  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Co.  Boats  $5  per  hour;  $2 
entitles  fishermen  6  fish. 

At  Eagle  Nest,  66  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  past  EAGLE  NEST  LODGE  to  EAGLE  NEST  DAM,  0.5  m., 
built  by  the  Springer  Brothers  in  1912.  The  dam  is  140  feet  high  and  impounds 
100,000  acre-feet  of  water,  which  is  used  to  irrigate  70,000  acres  of  land  and 
to  provide  electric  power  for  Springer,  Maxwell,  French,  and  other  points. 
Here  is  the  EAGLE  NEST  FISH  HATCHERY,  a  Federal  hatchery  that  is  in  opera- 
tion only  during  the  spawning  season  for  trout. 

EAGLE  NEST,  66  m.  (8,500  alt.,  332  pop.),  was  formerly 
called  Therma  (Gr.  hot).  For  several  years  both  names  were  used, 
but  in  1935  the  name  of  the  post  office  was  officially  changed  to  Eagle 
Nest.  About  the  first  of  May  an  annual  Free  Fish  Fry  here  is  at- 
tended by  about  5,000  persons.  There  are  three  restaurants,  two  of 
which  offer  night-club  entertainment.  The  population,  including  some 
German  and  Irish  as  well  as  Spanish- Americans,  is  largely  engaged  in 
cattle  raising  and  mining. 

Right  from  Eagle  Nest  on  NM  38,  a  graded  gravel  road,  to  ELIZABETH- 
TOWN,  4.8  m.  (142  pop.),  a  ghost  mining  town.  NM  38  continues  through 
the  RED  RIVER  CANYON,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  State,  to  a  junction 
with  NM  3  in  QUESTA,  30.2  m.  (1,029  Pop.)  (see  Tour  So). 

South  of  Eagle  Nest  US  64  follows  a  winding  course  through  the 
Moreno  (dark  or  brunette)  Valley.  In  autumn  this  area  of  farming 
and  grazing  land  is  beautifully  colored  with  the  yellow  of  aspen  trees, 
the  red  of  the  oak  on  the  surrounding  hills,  and  vivid  purple  wildflow- 
ers  dotting  the  carpet  of  brown  grass. 

AGUA  FRIA  (cold  water),  75.2  m.  (8,359  alt.),  is  located  on 
the  CIENEGUILLA  (little  marsh)  CREEK  which  empties  into 
Eagle  Nest  Lake.  One  of  the  surrounding  peaks,  bearing  the  same 
name  as  the  village,  is  nearly  11,000  feet  high. 

West  of  Agua  Fria  US  64  makes  a  series  of  switchbacks  over  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Range,  climbing  PALO  FLECHAJDO  (tree  shot  with 
arrows)  HILL.  The  unusual  name  comes  from  an  old  Taos  Indian 
custom  of  shooting  the  remaining  arrows  into  a  large  tree  after  buffalo 
hunts.  At  the  summit  of  the  mountain  near  PALO  FLECHADO 


276     NEW    MEXICO 

PASS  (9,107  alt.)  is  the  tree  containing  the  arrows.  The  highway 
enters  Taos  County  and  continues  down  into  TAOS  CANYON  in 
another  series  of  hairpin  turns,  passing  through  various  settlements. 

The  highway  crosses  a  section  of  the  CARSON  NATIONAL 
FOREST.  Here  along  Taos  Creek  four  public  campgrounds  (L)  are 
maintained  by  the  Forest  Service,  providing  water,  wood,  and  sanitary 
facilities  for  free  camping. 

CA5J6N,  96.6  TW.  (7,076  alt.,  816  pop.),  at  the  head  of  Taos  Val- 
ley, is  one  of  the  oldest  Spanish-American  settlements  in  the  valley, 
settled  between  1700  and  1725.  The  site  was  chosen  because  of  the 
abundance  of  water  and  because  it  was  outside  the  boundaries  of  the 
Taos  Pueblo  Indian  Land.  TAOS  PEAK  (12,282  alt.)  visible  (R)  is 
referred  to  as  the  Sacred  Mountain  by  the  Taos  Pueblo  Indians,  whose 
pueblo  is  at  its  base.  The  road  leads  across  the  valley  through  well- 
cultivated  ranches. 

TAOS,  98.7  772.  (6,952  alt.,  3,831  pop.),  (see  Taos). 


&<&&^^^^ 

Tour  2 A 

Pojoaque — San  Ildefonso — Otowi — Frijoles  Canyon  (Bandelier  Na- 
tional Monument) — Valle  Grande — Cuba;  96  m.t  Old  NM  4  and 
NM  126.  (Old  NM  4  not  signposted.  Inquire  at  Pojoaque.) 

Bituminous-paved    (from   Pojoaque  for   17   m.)  ;    balance   graveled    road   with 

steep  grades  and  sharp  curves. 

Accommodations  at  Frijoles  Canyon  summer  season. 

Tour  2A  follows  old  NM  4.    A  new  NM  4  parallels  latter,  but  the  old  road  is 

more  interesting  although  not  as  good.    Wherever  NM  4  is   referred  to,  old 

NM  4  is  meant.     (New  NM  4  paved;  Old  NM  4  graded  road). 

Along  this  route  is  a  visual  record  of  the  ages  written  in  the  land 
itself;  multiformed  stone,  volcanic  thrusts,  mesa  lands,  wind-  and 
water-gouged  canyons,  and  the  rugged  mountains  are  vestiges  of  the 
'  time,  eons  ago,  when  the  violent  earth  outlined  its  contour.  Another 
chapter  of  a  later  day  when  this  area  was  peopled  is  found  in  the  ruins 
of  dwellings  atop  high  plateaus,  in  caves,  and  in  carvings  on  cliffs. 

In  the  Indian  pueblos,  of  early  origin  but  still  occupied,  is  pre- 
served the  mode  of  living  found  by  the  conquering  Spaniard  400  years 
ago.  Along  the  arroyo  banks  are  ranchitos  with  adobe  houses,  juniper- 
post  corrals,  and  barns  similar  to  those  of  the  Spanish  colonists  who  first 
established  them.  These,  together  with  larger  haciendas  of  later 
Americans,  make  the  contemporary  scene.  Tuff  cliffs  and  mesa  table- 
lands; monumental  natural  carvings  resembling  cathedrals,  or  cubistic 


TOUR    2  A     277 

statuary ;  sequestered  valleys  interlaced  by  irrigation  ditches,  dotted  with 
apricot  and  peach  orchards,  wild  plum  thickets,  and  chili  patches;  in- 
habited pueblos  and  ruins — these  and  much  more  are  passed  in  turn. 

NM  4  branches  west  from  US  64  (see  Tour  3a)  in  POJOAQUE, 
0  m.  and  winds  along  the  south  bank  of  the  Pojoaque  River  through 
small  ranches;  land  once  owned  by  Indians,  now  by  others.  Generally 
nondescript,  these  farms  become  colorful  in  the  fall  when  the  scarlet 
strings  of  drying  chili,  golden  leaves  of  cottonwoods,  and  the  russet 
basket  willows  make  vivid  the  countryside.  To  the  right  across  the 
river  and  paralleling  the  highway  almost  to  the  Rio  Grande  rises  a 
long,  high,  eroded  range  of  pinkish  hills,  the  Santa  Fe  marl. 

The  TESUQUE  RIVER,  0.6  m.,  a  sandy  bed  except  during  flood- 
time  (dangerous  to  ford  if  more  than  3  inches  deep)y  is  crossed  near 
its  confluence  (R)  with  the  Pojoaque  River,  called  the  Pojoaque  River 
west  to  its  junction  with  the  Rio  Grande.  Bridge  crosses  on  nearby 
new  NM  4. 

JACONA  (Ha-ko-nah),  1.9  m.,  a  small  settlement,  is  on  the  site 
of  Jacona  Pueblo,  abandoned  in  1696  when  the  inhabitants  joined  other 
Tewa  Pueblos.  At  the  time  of  the  1680  rebellion  this  was  a  visit  a 
of  the  Nambe  Mission.  In  1709  the  Jacona  grant  became  the  property 
of  Ignacio  de  Roybal. 

At  intervals  along  this  portion  of  the  road  are  the  adobe  homes  of 
John  Glidden,  writer ;  and  Cady  Wells,  painter.  These  houses,  though 
finely  furnished,  are  inconspicuous  among  the  externally  similar  homes 
of  the  native  inhabitants. 

West  of  Jacona,  the  highway  crosses  a  san4  flat  caused  by  the  over- 
flow of  the  Pojoaque  River;  the  many  sandy  arroyos  here  are  hazard- 
ous immediately  after  a  hard  downpour. 

A  good  view  of  TUNYO  (Ind.,  very  spotted),  also  called  Black 
Mesa  or  Orphan  Mesa  (R),  a  stark,  isolated  volcanic  butte,  is  at  3.5 
772.  This  is  the  traditional  home  of  Savayo  or  Tsabiyo,  a  giant  who 
ate  the  children  of  the  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo.  After  long  suffering  the 
cacique  made  medicine  for  protection,  and  in  answer  to  his  prayers  the 
Twin  War  Gods  killed  the  giant  by  allowing  him  to  eat  them  and 
then  cutting  open  his  stomach.  At  the  instant  of  his  death,  smoke  and 
flame  burst  from  the  mountains  in  the  four  corners  of  the  earth  and  his 
blood  flowed  out  in  the  form  of  steaming  lava. 

At  4.5  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  the  PUEBLO  OF  SAN  ILDEFONSO  (obtain  permis- 
sion to  photograph),  12  m.r  a  Tewa-speaking  village  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande  below  the  mouth  of  the  Pojoaque  River.  Don  Juan  de  Onate  in 
1598  gave  the  name  Boye  to  the  old  village  that  was  about  a  mile  from  the 
present  pueblo.  The  Tewa  name  Ci-po-que  means  place  where  the  water  cuts 
through.  San  Ildefonso  people  say  their  ancestors  once  lived  in  the  cliffs  across 
the  Rio  Grande,  in  the  ruins  of  6towi  and  Tsdnkawi  on  the  Pajarito  Pla- 
teau (see  below).  According  to  tradition,  when  water  grew  scarce  they  moved 
to  the  place  in  the  valley  now  marked  by  large  village  ruins.  The  present 
settlement  on  the  east  bank  consists  of  many  one-story  and  several  two-story 
adobe  houses  built,  around  two  large  plazas.  The  mission  and  monastery  were 
founded  in  1617  under  Friar  Cristobal  de  Salazar.  In  1628  Benavides  wrote 


278      NEW     MEXICO 

that  the  church  at  San  Ildefonso  "upon  which  the  Religious  have  put  much 
care'*  was  very  beautiful.  While  General  Juan  Francisco  Trevino  was  gov- 
ernor and  captain-general  of  the  Province  in  1675,  Indians  of  the  Tewa  nation 
were  accused  of  having  bewitched  Friar  Anares  (Andres)  Duran,  superior 
of  the  convent  at  San  Ildefonso,  his  brother,  sister-in-law,  and  an  Indian 
interpreter.  More  than  40  persons  were  arrested  and  all  pleaded  guilty. 
Forty-th^ee  were  sentenced  to  be  whipped  and  sold  into  slavery  and  four 
to  be  executed.  Of  the  four,  one  was  hanged  in  Nambe,  another  in  the  pueblo 
of  San  Felipe,  a  third  in  Jeraez,  and  the  fourth  hanged  himself.  At  the  time 
of  the  Pueblo  Revolt  in  1680  the  village  had  about  800  inhabitants  and  two 
resident  missionaries,  with  Santa  Clara  and  San  Juan  as  visitas.  During  the 
revolt  of  that  year  Fray  Luis  de  Morales  and  his  assistant,  Antonio  Sanchez 
de  Pio,  were  murdered. 

When  De  Vargas  reconquered  New  Mexico  in  1692,  San  Ildefonso  acknowl- 
edged its  allegiance  without  protest;  but  later  in  1694,  when  De  Vargas 
marched  against  the  northern  tribes,  the  San  Ildefonsons  entrenched  them- 
selves on  Black  Mesa.  Although  the  Spaniards  fought  valiantly  for  a  time 
the  Tewa  repelled  all  their  attacks  but  were  eventually  conquered. 

After  the  declaration  of  peace  in  1694  the  missions  were  reestablished,  but 
in  1696  several  of  the  Pueblo  tribes  again  rebelled  and  during  the  night 
of  June  4  the  San  Ildefonso  Indians  closed  all  the  openings  and  set  fire  to 
both  church  and  convent.  Fray  Francisco  Corvera  as  well  as  Fray  Antonio 
Moreno  of  Nambe,  who  was  visiting  him,  were  burned  alive.  Immediately 
after,  the  Indians  fled  to  Black  Mesa  where  Spanish  forces  again  forced 
them  to  surrender. 

Spanish  archives  record  that  between  1717  and  1722  a  new  chapel  was 
erected  at  San  Ildefonso.  However,  a  part  of  the  1696  monastery  remained 
until  late  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Nothing  is  left  of  the  beautiful  old 
church  and  monastery,  which  were  torn  down  before  1900  to  make  way  for 
the  present  church  west  of  the  north  plaza,  a  simple  white-washed  adobe 
structure.  Several  paintings,  some  on  elk  and  buffalo  hide,  materials  used 
in  early  times  because  of  the  scarcity  of  canvas,  formerly  decorated  the  interior. 
The  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo  Grant  first  made  by  Spain  was  confirmed  by 
the  United  States  in  1858  for  17,292  acres.  The  GOVERNMENT  DAY  SCHOOL 
that  children  of  the  pueblo  attend  is  slightly  north  of  the  North  Plaza. 

San  Ildefonso  has  long  been  known  for  the  skill  of  its  craftsmen  and 
through  the  encouragement  of  the  School  of  American  Research,  the  Indian 
Arts  Fund,  and  particularly  the  endeavors  of  Mr.  Kenneth  Chapman,  expert 
on  Indian  ceramics  and  design,  today  it  is  a  leader  in  art  and  pottery.  It  was 
here  that  Crescencio  Martinez  developed  the  old  technique  in  Indian  water- 
color  painting  under  the  patronage  of  Dr.  Edgar  L.  Hewett,  director  of  the 
Museum  of  New  Mexico.  Awa  Tsireh,  Louis  Gonzales,  Abel  Sanchez,  and 
other  well  known  painters  live  at  San  Ildefonso,  former  home  of  the  late 
Julian  Martinez  and  his  wife  Marie,  well  known  designers  and  makers  of 
the  famous  black  and  red  pottery.  Here  may  be  seen  bowls,  vases,  plates,  and 
jars  in  all  the  processes  of  molding,  firing,  decorating,  and  polishing.  Be- 
cause of  the  ready  market  for  its  handicrafts,  the  village  has  a  high  pro  rata 
income. 

The  site  of  this  pueblo  is  especially  attractive  with  the  Jemez  Range  on 
the  west,  the  Truchas  on  the  east,  and  the  Black  Mesa  directly  north.  The 
construction  of  homes  and  the  daily  life  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  a  friendly 
and  courteous  people,  seem  to  be  much  the  same  as  many  years  ago.  On 
January  23,  which  is  their  fiesta,  the  Buffalo  and  Comanche  dances  are 
performed  on  alternate  years. 

Near  the  pueblo  are  four  sacred  springs  and  hill-top  shrines,  which  are 
not  visited  by  the  general  public.  The  volcanic  butte  Tunyo  is  also  vene- 
rated as  the  home  of  the  giant.  Though  the  Twin  War  Gods  killed  him  long 
ago,  even  today  Tsabiyo  is  occasionally  used  by  Tewa  mothers  as  the  bogey- 
man to  frighten  their  children  into  obedience.  Every  autumn  in  some  of  the 
Tewa  villages  an  impersonator  of  Tsabiyo,  dressed  in  traditional  costume, 


TOUR    2  A     279 

conies  to  the  village  with  whip  in  hand  to  punish  men,  women,  and  children 
who  have  transgressed  during  the  year. 

NM  4  at  6.8  m.  approaches  the  bottom  farm  lands  (R)  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  the  majority  of  which  belong  to  the  San  Ildefonsos.  In  the 
spring  before  the  Indians  start  work  on  irrigation  ditches,  cleaning  them 
of  debris  and  preparing  for  the  spring  flow,  they  usually  hold  dances 
asking  the  boon  of  plentiful  water.  In  autumn  they  thresh  their  grain 
on  primitive  earthen  threshing  floors,  using  goats  or  horses  to  tramp 
it  out. 

Beyond  rolling  hills  with  a  mesa  (L),  NM  4  now  crosses  a  new 
bridge  over  the  Rio  Grande.  6TOWI,  7.8  m. 

Between  6towi  and  the  Cochiti  Pueblo  approximately  20  miles  to 
the  south  (L),  the  White  Rock  Canyon  walls  in  the  Rio  Grande.  This 
canyon  marks  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  PAJARITO  (little  bird) 
PLATEAU,  a  part  of  the  more  extensive  Jemez  Plateau  over  which  the 
highway  continues  to  Frijoles  Canyon.  This  crescent-shaped  plateau, 
bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Rio  Grande,  on  the  north  by  the  Rio  Chama, 
and  on  the  south  by  Canada  de  Cochiti,  is  about  50  miles  long  and  12 
miles  wide.  Much  of  it  is  covered  by  a  sheet  of  volcanic  tuff,  varying 
in  thickness  from  100  to  1,000  feet,  and  it  is  cut  by  many  canyons, 
mostly  east-west  gorges,  all  made  by  streams  tributary  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  which  are  intermittent  in  dry  seasons.  The  only  permanent 
stream  in  this  region  is  the  Rito  de  los  Frijoles  (see  below).  In  this 
area  are  27  large  ruins,  including  the  pueblos  on  the  mesas  and  cliff 
dwellings,  or  combinations  of  both,  as  well  as  many  small  house  pueblos 
and  cliff  dwellings  that  have  not  been  touched  by  the  archeologist. 

Although  the  territory  was  not  especially  accessible  to  the  nomadic 
tribes,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  canyons  and  the  natural  protection 
of  the  cliffs  and  the  tuff  deposits,  that  provided  an  easily  worked  build- 
ing material,  attracted  a  considerable  population.  The  approximate  time 
the  "Pajaritans"  left  the  plateau  has  been  determined  by  studies  of  tree- 
rings  and  pottery.  Probably  jealousy  between  various  language  groups 
and  struggles  with  drought  caused  the  exodus  to  Rio  Grande  pueblos 
during  the  i6th  century. 

At  8.8  m.  is  a  junction  with  paved  road  R.  that  leads  north  to 
junction  with  road  to  Puye  (see  Tour  7 A). 

West  of  Ctowi  the  highway  ascends  a  roadway  cut  in  the  side  (R) 
of  Los  Alamos  Canyon,  which  it  traverses  for  five  miles.  Cliff-like 
sides  of  ingenous  rock  rise  sheer  and  rugged,  and  formations  stand  out 
from  the  bluffs  and  ridges  in  groups  of  illusive  images  that  seem  to  in- 
crease enormously  as  they  apparently  rush  toward  the  observer. 

At  12.5  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road  NM  4  stub  one. 

Right  on  this  road  0.8  m.  to  a  side  road  £.  This  road,  usually  passable 
for  cars,  leads  to  the  6rowi  RUINS  (Ind.,  a  gap  where  water  sinks),  1.5  m.,  on 
a  high  square  ridge  on  the  valley  floor.  These  were  the  nucleus  of  the 
6towi  settlement,  a  large  pueblo  ruin  surrounded  by  clusters  of  excavated 


28O     NEW     MEXICO 

dwellings  in  the  nearby  cliff.  The  ruins  of  another  pueblo  of  considerable 
dimensions,  comprising  seven  small  houses,  are  on  a  parallel  ridge  to  the 
south  of  the  main  dwelling.  The  main  pueblo  ruin  at  Otowi  differs  in  plan 
from  others  of  this  region.  With  the  exception  of  one  detached  house  it 
consists  of  a  cluster  of  five  houses,  situated  on  sloping  ground  and  connected 
at  one  end  by  a  wall.  Investigators  believe  that  these  houses  were  a 
counterpart  of  the  present  terraced  houses  at  Taos,  though  somewhat  smaller. 
Altogether  the  five  houses  contained  about  450  rooms  on  the  ground  floor.  The 
number  of  superimposed  rooms  is  estimated  at  250.  The  circular  kivas,  all 
subterranean  and  outside  the  walls  of  the  buildings  with  two  exceptions,  are 
incorporated  in  the  6towi  ruins. 

On  the  \alley  floor  about  0.7  m.  north  of  the  main  rums  is  a  cluster  of  sepa- 
rated conical  formations  of  white  tuff,  30  feet  high,  popularly  called  "tent  rocks." 
They  are  honeycombed  with  caves,  both  natural  and  artificial. 

Returning  to  the  highway  at  0.8  m.  a  road  leads  to  the  Los  Alamos,  open  to 
tourists,  except  certain  restricted  areas.  In  1942  the  U.  S.  government  acquired 
the  site  of  Los  ALAMOS  SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS,  for  highly  secret  war  work.  Here 
was  established  Los  ALAMOS  SCIENTIFIC  LABORATORY  for  nuclear  fission  research 
and  atomic  weapons  development,  operated  since  its  beginning  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  California;  from  1943  to  1947  under  contract  with  the  Manhattan 
Engineer  District,  U.  S.  Army;  since  1947  under  contract  with  the  Atomic 
Energy  Commission. 

A  modern  city  of  nearly  13,000  has  grown  up  on  the  Pajarito  Plateau  of  the 
James  Mountains  to  house  the  people  required  for  operation  of  the  project,  their 
families  and  those  who  serve  the  needs  of  the  community. 

At  13.8  m.  is  junction  with  a  paved  road  (L)  to  White  Rock,  now 
a  private  housing  development  for  Los  Alamos  employees. 

Left  on  this  road  to  an  Indian  trail,  0.2  m.  L.  or  R.  on  this  up  the  mesa 
to  TSANKAWI  CLIFF  DWELLINGS  AND  RUINS,  0.3  m.,  a  smaller  eminence  perched 
upon  a  larger.  The  name  Tsankawi,  given  by  the  Pueblo  Indians,  is  the 
Tewa  equivalent  for  "the  place  of  round  cactus."  This  ruin  is  between  Los 
Alamos  and  Sandia  canyons  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau  on  a  long,  irregularly 
shaped  mesa,  the  sides  of  which  are  strewn  with  sharp-edged  volcanic  rocks 
common  to  this  region.  The  sides  of  the  lower  mesa  contain  numerous  caves, 
some  formed  by  erosion  and  others  by  human  labor.  At  the  summit  of  the 
first  mesa  a  path  in  the  rock  is  well  defined,  worn  fully  a  foot  deep  in  places 
by  the  constant  tread  of  feet  in  bygone  ages.  This  trail  leads  to  the  abrupt 
walls  of  the  superimposed  mesa  whose  rock  sides  are  indented  with  a  large 
and  forbidding  group  of  petroglyphs  evidently  devised  to  frighten  enemies 
away. 

A  narrow  passage,  a  few  feet  from  the  rock  etchings,  leads  to  the  summit 
of  this  mesa.  The  defile,  easily  defended,  proves  the  near-impregnable  char- 
acter of  the  summit.  The  opening,  about  ten  feet  high  and  two  feet  wide, 
extends  snakelike  in  the  rock  wall;  it  is  a  climb  of  approximately  20  feet  to 
the  upper  mesa  with  its  magnificent  view  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau,  mountains, 
valleys,  and  canyons.  Westward  (R)  is  the  Jemez  Range  and  far  to  the  east 
the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range.  The  main  ruin  is  about  1,000  feet  from  the 
citadel,  a  three-story  pile  of  stone  outlining  approximately  200  ground-floor 
rooms.  Little  excavating  has  been  done;  the  hewn  stones  still  He  in  heaps. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  inhabitants  lived  here  until  the  sixteenth  century. 

South  from  Tsankawi  2.5  m.,  on  an  ancient  trail  in  the  rock,  definable  for 
most  of  the  distance,  lived  Tsankawi's  nearest  neighbor  of  the  same  period, 
the  combined  cliff  dwelling  and  pueblo  RUIN  OF  NAVAWI.  Doubtless  the  ancient 
inhabitants  were  constantly  passing  back  and  forth  between  the  four  towns  of 
the  Pajarito  Plateau — Navawi,  Tsankawi,  Tshirege,  and  6towi,  These  com- 
munities engaged  in  common  occupations,  mainly  agriculture;  that  they  watered 
their  crops  by  irrigation  is  evident  from  remains  of  ditches  and  reservoirs. 
No  excavation  has  been  done  on  this  ruin,  but  the  main  handmade  caves  and 


TOUR    2  A     281 

entwining  steps  are  plainly  visible.  At  the  top  of  the  mesa,  reached  by  four 
well-worn  stone  paths,  is  the  game  trap  for  which  the  community  is  named, 
a  pit  cut  down  in  solid  rock  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  deer,  bear,  and 
other  game.  About  six  feet  long  and  three  feet  wide  at  the  top,  it  widens 
out  as  it  reaches  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet. 

NM  4  at  14  m.  runs  through  yellow  pines  and  in  many  places  are 
wild  flowers  indigenous  to  mountain  regions.  All  this  section,  now  part 
of  the  Bandelier  National  Monument  (see  below),  was  part  of  the 
Ram^n  Vigil  Land  Grant. 

In  PAJARITO  CANYON,  17.4  m.f  cliff  caves  honeycomb  the  entire 
canyon  wall  beginning  at  17.4  m. 

At  18.4  m.  is  junction  of  two  dirt  roads. 

Right  on  one  of  these  0.2  m.  (park  the  car  beside  the  road  and  walk  over 
one  of  the  trails)  to  TSHIREGE  (Ind.  bird)  RUINS,  0.3  m. 

Tshirege,  with  the  extensive  cliff  dwellings  clustered  about  it,  was  the 
largest  aboriginal  settlement  in  the  Pueblo  region  with  the  exception  of  Zuni. 
The  main  dwelling  contained  approximately  600  rooms  with  10  kivas  of  the 
circular  subterranean  type.  A  defensive  wall  extended  from  the  southwest 
corner  of  the  main  building  to  the  rim  of  the  cliff  150  feet  away.  Below  this 
wall,  cut  on  the  face  of  the  cliff,  is  one  of  the  best  petroglyphs  in  the  South- 
west, a  representation  of  a  plumed  serpent  seven  feet  long.  The  cliff  dwellings 
along  the  mesa  side,  extending  for  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  contain  the  largest 
number  of  caves  in  one  group. 

Tshirege  is  said  to  have  been  the  last  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau  villages  to 
be  abandoned,  undoubtedly  because  the  water  supply  here  was  greater  than  at 
any  other  Pajaritan  settlement.  From  a  spring  in  the  arroyo  a  quarter-mile 
away  water  flows  during  all  seasons;  Pajarito  Creek  in  wet  seasons  also 
carries  water,  and  reservoir  ruins  on  the  mesa  top  show  that  river  water 
must  have  been  impounded.  W.  S.  Stallings,  Jr.,  on  the  staff  of  the  Laboratory 
of  Anthropology,  Santa  Fe,  has  determined  the  date  of  Tshirege  as  approxi- 
mately 1480  to  1581. 

Traversing  the  highlands,  NM  4  winds  through  extensive  stands  of 
yellow  pine  and  juniper  where  the  floor  of  the  forest  is  covered  with 
rabbit  brush  and  a  shrub  called  Apache  plume. 

A  winding  descent  begins  at  22.1  m.  through  Ancho  Canyon  (drive 
carefully)  and  interlacing  gorges. 

At  25  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  3.2  m.  into  BANDELIER  NATIONAL  MONUMENT,  a 
27,ooo-acre  reserve  in  Frijoles  Canyon  named  for  Adolph  F.  Bandelier,  Amer- 
ican of  Swiss  parentage  who  gained  world  renown  as  ethnologist,  archeologist, 
and  writer.  He  was  the  first  scientist  to  make  an  extensive  survey  in  this 
region;  also  the  first  to  study  the  ethnology  and  mythology  of  the  Indian 
groups  living  around  Santa  Fe  as  well  as  in  Mexico  and  Peru.  He  worked 
in  this  region  between  the  years  1880  and  1886,  living  in  one  of  the  kivas  of 
Frijoles  Canyon  ruins.  At  the  end  of  his  stay  he  wrote  The  Delight  Makers, 
an  ethno-historical  novel  depicting  life  of  the  early  Keres,  with  Frijoles  Can- 
yon and  the  Tyuonyi  Ruins  as  its  setting.  El  Rito  de  los  Frijoles  (the  little 
river  of  the^beans),  fed  by  several  springs  and  the  snows  of  the  Je*mez  Range, 
threads  its  way  through  the  canyon,  passing  between  cliffs  that  contain  pre- 
historic dwellings  of  a  Pajaritan  tribe  whose  cliff  caves  and  community  struc- 
ture have  become  noted  throughout  the  world.  As  the  highway  approaches. 


282     NEW     MEXICO 

the  ruins,  deep  clefts  in  the  earth  (L)  and  sheer  stony  sides  of  volcanic  ash  or 
tuff  form  a  natural  barrier  to  this  prehistoric  home  of  the  Indian. 

At  3.2  m.  the  road  ends  in  a  small  plaza  which  affords  ample  parking  space. 
Around  this  plaza  are  the  FRIJOLES  CANYON  LODGE  (dining  room  available), 
the  only  available  accommodations  in  the  canyon,  the  MUSEUM,  and  the 
ADMINISTRATION  BUILDING  (free  guides  for  foot  tours  through  the  ruins),  both 
operated  by  the  National  Park  Service.  This  canyon,  a  deep  gash  17  miles 
long  and  varying  from  300  to  600  feet  in  depth,  runs  from  the  east  slope  of  the 
Jemez  Mountains  to  the  Rio  Grande,  entering  White  Rock  Canyon  and  cutting 
through  a  great  crescent-shaped  volcanic  plain  that  spreads  out  like  a  huge  fan 
south  and  east  of  the  mountains.  This  plain,  formed  by  ash  thrown  by  once 
active  volcanoes  of  the  Jemez  Range,  is  underlaid  by  earlier  flows  of  basalt. 
The  canyon  floor  is  tillable  and  easily  worked.  Yellow  pine  and  pinon,  inter- 
spersed with  cottonwood,  box  elder,  and  willow,  line  the  creek  banks.  It  is 
thought  that  Frijoles  Canyon  was  first  occupied  about  1250  A.D.  During  300 
years  the  inhabitants  built  13  groups  of  houses,  which  in  their  heyday  might 
have  held  a  population  of  between  1,500  and  2,000.  These  village  ruins  ex- 
tend for  2.5  miles  in  the  lower  part  of  the  canyon.  Each  village,  built  of 
tuff  blocks,  contained  numerous  rooms  and  stood  one  to  three  stories  high.  Be- 
low them  were  cave  rooms  varying  in  dimensions  from  a  few  feet  to  as  large 
as  10  feet  square.  The  rooms,  both  on  the  canyon  floor  and  in  the  cliff  caves, 
were  usually  coated  with  clay,  which  remains  intact  even  to  this  day.  The  kiva 
(Ind.,  ceremonial  room),  circular  in  form  and  either  sunken  below  ground  level 
or  cut  back  into  the  cliff,  was  an  important  part  of  each  village.  The  circular 
form  and  sunken  position  is  said  to  symbolize  the  original  earth  passage  through 
which  the  early  Indians  came  in  their  transition  from  the  original  "down  below" 
world  to  this  world  of  light.  These  kivas  served  as  council  chambers  and  were 
the  center  of  the  religious  activities. 

Of  the  three  other  villages  on  the  canyon  floor,  the  great  community  house 
of  TYUONYI  and  its  many  kivas  are  the  major  remains  and  are  adjudged 
by  archeologists  the  central  point  of  population.  Although  a  fair  composite 
picture  of  the  ruins  may  be  obtained  from  the  Administration  Building,  the 
individual  village,  the  kivas,  and  caves  become  much  more  interesting  upon 
closer  inspection. 

Left  (on  foot)  from  Frijoles  Canyon  Lodge  on  a  trail  winding  up  the 
south  side  of  the  canyon  wall  and  across  the  south  mesa  to  the  SHRINES  OF 
YAPASHI  (a  name  given  to  fetishes  representing  human  forms),  part  of  the  pre- 
historic Yapashi  Ruins  Pueblo  on  the  plateau  between  Capulin  and  Alamo 
Canyons  southwest  of  the  west  rim  of  Frijoles  Canyon.  This  pueblo,  similar 
to  other  major  ruins,  consists  of  a  single  great  community  house  or  group  of 
houses  with  some  outlying  cliff  dwellings.  It  has  been  estimated  that  several 
hundred  inhabitants  lived  here.  Forming  a  triangle  with  the  pueblo  ruins  are 
two  shrines,  9  m.,  one  commonly  known  as  the  STONE  LIONS  and  the  other  desig- 
nated as  the  SHRINE  OF  THE  STONE  ALTAR.  The  Stone  Lions  lie  west  of  the 
pueblo  ruins  in  a  circular  enclosure,  13  feet  high.  Two  parallel  walls  of 
similar  height,  forming  a  passageway  five  feet  in  width,  extend  from  one  side 
for  a  distance  of  20  feet.  Within  this  enclosure  are  life-sized  effigies  of 
crouching  mountain  lions  or  pumas  carved  from  lava.  While  crude,  these 
figures  are  of  graceful  proportions  and  are  readily  identified.  They  are  16 
laches  high  and  each  is  two  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  six  feet  long.  The 
Keres  and  other  Pueblo  Indians  still  visit  this  shrine  and  sprinkle  the  figures 
with  sacred  meal.  The  trail  continues  to  the  SHRINE  OF  LA  CUEVA  PINTADA 
(the  painted  cave),  12  m.t  a  large  cavity  in  the  northeast  wall  of  Capulin 
Canyon.  Stairs  for  hand-  and  foot-holds,  cut  in  the  vertical  face  of  the  tuff 
wall,  afford  a  perilous  ascent  to  the  cave,  50  feet  from  the  base  of  the  cliff, 
where  two  communicating  rooms  facing  southwest  are  carved  high  in  the  cliff. 
A  crude  stairway  of  16  hand-  and  foot-holds  leads  up  to  the  door  of  the  room 
on  the  left  and  a  similar  stairway  passes  down  from  the  door  of  the  room  on 
the  right  Between  the  stairways  at  the  cliff's  base  rises  a  column  of  stone 


TOUR     3     283 

three  feet  high  and  two  feet  thick,  in  the  top  of  which  is  carved  a  basin  more 
than  a  foot  in  diameter  and  half  of  that  in  depth.  The  larger  room  has  a 
banquette  extending  around  the  sides  and  back,  above  which  are  etched  many 
pictographs,  easily  distinguishable  in  the  smoke-stained  walls  and  ceiling. 

On  the  circular  wall  at  the  back  of  the  cave  conventional  symbols,  such  as 
clouds,  lightning,  masked  dancers,  and  the  sun  are  painted  with  carbon,  calcite, 
and  red  ocher.  Occupying  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  center  of  the  frieze  is 
a  great  plumed  serpent,  the  Awanyu  of  the  waters,  or  rain  god. 

Continuing  from  the  junction  NM  4  before  crossing  the  J6MEZ 
MOUNTAINS  with  magnificent  views  of  ranges  on  the  north, 
east  and  south,  arrives  at  junction  with  alternate  road  to  Los  Alamos 
at  30.9  m. 

VALLE  GRANDE,  35.2  m.f  long  thought  to  be  a  valley,  has  been 
identified  as  an  extinct  crater  (8,500  alt.  of  floor;  9,000  alt.  of  rim), 
176  square  miles  in  area,  said  to  be  the  largest  measured  crater  on 
earth.  Mountains  rise  up  from  its  sides,  and  down  in  the  crater  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  graze.  Its  grassy,  smooth  immensity  with  trees  on 
the  slopes  above  and  a  vast  expanse  of  sky,  makes  it  one  of  the  most 
attractive  places  in  the  vicinity  of  Santa  Fe.  (During  bad  weather  make 
inquiry  concerning  road.) 

Beyond  Valle  Grande  is  the  junction  with  NM  126  which  the  route 
follows  over  the  NACIMIENTO  RANGE  through  grassy  mountain 
meadows  with  vistas  of  great  beauty  at  several  points  along  the  road. 
As  the  road  ascends  the  eastern  slope  of  the  range,  there  is  a  fine  view  of 
REDONDO  MOUNTAIN  (11,250  alt.)  to  the  east  toward  Valle 
Grande.  On  through  forests  of  aspen,  fir,  and  pine,  past  many  attractive 
camping  spots,  to  the  top  of  the  pass  (9,000  alt.),  then  continuing  over 
a  dirt  road  rich  red  against  the  dark  green  of  the  forests  down  into 
Senorita  Canyon,  with  magnificent  vistas  ahead  to  the  west  as  the  road 
twists  and  turns  in  its  descent.  On  past  and  over  mountain  streams 
and  more  red  road  to  the  plain  on  which  Cuba  is  situated.  This  last 
part  of  the  trip  is  easy  when  the  road  is  dry.  (Inquire  about  road  con- 
ditions after  a  rain.) 

In  CUBA  96  m.,  is  the  junction  with  US  84  (See  Tour  9). 


Kt<<<88^^^ 

Tour  3 


(San  Luis,   Colo.)—  Costflla— Questa— Taos— Verlarde— Santa   Fe— 
Galisteo— Moriarty— Willard— Corona;  NM  3,  US  64,  US  85,  NM 
41,  US  60,  NM  42. 
Colorado  Line  to  Junction  US  54  with  NM  42,  236  m. 


284     NEW     MEXICO 
Bituminous  paved   roadbed. 


The  first  section  of  this  route  is  through  mountainous  country,  with 
superb  vistas  and  panoramas.  Care  should  be  exercised  because  of 
curves,  steep  hills,  and  occasional  rock  slides.  There  are  forests,  moun- 
tain streams,  small  irrigated  farms,  mining,  dude  ranches,  some  cattle 
and  sheep,  Indians,  scenery,  and  history.  The  second  section  is  one  of 
vast  expanses  of  level  farm  and  grazing  land,  with  mountains  along  dis- 
tant horizons.  Herds  and  flocks  are  seen,  more  numerous  than  in  the 
first  section,  with  large  ranches  in  the  Estancia  Valley. 


Section  a.    COLORADO  LINE  to  SANTA  FE,  114  m. 

NM  3  crosses  the  broad  Taos  Valley  and  winds  through  the  Sangre 
de  Cristo  range,  seldom  dipping  below  altitudes  of  7,000  feet. 

In  the  tiny  hamlet  of  GARCIA,  NM  3  crosses  the  State  Line,  0  772. 

COSTILLA,  1  m.  (7,500  alt.,  805  pop.),  a  trading  point  for 
ranchers,  named  for  the  Rio  Costilla  (Rib  River)  which  curves  through 
the  town,  is  in  the  southern  end  of  the  SAN  LUIS  VALLEY,  whose 
northern  extremity  reaches  far  into  Colorado. 

In  the  surrounding  area  known  as  Sunshine  Valley  sheep  raising  and 
crops  of  beans,  corn,  and  chili  are  the  main  sources  of  revenue ;  a  large 
reservoir  on  the  Rio  Costilla  north  of  town  provides  water  for  irriga- 
tion. UTE  PEAK  (R),  named  for  the  Indians  who  owned  this  land, 
raises  its  pine-topped  head  abruptly  from  the  valley  floor  and  has  always 
been  used  by  Indian,  hunter,  and  trail  makers  as  a  landmark.  Far  away 
COSTILLA  PEAK  (12,634  alt.),  is  visible  (L),  the  highest  of  a 
series  of  five  hogback  formations  along  the  Colorado-New  Mexico 
Line. 

Instead  of  one  plaza  Costilla  had  four.  In  1852  an  expedition  of 
settlers  from  Taos  and  Arroyo  Hondo,  under  the  leadership  of  Juan 
de  Jesus  Bernal,  journeyed  to  the  site  of  Costilla  and  laid  out  the  four 
plazas  on  land  acquired  by  Carlos  Beaubien,  who  also  filed  the  Maxwell 
Grant  (see  Tour  #£).  Two  of  the  plazas,  LA  PLAZA  DEL  MEDIO 
(middle),  the  first  constructed,  and  LA  PLAZA  DE  ABAJO  (lower), 
part  of  which  lies  in  Colorado,  are  along  the  highway. 

Though  Costilla  remains  an  unhurried  community  that  observes 
the  feast  days  it  has  had  many  flurries  of  excitement.  Rumors  of  gold 
strikes  on  several  occasions  have  attracted  floating  populations,  and  the 
formation  of  a  million-dollar  Dutch  company  to  irrigate  and  exploit 
the  fertile  valley  for  a  time  focused  attention  on  this  area. 

LA  PLAZA  DE  ARRIBA  (upper)  was  built  at  the  southeastern  end 
of  the  original  settlement.  A  torreon  (tower)  here,  still  standing  to- 


TOUR    3     285 

day,  was  a  part  of  the  PLAZA  DEL  PELEE,  and  is  one  story  high, 
and  through  its  portholes  guards  kept  long  vigils  for  marauding  Ute  and 
Apache  who  made  repeated  attempts  to  steal  sheep  and  horses. 

Left  from  the  post  office  in  Costilla  on  a  dirt  road  the  highway 
threads  the  level  floor  of  Sunshine  Valley.  The  SANGRE  DE 
CRISTO  MOUNTAINS  (13,306  alt),  rugged  and  snow-capped, 
barricade  the  blue  horizon  (L).  Enveloped  at  times  by  violet  haze,  en- 
circled at  others  with  lazily  rolling,  fleecy  clouds,  they  afford  an  ever- 
changing  picture  of  grandeur,  strength,  and  beauty.  The  soil  is  loose 
and  rocky;  lack  of  water  makes  it  suitable  only  for  sheep  raising.  The 
Rio  Grande  flows  south  through  the  valley,  and  some  farming-  is  done 
on  its  banks.  Small  close-huddled  communities  dot  the  river  bottom  at 
intervals,  the  economic  life  of  the  residents  being  dependent  chiefly  on 
the  raising  of  sheep.  The  valley,  approximately  20  miles  in  width,  is 
a  vast  stretch  of  sage  and  rabbit  brush.  The  species  of  sagebrush  com- 
mon in  northern  New  Mexico  plateau  regions  is  Artemisia  tridentata^ 
a  woody,  erect  bush,  with  pungently  aromatic  foliage,  which  usually 
grows  from  two  to  three  feet  high. 

The  rocky  sides  of  beautiful  RED  RIVER  CANYON  (L),  21.5 
77?.,  are  outlined  with  varicolored  jagged  peaks,  their  green  sides  cov- 
ered most  of  the  year  with  snow. 

QUESTA  (sloping  land  where  runs  a  road),  21  m.  (7,469  alt., 
1,119  pop.),  originally  named  San  Antonio  del  Rio  Colorado,  the  third 
largest  town  in  Taos  County,  is  on  a  ridge  of  gravel  on  the  north  side 
of  Red  River  and  west  of  Cabestro  Creek.  There  is  an  attractive  free 
camping  ground  at  the  mouth  of  the  canyon.  Unadorned  by  anything 
modern  and  with  a  large  majority  of  its  residents  of  Spanish  and  Mexi- 
can stock,  Questa  is  still  an  authentic  picture  of  life  as  it  was  during 
the  Mexican  regime.  Agriculture  is  the  main  pursuit.  Sheep  are 
raised  in  considerable  numbers,  crops  are  watered  from  the  Red  and 
Cabestro  (rope)  streams,  and  some  placer  mining  is  carried  on  in 
near-by  mountains. 

Questa  had  several  beginnings  and  sudden  endings  because  the  Ute 
and  Apache  discouraged  adventurous  settlers  who  wished  to  work  the 
fertile  river  bottoms. 

In  1829  Don  Francisco  Laforet  built  a  home  on  the  river  bot- 
tom but  was  forced  to  move  to  the  ridge  the  better  to  watch  for 
marauders.  These  settlers  held  out  and  in  1872  obtained  a  grant  con- 
taining 115,000  acres.  Old  documents  show  that  in  1849  one  hundred 
families  were  living  in  Rio  Colorado  and  eagerly  greeted  the  mountain 
men  and  traders  who  came  in  covered  wagons  on  the  old  Taos  Trail. 
Indians  attacked  again  in  1854  and  during  this  campaign  a  six-foot  wall 
with  only  one  entrance  was  built  around  the  town.  The  church,  erected 
in  1873,  is  Questa's  oldest  builtUng,  In  1884  when  the  town  acquired 
a  post  office,  the  name  was  changed  to  Questa. 

NM  3  dips  into  a  wide  fertile  valley  and  passes  the  tiny  settlement 
of  EMBARGO,  then  climbs  through  an  evergreen  area  for  several 


286     NEW     MEXICO 

miles.  Beyond  the  woods  is  the  San  Cristobal  Valley,  checked  with 
small  farms,  well-irrigated  and  well-kept. 

SAN  CRISTOBAL  (L)  32  m.  (7,450  alt., 210  pop.) ,  is  a  half-hidden 
farming  community  settled  in  1860,  and  inhabited  almost  entirely  by 
descendants  of  Spaniards  and  Mexicans.  Until  1930  there  was  no  post 
office  here. 

At  35.2  m.  at  the  top  of  a  hill  is  a  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  along  LOBO  MOUNTAIN  (12,104  alt.)  to  former  HOME 
OF  Miss  DOROTHY  BRETT,  2.1  m.t  English  painter  and  writer  (see  Literature). 
KIOWA  RANCH,  5  m.,  owned  by  Frieda  Lawrence,  widow  of  D.  H.  Lawrence 
(1885-1930),  the  English  author  (see  Literature),  stands  below  a  knoll  on  which 
5s  a  mausoleum  containing  Lawrence's  ashes.  The  road  to  Kiowa  Ranch  is 
dangerous  when  wet  and  is  sometimes  impassable  in  winter. 

ARROYO  HONDO  (deep  brook),  34  m.  (6,998  alt.,  519  pop.), 
settled  in  1823,  has  three  plazas.  It  is  in  the  Hondo  Valley  among  the 
fertile  fields  along  the  river  bottom.  In  addition  to  crops,  sheep  and 
cattle  are  raised.  At  the  turn  of  the  century,  a  mining  boom  caused  an 
influx  of  prospectors  and  gold  seekers,  but  as  the  output  was  limited 
the  boom  soon  collapsed  and  the  community  settled  back  to  its  former 
way  of  life.  Two  chapters  of  the  Penitente  order  are  active  in  Arroyo 
Hondo,  and  thnr  WEST  MORADA  (no  visitors)  in  the  central  plaza  is 
recognized  by  its  large  wooden  cross. 

The  REAL  HOME  (L)  on  NM  3,  an  old,  two-storied,  balconied 
house,  is  owned  by  the  Real  family,  prominent  in  the  early  affairs  of 
the  community.  Beyond  the  Real  home,  the  highway  makes  a  right- 
angle  turn,  crosses  a  bridge  over  the  Hondo  River,  and  continues  up  a 
steep  grade.  Near  the  top  of  the  grade  (R)  is  MARTINEZ  STORE 
(1826),  which  once  was  the  granary  and  trading  center  of  the  village. 

Adjacent  to  the  store  and  residence  are  the  ruins  of  the  private 
chapel  of  the  Martinez  family. 

i.  Right  from  Arroyo  Hondo  on  a  dirt  road  to  a  charred  mass  of  ruins, 
2  OT.,  all  that  remains  of  TURLEY'S  MILL  AND  DISTILLERY.  Simeon  Turley,  an 
American,  came  to  the  canyon  in  1830  and  in  a  few  years  had  the  most 
flourishing  ranch  in  the  Taos  district,  with  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep  and  acres 
of  corn  and  wheat.  With  characteristic  Yankee  enterprise,  he  built  a  dam, 
impounded  the  waters  of  the  Hondo,  and  erected  a  grist  mill  which  for  many 
years  served  a  large  section.  He  added  looms  and  spinning  wheels,  and  on 
his_  ranch  were  the  town's  industries.  All  things  necessary  to  a  comfortable, 
civilized  life  were  made  here.  Many  natives  and  Pueblo  Indians  worked 
for  him  and  were  well  paid  and  well  fed.  He  is  mentioned  as  jolly,  good- 
natured,  kind,  and  generous.  Then  came  the  uprising  of  1847. 

»  During  the  insurrection  Turley  at  first  took  no  precautions,  believing  he 
had  no  enemies,  but  when  warned  that  natives  and  Indians  had  risen  in 
revolt,  that  Governor^  Bent  had  been  killed  (see  Taos),  and  that  a  party  of 
raiders  was  approaching  his  establishment,  he  barricaded  the  ranch  and  pre- 
pared for  its  defense.  The  besiegers  offered  him  his  life  if  he  would  turn  over 
the  ranch  and  nine  Americans  with  him,  but  this  he  contemptuously  refused  to 
do,  and  for  two  days  a  pitched  battle  raged.  On  the  second  day  the  attackers 
set  fire  to  the  mill.  Enveloped  by  smoke  Turley  and  another  made  their  escape. 
On  the  way  north,  Turley  met  a  neighbor  whom  he  had  befriended  and  con- 


TOUR    3     287 

fided  in  him.  This  man  told  Turley  to  hide  in  a  deserted  ranch  near  by,  and  he 
promised  to  return  the  following  night  with  food  and  a  mule.  Then  he  rode 
straight  to  the  mill  and  informed  the  raiders  of  Turley's  whereabouts.  At  night 
30  of  them  returned  to  the  deserted  ranch,  called  Turley,  and  when  he  came 
out  he  was  riddled  with  bullets. 

2.  Left  at  the  Real  House  in  Arroyo  Hondo  to  UPPER  PLAZA,  1  m.t  and  the 
CHURCH  OF  NUESTRA  SENORA  DE  Los  DOLORES.  The  EAST  MORADA  (no  visitors) 
of  the  Penitentes,  with  large  wooden  crosses  at  the  east  of  the  entrance,  stands 
on  a  hill  south  of  the  church  plaza'. 


South  of  Arroyo  Hondo,  NM  3  climbs  a  series  of  switchbacks. 
At  44  m.  WHEELER  PEAK  (13,151  alt.),  second  highest  peak  in 
the  State,  is  plainly  visible  (L).    All  the  mountains  of  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  Range  at  this  point  have  an  altitude  in  excess  of  10,000  feet. 

EL  RANCHO  DE  LA  PUERTA  DEL  SOL  (L)  owned  by  Mrs.  Gusdorf, 
widow  of  an  early  pioneer  of  Taos,  is  passed  at  46.4  m.  The  settle- 
ment here  is  known  as  EL  PRADO,  south  of  which  the  route  crosses  the 
Rio  Lucero  (river  of  the  morning  star),  which,  fed  from  the  north  slopes 
of  Taos  Mountain  (L)  and  the  Rio  Pueblo,  is  the  source  of  irrigation 
for  Taos  Valley. 

In  TAOS,  45  m.  (6,952  alt.,  3,831  pop.),  (see  Taos),  is  a  junction 
with  US  64,  which  the  route  now  follows. 

RANCHOS  DE  TAOS,  48  m.  (6,900  alt.,  1,800  pop.),  an  old 
village  of  adobe,  is  a  quiet  community  and  the  home  of  many  mem- 
bers of  the  Penitente  Order.  Near  the  foothills  of  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  Mountains,  Ranchos  commands  a  splendid  view  of  the  whole 
valley  and  specially  of  Taos  and  its  protective  background  of  rugged 
peaks.  There  is  little  activity  at  any  time  except  during  festive  periods, 
such  as  St.  Francis  Day,  October  4,  and  the  annual  play,  Los  Co-man- 
ches,  which  is  held  on  January  25  in  co-operation  with  the  adjoining 
village  of  Llano  Quemado.  This  play  in  Spanish,  enacted  on  horse- 
back, has  as  its  plot  the  rescue  of  two  children  captured  by  Comanche. 
The  play  ends  with  a  grand  entrance  into  the  church. 

According  to  Indian  tradition,  Ranchos  de  Taos  was  founded  by 
members  of  Taos  Pueblo  who  sought  better  fields  for  their  crops.  With 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  the  settlement  became  known  as  Las 
Trampas  (the  traps).  As  with  other  frontier  towns  of  New  Mexico,  it 
was  raided  by  Apache  and  Comanche.  In  the  center  of  the  village  is 
the  SAINT  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI  MISSION,  built  c.  1730  (but  not  registered 
at  Diocesan  headquarters,  Durango,  Mexico,  till  1772)  by  the  Frari- 
ciscans.  It  fell  into  disuse  and  was  rebuilt  about  1772,  but  there  is  a 
dispute  as  to  the  date  of  its  founding.  This  fortress-like  adobe  building, 
famous  for  its  exceptionally  thick  walls  supported  by  great  abutments 
and  its  white  stucco  exterior,  is  120  feet  long  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
six-foot  wall.  The  bells  are  in  two  front  towers,  one  slightly  higher 
than  the  other.  Two  of  the  abutments  on  the  front  facade  are  the  full 


288      NEW     MEXICO 

width  of  the  towers  and  form  two  great  pylons  flanking  an  unusual 
arched  entrance  portal  having  surface  tracery  and  double,  paneled 
doors.  Buttresses  are  also  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  transepts,  and 
at  the  end  wall  of  the  apse.  At  the  crossing  are  four  diagonal  bracings 
aiding  two  heavy  beams  supporting  the  nave  and  transept  vigas,  spaced 
unusually  close  together  and  springing  from  double-scrolled  brackets. 
The  only  modern  note  in  the  interior  is  the  altar  of  French  design. 
The  large  reredos,  25  feet  high,  with  its  carved  pillars  and  wooden 
partitions,  contains  seven  paintings  so  old  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
which  saints  most  of  them  represent.  There  are  also  several  old  paint- 
ings done  on  wood  by  native  artists. 

In  Ranchos  is  a  junction  (L)  with  NM  3  (see  Tour  11). 

US  64  parallels  the  Rio  Grande,  running  beside  the  river  for  14 
miles. 

PILAR,  61  772.  (6,550  alt.,  130  pop.),  a  primitive  farming  com- 
munity on  a  cone-shaped  delta  surrounded  by  rugged  hills  and  canyon 
walls,  is  an  area  cultivated  by  the  Jicarilla  Apache  in  pre-Spanish  times. 
In  1694  their  village  was  burned  by  De  Vargas.  Finally  in  1795  twenty 
families  were  given  a  grant  here,  one  of  the  provisions  being  that  all 
pastures  and  watering  places  must  be  communal.  That  settlement  was 
formerly  known  as  Cieneguilla  (little  marsh). 

In  1822  Governor  Melgares  ordered  that  the  Jicarilla  Apache  be 
allowed  to  live  and  farm  in  Cieneguilla,  but  the  Spanish-Mexicans 
protested  so  vigorously  that  the  order  was  never  enforced.  Forgotten 
by  the  American  government,  the  Indians  were  in  dire  straits,  starving 
close  to  the  land  that  really  belonged  to  them.  In  1854,  when  the 
territory  had  become  American,  they  revolted  and  were  engaged  in 
battle  near  the  village  by  the  U.  S.  dragoons.  An  unknown  number  of 
them  were  killed,  as  well  as  22  soldiers.  The  dragoons  retreated  to 
Fort  Burgwin  where  Kit  Carson  and  his  niece,  Teresina  Bent,  helped 
bury  the  dead.  Meanwhile,  a  larger  body  of  soldiers  pursued  the 
Indians,  but  they  escaped.  Later  that  year  they  were  compelled  to  sign 
a  treaty.  The  old  bridge  at  Filar,  erected  in  the  early  i88o's,  is  the 
newest  of  a  series  of  bridges  that  have  been  built  at  this  spot,  the  earliest 
believed  to  be  in  1598.  A  large  cross  tops  a  conical  hill  near  by,  while 
ahead  is  a  great  copper-colored  cliff. 

GLEN-WOODY  BRIDGE,  64  m.t  is  a  suspension  bridge  that 
crosses  the  Rio  Grande  and  leads  to  the  RUINS  OF  GLEN-WOODY  MIN- 
itfo  CAMP  on  the  west  bank.  A  town  was  laid  out  here  in  1902,  and 
a  large  flume,  in  which  was  installed  a  i6o-horsepower  turbine,  was 
built  just  north  of  the  bridge  on  the  east  bank  to  supply  power  for 
mining  machinery.  A  hotel  and  other  buildings  were  erected  and  hopes 
were  high.  But  the  venture  was  a  failure,  and  the  town  literally  rotted 
away.  Mining  activities  in  this  region,  embracing  the  area  east  of 
US  64  about  as  far  as  Picuris,  have  been  widespread.  Copper  mining, 


TOUR     3     289 

very  active  about  1900-02,  has  been  practically  abandoned  owing  to  the 
low  prices  of  this  metal.  The  only  mine  open  is  the  Lilac,  producing 
lepidolite  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shatter-proof  glass  and  glass  cook- 
ing utensils. 

Near  RINCONADA  (Sp.  place  in  the  corner),  68  m.t  the  river 
valley  widens  between  towering  cliffs  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 

At  71  777.  is  the  junction  with  NM  75,  a  graded  dirt  road. 

Left  on  NM  75,  18  m.  to  the  junction  with  NM  76  at  Vadito. 

Right  on  NM  76  via  Penasco  (see  below)  to  LAS  TRAMPAS  (Sp.  the 
traps)  at  7  77zv  known  as  "Place  of  Early  Settlers."  This  adobe-walled  town  with 
flat-roofed  mud  houses  is  a  part  of  seventeenth  century  Spain  and  Mexico  set 
down  in  the  heart  of  New  Mexico.  Customs  go  back  to  Spanish  colonial  days 
and  farming  is  carried  on  in  the  manner  of  the  past,  crops  being  harvested  by 
hand,  goats  or  horses  stamping  out  the  grain  in  the  primitive  manner.  Wooden 
plows  are  still  used  on  some  of  the  ranchitos.  On  the  plaza  here  is  the  Santo 
Tomds  del  Rio  de  Las  Trampas  Church,  first  known  as  The  Church  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  and  later  as  La  Iglesia  de  San  Jose.  It  is  built  of  adobe, 
with  walls  four  feet  thick  and  34  feet  high  relieved  of  their  severity  only  by 
small  towers  on  the  front  facade.  Between  these  two  bell  towers  is  an  outside 
choir  balcony  from  which  in  the  old  days  the  choir  sang  while  the  procession 
moved  outside  the  church.  All  took  part  in  this,  the  men  on  the  left  and  the 
women  on  the  right;  at  its  head  marched  four  men  carrying  the  canopy  to 
cover  the  Holy  Spirit  of  the  Estandartes.  Behind  these  came  two  more  who 
chanted  the  A<ue  Maria  and  sang  hymns.  Tradition  says  350  years  is  its  age, 
but  Historic  Building  Survey  gives  its  date  as  1760.  There  were  two  bells — 
both  containing  gold  and  silver — which  were  rung  by  striking  them  with  a  rock. 
One  because  of  its  gentle  tone  was  named  Gracia  (Grace)  and  was  rung  for 
Mass  and  for  the  deaths  of  infants,  while  the  other  with  a  heavier  tone,  called 
Refugio  (Refuge),  was  rung  for  masses  for  the  dead  or  for  the  death  of  an 
adult.  Since  Refugio  was  stolen  a  few  years  ago,  Gracia  is  used  on  all  occa- 
sions. The  reredos  is  a  fine  example  of  early  painting,  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Spain  through  Mexico.  Within  the  entrance  of  the  church  a  door 
(R)  leads  to  a  small  room  in  which  is  kept  the  death  cart  of  the  Penitente 
Order.  A  black  draped,  carved  skeleton  is  mounted  on  a  crude  two-wheeled 
cart;  its  wheels,  three  feet  in  diameter,  hewn  from  solid  logs.  Dona  Sebastiana 
(as  the  figure  is  called)  holds  a  bow  and  arrow  in  her  bony  fingers.  She  is 
trundled  by  two  men  in  the  Holy  Week  processions  of  the  Order,  and  tradition 
has  it  that  the  image  has  been  known  to  discharge  the  arrow  at  an  unrepentant 
sinner. 

Trampas  has  long  been  a  center  of  the  Penitentes,  their  rites  being  per- 
formed during  Holy  Week  of  each  year,  with  a  procession  of  cross  bearers  and 
the  Death  Cart  to  the  Calvario  (Sp.  Calvary),  %  of  a  mile  from  the  church. 

Near  Vadito  is  junction  (L)  with  a  dirt  road.  North  of  this  road  0.9  m.  to 
PICURIS  PUEBLO  (8,400  alt.).  The  name  is  from  Keresan  Pikuria  meaning 
"those  who  paint."  Some  of  the  Picuris  buildings  seen  here  were  made  by 
Indians  of  coarsed  adobe  and  are  the  oldest  still  standing  of  any  pueblo  in 
the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  The  Picuris  make  a  distinctive  pottery  from  clay  only 
known  to  the  Picuris  at  this  time.  It  is  a  sericite  mica  clay  which  gives 
the  clay  a  distinctive  golden  sheen.  This  pottery  of  special  color  has  been 
made  since  about  1600.  Picuris  has  begun  excavations  which  are  now  open 
to  tourists  who  may  be  conducted  through  the  well-marked  ruins  for  a 
small  fee.  A  museum  is  being  planned  to  show  the  artifacts.  Picuris  celebrates 
San  Lorenzo's  Day,  August  loth,  with  Mass  in  the  morning  followed  by  tradi- 
tional dances.  After  the  pueblo  had  been  visited  by  the  Coronado  Expedi- 
tion in  1540,  there  was  no  further  record  of  Europeans  being  here  until  1598, 
when  Onate  commenced  organized  mission  work,  establishing  San  Lorenzo 
(St.  Lawrence)  de  Picuris  Mission.  By  1629  San  Lorenzo  was  an  important 


29O      NEW     MEXICO 

mission,  and  the  priest  was  in  charge  of  a  number  of  smaller  neighboring 
villages.  Father  Alonzo  de  Benavides,  the  priest-historian,  wrote  in  1630  that 
there  were  about  2,000  Indian  converts  at  Picuris;  he  said  these  Indians  were 
the  most  savage  in  the  province  and  were  often  "miraculously  restrained1' 
from  killing  the  Franciscans.  Under  increasing  Spanish  domination  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  Picuris  grew  more  and  more  discontented,  and  Luis 
Tu-pa-tu,  governor  of  the  pueblo,  with  Jaca  of  Taos  and  Catiti  of  Santo 
Domingo,  ably  assisted  Po-pe  in  organizing  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680.  After 
the  Spaniards  left  New  Mexico  in  1680  it  was  Tu-pa-tu  of  Picuris  who  suc- 
ceeded Po-pe,  the  main  leader  of  the  revolt.  There  were  then  about  3,000 
Indians  at  Picuris  and  Tu-pa-tu  was  the  most  powerful  and  influential  chieftain 
in  the  entire  province. 

Following  the  Reconquest  by  De  Vargas  in  1692,  Tu-pa-tu,  mounted  on  a 
fine  horse,  appeared  in  full  Spanish  costume  at  the  governor's  palace  in  Santa 
Fe  and  offered  not  only  his  allegiance  but  his  assistance  in  subduing  the  still 
hostile  tribes.  The  Picuris  had  abandoned  their  pueblo  in  1680,  but  soon  after 
1692  the  pueblo  was  rebuilt  on  or  near  the  old  site,  and  SAN  LORENZO  DE 
PICURIS  CHURCH,  cruciform  with  a  walled  forecourt,  was  erected.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  of  the  old  missions  in  New  Mexico.  The  only  decorative 
element  on  the  exterior  is  the  false,  stepped  gable  end,^  placed  in  the  center  and 
pierced  with  a  rectangular  opening  for  a  bell.  Inside  is  a  gridiron  representing 
the  instrument  of  torture  upon  which  San  Lorenzo  was  slowly  burned  to  death; 
and  hanging  on  the  wall  near  the  door  is  a  human  skull  covered  with  a  white 
cloth  whose  history  is  no  longer  known.  The  altar  screen  has  some  very  old 
paintings. 

Between  1695  and  1696,  Picuris  joined  with  other  tribes  in  asking  for  wide 
distribution  of  resident  Franciscans  in  the  various  pueblos,  the  concealed  reason 
for  the  request  being  the  desire  to  scatter  the  Spanish  forces.  '  In  1696  they 
joined  in  the  revolt  in  which  five  Franciscans  and  21  Spaniards  were  killed. 
In  the  autumn  of  1696  the  Picuris  feigned  a  desire  for  peace  in  order  to  save 
their  crops,  but  De  Vargas  fearing  treachery  marched  against  them,  captured 
84,  many  of  them  women  and  children  whom  he  distributed  as  servants  among 
the  soldiers  and  citizens  who  had  accompanied  him  on  the  expedition.  The 
Picuris  realized  by  December  1696  that  there  was  nothing  to  do  but  submit  to 
the  Spanish  authority.  In  1704  because  of  some  superstition,  the  remaining 
Picuris  again  abandoned  their  pueblo  and  fled  to  Cuartelejo,  a  Jicafilla  Apache 
settlement  about  350  miles  northeast  of  Santa  Fe.  In  1706  the  captive  Picuris, 
through  their  chief  Lorenzo,  sent  a  messenger  to  Governor  Cuervo  y  Valdez, 
praying  for  forgiveness  and  asking  aid  to  return  to  their  old  home.  The 
petition  was  approved  in  a  council  of  war  in  Santa  Fe,  and  Juan  de  Ulibarri 
was  selected  as  commander  of  the  expedition  to  go  to  Cuartelejo  and  bring 
back  the  repentant  and  homesick  Indians. 

The  Picuris  tribe  has  intermarried  with  both  whites  and  Apaches.  Less 
than  a  score  of  the  inhabitants  are  said  to  be  of  pure  Pueblo  blood. 

Return  via  NM  76  to  PEftASCO  (Sp.  rocky)  (see  above),  given  its  name 
because  of  the  rocky  outcroppings  near  by.  The  town  is  a  survival  of  several 
tiny  settlements  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  year  1796  three  Spanish-Americans  from  San  Jose  petitioned  Governor 
Fernando  Chacon  for  permission  to  build  two  towns  in  this  vicinity.  According 
to  Private  Land  Claim  114,  the  governor  acquiesced  with  the  proviso  that  "at 
least  50  individuals  must  repopulate  the  place  and  hold  the  land  against  sale 
for  ten  years."  Thus  it  is  construed  that  the  valley  had  been  settled  prior  to 
this  date  although  no  record  of  this  is  found.  Seventy-seven  took  advantage  of 
the  grant  and  three  settlements  were  started,  Llano  (Sp.  plain) ;  Llano  Largo 
(Sp.  large  plain)  and  Santa  Barbara.  The  present  Penasco  was  probably  the 
lower  portion  of  Santa  Barbara  and  the  present  village  of  Rodarte  the  center 
of  the  old  Santa  Barbara. 

The  village  church,  an  adobe  structure,  its  front  faced  with  tin  sheeting, 
is  interesting  because  of  the  white  marble  statue  group  in  the  churchyard. 


TOUR     3     291 

The  residents  of  Penasco  depend  mostly  upon  farming  and  sheep  raising 
but  some  weaving  is  also  done. 

From  Vadito  NM  75  continues  east  through  clustered  tiny  villages. 

At  the  settlement  of  RIO  PUEBLO  in  the  valley  (R)  NM  75  joins  NM  3 
(see  Tour  //). 


US  64  follows  the  Rio  Grande  past  the  rural  post  office  of 
EMBUDO  (funnel),  71  m.  (6,500  alt.,  6  pop.),  a  former  Indian 
pueblo  now  little  more  than  a  few  ranches,  and  across  the  river  a  station 
on  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad,  an  abandoned  rail- 
road line  (see  Tour  17)  that  parallels  US  64  between  Embudo  and 
Puye  City  (see  below).  In  the  Spanish  archives  are  bills  of  sale,  dated 
March  21,  1707,  and  February  17,  1732,  for  land  in  and  adjacent  to 
Embudo. 

At  75  m.  US  64  leaves  the  canyon  and  enters  the  RIO  GRANDE 
VALLEY. 

VELARDE,  76  m.  (5,600  alt.,  893  pop.),  center  of  a  farming 
community  with  fine  peach  orchards,  was  formerly  called  La  Joya  but 
was  later  named  for  a  prominent  family. 

LOS  LUCEROS  (Sp.  the  morning  stars),  81  m.,  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  departamento  of  Rio  Arriba  and  from  1855  to  1860  was 
the  seat  of  Rio  Arriba  County.  In  1 860  the  county  seat  was  transferred 
to  Alcalde  (see  below) ,  then  called  Plaza  del  Alcalde,  and  in  1880  to 
Tierra  Amarilla  where  it  is  now. 

ALCALDE  (Sp.  magistrate,  judge)  83  772.  (900  pop.),  is  a  trading 
point  consisting  of  flat-roofed  adobe  houses,  a  small  chapel,  and  a  Peni- 
tente  morada. 

US  64  continues  along  the  base  of  Mesa  Prieta  (dark  mesa)  or 
Mesa  Canoa  (canoe)  as  it  is  sometimes  called. 

At  89  m.  is  the  junction  with  Truchas  Road  (see  Tour  SA). 

PUYE  CITY,  90  m.  (5,590  alt.,  100  pop.),  also  called 
Riverside,  is  the  junction  with  US  285  which  is  united  with  US  64  to 
Santa  Fe. 

As  the  highway  crosses  the  Santa  Cruz  River  and  mounts  a  hill, 
there  is  a  glimpse  (L)  of  the  village  of  SANTA  CRUZ  (see  Tour 
8 A).  Descending  the  hill,  US  64  continues  across  two  extremely  wide 
sandy  arroyos  and  traverses  a  rolling  desert  country.  This  section, 
known  as  the  POJOAQUE  (pronounced  po-whah-ke)  BADLANDS 
or  SANTA  FE  MARL,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  nearly  perfect 
exposed  river  beds  in  existence.  Here,  in  a  region  of  miniature  canyons, 
mesas,  and  cliffs,  smooth  pebbles,  grasses,  and  multi-colored  rock  strata, 
the  bones  of  many  prehistoric  animals  have  been  found.  Remains  of 
mammoths  and  other  Pliocene  animals  have  been  shipped  to  eastern 
museums,  notably  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City. 

POJOAQUE,  98  772.  (857  pop.),  the  site  of  an  early  Tiwa- 
speaking  Pueblo,  whose  survivors  died  only  two  score  years  ago,  marks 
the  junction  with  NM  4  (see  Tour  2 A), 


292     NEW     MEXICO 

Left  from  Pojoaque  on  a  dirt  road  to  RANCHO  DE  BOUQUET,  0.1  m.  (privately 
owned),  once  a  noted  stopping  place  for  stage  coaches.  Nambe  Pueblo  is 
3.07  m. 

US  64  passes  through  the  little  village  of  CUYAMUNGUfi 
(Tiwa  Ind.,  the  place  where  they  threw  stones),  100  m.  This  is  a 
settlement  of  adobe  houses  whose  walls  are  hung  with  clustered  strings 
of  red  chili  in  the  fall  and  surrounded  in  summer  by  small  orchards 
and  wide  green  fields  of  alfalfa.  The  ruins  of  the  old  pueblo  of 
Cuyamungue  are  one  mile  below  the  village  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Tesuque  River  (R).  South  of  the  settlement  are  excellent  views  of 
the  Jemez  Range  (R)  and  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  (L).  Round- 
about are  countless  eroded  formations  in  the  sandstone-capped  hills,  the 
most  distinctive  of  which  is  the  CAMEL  ROCK  (R). 

At  105  m.  is  the  junction  (R)  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  TESUQUE  PUEBLO,  1  m.  (173  pop.)  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Tesuque  River,  the  southernmost  village  of  the  Tiwa-speaking 
branch  of  the  Rio  Grande  Pueblo  Indians.  The  present  form  of  the  name  is 
from  the  Tiwa  Tat'unge'onwi,  meaning  "pueblo  down  at  the  dry  spotted  place." 
This  pueblo,  first  discovered  by  Coronado's  expedition  in  1540,  is  the  Indian 
pueblo  nearest  Santa  Fe.  The  seat  of  a  mission,  San  Lorenzo  de  Tesuque,  in 
the  early  seventeenth  century,  destroyed  in  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  (1680),  it  was 
reconquered  in  1692  by  De  Vargas  and  established  under  the  name  of  San 
Diego  de  Tesuque.  It  became  a  visita  of  Santa  Fe  in  1760,  and  of  Pojoaque  in 
1782.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  Mission  and  its  convento 
(monastery)  gave  way  because  of  age  and  lack  of  care.  The  original  sacristy 
became  the  present  Tesuque  Mission,  The  walls  of  the  chapel  probably  date 
from  the  early  seventeenth  century. 

The  United  States  Government  Day  School  for  the  pueblo  was  built  several 
years  ago  and  in  addition  to  the  regular  curriculum,  interesting  work  is  done 
in  native  Indian  arts  and  crafts.  In  spite  of  its  proximity  to  Santa  Fe,  Tesuque 
is  tenacious  of  its  Indian  customs  and  life.  The  annual  feast  day  on  November 
izth  in  honor  of  its  patron  saint,  San  Diego,  is  celebrated  by  Indian  dances 
directly  following  a  morning  Mass.  Ceremonies  and  dances  that  occur  during 
the  year  include  the  Corn  dance,  the  Eagle  dance,  the  Bow  and  Arrow  dance 
and  others*  The  pottery  is  distinctive;  the  water  color  paintings  are  purely 
Indian  in  theme  and  design. 

Piki  or  bunjabe,  a  paper  thin  wafer  bread,  is  still  prepared  by  the  older 
women  of  the  pueblo,  especially  for  ceremonial  purposes.  These  thin  sheets 
of  corn  meal  are  also  useful  on  journeys. 

Tesuque  owns  its  land  by  virtue  of  an  original  grant  from  the  Spanish 
crown,  ratified  by  the  Republic  of  Mexico  1821,  and  confirmed  by  the  United 
States  in  1848. 

SANTA  FE,   114  m.   (7,000  alt.,  30,000  pop.),    (see  Santa  Fe). 
In  Santa  Fe  is  the  junction  with  US  85  (see  Tour  1)  and  US  285 
(see  Tour  7). 

Section  b.    SANTA  FE  to  CORONA,  122.6  m. 

From  SANTA  FE,  0  m.f  over  US  85-285  (see  Tour  7b)  to  their 
junction  with  NM  41  (R),  17.9  m.,  following  NM  41  through  the 
richly  productive  Estancia  Valley. 

GALISTEO,  23.7  m.  (6,400  alt.,  157  pop.),  is  a  typical  New 
Mexico  farming  village  in  the  center  of  a  stock-raising  area.  Within 


TOUR     3     293 

the  Galisteo  Valley  are  nine  pueblo  ruins,  two  on  the  north  side  and 
seven  on  the  south  side,  in  the  Galisteo  Basin.  Five  of  these  were 
occupied  when  the  Spaniards  came,  the  best  known  being  Galisteo 
pueblo,  il/2  miles  above  the  present  village.  First  called  San  Lucas  by 
Castano  de  Sosa  (1591),  it  was  remaned  Santa  Ana  by  Onate  (1598). 
During  the  Pueblo  Rebellion  (1680),  the  missionaries  here  and  in 
neighboring  pueblos  were  killed,  and  these  Indians  established  them- 
selves in  Santa  Fe  until  De  Vargas  drove  them  out  in  1692.  In  1706 
Governor  Cuervo  y  Valdez  re-established  the  pueblo,  which  was  renamed 
Santa  Maria  and  later  called  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Remedios,  with  90 
Tano  Indians,  whose  number  by  1749  had  increased  to  350;  but  small- 
pox and  Comanche  raids  reduced  them  so  greatly  that  in  1794  the  few 
survivors  moved  to  Santo  Domingo  (see  Tour  Ib)  where  a  few  Tanos 
now  live. 

One  of  the  ten  churches  in  the  Province  of  New  Mexico  in  1617 
was  at  Santa  Cruz  de  Galisteo.  Coronado  came  here  in  1541  on  his 
way  to  Pecos  (see  Tour  la),  and  the  pueblo  was  visited  by  Espejo  in 

1583. 

Southward,  past  Stanley  and  Otto,  NM  41  continues  through  the 
Estancia  Valley  to  the  Junction  with  US  66,  51.6  m.  From  the  junc- 
tion the  route  proceeds  south  on  NM  41.  MORIARTY,  52.7  m. 
(6,200  alt.,  396  pop.),  is  the  center  of  a  farming  and  stock  raising  area. 

ESTANCIA,  68.7  77z.  (6,117  alt.,  797  pop.),  is  the  seat  of  Torrance 
County.  It  raises  cattle;  alfalfa,  potatoes,  are  principal  crops.  There 
is  no  irrigation.  Estancia  (small  farm)  was  first  a  cluster  of  ranch 
houses  around  Estancia  Springs,  the  property  of  the  Otero  family.  It 
was  here  that  Don  Manuel  Otero,  scion  of  the  prominent  New  Mexico 
family  of  that  name,  was  killed  (1883)  as  the  result  of  a  dispute  over 
the  title  of  his  land.  There  are  different  versions  of  the  encounter, 
but  according  to  Frank  M.  King,  who  wrote  an  account  of  it  in  the 
Western  Livestock  Journal  for  April  28,  1936,  Whitney  and  his  men 
came  up  and  took  charge  of  the  Otero  property  while  Don  Manuel 
was  away.  When  he  returned  he  asked  Whitney  by  what  authority 
he  was  there.  Whitney  was  seated  beside  a  table  in  the  room  and 
near  him  was  his  pistol.  He  took  it  up,  saying,  "By  this  authority," 
and  fired.  The  narrator  of  the  story  said  he  didn't  remember  who 
fired  first  but  that  "there  was  plenty  shootinV  Otero  was  killed  and 
Whitney  had  his  right  jaw  shot  away.  In  addition,  he  had  two  slugs 
in  his  body.  Another  man  was  killed  and  two  were  slightly  wounded. 
According  to  one  version,  Whitney  was  placed  in  a  light  wagon  drawn 
by  two  ponies,  driven  to  Chilili  where  a  spring  wagon  and  a  team  of 
mules  were  secured,  then  driven  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  Santa  Fe, 
where  he  was  kept  in  hiding  in  a  house  now  owned  by  Judge  Hollo- 
man.  There  he  was  apprehended  and  taken  to  Los  Lunas  by  special 
train.  At  the  trial  that  resulted  he  was  acquitted.  The  property  was 
sold  by  the  Otero  estate  to  the  New  Mexico  Central  Railroad  which 
needed  the  location  for  a  water  tank. 


294     NEW     MEXICO 

At  77  m.  is  a  junction  with  US  60,  and  the  roads  are  united  for 
2.2  miles  (see  Tour  8a). 

WILLARD,  79.2  772.  (6,091  alt.,  461  pop.),  is  in  the  center  of  a 
large  stock  raising  region.  Here  the  route  follows  NM  42  (R). 

At  84  m.  (L)  is  a  chain  of  natural  salt  lakes  from  which,  according 
to  a  Spanish  document  dated  1668,  burros  laden  with  salt  were  driven 
more  than  700  miles  to  the  silver  mines  in  southern  Chihuahua,  Mexico. 
The  Spaniards  were  operating  these  mines  with  the  aid  of  Indian  slaves 
and  needed  salt  for  smelting  the  ores.  The  salt  traffic,  however,  had 
gone  on  for  centuries  before  it  was  resumed  by  the  Spaniards.  It  had 
been  a  staple  of  trade  among  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest,  and  was 
known  to  the  Mexican  Indians,  although  it  was  not  then  carried  by 
burro. 

NM  42  continues  to  CEDARVALE,  llo.2  m.  (6,400  alt.,  136 
pop.),  center  of  another  dry-farming  region. 

NM  42  continues  across  the  northeast  corner  of  the  Cibola  Na- 
tional Forest,  with  views  of  North  Peak  and  Cougar  Mountain  (R). 

CORONA,  122.6  m.  (6,666  alt,,  803  pop.),  is  situated  in  an  agri- 
cultural district  in  Lincoln  County.  Mining,  wool,  and  cattle  raising 
are  the  principal  industries. 

In  Corona  is  a  junction  with  US  54  (see  Tour  18). 


Tour  3  A 


Junction    with    US     64 — Santa    Cruz — Chimayo — Truchas — 18     772. 
Truchas  Road  (NM  76). 

Two-lane  paved   road  between   US  64  and  Truchas;    graded   dirt   elsewhere 

throughout 

No  accommodations. 

This  route  runs  through  farming  communities  and  mountain  villages 
of  the  Chimayo  Valley  which  is  the  center  of  the  Chimayo  type  of 
weaving  and  has  some  of  the  most  spectacular  scenery  in  the  State.  Old 
customs  are  observed  in  this  section  and  the  Penitente  Brotherhood 
flourishes  here;  El  Santuario,  a  noted  sanctuary,  is  on  the  route.  The 
winding  road  and  sharp  turns  necessitate  careful  driving. 

The  Truchas  Road  runs  east  from  its  junction  with  US  64,  0  m. 
(See  Tour  So)  and  passes  EL  SANTO  NlffO  (Holy  Child),  0.5  m.t 
an  old  section  of  Santa  Cruz. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  1.5  m.  (4,582  alt,  592  pop.),  of  importance  dur- 
ing the  early  Spanish  period,  is  a  Spanish-speaking  village  of  adobe 
houses  around  a  sleepy  plaza  with  a  large  modern  concrete  cross  in  the 


TOUR    3  A     295 

center.  It  was  first  settled  by  colonists  who  came  with  Onate  in  1598 
and,  attracted  by  the  fertile  lands  along  the  Santa  Cruz  River  (R), 
established  haciendas. 

For  over  300  years  Santa  Cruz  was  on  the  main  road  between 
Santa  Fe  and  Taos,  but  a  few  years  ago  the  village  was  by-passed  about 
a  mile  to  the  west  by  the  new  highway. 

Abandoned  by  the  Spanish  in  1680  at  the  time  of  the  Pueblo  Re- 
bellion, Santa  Cruz  was  occupied  by  Indians  from  the  Tano  pueblos  of 
San  Cristobal  and  San  Lazaro  who  established  new  pueblos  here  and 
remained  in  possession  until  the  reconquest  in  April  1692,  when  De 
Vargas  ordered  them  to  vacate.  Some  went  to  live  at  Chimayo,  some 
to  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  and  one  group  to  the  Hopi  country  in 
Arizona  where  they  established  the  pueblo  of  Hano  on  the  First  Mesa. 
The  first  settlement  of  Santa  Cruz  had  been  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Santa  Cruz  River,  but  the  new  village  was  established  on  the  north 
bank,  the  second  Royal  Villa  (Santa  Fe  being  the  first)  in  New  Mexico, 
under  the  name  of  La  Villa  Nueva  de  Santa  Cruz  de  los  Espanoles 
Mexicanos  del  Rey  Nucstro  Senor  Don  Carlos  Segundo  (The  New* 
Town  of  the  Holy  Cross  of  the  Spanish  Mexicans  of  the  King  our 
Master  Carlos  II)  and  made  the  military  headquarters  of  the  district. 

Sixty  families  of  colonists  from  Zacatecas,  Mexico  were  given  grants 
in  1695,  and  19  families  from  Zacatecas  in  1696.  De  Vargas  assisted 
the  colonists  in  every  way.  In  his  official  proclamation,  he  says  that  he 
will  "take  the  colonists  on  his  saddle-horses,  furnishing  pack-mules  for 
any  clothing  and  house-furnishings  they  may  have,  and  muleteers  to 
help  them  load."  Houses,  together  with  adjoining  fields  and  seed-corn 
for  planting,  were  to  be  provided.  Antonio  Moreno,  a  Franciscan  friar, 
accompanied  the  settlers  and  under  his  direction  a  church  was  erected. 

Later  the  village  was  temporarily  deserted,  with  crops  left  standing 
in  the  fields,  owing  to  lack  of  sufficient  military  protection,  but  was 
resettled  and  a  Mission  with  resident  priests  was  established  in  1706. 
About  1710  more  settlers  were  brought  by  Juan  Jaez  Hurtado. 

When  Major  Z.  M.  Pike  passed  through  the  village  in  1807,  he 
reported  a  population  of  more  than  2,000.  Under  Mexican  rule  from 
1821  to  1846,  Santa  Cruz  was  of  great  political  importance  and  known 
as  one  of  the  "wildest"  towns  of  the  southwest. 

In  the  so-called  Chimayo  Rebellion  of  1837  (see  History),  Santa 
Cruz  was  the  scene  of  a  significant  battle  between  the  Mexican  Federal 
troops  and  the  Insurrectionists.  Juan  Jose  Esquival,  alcalde  (magis- 
trate or  judge)  of  the  town,  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  revolt.  In 
August  1837  Governor  Perez  marched  with  200  troops  (the  majority 
of  whom  were  Indians)  from  Santa  Fe  against  Santa  Cruz.  Upon 
meeting  the  rebel  army  on  the  outskirts  of  the  village,  many  of  his  own 
men  deserted  at  the  first  fire  from  the  enemy.  Only  a  few  remained 
loyal,  but  in  the  first  charge  by  the  insurgents  even  those  were  routed, 
seven  killed  and  many  wounded.  The  governor  with  23  others  man- 
aged to  escape  to  Santa  Fe  but  on  the  next  day,  while  attempting  to 
flee  the  country,  he  was  met  by  a  group  of  rebellious  Santo  Domingo 


296      NEW     MEXICO 

Indians  a  short  distance  outside  of  Santa  Fe,  and  was  assassinated.  His 
head  was  cut  off  and  carried  back  in  triumph  to  the  rebel  camp  at 
Santa  Cruz. 

During  the  Taos  Revolt  of  1847,  following  American  occupation, 
on  January  24  when  the  American  army  under  Colonel  Sterling  Price 
was  advancing  to  Taos  to  avenge  the  death  of  Governor  Bent,  another 
noteworthy  battle  was  fought  here,  the  Americans  defeating  a  large 
force  of  Indians  and  Mexicans  under  Chavez,  Montoya,  and  Tafoya. 
Two  Americans  were  killed  during  the  engagement  and  several 
wounded ;  Colonel  Price  then  proceeded  to  Taos,  where  the  revolt  was 
summarily  suppressed. 

During  Territorial  days,  Santa  Cruz's  reputation  for  disorder  in- 
creased. Thomas  A,  Janvier  in  Santa  Fes  Partner  says : 

"Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada  .  .  .  was  said  to  have  took  the  cake  for 
toughness  before  railroad  times.  It  was  a  holy  terror  Santa  Cruz  was! 
The  only  decent  folks  in  it  was  the  French  Padre — who  outclassed  most 
saints — and  hadn't  a  fly  on  him — and  a  German  named  Becker.  He 
had  the  government  forage  station,  Becker  had;  and  he  used  to  say 
he'd  had  a  fresh  surprise  every  morning  of  the  five  years  he'd  been 
forage  agent — when  he  woke  up  and  found  nobody 'd  knifed  him  in  the 
night  and  he  was  keeping  on  being  alive." 

Dominating  the  plaza  is  the  SPANISH  MISSION,  a  massive  cruciform 
church  erected  in  1733,  one  of  the  largest  in  New  Mexico.     It  has 
simple  exterior  lines,  a  steep  gabled  front,  and  square,  buttressed  corner 
towers.     The  arched  belfries  surmounting  the  towers  have  pyramidal 
roofs,  and  the  severity  of  the  facade  is  unrelieved  by  the  usual  decora- 
tions for  a  church  of  this  late  period.     The  interior  is  a  treasury  of 
Spanish-Mexican  art.    The  walls  of  the  nave  are  adorned  with  Mexican 
pictures  of  Our  Lady  of  Sorrows,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Stephen,  and  Our 
Lady  of  Guadalupe.     On  the  north  wall  is  a  long  niche  containing 
figures  which  represent  Christ  in  the  Tomb.    Near  it  is  a  remarkable 
seventeenth  century  Spanish  wood  carving,  a  figure  of  St.  Francis.    The 
high  altar  is  similarly  adorned  with  religious  paintings.     At  the  south 
side  of  the  altar,  richly  painted  and  paneled  doors  lead  into  the  Chapel 
of  St.  Francis.    On  the  north  side,  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady  of  Carmel 
contains  a  modern  Virgin  and  two  paintings  on  metal — one   of   St. 
Anthony  of  Padua  and  the  other  of  St.  Joseph.    Adjoining  this  chapel 
is  the  sacristy,  containing  religious  ornaments  from  Mexico  and  several 
Spanish  paintings  that  originally  hung  in  the  nave  and  suggest  the  work 
of  Murillo.     Here  also  are  stored  richly  embroidered  sacerdotal  vest- 
ments, altar  furnishings  of  gold  and  silver,  and  several  very  old  books. 
This  church  was  the  central  seat  of  the  Confraternity  of  Our  Lady 
of  Carmel  and  contains  a  register  of  all  its  members,  "made  by  the 
authority  of  the  Pope  and  the  Bishop  of  Durango"  in  1760. 

The  church  has  priests  in  residence,  who  minister  to  a  large  parish 
including  several  pueblos,  and  many  Tewa-speaking  Indians  are  chris- 
tened and  married  by  them.  The  babies  of  the  parish  are  still  baptized 
in  the  old  Chapel  of  Saint  Francis. 


TOUR     3  A     297 

The  bell,  according  to  Nina  Otero  in  her  Old  Spain  in  the  South- 
west, was  brought  from  Spain  in  the  early  eighteenth  century  and  its 
lovely  tone  is  the  result  of  gold  and  silver  jewelry  given  for  its  casting 
by  Spanish  ladies  of  the  period. 

The  church  in  the  beginning  was  flat  dirt-roofed,  but  after  several 
disastrous  rains,  the  resident  priest  constructed  the  present  hip  roof  in 
order,  as  he  said,  "to  save  the  church  itself!"  Changes  in  the  interior 
include  the  remodeling  of  the  northern  chapel  about  1920.  Preserved 
in  the  church  are  historical  and  ecclesiastical  records  beginning  in  1695 
and  described  as  the  most  perfect  and  complete  in  the  Southwest. 

A  Catholic  Mission  School  has  been  built  next  to  the  Church  in 
modern  times.  The  casa  de  cura  (house  of  the  resident  priest)  directly 
back  of  the  church,  is  an  old  adobe  building  with  a  large  barn  and 
corrals  that  recall  the  days,  not  so  far  distant,  when  all  the  priest's 
journeys  to  Chimayo,  Cordova,  Truchas,  and  other  parishes  were  made 
by  a  two-horse  team  and  buggy  over  roads  often  almost  impassable. 

On  Santa  Cruz  Day  (May  j) — the  feast  of  the  finding  of  the  Holy 
Cross — the  cross  in  the  Plaza  is  always  draped  in  white,  and  every 
second  year  Los  Moros  is  presented.  This  play  representing  the  Con- 
quest of  the  Moors  by  the  Christians  and  the  recapture  of  the  Cross  is 
enacted  on  horseback,  as  it  was  by  the  soldiers  of  Don  Juan  de  Onate 
in  1 598  at  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros,  shortly  after  their  arrival  in  this 
new  province  of  Spain. 

This  performance  is  given  at  a  number  of  villages  by  players  de- 
scended from  the  families  of  those  who  first  took  part  in  1598.  The 
original  manuscript  in  verse  was,  no  doubt,  brought  from  Spain  but 
long  ago  was  lost  and  the  dialogue  is  now  preserved  orally. 

East  of  the  Plaza  is  the  PENITENTE  MORADA,  a  secret  chapel  of  the 
Penitente  Brotherhood  of  New  Mexico,  a  survival  of  the  Third  Order 
of  Saint  Francis. 

East  of  Santa  Cruz  this  is  a  paved  road  following  the  narrow 
Santa  Cruz  Valley  that  is  planted  with  fields  of  corn,  chili,  frijoles 
(Mexican  or  pinto  beans),  apple  and  peach  orchards,  and  walled  in 
by  grotesquely  eroded  sandstone  cliffs.  A  gravelly  rock-strewn  stream 
curves  across  the  valley  floor  changing  its  course  from  day  to  day, 
never  man-controlled.  Adobe  houses  nestle  against  tawny  cliffs  or 
perch  defiantly  on  lookout  hilltops ;  and  in  May,  lilac-draped  mud  walls 
rise  from  barren  grounds;  young  children  in  joyous  mood  and  dress 
play  in  the  roadway  beside  wayside  crosses  that  mark  the  resting  places 
of  their  ancestors.  A  chapel  here,  a  morada  there,  or  a  stark  Peni- 
tente cross  on  a  hilltop  bear  testimony  to  the  people's  piety. 

CHIMAY6,  9  m.  (6,872  alt.,  2,500  pop.),  is  on  the  site  of  a  pueblo 
inhabited  by  a  group  of  Tiwa  Indians  who  were  called  the  Tsimajo 
(Ind.,  flaking  stone  of  superior  quality)  and  were  fine  weavers.  It  is 
supposed  the  few  Spaniards  living  here  before  the  Tiwa  abandoned 
their  pueblo  learned  the  craft  from  them.  Chimayo  was  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Province  of  New  Mexico  from  1598  to  1695,  the 
frontier  place  of  banishment  for  offenders,  which  in  those  days  meant 


298     NEW    MEXICO 

punishment  greater  than  prison.  After  the  Reconquest  in  1692,  it  was 
known  as  San  Buenaventura  de  Chimayo  ^Chimayo  of  the  Good 
Venture)*  Today,  because  of  its  sheltered  position,  it  is  the  center  of 
farming,  fruit  culture,  and  weaving.  The  road,  winding  through  the 
village,  is  lined  with  lilac  hedges  and  with  adobe  houses  and  patio  walls 
that  are  covered  in  June  with  the  yellow  rose  of  Castile.  In  the  fall 
when  the  shimmering  gold  of  the  cottonwoods  contrasts  with  strings  of 
scarlet  chili  that  drape  the  houses,  the  harvesting  of  the  crops  is  carried 
on,  and  grain  is  threshed  on  primitive  threshing  floors  with  goats  and 
horses  tramping  it  out.  During  Lent  processions  of  Penitentes,  creep- 
ing up  to  the  hilltop  cross,  scourge  bare  backs  with  yucca  whips.  Some- 
times, in  the  spring  of  a  dry  year,  can  be  seen  a  procession  of  men  and 
women,  the  leader  carrying  an  image  of  the  Virgin  or  the  Santo  Nino 
(holy  child)  and  all  chanting  prayers  for  rain  as  they  walk  across  the 
dry  fields.  Here  are  the  homes  of  generations  of  weavers  whose  gaily 
colored  Chimayo  blankets  have  been  called  the  link  between  the  Navaho 
blankets  of  New  Mexico  and  the  Saltillo  of  Mexico.  Every  other 
house  contains  a  hand  loom  with  father,  mother,  and  sometimes  children 
operating  it.  Weaving  in  New  Mexico  had  so  deteriorated  by  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  Spanish  authorities  sent  to 
Mexico  for  expert  craftsmen  to  teach  the  colonists;  in  the  spring  of 
1805  the  brothers  Bazan,  Don  Ignacio  and  Don  Juan,  certified  master 
weavers,  came  to  Santa  Fe  under  a  six-year  contract  to  teach  the  youth. 
At  the  capital  they  found  conditions  not  to  their  liking  so  moved  to 
Chimayo,  which  was  established  as  a  weaving  center,  a  position  it  holds 
today  though  there  have  been  periods  of  inactivity  followed  by  revivals. 

For  a  time  the  craftsmen  used  wool  bought  from  manufacturers 
instead  of  that  prepared  from  neighbors'  sheep  as  formerly,  but  are  now 
restoring  their  blankets'  popularity  by  turning  again  to  native  wool, 
hand  spinning,  and  local  vegetable  dyes. 

At  Chimayo  is  the  junction  with  a  secondary  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  over  a  small  stream  to  a  cluster  of  adobes  surrounding 
EL  SANTUARIO  DE  CHIMAY6  1.3  m.t  a  Christian  sanctuary,  believed  to  be  on  the 
site  of  the  old  Tsimajo  Pueblo. 

The  low-flat-roofed  adobe  church  with  its  tapering  front  towers  and  twin 
belfries  is  entered  through  a  wall-enclosed  garden  with  towering  cottonwoods. 
It  was  built  as  a  thanks  offering  by  Don  Bernardo  Abeyta  in  1816,  and  is  very 
well  preserved.  The  wide  main  portal  is  in  the  center  of  a  thick  retaining 
wall  which  supports  a  terrace  immediately  in  front  on  the  church  structure. 
Between  the  front  towers  at  the  gallery  level  is  a  narrow  porch  with  timber 
posts  and  roof.  Here  a  smaller  doorway  opens  into  the  choir  loft  within.  The 
interior  is  notable  for  its  characteristic  Spanish-Pueblo  decorations — a  heavy 
timber  ceiling  of  closely  spaced  <viga$t  supported  at  the  ends  on  carved  brackets 
and  crude  plaster  walls  lined  with  a  low  painted  dado  and  hung  with  numerous 
religious  paintings.  There  are  also  pierced  tin  candelabra  and  a  small  bulfo 
of  Santo  Nino.  In  front  of  the  high  altar  is  an  interesting  chancel  rail  with 
perforated  wooden  balusters.  Behind  the  draped  altar  is  a  high  reredos,  naively 
decorated  with  painted  conventional  designs  and  religious  symbols,  and  over  it 
a  cross  found  in  the  pine  tree  that  grew  on  this  site.  It  is  an  exact  replica 
of  the  cross  at  Esquipulas,  Mexico  in  the  Iglesia  de  Santo  Nino. 

A  privately-owned  square  chapel  about  50  feet  from  the   Santuario  also 


TOUR     3  A     299 

contains  a  small  statue  of  Santo  Nino  Perdido,  the  lost  Child.  The  custodian 
here  will  respond  to  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  which  hangs  in  the  campanile,  and 
sell  layettes,  blessed  on  behalf  of  Santo  Nino,  to  expectant  mothers.  It  is  said 
that  these  images  of  Santo  Nino  go  out  during  the  night  on  errands  of  mercy  to 
the  poor,  in  consequence  of  which  new  shoes  must  be  bought  for  them  every  six 
months,  although  many  thank  offerings  consist  of  doll-size  shoes  for  their  wear. 
The  Santuario  was  in  possession  of  the  Abeyta  family  until  the  fall  of  1929, 
when  Mary  Austin  (see  Literature}  obtained  from  an  anonymous  donor  $6,000 
with  which  the  Society  for  the  Preservation  and  Restoration  of  New  Mexico 
Churches  purchased  the  property  and  transferred  it  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Continue  (R)  on  this  road  to  the  SANTA  CRUZ  RESERVOIR  (park  cars 
at  dam  base  and  climb  on  foot  to  water's  edge),  0.8  m.f  built  in  1929.  The 
water  here  irrigates  about  6,000  acres  and  provides  lake  trout  fishing. 

The  road  continues  to  climb  along  the  crest  of  a  hogback  dividing 
two  small  valleys,  with  TRUCHAS  PEAK  (13,306  alt.),  highest  in 
New  Mexico,  and  TAGS  MOUNTAINS  ahead,  and  with  the 
JfiMEZ  RANGE  (L). 

At  11  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road,  which  crosses  a  small  stream  and  winds  up  the  steep 
foothills,  to  CUNDIY6,  2.1  m.  (5,621  alt.,  145  pop.),  another  hill  town  where 
a  native  craft  center  has  recently  been  established.  The  specialty  is  hand- 
tanned  goat  skins  from  local  goats,  each  family  owning  a  small  flock  kept  for 
this  purpose  as  well  as  for  milk  and  meat.  About  100  feet  above  Cundiyo,  at 
the  foot  of  a  small  round  hill,  called  by  the  Nambe  Indians  the  "round  hill  of 
the  little  bells,"  are  the  ruins  of  a  large  adobe  pueblo,  said  to  be  one  of  the 
ancient  villages  of  their  people. 


At  12  m.,  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 


Right  down  this  narrow  road,  which  tortuously  winds  across  low  spurs  of 
hills,  to  C6RDOVA,  0.5  m.  (5,742  alt.,  573  pop.),  said  to  have  first  been  an 
Indian  pueblo,  now  entirely  Spanish-American.  Its  one  street  leads  along  the 
lower  edge  of  a  hill.  On  the  left  native  type  adobe  houses  with  portals  of  pink, 
mauve,  blue,  and  yellow  are  set  in  diminutive  yards;  on  the  right  are  chicken 
houses,  stables,  and  corrals  that  slope  steeply  to  the  mountain  stream.  Between 
the  stream  and  the  towering  foothills  the  yellow-green  of  spring  wheat  and  the 
vivid  green  of  alfalfa  fields  are  outlined  with  wild  plum.  There  is  an  adobe 
church  dedicated  to  San  Antonio  de  Padua  where  the  bier,  still  used  at  funerals, 
is  near  the  door;  for  there  is  no  room  here  for  the  modern  hearse.  Cordova 
was  the  home  until  his  death  in  May  1937  of  the  wood  carver,  Jose  Maria 
Lopez,  who  fashioned  with  his  penknife  from  juniper  and  pinon  firewood,  birds, 
squirrels,  and  beavers,  as  well  as  the  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve,  in  dejection, 
leaving  the  Garden.  On  a  point  at  the  upper  end  of  the  village  is  a  large 
cross  and  MORADA  OF  THE  PENITENTES. 

The  route  continues  (L)  to  the  crest  of  a  steep  hill  where  there  is 
a  group  of  wooden  crosses  (R)  set  among  the  rocks,  many  ornamented 
with  framed  photographs  of  the  departed  ones. 

At  15  m.  is  a  sharp  turn.  Here  the  road  winds  through  several 
dry  river  beds  to  TRUCHAS  (Sp.  trout),  18  m.  (7,622  alt.,  672 
pop.),  mentioned  in  a  Spanish  Archive  of  1752  as  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Rosario  de  las  Truchas,  a  name  longer  than  its  main  street.  An  archive 
dated  1762  tells  of  the  transfer  of  its  people,  together  with  those  of  Las 


3OO     NEW    MEXICO 

Trampas,  to  the  Parish  of  Picuris.  In  March  1772  another  archive 
records  the  requests  of  the  villagers  for  12  muskets  and  powder  and  pro- 
tection from  the  Comanche.  "Denied"  is  written  in  answer  to  both 
requests.  The  walls  of  the  adobe  houses  here  are  unusually  thick 
(Truchas  is  a  very  cold  place  in  winter) ;  and  handsome,  hand-carved 
doors  are  numerous.  There  is  a  small  Roman  Catholic  mission  of  early 
days  and  a  Presbyterian  Church  and  mission  training  school.  Behind 
the  village  rise  the  TRUCHAS  PEAKS.  From  Truchas  on  a  clear 
day  are  visible  the  La  Plata  Mountains  150  miles  away  in  southern 
Colorado;  the  JfiMEZ  RANGE  and  the  PEDERNAL  (9,857  alt.) 
to  the  west;  SANDIAS,  75  miles  to  the  southwest;  and  MT.  TAY- 
LOR, 150  miles  south  of  west.  Spread  below  is  the  entire  Tewa  world 
and  a  magnificent  panorama  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 

Numerous  trails  lead  out  from  Truchas  into  the  CARSON  NA- 
TIONAL FOREST  (good  hunting  and  fishing).  East  of  Truchas, 
a  rougher  and  more  erratic  road  leads  into  and  through  the  Forest,  and 
another,  north,  runs  over  mountain  trails  and  across  canyons  to  Tram- 
pas  (see  Tour  8a) — a  very  difficult  and  dangerous  road,  not  to  be 
undertaken  except  under  the  best  conditions  and  then  only  by  those 
experienced  in  mountain  driving.  It  is  safer  as  a  pack  trip. 


Tour  4 


(Texline,  Texas) — Clayton — Des  Moines — Capulin — Raton;  US  87- 
64,  90  m. 

Two-lane,   bituminous-paved    roadbed  throughout. 

The  Colorado  &  Southern  Railway  parallels  the  route   between   Texline   and 

Des  Moines. 

Hotels  in  Clayton  and  Raton ;  tourist  camps,  motels  and  gas  stations  at  short 

intervals. 

This  route  cutting  across  the  northeast  corner  of  New  Mexico 
traverses  a  region  strewn  with  masses  of  black  lava  rock.  In  the  old 
days  this  was  a  cattle  country  and  great  herds  roamed  here  until  the 
spring  roundups. 

US  87  crosses  the  TEXAS  LINE,  0  m.f  at  a  point  36  miles  north- 
west of  Dalhart,  Texas. 

CLAYTON,  9.3  m.  (5,050  alt.,  3,314  pop.),  the  county  seat  and 
the  largest  town  in  Union  County,  is  on  a  high  plateau  and  its  lights 
are  visible  for  miles  around.  The  town  is  on  the  C  &  S  railroad  and 
serves  as  trading  and  shipping  point  for  ranchers  and  farmers  of  the  entire 
eastern  part  of  the  country,  which  usually  has  enough  snow  in  winter 


TOUR    4     301 

to  provide  moisture  in  the  spring  for  crops.  Clayton's  population  is 
chiefly  Anglo-American,  although  there  is  a  large  Spanish-American 
group. 

Clayton  began  as  a  camping  ground  for  cattle  drovers  in  1880,  long 
before  the  railroad  was  built  and  accepted  cattle  for  shipment.  Its  first 
store  was  a  tent  from  which  supplies  were  sold  to  the  cattlemen.  In  the 
i88o's,  such  large  herds  were  being  driven  from  points  in  Texas  to 
Springer,  New  Mexico,  and  Granada,  Colorado  that  a  railroad  through 
the  northeastern  part  of  New  Mexico  was  planned. 

Senator  Dorsey's  foreman,  John  C.  Hill,  suggested  the  establish- 
ment of  a  trading  post  here  and  persuaded  General  Granville  Dodge, 
construction  manager  for  the  Denver  &  Fort  Worth  Railroad  Com- 
pany, to  make  the  proposed  new  town  a  division  point  on  the  Denver  & 
Fort  Worth  system,  which  became  the  Colorado  &  Southern  in  1894. 

The  first  building  was  a  shack  put  up  by  C.  M.  Perrin  in  October 

1887  a  month  before  the  town  site  was  surveyed.    The  first  post  office 
was  housed  in  a  small  frame  structure  with  a  canvas  roof,  and  soon  the 
Clayton  House  (hotel)  was  built.    A  store  was  opened  on  January  13, 

1888  in  Perrin's  cabin.     Another  building  was  used'  as  schoolhouse, 
courtroom,  and  public  meeting  place.     In  the  early  1890*5  the  first 
minister  came  to  Clayton. 

In  March  1888  the  first  passenger  train  was  run  from  the  Texas 
Line  to  Trinidad,  Colorado.  From  then  on  the  town  had  a  rapid 
growth;  in  1900  the  population  was  750.  One  setback  for  the  deter- 
mined settlers  was  a  severe  snowstorm  during  October  and  November 
1889,  when  Clayton  was  cut  off  from  the  outside  world  for  several 
weeks  and  train  service  from  the  north  was  held  up  for  13  days.  The 
snow  averaged  25  inches  in  depth  and  piled  up  in  drifts  as  high  as  7 
feet.  Frozen  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle,  as  well  as  human  bodies,  were 
found  when  the  snow  melted.  Five  cowboys  and  two  sheepherders 
died  in  the  blizzard.  Two  passenger  trains  were  snowbound  at  Tex- 
line  for  several  days.  Stock  shipments  from  Clayton  were  practically 
discontinued  for  the  winter. 

Another  hazard  that  made  life  interesting  for  the  Clayton  settlers 
was  the  wild  career  of  Black  Jack  Ketchum  and  his  several  gangs  of 
train  robbers.  When  he  was  tried  and  hanged  at  Clayton  on  April  26, 
1901,  a  stockade  was  built  around  the  gallows  to  frustrate  any  possible 
attempt  at  rescue  by  members  of  his  gang. 

This  two-gun  bandit  came  into  Arizona  from  Texas  in  the  middle 
1890*8.  He  was  large  in  stature,  swarthy  as  a  Mexican,  and  dangerous 
as  a  rattler.  Following  one  of  their  train  robberies,  in  which  the  loot 
totaled  many  thousands  of  dollars,  Ketchum  and  his  gang  made  for 
their  hideout  on  the  Diamond  "A"  ranch  south  of  Separ.  It  was  a 
November  morning,  1896,  when  the  desperadoes  rode  down  the  moun- 
tain slope  into  the  withering  fire  of  a  posse  in  ambush.  A  number  were 
killed,  but  Black  Jack  escaped.  Then  for  several  years  he  operated  in 
southeastern  Arizona,  a  part  of  New  Mexico,  and  northern  Sonora. 
Single  handed,  he  held  up  a  train  at  Twin-Mountain  Curve,  but  this 


3O2      NEW    MEXICO 

proved  to  be  the  climax  of  his  career.  He  was  wounded  in  making  his 
escape  and  was  found  next  morning  by  a  sheriffs  posse,  wandering  on 
the  desert  in  a  crazed  condition.  When  a  nervous  hangman  fumbled 
with  the  noose  at  his  hanging,  Black  Jack  called  out,  "Hurry  it  up;  I'm 
due  in  hell  for  dinner."  He  asked  to  be  buried  face  down.  One  of  his 
last  requests  was  for  music  at  the  end,  and  a  violin  and  guitar  were 
played  in  accordance  with  his  wishes. 

When  Union  County  was  created  in  1893,  Folsom  and  Clayton 
contested  the  honor  of  being  made  county  seat.  After  a  bitter  struggle, 
Clayton  won  and  a  courthouse  was  built  in  1895  that  served  until  1908 
when  a  gale  unroofed  the  building  and  killed  several^  persons.  Soon 
afterward  the  present  courthouse  was  erected.  When  district  court  was 
held  in  the  eailier  building,  in  April  and  October,  Clayton  put  on  a 
festive  air. 

A  story  is  told  about  Judge  Mills,  who  was  attending  a  formal 
evening  party  when  he  was  summoned  to  the  courthouse  to  receive  a 
verdict.  He  rushed  to  the  building,  still  in  evening  clothes,  opened 
court,  heard  the  verdict,  then  adjourned.  The  next  day  a  stranger  who 
had  attended  the  session  asked  a  local  attorney  if  it  was  the  custom  for 
the  judge  to  preside  in  full  dress.  "It  is,"  the  lawyer  assured  him; 
"in  Clayton  no  man  would  think  of  going  out  in  the  evening  in  any- 
thing but  a  full  dress  suit." 

When  Phlem  Humphrey,  one  of  three  county  commissioners,  was 
taken  to  the  new  courthouse  to  be  tried  for  murder,  he  saw  the  marker 
on  the  building  with  the  names  of  the  commissioners,  including  his  own, 
and  said:  "Don't  that  beat  hell!  I'm  the  first  one  tried  for  murder  in 
my  own  courthouse."  He  was  acquitted  a  year  later. 

The  Clayton  Sales  Pavilion,  owned  by  Clayton  Cattle  Auction,  Inc., 
was  built  in  1957  in  typical  New  Mexico  style.  It  is  a  two-story  sales 
ring  with  an  arena  that  seats  1,000.  At  the  rear  is  a  stockyard  accom- 
modating 2,500  head  of  cattle  and  connected  by  a  spur  with  the  rail- 
road, 

Clayton's  Old  Western  Dance  held  each  winter  during  the  holiday 
season,  usually  for  three  nights,  is  attended  by  visitors  from  many  other 
States.  Guns  are  checked  at  the  door  and  prizes  are  offered  for  the  best 
costumes,  the  best  waltzers,  the  most  recently  married  couple,  the 
longest  whiskers,  and  many  other  "bests"  or  "mosts." 

The  Union  County  Fair,  held  for  three  days  in  the  early  autumn, 
is  sponsored  by  the  4-H  Clubs,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  farm  women1s 
clubs,  Clayton  businessmen,  and  other  groups. 

t  A  familiar  figure  in  Clayton  was  Ernest  Thompson  Seton,  whose  Lobo, 
King  of  the  Currumpaw  deals  with  a  giant  wolf  that  terrorized  the 
ranchers  northwest  of  Clayton  for  more  than  five  years  before  he  was 
trapped  in  1894-  So  great  was  the  dread  of  this  animal  that  the  price 
on  its  head  finally  reached  $1,000. 

In  this  area  fossils  of  sea  shells,  fresh  water  snails,  and  fish  have 
been  found.  In  1935  two  distinct  species  of  dinosauria  were  excavated 
north  of  Clayton,  one  carnivorous  and  one  herbivorous.  Indian  petro- 


TOUR     4    3O3 

glyphs,  arrowheads,  stone  implements,  and  other  artifacts  have  been 
uncovered. 

RABBIT  EAR  MOUNTAIN  (R),  19  m.f  is  named  for  a  Chey- 
enne chief,  called  Rabbit  Ears  (Orejas  de  Cone  jo)  because  his  ears  had 
been  frozen,  who  was  killed  in  battle  and  buried  on  this  mountain* 
Here  in  1717  a  volunteer  army  of  500  Spaniards,  eager  to  put  an  end 
to  Comanche  raids,  killed  several  hundred  of  them  and  took  700 
prisoners.  A  long  truce  followed.  The  Star  Mail  Route  from  Kenton, 
Oklahoma  to  Clayton,  carried  at  first  by  team  and  wagon,  skirted 
Rabbit  Ear  Mesa  near  here.  In  1910  it  was  decided  to  take  a  short  cut 
across  the  mesa;  but,  owing  to  a  legal  technicality,  the  road  could  not 
be  changed  unless  it  was  proved  that  the  mail  was  already  using  a  part 
of  the  proposed  route.  So  W.  G.  Howard,  the  mail  carrier,  persuaded 
a  group  of  interested  men  to  "hold  up  the  coach"  atop  the  mesa  and 
carry  it  down  the  steep  sides.  The  problem  was  not  yet  settled,  how- 
ever, for  at  the  foot  of  the  mesa  lived  "Shotgun  Mary*'  Goodin,  who 
had  definite  ideas  about  roads  crossing  her  ranch.  The  24  men  were 
effectively  held  at  bay  by  her,  and  it  seemed  the  new  route  was  doomed 
until  John  Spring,  a  member  of  the  Clayton  police  whom  Mary  held 
in  great  respect,  persuaded  her  to  allow  the  road  to  go  through. 

CLAYTON  LAKE,  newly  developed  recreational  area  is  located 
13  772.  northwest  of  Clayton.  Excellent  fishing  and  boating. 

Senator  Dorsey,  who  served  from  Arkansas  1873-79,  is  responsible 
for  several  place  names  in  this  area.  Clayton  and  Clayton  Peak  were 
named  for  his  son;  Mt.  Dora  for  his  sister-in-law,  and  Mt.  Margarite 
and  other  hills  for  other  members  of  his  family. 

MT.  DORA,  27.2  m.  (5,280  alt.,  250  pop.),  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  that  bears  the  same  name,  has  had  a  post  office  since  1912. 
It  is  a  shipping  point  for  cattle  and  sheep  as  well  as  for  grains  and 
produce,  but  since  1929  it  has  had  only  a  fraction  of  its  former  business. 

GRENVILLE,  36.4  m.  (5,300  alt.,  231  pop.),  conspicuous  for  its 
grain  elevator,  is  another  shipping  point  for  ranch  and  farm  products. 
It  developed  as  a  station  on  the  Colorado  &  Southern  Railroad  and 
experienced  a  boom  in  1919  when  the  Snorty  Gobbler  oil  well,  five 
miles  north,  was  brought  in;  its  growth  stooped  in  1925  when  the  oil 
company  failed.  There  is  a  good  fishing  report  at  Wetherly  Dam,  10 
miles  west  of  town. 

At  44.5  772.  is  the  junction  with  an  unimproved  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  4.1  m.  is  GOW  MOUNTAIN,  in  the  west  side  of  which 
is  the  GRENVILLE  CAVES.  The  second  cave  is  about  a  half-mile  long  and 
branches  into  two  tunnels  that  connect  in  the  back  of  the  cave.  The  last  room 
contains  an  aperture  about  one  and  one-half  feet  wide,  through  which  a  strong, 
warm  wind  is  said  to  blow  at  five  minute  intervals.  The  cause  of  this  has  not 
been  discovered.  The  floors,  covered  with  boulders  of  various  sizes,  resemble 


304     NEW     MEXICO 

a  creek  bed.  Since  a  compass  will  not  register  accurately  ^within  the  caves 
owing  to  the  magnetic  iron  content  of  the  surrounding  rock,  it  has  never  been 
determined  in  what  direction  the  caves  extend.  The  walls  contain  many  small 
holes  believed  to  be  the  homes  of  rattlesnakes,  hence  the  alternative  name, 
Rattlesnake  Caves. 


US  87  crosses  a  wide  plateau  through  a  sparsely  settled  ranch  coun- 
try where  lava  rock  is  frequently  visible  and  limestone  is  also  found. 

DES  MOINES,  54.5  m.  (6,666  alt.,  207  pop.),  named  for  Des 
Moines,  Iowa,  is  a  trading  and  shipping  point  for  an  extensive  dry 
farming  and  ranching  area.  When  the  Colorado  &  Southern  Railroad 
extended  its  lines  through  New  Mexico  in  1887-88  a  station  was  set 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Grande  and  named  Des  Moines.  For  19  years 
there  was  no  town  at  this  site;  but  in  1907  two  sites  were  surveyed 
and  settled,  one  founded  by  R.  M.  Saavedra,  the  other  by  J.  F.  Branson. 
The  former  was  named  for  its  founder;  the  latter  was  called  Des 
Moines.  Saavedra  erected  the  first  building  on  his  property  and  opened 
a  store;  within  a  year  Branson's  site  had  a  lumber  yard,  several  saloons, 
restaurants,  stores,  and  a  post  office.  In  1915-16,  Saavedra  took  the  lead 
in  population  and  several  business  houses  of  Des  Moines  moved  there. 
Then  the  Townsite  Company,  assisted  by  railroad  interests,  bought  17 
acres  lying  between  Saavedra  and  Des  Moines  and  this  tract  drew  the 
two  groups  together.  When  this  land  had  been  acquired,  the  name  Des 
Moines  was  adopted  for  the  consolidated  areas.  For  a  time  the  popula- 
tion increased  so  rapidly  much  of  it  was  housed  in  hastily  built  shacks. 
An  early  settler  named  Rogers  became  known  as  the  Shack  Builder 
after  constructing  75  of  these  shelters  in  90  days. 

By  1920  the  town  reached  its  peak  with  a  population  of  800,  but 
with  drought  and  the  1929  economic  depression  it  declined  to  one-half 
that  figure.  In  1936  a  rich  deposit  of  carbon  dioxide  started  a  dry  ice 
industry,  which  failed  to  develop. 

Twin  Mountains,  4  miles  northwest  of  Des  Moines,  is  largely 
composed  of  red  cinders,  and  has  supplied  the  Colorado  &  Southern 
Railroad  with  material  for  its  roadbed  and  furnished  settlers  with 
material  for  construction. 

CAPULfN,  63.6  m.  (6,868  alt.,  150  pop.),  formerly  called  Ded- 
man,  was  later  renamed  for  Mt.  Capulin.  Nearby  is  the  beautiful 
Sierra  Grande  (Big  Ridge),  40  miles  in  circumference  at  the  base  and 
having  an  altitude  of  c.  8,200  feet.  In  Capulin  is  the  junction  with  a 
road  running  north  to  Folsom,  passing  en  route  entrance  to  Capulin 
Mountain  National  Monument  (see  Tour  2a). 

In  the  Capulin-Folsom  region,  archeological  discoveries  indicate  the 
existence  of  a  human  race  here  some  15,000  years  ago.  Spear  heads  of 
stone,  called  the  Folsom  points,  have  been  found  in  close  proximity  to 
bones  of  mammoths  and  an  extinct  species  of  bison,  indicating  that  they 
were  the  tips  of  weapons  used  by  these  primitive  people  in  hunting 
game.  In  spite  of  the  Folsom  finds,  northeastern  New  Mexico  has  not 
been  very  extensively  explored  by  archeologists.  That  future  explora- 


TOUR    5     305 

tions  may  greatly  enhance  knowledge  of  prehistoric  man  is  indicated  in 
a  report  by  Edward  T.  Hall,  Jr.,  archeologist,  who  has  made  a  study  of 
this  area  and  says:  "Small  rock  shelters  in  the  sides  of  canyons  have 
produced  evidence  of  occupation  by  a  people  who  are  thought  to  have 
been  linked  with  the  ancient  Basket  Makers.  Pictographs  that  were 
undoubtedly  made  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  have  been  located  in 
various  parts  of  this  area.  Indications  on  the  ground  surface  lead  the 
archeologist  to  believe  that  a  nomadic  hunting  people  roamed  this  plain 
in  search  of  buffalo,  and  the  early  Spaniards  report  meeting  various 
groups  of  Plains  Indians  camped  in  this  district.  We  have  evidence  of 
occupation  here  from  about  thirteen  thousand  years  ago,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  why  the  Buffalo  Nomads  would  pick  northeastern  New  Mexico 
as  a  place  to  live,  since  there  must  always  have  been  an  abundance  of 
large  game  that  provided  not  only  food  but  shelter  and  clothing.  .  .  . 
Since  they  did  not  build  large  permanent  houses  of  masonry,  evidence  of 
their  presence  in  this  region  is  more  difficult  to  find  and  can  be  easily 
overlooked,  but  it  is  here  nevertheless.*' 

CUNNINGHAM,  81.6  m.f  directly  south  of  Johnson  Mesa  (see 
Tour  %a),  is  a  small  agricultural  and  stock-raising  settlement. 

In  RAT6N,  90  m.  (6,400  alt.,  8,146  pop.),  is  the  junction  with 
US  85  (see  Tour  la). 


<<««<^^ 


Tour  5 


(Antonito,  Colorado) — Palmilla — Taos  Junction — Ojo  Caliente — Es- 
panola ;  US  285.     Colorado  Line  to  Espanola,  80  m. 

Two-lane,  bituminous  paved  road. 
Accommodations  at  Ojo  Caliente  and  Espanola. 

This  is  approximately  the  route  followed  in  1778-79  by  the  Spanish 
Governor,  Lieutenant  Colonel  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza,  in  his  campaign 
against  the  Comanche  chief,  Cuerno  Verde  (Green  Horn),  for  whom 
the  Greenhorn  Mountains  in  southern  Colorado  were  named.  When 
the  discoverer  of  Pike's  Peak  was  made  a  captive  he  was  led  along  here 
en  route  to  Chihuahua,  Mexico.  Though  the  region  has  beautiful 
scenery  it  is  known  chiefly  for  mineral  springs  at  Ojo  Caliente. 

From  the  COLORADO  LINE,  0  772.,  six  miles  south  of  Antonito, 
Colorado,  US  285  crosses  a  flat,  grassy  plateau  lying  between  distant 
mountains. 


306     NEW     MEXICO 

VOLCANO  HILL,  12  m.f  is  an  extinct  crater.  West  of  here  are 
vast  open  cattle  ranges  (R).  (Drive  carefullv  to  avoid  animals  that 
stray  across  the  highway).  SKARDA,  16  m.  was  only  a  railroad 
station. 

NO  AGUA  (Sp.  no  water),  18  m.,  was  a  railroad  station,  has 
a  store,  small  church,  and  two  or  three  houses.  No  Agua  Mountain 
(R),  on  a  division  of  the  Carson  National  Forest,  looms  against  the 
horizon. 

TRES  PIEDRAS  (three  stones),  24  m.  (129  pop.),  was  a  Regis- 
tration Station.  This  small  settlement,  which  now  has  only  a  store, 
and  a  half-dozen  homes,  was  named  for  sandstone  outcroppings  that 
surround  it.  The  majority  of  the  population  live  in  the  vicinity  where 
there  are  large  ranches  devoted  to  stock  raising.  Many  potato  and 
grain  fields  also  border  the  highway.  Scattered  pinon  and  juniper  border 
the  route ;  in  the  spring  the  blue  of  the  lupine  and  later  the  red  of  the 
Indian  paintbrush  color  the  countryside. 

SERVILLETA,  34  m.  was  another  railroad  station  and  small  set- 
tlement. 

TAOS  JUNCTION,  45  m.  (6,900  alt.),  was  for  many  years  the 
railway  station  nearest  to  Taos. 

Left  from  Taos  Junction  on  graded  NM  96  to  JOHN  DUNN  BRIDGE,  10  m.t 
over  the  Rio  Grande  in  Rio  Grande  Canyon  (see  Tour  3a) 

A  flat-topped,  wind-eroded  mesa  (R)  at  48  m.  hems  in  a  narrow 
valley  with  a  dry  arroyo  that  leads  into  the  bed  of  Comanche  Creek 
which  is  dangerous  in  floodtime. 

OJO  CALIENTE  (6,200  alt,  150  pop.),  54  m.,  has  stores  and 
gas  station  and  adobe  houses  that  have  changed  little  in  a  hundred  years, 
although  there  are  more  peaked  roofs.  There  are  fields  of  corn  and 
beans  as  in  earlier  times,  and  in  the  low  hills  near  by  are  a  number  of 
pueblo  ruins  and  several  mineral  springs  for  which  the  town  is  named. 

Though  the  Spanish  outpost  that  existed  here  in  1766  had  a  fortress 
for  protection  against  the  Ute  and  Comanche  and  assessed  a  fine  of  200 
pesos  and  imprisonment  in  chains  against  any  settler  who  deserted,  the 
place  was  abandoned  in  1790  as  indefensible  and  was  not  reoccupied  for 
20  years. 

When  Governor  Juan  Bautista  de  Anza,  who  had  explored  Cali- 
fornia and  founded  a  colony  of  200  at  San  Franciscojn  1776,  reached 
Santa  Fe  in  1778,  he  saw  the  necessity  for  a  show  of  force  against 
warring  tribes  to  the  north,  especially  the  Comanche,  Ute,  and  Apache. 
Cuerno  Verde,  chief  of  the  Comanche,  was  an  implacable  foe  who  hated 
the  Spaniards  for  the  death  of  his  father  and  Anza  was  determined  to 
break  his  power. 

He  set  out  from  Santa  Fe  August  15,  1779  with  400  Spanish  soldiers 
and  200  Indian  allies,  marched  north  and  crossed  the  Rio  Grande, 
following  closely  the  present  route  of  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  West- 
ern Railroad. 

Ojo  Caliente,  which  had  already  been  abandoned,  was  one  of  his 


TOUR    5      307 

stops.  From  this  point  he  marched  directly  north  into  Colorado  where 
his  columns  met  the  full  force  of  the  Comanche  war  party  at  Fountain 
Creek  on  August  31.  During  the  battle  Anza  succeeded  in  luring 
Cuerno  Verde  into  a  trap  along  with  some  of  his  lieutenants  and  his 
best  warriors.  Anza  records  his  admiration  for  their  courage,  saying, 
"There,  without  other  recourse,  they  sprang  to  the  ground  and  in- 
trenched behind  their  horses  made  in  this  manner  a  defense  as  brave  as 
it  was  glorious.  Notwithstanding  the  aforesaid  Cuerno  Verde  perished 
with  his  first-born  son,  the  heir  to  his  command,  four  of  his  most  famous 
captains,  a  medicine  man  who  preached  that  he  was  immortal  and  others 
who  fell  into  the  trap.  A  larger  number  might  have  been  killed,  but  I 
preferred  the  death  of  this  chief  even  to  more  of  those  who  escaped, 
because  of  his  being  constantly  in  this  region  the  cruel  scourge  of  this 
kingdom."  The  power  of  the  Comanche  was  broken,  but  the  terror 
and  hazard  of  those  days  was  long  remembered. 

In  1790  eighteen  families  living  in  Bernalillo  received  permission 
from  Governor  Fernando  de  la  Concha  to  settle  at  Ojo  Caliente  pro- 
viding they  formed  "a  well  ordered  and  regular  settlement  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  Canada  de  los  Comanches."  It  was  to  be  heavily  fortified 
"since  experience  has  proven  that  nobody  can  last  there  on  account  of 
its  fatal  position." 

After  Major  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  seeking  the  headwaters  of  the  Colo- 
rado River  in  1807,  had  been  arrested  by  Spaniards  near  Taos,  he  was 
brought  through  this  village,  which  he  describes  thus:  "The  difference 
of  climate  was  astonishing,  after  we  left  the  hills  and  deep  snows,  we 
found  ourselves  on  plains  where  there  was  no  snow,  and  where  vegeta- 
tion was  sprouting.  The  village  of  the  Warm  Springs  or  Ojo  Caliente 
(in  their  language)  is  situated  on  the  eastern  branch  of  a  creek  of  that 
name  and  at  a  distance,  presents  to  the  eye  a  square  enclosure  of  mud 
walls,  the  houses  forming  the  wall.  They  are  flat  on  top,  or  extremely 
little  ascent  on  one  side,  where  there  are  spouts  to  carry  off  the  water 
of  the  melting  snow  and  rain  when  it  falls,  which  we  were  informed, 
had  been  but  once  in  two  years,  previous  to  our  entering  the  coun- 
try .  .  . 

"Inside  of  the  enclosure  were  the  different  streets  of  houses  of  the 
same  fashion,  all  of  one  story ;  the  doors  were  narrow,  the  window  small, 
and  in  one  or  two  houses  there  were  talc  lights  (window  panes  of 
mica).  This  village  had  a  mill  near  it,  situated  on  the  little  creek, 
which  made  very  good  flour. 

"The  population  consisted  of  civilized  Indians,  but  much  mixed 
blood.  Here  we  had  a  dance  which  is  called  the  Fandango,  but  there 
was  one  which  was  copied  from  the  Mexicans,  and  is  now  danced  in  the 
first  societies  of  New  Spain,  and  has  even  been  introduced  at  the  court 
of  Madrid.  This  village  may  contain  500  souls.  The  greatest  natural 
curiosity  is  the  warm  springs,  which  are  two  in  number  (there  are 
actually  five),  about  10  yards  apart,  and  each  affords  sufficient  water 
for  a  mill  seat.  They  appeared  to  be  impregnated  with  copper,  and 
were  more  than  33°  above  blood  heat;." 


308      NEW    MEXICO 

Right  from  Ojo  Caliente  on  oiled  road  across  the  Rio  del  Ojo  Caliente  to 
OJO  CALIENTE  MINERAL  SPRINGS  (bathhouses,  pools,  hotel,  cottages)  at 
the  foot  of  Ojo  Caliente  Mountain.  The  five  springs  containing  arsenic,  iron, 
sodium  sulphate,  lithia,  and  soda,  and  varying  in  temperature  from  98°  to  113° 
Fahrenheit,  were  valued  by  the  Indians  as  medicinal  springs  before  the  Spanish 
conquest.  The  Tewa  called  the  place  P'soi  (spring  of  mossy  greenness)  for 
its  green-stained  rocks,  and  regarded  it  as  a  dwelling  place  of  tribal  gods. 
The  springs  themselves  were  the  openings  between  this  world  and  the  "dowj 
below  world,"  whence  their  people  first  came.  The  grandmother  of  Poseyemo, 
a  Tewa  hero,  is  said  still  to  live  in  one  of  the  springs. 

The  Spaniards  had  a  settlement  here  that  might  have  existed  before  the 
Pueblo  Rebellion  of  1680.  On  one  of  the  hand-hewn  beams  of  the  old  CHURCH 
appears  the  date:  1689,  probably  the  year  the  church  was  finished.  In  1747  the 
settlers  petitioned  the  governor  to  permit  their  removal  to  a  safer  place,  but  it 
is  recorded  that  they  returned  here  in  1768. 

On  the  mesa  above  are  the  HOMAYO  RUINS  and  HOUIRI  RUINS  as  well  as 
PoSE-UiNGGE  (or  Posege)  RUINS,  where  after  considerable  excavation  arche- 
ologists  have  concluded  that  the  Indian  towns  of  the  Chama,  to  which  these 
ruins  belong,  are  a  link  between  the  archaic  Pajaritan  culture  and  that  of  the 
living  towns.  Posege  was  occupied  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Conquest.  It  is 
said  by  the  Tewa  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Poseyemo,  their  legendary 
hero,  who  was  born  of  a  virgin,  comes  here  annually  to  visit  his  grandmother, 
and  will  some  day  return  from  the  East  with  the  rising  sun  to  rejoin  his  people. 

South  of  Ojo  Caliente  the  road  winds  near  the  eroded  slopes  .of 
Dark  Mesa  or  Mesa  Canoa  (L),  following  the  general  course  of  Rio 
del  Ojo  Caliente  and  passing  small  ranches  with  flat-roofed  adobe 
houses.  A  mound  (R),  60.5  TTZ.,  near  a  group  of  cottonwoods,  is  all 
that  remains  of  a  Tewa  ruin. 

Beside  a  small  mesa  (L)  which  the  Indians  appropriately  named 
Stove  Ashes  Mesa,  is  GAVILAN,  62  m.,  a  group  of  scattered  houses. 
Here  according  to  legend  Poseyemo  battled  with  Josi,  god  of  the 
Christians,  but  the  tale  does  not  name  the  victor. 

Weather-beaten  wooden  crosses  are  visible  at  intervals  along  the 
roadside,  standing  among  white  ones  more  recently  erected.  These  mark 
hallowed  spots  where  coffins  in  rural  funeral  processions  were  lowered 
from  the  shoulders  of  the  pallbearers  and  prayers  for  the  dead  were 
said.  A  little  farther  Mesa  Canoa  comes  into  full  and  impressive  view. 

The  valley  widens  at  72  TTZ.  and  the  road  winds  among  masses  of 
antler  cactus,  with  a  great  volcanic  dyke  ahead.  At  77  TTZ.  the  highway 
enters  the  Chama  River  Valley  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  del  Ojo 
Caliente.  Along  here  the  road  is  only  a  few  feet  above  the  muddy  red 
waters  of  the  river.  The  Jemez  Mountains  are  visible  (R)  and  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  (L)  across  the  Rio  Grande.  On  great 
black  boulders  along  this  stretch  of  the  road  are  many  old  pictographs. 

US  285  crosses  the  Chama  Valley,  passing  cultivated  fields  and  typi- 
cal New  Mexican  settlements,  and  at  80  m>  joins  US  84  (see  Tour  7)  ' 
in  ESPAtfOLA  (see  Tour  7). 


TOUR    6     309 
QRSSIRgQ^^ 


Tour  6 


(Amarillo,  Texas) — Tucumcari — Santa  Rosa — Moriarty — Albuquerque 
— Grants — Gallup — (Holbrook,  Arizona);  US  66. 
Texas  Line  to  Arizona  Line,  375  m. 

Bituminous-paved,  two-lane  and  four-lane  road. 

Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Railway  parallels   route  between   Glenrio   and 

Tucumcari;    Southern   Pacific  Railroad   between   Tucumcari    and    Santa   Rosa; 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  between  junction  with   NM   6  and  the 

Arizona  Line. 

Accommodations  excellent  throughout  route. 

Over  US  66,  one  of  the  main  transcontinental  highways,  went  many 
of  the  farmers  who  fled  from  the  dust  bowl  and  became  migratory 
workers  in  the  fruit  valleys  of  California.  It  is  the  route  described 
in  John  Steinbeck's  The  Grapes  of  Wrath.  Because  US  66  crosses 
the  section  of  Oklahoma  in  which  Will  Rogers  was  born,  some  of  his 
admirers  met  in  Albuquerque  in  1939  and  gave  this  road  his  name, 
though  all  US  highways  are  officially  designated  by  numbers. 

The  two  sections  of  this  route  are  as  different  as  the  opposite  ends 
of  a  cow.  At  the  eastern  end,  the  land  is  as  flat  as  a  cowboy's  purse 
the  morning  after  pay  day  and  so  level  that  in  the  old  days  the  pioneers 
had  to  drive  stakes  across  it  to  find  their  way.  It  is  a  continuation  of 
che  Texas  Panhandle  terrain  and  the  western  terminus  of  the  Llano 
Estacado  (staked  plains).  There  is  a  gradual  rise  to  the  western 
section,  where  the  hills  and  mountains  predominate.  Agricultural 
areas  are  passed  at  different  points,  mostly  irrigated,  although  there  is 
some  dry  farming  in  the  eastern  and  central  sections.  Cattle  are 
numerous  in  the  eastern  part,  but  there  are  more  sheep  in  the  western 
part.  Because  of  migrations  from  Texas  and  Oklahoma  into  the  east- 
ern half,  the  linguistic  stock  is  largely  English,  and  this  is  especially 
true  in  the  larger  towns;  but  farther  west,  and  in  the  remote  villages 
throughout,  both  customs  and  language  are  Spanish. 


Section  a.     TEXAS  LINE  to  ALBUQUERQUE,  217.3  m. 

Between  the  Texas  Line  and  the  Pecos  River  lies  the  western  section 
of  the  staked  plains;  home  of  the  buffalo,  hunting  ground  of  the 
Comanche,  then  the  Spaniard,  and  later  the  Americans;  repository  for 
the  bleached  bones  of  those  who  were  either  killed  in  battle  or  who 
failed  to  find  the  water  holes.  Among  the  many  accounts  of  the  name 
is  the  Indian  legend  that  stakes  were  driven  in  the  plains  to  guide  the 
Great  Chief  who  was  to  come  from  the  east  and  deliver  the  Indians 


310     NEW    MEXICO 

from  their  enemies.  Chambers'  Encyclopedia  and  Encyclopedia  Ameri- 
cana credit  the  name  as  coming  from  the  yucca,  which  viewed  from  a 
distance  is  thought  by  some  to  resemble  poles.  The  International 
Encyclopedia  gives  its  literal  translation,  "Palisaded  Plain,"  as  the 
meaning.  One  plausible  explanation,  however,  is  that  because  there 
were  no  trees  to  blaze,  the  trails  to  the  water  holes  were  staked  out, 
till  this  vast  stretch  of  grim  and  forbidding  country  became  marked 
with  stakes  pointing  the  way  to  water.  Llano  Estacado  is  a  plateau 
flanking  the  Pecos  River  and  running  north  to  south  for  400  miles, 
from  a  point  40  miles  north  of  Fort  Sumner  down  to  the  dry  canyons 
which  form  the  headwaters  of  the  Colorado  east  of  Pecos,  Texas,  then 
sloping  eastward  about  150  miles  to  the  caprock  of  Texas,  an  area  of 
some  60,000  square  miles.  Its  maximum  altitude  of  5,500  feet  is  on 
the  western  border,  its  minimum  is  2,000  feet  along  its  southern  and 
eastern  terminus.  The  plain  remains  much  the  same  as  it  was  in  the 
days  of  the  buffalo,  the  bull-whacking  buffalo  hunter,  and  the  terrifying 
Comanche,  except  for  the  windmills  that  mark  the  white  man's  succes- 
sive triumphs  in  his  search  for  water. 

Captain  R.  B.  Marcy,  in  a  report  written  in  1849,  describes  the 
Plains  as  a  view  ".  .  .  boundless  as  the  ocean.  Not  a  tree,  shrub,  or 
any  other  object,  either  animate  or  inanimate,  relieved  the  dreary  monot- 
ony of  the  prospect;  it  was  a  vast  illimitable  expanse  of  desert  prairie — 
the  dread  'Llano  Estacado'  of  New  Mexico;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
great  Sahara  of  North  America  .  .  .  even  the  savages  dare  not  venture 
to  pass  it  except  at  two  or  three  places,  where  they  know  water  can 
be  found."  In  his  Commerce  of  the  Prairies f  Gregg  says,  "I  have 
been  assured  by  Mexican  hunters  and  Indians  that  there  is  but  one 
route  upon  which  this  plain  can  be  safely  traversed  during  the  dry 
season;  and  even  some  of  the  watering  places  on  this  are  at  intervals 
of  fifty  to  eighty  miles  and  hard  to  find."  Coronado's  expedition  to 
the  Jumano  Indians  undoubtedly  traversed  the  northern  part  before 
turning  north  to  Quivira,  and  Guadalajara  and  Castillo  are  credited 
with  crossing  it  a  century  later;  but  subsequent  trail  makers  from  the 
east  skirted  the  plateau,  and  in  their  journals  gave  as  their  reason,  "The 
Plains  country  we  avoided  because  it  is  so  vast  and  is  barren  of  any- 
thing to  eat  ...  and  of  water.'*  On  his  survey  for  a  wagon  road 
between  Fort  Smith  and  the  Colorado  River  in  1858  Edward  F.  Beale 
reached  the  Llano  Estacado  on  December  20  and  reported:  ".  .  .  we 
ascended  the  mesa  of  Llano  Estacado,  and  encamped  on  its  summit  with- 
out wood  or  water,  but  with  abundant  grass.  .  .  .  Before  reaching  our 
camp  a  fresh  Indian  trail  was  passed,  apparently  not  twenty  minutes 
old ;  this  makes  us  doubly  watchful  to-night,  as  well  as  anxious,  lest 
possibly  we  may  lose  a  mule  or  two,  to  say  nothing  of  the  train. 

"December  21  ...  traveling  over  the  dead  level  plain,  we  camped 
for  an  hour  to  graze  our  animals  on  the  prairie.  The  grass  ...  is 
everywhere  abundant,  but  of  water  there  is  none,  unless  at  times  the 
rains  may  leave  a  pool  or  two  standing  in  the  old  buffalo  wallows. 
We  saw  not  a  living  thing  but  a  prairie  dog  and  antelope  or  two,  and 


TOUR    6     311 

a  crow,  in  crossing  this  extensive  plain.  Evidences  enough  exist  that 
years  ago  buffalo  have  grazed  on  its  fine  grasses,  but  now  there  is  not 
one  to  be  seen,  or  the  sign  of  one  less  than  ten  years  old." 

Edward  Fitzgerald  Beale  (1822-93)  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
West.  He  was  a  junior  officer  on  the  U.  S.  frigate  Congress  when 
it  reached  Monterey  in  1846  and  took  part  under  Robert  F.  Stockton 
in  the  annexation  of  California.  Beale  was  with  a  detachment  that 
reached  General  Kearny  just  before  Kearny's  forces  were  surrounded 
by  the  Mexicans  in  the  battle  of  San  Pasqual,  and  with  Kit  Carson, 
Beale  made  his  way  through  the  enemy  lines  to  summon  Stockton's  aid. 
Later  he  and  Carson  were  sent  overland  to  Washington  with  dispatches 
and  while  crossing  the  desert  Beale  conceived  the  idea  of  using  camels 
for  transportation.  He  persuaded  Jefferson  Davis,  then  Secretary  of 
War,  to  import  camels,  which  Beale  used  in  1857  on  his  survey  of  a 
wagon  road  from  Fort  Defiance  to  the  Colorado  River.  His  report 
of  this  trip  contains  interesting  glimpses  of  New  Mexico  as  well  as 
praise  for  the  camels  and  condemnation  of  their  drivers. 

"July  1 6,  (1857)  •  •  •  The  camels  arrived  nearly  as  soon  as  we  did. 
It  is  a  subject  of  constant  surprise  and  remark  to  all  of  us,  how  their 
feet  can  possibly  stand  the  character  of  the  road  we  have  been  traveling 
over  for  the  last  ten  days.  It  is  certainly  the  hardest  road  on  the  feet 
of  bare-footed  animals,  I  have  ever  known.  As  for  food,  they  live 
on  anything,  and  thrive.  Yesterday  they  drank  water  for  the  first  time 
in  twenty-six  hours,  and  although  the  day  had  been  excessively  hot 
they  seemed  to  care  but  little  for  it.  Mark  the  difference  between 
them  and  mules ;  the  same  time,  in  such  weather,  without  water,  would 
set  the  latter  wild,  and  render  them  nearly  useless,  if  not  entirely  break 
them  down. 

"August  12.  Started  my  train  on,  it  being  necessary  for  me  to 
remain  until  the  arrival  of  the  express  from  Santa  Fe.  I  was  anxious, 
moreover,  to  get  the  men  out  of  town  as  soon  as  possible,  as  the  fan- 
dangos and  other  pleasures  had  rendered  them  rather  troublesome.  This 
morning  I  was  obliged  to  administer  a  copious  supply  of  the  oil  of  boot 
to  several,  especially  to  my  Turks  and  Greeks,  with  the  camels.  The 
former  had  not  found,  even  in  the  positive  prohibitions  of  the  prophet, 
a  sufficient  reason  for  temperance,  but  was  as  drunk  as  any  Christian 
in  the  train,  and  would  have  remained  behind,  but  for  a  style  of  reason 
much  resorted  to  by  the  head  of  his  church,  as  well  as  others,  in  mak- 
ing converts,  Le.f  a  broken  hand.  Billy  Considine  says  he  has  seen  a 
cut  glass  decanter  do  good  service,  when  aimed  low,  but  to  move  a 
stubborn  half-drunken  Turk  give  me  a  good  tough  piece  of  wagon 
spoke,  aimed  tolerably  high. 

"August  17  ...  We  find  this  valley,  cultivated  by  the  Indians,  in 
far  better  condition,  as  far  as  crops  and  prospects  are  concerned  than 
any  part  of  New  Mexico  we  have  yet  seen.  They  seem  to  have  plenty 
of  corn  and  wheat,  and  are,  altogether,  quite  as  well  off  as  their  Mexi- 
can neighbors." 

During  the  Civil  War  the  camels  were  neglected.     Eventually  they 


312     NEW    MEXICO 

were  sold  to  mining  companies  and  circuses  or  were  turned  loose.  For 
many  years  they  wandered  about  the  Southwest  and  even  found  their 
way  into  Indian  legends.  Beale  kept  a  few  camels  on  his  California 
ranch  and  before  he  left  his  retirement  to  serve  as  minister  to  Austria- 
Hungary,  frequently  created  a  stir  in  Stockton  by  arriving  in  a  carriage 
drawn  by  camels. 

The  Comanche  were  finally  driven  out  of  this  territory  in  1874, 
when  Colonel  Nelson  A.  Miles  descended  upon  them  from  Fort  Dodge, 
Kansas;  Colonel  R,  S.  Mackenzie  advanced  from  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma, 
attacking  on  the  east;  and  troops  from  Fort  Union,  New  Mexico, 
threatened  from  the  west.  The  former  "scourge  of  the  plains"  were 
taken  to  an  Oklahoma  reservation  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Sill,  and  the 
American  Army  completed  what  Indians,  Spaniards,  Mexicans,  and 
the  Republic  of  Texas  had  attempted. 

In  the  1870*8  when  buffalo  hunting  was  a  lucrative  commercial 
enterprise  several  ' 'floating  outfits"  (consisting  of  a  cook  and  several 
"hands"  who  lived  on  the  plains  for  a  year  at  a  time)  killed  buffalo 
by  the  thousands  for  their  hides.  Their  greed  made  short  work  of 
the  enormous  herds  and  in  15  years  the  buffalo  had  gone  from  this 
region.  By  watching  the  movements  of  the  animals  the  hunters  had 
discovered  not  only  water  holes  but  undersurface  water  as  well.  After 
the  buffalo  disappeared,  western  cattle  were  brought  to  graze  on  the 
luxuriant  grasses.  Prairie  schooners  brought  homesteaders  whose  set- 
tlements grew  into  towns,  and  the  Staked  Plains  became  staked-out 
areas  where  men  struggled  to  establish  homes  and  provide  food  for  their 
families. 

US  66  crosses  the  Texas  Line  at  GLENRIO,  0  m.  (4,286  alt, 
80  pop.),  at  a  point  73  miles  west  of  Amarillo,  Texas.  Glenrio  is  a 
cluster  of  stores  and  gas  stations  among  small  frame  houses. 

ENDEE,  4.7  m.  (187  pop.),  a  blowoff  town  for  the  cowpunchers 
in  the  early  years  of  its  existence,  is  now  a  sunbaked  ruin  of  dilapidated 
shacks  and  frame  buildings.  In  its  heyday,  the  town  had  regular  Sun- 
day morning  burials  for  those  who  had  been  too  slow  on  the  draw.  It 
is  said  that  in  preparation  for  their  reception,  a  trench  was  dug  each 
Saturday  on  the  edge  of  town. 

BARD,  12.9  m.  (4,290  alt.,  195  pop.),  a  trading  point  for  ranchers, 
consists  of  a  few  shacks  and  houses  about  a  store  and  filling  station. 

SAN  JON,  18  m .,  an  eastern  REGISTRATION  STATION  (4,192  alt., 
698  pop.),  is  a  busy  trading  center  of  ranchers. 

TUCUMCARI,  42.2  m.  (4,135  alt.,  8,143  pop.),  had  increased 
its  population  greatly  since  the  official  census  was  taken  in  1940,  largely 
through  the  Tucumcari  Irrigation  Project  which  includes  $17,000,000 
Conchas  Dam  on  the  Canadian  RM  IsfW.  of  the  city. 

Tucumcari  was  only  a  small  trading  point  for  cattlemen,  until 
the  Rock  Island  arrived  in  1901;  in  1903,  when  Quay  County  was 
organized,  this  was  made  the  county  seat.  About  40  per  cent  of  the 


TOUR     6     313 

present  population  is  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  descent  but  each  year  more 
people  from  Central  Texas  and  Oklahoma  moved  here  attracted  by  the 
newly  irrigated  and  vast  dry-farming  areas.  Cattle-raising  and  shipping, 
dairy  farming,  ranching,  raising  of  various  crops,  railroading  and  tourist 
trade  are  among  the  chief  industries. 

At  Tucumcari  is  junction  with  NM  104,  which  runs  (R)  to  Conchas 
Dam  St.  Park  (fishing,  hunting,  Lodge). 

Tucumcari  is  at  the  junction  with  US  54  (see  Tour  13). 

The  Tucumcari  Metropolitan  Park  Area,  with  Tucumcari  State 
Park  is  (L)  at  46.7  m.  alongside  US  66,  within  sight  of  the  highway. 

Westward  US  66  parallels  the  railroad  through  tawny-yellow  for- 
mations and  cultivated  fields  with  farm  houses  and  windmills  in  the 
distance.  Yucca  and  bunch  grass  clothe  the  plain,  and  the  landscape 
is  vivid  with  red,  purple,  and  green.  Fenced  pastures  enclose  beef 
cattle,  farm  houses,  windmills,  and  corrals. 

There  is  an  especially  fine  view  from  54  m+,  and  at  60  m.  are  high 
mesas  and  rock  upheavals,  conspicuous  in  this  generally  level  land. 
Before  the  military  campaigns  drove  oft  the  Comanche  and  confined 
them,  the  BLUFFS  OF  THE  LLANO  ESTACADO  (L)  were  the  rendezvous 
for  renegade  Mexicans  and  white  Americans  who  acted  as  "fences" 
for  Comanche  cattle  thieves.  This  was  known  as  the  "Comanchero 
trade."  The  Indians  would  drive  off  cattlemen's  stock  and  sell  them 
to  the  renegades  who,  in  turn,  marketed  them  after  altering  the  brands. 
Charles  Goodnight  (Charles  Goodnight,  by  J.  Evetts  Haley)  tells  of 
three  well-defined  trails  used  exclusively  by  the  Indians  and  those  who 
bought  their  loot,  and  all  three  crossed  the  Llano  Estacado.  The  illicit 
trade  flourished  for  20  years,  during  which  time  thousands  of  cattle 
were  stolen.  The  Indians  usually  got  the  worst  of  the  bargain.  On 
this  point,  Goodnight  writes,  "One  cow  went  for  a  loaf  of  bread  or 
a  cheap  trinket,  whereas  a  quart  of  whiskey  called  for  the  transfer  of 
a  large  herd."  Military  forces  who  put  a  stop  to  this  were  aided  by 
cowmen,  trail  drivers,  and  law  officers  who  took  a  subtantial  toll  with 
their  own  guns. 

The  small  hamlet  of  MONTOYA  (pop.  92)  at  62.6  m.,  is  a  load- 
ing point  for  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  also  the  headquarters 
of  the  T-4  Cattle  Company,  one  of  the  largest  remaining  ranches  in  the 
State  of  New  Mexico.  The  company  has  one  of  the  few  surviving 
General  Stores,  established  in  1908,  which  is  well  worth  a  visit.  There 
is  an  old  Catholic  cemetery  here. 

West  of  Montoya  the  route  traverses  plains  broken  here  and  there 
by  sandstone,  rock  ridges,  and  small  hills  with  stunted  juniper,  mes- 
quite,  and  cactus. 

NEWKIRK,  73.3  7/2.  (4,330  alt.,  190  pop.),  an  unloading  station 
for  construction  supplies,  increasing  in  population  since  work  on  the 
Conchas  Dam  was  started,  until  the  Dam  was  completed  in  1941. 


314      N  EW     MEXICO 

Right  from  Newkirk  on  NM  129  (gravelled,  soon  to  be  surfaced),  to 
CHAS  DAM  STATE  PARK,  25  m.  Conchas  Dam,  on  the  Canadian  River, 
forms  Conchas  Lake.  The  main  dam  is  235  feet  above  the  roadway  with  a  crest 
length  of  1,250  feet.  When  the  water  is  level  with  the  top  of  the  emergency 
spillway,  this  reservoir  has  a  storage  capacity  of  about  600,000  acre-feet  and 
covers  about  26  square  miles  extending  up  the  South  Canadian  Valley  about  14 
miles  and  up  the  Conchas  Valley  about  11  miles.  It  is  estimated  that  this  reser- 
voir will  reduce  flood  damage  in  Texas  and  Oklahoma,  providing  water  for  an 
expanding  population  and  for  irrigating  thousands  of  acres  of  neighboring 
land. 

CONCHAS  LAKE  (fishing,  boating,  swimming).  Boats  and  motors  for  rent. 
Rooms  and  restaurant  at  the  Lodge. 

West  of  Newkirk  more  red  mesas  are  visible,  with  cattle  grazing 
on  the  wide  plains. 

CUERVO  (crow),  81.9  m.  (4,300  alt.,  210  pop.),  is  a  group  of 
frame  buildings,  a  store,  and  several  gas  stations. 

As  the  road  climbs  over  the  bluffs  of  the  Llano  Estacado,  there  is  a 
panorama  of  the  Pecos  Valley  with  rolling  grasslands  reaching  to  dis- 
tant mountains,  and  at  the  top  of  a  rise,  Corazon  (heart  or  core)  Hill 
(6,220  alt.)  comes  into  view  (R). 

The  Pecos  River  rises  in  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  and  flows 
south  into  Texas  draining  the  eastern  part  of  New  Mexico;  after  the 
buffalo  had  been  killed  off,  this  section  became  cattle  country  and  the 
tall  tales  of  the  buffalo  hunters  were  dwarfed  by  the  taller  tales  of 
the  cowboys.  A  favorite  among  them  was  the  legend  of  Pecos  Bill 
who  originated  in  Texas,  but  eventually  covered  the  entire  Southwest, 
for  wherever  cowpunchers  gathered,  the  spirit  of  Pecos  Bill  was  in- 
voked in  song  and  story.  Many  of  the  legends,  including  the  story  of 
the  Perpetual  Motion  Ranch,  were  based  on  actual  incidents.  In  the 
finished  version  the  ranch  was  on  a  conical  mountain  so  that  the  cattle 
grazed  low  on  its  sides  in  winter  but  climbed  higher  in  summer  and 
so  required  little  herding  by  the  cowboys.  It  was  offered  for  sale  to 
an  Englishman  who,  when  he  arrived  with  his  sedate  wife  and  ebullient 
daughter,  Sluefoot  Sue,  insisted  upon  a  count,  and  sat  down  to  check 
off  the  number  as  the  cattle  were  driven  past.  The  enraged  cowboys 
made  up  for  the  great  discrepancy  between  the  actual  number  in  the 
herd  and  that  listed  in  the  contract  of  sale  by  driving  the  small  herd 
around  and  around  the  mountain  while  the  buyer  counted.  After  one 
bald-faced  steer  had  hobbled  past  a  dozen  times,  the  Englishman  asked 
how  many  of  that  breed  there  were,  and  when  told  there  were  twelve 
of  that  highly  valuable  strain,  he  signed  the  deed  and  paid  the  money, 
Pecos  Bill,  hearing  what  had  occurred  when  he  returned  to  the  Per- 
petual Motion  Ranch,  slipped  away  on  his  horse,  Widow  Maker,  and 
drove  thousands  of  cattle  from  the  plain  onto  the  ranch — more  than 
enough  to  make  the  count  an  honest  one. 

Another  Pecos  Bill  story  accounts  for  the  appearance  and  name  of 
the  Llano  Estacado.  When  Pecos  Bill  lassoed  a  tornado  that  threat- 
ened his  vast  herds  the  tornado  bucked,  sunfished,  and  sunned  its  sides 
in  its  efforts  to  escape ;  it  ranted  and  tore  around  until  everything  was 


TOUR    6     315 

so  bare  that  people  had  to  drive  stakes  across  the  country  to  find  their 
way  about. 

In  the  late  1860'$,  Charles  Goodnight  and  his  partner  drove  cattle 
along  the  Pecos  from  Texas  to  Fort  Sumner  (see  Tour  8a),  and  from 
there,  under  a  contract  with  Santa  Fe  supply  men,  drove  a  hundred 
head  a  month  to  that  capital. 

After  the  coming  of  the  railroad  early  in  the  twentieth  century, 
each  succeeding  year  brought  changes  and  deepened  the  gulf  between 
the  old  and  new  ways  of  living.  Tiny  settlements  that  originated  as 
trading  points  for  ranchers  became  agricultural  and  shipping  centers, 
and  from  populations  of  ten,  twenty,  or  a  hundred,  towns  grew  amaz- 
ingly. Settlers  migrated  from  Oklahoma  and  central  Texas  to  the 
cities,  steadily  raising  the  percentage  of  resident  Americans,  but  the 
small  villages  were  little  affected  and  still  retain  their  charm,  simplicity, 
and  Spanish  language  qnd  customs. 

SANTA  ROSA,  100  m.  (4,616  alt.,  2,220  pop.),  on  the  banks  of 
the  Pecos  River,  is  the  seat  of  Guadalupe  County  (motels,  hotels,  tour- 
ist camps).  It  is  a  trading  place  for  ranchers  and  a  shipping  point  for 
livestock  and  wool,  with  about  85  per  cent  of  its  population  of  Spanish 
and  Mexican  descent.  The  first  settlement  here  was  called  Agua 
Negra  Chiquita  (little  black  water).  It  developed  here  after  1865 
when  Don  Celso  Baca  came  from  Mexico  and  became  lord  of  the 
region  under  the  old  custom  of  range  domain.  In  Santa  Rosa  is  the 
western  junction  with  US  54  (see  Tour  18). 

Left  from  Santa  Rosa  on  NM  91,  a  paved  road,  to  PUERTO  DE  LUNA  (gate- 
way of  the  moon),  10.4  m.t  where  Coronado  is  said  to  have  built  a  bridge  in 
1541.  The  town,  founded  in  1862,  was  the  seat  of  Guadalupe  County  until  the 
railroad  so  increased  Santa  Rosa's  importance  that  the  county  seat  was  moved 
there.  In  the  winter  of  1862  a  committee  of  thirteen  men  was  appointed  to 
examine  this  site  to  determine  its  advantages  for  settlement.  At  their  favorable 
report,  six  families  moved  in.  A  dike  thrown  across  the  Peeps  River  the  fol- 
lowing spring  provided  water  for  irrigation,  and  land  cultivation  began.  Then 
the  Navaho  came,  raiding  the  herds  of  the  village  and  killing  the  herder.  Later, 
they  returned,  killed  a  boy,  and  drove  off  more  of  the  stock. 

In  the  spring  of  1864  the  Indians  attacked  in  greater  foice,  but  the  settlers 
were  better  armed,  and  succeeded  in  driving  them  off,  killing  three.  As  late 
as  1866  a  band  of  twenty-five  Indians  drove  off  a  large  flock  of  sheep  belonging 
to  a  man  from  Anton  Chico  known  as  Cuate  Real  (colloq.  Royal  Pal).  Twelve 
men  set  out  on  horseback  from  the  settlement,  followed  later  by  thirteen  men  on 
foot.  The  Indians  were  overtaken  about  25  miles  from  the  village,  but  the 
dust  raised  by  the  sheep  afforded  them  a  screen,  and  under  cover  of  this  they 
surprised  their  pursuers,  who  barely  managed  to  drive  them  off.  The  sheep 
were  recovered,  however,  as  well  as  a  herder  whom  the  marauders  had  cap- 
tured and  who  had  been  compelled  to  carry  water  while  goaded  ahead  by 
repeated  jabbing  with  Indians'  lances. 

West  of  the  Pecos  River  at  100.3  m.  is  the  southern  junction  with 
US  54  (see  Tour  13). 

In  a  filling  station  at  101.8  m.  is  a  BILLY  THE  KID  MUSEUM. 
Most  of  its  relics  are  from  Maxwell's  house  (see  Tour  8a).  There  is 
also  an  old  account  book  from  Lucien  Maxwell's  days  in  Cimarron 


316     N  E  W    M  EXICO 

(see   Tour  %b),   showing  purchases  in    1851    by   Christopher    (Kit) 
Carson,  the  guide  and  scout. 

At  117.8  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  84,  completely  paved  through- 
out. 

Right  on  US  84,  which  runs  through  open  range  country  dotted  occasionally 
with  cane  cactus  and  revealing  vistas  of  seemingly  endless  rolling  country. 

At  DILIA,  16  m.,  is  me  junction  with  a  paved  road;  L.  on  this  6  m.  to  AN- 
T6N  CHICO  (5,270  alt,  500  pop.),  near  Tecolote  (owl)  Creek  which  joins 
Can6n  Blanco  about  5  miles  south  of  here.  Anton  Chico  (nickname  for  Sangre  de 
Cristo)  is  a  shopping  place  for  ranchers  and  during  the  season  for  sportsmen 
attracted  by  the  excellent  deer  and  turkey  hunting  in  the  country  immediately 
to  the  west.  Stock  raising  is  the  principal  occupation. 

US  84  continues  to  a  junction  with  US  85  at  ROMEROVILLE,  42  m.  (see 
Tour  la)* 

US  66  crosses  flat  plains  with  sparse  growths  of  scrub  juniper  and 
pinon  and  occasional  flocks  of  sheep  guarded  by  lone  herders. 
PALMA,  145  m.,  is  a  crossroads  hamlet. 

Right  from  Palma  on  NM  3  a  graded  gravel  road,  across  Canon  Blanco,  to 
VILLANUEVA,  24  m>,  center  of  a  game-hunting  area. 

At  150  m.  CERRO  PEDERNAL  (flint  peak)  is  visible  (L). 
Although  not  high,  it  is  an  outstanding  landmark  in  this  level  country. 
Stories  of  buried  treasure  on  its  summit  have  caused  it  to  be  pitted 
with  excavations  by  hopeful  fortune  hunters.  There  is  a  large  spring 
at  its  base,  which  makes  the  place  a  natural  camping  ground.  Many 
fights  over  possession  of  this  spring  took  place  in  the  heyday  of  the 
cattlemen.  The  name  refers  to  the  many  arrowheads  found  around 
its  base. 

On  the  plains  is  CLINES  CORNERS,  156.8  m.  Westward  the 
terrain  becomes  undulating,  with  more  heavily  wooded  areas  of  pinon 
and  juniper.  (Avoid  straying  cattle  on  the  highway.) 

In  MORIARTY,  178  TO.,  another  crossroad,  is  the  junction  with 
NM  41,  a  bituminous-paved,  two-lane  road  (see  Tour  3b). 

West  of  BARTON,  190.9  m.,  which  consists  of  a  tourist  camp, 
but  now  a  ghost  town,  the  road  winds  through  hilly  country  into 
Tijeras  Canyon,  passing  trading  posts  and  wayside  gas  stations. 

At  200.4-  77z.  is  the  junction  with  NM  10  (see  Tour  15). 

TIJERAS  (Scissors),  200.5  m.  (770  pop.),  is  within  the  bound- 
aries of  CIBOLA  NATIONAL  FOREST;  west  of  the  village  where 
US  66  emerges  from  the  canyon  there  is  a  fine  view  of  the  Rio  Grande 
Valley  and  of  Albuquerque  in  the  distance. 

ALBUQUERQUE,  217.3  m.  (4,943  alt.,  201,189  pop.)  (see  page 
In  Albuquerque  is  the  junction  of  US  85  (see  page  247). 

Section  b.    ALBUQUERQUE  to  ARIZONA  LINE,  156  m. 

US  66  passes  the  fertile  farms  and  orchards  of  the  Rio  Grande 
valley.  Beyond  these  are  arid,  grass-covered  plains  and  plateaus  that 


TOUR    6      317 

sweep  toward  mountains.  The  gray-green  clumps  of  sage,  desert 
grasses,  and  low  bushes,  yellow  with  flowers  in  summer  and  autumn, 
meet  the  blue-green  trees  that  dot  the  sides  of  hills  and  mountains. 
The  road  cuts  through  occasional  stretches  of  earth  whose  vivid  reds 
and  yellows  sharpen  the  contrast  with  the  soft  deep  blue  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  brilliant  turquoise  of  the  spreading  sky.  It  is  a  land- 
scape of  changing  colors.  Brilliantly  colored  geologic  formations  ap- 
pear, some  with  smooth  contours  and  others  with  the  sharp  outlines 
of  a  violent  upthrust.  Near  the  road  are  a  few  tiny  villages  of  Indians 
or  Spanish-speaking  Americans  or  the  solitary  dwelling  of  a  Navaho 
family.  This  is  a  sparsely  peopled  region  whose  lifeblood  is  water — 
where  it  flows  is  nurture. 

For  more  than  400  years,  over  parts  of  this  route  or  on  roads  branch- 
ing from  it,  have  moved  soldiers  of  fortune,  prospectors,  priests  and 
missionaries,  colonists  and  caravans,  traders  and  trappers,  thieves  and 
murderers,  sheepherders  and  cowboys  with  their  herds  and  flocks. 
Where  the  dwellers  of  the  plains  once  roamed  and  hunted,  docile  sheep 
now  set  the  mood,  supply  food  and  covering,  and  signify  capital  re- 
sources. Near  the  Arizona  Line,  where  the  highway  approaches  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  Navaho  reservation  (see  Tour  6C),  there 
is  an  occasional  glimpse  of  a  hogan  (Navaho  dwelling)  with  an  Indian 
tending  his  flock  of  sheep  near  by.  Approaching  Gallup,  the  sandstone 
cliffs  on  the  right  stand  higher,  looking  down  with  changeless  calm 
upon  those  who  now  hurry  by,  safeguarded  inheritors  of  adventurers 
who  paved  the  way. 

West  of  Albuquerque,  0  m.,  are  vistas  of  richly  colored  mesas  and 
desert,  stretching  to  the  Arizona  Line.  The  color  and  the  forms  are 
even  more  fantastic  farther  north  (R),  and  the  artist  who  attempts 
to  paint  this  country  must  wrestle  with  the  problem  of  light  that  shifts 
so  rapidly  he  has  scarcely  time  to  outline  a  scene  before  it  has  changed 
entirely.  This  is  especially  true  at  sunset,  when  there  is  usually  such 
a  riot  of  color  that  if  it  could  be  accurately  presented  it  would  seem 
a  gross  exaggeration  to  those  unfamiliar  with  the  country.  Here  is 
such  vastness  of  sky,  such  piling  up  of  cumulus  clouds  on  the  horizon, 
that  at  times  the  whole  universe  seems  to  be  made  of  sky  and  cloud. 
Though  many  come  to  New  Mexico  for  the  benefits  of  its  sunny,  dry 
climate,  even  more  are  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  the  landscape.  The 
San  Jose  River  (R)  parallels  US  66  as  it  crosses  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  LACUNA  INDIAN  RESERyATION,  32.6  m.,  a  grazing  area 
of  125,225  acres  set  aside  for  the  Indians  of  the  Laguna  Pueblo.  The 
Rio  Colorado  (Red)  empties  into  the  San  Jose  river  at  32.6  m. 

At  40.6  772.  is  a  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  MESITA,  0.6  m.,  a  small  settlement  of  Pueblo  Indians 
from  the  Laguna  grant.  The  cluster  of  adobe  houses,  at  the  foot  of  a  red-  and 
buff-colored  mesa,  rests  on  a  lava  bed. 

US  66  dips  into  the  San  Jose  river  bottom  through  a  broken,  color- 
ful country.  Along  the  river  bank  is  a  great  lava  flow;  dark  mesas  are 


3l8     NEW    MEXICO 

tapped  with  sand  dunes  and  black  lava  beds  protrude  on  both  sides. 
From  the  top  of  the  rise  is  a  glimpse  of  the  Laguna  Indian  Pueblo, 

Across  the  San  Jose  River  is  the  settlement  of  Old  Laguna  (L), 
45  TTZV  and  the  junction  with  a  graded  dirt  road,  good  in  dry  weather 
(difficult  when  wet). 

Right  on  this  road  to  PAGUATE,  7.2  m>t  a  Laguna  village  of  about  500 
Pueblo  Indians  who  are  employed  at  uranium  mining. 

SEBOYETA  (from  Cebolleta,  tender  onion),  13.8  m.  on  the  dirt  road,  is  one 
of  the  oldest  settlements  (7,500  alt.,  400  pop.)  in  this  region  and  was  long 
an  outpost  in  enemy  territory.  A  temporary  settlement  was  made  in  1746, 
and  in  1749  the  Franciscans  established  a  mission  for  the  Navaho  who  promised 
to  live  in  the  walled  town;  but  after  a  year  of  sedentary  life  these  strolling 
herders  deserted  and  resumed  their  old  ways.  When  colonists  were  sent  up 
from  Mexico,  the  Navaho  regarded  them  as  invaders  and  waged  war.  There 
is  a  long  record  of  strife  in  the  old  Spanish  archives.  The  colonists  were  aided 
from  time  to  time  by  friendly  Laguna  Indians,  who  hated  the  Navaho,  and  by  a 
detachment  of  soldiers  who  were  sent  to  garrison  the  fort ;  but  time  and  again, 
their  cherished  crops  were  stolen.  In  later  years  when  the  villagers  grew 
stronger,  the  young  men  o{  the  town  would  go  out  on  raids  and  steal  Navaho 
boys  and  girls  for  slaves.  It  was  the  custom  when  a  marriage  was  arranged 
in  the  town  to  give  the  Cebolletenos  an  order  for  one  or  two  Navaho  boys  or 
girls  as  a  wedding  present.  The  town  now  has  a  day  school,  whose  curriculum 
includes  two  years  of  high  school,  and  a  vocational  school  established  in  1936 
for  those  over  16,  who  are  taught  tanning  and  woodworking.  As  in  many 
remote  New  Mexico  communities,  Seboyeta  men  belong  to  the  Penitente  brother- 
hood. In  the  little  adobe  church,  built  in  1823,  are  two  objects  used  in  their 
processions — a  cart  in  which  the  effigy  of  death  (/4  muerte)  is  carried  and 
El  Santo  Entierro  (The  Holy  Sepulchre),  constructed  on  a  wooden  frame  with 
two  handles  at  both  ends.  Within,  plainly  visible,  is  the  Cristo  dressed  in  long 
garments  of  white  with  the  crown  of  thorns  pressed  down  tightly  on  the  head 
and  drops  of  blood  painted  on  the^  face.  In  the  choir  loft  (L)  is  a  sacred 
painting  in  oil,  and  one  of  a  patriarchal  figure  (R)  with  the  words  "Elias 
Francis  and  Son"  in  the  lower  left  corner.  Elias  Francis  was  a  Syrian  peddler 
who  visited  Seboyeta  about  1880,  settled  there,  and  for  50  years  was  its  most 
influential  citizen. 

Left  (inquire  directions  in  village)  1  m.  from  the  church  on  a  dirt  road  to 
a  SHRINE  OF  OUR  LADY  OF  LOURDES  (L)  in  a  natural  recess  under  overhanging 
rock.  The  altar  is  carved  out  of  the  rock  wall.  At  the  base  of  the  rock  near 
the  altar  flows  a  spring  of  clear  water,  which  runs  off  into  the  Paguate  River. 
The  story  is  that  in  the  early  days,  after  the  Navaho  had  reduced  the  settle- 
ment's male  population  to  15,  the  colonists  walked  to  Chihuahua,  Mexico  with 
their  families,  begging  to  be  sent  back  to  Spain;  but  the  Viceroy  insisted  they 
return  to  Cebolleta  and  perform  their  contract  to  colonize.  So  they  walked  once 
again  the  thousand  and  more  miles  back  to  Cebolleta  and  erected  a  shrine  to 
Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  vowing  that  so  long  as  Cebolleta  stood,  they  would  hold 
feasts  each  year  in  Her  honor.  Cebolletta  stands.  And  there  is  the  shrine, 
though  the  present  image  of  Our  Lady  is  not  as  old  as  the  shrine  itself. 

LAGUNA  PUEBLO,  47.3  m.  (5,795  alt.,  3,807  pop.),  was  named 
for  a  nearby  lake  that  has  since  disappeared.  There  was  a  small  settle- 
ment of  Indians  at  this  place  in  1697,  but  the  pueblo  was  not  estab- 
lished until  1699  when  the  Spanish  governor,  Pedro  Rodriguez  Cubero, 
ordered  it  done,  while  he  was  on  an  expedition  to  Zufii.  This  is  the 
only  pueblo  establishment  subsequent  to  the  Spanish  invasion  and  is 
the  largest  east  of  the  Continental  Divide.  Its  people  are  a  mixture 
of  four  Pueblo  linguistic  stocks:  Tano,  Keres,  Shoshone,  and  Zufii. 


TOUR     6     319 

It  is  the  "mother  pueblo"  of  seven  summer  or  farming  villages  scat- 
tered within  a  radius  of  a  few  miles  at  points  where  there  is  irrigation. 
The  houses  are  mainly  of  stone  plastered  with  adobe. 

There  are  Government  schools  at  all  the  little  Laguna  settlements 
roundabout  so  nearly  all  the  people  can  speak  English  though  the  lan- 
guage they  use  mostly  is  Keresan.  This  pueblo  is  one  of  the  most 
progressive,  perhaps  owing  to  the  influence  of  three  young  American 
surveyors  who  came  here  in  1870  and  married  Laguna  girls.  Many 
of  these  Indians,  in  addition  to  attending  the  Government  schools,  have 
worked  on  the  railroad,  and  this  has  made  them  more  willing  to  accept 
white  men's  customs,  though  they  have  managed  to  retain  much  of 
their  native  culture  and  blend  it  with  their  Roman  Catholic  religion. 
Like  other  Pueblos,  they  are  farmers,  but  many  are  in  uranium  mining. 

Because  of  its  accessibility  this  pueblo  is  often  visited  and  is  well 
known.  It  is  a  trading  center  for  the  Navaho,  especially  on  the  feast 
day,  September  19,  when  a  harvest  dance  is  given.  Other  dances,  such 
as  Buffalo,  Tablita,  and  Deer,  are  given  at  intervals  during  the  year. 

SAN  JOSfi  DE  LAGUNA  CHURCH  (1699),  unlike  many  of 
the  New  Mexico  mission  churches,  is  of  stone  with  plain,  massive  walls 
having  only  four  openings  of  any  size — the  doorway,  a  window  in  the 
middle  of  the  front  facade,  and  two  small  belfry  openings  in  the  false 
gable  front,  with  a  glistening  cross  above.  The  rooms  adjoining  the 
church,  which  once  were  a  convent,  add  to  its  massive  appearance  as 
does  the  churchyard  enclosed  by  an  adobe  wall.  The  plaster  on  all 
the  buildings  is  of  native  earth  and  the  walls  have  been  smoothed  down 
to  their  present  lines  by  time  and  weather.  The  decorations  of  the 
interior  are  the  works  of  Indian  craftsmen.  All  around  the  side  walls 
are  designs  in  red,  yellow,  and  green  bordered  with  heavy  black  lines 
with  birds  at  intervals.  On  the  ceiling  of  the  chancel  are  painted  Indian 
symbols  of  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  rain,  and  a  rainbow ;  on  the  walls  hang 
paintings  of  two  saints,  Santa  Barbara  on  the  north  and  San  Juan 
Nepumoceno  on  the  south.  A  large  painting  of  St.  Joseph  done  on 
elk's  skin  hangs  on  the  reredos,  and  above  are  the  figures  of  the  Trinity, 
their  halos  triangular  instead  of  circular.  The  altar  is  covered  with 
animal  skin,  tightly  drawn  and  painted  with  Christian  symbols.  The 
ceiling  of  the  nave  is  of  the  usual  carved  and  ornamented  vigras. 

PARAJE  (place)  50.5  m.,  is  a  small  settlement  of  Laguna  Indian 
farmers,  a  trading  post,  and  also  the  junction  with  NM  23  (see 
Tour6A). 

At  55.7  77z.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  1.4  m.t  to  CUBERO  (6,210  alt.,  2,496  pop.),  a  village  of 
old  adobe  houses,  that  was  Darned  for  the  Spanish  governor.  It  was  formerly 
occupied  by  Indians  from  San  Felipe  and  other  pueblos.  There  is  a  pueblo 
ruin  near  by,  but  it  is  difficult  to  find  without  a  guide. 

From  Cubero  the  dirt  road  continues  7  m.  to  a  fork;  L.  from  the  fork  22  m. 
to  a  second  .fork  and  L.  8.6  m.  to  SAN  MATEO  (287  pop.)  in  the  Cibola 
National  Forest.  This  small  village  is  a  trading  center  for  sheep  ranchers. 
North  of  it  are  the  remains  of  PUEBLO  ALTO,  which  was  approximately  100  feet 
wide  and  200  feet  long.  Enough  of  the  walls  remains  to  show  that  it  was  a 


320     NEW     MEXICO 

two-story  structure.  In  the  western  part  is  a  tower,  square  on  the  outside 
and  round  within.  The  pottery  found  is  of  the  Chaco  Canyon  type  (see 
Archeology).  Ruins  of  a  stone  pueblo  are  also  within  the  town  limits,  and 
small  house  ruins  are  east  and  west  of  the  village. 

From  56  m.  MT.  TAYLOR  (11,369  feet)  is  visible  (R),  the  high- 
est peak  in  this  section. 

US  66  continues  through  stretches  of  desert  with  multi-colored 
formations  and  with  but  little  cultivated  ground,  except  in  the  settle- 
ments off  the  road.  These  native  villages  are  as  unchanging  as  the 
woman  in  one  of  their  stories.  When  she  was  called  before  a  local  jus- 
tice he  asked  her  age.  "I  have  forty-five  years."  "But,"  said  the  justice, 
"you  Were  forty-five  when  you  appeared  before  me  two  years  ago/* 
"Senor  Judge,"  she  replied  proudly,  drawing  herself  to  her  full  height, 
"I  am  not  of  those  who  are  one  thing  today  and  another  tomorrow!" 

SAN  FIDEL,  59.6  m.,  is  a  small  trading  center  for  the  ranchers  of 
the  district. 

SANTA  MARIA  DE  ACOMA,  also  known  as  McCarty's,  66 
m.,  just  off  the  road  (L)  is  a  farming  community  of  Acoma  Indians. 
A  number  of  adobe  houses  clustered  against  the  rocky  hillside,  the  new 
stone  church,  and  the  people  themselves,  present  a  picture  of  yesterday. 
Along  the  road  in  summer  are  Acoma  women  and  children  in  tradi- 
tional Pueblo  costumes  seated  under  brush  shelters  with  baskets  of 
Acoma  pottery  to  sell. 

GRANTS  78.3  m.  (6,464  alt.,  10,274  pop.),  is  a  railroad  town 
and  trading  center  for  a  large  agricultural  and  ranching  territory.  Of 
late  years,  the  fabulous  ore,  uranium,  dominates  the  present  and  the 
future  of  this  area.  The  Jackpile  uranium  mine,  discovered  and  de- 
veloped by  The  Anaconda  Company  on  the  Laguna  Indian  Reservation, 
employs  some  250  Lagunas  who  send  some  3,000  tons  of  ore  daily  40 
miles  by  rail  for  processing  at  Anaconda's  Bluewater  Mill. 

Grant's  history  begins  in  1872  when  Don  Jesus  Blea  settled  here  and 
called  his  home  under  the  cottonwoods  Alamitos  (little  cottonwoods). 
In  1873  came  Don  Ramon  Baca  with  his  family.  When  the  Santa  Fe 
Railway  reached  this  point  in  1881,  Alamitos  became  a  coaling  station 
and  was  renamed  for  the  Grant  brothers  who  constructed  the  railroad. 

At  79.2  m.  is  the  junction  with  NM  53  which  unites  with  US  66 
west  for  2  miles. 

Left  on  NM  S3  to  SAN  RAFAEL,  3.3  m.,  and  PAXTON  SPRINGS,  26  m. 
(L),  1  m.  to  the  PERPETUAL  ICE  CAVES.  In  a  volcanic  sinkhole,  its  crevices 
are  perpetually  packed  with  solid  ice,  aquamarine  in  color  and  banded 
with  dark  horizontal  stripes.  The  ice  bed  is  approximately  50  feet  wide  and 
14  feet  high.  Its  depth  underground  is  unknown.  E.  R.  Harrington,  a  scientist, 
thus  explains  the  phenomenon:  "The  basaltic  formation  offers  perfect  drainage 
for  melting  snow,  and  ray  investigations  show  that  the  greatest  amount  of  ice 
forms  during  the  spring  when  the  snow  is  melting  on  the  surface.  Conditions 
such  as  the  slant  of  the  sun,  temperature,  formation  of  the  cave,  etc.,  result  in 
free  circulation  of  air  in  winter,  freezing  ice  and  drawing  the  cave  full  of 


TOUR    6     321 

very  cold  air.  In  summer  changes  in  conditions  result  in  practically  no  circula- 
tion of  air.  Cold  air  in  the  cave  has  a  tendency  to  remain  there,  and  what 
few  eddy  currents  of  warm  air  enter  are  chilled  to  the  freezing  point.  Thus 
the  perpetual  ice."  Ranchers  from  the  vicinity  used  to  come  here  for  ice  during 
the  summer.  Farther  south  in  the  lava  flow  are  several  other  ice  caves  that  are 
less  well  known.  A  myriad  of  recent  folk  legends  surround  the  lava  flow  and 
its  various  features.  (Tourists  should  wear  stout  shoes  for  walking  over  the 
lava  bed.) 

Return  now  to  PAXTON  or  PAXTON  SPRINGS.  It  is  a  logging  camp 
(7,500  alt.),  and  the  terminus  of  the  Breece  Company  Railroad  which  car- 
ries logs  and  lumber  to  the  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  at  Grants.  The  spring 
a  stream  of  cool  clear  water,  was  named  for  the  Paxton  family,  early  settlers. 
NM  53  crosses  the  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE  at  Oso  (Bear)  Ridge  just  before 
its  junction  at  22.2  m.  with  NM  174.  From  here  to  the  ice  caves  (alternate 
route)  it  is  1.7  m.  farther. 

Through  groves  of  pines,  standing  on  a  rocky  terrain,  the  state  road  passes, 
several  ranches.  Red  sandstone  bluffs  begin  to  mark  the  landscape  at  the  ap- 
proach to  El  Morro  (headland)  which  is  visible  at  39  m.  The  settlement  of 
EL  MORRO  is  at  42  m.  and  at  44  m.  is  EL  MORRO  NATIONAL  MONUMENT 
comprising  a  tract  of  240  acres,  established  in  1906  to  preserve  INSCRIPTION 
ROCK,  a  camping  place  on  the  old  Acoma-Zuni  trail. 

The  rock,  with  a  base  roughly  triangular  and  narrowing  to  a  rounded  and 
comparatively  thin  edge  at  the  eastern  end,  covers  about  iz  acres.  The  stratifi- 
cation is  slightly  tilted.  The  top  stratum  is  much  harder  than  the  bottom  and 
has  served  as  a  shield  to  protect  the  softer  layer  below  and  preserve  the  out- 
lines of  the  rock.  Here,  in  centuries  past,  with  what  instruments  it  is  difficult 
to  say,  perhaps  sword  points,  the  Spaniards  and  others  carved  historical 
"entries."  The  earliest  now  legible  (1605)  w  tna*  of  Governor  .Onate,  the 
first  colonizer  of  New  Mexico.  It  is  thought  Coronado  passed  this  point  65 
years  earlier,  but  there  is  no  record  in  the  rock  which  contains  more  than  500 
deciphered  inscriptions  and  names*  Numerous  Spanish  governors  following 
Onate  left  their  names.  General  Don  Diego  de  Vargas,  who  reconquered  the 
Pueblos  after  the  rebellion  of  1680,  carved  a  brief  record  of  his  conquest,  as  did 
many  explorers  and  members  of  expeditions  into  the  Pueblo  country.  One  of 
the  names  is  that  of  Lieutenant  Edward  Fitzgerald  Beale  (see  above).  Mem- 
bers of  freight  and  immigrant  trains  likewise  recorded  their  passage.  Soldiers, 
scouts,  traders — all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men — left  their  mark,  the  only  claim 
to  immortality  some  of  them  have.  On  top  are  ruins  of  three  pueblos,  par- 
tially excavated  and  restored.  They  are  said  to  be  the  remains  of  an 
early  Zuni  habitation.  The  cleavage,  a  blind  canyon,  runs  deep  into  the  heart 
of  the  rock,  and  in  this  an  old  spring  has  been  uncovered.  It  had  been  re- 
ported  by  members  of  earlier  expeditions,  but  was  lost  in  later  years  and  was 
rediscovered  recently  by  an  old  Navaho  who  had  served  under  the  Apache, 
Geronimo. 

Drainage  from  the  rock  accumulates  in  a  deep  basin  on  its  south  side, 
forming  a  natural  reservoir  which  for  the  past  hundred  years  has  been  used  as 
a  public  watering  place. 

NM  53  continues  to  RAMAH,  c.  57  m.,  which  is  3  miles  east  of  the  Zuni 
reservation  (see  below),  and  continues  to  junction  with  NM  32  at  69  m. 

US  66  passes  over  the  Santa  Fe  Railway,  81  m.f  and  at  82  m.  is 
the  western  junction  with  NM  53,  a  rough  dirt  road  which  also  leads 
to  SAN  MATED  (see  above). 

BLUEWATER,  88  m.,  is  a  railroad  loading  station. 

L.  from  Bluewater  9  m.  is  BLUEWATER  LAKE  (see  below). 

Red  sandstone  cliffs  (R)  are  at  92  771.  and  the  volcanic  cone  (R) 

El  Tintero   (inkwell)   from  which  lava  is  said  to  have  flowed  as  far 

east  as  Grants.     From  this  point  are  good  views  of  the  western  slope 


322      NEW     MEXICO 

of  Mt.  Taylor  showing  the  high,  lava-capped  plateau  from  which  it 
rises. 

98  m.  junction  with  St.  412. 

Left  on  St.  412  some  eight  miles  to  BLUEWATER 

THOREAU,  104  m.,  is  a  junction  with  an  improved  dirt  road  to 
Bluewater  Reservoir  State  Park. 

Left  on  this  road  (almost  impassable  in  wet  weather)  to  BLUEWATER 
RESERVOIR  (cabins,  fishing,  boating,  swimming),  11  m.  which  contains  the 
impounded  waters  from  the  Zuni  Mountain  watershed  and  fills  three  great 
depressions  in  the  high  tablelands.  A  dam  constructed  in  1926-27  by  the  Toltec- 
Bluewater  Irrigation  District  across  two  lofty  natural  walls  of  solid  rock 
creates  a  deep  lake  one  mile  wide  and  seven  and  one-half  miles  long. 

At  THOREAU  also  is  the  junction  with  NM  56  to  Crown  Point 
and  to  Chaco  Canyon  (see  Tour  6B). 

US  66  crosses  the  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE  at  110  m. 

At  124  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  FORT  WINGATE,  3.3  m.  (475  pop.),  the  integral  part 
of  the  FORT  WINGATE  MILITARY  RESERVATION  comprising  64,000 
acres.  The  fort  is  named  for  Captain  Benjamin  Wingate  who  was  killed  in 
1862  at  the  Battle  of  Valverde  (see  Tour  Ic).  In  1850  a  post  named  for 
Wingate  was  established  at  Cebolleta  (Seboyeta)  by  the  United  States  War 
Department  and  maintained  as  such  until  1862,  when  it  was  moved  to  El  Gallo 
near  the  present  settlement  of  San  Rafael,  five  miles  south  of  Grants.  This 
latter  was  the  second  Fort  Wingate  as  established  by  Brigadier  General  James 
H.  Carleton  in  the  fall  of  1862.  Quarters  were  furnished  for  six  companies  of 
men,  but  the  first  garrison  actually  consisted  of  two  companies.  In  1863  this 
was  increased  to  three  companies,  including  one  of  California  volunteers  and 
two  of  New  Mexico  volunteers.  It  was  headquarters  of  Kit  Carson  when  he 
rounded  up  the  Navaho  but  after  the  Navaho  were  brought  back  from  their 
exile  at  Bosque  Redondo  (see  Tour  8a)3  old  Fort  Wingate  was  abandoned, 
and  in  1868  the  new  fort  was  established  here.  This  place  was  called  Ojo  del 
Oso  or  Big  Bear  Springs  and  was  the  site  of  a  fort  called  Fort  Fauntleroy 
(established  in  1860)  after  General  Thomas  Turner^  (Little  Lord)  Fauntleroy, 
an  army  officer  who  later  resigned  his  commission  in  order  to  join  the  Con- 
federates. Because  of  this  desertion  Fort  Fauntleroy  was  renamed  Fort  Lyon, 
but  in  1866  when  the  post  at  El  Gallo  was  moved  here,  the  name  was  changed 
to  Fort  Wingate. 

From  1882  on  the  fort  was  often  used  as  headquarters  and  outfitting  post  for 
ethnological  and  archeological  expeditions.  Fort  Wingate  was  retained  by  the 
government  as  a  military  depot  until  about  1910.  In  19x4  the  old  buildings 
were  used  for  housing  4,000  Mexican  troops  and  their  families  who  had  been 
forced  from  Mexico  into  Texas  at  Eagle  Pass  during  the  Villa  uprising.  Some 
time  after  1925  Congress  appropriated  $500,000  for  a  school  for  the  Navaho 
on  the  Ftfft  Wingate  Military  Reservation.  The  barracks  have  been  made  into 
dormitories,  and  the  square  where  soldiers  drilled  is  now  a  ball  field.  Included 
in  the  equipment  are  three  reservoirs,  and  irrigated  fields. 

The  Magazine  Area,  where  explosives  are  stored  by  the  army,  comprised  in 
1936^  about  5,000  acres.  Large  quantities  of  explosives  were  kept  there  im- 
mediately after  the  World  War,  when  this  area  was  taken  over  by  the  Ordnance 
Department.  In  1929,  all  land  north  of  the  Santa  Fe  tracks,  approximately 
1,500  acres,  ^  was  turned  over  to  the  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs  to  be  used  as 
Indian  grazing  land. 

In  1941  ammunition  storage  igloos  were  built  visible  from  US  66. 
From  the  top  of  the  hill  south  of  Fort  Wingate  is  one  of  the  finest  views 
in  McKinley  County.    Stretching  for  miles  is  a  broad  expanse  of  red  sandstone 


TOUR    6     323 

cliffs  colored  like  the  Painted  Desert  of  Arizona.  Before  the  coming  of  the 
Americans,  the  Navaho  under  Chief  Mariano  used  this  section  as  an  agri- 
cultural and  watering  place,  called  Shash'titgo  (Navaho,  bear  springs).  Lake 
Mariano  to  the  north  was  named  for  this  chief  whose  descendants  still  live  in 
this  vicinity. 

The  road  continues  through  forests  of  pine,  spruce,  and  juniper  and  groves 
of  white  aspen  to  McGAFFEY  (8,300  alt.).  10  «iv  which  was  a  sawmill  town 
before  the  lumber  company  cut  out  the  timber  and  moved  away.  There  are 
summer  cottages  here,  a  spring  near  the  site  of  the  old  McGaffey  sawmill,  and 
a  small  lake  (fishing).  McGaffey  is  in  the  Zuni  District  of  the  Cibola  Na- 
tional Forest  over  which  the  Forest  Service  has  jurisdiction,  and  the  entire 
military  reserve  is  a  Federal  game  refuge  (no  hunting). 

West  of  Pyramid  Rock  (R),  127.5  771.,  US  66  continues  along  a  red 
shale  valley  near  the  foot  of  great  red  cliffs.  At  128  m.  is  an  unob- 
structed view  of  a  rock  formation  called  NAVAHO  CHURCH,  an  object 
of  veneration  by  the  Navaho.  In  these  formations  are  several  large 
caves,  and  it  is  said  Kit  Carson,  in  his  roundup  of  the  Navaho,  used 
one  of  them  to  shelter  his  small  partv  during  a  storm. 

In  REHOBOTH,  130  m.  (6,606  alt.,  223  pop.),  is  REHOBOTH 
MISSION,  a  school  and  hospital  for  the  Navaho  maintained  by  the 
Christian  Reformed  Board  of  Missions  with  headquarters  at  Grand 
Rapids,  Michigan.  Approximately  160  students  are  enrolled  each  year. 
The  school  opened  in  1903  with  six  Indian  pupils  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Reverend  L.  P.  Brink. 

Near  Gallup,  the  sandstone  cliffs  (R)  seem  to  push  themselves  out 
of  the  ground.  A  gigantic  upheaval  which  tilted  the  cliffs  from  hori- 
zontal into  a  semi-vertical  position,  known  as  the  Zuni  Uplift  (see 
Geologry),  marks  the  southern  terminus  of  these  beautiful  formations. 
Beyond  this,  on  a  lower  level,  is  another  sandstone  formation  extending 
almost  to  the  Arizona  line  and  inclosing  the  coal  beds  for  which  Gallup 
is  noted.  Near  Gallup  the  road  passes  through  breaks  in  several  intru- 
sive dikes. 

GALLUP,  135  m.  (6,514  alt.,  14,089  pop.),  is  a  railway  division 
point  and  a  thriving  industrial  and  trading  center.  Its  principal  indus- 
try is  coal  mining,  most  of  the  mines  being  in  the  immediate  vicinty. 
Uranium,  coal,  oil,  helium,  lignite,  and  gas  are  mined  in  the  area 
and  they  all  spur  the  economy  considerably.  The  history  of  Gallup 
is  recent,  dating  back  to  1879,  when  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
Railway  sent  two  mining  engineers  to  prospect  for  coal,  which  was 
found  here  in  large  deposits.  The  railroad  pushed  through  the  section 
in  1 88 1.  Before  this,  sheep  and  cattle  men  occupied  the  territory,  but 
when  the  government  granted  to  the  railroad  alternate  sections  of  land 
on  both  sides  of  the  tracks  in  a  forty-mile  strip,  ranchers  were  forced 
to  graze  their  stock  farther  inland.  Before  the  railroad  was  built  there 
was  only  a  saloon  and  general  store  here — it  was  built  about  1880,  was 
called  the  Blue  Goose,  and  is  still  standing — that  served  as  a  stop  on 
the  Westward  Overland  Stage.  After  this  point  was  made  a  railroad 
station  and  the  mines  were  opened,  settlers  came  in  increased  numbers, 
and  the  town  grew  steadily.  Incorporated  in  1891,  it  organized  a  local 


324      NEW    MEXICO 

government  and  in  1901  was  made  the  county  seat  of  newly-formed 
McKinley  County. 

The  coal  mines  have  been  operated  continuously.  Two  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  have  offices  in  the  town,  and  three  others  are  within 
a  radius  of  ten  miles.  Two  large  brick  kilns  have  been  built  here 
because  of  the  coal.  Gallup  is  the  main  shipping  point  and  buying 
center  for  the  Navaho  wool  clip,  thousands  of  pounds  being  shipped 
annually;  it  is  also  a  buying  center  for  the  growing  pifion  nut  industry. 
Wool  combing  and  packing  and  the  shipping  of  sheep  and  cattle  from 
the  grazing  lands  of  the  Zuni  mountains  are  important  activities  here, 
and  the  town  serves  as  a  trading  point  for  the  Zuni  and  Navaho  from 
the  near-by  reservations. 

Gallup  is  most  crowded  during  the  four  days  of  the  Intertribal 
Indian  Ceremonial,  which  until  1939  was  held  the  last  Wednesday, 
Thursday,  and  Friday  of  August,  now  advanced  a  week  because  the 
Hopi  rain  makers  to  the  north  have  "batted  a  thousand"  in  their  annual 
Snake  Dances  and  the  Gallup  Indian  Ceremonial  virtually  coincides 
with  it.  By  getting  a  jump  on  the  Hopi  rain  priests  it  was  hoped  that 
the  Gallup  show  would  not  be  dampened. 

The  Ceremonial  originated  in  1922,  when  a  small  group  of  Gallup 
businessmen  organized  a  modest  exhibit  and  invited  a  few  Indians  to 
dance  at  the  McKinley  County  Fair  in  order  to  encourage  the  Indian 
to  preserve  his  ceremonials  and  to  improve  his  arts  and  crafts,  also 
to  inform  .people  generally  of  the  artistic  excellence  of  the  Indian  artist 
and  craftsman.  Now  it  includes  more  tribal  dances  of  various  kinds 
than  could  be  seen  in  years  of  going  to  Indian  dances,  more  beautiful 
costumes,  more  color,  more  fascinating  choregraphy  than  any  ballet  or 
tribal  dances  elsewhere  produces.  Here  Navaho,  Apache,  and  Pueblo 
Indians,  hundreds  of  them,  take  part  in  the  dances  and  contribute  to 
the  arts  and  crafts  display.  Navaho  men  make  sand  paintings  and 
Navaho  women  weave  blankets,  while  on  the  concourse  men  and  boys 
race  bareback,  and  undemonstrative  Indians  from  a  score  of  tribes  look 
on  without  showing  the  intense  excitement  they  feel.  Here  Indians 
from  all  tribes  trade,  many  attending  the  ceremonial  as  much  for  this 
reason  as  for  the  dances,  races,  and  general  excitement.  Groups  of 
three  or  four  Indians  will  squat  on  the  ground,  the  men  in  a  huddle, 
the  women  near  by  pretending  a  lack  of  interest  in  the  proceedings 
which  their  sharp,  keen  glances  belie.  Perhaps  none  of  the  traders 
speak  the  same  language,  so  that  signs  are  used,  fingers  are  pointed 
and  heads  nodded  in  agreement  or  an  averted  glance  indicates  that  the 
signaled  propositions  are  not  agreeable.  If  goods  are  being  traded, 
fingers  point  to  the  article  held  by  the  one  offering  it  and  then  point  to 
the  article  or  articles  desired  in  exchange.  If  money  is  offered,  one 
extended  finger  means  one  dollar,  another  finger  laid  across  it  means 
one  and  a  half,  and  so  on.  No  outward  sign  or  behavior  indicates  the 
battle  for  advantage,  no  flicker  of  eyelash  or  facial  expression  conveys 
any  inkling  of  the  real  status  of  the  transaction  or  how  near  to  agree- 
ment the  parties  are.  And  when  the  deal  is  made  or  no  deal  results, 


TOUR    6     325 

they  separate  and  move  off  without  the  slightest  outward  evidence  of 
elation  or  satisfaction. 

Gallup  is  the  junction  with  US  666  (see  Tour  6C). 

Left  from  Gallup,  29  m.  on  NM  32  and  then  Right  on  NM  53  to  ZUffil 
PUEBLO,  41.7  m.  (4,200),  on  the  north  side  of  Zuni  River,  whose  waters  are 
used  for  irrigation.  Approaching  the  large  village  of  red  sandstone  houses,  the 
ruined  mission  is  visible  in  the  center  of  it  and  corrals  are  interspersed  among 
the  houses.  Vegetable  gardens  are  visible  across  the  Zuni  River.  At  the 
entrance  to  the  pue"blo  are  some  trading  posts,  with  others  farther  on  at  the 
southern  and  western  bounds  of  the  settlement.  The  Zuni  are  farmers  and 
sheepherders,  noted  for  their  dances  and  their  arts  and  crafts — particularly  the 
making  of  turquoise  jewelrv. 

The  ZU5JI  MISSION  CHURCH  (1705)  is  a  crumbling  ruin.  Its  massive 
front  towers  flank  remains  of  a  once  deep  and  shadowed  entrance  loggia.  The 
timber  floor  of  the  loggia  balcony  is  still  intact  as  is  its  supporting,  bracketed 
post. 

Zuni  is  most  interesting  to  visitors  during  the  Shalako,  a  festival  in  which 
the  gods  enter  the  village,  late  in  November  or  early  in  December,  to  bless 
the  new  houses.  The  Zuni  houses  are  built  of  red  sandstone,  with  high-ceiled 
and  spacious  rooms.  The  six  Shalako  who  come  to  bless  them  present  a  most 
imposing  appearance;  they  are  about  ten  feet  high  and  have  glossy  black  hair 
five  feet  long  hanging  down  their  backs.  Each  great  mask,  executed  with  superb 
artistry,  is  supported  by  a  man  who  works,  by  hidden  controls,  the  huge,  beak- 
like  mouth  of  the  god  and  at  intervals  utters  his  bird-like  cries.  The  masks  are 
the  largest  of  any  group  of  American  Indians. 

The  name  Zuni  is  a  Spanish  adaptation  of  the  Keresan  SunyVtsi  or  Su'nyltsa, 
the  meaning  unknown.  The  name  of  the  tribal  range  is  $hi'<wonaf  corrupted  to 
Cibola  (see-bo-la).  In  1539  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza,  seeking  the  seven  cities  of 
Cibola,  set  out  from  Mexico  with  Esteyan,  a  Barbary  Moor  or  Negro  (there  is 
conflict  of  opinion)  who  had  accompanied  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca  on  his  journey 
from  Florida  to  Mexico.  Great  excitement  attended  the  departure  of  this 
expedition,  for  it  was  believed  that  gold,  silver,  and  jewels  were  to  be  found 
in  greater  abundance  in  Cibola  than  the  Mexican  conquerors  had  ever  known. 
When  word  reached  Fray  Marcos  that  the  Zuni  had  killed  Estevan,  who  had 
been  sent  ahead  with  the  Indian  guides,  Fray  Marcos  hurried  forward.  From 
an  adjacent  eminence  he  viewed  Hawikuh  (Abacus),  the  principal  of  the  seven 
villages,  and  it  is  thought  that  in  the  golden  rays  of  the  setting  sun  Fray 
Marcos  believed  this  mass  to  have  walls  of  gold,  which  made  all  the  fabulous 
stories  seem  credible.  Without  entering  any  of  the  villages,  he  hastened  back  to 
Mexico,  where  his  glowing  accounts  hastened  the  later  Coronado  expedition 
which  marched  upon  Cibola  (1540).  In  this  meeting  with  the  Spaniards  the 
Indians  were  on  guard  and  suspicious.  Friction  developed,  and  after  the  en- 
gagement that  followed,  the  Indians  retreated. 

The  Spaniards  continued  their  advance  to  Hiwikuh,  which  Coronado  called 
Granada.  He  carried  the  place  by  storm,  but  found  nothing  of  value.  The 
"Kingdom  of  Cibola"  consisted  of  just  seven  ordinary  pueblos,  and  Coronado 
reported  that  Fray  Marcos  "had  said  the  truth  in  nothing  that  he  reported." 
Hawikuh  became  the  base  of  operations  for  a  time,  and  from  here  expeditions 
were  sent  to  Tusayan  (the  Hopi  country),  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado, 
and  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  beyond,  where,  after  the  arrival  of  the  main  force, 
the  Spaniards  entered  winter  quarters. 

Cibola  was  visited  by  Chamuscado  in  1580.  He  reported  but  six  villages. 
In  1583  came  Espejo,  who  was  the  first  to  call  the  village,  known  as  Halpna, 
Zuni — adding  that  its  other  name  was  Cibola.  He  found  some  Mexican  Indians 
who  had  been  left  there  by  Coronado.  Espejo  also  reported  six  villages,  one 
of  them  Hawikuh,  indicating  that  one  of  the  villages  had  been  abandoned 
between  1540  and  1583.  The  ruins  of  Hawikuh  are  on  the  Zuni  River  about 
18  miles  south  of  Zuni.  Part  of  these  have  been  excavated,  and  much  valuable 


326     NEW     MEXICO 

information  uncovered.    In  1598  Onate,  first  colonizer  of  New  Mexico,  visited 
Zuni  and  the  six  villages,  now  in  ruins. 

The  first  mission  was  established  at  HAwikuh^  in  the  summer  ^  of  1629  by 
the  Franciscan  order,  which  sent  three  missionaries.  Between  this  date  and 
1632,  Fray  Francisco  Letrado  was  sent  to  Zuni,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the 
Indians  on  February  22,  1632.  Five  days  later  Fray  Martin  de  Arvide,  who 
was  en  route  to  Zuni,  was  overtaken  by  a  band  and  killed.  Fearing  reprisals 
by  the  Spaniards,  the  Indians  again  fled  to  their  stronghold,  Taaiyalone  (Corn 
Mountain),  as  in  Coronado's  time,  and  remained  there  until  1635.  From  then 
until  1670,  theit  history  is  almost  a  blank.  On  August  7  of  that  year  the 
Apache  (some  say  the  Navaho)  raided  Hawikuh,  killed  its  missionary,  Fray 
Pedro  de  Avila  y  Ayala,  and  burned  the  church.  Hawikuh  was  never  re- 
established as  a  mission.  At  the  time  of  the  Pueblo  Rebellion,  1680,  there  were 
but  three  villages  beside  Hawikuh.  The  Zuni  took  part  in  the  rebellion,  slaying 
their  missionary  and  again  fleeing  to  Taaiyalone,  where  they  remained  until 
New  Mexico  was  reconquered  by  De  Vargas  in  1692.  They  built  a  new  pueblo 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Zuni  river,  the  present  Zuni  pueblo.  A  church  was 
erected  about  1699,  but  in  1703  the  village  was  again  without  a  resident  priest, 
owing  to  the  killing  of  a  few  Spanish  soldiers  who  had  mistreated  the  Indians. 
After  this  act  of  violence,  they  again  fled  to  Taaiyalone,  where  they  remained 
until  1705,  when  they  settled  in  the  plain,  and  the  missionary  returned  to  them. 
A  garrison  was  kept  at  the  pueblo  for  several  years.  There  were  times  when 
they  were  at  enmity  with  the  Hopi,  but  peace  was  restored  in  1713.  There  was 
a  mission  throughout  the  eighteenth  century  and  well  into  the  nineteenth,  but 
the  church  gradually  fell  into  ruins  and  was  only  occasionally  visited  by 
priests.  For  some  time  after  the  territory  became  part  of  the  United  States, 
Zuni  was  entirely  abandoned  by  white  people. 

In  1857  when  Edward  Fitzgerald  Beale  (see  above),  was  surveying  for  a 
wagon  road  he  wrote  the  following  account  of  this  place: 

"August  29. — Arrived  at  Zuni,  an  old  Indian  pueblo  of  curious  aspect;  it  is 
built  on  a  gentle  eminence  in  the  middle  of  a  valley  about  five  miles  wide, 
through  which  the  dry  bed  of  the  Zuni  lay  (sic).  As  we  approached,  corn- 
fields of  very  considerable  extent  spread  out  on  all  sides,  and  apparently  sur- 
rounded the  town.  This  place  contains  a  population  of  about  two  thousand 
souls.  The  houses,  although  nearly  all  have  doors  on  the  ground  floor,  are 
ascended  by  ladders,  and  the  roof  is  more  used  than  any  other  part.  Here  all 
the  cooking  is  done,  the  idle  hours  spent,  and  is  (sic)  the  place  used  for 
sleeping  in  summer.  Each  house  or  family  has  a  little  garden,  rarely  over 
thirty  feet  square,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  mud.  Inside  of  these, 
and  completely  encircling  the  town,  are  the  corrals  for  sheep,  asses,  horses, 
which  are  always  driven  up  at  night.  We  saw  here  many  Albinos,  with  very 
fair  skins,  white  hair,  and  blue  eyes.  The  Indians  raise  a  great  deal  of  wheat, 
of  a  very  fine  quality,  double-headed.  The  squaws  are  more  expert  at  carrying 
things  on  their  heads  than  our  Southern  Negroes.  I  saw  one  ascend  to  the 
second  story  of  a  house  by  a  ladder,  with  an  earthen  jar  containing  a  full 
bucket  of  water  without  touching  it  with  her  hands.  It  was  quite  amusing  to 
see  the  men  knitting  stockings.  Imagine  Hiawatha  at  such  undignified  work. 
Tne  old  Jesuit  church  is  in  ruins;  but  a  picture  over  the  altar  attracted  our 
attention  from  the  beauty  of  four  small  medallion  paintings  in  each  corner, 
which  are  very  beautifully  done.  .  .  .  White  intercourse  (traders)  with  these 
Indians  seems  to  have  destroyed  with  them  all  the  respect  they  had  for  the 
Catholic  religion,  without  giving  them  any  in  return.  Like  all  Indians  who 
have  a  fixed  abode,  they  are  quiet  and  inoffensive.  .  .  .  We  found  here  a  few 
indifferent  ^peaches,  the  only  effect  of  which  was  to  carry  us  back,  in  fancy,  to 
home  at  this  season.  The  melons  also  are  quite  poor,  almost  unfit  to  eat." 

Two  years  later  another  survey  again  brought  Beale  through  this  country 
and  he  records:  "March  16.  .  .  .  I  .  .  .  found  it  hard  to  realize  that  we 
had  reached  by  so  excellent  a  trail,  &  without  a  single  hard  pull,  the  dividing 
ridge  of  the  dreaded  Rocky  Mountains.  The  country  here,  even  at  this  for- 
bidding season,  is  beautiful,  &  the  forests  of  pine  and  abundant  grass  render 


TOUR     6      327 

it  particularly  favorable  for  settlement.  .  .  .  Tomorrow  I  shall  despatch  two 
•wagons  to  the  Indians  at  Zuni,  in  hope  to  find  corn  there,  and  the  Indians  in  a 
selling  humor.  In  this  respect  all  Indians  are  singular.  They  either  sell  readily 
and  for  little  or  nothing,  or  not  at  all,  &  are  as  capricious  in  their  dispositions 
as  possible."  "March  27. — We  entered  Zuni  today.  .  .  .  The  day  was  very 
disagreeable,  with  a  high  wind  blowing  the  dust  in  every  direction,  reminding 
us  of  Washington  City  in  a  winter  gale.  .  .  .  The  old  governor  met  me  in 
the  town  with  many  compliments  and  congratulations.  .  .  .  He  had  a  long 
list  of  grievances.  The  United  States  had  persuaded  him  into  an  alliance 
with  the  troops  as  auxiliaries  in  the  late  war  with  the  Navahpes;  his  people 
had  fought  with  our  troops  side  by  side  like  brothers;  the  United  States  had 
found  it  convenient  to  make  peace  with  their  enemies,  &  had  left  their  auxiliaries 
the  prey  of  iheir  powerful  &  numerous  foes.  I  told  him  I  thought  it  served 
him  right  for  meddling  in  things  which  did  not  concern  him,  and  warned  him 
for  the  future  to  avoid  all  'entangling  alliances.1 " 

In  recent  years  the  government  has  built  extensive  irrigation  works  here 
and  established  a  large  Indian  school;  the  younger  generation  is  being  educated 
and  is  learning  the  English  language.  In  character  and  customs,  the  Zuni 
resemble  Pueblo  groups  generally.  They  are  quiet,  good  tempered,  industrious, 
and  friendly  toward  Americans,  but  distrustful  of  the  Navaho  and  bate  the 
Mexicans.  There  are  several  trading  posts  at  the  pueblo,  where  the  various 
arts  and  crafts  may  be  seen  and  bought. 

US  66  leaves  Gallup  and  the  REGISTRATION  STATION  is  passed. 

From  Gallup  the  countryside  is  desert-like  plains  with  occasional 
sandstone  outcrops  in  fantastic  shapes. 

The  road  veers  to  the  southwest  at  144.5  m.,  passing  Defiance  trad- 
ing post  and  Rocky  Point  trading  post  which  serve  the  Navaho.  Half 
a  mile  farther  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  again  crosses  the  route  on  an  under- 
pass. MANUELITO,  151  m.  (8,260  alt.,  150  pop.),  is  also  a  trading 
center  for  the  Nayaho,  and  a  wayside  museum  is  maintained.  A  num- 
ber of  Navaho  hogans — roughly  octagonal  or  round  structures  of 
timbers  or  masonry  walls  with  timber  and  dirt  roofs  and  side  walls 
chinked  with  mud — are  seen  here  along  the  route.  The  settlement 
was  named  for  Manuelito,  a  prominent  Navaho  chief,  elected  in  1855 
when  a  treaty,  not  ratified  by  Congress,  was  arranged  with  the  Navaho 
to  end  their  depredations.  Lawlessness  on  their  part  continued  for 
another  eight  years,  however,  until  they  were  all  finally  subjugated. 
Manuelito  was  made  head  of  the  police  force  and  proved  loyal  to  his 
trust. 

At  156  m.  US  66  crosses  the  ARIZONA  LINE,  54  772.  east  of 
Holbrook,  Arizona  (see  Arizona  Guide), 


328      NEW     MEXICO 


Tour  6  A 


Junction  with  US  66— Acoma  Pueblo ;  13.7  m.    NM  23. 

Graded  road-bed. 
No  accommodations. 

This  route  to  Acoma  Pueblo,  the  Sky  City,  crosses  the  tilled  fields 
of  the  Acoma  Indians  and  a  sandy  plain  sparsely  covered  with  rabbit 
brush  and  dotted  here  and  there  with  juniper  trees.  NM  23  branches 
south  from  its  junction  with  US  66,  0  m.  (see  Tour  6)  at  a  point 
4.6  miles  west  of  New  Laguna  and  winds  through  the  settlement  of 
CASA  BLANCA  (white  house)  at  0.7  m.  The  characteristic  caprock 
formations  of  the  Acoma  area  appear  along  the  mesa  tops  at  4  m., 
closing  in  the  plain  to  a  valley  confine.  NM  23  crosses  the  northern 
boundary  of  Acoma  Reservation  at  10.3  m. 

The  ENCHANTED  MESA  (L)  10.6  m.  called  by  the  Acoma, 
katzimo  (Ind.,  enchanted),  is  a  sandstone  butte  430  feet  high,  golden 
brown,  outlined  by  precipitous  walls  and  sharply  turreted  pinnacles, 
with  heaps  of  sharp  detritus  at  its  base  (only  experienced  climbers  should 
attempt  the  ascent).  The  Acoma  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancestors 
once  lived  on  its  top,  but  the  path  was  closed  by  a  storm.  The  people 
tending  their  fields  on  the  plain  below  were  not  able  to  regain  their 
homes,  and  those  who  were  caught  on  the  summit  died  of  starvation. 

On  ACOMA  ROCK,  13.7  m.f  which  is  of  fairly  level  topped  sand- 
stone covering  70  acres  and  rising  abruptly  357  feet  from  the  wind- 
swept plain  is  ACOMA  PUEBLO  (7,000  alt.,  1,679  pop.).     (Admis- 
sion $i;  permission  to  photograph  must  be  obtained  from  the  governor. 
Usual  fee:  $i  for  small  cameras  and  $$  for  movies.)     This  pre-Colum- 
bian Keresan-speaking  pueblo  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  continuously  occu- 
pied village  in  the  United  States.     From  a  distance  the  pueblo  appears 
to  be  part  of  the  natural  cliff  and  not  readily  distinguishable  as  a 
habitation.    Approaching  the  high   fortress-like  city  are  well-defined 
foot  trails,  which  are  still  used,  but  some  of  the  Indians  prefer  to 
ascend  by  the  ancient  toe-  and  finger-hole  trail.    The  only  trail  accepted 
as  existing  before  1629  is  the  ladder  trail  on  the  northwestern  side, 
formed  by  a  combination  of  ladder  and  toe-  and  finger-holes  cut  in  the 
solid  rock  and  tortuous  passages  worn  deep  by  years  of  age.     This  came 
to  be  known  as  "Camino  del  Padre"  after  Father  Ramirez  made  his 
famous  ascent.     The  Burro  Trail,  built  under  the  direction  of  the  same 
priest,  so  that  a  more  comfortable  and  less  hazardous  route  might  be 
possible,  has  at  its  top  a  large  wooden  cross,  which  is  still  decorated 
with  flowers  on  "Cross  Day"  in  May.     The  trail  principally  used  by 
visitors  today  is  the  one  to  the  right  of  the  Ladder  Trail,  leading  over 


TOUR    6  A     329 

a  wind-deposited  sand  rampart  to  a  short  ascent  by  stone  steps.  If 
taken  leisurely  it  is  not  tiring  to  those  able  to  do  a  moderate  amount 
of  uphill  walking. 

The  dwellings,  1,000  feet  long  and  40  feet  high,  are  built  in  three 
parallel  lines  of  stone  and  adobe  running  east  and  west.  Each  struc- 
ture consists  of  three  stories  terraced  and  built  in  the  usual  Pueblo 
style.  The  first  story,  between  12  and  15  feet  high,  originally  had 
no  openings  except  a  trap  door  on  top,  being  used  exclusively  for  the 
storage  of  supplies.  Ladders  led  from  the  ground  to  the  second  story, 
but  the  third  story  and  roof  are  reached  by  steep  narrow  outside  steps 
against  the  division  wall.  In  appearance  these  long  rows  are  com- 
munity houses,  but  there  is  no  communal  or  socialistic  mode  of  life. 
Each  family  is  completely  separated  from  the  others  by  substantial 
division  walls.  Many  of  the  oldest  houses  still  have  windows  of 
selenite,  mined  in  the  vicinity.  The  house  groups  are  separated  by 
streets  of  medium  width,  the  one  between  the  south  and  middle  row 
being  wider  than  the  others  and  providing  a  plaza  for  ceremonials  and 
festivities.  The  rooms  of  these  groups  have  low  ceilings,  and  at  one 
end  stand  three  lava-rock  metates  enclosed  in  a  low  wooden  bin,  sloping 
somewhat  like  a  washboard  in  a  tub,  and  used  for  grinding  corn.  The 
women  use  a  small  beveled  stone  or  lava  slab  called  a  mano  to  crush 
the  grain.  This  falls  over  the  edge  between  the  slabs,  each  met  ate 
grinding  finer  meal.  There  is  also  a  fireplace  for  warmth  and  cooking. 
Outside  are  beehive-shaped  ovens  where  all  baking  is  done,  save  that 
of  the  guayave  or  paper-thin  bread  (called  piki  in  Hopi  and  hewe  in 
Zuni).  This  bread,  which  is  given  great  care,  is  baked  on  highly 
polished  stones  and  placed  upon  a  special  firebox  directly  over  the  blaze. 
Usually  made  from  blue  cornmeal,  the  bread  tastes  something  like 
popped  corn  and  is  sustaining  on  long  journeys. 

Men  do  all  the  heavy  part  of  house  construction  including  the 
carpenter  work,  but  the  women  often  build  the  adobe  walls  and  do 
the  plastering.  Once  a  year,  before  the  Saint's  festival,  the  inside  walls 
of  the  houses  are  freshly  whitewashed.  Against  them  are  hung  gar- 
ments of  skins,  blankets,  guns,  trinkets  of  all  kinds,  and  silver  jewelry 
made  by  Acoma  artisans.  Adding  color  to  this  array  are  twisted  strings 
of  red  chili  and  dried  muskmelon,  bags  of  dried  peaches,  jerked  mutton 
from  the  family's  flock  of  sheep,  and  jerked  venison  from  the  pueblo 
hunt,  all  hung  from  the  beams  as  winter  food  supply.  At  night  wool 
colchones  (mattresses)  are  laid  on  the  floor;  during  the  day  they  are 
rolled  and  placed  against  the  walls  where,  covered  with  gay  Wankers, 
they  make  comfortable  seats. 

Acoma  pottery  is  thin  and  slightly  less  durable  than  that  of  Zuni, 
but  its  designs  have  more  variety.  Flowers,  birds,  trees,  and  leaves  are 
introduced  with  geometric  patterns.  Reds  and  grays,  applied  before 
firing,  approach  an  accidental  glaze  afterward. 

Instead  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Great  Rock  going  to  the  farming 
villages  just  for  the  planting  and  harvesting  seasons  as  was  their  cus- 
tom, more  of  them  live  in  the  summer  towns  the  year  round,  returning 


330     NEW     MEXICO 

to  the  mesa  top  only  for  ceremonies  or  festivities  at  stated  intervals. 
The  annual  festival  at  Acoma  (Sept.  2)  honors  Saint  Stephen,  their 
patron  saint,  and  is  unlike  that  of  any  other  pueblo,  being  the  dramatic 
representation  of  Saint  Stephen's  arrival  in  New  Mexico.  Early  in 
the  morning  a  long  procession  appears  several  miles  away  on  the  plains 
below  the  citadel  and  slowly  approaches.  At  the  foot  of  the  mesa  it  is 
met  by  the  governor  and  war  captain  of  the  pueblo,  who,  after  a  con- 
ference, escort  the  "strangers"  up  the  steep  trail  to  the  top  and  welcome 
them  to  the  villages.  After  more  ceremonies,  both  parties  enter  the 
church.  A  feature  of  this  ceremony  is  a  small  hobbyhorse  which  is 
conducted  into  the  church  and  up  to  the  very  altar  itself,  where  more 
ceremonies  take  place;  afterwards  games  and  dances  continue  outside. 

Acoma  is  much  the  same  as  it  was  in  1540,  when  Captain  Hernando 
de  Alvarado  of  Coronado's  army  discovered  it  and  called  it  Acuco. 
The  native  name,  Akof  is  of  obscure  etymology.  The  Acoma  call  their 
own  people  Akomi  (the  "mi"  meaning  people)  ;  it  has  been  translated 
as  "people  of  the  white  rock."  Charles  F.  Lummis  called  it  "the  sky 
city."  Just  when  the  pueblo  was  built  on  this  natural  stronghold  no 
one  can  say.  The  Indian  tradition  gives  the  time  as  following  the 
destruction  of  the  Enchanted  Mesa,  ages  ago.  It  was  here  when  Fray 
Marcos  de  Niza  sought  the  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola  in  1533 ;  and  Antonio 
de  Espejo  in  1563  remarked  upon  the  precipitous  trail  cut  in  the  solid 
cliff  leading  to  the  top.  The  first  Spanish  foothold  in  Acoma  was  in 
1598  when  the  pueblo  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the 
Spanish  crown  as  represented  by  Don  Juan  de  Ofiate,  but  only  that 
they  might  trick  him  later,  Ofiate  refused  to  be  lured  into  a  room  by 
Chief  Zutucopan,  however,  and  escaped  the  fate  of  Don  Juan  de  Zal- 
divar  who,  with  his  detachment,  was  attacked  without  warning,  and  all 
but  four  soldiers  were  killed.  Those  leaped  off  the  rock.  The  follow- 
ing months  (December  1598),  as  soon  as  Onate  could  marshal  the 
weakened  Spanish  force,  a  band  of  70  under  the  leadership  of  Vicente 
de  Zaldivar,  who  insisted  on  the  right  to  avenge  his  brother's  death, 
were  sent  to  punish  Acoma.  They  engaged  in  the  assault  on  the  22, 
23,  and  24  of  January  1599,  and  the  forcing  of  that  fortress  was  an 
epic  struggle. 

The  mission  here  was  assigned  to  Fray  Andres  Corchado  in  1598 
and  later  to  Fray  Geronimo  de  Zarate-Salmeron ;  but  because  of  the 
hostility  of  the  inhabitants,  a  church  was  not  established  here  until 
1629,  when  Fray  Juan  Ramirez,  the  first  permanent  missionary,  was 
escorted  to  Acoma  by  Governor  Francisco  Manuel  de  Silva  Nieto  on 
his  expedition  to  Zufii  during  July  and  August,  1629.  Legend  says 
that  Father  Ramirez  walked  alone  from  Santa  Fe  to  Acoma,  having 
no  defense  save  his  cross  and  breviary,  and  that  as  soon  as  he  was  seen 
by  the  Acoma  attempting  the  ascent  of  their  stronghold,  he  was  pelted 
by  rocks  and  arrows  sufficient  to  kill  a  dozen  men,  but  not  one  pierced 
his  habit.  It  happened  too,  in  the  tumult  on  the  top  caused  by  his 
appearance,  that  a  little  girl  was  inadvertently  pushed  off  and  fell  upon 
the  pointed  rock  60  feet  below.  The  good  Franciscan  reached  her, 


TOUR    6  A     331 

knelt  and  prayed  beside  her,  then  carried  her  unharmed  up  to  her 
astounded  relatives  and  neighbors.  It  was  then  the  Acoma  received 
him  as  one  more  than  human,  and  soon  after  became  his  followers.^ 

After  the  Pueblo  Revolt  in  1680,  the  Acoma  people  remained  hostile 
for  1 6  years.  In  November  of  1692,  De  Vargas  and  his  small  army 
reached  a  watering  place  called  El  Pozo  (the  well),  a  place  from  which 
the  rock  of  Acoma  could  be  seen.  In  his  journal,  De  Vargas  wrote: 
"We  descried  the  smoke  made  by  those  traitors,  enemies,  treacherous 
rebels  and  apostates  of  Zueres  (Keresan)  tribe."  Within  musket-shot 
of  the  Penol,  the  greeting  of  "Hail"  was  exchanged  between  the 
Spaniards  and  the  Indians,  but  it  required  all  the  patience  De  Vargas 
could  muster  to  finally  persuade  this  most  difficult  of  all  pueblos  to 
submit. 

The  Spanish  Grant  of  1659  was  confirmed  by  the  United  States, 
December  22,  1858,  but  the  Acoma  Indians  formally  applied  for  their 
land  in  1863,  when  seven  Pueblo  governors  went  to  Washington  to 
confer  with  President  Lincoln  and  settle  boundaries.  After  the  con- 
ference, Lincoln  presented  each  governor  with  a  silver-headed  cane 
upon  which  was  engraved  (varying  only  as  to  the  name  of  the  particular 
pueblo) : 

"A.  Lincoln 

Prst.  U.S.A. 

Acoma 

1863" 

This  cane  is  passed  to  each  succeeding  governor  when  he  is  elected 
in  January,  and  constitutes  his  badge  of  office.  When  the  governor 
is  away  his  representative  keeps  the  cane.  In  1877  tne  Acoma  had 
more  than  95,000  acres;  17,400  acres  have  been  added  since  by  execu- 
tive order  making  the  present  area  more  than  113,000  acres,  900  acres 
of  which  are  irrigable,  with  600  acres  cultivated  at  Acomita  and 
Pueblito. 

SAN  ESTEBAN  REV  (Saint  Stephen  the  King)  MISSION  is  claimed 
by  some  historians  to  be  the  church  built  here  through  the  efforts  of 
Fray  Ramirez  in  1629,  with  additions  made  after  the  Pueblo  Revolt 
of  1680;  others  say  the  original  edifice  was  destroyed  in  1680,  when 
Fray  Lucas  Maldonado,  the  Acoma  missionary  at  the  time,  was  mur- 
dered. However,  the  present  church,  undoubtedly  remodeled  in  1699 
and  repaired  in  1923  by  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico,  is  one  of  the 
finest  of  all  the  old  pueblo  missions.  It  is  150  feet  long  and  40  feet 
wide,  with  walls  60  feet  high  and  10  feet  thick,  a  marvel  of  adobe  con- 
struction. Every  ounce  of  material  used  in  the  mission,  as  well  as  the 
soil  for  the  campo  santo  (burial  ground),  was  carried  up  the  steep  pas- 
sage on  the  backs  of  zealous  Indian  women.  The  heavy  roof  beams, 
each  40  feet  long  by  14  inches  square,  were  cut  in  the  Cebollata 
(tender  onion)  Mountains,  30  miles  distant,  and  carried  on  men's 
backs  to  the  top.  The  front  walls  of  the  church,  devoid  of  architectural 
ornament,  are  so  sloped  that  they  form  great  buttresses,  topped  with 


332      NEW     MEXICO 

square  towers  and  open  belfries.  On  the  end  wall  of  the  chancel,  con- 
trasting with  the  bare,  white  walls  of  the  nave,  is  a  richly  carved  and 
painted  reredos.  It  is  divided  into  panels  by  twisted,  serpentine  columns, 
each  panel  having  a  painting  of  a  saint  placed  above  scroll  and  shell 
motifs.  The  huge  carved  vigas  are  supported  by  elaborately  carved 
scroll  brackets.  Adjoining  are  the  priest's  residence,  patio,  and  a  look- 
out, the  latter  a  vantage  point  from  which  an  enemy  might  be  seen. 
This  affords  a  magnificent  view  of  the  countryside.  The  burying  ground 
is  perhaps  a  greater  marvel  than  the  church,  and  probably  the  only 
one  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  Acoma  converts  wanted  their  dead  in 
consecrated  ground  near  by,  so  they  built  a  stone  retaining  wall  almost 
10  feet  high  at  the  outer  edge,  enclosing  an  area  2OO  feet  square ;  then 
from  the  plain  below  they  carried  up  enough  earth,  a  sackful  at  a  time, 
to  make  their  sacred  graveyard.  That  the  name  of  the  mission  was 
changed  at  one  time  to  San  Pedro  is  evidenced  by  the  inscription  on  the 
old  bell  in  the  northeast  tower  of  the  church,  which  notes  "San  Pedro, 
1710."  Subsequently,  Saint  Stephen  resumed  his  sway. 

One  of  the  most  unusual  law  suits  in  the  United  States,  in  which  the 
Pueblo  of  Acoma  was  plaintiff  and  the  Pueblo  of  Laguna  defendant, 
was  fought  through  the  courts  from  1852  to  1857  for  possession  of  the 
painting  of  Saint  Joseph,  now  at  Acoma.  The  picture  was  said  to  have 
been  presented  to  Father  Juan  Ramirez  by  King  Charles  II  of  Spain, 
and  taken  by  him  to  Acoma  in  1629,  when  he  founded  the  mission  here. 
The  natives  of  Acoma  believed  (and  still  do)  that  Saint  Joseph  endowed 
the  painting  with  miraculous  powers,  and  it  is  still  held  in  great  venera- 
tion. During  all  the  Acoma  prosperity,  the  neighboring  Pueblo  of 
Laguna,  which  had  suffered  from  drought,  epidemics,  floods,  and  other 
calamities,  grew  envious  and  asked  to  borrow  the  picture.  The  Acoma 
consented.  From  this  time,  so  the  story  goes,  Laguna  fortunes  changed; 
those  ill  became  well,  the  crops  were  good,  the  women  bore  children. 
Months  passed,  and  the  Acoma,  weary  of  waiting  for  the  return  of  their 
beloved  picture,  sen'-  *jiessengers  to  inquire  the  reason  for  the  delay. 
They  received  no  satisfaction.  A  council  was  held.  After  a  solemn 
Mass  it  was  agreed  that  lots  should  be  drawn.  Twelve  slips  were  pre- 
pared, eleven  of  them  blank;  on  the  twelfth  was  a  rude  sketch  of  the 
prized  picture  of  San  Jose.  All  twelve  were  shaken  up  in  a  jar,  and 
two  little  girls,  one  from  Acoma  and  one  from  Laguna,  were  chosen 
for  the  drawing.  On  the  fifth  drawing,  the  Acoma  child  drew  the 
sketch  of  San  Jose.  "So,"  said  the  priest,  "God  has  decided  in  favor 
of  Acoma,"  and  the  sacred  painting  was  taken  triumphantly  to  its  former 
home. 

One  morning  while  Acoma  was  still  rejoicing  its  people  went  to  pray 
before  their  beloved  saint,  only  to  find  the  picture  gone !  A  war  would 
have  followed  had  not  Father  Lopez  counselled  that  the  matter  be  taken 
to  the  United  States  District  Court  at  Santa  Fe.  His  advice  was  fol- 
lowed. The  decision  was  in  Acoma's  favor,  but  Laguna  appealed  the 
case  to  the  Supreme  Court.  However,  in  1857,  the  final  decision  also 
went  to  Acoma.  Rejoicing  over  their  victory,  a  committee  was  ap- 


TOUR   6s    333 

pointed  by  the  Acoma  to  bring  back  the  sacred  painting,  absent  more 
than  half  a  century.  They  had  gone  but  half  the  distance  to  Laguna 
when,  "miracle^of  miracles/'  they  found  the  painting  of  San  Jose  under 
a  tree!  The  Acoma  believe  that  San  Jose  had  already  heard  of  the 
decision  and  started  to  return,  but  being  weary,  tarried  under  the  tree 
where  he  was  met  by  his  jubilant  people. 


Tour  6B 


Junction  US  66 — Crownpoint — Chaco  Canyon  National  Monument — 
64.3  m.    NM  56. 

Graded  dirt  road  entire  distance;  sharp  declines  over  dry  arroyos  and  washes, 
bad  to  impassable  during  rainy  season;  dusty  when  dry 
No  accommodations  except  picnic  and  camping  area. 

This  route,  through  one  of  New  Mexico's  most  important  pueblo 
ruins,  courses  a  high  flat  country  bordered  with  sandstone  upthrusts  and 
cut  by  arroyos  and  hills  that  are  sparsely  covered  with  grama  grass, 
pinon  and  juniper.  The  region  is  vast  and  open,  with  far  horizons. 

NM  56  branches  right  from  US  66  part  way  between  Gallup  and 
Grants  at  THOREAU,  0  m.  In  the  first  few  miles  great  sandstone 
ridges,  magnificently  sculptured,  border  the  road  on  the  left.  For  the 
most  part  the  land  is  flat  with  occasional  hills  and  rugged  gullies,  and 
everywhere  the  color  is  alluring,  especially  at  sunset.  Despite  the  gen- 
eral aridity,  some  springs  of  clear,  pure  water  are  present,  seepages  from 
formations  in  the  substrata. 

The  ANTOME  INDIAN  MISSION,  5.3  m.,  is  operated  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church.  Winding  northward,  the 
highway  courses  over  valley  country,  flanked  again  by  hilly  country- 
side. 

Towerlike  KIN  YAAH  RUIN  (Navaho,  tall  house),  23.5  TTZ.,  is  the 
ruin  (R)  of  a  pueblo  believed  to  have  been  constructed  by  peoples 
affiliated  with  those  of  Chaco  Canyon.  Surrounding  the  ruins  are  re- 
mains of  a  well-defined  Navaho  irrigation  system,  two  reservoirs,  and  a 
main  canal  25  to  30  feet  wide  and  in  several  sections  3  feet  deep, 

CROWN  POINT,  26.3  772.  (2,752  pop.),  is  at  the  edge  of  a  plain, 
surrounded  by  low-lying  hills  opening  at  the  north  end  of  Devil's  Can- 
yon, three  miles  from  the  crown-shaped  butte  far  which  it  was  named. 
Before  all  the  Navaho  subagencies  were  consolidated  at  Window  Rock, 
Arizona,  this  was  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  Navaho  Agency;  it  still  has 
a  United  States  Indian  School. 


334    NEW    MEXICO 

Although  NM  56  runs  a  few  miles  east  of  the  Navaho  reservation, 
it  traverses  typical  Navaho  country,  on  which  the  Navaho  have  lived 
and  grazed  their  flocks  for  centuries.  From  the  highway  are  glimpses 
of  hogans  (Navaho  dwellings)  blending  into  the  brown  soil,  solitary 
Navaho  riding  their  ponies,  rude  wagons  containing  the  entire  Navaho 
family  and  their  inevitable  dog,  and  flocks  of  sheep  tended  by  child 
herders.  Grass  is  plentiful,  and  in  summertime  wild  flowers  abound 
after  the  periodic  rains.  The  high  altitude  gives  clarity  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and  distant  views  are  brought  into  sharp  relief. 

SEVEN  LAKES,  42,8  m.t  is  a  one-family  settlement.  Since  the 
home  was  destroyed  by  fire  the  family  is  now  residing  in  the  old  school 
house.  Formerly  there  were  seven  lakes  in  this  vicinity,  but  at  present 
these  lakes  are  all  dry.  Oil  was  first  discovered  in  1923,  but  the  wells 
were  shallow  and  the  output  so  limited  that  pumping  operations  have 
been  abandoned.  Fifteen  miles  to  the  east  a  small  field  is  still  in 
operation, 

CHACO  CANYON  NATIONAL  MONUMENT  at  Pueblo 
Bonito  {admission  free),  64.3  m.f  containing  some  of  the  greatest  sur- 
face ruins  in  the  United  States,  consists  of  32  sections  of  land  owned  by 
the  United  States  Government.  The  magnificent  Chaco  National  Monu- 
ment is  in  and  about  Chaco  Canyon,  a  valley  roughly  ten  miles  long  and 
a  mile  wide,  eroded  through  a  sandstone  cap,  in  whose  bottom  during 
the  rainy  season  flows  the  flood  water.  There  ruins  are  without  equal 
north  of  central  Mexico. 

The  Monument  is  administered  by  the  National  Park  Service.  A 
permanent  custodian  is  stationed  near  the  ruins  of  Pueblo  Bonito  ( Beau- 
tiful Village)  to  give  information  and  assistance.  A  picnic  and  a 
campground  area  are  maintained.  Among  the  18  major  ruins  and 
countless  smaller  ones,  archeologists  have  identified  house  sites  of  the 
Basket  Makers  (see  Archeology).  Here  also  are  the  unit-type  houses 
of  the  first  Pueblo  Indians.  This  culture  period  developed  through 
Pueblo  II  and  flowered  in  the  Pueblo  III  or  classic  period. 

In  the  monument  a  branch  road  leads  (R)  just  over  the  bridge, 
passing  most  of  the  large  ruins  that  are  not  on  the  main  road. 

Beginning  with  Pueblo  Bonito  and  Chetro  Ketl  the  most  noted  ruins 
are  Taba  Kin  (Pueblo  del  Arroyo),  Casa  Rinconada  (corner  house), 
Kin  Kletso  (Navaho,  yellow  house),  Pueblo  Alto  (high  village), 
Casa  Chiquita  (little  house),  Pefiasco  Blanco  (white  rock),  Hungo 
Payi,  Una  Vida  (a  life),  Tzin  Kletzin  (Navaho,  black  house),  Kin 
Biniola  (Navaho,  house  of  the  winds),  Wijiji,  and  Pueblo  Pintado 
(painted  village).  In  addition  are  innumerable  sites  which  may  be 
classed  as  accessories  of  the  Pueblo  culture — single-house  ruins,  sanctu- 
aries, reservoirs,  stairways,  trails,  and  ditches.  All  these  evidence  a 
civilization  that  utilized  its  economic  resources  and  had  a  religious, 
social,  and  aesthetic  development.  And  since,  in  the  main,  the  Pueblo 
III  ruins  of  the  Chaco  have  characteristics  in  common,  Pueblo  Bonito 
and  Chetro  Ketl  can  be  taken  as  examples. 


TOUR  6fi    335 

PUEBLO  BONITO,  close  to  the  perpendicular  north  wall  of  the  can- 
yon, is  the  largest,  the  best-known,  and  most  completely  excavated  of 
the  main  ruins  in  the  Chaco  region.  The  Hyde  Expedition  (1896-99) 
centered  their  research  work  on  it  and  subsequent  excavation  was  under- 
taken by  the  National  Geographic  Society  (1922-26)  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Neill  M.  Judd,  curator  of  Archeology,  United  States  National 
Museum.  Through  tree-ring  dating,  experts  conclude  that  Pueblo 
Bonito  was  under  construction  in  919  A.D.  Additions  were  made  in  the 
years  1017,  1033,  and  1102  and  the  village  was  undoubtedly  occupied 
in  1127.  Pueblo  Bonito  differs  from  the  majority  of  the  ruins,  being 
D-shaped  rather  than  rectangular,  or  E-shaped.  The  building,  sur- 
rounding three  sides  of  a  court,  is  terraced  back  from  an  initial  height 
of  one  story  at  the  court  to  three  or  more  stories  at  the  rear.  The 
straight,  fourth  side  of  the  court  was  enclosed  by  a  tier  of  one-story 
rooms.  Pueblo  Bonito  contained  over  800  rooms  and  could  easily  have 
sheltered  1,500  people  at  one  time.  The  masonry  of  its  walls  is  of 
particular  interest.  They  are  composed  of  medium-sized  stones  hewn 
with  stone  implements,  and  so  reinforced  with  small  spalls  that  they 
present  an  almost  mosaic-like  pattern.  Some  of  the  rooms  still  have 
their  ancient  timbered  ceilings;  it  was  from  these  timbers  and  an 
occasional  log  found  in  the  walls  that  the  dating  was  accomplished. 
Within  the  court  were  32  kivas,  where  clan  and  fraternal  religious 
rites  were  observed.  That  Bonito  was  an  exceptionally  wealthy  com- 
munity, is  in  accord  with  the  Navaho  myths  of  No-qoil-pi,  the  Great 
Gambler,  who  not  only  won  the  possessions  of  the  people  of  the  region, 
but  enslaved  them  as  well.  Among  the  rich  artifacts  found  here  are 
thousands  of  dish-shaped,  perforated  turquoise  beads,  turquoise  and  shell 
pendants,  exceptionally  fine  turquoise  and  shell  mosaics,  carved  birds 
and  insects,  and  a  frog  of  jet  with  eyes  of  inlaid  turquoise.  The  most 
spectacular  find  was  an  extraordinary  turquoise  necklace  recovered  by 
Mr.  Judd  in  1924. 

Pottery  here  was  elevated  to  the  plane  of  a  fine  art.  The  potter's 
wheel  was  unknown,  but  a  crude  substitute  in  the  form  of  a  shallow 
basket  or  the  bottom  of  a  broken  olla  (jar),  was  sometimes  used  as  a 
movable  work  table  upon  which  a  new  vessel  was  fashioned.  The 
Chaco  Canyon  ruins  contained  beautiful  pitchers,  ladles,  and  bowls. 
The  tracing  of  thin  black  lines  over  their  highly  polished  (not  glazed), 
gray  surfaces,  to  form  unusual  and  exquisite  patterns,  was  the  art  of 
Bonito  women.  Tall,  cylindrical  jars,  unlike  those  from  other  regions 
with  design  rarely  if  ever  duplicated,  show  that  their  pottery  stands 
close  to  the  apex  of  ceramic  achievment  among  pre-Columbian  people 
of  our  country. 

It  fs  the  regret  of  the  archeological  world  that  the  main  burial 
grounds  of  these  large  ruins  have  never  been  found.  Only  a  scant  num- 
ber of  burials  have  been  unearthed. 

CHETRO  KETL,  a  large  partly-excavated  major  ruin  of  a  community 
home,  which  if  set  down  in  a  modern  American  city  would  occupy  an 
average  city  block,  is  a  quarter  of  a  mile  east  of  Pueblo  Bonito.  Dr. 


336      NEW     MEXICO 

Edgar  L.  Hewett,  director  of  the  School  of  American  Research  in 
Santa  Fe  and  in  charge  of  the  excavation,  says,  ".  .  .  as  a  community 
dwelling,  built  by  people  for  their  own  domestic  purposes,  I  know  of 
nothing  to  compare  with  it — ancient  or  modern."     Chetro  Ketl  con- 
sists of  a  large  main  house  and  a  succession  of  talus  villages  built  against 
the  cliff  for  a  thousand  feet.    Basically,  Chetro  Ketl  followed  the  "E" 
plan  of  architecture,  but  it  varied  from  the  type  in  that  one  of  the 
wings  of  the  "E"  was  completely  extended  and  the  other  only  partly. 
The  great  curved  front  which  tied  in  the  two  ends  of  the  "E"  was  not 
merely  a  wall  but  also  a  rampart  of  one-story  rooms.     Beneath  this 
rampart  was  a  walled  trench  about  eight  feet  deep  (probably  covered) 
which  prior  to  the  construction  of  the  rampart  served  as  a  protected 
passage-way  from  one  wing  of  the  town  to  the  other,  and  was  an  in- 
strument of  defense.     It  had  the  usual  terraced  rooms,  three  to  five 
stories  high  along  the  back  wall,  which  was  over  470  feet  long.    These 
rooms,  as  at  Pueblo  Bonito,  surrounded  three  sides  of  a  court  contain- 
ing the  kivas.    The  kivas  of  Chetro  Ketl  are  of  three  types — the  great 
kivas,  the  small  kivas,  and  the  tower  kivas.    Kiva  "G"  the  upper  of  a 
vertical  series  of   kivas  was  constructed   1103   A.D.,  according  to  the 
tree-ring  dating.     The  great  kivas  are  always  very  large,  and  the  one 
at  Chetro  Ketl  measures  60  feet  in  diameter.     In  this  sanctuary  were 
three  successive  levels  built  one  upon  the  other,  each  a  replica  of  the 
pattern.    The  lower  part  of  each  of  two  main  walls  is  encircled  by  a 
bench  of  masonry;  near  the  middle  of  the  floor  is  a  raised  fireplace, 
and  on  both  sides  of  it  a  rectangular,  vault-like  structure  of   rock. 
Whether  the  great  kiva  was  roofed  has  not  been  determined.    A  series 
of  small  rooms  partly  surrounds  the  kiva  on  the  south  side.    Interesting 
are  the  crypts  of  the  lower  levels,  safe-like  sealed  caches  which  yielded 
many  strings  of  beads  and  turquoise  pendants  and  ritualistic  talismans. 
The  small   kivas  at  Chetro  Ketl,   seldom  more  than   25    feet   in 
diameter,  have,  like  the  larger  ones,  a  low  bench  about  the  base  of  their 
walls.     On  each  bench  are  several  small  blocks  of  masonry,  12  or  so 
inches  high,  set  an  equal  distance  apart;  each  block  usually  encloses  a 
short,  heavy  beam  which  runs  back  into  the  main  wall  of  the  kiva. 
Near  the  center  of  the  floor  is  a  firepit,  and  under  the  south  wall  runs 
the  air  duct  or  ventilator,  opening  through  the  floor  near  the  firepit. 
West  of  the  firepit  is  a  single  rectangular,  masonry-lined  vault.     The 
tower  kivas,  built  within  the  walls  of  the  community  houses,  were 
completely  surrounded  by  living  rooms.     Circular  in  shape,  they  were 
enclosed  by  walls  in  a  square  to  separate  them  from  the  living  quarters 
and  obviously  to  fit  into  the  general  square  layouts  of  the  main  entrance. 
The  caverns  were  filled  with  earth.     Pottery  and  bead  work,  tools, 
and  artifacts  are  of  the  same  general  type  as  found  at  Pueblo  Bonito, 
and  archeologists  have  agreed  that  the  inhabitants  of  Chetro  Ketl  were 
contemporaries  of  the  Bonitians. 

The  Chaco  group  of  ruins  has  been  recognized  as  one  of  the  most 
important  archeological  districts  north  of  the  Mexico  Plateau,  and  its 
excavations  an  important  archeological  project  in  the  Southwest. 


TOUR  6c    337 

NM  56  continues  through  OTIS  at  25  m.  from  the  Monument  to  a 
junction  with  NM  44  at  26  m.  (see  Tour  P),  at  Blanco  Trading  Post. 


Tour  6C 


Gallup— Shiprock;  93  m.,  US  666. 

Bituminous-paved  two-lane  road  throughout. 
Accommodations  at  Gallup  and  Shiprock. 


Most  of  this  route  is  through  the  Navaho  Indian  Reservation  with 
stretches  of  grass-grown  desert  and  red  soil  and  rocks  eroded  into  forma- 
tions of  great  beauty. 

US  666  branches  north  from  US  66  in  GALLUP,  0  m.  (see  Tour 
6b),  passing  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  shops.    In  the  low-lying  hills  (R) 
are  outcroppings  of  coal  in  the  sandstone  and  shale  composing  this  area. 
GAMERCO,  2.1  m.  (6,750  alt.,  465  pop.),  was  a  large*  modern 
coal  camp,  built  by  the  Gallup  American  Coal  Company  since  1921.    It 
included  homes  for  mine  officials  and  employees,  which  are  now  rented 
to  Indian  Service  employees  and  people  from  Gallup. 

Sub-bituminous  coal  was  mined  here  through  shafts  400  feet  deep. 
Underground  are  30  miles  of  track,  the  longest  haul  being  2.5  miles. 
The  mines  and  power  house  supplied  electricity  to  near-by  towns,  in- 
cluding Gallup.  Some  small  mines  are  still  operating  in  the  vicinity. 


J38      NEW    MEXICO 

Nationalities  represented  in  Gamerco  are  Spanish,  Mexican,  Amer- 
ican, Italian,  Greek,  Negro,  Indian,  Japanese,  Welsh,  and  English. 

Ruins  of  pueblo  homes  and  kivas  on  the  knolls  around  Gamerco  are 
of  recent  discovery.  In  1932  a  miner  on  his  way  to  work  stepped  on  a 
skull  a  few  feet  from  the  mine  tipple.  On  brushing  aside  the  sand  he 
uncovered  the  skeleton  of  a  man  in  the  position  of  a  flexed  burial,  knees 
under  chin.  Less  than  half  a  mile  north  of  town  miners  have  unearthed 
nine  rooms  and  the  rounded  walls  of  a  kiva  believed  to  be  very  old. 
Deposits  of  pottery  and  beads  have  also  been  discovered. 

From  a  ridge  at  4.5  m.  is  a  splendid  panorama;  close  at  hand  and 
also  far  in  the  distance  loom  mountain  ranges,  mesas,  peaks,  and  buttes. 
Near  these  points  have  occurred  encounters  between  Indian  tribes  fight- 
ing among  themselves,  between  Spanish  conquist adores  and  aborigines, 
and  still  later  between  the  United  States  Army  and  the  Navaho. 

The  road  gradually  ascends  to  the  Tohatchi  Flats,  and  at  10.5  m. 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  NAVAHO  INDIAN  RESERVATION 
(22,010  pop.  in  New  Mexico)  is  crossed.  An  Indian  School  is  visible 
(L)  at  15.7  m.,  and  at  16  m.  there  is  a  bridge  over  the  Navaho  River. 

At  18.4  777.  is  the  junction  with  a  graveled  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  MEXICAN  SPRINGS,  3.6  m.,  called  by  the  Navaho 
Nakai  Bito  (Mexican  springs).  The  Department  of  Agriculture's  Soil  Con- 
servation Service  has  an  Experimental  Station  here.  Fenced  'areas  on  both 
sides  of  the  road  have  abundant  grass,  grown  to  retard  both  wind  and  water 
erosion. 

On  the  Navaho's  sacred  CHUSKA  PEAK  (L),  23  ?n.  (8,000  alt.), 
ceremonies  to  the  Rain  Makers  are  performed  by  medicine  men.  When 
rain  is  needed  a  medicine  man  goes  to  each  family  and  collects  beads 
or  pieces  of  turquoise  beads,  offering  them  to  the  gods  while  he  prays 
for  rain.  The  turquoise  is  left  on  the  peak  where  no  Indian  except  the 
medicine  man  ever  ventures.  The  name  Chuska  is  a  corruption  of 
Shashgai  (Navaho,  white  spruce). 

TOHATCHI  (Navaho,  scratch  for  water),  24.6  m.  (6,425  alt., 
150  pop.),  is  an  Indian  village  built  around  a  United  States  Indian 
Service  School.  The  school,  established  in  1895,  has  been  steadily  en- 
larged to  accommodate  150  pupils.  All  the  pupils  are  now  boarded  in 
the  school.  Formerly  day  students  were  transported  by  Government 
busses,  which  traveled  60  miles  a  day  taking  students  to  and  fro. 

Tohatchi,  so  named  because  water  is  obtained  simply  by  scratching 
below  the  top  soil  in  the  arroyos,  was  called  Little  Water  by  the  first 
white  settlers.  After  the  Reverend  L.  P.  Brink  came  here  in  1900  as  a 
missionary  of  the  Christian  Reformed  Board  of  Missions,  he  succeeded 
in  putting  a  part  of  the  Navaho  language  into  writing.  Tohatchi  has  a 
Roman  Catholic  mission  also,  and  across  the  line  in  Arizona  the  Fran- 
ciscan Fathers  compiled  a  Navaho*  grammar  and  dictionary  in  addition 
to  translating  hymns  and  psalms  into  Navaho.  The  trading  post  here 


TOUR   6  c    339 

has  been  operated  by  Albert  Arnold  since  1909.  Navaho  Chapter  here 
is  ojie  of  four  which  signed  an  agreement  to  co-operate  with  the  Experi- 
mental Station  of  Soil  Conservation  Service  at  Mexican  Springs  in  the 
reduction  of  stock  grazing.  The  Navaho  Chapter  in  this  village  is  simi- 
lar to  the  "grange**  in  the  East. 

A  Navaho  family  living  in  Coyote  Canyon  near  by  tells  of  the  days 
when  their  grandfather,  a  Mexican,  had  been  captured  aad  enslaved  by 
the  Zuni.  In  a  battle  with  this  tribe,  the  Navaho  captured  the  Mexican 
and  took  him  to  live  with  them.  This  incident  is  related  to  an  even 
earlier  era,  when  the  capture  and  enslavement  of  Indians  was  introduced 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  used  them  for  work  in  their  haciendas.  The  In- 
dians retaliated  by  enslaving  Spaniards  and  later  Mexicans.  For  years 
this  practice  was  continued  on  both  sides. 

On  the  summit  of  Tohatchi  Peak  (L)  is  the  Forest  Ranger  lookout. 
Bears  still  inhabit  this  region,  which  abounds  in  lakes  and  pine  trees; 
and  since  the  Navaho  do  not  kill  them  because  they  are  held  sacred  and 
hunting  on  the  reservation  is  forbidden,  the  bears  have  greatly  in- 
creased. At  25.6  m.  is  a  wide  panorama. 

The  eastern  flank  of  Chuska  Mountains  (L)  as  seen  from  the  high- 
way is  an  imperfectly  graded  slope  of  1 6  to  20  miles,  rising  from  the 
valley  at  a  rate  of  200  to  300  feet  per  mile  up  to  the  8,000  foot  con- 
tour above  which  steep  and  frequently  precipitous  cliffs  extend  to  the 
edge  of  the  plateau-like  summit.  Stream  channels  gash  the  surface 
from  one  to  three  miles  apart,  in  places  cutting  into  bedrock.  The 
streams,  lakes,  and  numerous  springs  are  frequently  surrounded  by  small 
meadows  near  the  base  of  the  upper  cliffs.  Flowers  remarkable  for  their 
abundance  and  variety  grow  at  moderate  altitudes.  White  spruce, 
pinon,  juniper,  alder,  and  aspen  cover  the  slopes.  Oaks  and  a  few  mag- 
nificent 3'ellow  pines  grow  along  the  higher  benches  above  7,000  feet. 
In  these  mountains  are  remains  of  breastworks  marking  a  fi^ht  that 
occurred  before  1850,  according  to  Navaho  legend,  between  their  war- 
riors and  Mexican  troops. 

DROLET'S,  42.9  m.  (5,850  alt.,  40  pop.),  is  a  trading  post  and 
Government  Day  School  whose  Navaho  name  is  Naschitty   (badger)  ; 
J.  M.  Drolet  once  owned  the  trading  post,  oldest  on  US  666.    Both  a 
Christian  Reformed  mission  and  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel  are  here. 
At  49  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  graded  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road,  14.2  m.t  to  WASHINGTON  PASS,  named  in  honor  of 
Lieutenant  Colonel  John  M.  Washington,  civil  and  military  governor  of  New 
Mexico,  1848-49,  and  commander  of  the  expedition  against  the  Navaho  in  1848. 
Locally  this  is  called  Cottonwood  Pass,  though  the  Navaho  name  is  Breath-kil- 
chee-beffez  (stream  running  from  two  peaks).  The  pass  leads  left  over 
Chuska  Mountains  to  CRYSTAL,  18  m.,  a  trading  post,  and  across  the  Arizona 
State  Line  to  the  upper  end  of  Canyon  de  Chelly  where  Kit  Carson  rounded 
up  the  Navaho  (see  Tour  8a).  On  the  summit  of  the  mountains  near  Washing- 
ton Pass  are  numerous  mountain  meadows  with  rain-filled  ponds  where 
Navaho  often  camp  during  the  summer  months  to  plant  fields  of  corn  and 
"Quash  and  to  graze  their  flocks. 


340      NEW     MEXICO 

From  47  m.  are  views  of  Arnold's  Rock,  Bennett's  Rock,  and  Mitten 
Rock,  straight  ahead  and  left  (north  and  northeast).  Along  the  road 
is  a  pipe  line  running  from  the  Rattlesnake  Oil  Fields  to  Gallup  with 
booster  stations  at  intervals  and  storage  tanks. 

NEWCOMB'S,  58.8  m.  (5,440  alt.,  25  pop.),  is  a  Navaho  trad- 
ing post,  day  school,  and  community  center.  The  trading  post  estab- 
lished years  ago  was  called  Nava  till  the  post  was  purchased  in  1914 
by  its  present  owner,  Arthur  J.  Newcomb.  Mrs.  Arthur  J.  ^New- 
comb  (Franc  J.)  is  the  recorder  and  co-author  with  Gladys  A.  Reichard 
of  Sand  Paintings  of  the  Navajo  Shooting  Chant  (i937);  a  valuable 
record  of  the  sacred  sand  picture  of  this  Navaho  ceremonial,  recorded 
under  the  supervision  of  Klah,  an  outstanding  medicine  man,  who  died 

in  1937- 

During  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  when  this  post  con- 
sisted of  one  small  building  and  a  dugout  in  the  hillside,  two  young 
freighters,  Roy  and  Clinton  Burnham,  cousins,  drove  up  with  a  dead 
man.  They  had  left  Farmington  for  Gallup  the  day  before  with  freight 
and  one  passenger,  an  old  prospector  named  Saunderson.  The  party 
camped  by  the  roadside  that  night.  The  two  younger  men,  up  at  dawn, 
called  to  Saunderson,  but  there  was  no  answer.  Laying  a  hand  on  the 
older  man's  shoulder,  they  found  him  cold  and  unresponsive.  After 
recovering  from  their  shock,  the  cousins  debated  what  disposition  to 
make  of  the  body.  The  law  required  that  the  deceased  remain  un- 
touched until  arrival  of  an  officer.  As  this  obviously  was  impossible, 
they  decided  to  move  the  body  to  the  trading  post  and  from  there  dis- 
patch an  Indian  runner  back  to  the  justice  of  the  peace  in  Farmington. 
Wrapping  the  corpse  in  canvas,  they  strapped  it  to  the  wagon  top, 
throwing  a  wagon  sheet  over  it  in  deliberately  careless  fashion.  On  ar- 
riving at  the  post,  the  white  men  told  their  story  to  the  trader.  His 
business  would  have  been  ruined  if  the  Navaho  had  learned  of  the 
corpse,  for  they  immediately  leave  the  vicinity  of  a  dead  body.  However, 
the  trader  allowed  the  body  to  be  locked  in  a  dugout  after  dark.  The 
runner  was  started  back,  and  the  cousins  went  on  without  arousing 
the  Indians'  suspicions.  On  their  return  with  a  load  of  Christmas  tur- 
keys for  Farmington,  they  stopped  again  at  the  post,  only  to  learn  that 
the  justice  had  instructed  them  "to  bury  the  body  there!"  After  dark 
they  chopped  a  hole  in  the  frozen  ground  with  axes,  then  Saunderson 
was  laid  on  his  own  pillow  and  bedding,  and  the  earth  was  slowly  and 
reverently  shoveled  in  and  leveled.  The  cousins  immediately  departed. 
Neither  cross  nor  handboard  marked  the  newly-made  grave,  but  the 
story  lives  on  in  reminiscences  of  early  traders. 

The  Indian  Day  School,  with  three  residences  for  employees,  was 
established  with  the  addition  of  a  community  house,  blacksmith  shop, 
and  bathhouse. 

For  many  years  the  Navaho  have  raised  fields  of  corn  along  the 
banks  of  Tunsta  Wash  which  runs  through  Newcomb's;  a  retention 
dam,  recently  built  at  the  head  of  the  wash  by  the  Soil  Conservation 
Service,  has  greatly  increased  the  water  supply  for  irrigation. 


TOUR     6C     341 

Numerous  pre-Columbian  ruins  near  Newcomb's  have  yielded  beauti- 
ful Pueblo  pottery  specimens — corrugated,  white-and-black,  and  red- 
and-black  of  a  pre-Mesa  Verde  type.  In  near-by  clay  cliffs  bordering 
the  Chaco  Wash  east  of  Newcomb's,  fossil  remains  have  been  discov- 
ered, including  bones  of  extinct  mammals,  and  forms  of  invertebrate  and 
plant  life.  This  whole  northwest  corner  of  New  Mexico  is  rich  in 
fossil  remains. 

The  CHUSKA  MOUNTAINS  (L)  are  of  porous,  friable  gray 
Chuska  sandstone  (see  Geology)  with  some  few  patches  of  volcanic  lava 
of  the  Tertiary  age.  Although  the  range  is  essentially  uniform  in  geo- 
logic structure  and  topography,  the  Navaho  call  the  northern  section 
LUKACHUKA1  (beautiful  mountain),  the  central  part  TUNITCHA 
(Tgo  Teo,  large  or  much  water),  and  the  southern  section,  CHUSKA. 

Forming  junctions  with  US  666  are  numerous  dirt  roads,  graded 
and  graveled,  leading  to  small  trading  posts,  Indian  settlements,  and 
schools. 

In  the  wide  amphitheater  south  of  Beautiful  Mountain  (8,340  alt.) 
short  streams  with  permanent  or  intermittent  flows  emerge  from  the 
network  of  deep  canyons  that  gash  the  east  face  of  distant  Tunitcha 
Mountain,  farther  south  (R).  Closer  to  the  highway  Bennett  Peak 
(L)  and  Ford  Peak  (R),  igneous  necks,  rise  abruptly  from  the  floor  of 
the  valley.  Both  peaks  have  long  served  as  landmarks  in  exploring 
and  mapping  the  surrounding  terrain.  Along  this  road  are  many  can- 
vas-covered, horse-drawn  wagons  transporting  entire  Navaho  families 
to  trading  posts  or  ceremonials;  also  horsemen  riding  to  the  post  to- 
trade  blankets  for  groceries  or  to  pawn  their  "hard  goods"  (silver, 
shell,  and  turquoise  necklaces  and  bracelets).  On  the  hills  are  occa- 
sional hogans,  doors  facing  east,  the  homes  of  the  Navaho  whose  flocks 
of  sheep  and  goats,  tended  by  their  children  and  followed  by  sheep 
dogs,  graze  in  the  valley. 

From  56  m.  SHIPROCK  (L),  a  volcanic  neck  which  resembles  a 
giant  ship,  full  sail  on  a  calm  sea.  The  Navaho  call  it  tae-bidahi  (the 
winged  rock). 

This  rock  that  towers  1,400  feet  above  the  surrounding  country 
has  served  both  Indian  and  white  man  as  a  landmark.  There  are*  many 
legends  connected  with  it,  and  the  Navaho  explain  its  origin  thus: 
Long  ago  when  they  were  besieged  by  Utes,  and  almost  overcome  by 
them,  the  medicine  men  held  a  ceremony,  making  medicine  all  day  and 
night.  As  the  second  night  came  on,  and  all  the  besieged  people  were 
praying  and  chanting,  the  rocky  ground  on  which  they  stood  rose  in 
the  air,  its  crags  formed  wings,  and  it  sailed  away,  Laving  the  enemy 
behind.  All  night  it  sailed  and  until  sundown  of  the  next  day,  when 
it  settled  in  the  mid'st  of  this  great  open  plain,  where  it  has  since  re- 
mained, a  sentinel  and  a  sacred  mountain. 

The  valley  floor  along  which  US  666  winds  is  marked  by  a  laby- 
rinth of  broken  mesas,  flat-topped  ridges,  and  low  hogbacks  eroded  into 
fantastic  knobs  and  pinnacles.  The  red  sandstone  mesas  are  of  various 


342     NEW     MEXICO 

sizes  and  forms  and  in  the  slanting  light  of  sunset  or  dawn  are  in- 
describably beautiful. 

In  SHIPROCK,  93  m.  (4,903  alt.,  500  pop.),  is  a  junction  with 
US  550  (see  Tour  9). 


KZK<&&^^^ 


Tour  7 


(Alamosa,  Colorado)  —  Chama  —  Tierra  Amarilla  —  Abiquiu  — 
Espanola  —  Santa  Fe  —  Vaughn  —  Roswell  —  Carlsbad  —  (Pecos, 
Texas) ;  NM  17,  US  84,  US  285. 
Colorado  Line  to  Texas  Line,  421  m. 

Graded  gravel  between  Colorado  Line  and  Chama.  Cumbres  Pass  at  Colorado 
Line  impassable  in  severe  winter  weather.  Balance  of  road  bituminous-paved. 
Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  roughly  parallels  route  between  Colo- 
rado Line  and  Chama;  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  parallels  route 
between  Roswell  and  the  Texas  Line. 
Accomodations  in  the  larger  towns. 

This  route  winds  through  mountainous  country  and  high  plateaus, 
through  quiet  farming  villages  and  places  important  in  New  Mexico 
history.  Part  of  the  way  is  through  two  national  forests  and  near  fish- 
ing, hunting,  and  recreational  areas.  Excellent  fishing  in  Chama-Brazos 
area  on  Chama  and  Brazos  Rivers;  8  fishing  lodges.  South  of  Santa 
Fe,  the  route  lies  through  grazing  lands  and  farm  areas,  having  a  much 
wanner  climate;  the  altitude  of  the  highway  varies  from  10,000  feet 
in  the  north  to  3,000  feet  in  the  south. 

Section  a.     COLORADO  LINE  to  SANTA  FE,  117  m. 

Through  Cumbres  Pass  (10,003  alt.)  NM  17  starts  at  COLO- 
RADO LINE,  0  m.f  at  a  point  70  miles  southwest  of  Alamosa,  Colo- 
rado. 

In  1848  Cumbres  Pass  was  the  scene  of  an  attack  by  United  States 
troops  on  a  large  band  of  Utes  and  Apaches.  The  hero  of  the  battle, 
Old  Bill  Williams,  was  praised  by  the  commanding  officer  for  gallantry 
but  condemned  by  his  admirers  for  ingratitude. 

William  Sherley  Williams  (1787-1849)  was  one  of  the  most  eccen- 
tric characters  in  New  Mexico.  He  was  born  in  North  Carolina  but 
raised  in  Missouri.  For  a  time  he  was  an  itinerant  preacher,  then  made 
his  home  with  the  Osage  Indian  Nation  in  Missouri.  Preacher  Bill's 
attempts  to  convert  the  Indians  ended  in  his  accepting  their  belief  and 
being  adopted  by  the  tribe;  he  married  an  Indian  and  became  the 


TOUR    7    343 

father  of  two  girls.  After  his  wife  died,  he  left  the  Osage  to  become 
a  trapper,  hunter,  and  guide. 

Old  Bill  Williams,  as  he  now  was  called,  preferred  to  trap  alone 
and  would  start  on  a  trip  with  six  traps  on  his  back,  each  weighing  five 
pounds,  also  a  blanket,  a  rifle,  and  a  knife  always  whetted  to  a  razor- 
like  edge.  He  would  return  after  a  few  weeks  bent  nearly  double 
under  a  burden  of  pelts.  These  sold,  and  cash  in  pocket,  he  would 
carouse  in  Taos  until  his  money  was  gone  then  start  forth  again.  Once 
he  traded  a  stack  of  pelts  for  a  barrel  of  whisky  at  Fort  Bent,  knocked 
the  top  off  the  barrel,  invited  all  hands  to  join  him  and  did  not  leave 
the  spot  until  the  barrel  was  empty. 

Williams,  six-feet-one  in  height,  was  thin  and  bony  but  tougher 
than  most  plainsmen;  when  he  walked  he  always  zig-zagged  from  side 
to  side ;  when  he  rode  it  was  with  a  short  stirrup-leather  that  made  him 
crouch  in  the  saddle  till  he  resembled  a  hunchback.  His  voice  was  high- 
pitched  and  his  words  had  a  peculiar  emphasis  that  suggested  the  various 
Indian  tongues  with  which  he  was  familiar.  His  blue  eyes  had  the 
furtive  expression  of  one  always  on  the  alert;  he  wore  buckskin  shirt 
and  trousers,  which  he  never  changed  until  they  were  worn  out.  In 
such  clothing  and  with  his  tawny  hair  reaching  his  shoulders  he  visited 
his  daughter  Mary,  who  was  living  near  St.  Louis.  By  this  time  Mary 
had  a  daughter,  who  screamed  when  she  saw  her  grandfather  and  hid 
under  the  bed. 

Soon  after  this  visit  Williams  decided  to  settle  down  and  opened  a 
store  in  Taos.  But  haggling  with  Mexican  women  over  prices  got  on 
his  nerves  and  he  quit  business  by  moving  his  stock  into  the  street, 
throwing  bolt  after  bolt  of  printed  calico  as  far  as  he  could,  and  yelling, 
"Take  the  damn  stuff  since  I  can't  sell  it  to  you."  For  a  time  he  en- 
joyed the  scramble  for  calico  which  was  priced  a  dollar  a  yard,  then  he 
started  out  with  his  traps  again  and  apparently  gave  no  further  thought 
to  his  store. 

Old  Bill  shot  with  a  double  wabble  but  was  reputed  one  of  the  best 
shots  of  his  time  and  was  always  eager  to  wager  a  hundred  dollars  on 
his  marksmanship ;  he  tagged  his  pelts  "Bill  Williams,  Master  Trapper.'* 

He  lived  with  Indians  more  often  than  with  persons  of  his  own 
race,  was  adopted  by  the  Ute  as  well  as  by  the  Osage,  and  accepted  their 
belief  in  transmigration.  He  prophesied  his  reincarnation  would  take 
form  as  a  buck  elk,  and  it  is  related  that  several  plainsmen  refrained 
from  killing  buck  elks  for  several  years  following  Old  Bill's  death. 

His  friendship  with  Indians  served  him  a  good  turn  and  made  him 
useful  as  an  interpreter.  But  the  old  scout's  fondness  for  liquor  finally 
caused  him  to  break  a  life-long  record  for  square  dealing.  Early  in 
1848  the  Ute  entrusted  him  with  a  quantity  of  furs  to  be  sold  in  Taos. 
The  deal  concluded,  Old  Bill  hied  himself  to  a  saloon  where  he  con- 
tinued a  spree  until  all  the  Indians'  money  was  gone.  Afterward  he 
couldn't  return  to  them  and  a  few  months  later  was  hired  as  a  guide 
by  Major  W.  W.  Reynolds  who  was  about  to  lead  a  DunitiVe  expedi- 


344    NEW    MEXICO 

tion  against  a  band  of  Apaches.  The  troops  followed  the  Apaches  into 
these  mountains  where  they  were  joined  by  some  Utes  and  together 
made  a  stand  at  Cumbres  Pass.  Thirty-six  Indians  and  two  white  sol- 
diers were  killed  during  the  engagement  that  followed.  In  his  report 
to  the  War  Department  Major  Reynolds  wrote,  "Williams,  a  cele- 
brated mountaineer,  who  behaved  himself  gallantly,  was  wounded 
badly." 

A  shattered  arm  kept  Old  Bill  at  Fort  Bent  for  several  weeks.  He 
probably  was  glad  for  the  respite.  Not  only  had  he  defrauded  his 
friends  the  Utes  but  he  had  led  soldiers  against  them  and  he  knew  that 
for  some  time  the  life  of  a  trapper  would  not  be  safe  for  him.  Such 
was  his  condition  when  he  was  asked  to  join  Fremont's  fourth  expedi- 
tion, financed  by  private  capital,  and  organized  to  survey  a  cross  coun- 
try railroad  route. 

John  C.  Fremont,  who  within  five  years  had  risen  from  lieutenant 
to  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  topographical  division  of  the  army,  had  been 
appointed  governor  of  California  by  Stockton  and  court-martialed  for 
refusing  to  take  orders  from  Kearny,  left  Fort  Bent  at  the  head  of  a 
well-equipped  force  late  in  1848.  Asked  why  he  undertook  the  journey 
at  such  a  season  Fremont  said  that  he  wished  to  experience  the  most 
unfavorable  conditions  that  a  railroad  would  encounter.  In  that  he 
was  successful. 

Dick  Wootton  started  out  as  Fremont's  guide  but  soon  said,  "There 
is  too  much  snow  ahead  for  me."  Efforts  to  engage  Kit  Carson,  who 
was  at  Taos,  proved  unsuccessful  and  Fremont  finally  selected  Old  Bill 
Williams  to  lead  this,  his  most  important  enterprise.  The  truth  of 
what  happened  in  the  Sawatch  Mountains  and  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  did 
not  become  known  for  several  years,  not  until  reports  made  by  several 
survivors  had  been  published  and  analyzed.  Meanwhile  Old  Bill 
Williams  was  charged  with  having  lost  his  way,  was  held  responsible 
for  the  death  by  freezing  of  eleven  men,  and  was  even  accused  of  can- 
nibalism. 

Facts  subsequently  brought  to  light  proved  that  Williams  advised 
that  what  now  is  known  as  La  Veta  Pass  be  used  to  cross  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo,  but  Fremont  insisted  upon  using  Cochetopa  Pass  over  the 
Sawatch  and  sent  Old  Bill  to  the  rear,  selecting  another  guide.  In 
January  squads  from  the  ill-fated  expedition  commenced  arriving  at 
Taos.  It  took  three  men  ten  days  to  make  forty  miles;  feet  and 
hands  frozen  they  "crawled  on  ice  or  through  snow."  Old  Bill  Wil- 
liams was  saved  from  starvation  by  the  capture  of  a  deer.  His  first  act 
was  to  cut  out  the  liver  and  eat  it  raw.  Then  he  "took  the  meat  in 
his  bony  hands  and  began  tearing  off  great  mouthfuls  of  raw  flesh  like 
a  savage  animal." 

^  Two  months  later  Williams  and  another  scout  set  out  for  the  moun- 
tains to  recover  the  goods  and  money  cached  by  Fremont.  It  happened 
that  a  fortnight  prior  to  this  a  junior  lieutenant  of  dragoons,  sent 
against  a  party  of  Utes,  had  obeyed  orders  too  literally  and  had  killed 
a  score  who  had  been  ambushed.  The  Utes,  seeking  revenge,  came 


TOUR    7    345 

upon  Williams  and  his  companion  who  were  smoking  as  they  sat  beside 
a  campfire.  Both  were  fatally  shot  by  the  Indians.  It  is  said  that 
notwithstanding  Old  Bill  Williams'  misuse  of  money  and  his  part  in 
the  battle  at  Cumbres  Pass,  the  Utes  mourned  the  death  of  their  adopted 
son  and  gave  him  a  chief's  burial. 

CHAMA,  8.6  m.  (7,850  alt.,  1,204  pop.),  is  a  lumbering  and  trad- 
ing center  on  the  Chama  River.  Lumber  yards,  a  saw  mill,  general 
stores,  and  small  industries  engage  the  townspeople.  It  is  a  shipping 
point  for  the  new  oil  fields  opened  up  in  1937  in  Chromo  Valley,  just 
over  the  Colorado  Line.  At  a  REGISTRATION  STATION  (all  trucks 
must  stop)  on  the  south  edge  of  town,  trucks  must  pay  a  road  fee  and 
out-of-state  cars  not  properly  licensed  buy  additional  tags.  Route  con- 
tinues on  US  84. 

The  route  crosses  the  Rio  Brazos,  20.3  m.t  and  runs  through  an 
open  valley. 

At  21.9  77z.,  at  El  Vado  or  Tierra  Amarilla,  is  junction  with  NM 
112,  a  paved  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  EL  VADO  DAM  AND  RESERVOIR  (trout  fishing; 
hotels,  tourist  camps,  campgrounds)  14.9  m.f  a  storage  reservoir  on  the  Chama 
River.  El  Vado  (ford)  Dam  is  part  of  the  Middle  Rio  Grande  Conservancy 
Project  for  flood  control  and  irrigation. 

TIERRA  AMARILLA,  24  m.  (6,800  alt.,  1,097  pop.),  named 
for  the  yellow  earth  in  this  vicinity,  is  the  seat  of  Rio  Arriba  County, 
one  of  the  old  Mexican  districts  settled  by  Spaniards  and  Mexicans, 
and  also  one  of  the  original  counties  set  up  in  1852  under  the  United 
States.  Tierra  Amarilla  was  the  ration  headquarters  for  the  Ute  and 
Jicarilla  Apache  in  1871-72,  before  the  Ute  were  moved  to  a  reserva- 
tion in  San  Juan  County  and  the  Apache  to  the  western  part  of  this 
county. 

CANJIL6N,  (L)  43.2  m.  (7,800  alt.,  644  pop.),  a  trading  point 
for  fanners  and  sheep  ranchers,  is  reputedly  the  town  where  lived  the 
descendants  of  De  Vargas,  conquistador. 

US  84  now  follows  the  CHAMA  RIVER. 

ABIQUIU,  68  772.  (5,930  alt.,  621  pop.),  in  the  center  of  a  farm- 
ing and  stock  raising  area,  is  on  the  site  of  pueblo  ruins.  In  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  it  became  a  settlement  of  Genizaros  (see 
Tour  Ib)  and  in  1778  was  one  of  the  stops  on  the  Spanish  Trail 
to  the  new  village  of  Los  Angeles,  California. 

HERNANDEZ,  84  m.f  fast  growing  community. 

CHAMITA,  with  a  store,  church,  chapel,  and  a  few  houses,  is 
the  trading  center  for  San  Juan  Pueblo  and  is  across  the  Chama  River 
on  US  285. 

As  US  84  traverses  the  Chama  Valley  the  Rio  Grande  is  in  the 
distance  (L). 

ESPANOLA,  91  772.  (5,600  alt.,  1,976  pop.),  a  shipping  point  for 
fruit,  stock,  and  other  farm  products,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  On  east  bank  is  junction  with  US  285-64,  with  which  this 
route  is  united  to  SANTA  FE,  117  m.  (see  Tour  8a). 


346      NEW     MEXICO 

Section  b.    SANTA  FE  to  TEXAS  LINE,  804  m. 

Between  SANTA  FE,  0  m.,  and  a  junction  at  9.8  m.,  US  285  which 
the  tour  follows  is  united  with  US  84,  then  branches  R.  over  hilly  pas- 
ture land  with  vistas  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  (L)  and  the 
Cerrillos  Hills,  Manzano,  Sandia,  and  Jemez  Mountains  (R).  The 
road  curves  frequently  as  it  descends  into  a  ravine  of  Apache  Creek 
Canyon* 

LAMY,  17  m.  (6,457  alt.,  186  pop.)  (L)  1  m.,  junction  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  for  passengers  to  Santa  Fe,  was 
named  for  Archbishop  Lamy  (see  Religion). 

South  of  the  junction  with  NM  41,  US  285  is  flanked  by  Pankey's 
Pasture  (R),  named  for  Benjamin  Pankey  who  early  in  the  twentieth 
century  accumulated  more  than  half  a  million  acres  of  grass  land  in 
New  Mexico  stocked  with  thousands  of  cattle;  but  he  failed,  and  his 
property  passed  into  other  hands.  The  route  is  through  miles  of  grassy 
plains  with  hills  on  both  sides  and  cattle  or  sheep  grazing:  near  the  road. 
A  filling  station,  store,  and  cafe  called  CLINES  CORNERS,  52  m., 
mark  the  junction  with  US  66  (see  Tour  6a).  Southward,  the  high- 
way traverses  more  plains  and  rolling  country  peopled  only  by  scattered 
ranchers. 

In  ENCINO,  79  772.  (408  pop.),  is  a  junction  with  US  60  (see 
Tour  8a)  with  which  this  route  is  united  to  VAUGHN,  97  m.  (see 
Tour  8a). 

South  of  Vaughn,  US  285,  paved,  proceeds  over  a  graded  and 
paved  roadbed  across  a  high  rolling  prairie.  For  nearly  100  miles 
plains  country  is  suitable  for  grazing  and  stock  raising,  and  there  are 
few  settlements. 

Underlying  this  area  is  the  ARTESIAN  BASIN,  where  hundreds 
of  artesian  wells  bring  cold,  pure  water  from  the  limestone  depths 
(see  Geology).  Water  from  heavy  rains  and  melting  snows  of  the 
mountains,  together  with  the  drainage  from  the  basins  of  streams  tribu- 
tary to  the  Pecos,  is  caught  in  the  honeycomb  channels  of  porous  lime- 
stone strata  that  underlie  the  top  soil  and  "valley  fill."  This  porous 
deposit  outcrops  on  the  east  flank  of  the  Sacramento  Mountains  (see 
Tour  13)  and  extends  underground  to  the  bluffs  east  of  the  Pecos 
River,  serving  as  a  natural  channel  to  convey  the  water  downward  to 
the  valley  floor.  The  natural  hydrostatic  pressure  is  sufficient  to  force 
water  from  the  basin  surface  when  tapped  and  in  many  cases  is  suffi- 
cient to  "push  out"  the  springs,  many  of  which  are  in  this  area.  Water 
from  these  wells,  which  have  been  drilled  to  depths  of  700  feet  though 
the  average  depth  is  250  feet,  transforms  60,000  acres  of  arid  lands 
into  good  farm  lands. 

Irrigation  farming  has  been  practiced  in  the  Basin  since  1880,  the 
water  at  first  being  obtained  from  the  large  springs  near  Roswell  or  di- 
verted from  tributaries  of  the  Pecos.  It  was  not  until  1905  that  irri- 
gation from  artesian  wells  began  to  assume  importance. 

At  186  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  70  (see  Tour  10). 


TOUR   7    347 

ROSWELL,  191  m.  (3,600  alt.,  39,593  pop.)>  in  less  than  sev- 
enty years  has  grown  from  a  barren  plains  trading  post  to  one  of  the 
most  modern  and  attractive  cities  in  the  State  with  miles  of  wide,  paved 
streets  shaded  by  fine  old  trees,  attractive  homes,  gardens,  and  public 
buildings.  Its  industries  include  cotton  gins,  creameries,  oil  explora- 
tion and  development.  It  has  an  airport,  railroad,  bus  lines,  three 
radio  stations,  the  fully  accredited  New  Mexico  Military  Institute  (see 
below),  tennis  courts,  and  a  golf  course,  (fees  25$  and  50^ ).  Its 
population,  which  is  90  per  cent  Anglo-American,  9  per  cent  Spanish 
and  Mexican  stock,  and  i  per  cent  foreign  born,  observes  several  festivals 
including  San  Juan's  Day,  June  24,  Mexican  Independence  Day,  Sep- 
tember 1 6,  and  the  Eastern  New  Mexico  Fair  and  Rodeo  which  runs 
for  five  days,  beginning  early  in  October.  This  fair  is  the  most  popu- 
lar with  the  townspeople  and  usually  attracts  50,000  visitors.  Many 
wear  costumes  common  when  Roswell  was  a  lone  store  on  a  cattle  trail 
in  the  wilderness. 

Roswell's  modern  history  begins  in  1865  when  a  group  of  set- 
tlers, known  as  the  Missourians,  attempted  to  establish  the  Missouri 
Plaza,  15  miles  to  the  southwest,  but  were  forced  to  abandon  the  site 
because  of  insufficient  water.  In  1869  a  professional  gambler  named 
Van  C.  Smith,  who  came  from  Omaha  by  way  of  Santa  Fe  with  his 
partner,  Aaron  O.  Wilburn,  constructed  two  adobe  buildings  here  that 
served  as  general  store,  post  office,  and  attic  sleeping  quarters  for  paying 
guests. 

March  4,  1871,  Van  Smith  filed  the  first  claim;  three  years  later  he 
was  appointed  postmaster,  and  the  place  was  named  Roswell  for  his 
father.  Captain  Joseph  C.  Lea  came  in  1877  and  bought  Smith's  hold- 
ings, and  a  year  later  his  father-in-law  Major  W.  W.  Wildy  bought 
out  Wilburn  and  two  other  settlers,  presenting  this  property  to  his 
daughter,  Sally  Wildy  Lea.  This  gave  the  Lea  family  entire  owner- 
ship, and  their  influence  kept  peace  and  order  during  the  Lincoln  County 
War  of  1877-79  (see  Tour  12b).  Mrs.  Lea's  struggles  in  behalf  of 
education  and  civic  improvements  attracted  other  settlers  to  Roswell 
in  the  early  i88o's,  and  the  village  became  an  important  trading  center. 

When  the  accidental  discovery  of  an  artesian  water  source  (1891) 
on  the  Nathan  Jaffa  place  near  Roswell  revealed  an  unlimited  supply 
of  water,  ditches  were  cut  through  the  plains  and  irrigation  begun  that 
now  results  in  annual  crops  in  this  region  of  staple  cotton,  alfalfa, 
apples,  corn,  small  grain,  and  garden  truck  worth  more  than  $2,000,000. 

After  the  railroad  (1894)  had  replaced  carts  drawn  by  burros  and 
oxen,  there  were  two  land  booms  and  an  oil  boom,  bringing  many  more 
persons.  Since  then  growth  has  been  steady. 

The  NEW  MEXICO  MILITARY  INSTITUTE  is  i  mile  north  of  the 
center  of  town.  The  central  campus  consists  of  47  acres  of  level  mesa 
land  situated  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  main  part  of  Roswell  and  shaded 
by  numerous  trees.  The  total  value  of  buildings,  furniture,  and  fixtures 


348    NEW    MEXICO 

approximates  $6,000,000.  Hagerman  Barracks,  Lea  Hall,  Willson 
Hall,  Luna  Memorial  Natatorium,  the  Hospital,  Headquarters,  Gaboon 
Armory,  Mess  Hall,  Thomas  Memorial,  and  the  houses  of  the  Super- 
intendent and  the  Executive  Officer  are  all  handsome  buff  brick  struc- 
tures of  Tudor-Gothic  military  design. 

The  Institute  is  a  liberal  arts  college,  prepares  students  for  govern- 
ment services,  offers  pre-law,  pre-medical  training,  and  degrees  in  the 
sciences  and  arts.  The  Institute,  founded  in  1891,  has  been  awarded 
highest  honors  by  the  War  Department  and  highest  rating  of  a  senior 
unit  in  the  Armored  Cavalry  branch  of  the  Reserve  Officers  Training 
Corps. 

In  the  J.  Ross  Thomas  Memorial  Building  are  large  murals  by 
Peter  Kurd,  depicting  incidents  and  scenes  in  the  early  history  of  Ros- 
well.  These  can  be  seen  by  visitors  at  any  time  during  the  day. 

WALKER  AIR  FORCE  BASE,  4  m.  south  of  Roswell,  is  a  permanent 
installation  of  the  Strategic  Air  Command.  After  the  end  of  World 
War  II  it  became  the  home  of  the  5OQth  Composite  Group  that  dropped 
the  First  Atomic  Bomb.  Approximately  5,500  men  are  assigned  to 
Walker.  Twelve  Atlas  ICBM  missile  sites  complement  the  mission  of 
Walker. 

In  Roswell  is  the  junction  with  US  380  (see  Tour  12). 

South  of  Roswell,  US  285  parallels  the  PECOS  RIVER  famed  as 
the  boundary  line  of  western  justice.  The  "law  west  of  the  Pecos"  is 
a  western  idiom  signifying  justice  summarily  dealt.  The  cattle  kings 
whose  empires  flourished  in  the  Pecos  valley  in  the  nineteenth  century 
have  moved  to  the  north  and  east ;  irrigation  has  turned  the  valley  into 
a  luxuriant  garden  spot,  and  the  big  ranches  have  been  divided. 

CHISUM  RANCH  (R),  198.3  m.t  originally  owned  by  John 
Chisum,  then  by  J.  J.  Hagerman,  operated  at  one  time  by  Cornell  Uni- 
versity as  an  experimental  station,  is  now  a  modern  irrigated  farm  with 
much  of  its  beauty  preserved.  John  Chisum  came  from  Tennessee  to 
Paris,  Texas,  where  he  served  as  county  clerk.  Soon  after  the  Civil 
War  he  drove  three  small  herds  of  cattle  to  Little  Rock  and  sold  them 
to  a  packing  house  owned  partly  by  himself.  This  enterprise  failed 
and  he  filed  papers  in  bankruptcy.  As  his  only  assets  were  wild  Texas 
cattle,  inaccesible  for  attachment  and  inconvertible  into  cash,  Chisum 
started  life  again  while  judgments  against  him  became  waste  paper. 

Charles  Goodnight  and  Oliver  Loving  had  already  blazed  the  trail 
up  the  Pecos  River,  and  Chisum  started  his  new  drive  over  the  same 
route  with  a  motley  gang,  establishing  headquarters  in  the  Bosque 
Grande  30  miles  south  of  Fort  Sumner  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  on  a  ranch 
site  previously  established  by  Goodnight.  His  first  herd  of  600  beeves 
he  sold  at  Fort  Sumner  and  obtained  a  contract  to  deliver  10,000  more. 
Realizing  the  riches  of  the  Pecos  Valley,  he  determined  to  make  it  his 
home  and  on  his  second  drive  he  made  his  permanent  headquarters  at 
this  ranch,  though  he  maintained  two  other  cow  camps.  Between  1870 


TOUR    7    349 

and  1 88 1  Chisum  was  credited  with  having  the  largest  holdings  of  cat- 
tle in  the  world.  His  ranch  then  extended  from  Fort  Swnner  on  the 
Pecos  for  200  miles  southward  to  the  Texas  Line.  Though  his  peti- 
tion to  President  Grant  for  a  patent  to  the  whole  area  was  denied,  for 
some  time  no  one  dared  dispute  his  rule ;  he  enforced  his  edict,  "settlers 
are  unwelcome,"  and  the  cattle  with  the  "long  rail"  brand  and  "jingle 
bob"  earmark  (vertical  split  in  both  ears)  multiplied.  His  ranch  had 
more  than  100,000  head  of  cattle  at  its  zenith  about  1878  before  Indian 
raids,  rustlers,  and  competition  from  other  owners  diminished  his  power 
and  his  wealth. 

After  his  death  in  1884  litigation  made  further  inroads.  In  1893 
a  Colorado  business  man,  J.  J.  Hagerman,  and  a  group  bought  the 
Chisum  ranch.  Hagerman  was  an  empire  builder  of  another  sort  and 
with  Charles  B.  Eddy  and  other  citizens  of  Roswell  developed  the  trans- 
portation facilities  of  the  valley.  The  Chisum  Ranch  in  1894  was  tne 
scene  of  an  elaborate  party  celebrating  arrival  of  the  first  railroad  train 
to  Roswell.  In  1904  Hagerman  remodeled  the  ranch  house,  but  the 
main  structure  was  left  intact  and  made  the  central  part  of  the  new 
abode.  Later  the  Hagerman  estate  sold  it  to  Cornell  University. 

DEXTER,  210  772.  (3,560  alt.,  1,050  pop.),  a  town  of  gardens  and 
a  trading  center  for  farmers,  is  surrounded  by  fertile  cotton  fields.  It 
has  cotton  gins  and  an  alfalfa  mill.  In  the  latter  the  alfalfa  is  dehy- 
drated and  ground  into  a  fine  powder,  sacked,  and  shipped  to  manu- 
facturers of  prepared  stock  feeds. 

Southward  the  highway  is  flanked  on  both  sides  by  broad  alfalfa 
fields  that  yield  heavily. 

HAGERMAN,  217  772.  (3,520  alt.,  1,250  pop.),  named  for  J.  J. 
Hagerman  (see  above),  is  a  thriving  farming  community  and  the  site 
of  the  MINERAL  WELLS  SANATORIUM. 

ARTESIA,  235  772.  (3,380  alt.,  12,000  pop.),  was  settled  in  1903 
and  owes  its  rapid  growth  to  oil  discoveries.  When  Artesia  was  in- 
corporated in  1905  it  had  a  population  of  1,003.  Its  growth  has  been 
solid  and  steady.  Prior  to  1923,  its  economy  was  based  on  irrigated 
farming  and  ranching. 

The  discovery  of  oil  in  1923  accelerated  Artesia's  growth.  Today 
there  are  more  than  3,300  oil  wells  in  the  immediate  area,  gasoline  re- 
fineries, natural  gas  plants,  oil  and  gas  pipe  lines,  and  gasoline  storage 
tanks. 

Farming  and  livestock  still  comprise  a  large  part  of  the  economy, 
cotton  and  alfalfa  being  principal  farm  crops ;  sheep  and  cattle  comprise 
a  majority  of  the  livestock. 

The  homestead  on  which  the  town  was  built  was  a  part  of  the 
Chisum  holding,  known  as  South  Chisum  Ranch.  It  was  on  the  old 
stagecoach  road  between  Eddy  (now  Carlsbad)  and  Roswell.  Billy 
the  Kid  spent  the  winter  of  1880  here. 

In  Artesia  is  the  junction  with  NM  83  (see  Tour  14). 

DAYTON,  244  772.  (3,300  alt.),  today  a  ghost  town,  once  was  ex- 
panded by  an  oil  boom  to  a  town  of  2,000  inhabitants  in  1927.  MAR- 


35O      NEW     MEXICO 

ABLE  RANCH  (R),  formerly  the  Gilbert  Ranch,  is  the  oldest  ranch  in 
Pecos  Valley. 

Active  artesian  wells  are  not  found  south  of  Dayton,  and  irrigation 
of  the  lands  is  by  a  system  of  dams,  canals,  ditches,  flumes,  and  siphons, 
known  collectively  as  the  CARLSBAD  RECLAMATION  PROJ- 
ECT. This  project  spreads  the  waters  of  the  Pecos  (which  have 
been  impounded  in  Lake  McMillan  and  Lake  Avalon)  over  the  land 
up  and  down  the  valley.  Farmers  in  the  valley  frequently  receive  some 
$27,000,000  for  their  crops,  chief  of  which  is  long  staple  cotton. 

Alfalfa  is  extensively  raised  but  its  acreage  is  decreasing  in  favor 
of  cotton.  Many  crops,  ranging  from  canaigre  (a  native  plant  from 
which  a  type  of  tannic  acid  is  extracted)  through  varieties  of  sorghums 
and  maizes  have  been  experimented  with  and  all  have  had  a  fair 
measure  of  success.  Grapevines  and  fruit  trees  were  also  introduced 
and  likewise  did  well,  but  distance  from  markets  and  problems  of  dis- 
tribution made  such  crops  less  profitable. 

At  257  m.  is  the  junction  with  an  improved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  3  m.  is  LAKEWOOD,  (3,200  alt.,  286  pop.),  formerly 
center  for  farmers.  Stretching  south  and  west,  the  village  overtakes  Old 
Seven  Rivers,  settled  in  1870  by  "Pa"  and  "Ma"  Jones  who  came  from 
Virginia  by  ox  wagon.  As  a  stopping  point  on  the  cattle  trail  from  Texas  and 
trading  post  for  the  ranchers  of  the  valley,  Seven  Rivers  soon  became  a  typical 
"wild  and  woolly"  community.  One  saloon  boasted  a  "door  with  easy  hinges" 
that  was  readily  removed  and  served  as  a  stretcher  for  customers  who  had  been 
too  slow  on  the  draw.  Remnants  of  the  old  adobe  walls  and  the  old  cemetery, 
where  it  is  said  most  of  the  men  were  buried  with  their  boots  on,  are  all  that 
is  left  of  the  community. 

Rocky  Arroyo,  formerly  called  Indian  Creek,  is  crossed  at  266.2  m. 
The  Carlsbad  Flume  is  visible  100  yards  (L)  of  the  highway  at  273.3 
m.  CARLSBAD  MINERAL  SPRING  (L),  in  the  center  of  a  desert,  con- 
tains solutions  of  soda,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  take  a  "salt  bath"  here  in 
so-called  fresh  water. 

CARLSBAD,  271  m.  (3,110  alt.,  25,541  pop.),  known  as  the 
potash  capital  of  America,  was  settled  in  1888,  and  in  1889  was  or- 
ganized as  the  town  of  Eddy.  The  old  stockmen  rode  through  knee- 
deep  grass,  but  irrigation  transformed  the  area  into  cultivated  land. 
After  a  flood  of  the  Pecos  River  in  1904  had  nearly  destroyed  the  pri- 
vate irrigation  system,  the  United  States  Government  bought  it  (1906) 
?nd  developed  the  Carlsbad  Reclamation  Project  which  insures  ade- 
quate irrigation  for  the  valley  with  no  danger  from  floods.  The  soil 
is  especially  adapted  to  alfalfa  and  cotton.  Carlsbad  boomed  when 
operations  in  the  nearby  potash  mines  began  in  1931  (see  Tour  16). 
Carlsbad  is  point  of  departure  for  the  famous  caverns  (see  Tour  16 A). 

LOVING,  283  m.  (3,100  alt.,  1,646  pop.),  was  first  named  Vough 
for  Swiss  settlers,  then  renamed  Florence.  It  was  later  named  for  John 
Loving,  who  was  one  of  the  first  to  drive  cattle  up  the  Pecos  from  Texas. 
It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  cotton  and  alfalfa  section,  though  many  residents 
work  at  the  potash  plants. 


TOUR     7A     351 

MALAGA,  288  m.  (3,045  alt.,  1,073  pop.).  A  trading  point  for 
farmers  and  ranchers,  so  named  for  the  Malaga  wine  grapes  grown  in 
abundance  here  many  years  ago.  Chief  crops  are  alfalfa  and  cotton; 
two  cotton  gins  here. 

At  304  772.  US  285  crosses  the  TEXAS  LINE  52  miles  north  of 
Pecos,  Texas. 


Tour  7 A 


Espanola— Santa  Clara  Pueblo— Puye  Cliff  Ruins.     NM  30  &  NM  5. 
Espanola  to  Puye  Ruins,  15  m. 

NM  30  paved;  NM  5  is  graded  gravel  road. 
Accommodations  at  Espanola. 

This  route  to  the  Santa  Clara  Pueblo  and  Puye  Cliff  Ruins  goes 
through  the  quiet  low  country  and  past  the  ranchitos  of  descendants  of 
Spanish  colonials  who  in  the  sixteenth  century  wrested  the  land  from 
the  Indian. 

NM  30  branches  south  from  its  junction  with  US  84  m  the  western 
end  of  ESPANOLA,  0  772.  (5,600  alt.,  1,446  pop.)  (see  Tour  7a),  and 
crosses  a  bridge  over  the  bed  of  the  Santa  Clara  River,  0.8  m.,  dry  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  but  flowing  in  spring  and  during  the  rainy 
season  in  July  and  August. 

NM  30  passes  the  placita  of  Giiachepangue  0.9  777.,  once  an  Indian 
village  with  a  small  adobe  chapel. 

At  1.9  m.  is  a  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  SANTA  CLARA  PUEBLO  (obtain  permission  to  photo- 
graph from  the  pueblo  governor),  0.3  m.t  on  a  low  mesa  above  the  west  bank 
of  the  Rio  Grande.  K'hapoo  (Ind.,  where  the  water  grows  under)  is  the 
native  name  of  this  Tewa-speaking  settlement,  which  covers  17,369  acres  of 
land  granted  by  the  Spanish  King  and  patented  by  the  United  States  in  1864. 

Their  all-black  pottery  originated  in  Santa  Clara  is  exceptionally  good,  the 
traditional  shapes  are  maintained,  and  little  innovation  has  been  introduced 
in  exterior  decoration,  the  forms  themselves  constituting  the  intrinsic  beauty  of 
bowls,  alias,  and  tinajas.  When  an  automobile  appears  in  the  plaza  the 
women  bring  out  their  pottery  and  stand  behind  it  while  the  visitor  examines 
and  makes  his  choice.  They  are  about  the  same  size  as  most  New  Mexican 
Indians,  speak  English,  and  are  very  courteous. 

Archeologists  verify  the  Santa  Clara  belief  that  their  ancestors  came  from 
the  clusters  of  artificial  grottoes  of  Puye  and  Shufinne  (see  below).  It  is  not 
known  when  the  pueblo  was  settled.  A  Franciscan  missionary  was  assigned 
to  Santa  Clara  in  September  1598,  and  the  first  mission  was  built  between  1626 
and  1629  by  Fray  Alonso  de  Benavides,  who  is  credited  with  conversions  among 


352      NEW     MEXICO 

the  "Apaches  de  Navahu,"  whose  range  was  on  the  west.  Santa  Clara  joined 
in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680  and  destroyed  the  church,  the  site  of  which  is 
now  marked  by  a  mound  of  earth.  After  the  Reconquest  by  De  Vargas  (1692) 
a  new  church  and  monastery — now  also  in  ruins — were  built,  and  at  intervals 
during  the  next  100  years  Santa  Clara  was  changed  from  a  visita  to  a  mission 
and  back  again,  until  1782  when  it  became  a  permanent  mission  with  San 
Ildefonso  as  a  visita.  Bandelier  says  the  church,  built  in  1760,  was  already 
in  decay  in  1893.  It  was  built  of  adobe,  135  feet  long,  cruciform  in  plan,  and 
with  an  entrance  eight  feet  wide  and  ten  feet  high.  The  massive,  deeply 
paneled  doors  were  adorned  with  engraved  escutcheons.  These  large  doors  were 
opened  only  on  special  occasion.  Cut  in  one  door  was  a  smaller  entrance,  "the 
eye  of  the  needle,"  three  feet  by  six  feet,  for  daily  use.  This  church  had  a  bell 
marked  1710  and  two  wooden  side  altars  bearing  the  date  1782.  The  priest's 
quarters  contained  rude  native  carvings  of  animals;  and  stored  away  in  old 
wooden  chests  and  closets  were  ancient  ecclesiastical  vestments,  as  well  as 
very  old  Spanish  documents.  The  last  mentioned  are  what  remain  of  the 
Archives  of  the  Franciscan  Order  in  New  Mexico,  the  Custodia  de  la  Conversion 
de  San  Pablo  de  la  Nuevo  Mexico  (Custody  of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul 
of  New  Mexico).  These  have  been  in  Santa  Clara  since  the  old  military 
chapel  of  Santa  Fe,  Castruenza  or  Castrense,  was  condemned  as  unsafe  in  1844. 
Concerning  his  efforts  to  examine  these  archives,  Bandelier  said  that  they 
remained  in  an  old  cupboard  of  the  ruined  convent  until  an  illiterate  Indian, 
who  venerated  old  things,  proposed  they  be  given  to  some  individual  who  would 
care  for  them.  For  a  long  time  the  Principals  of  the  pueblo  refused,  protesting 
that  the  higher  powers  would  be  offended;  but  when  these  were  finally  con- 
sulted, the  answer  was  in  the  affirmative,  and  the  archives  were  removed  from 
the  ruins  and  placed  in  charge  of  a  blind  Indian  who  kept  them  in  a  back  room 
of  his  house  out  of  sight  and  guarded  closely.  It  was  only  after  arming 
himself  with  letters  from  the  Archbishop  at  Santa  Fe  and  the  resident  priest 
at  Santa  Cruz,  that  Bandelier  finally  was  allowed  to  see  them  and  make  copies 
of  those  that  had  some  bearing  on  New  Mexico  history.  The  originals  are  still 
at  Santa  Clara,  guarded  with  superstitious  care  by  an  Indian  who  is  as  zealous 
of  their  safety  as  was  the  original  tribesman-guardian. 

In  1909  the  massive  church  from  which  these  documents  were  taken  was 
being  remodeled.  After  the  roof  with  its  supporting  timber  had  been  removed, 
a  storm  occurred,  causing  the  walls  to  fall  (as  they  did  at  Nambe)  and  the 
building  was  destroyed.  The  present  church  is  designed  in  a  modified  version 
of  Spanish-Pueblo  style. 

Records  indicate  that  Santa  Clara's  decline  was  owing  to  numerous  inter- 
tribal killings  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft  and  to  the  ravages  of  disease.  In 
less  than  two  months  during  1782  over  500  deaths  occurred  here  and  in  one 
other  pueblo.  The  Indians  themselves  blame  their  decline  on  internal  disagree- 
ments. Though  the  Navaho  were  said  to  have  cultivated  fields  in  this  vicinity, 
raids  by  other  Navaho  as  well  as  inroads  by  the  whites  seriously  depreciated 
the  Santa  Clara  lands. 

On  the  hills  surrounding  the  pueblo  are  many  shrines  formed  by  arrange- 
ments of  stones.  Sacred  meal  and  prayer  sticks  are  still  deposited  at  some 
of  these  places  during  certain  rituals.  August  12  the  Feast  Day  of  Santa  Clara 
de  Assisi,  is  usually  celebrated  with  Mass  followed  by  Indian  dances  and 
horse  races. 

NM  30  parallels  the  bottomlands  of  the  Rio  Grande,  runs  between 
the  Black  or  Orphan  Mesa  (L)  and  the  foothills  of  the  Pajarito  Plateau 
(R).  The  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  along  NM  30  has 
been  abandoned. 

At  3.8  m.  is  junction  with  Puye  road,  NM  5.  Route  goes  R.  between 
gravelly,  pinon-dotted  hills  and  terraced,  eroded  cliffs  and  ascends  a 
steep  grade  at  7  m.  to  the  top  of  the  level  Pajarito  Plateau,  covered 


TOUR    7  A    353 

sparsely  with  rabbit  brush  and  desert  grass.  The  Jemez  Mountains 
rise  ahead  on  the  horizon. 

As  the  highway  gives  way  to  a  dirt  road  through  tall  pines,  tawny 
colored  tuff  cliffs  are  visible  at  9.9  m.r  also  the  caves  of  Puye  Ruins. 

After  a  turn  (R)  at  10.9  m.f  the  road  leads  to  the  rock  Guest  House 
and  Museum  of  the  PUYE  RUINS  (Tewa,  where  cottontail  rabbits  a_s- 
semble)  (adults  $0$;  children  25$),  11.5  m.  An  Indian  attendant  "is 
in  charge. 

Puye's  accessibility,  serenity,  and  magnificent  situation  make  it  a 
popular  point  of  interest.  The  ruins,  remains  of  a  prehistoric  Tewa 
pueblo,  occupy  a  commanding  position  on  the  Pajarito  Plateau.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  extensive  and  interesting  of  the  cliff  villages.  Though 
this  was  the  first  ruin  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  to  be  systematically 
excavated,  and  the  second  in  the  United  States  to  be  scientifically 
treated  in  order  to  preserve  it,  Puye  was  never  made  a  National  Monu- 
ment, but  is  supervised  by  the  United  States  Indian  Service  and  the 
Santa  Clara  Indians  to  whom  the  land  belongs.  The  School  of  Amer- 
ican Research,  which  conducted  the  excavation,  still  acts  in  an  advisory 
capacity  concerning  the  maintenance  and  preservation  of  the  ruins. 

Puye  is  a  splendid  example  of  everything  characteristic  of  Pajaritan 
culture  (see  Archeology).  Here  are  all  the  Pajaritan  forms  of  house 
ruins,  typical  in  construction  and  placement  with  symbolical  decorations 
following  a  well-defined  order,  kivas,  pictographs,  implements,  utensils, 
and  red  pottery.  None  of  the  excavations  have  yielded  evidence  of  any 
European  influence.  The  glazing  of  pottery,  an  art  practised  long  be- 
fore the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  reached  a  high  state  of  development 
here.  On  the  excavated  pottery  the  most  prevalent  design  is  the 
Awanyu  (plumed  serpent),  guardian  of  springs  and  streams  and  thus 
the  preserver  of  life,  for  without  water,  the  Indians  realized  crops  and 
life  itself  must  fail.  The  great  band  across  the  concavity  of  water  jars 
and  food  bowls  represented  the  sky  path  of  Awanyu  or  the  circuit  in 
which  his  power  habitually  moved.  Awanyu  "threw  himself  across  the 
sky"  and  left  his  trail  in  the  Milky  Way,  according  to  Tewa  legend. 

The  tree- ring  calendar  shows  that  Puye  was  built  between  1450 
and  1475  and  was  at  its  height  in  1540.  It  was  the  center  of  a  popula- 
tion that  occupied  a  number  of  villages  in  the  northern  section  of  the 
Pajarito  Plateau  (see  Tour  2A).  All  were  closely  related,  connected 
by  trails  worn  deep  in  the  rock. 

The  settlement  of  Puye  was  made  up  of  two  aggregations  of  dwell- 
ings — the  pueblo  and  the  cliff  houses.  The  Santa  Clara  Indians  say 
their  ancestors  lived  in  the  winter  in  the  caves  excavated  in  these  pumice 
cliffs  and  in  the  pueblo  on  the  mesa  above  in  the  summer. 

The  CLIFF  VILLAGES  are  a  succession  of  houses  built  not  only 
against  but  also  within  the  cliff  walls,  usually  at  a  level  where  the  slope 
met  the  vertical  escarpment.  They  extend  along  the  cliff  for  more  than 
a  mile.  There  were  three  kinds  of  dwellings  in  these  villages:  exca- 
vated, cave-like  rooms  serving  as  domiciles  with  no  construction  in 
front;  others  with  open  rooms  or  porches  built  on  in  front;  and  stone 


354    NEW   MEXICO 

houses,  one  to  three  stories  high  with  the  same  number  of  terraces  built 
upon  the  rocky  slope  against  the  cliff.  Two  sections  of  the  cliff  are 
broken  by  a  ledge  about  halfway  up  its  height,  which  goes  back  a  few 
yards  and  then  meets  another  straight  wall.  On  this  ledge,  against  and 
within  this  vertical  wall,  are  the  remains  of  another  succession  of  dwell- 
ings which  are  continuous  for  about  700  yards.  These  and  the  dwell- 
ings on  the  lower  level  show  what  remains  of  the  houses  that  covered 
a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half.  Stairways  cut  in  the  rock  ascend  to  the 
great  community  houses  on  the  mesa  above;  this  house  stands  near  the 
edge  of  the  cliff  and  its  southwest  corner  reaches  to  within  20  feet  of 
the  very  brink. 

One  subterranean  kiva  is  found  against  the  outer  wall  of  the  East 
House  and  another,  slightly  larger,  is  about  35  feet  in  diameter,  with 
one  kiva  on  the  ledge  halfway  to  the  top.  All  these  sanctuaries  were 
dug  into  the  rock.  Others  are  found  on  the  ledge  of  the  cliffs  below, 
and  still  others  in  rocks  at  the  cliff's  base. 

The  PUEBLO,  a  great  quadrangle  on  the  mesa  top,  was  an  arrange- 
ment of  four  huge  terraced  community  houses  surrounding  a  court  and 
forming  an  effective  fortification.  The  outside  rooms  in  each  group  are 
noticeably  small  and  they  are  believed  to  have  been  used  for  the  storage 
of  grain  and  other  supplies.  All  the  rooms  were  connected  by  small 
doorways,  the  sills  of  which  were  always  about  18  inches  above  the 
ground.  Small  round  ventilation  holes,  five  to  ten  inches  in  diameter, 
were  cut  in  the  sills.  Stone  plugs  were  used  when  ventilation  was  not 
needed.  The  main  entrance  to  this  great  community  house  is  at  the 
southeast  corner  and  is  about  17  feet  wide  at  the  eastern  end,  enlarging 
to  double  that  width  before  it  opens  into  the  court.  A  narrow  passage- 
way about  13  feet  wide  at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  court  separates 
the  South  House  of  the  quadrangle  from  the  other  sides. 


<&<&W^^^ 


Tour  8 


(Amarillo,  Texas)  —  Texico  —  Clovis  —  Fort  Sumner  —  Willard  — 
Bernardo  —  Datil  —  Quemado  —  ( Springerville,  Arizona)  ;  US  60. 
Texas  Line  to  Arizona  Line,  398  m. 

Bituminous-paved;    four-lane    between    Texico    and    8    m.    west    of    Clovis. 

Balance  two-lane. 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  roughly  parallels  the  route  between  the 

Texas  Line  and  Magdalen  a. 

Accommodations  in  principal  towns. 

US  60  which  links  Norfolk,  Virginia  and  Los  Angeles,  California, 
runs  across  the  center  of  New  Mexico,  east  to  west,  from  the  wide 


TOUR   8    355 

reaches  of  the  level  Staked  Plains  (see  Tour  6a) ,  across  extensive  farm- 
ing areas,  over  mountain  ranges,  and  through  cattle  and  mining  country. 

Section  a.     TEXAS  LINE  to  SOCORRO,  260  m. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  the  route  crosses  a  grassy  plateau 
utilized  for  stock  raising  and  the  growing  of  grains,  legumes,  broomcorn, 
and  various  crops.  It  is  a  region  of  color,  stillness,  and  mirages — those 
pranks  of  nature  that  added  to  the  suffering  of  thirst-crazed  travelers 
in  the  early  days. 

US  60  crosses  the  Texas  Line,  82  miles  southwest  of  Amarillo, 
Texas,  at  TEXICO,  O  m.  (889  pop.),  a  continuation  of  Farwell, 
Texas,  and  a  trading  center  for  ranchers. 

Texico  began  after  the  Pecos  Valley  Railroad  built  a  siding  here  in 
1902  and  its  early  boom  subsided  when  the  division  point  was  estab- 
lished at  Clovis,  nine  miles  west.  Texico  has  a  REGISTRATION  STATION 
(all  trucks  are  required  to  stop)  and  is  on  the  boundary  between  Cen- 
tral and  Mountain  Standard  time  zones  (west-bound  travelers  set 
watches  back  one  hour). 

In  CLOVIS,  9.7  m.  (23,713  pop.),  (see  Tour  lOa) ,  is  the  junction 
with  US  70  (See  Tour  lOa). 

PORTAIR,  13  mtj  is  the  site  of  Cannon  Air  Force  Base. 

GRIER,  20.9  m.  (4,270  alt.,  now  practically  deserted),  was  named 
for  a  fur  trader  who  established  a  trading  post  here  for  pelts  of  ante- 
lope, great  herds  of  which  overran  this  district. 

MELROSE,  35  m.  (4,100  alt.,  698  pop.),  is  a  typical  plains 
community  and  a  shipping  point  and  feeding  stop  for  cattle.  Broom- 
corn  is  grown  around  here  more  extensively  than  elsewhere  in  the  State ; 
wheat  and  maize  are  also  important  crops. 

At  69  77z.  is  the  junction  with  a  graded  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  the  crumbled  mud  walls  of  OLD  FORT  SUMNER, 
2.5  m.,  in  the  BOSQUE  REDONDO  (round  grove  of  trees)  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Pecos  River.  This  shaded  spot,  said  to  have  been  on  the  trail  followed  by 
Coronado  in  1541  and  Espejo  in  1583,  was  a  campground  of  the  Comanche 
before  the  Spaniards  came.  In  1851  a  licensed  trading  post  was  established 
here,  and  in  1862  a  fort  named  for  General  E.  V.  Sumner,  Commander  of  the 
Ninth  Military  Department  in  New  Mexico,  was  erected.  John  Cremony,  on  the 
staff  of  Captain  Updegraff  who  selected  the  site  in  accordance  with  the  plan 
of  General  James  H.  Carleton,  reports  that  the  structure  was  built  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  California  Column  and  was  "beyond  comparison  the  hand- 
somest and  most  picturesque  in  the  Union." 

Carson,  to  force  the  Navaho  into  submission,  gave  orders  that  their  crops 
should  be  destroyed  and  if  they  still  refused  to  surrender,  the  women  and 
children  should  be  taken  as  prisoners  to  Bosque  Redondo  and  all  armed  braves 
shot.  Kit  Carson  was  given  command  of  the  regiment  assigned  to  bring  in  the 
Navaho.  During  his  eight  years  service  as  Indian  agent,  Carson  had  con- 
tinuously worked  for  the  Indians'  welfare.  In  a  report  dated  August  31,  1858 
he  wrote  ".  .  .  as  Indians  generally  learn  the  vices  and  not  the  virtues  of 
civilized  men,  they  will  become  a  degraded  tribe,  instead  of  being,  as  they 


356    NEW   MEXICO 

are  now,  the  most  noble  and  virtuous  tribe  within  our  Territory.  Prostitution, 
drunkenness,  and  the  vices  generally  are  unknown  among  them.  Humanity,  as 
well  as  our  desire  to  benefit  the  Indian  race,  demands  that  they  be  removed 
as  far  as  practicable  from  the  settlements.  Have  farmers,  mechanics,  etc., 
placed  among  them,  to  give  instructions  in  the  manner  of  cultivating  the  soil 
to  gain  their  subsistance,  and  teach  them  to  make  the  necessary  implements  to 
carry  on  said  labor."  Yet  as  colonel  he  pursued  them  relentlessly,  even 
succeeding  in  dislodging  those  who  took  refuge  in  Canyon  de  Chelly,  Arizona, 
and  in  marching  more  than  7,000  of  them  across  New  Mexico  to  the  Bosque 
Redondo — the  Navaho  "long  walk." 

It  was  believed  that  the  Navaho  would  quickly  adjust  themselves  to  the 
new  way  of  life,  but  the  results  were  disappointing.  In  spite  of  efforts  to 
farm  this  land,  insects,  drought,  floods,  insufficient  supplies,  and  unseasonable 
extremes  of  cold  worked  such  hardships  on  these  captives  that  the  experiment 
failed.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  Comanche  and  Kiowa  from  the  east  and 
south  made  several  raids  on  the  flocks  and  herds.  In  the  spring  of  1868,  dis- 
couraged and  bitterly  resentful,  the  Navaho  planted  no  crops;  and  on  promise 
of  good  behavior,  their  plea  to  be  allowed  to  return  to  their  homeland  was 
granted. 

They  kept  their  word  and  are  now  a  vigorous  tribe  increasing  in  strength, 
numbering  nearly  50,000.  After  they  left,  Fort  Sumner  was  demilitarized  and 
put  up  for  auction.  Lucien  B.  Maxwell  (see  Tour  2b)  bought  the  improvements 
from  the  War  Department  and  remodeled  the  officers'  quarters  into  a  house  of 
20  large  rooms  He  lived  here  on  a  lavish  ^scale  until  his  death  in  1875  when 
his  son  Peter  inherited  the  property.  In  1881  Billy  the  Kid  (see  Tour  12b) 
was  killed  by  Sheriff  Pat  Garrett  in  Peter  Maxwell's  bedroom. 

In  1884  a  group  of  Colorado  cattlemen  bought  the  property,  but  drought  and 
the  economic  depression  of  1894  caused  failure  of  the  venture  and  they  aban- 
doned it,  razing  the  house  for  the  lumber.  Near  the  ruins  of  the  fort  is  the 
Fort  Sumner  cemetery  containing  the  GRAVE  OF  BILLY  THE  KID  as  well 
as  that  of  Peter  Maxwell  and  others. 

FORT  SUMNER,  71  m.  (4,050  alt.,  1,809  pop.),  seat  of  De 
Baca  County,  has  made  marked  gains  in  population  and  importance  in 
recent  years.  Near  the  Alamogordo  Dam,  which  serves  as  supplemental 
storage  for  the  lands  of  the  Carlsbad  Irrigation  District  (see  Tour  7b), 
Fort  Sumner's  chief  industries  are  cattle,  sheep  raising,  and  farming. 
It  is  a  natural  business  center  as  well  as  an  important  shipping  point. 
The  principal  crops  are  alfalfa,  sweet  potatoes,  apples,  grapes,  and 
melons. 

Right  from  Fort  Sumner,  on  US  84,  a  well-paved  highway,  which  affords 
fine  views  of  the  open  range,  coarse  grasses,  soapweed,  grazing  cattle  and 
horses.  To  the  east  (R)  are  the  Bluffs  of  the  Llano  Estacado  (see  Tour  6a). 
At  10  m.  is  a  junction  with  a  road  (L).  Take  this  road  (L)  6  m.  to  ALAMO- 
GORDO DAM  AND  RESERVOIR,  below  confluence  of  Alamogordo  Creek  and 
the  Pecos  River  (fishing,  boating  and  recreational  facilities). 

Return  to  US  84  and  continue  on  it.  At  13.6  m.,  the  dam  is  visible  to  the 
west  (L)  ;  fine  vista  of  blue  water,  red  bluffs,  and  silvery  grasses  with  white- 
faced  red  cattle  grazing. 

There  is  another  fine  view  from  a  rise  at  16.8  m.  To  the  north  are  trees 
along  the  banks  of  Alamogordo*  Creek.  The  road  descends  and  crosses  a  bridge 
over  this  creek,  then  rises  after  it  crosses  the  Guadalupe  County  line  and  gains 
another  rise  at  24.1  m.  This  is  especially  attractive  in  summer.  There  is  a 
view  ahead  of  the  dark  road  winding  across  and  up  the  side  of  the  valley;  the 
grass  is  green  and  rich,  masses  of  purple  wild  verbena  and  yellow  wild  flowers 
stretch  for  miles  alongside  the  road. 


TOUR   8    357 

At  26.9  m.  is  a  clump  of  handsome  cottonwoods  beside  a  bridge  over  an 
arroyo.  These  quick-growing  shade  trees  that  thrive  where  other  trees  can't 
grow  are  a  blessing  to  this  land.  Cane  cactus  appears  farther  on  with  occa- 
sional growths  of  low  pinon  and  juniper. 

At  38.9  m.  is  an  adobe  hut  with  a  corral,  the  first  sign  of  human  habitation 
in  25  miles. 

At  41.2  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road.  US  84  turns  sharply  (L)  past 
thicker  growths  of  pinon  and  juniper.  The  odor  of  burning  pinon,  that  un- 
mistakable incense  of  New  Mexico,  comes  up  on  the  breeze  as  Santa  Rosa  is 
approached.  The  road  dips  past  a  reservoir  to  a  cluster  of  cottonwoods  and 
houses,  which  is  SANTA  ROSA,  42.4  m.  (see  Tour  6a). 

YESO,  91  m.  (4,600  alt.,  350  pop.),  a  trading  point  for  ranchers, 
was  established  in  1906  when  the  railroad  came.  When  it  was  discov- 
ered that  the  land  was  suitable  only  for  grazing  and  sheep  herding, 
many  settlers  who  had  filed  claims  moved  on. 

VAUGHN,  125  772.  (5,950  alt.,  1,200  pop.),  called  "the  oasis" 
for  its  shade  trees,  is  a  division  point  on  the  Santa  Fe.  Its  round- 
house is  the  town's  chief  source  of  employment. 

Here  are  junctions  with  US  54  (see  Tour  13)  and  US  285  (see 
Tour  7b)  with  which  US  60  is  united  between  Vaughn  and  Encino. 
This  is  good  sheep  raising  country. 

The  ruins  at  139.5  m.  are  an  old  fort  (L)  used  in  the  Indian  cam- 
paign of  the  i86o's,  when  the  countryside  was  harassed  by  the  Apache 
and  Comanche. 

ENCINO,  139  77z.  (6,200  alt.,  350  pop.)  is  a  trading  center  for 
ranchers.  Here  is  the  western  junction  with  US  285  (see  Tour  7b). 

PEDERNAL  MOUNTAIN  (7,580  alt.)  158  m.f  an  important 
landmark,  is  visible  (R). 

WILLARD,  174  772.  (6,091  alt.,  294  pop.),  is  a  trading  point  for 
a  large  stock-raising  area. 

Left  from  Willard  on  NM  42,  4.8  m,  to  a  chain  of  NATURAL  SALT 
LAKES  now  leased  to  the  New  Mexico  Salt  Company.  According  to  a  Spanish 
document  dated  1668,  burros  laden  with  salt  here  were  driven  more  than  700 
miles  to  southern  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  where  the  Spaniards  with  the  aid  of 
Indian  slaves  were  operating  silver  mines  and  used  the  salt  in  smelting  the 
ores.  Salt  had  been  a  staple  in  trade  among  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest  for 
centuries  before  the  Spaniards  arrived. 

At  176  m.  is  a  junction  with  NM  41  (see  Tour  Sb). 

West  of  Willard  are  raised  most  of  the  pinto  beans  grown  in  the 
United  States.  New  Mexicans  eat  large  quantities  of  pinto  beans  and 
chili,  which  are  very  nourishing.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Home 
Economics  reports  that  chili  is  rich  in  vitamin  A  and  the  beans  in 
vitamin  B.  Beans,  a  concentrated  food  containing  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrate, also  contain  calcium  and  phosphorous  as  well  as  iron  and  cop- 
per. A  pound  of  pinto  beans  furnishes  as  much  energy  as  2.3  pounds 
of  lean  beef,  or  20  eggs,  or  1.3  pounds  of  bread.  The  New  Mexico 
Experiment  Station  has  found  that  pinto  bean  straw  and  pinto  bean 
culls  are  satisfactory  feed  for  farm  animals.  Straw  that  contains  large 


358     NEW     MEXICO 

amounts  of  the  beans  needs  little  additional  grain  to  make  feed  suffi- 
cient to  carry  cattle  in  good  condition  through  the  winter. 

MOUNTAINAIR,  191  m.  (6,520  alt.,  1,605  pop.),  in  the  heart 
of  the  fertile  Estancia  Valley,  has  a  packaging  plant  for  beans  and  other 
products.  In  this  region  are  several  pueblo  ruins  (see  Tour  Id). 

Westward  the  Manzano  (apple)  Mountains  (R)  are  visible,  and 
the  route  continues  through  fine  vistas,  including  the  northern  escarp- 
ment (L)  of  the  Chupadera  Mesa,  which  stretches  far  to  the  south. 
This  mesa,  home  of  deer,  wild  turkey,  and  wild  horses,  is  a  favorite 
hunting  ground.  To  the  south  (L)  are  the  wooded  boundaries  of  the 
Cibola  National  Forest. 

ABO,  197  772.  (335  pop.),  is  named  for  the  Piro  Indian  Pueblo  ruin. 

At  201  m.  is  the  junction  with  an  improved  road. 

Right  on  this  road  0.8  m.  to  the  ABO  STATE  MONUMENT,  the  remains  of  an 
important  pueblo  built  on  beautiful  red  sandftone  with  a  kiva  of  unusual  design 
and  structure.  The  church  of  the  ABO  MISSION,  which  was  built  in  1646,  has 
been  excavated  by  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  and  repaired  and  preserved. 
This  church  is  the  only  building  with  walls  standing  above  the  Mirface,  the 
village  and  co?ivento  walls  being  level  with  the  ground. 

Past  SCHOLLE,  a  small  roadside  stop  at  204  m.f  US  60  continues 
over  Abo  Pass  in  Los  Finos  Mountains  to  DRIPPING  SPRINGS, 
208  7/2.,  a  tourist  camp  near  a  spring  (R),  which  is  unusual  in  this  arid 
region,  and  crosses  the  Rio  Grande  Valley. 

In  BERNADO,  233  m.,  is  the  junction  with  US  85  (see  Tour 
Ib)  with  which  US  60  is  united  to  SOCORRO,  260  m.  (see  Tour 
It). 

Section  b.    SOCORRO  to  ARIZONA  LINE,  U&&  m. 

West  of  SOCORRO,  0  m.,  the  road  winds  through  a  region  of 
great  natural  beauty  where  the  Apache  roamed  and  hunted;  the  road 
twists  uphill  and  down,  through  canyons  and  arroyos,  near  big  game 
territory  and  mining  country.  On  both  sides  of  the  road  are  sections  of 
the  Cibola  National  Forest.  Here  among  millions  of  board  feet  of 
sawtimber  lies  a  sportsman's  paradise,  for  the  area  abounds  in  wildlife. 
The  mule  and  whitetail  deer  are  abundant  and  may  be  hunted  in  season 
(see  General  Information),  furnishing  sport  and  recreation  for  more 
than  700  hunters  annually.  Beaver,  bear,  turkey  and  antelope  may  also 
be  found.  Camping  is  free  throughout  the  forest.  Many  natural  camp- 
sites among  the  tall  pines  can  be  found  short  distances  from  the  high- 
way and  visitors  are  encouraged  to  use  the  many  recreational  areas  estab- 
lished for  their  pleasure  by  the  National  Park  Service.  Windmills 
mark  infrequent  habitations  and  old  prospectors  still  whittle  away  on 
tavern  benches  as  they  swap  stories  of  lost  mines  or  load  burros  and 
head  toward  the  canyons  to  search  again. 

US  60  skirts  the  southern  end  of  the  Socorro  Mountains  (R), 
passing  small  adobe  houses.  The  rugged  Polvadera  Mountain  and  the 


TOUR   8    359 

Bear  Mountains  are  also  visible  (R).  The  road  lies  through  a  narrow 
valley  with  dark  outcroppings  of  volcanic  rock  (R)  and  the  dark  reds 
of  other  igneous  rock  (L).  Where  the  road  inclines  cane  cactus  ap- 
pears, and  juniper  on  both  sides  begins  the  march  of  evergreens  up  the 
mountain. 

MAGDALENA,  27  m.  (6,548  alt.,  1,211  pop.),  the  second  largest 
town  in  Socorro  County,  was  named  for  Mary  Magdalene.  It  was  a 
trading  and  shipping  point  for  cattle  ranchers  as  there  is  no  other  rail- 
road station  between  Magdalena  and  Arizona.  In  the  fall  large 
herds  of  cattle  were  driven  here,  and  in  June  the  season's  clip  arrived 
in  long  truck  trains  packed  with  sacks  of  wool.  Though  Magdalena 
is  the  last  stronghold  in  New  Mexico  of  the  old  cattle  barons  and  the 
gateway  to  vast  grazing  plains,  settlers  are  moving  in  along  the  arroyos 
and  mountain  streams  and  before  long  irrigated  farms  probably  will 
occupy  the  area.  Meanwhile  the  annual  rodeo  (June),  barred  to  pro- 
fessional performers,  brings  together  the  cowpunchers,  their  friends  and 
backers,  and  many  visitors.  The  town  was  founded  in  1884  by  miners 
who  worked  small  claims.  The  railroad  came  very  soon,  and  the  town 
began  to  flourish.  Money  was  free  and  easy,  liquor  was  abundant,  and 
the  old  frontier  lived  lustily  here.  Although  mining  still  flourishes  in 
Magdalena,  it  has  prospered  also  on  the  live-stock  industry.  Magdalena 
has  a  large  Indian  School  for  Navaho  children. 

AUGUSTINE,  52.3  m.  (7,200  alt.,),  was  named  for  the  Plains  of 
St.  Augustine  (L)  to  the  south  and  was  reputedly  trod  by  the  Spanish 
missionaries  and  after  them  the  traders. 

DATIL,  63.9  m.  (7,855  alt,  213  pop.),  was  named  by  the  early 
Spaniards  for  a  fruit  resembling  dates  found  in  the  mountains.  It  is  a 
trading  center  for  ranchers  and  a  supply  point  for  hunters.  The  United 
States  Army  built  a  fort  here  in  1888  to  protect  settlers  from  raids  by 
the  Apache. 

Left  from  Datil  on  NM  12,  a  good  paved  road,  past  mountains,  ranches, 
springs,  and  forests  where  the  Apache  roamed  before  their  subjugation.  HORSE 
SPRINGS,  25.9  m.  (6,980  alt.,  240  pop.),  and  the  springs  (R)  nearby,  named 
for  the  wild  horses  that  roamed  this  section,  are  now  owned  by  a  syndicate  of 
cattlemen.  At  39.6  m.  the  road  enters  the  APACHE  NATIONAL  FOREST, 
which  is  two-thirds  western  yellow  pine,  the  remainder  being  Douglas  fir, 
white  fir,  and  spruce.  Large  herds  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  graze  here 
under  government  permit.  West  of  the  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE  (7,500  alt.), 
the  roads  go  through  TULAROSA  CANYON,  45  m.f  a  winding  gorge  cut  by 
the  Tularosa  River,  which  is  dry  most  of  the  year  but  swift  in  rainy  weather. 
This  region  is  the  heart  of  the  old  Apache  country  where  these  ferocious 
fighters  for  many  years  carried  on  guerrilla  warfare  led  by  Mangas  Coloradas, 
Victorio,  Ger6nimo,  Chato,  and  Cochise.  Tradition  has  it  that  these  Indians 
were  peaceful  and  hospitable  to  the  first  trappers,  colonists,  and  explorers 
but,  when  later  pioneers  settled  in  the  country  and  took  their  land  and  water, 
it  was  thought  that  the  first  friendly  "pale-faces"  had  been  annihilated  by  the 
later,  and  more  aggressive,  tribe.  This  opened  a  half  century  of  warfare  that 
was  not  curbed  until  the  final  surrender  of  Geronimo  to  General  Nelson  A. 
Miles  in  1886. 

ARAG6N,  49.1  m.  (7iJ35  alt.,  256  pop.),  is  a  trading  center  in  the  narrow 
Tularosa  Valley.  Small  irrigated  farms,  with  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  com- 
prise the  interests  of  the  villagers,  mostly  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  stock.  Fort 


360     NEW     MEXICO 

Tularosa  was  built  here  in  1870  and  maintained  for  four  years,  and  here  is  the 
burial  ground  for  soldiers  from  the  neighboring  territory.  There  are  several 
pueblo  ruins  in  this  vicinity,  locale  for  the  story  about  Mangas  Coloradas  and 
a  captive  Mexican  girl.  He  added  her  to  his  household  with  the  same  status 
as  that  of  his  two  wives,  contrary  to  tribal  law  which  decreed  that  she  should 
serve  them  as  a  slave.  They  exercised  their  right  of  appeal  to  their  relatives, 
and  a  brother  of  each  wife  challenged  Mangas  to  defend  his  right  to  keep 
her.  Mangas,  a  tall,  exceptionally  powerful  man,  fought  the  two  before  the 
assembled  tribe.  They  were  clad  only  in  breech  clouts  and  were  armed  with 
long  knives.  After  Mangas  had  killed  them  both  no  one  questioned  his  right 
to  wench  or  wife  as  he  pleased. 

RESERVE,  69.2  m.  (5,769  alt.,  417  pop.),  is  seat  of  Catron  County,  the  only 
county  in  New  Mexico  without  a  railroad.  On  the  banks  of  the  San  Francisco 
River,  in  the  heart  of  the  cattle  country,  it  is  surrounded  by  forests  and 
mountains.  Farming  and  lumbering  are  also  carried  on  in  the  neighborhood. 
It  is  a  starting  point  for  pack  trips  and  hunting  parties.  In  Reserve  in  1882, 
Elfego  Baca,  deputy  sheriff,  had  an  exciting  adventure  when  he  attempted  the 
arrest  of  a  drunken  cow  hand.  At  the  time  of  his  arrival  the  cowboy,  named 
McCarthy,  having  filled  up  on  Mr.  Milligan's  bad  whiskey,  was  riding  up  and 
down  the  main  street  looking  for  trouble. 

Elfego  Baca,  a  deputy  sheriff,  saw  that  the  wild  McCarthy  was  endangering 
people's  lives  and  that  the  local  authorities  would  take  no  action,  so  he  pro- 
ceeded to  disarm  the  cowboy  and  place  him  under  arrest.  Word  soon  went  to 
his  friends  at  the  nearby  ranches,  and  a  mob  rode  into  town  determined  to 
rescue  McCarthy  and  teach  Baca  a  lesson. 

In  this  engagement,  Baca  killed  one  of  the  mob,  wounded  another,  kept  his 
prisoner,  and  drove  the  entire  mob  down  the  street  with  well-directed  shots 
kicking  up  the  dust  behind  them.  The  local  Justice  of  the  Peace,  afraid  of  the 
Texans,  refused  to  hold  court.  It  was  the  wish  of  Baca  to  try  McCarthy  on  the 
spot,  and  thus  avoid  having  to  take  him  to  Socorro,  the  county  seat.  Eventually 
he  brought  his  prisoner  from  the  middle  plaza  where  he  had  taken  him  for 
safe  keeping,  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  was  found,  and  court  opened.  All  the 
cow-punchers  and  saloon  loafers  had  followed  Baca  and  his  prisoner,  and  the 
court  room  was  so  crowded  that  not  more  than  half  the  people  could  enter. 
The  verdict  rendered  was  "drunk  and  disorderly  and  a  five  dollar  fine." 

Baca  was  disgusted.  He  left,  went  down  the  street  and  entered  a  cabin, 
presumably  to  rest.  On  the  scene  appeared  four  men  who  stated  they  had  an 
order  from  the  presiding  justice  to  arrest  Baca  for  shooting  a  man  at  the  time 
of  McCarthy's  arrest.  These  men  proceeded  to  the  door  of  the  cabin,  which 
Baca  had  entered.  Hern,  who  was  in  the  lead,  knocked  on  the  door  and  asked 
if  anyone  was  inside.  Getting  no  reply,  he  kicked  the  door  and  demanded 
admittance.  In  reply  a  bullet  fired  through  the  door  got  Hern  in  the  stomach. 
He  cursed,  and  falling  backward  was  dragged  around  the  corner  of  the  house. 
Two  of  the  four  men  were  so  badly  frightened  they  fled.  The  one  who  dragged 
Hern  out  of  danger  laid  him  on  the  ground.  A-  man  known  as  Old  Charley, 
leading  a  saddled  horse  belonging  to  an  English  ranchman  named  French, 
heard  the  shots  and  came  galloping  down  the  street,  pulling  up  in  front  of  the 
cabin  door.  He  was  shot  at  twice,  both  bullets  passing  through  his  peaked 
hat.  Old  Charley  had  business  away  from  there,  and  at  once,  but  the  lead 
horse  balked.  French  seeing  the  trouble  ran  and  grabbed  the  reins  of  his 
horse,  but  in  the  excitement  lost  his  hat,  it  falling  off  just  in  front  of  the  cabin 
door.  French  determined  to  retrieve  his  hat  and  made  a  dash  for  it.  While  he 
was  picking  it  up  Baca  fired  three  shots  through  the  brim. 

Dan,  the  deputy,  now  agreed  with  the  mob  that  Baca  should  be  arrested, 
but  he  couldn't  do  it  as  he  had  to  have  some  sleep.  He  had  been  up  the  entire 
night  before,  he  said. 

The  mob  got  behind  adobe  walls  and  poured  bullets  into  the  shelter,  but 
whenever  any  of  them  showed  a  head  or  an  arm  he  was  greeted  by  a  bullet 
from  Baca.  The  attackers  thought  that  perhaps  the  best  way  would  be  to 
take  the  cabin  by  assault;  but  this  idea  was  abandoned. 


TOUR     8     361 

The  little  house  was  not  of  stone,  logs,  or  adobe,  but  what  is  called  a 
choza.  It  was  a  light  structure  consisting  of  upright  poles  supporting  a  mud 
roof,  with  a  little  gable  roof  over  one  room  and  a  small  window  in  the  end. 
Why  Baca  was  not  killed  no  one  could  imagine,  for  up  to  this  time,  it  is  said, 
3,000  shots  had  been  fired  into  the  house,  but  that  he  was  very  much  alive  was 
shown  whenever  anyone  showed  himself. 

After  a  particularly  fierce  fusillade  by  the  storming  party,  Baca's  fire 
ceased,  and  all  thought  him  dead. 

Night  coming  on,  sentries  were  posted  to  prevent  his  escape.  During  the 
night  Hern  died.  Several  of  the  sentries  fell  asleep  on  duty,  and  had  Baca  so 
desired,  there  was  nothing  to  have  prevented  his  walking  out  of  the  door  and 
going  where  he  pleased  though  he  also  was  probably  asleep. 

Early  the  next  morning  French,  curious  to  know  if  Baca  were  still  in  the 
cabin,  ran  as  fast  as  he  could  past  the  cabin  and  received  a  salute  from  his 
guns.  French  was  satisfied  that  Baca  was  still  alive. 

While  all  this  excitement  was  going  on,  several  Spanish-Americans  made 
a  hurried  trip  to  Socorro  to  get  help  from  the  officers.  While  they  were  gone, 
all  kinds  of  inducements,  couched  in  flowery  Spanish,  were  offered  to  Baca  to 
surrender,  the  mob  not  realizing  that  Baca  spoke  better  English  than  most  of 
them. 

Presently  an  attempt  was  made  to  set  the  house  on  fire.  Blazing  branches 
were  thrown  on  the  roof,  but  because  it  was  covered  with  a  foot  or  so  of  dirt 
it  wouldn't  burn. 

The  sun  was  going  down  on  the  second  day  when  a  buggy  containing  three 
men  drove  up  rapidly  from  the  direction  of  Socorro.  From  the  buggy  stepped 
a  deputy  sheriff  named  Rose.  He  said  he  had  come  in  response  to  a  message 
from  Elfego  Baca,  brought  by  the  Spanish-Americans  who  accompanied  him. 
As  Socorro  was  over  125  miles  from  the  plaza  where  the  shooting  had  occurred, 
both  the  messengers  and  the  returning  sheriff  had  made  fast  time. 

Dan  the  local  deputy,  who  had  been  drunk  and  asleep  all  this  while,  now 
was  much  in  evidence,  telling  what  he  had  done  to  enforce  the  law.  Rose  did 
not  pay  any  attention  to  him,  but  asked  questions  from  others  regarding  the 
affair,  which  offended  Dan  who  returned  to  Mr.  Milligan's  for  liquid  con- 
solation. 

Mr.  Rose  now  endeavored  through  a  friend  of  Baca  to  communicate  with 
him.  When  Baca  recognized  his  friend's  voice,  he  agreed  to  come  out  on  the 
following  condition:  Everyone  except  his  friend  and  Rose  was  to  retire  from  in 
front  of  the  house;  he  would  then  surrender  to  them.  When  these  terms  were 
accepted,  Elfego  came  out,  not  through  the  door  as  expected  but  through  the 
little  gable  window  in  the  end  of  the  house.  He  was  stripped  to  his  pants 
and  had  a  gun  in  each  hand,  glancing  on  each  side  as  if  afraid  of  some 
treachery.  He  then  walked  up  to  Rose  who  disarmed  him. 

Dan,  still  pretty  drunk,  now  appeared  and  formally  turned  "his  prisoner" 
over  to  Rose,  thereby  compensating  for  the  slight  to  his  dignity. 

When  questioned,  Baca  explained  he  had  escaped  by  lying  on  the  floor, 
which  like  typical  New  Mexico  dwellings  was  a  foot  or  more  below  the  level 
of  the  ground. 

This  fight  in  which  one  man  had  stood  off  a  mob  of  over  80,  holding  out 
for  over  33  hours,  as  testified  in  court  during  Baca's  trial,  won  for  Elfego 
Baca  a  secure  place  among  the  colorful  characters  of  New  Mexico. 

Southwest  of  Stark  Weather  Canyon,  NM  12  goes  through  an  open  rolling 
valley  studded  with  tall  pines  and  stands  of  juniper.  Ahead  are  the  beautiful 
San  Francisco  Mountains.  At  76.4  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  260  (see 
Tour  18). 

US  60  runs  through  a  narrowing  valley  and  crosses  at  65.3  m.  the 
boundary  of  CIBOLA  NATIONAL  FOREST,  which  it  traverses  for 
20  miles. 

Cabins  for  tourists  (L)  are  to  be  found  at  66.7  ///.    An  upthrust  of 


362     NEW    MEXICO 

rock  towers  above  the  road  (R)  as  it  rises  past  tall  pines  on  wooded 
slopes.  The  valley  opens  again,  the  way  descends. 

US  60  crosses  the  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE,  84.1  «.,  and  con- 
tinues through  a  section  of  magnificent  vistas.  Outcroppings  of  colored 
sandstone  border  the  road. 

PIE  TOWN,  86.1  m  (6,810  alt.,  71  pop.),  started  with  a  filling 
station  whose  owner  had  taken  up  a  mining  claim  on  this  site.  His 
third  occupation  was  baking  pies,  hence  the  name.  This  is  a  marketing 
point  for  pinon  nuts  gathered  in  this  area  by  Indians  who  sell  to  traders 
or  to  wholesalers.  Livestock  is  main  source  of  income  here. 

OMEGA,  101.0  772.  (6,900  alt.,  15  pop.),  formerly  called  Sweazea- 
ville,  was  the  original  site  of  Quemado,  established  in  1870  by  Felipe 
Padilla. 

QUEMADO  (Sp.  burnt),  108.7  m.  (7,000  alt.,  284  pop.),  the 
largest  town  in  Catron  County,  is  named  for  an  Apache  chief  whose 
hand,  legend  says,  was  burned  in  a  campfire.  Coronado's  route  in  1540 
was  through  this  region. 

US  60  continues  through  rugged  country  to  the  ARIZONA  LINE, 
143.2  m.,  17  miles  east  of  Springerville,  Arizona. 


Tour  9 


(  Cortez,  Col. )  — Shiprock — Farmington — Aztec — Cuba — Bernalillo. 
US  666,  US  550  and  NM  44. 
Colorado  Line  to  Bernalillo,  217  m. 

Two-lane,  bituminous-paved  throughout. 

Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  roughly  parallels  route  between  Farm- 
ington and  Aztec. 
Accommodations  in  larger  towns. 

This  route  offers  fine  vistas  and  panoramas  as  it  runs  through  the 
fertile  orchards  and  farms  of  the  San  Juan  Valley,  crosses  the  Navaho 
and  Apache  reservations  and  passes  oil  fields,  fossil  beds,  grazing  lands, 
and  pueblo  ruins. 

US  666  crosses  the  COLORADO  LINE,  0  m.f  27  miles  south  of 
Cortez,  Colorado.  Between  the  Colorado  Line  and  Farmington  the 
route  is  NAVAHO  INDIAN  RESERVATION  (estimated  88,000 
pop.),  a  desert-like  country  covered  with  coarse  grasses  grazed  by 
Navaho  sheep.  Geologic  formations  rich  in  color  appear  at  intervals 
as  the  route  descends  to  the  San  Juan  River. 


TOUR     9     363 

SHIPROCK,  15.4  m.  (4,903  alt.,  800  pop.),  named  for  an  imposing 
rock  mass  (R),  was  headquarters  for  Northern  Navaho  Indian  Agency 
from  1903.  With  the  establishment  of  five  sub-agencies  in  1955,  Ship- 
rock  became  the  headquarters  of  the  Shiprock  Subagency.  The  Rattle- 
snake Oil  Fields  (R)  nearby  contain  some  of  the  highest  grade  oil  to 
be  found  in  the  U.S.  With  the  opening  of  the  Four  Corners  Oil  Field 
in  1957,  oil  and  gas  production  has  become  a  major  Reservation  industry 
and  the  tribe  presently  receives  royalties  in  excess  of  a  million  dollars  per 
month  from  this  source.  There  is  an  annual  Navaho  Fair  held  here 
early  in  October  with  sports  and  exhibits  of  arts  and  crafts  (see  Indians). 
In  Shiprock  are  junctions  with  US  666  (see  Tour  6C)  and  with  US  550, 
which  the  route  follows  through  the  fertile  San  Juan  Valley,  the  most 
prosperous  section  of  the  Navaho  Indian  Reservation, 

FRUITLAND,  33.3  772.  (R)  (5,200  alt.,  250  pop.),  a  farming  vil- 
lage settled  in  the  winter  of  1877-78  by  Mormons  under  Luther  E. 
Burnham,  who  changed  the  name  from  Olio  to  Fruitland.  On  south 
side  of  the  San  Juan  River  there  is  an  irrigation  project  supplying  water 
to  more  than  3,000  acres.  This  has  been  divided  into  smaller  tracts  on 
which  Navaho  raise  corn,  beans,  grain  and  other  subsistence  crops. 

In  the  heart  of  this  agricultural  region  is  FARMINGTON,  44  m. 
(5»3°5  alt-,  23,786  pop.),  now  a  giant  in  the  oil,  gas,  uranium  and 
allied  industries.  Its  population  in  the  last  decade  has  increased 
more  than  20,000,  principally  due  to  major  oil  and  gas  discoveries  in 
1950,  coupled  with  the  uranium  boom.  Farmington's  economy,  which 
has  made  a  rapid  transition  from  agricultural  to  industrial  dominance, 
is  also  supported  by  light  industry,  the  nearby  Navajo  Dam,  and  numer- 
ous projects  allied  with  the  oil,  gas,  and  uranium  and  power  industries. 

In  the  spring  of  1883  after  a  drunken  cowboy  had  shot  and  wounded 
an  Indian  on  the  street  of  Farmington,  the  Indians  threatened  to  go  on 
the  warpath,  and  several  hundred  of  them  surrounded  the  town. 
Gregorio,  a  friendly  Indian,  warned  the  white  settlers  and  told  them 
that  if  the  plowmen  and  ranchers  stayed  in  their  homes  they  would  not 
be  hurt,  for  the  Indians  were  after  the  tejanos  (Texans  or  cowboys). 
After  many  hours  of  suspense  the  war  chief  arrived  and  quieted  his 
followers.  In  1885  when  Largo  Pete,  a  sub-chief,  turned  his  horses 
loose  in  W.  P.  Hendrick's  grain  field,  serious  trouble  threatened  until 
troops  arrived  from  Fort  Lewis  and  the  Indians  subsided.  The  follow- 
ing year  after  Largo  Pete  rode  into  a  wire  fence  strung  by  the  Virden 
Brothers,  traders,  and  died  of  the  injury,  the  Indians  were  so  aroused 
by  the  accident  that  the  militia  was  again  called  out,  but  after  a  con- 
ference the  Indians  were  bought  off  with  a  small  amount  of  provisions. 

The  Reverend  Griffin,  Farmington's  first  resident  preacher,  arrived 
in  1885  and  remained  for  many  years  despite  trouble  with  the  cowboys. 
When  he  refused  to  drink  with  them,  they  shot  holes  in  the  floor  around 
his  feet,  but  he  stood  his  ground  until  they  ceased.  A  professional  show- 
man was  not  so  brave ;  he  attempted  to  hold  a  stereopticon  show  in  the 


364     NEW     MEXICO 

schoolhouse,  but  when  cowboys  shot  the  canvas  screen  to  bits,  the  show- 
man jumped  out  the  window. 

The  cattle  business,  which  preceded  land  cultivation  here,  had  its 
ups  and  downs.  "Uncle"  Washington  Cox,  who  once  refused  $100,000 
for  his  branded  stock,  lost  his  wealth.  In  co-operation  with  McGalliard 
the  Virden  Brothers  built  the  first  irrigation  ditch.  It  carried  water 
two  and  one-half  miles  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  irrigating  about 
four  acres. 

Development  of  the  fruit  industry  began  in  1879,  when  William 
Locke  came  here  from  Florence,  Colorado.  On  his  second  trip,  he 
brought  peach,  walnut,  and  other  seeds  and  later  small  fruit  trees 
including  plum,  apple,  pear,  and  nectarine,  as  well  as  blackberry  and 
raspberry  bushes.  In  a  few  years  there  were  many  fine  orchards,  notably 
that  owned  by  C.  H.  McHenry.  A  brick  kiln  and  a  flour  mill  followed, 
and  Farmington  became  a  center  of  varied  activity. 

AZTEC,  58  77z.  (5,590  alt.,  4,137  pop.),  is  the  seat  of  San  Juan 
County,  and  one  of  its  principal  trading  centers.  Since  1950,  Aztec's 
economy  has  been  sparked  by  the  oil  and  gas  industry,  and  future  pros- 
perity is  enhanced  by  the  1963  completion  of  the  giant  Navajo  Dam, 
25  miles  eastward,  which  will  offer  untold  water  reserves  for  recrea- 
tional, municipal  and  industrial  use,  and  power  to  the  San  Juan  Basin. 

Left  1  m.  from  Aztec  to  AZTEC  RUINS  NATIONAL  MONUMENT  (adm. 
2$;  ranger  guides}.  This  large  E-shaped  pueblo  contained  approximately  500 
rooms.  The  ceilings,  where  standing,  are  supported  by  beams  that  were  cut 
and  dressed  with  stone  tools  between  mo  and  1121  A.D.  according  to  tree- 
ring  dates.  The  sandstone  walls  are  fine  examples  of  pueblo  masonry.  The 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  which  gave  the  land  to  the  United 
States  for  a  National  Monument,  has  excavated  the  ruins  and  established  a 
small  museum  here. 

In  Aztec  is  junction  with  NM44  which  route  follows  (R). 

BLOOMFIELD,  66  772.  (5,400  alt.,  1,292  pop.),  settled  in  c.  1876 
by  William  B.  Haines,  an  Englishman,  was  the  home  of  the  notorious 
Stockton  gang.  Its  early  history  is  one  of  cattle  rustling,  terrorism,  and 
violent  death.  Port  Stockton  was  made  a  peace  officer  because  of  his 
expert  marksmanship,  but  when  divested  of  authority  because  he  could 
not  be  trusted  with  a  gun,  he  became  an  outlaw  again.  He  is  said  to 
have  shot  and  wounded  a  barber  who  had  cut  him  slightly  while  shaving 
him;  to  have  jumped  a  ranch  below  Aztec  while  the  owner,  a  widow, 
was  visiting  relatives  50  miles  away;  to  have  forced  his  way  into  a 
dance  where  he  knew  he  was  not  wanted,  and  danced  all  night  with  a 
six-gun  strapped  to  his  waist;  to  have  rustled  cattle  and  held  up  stage- 
coaches. He  was  aided  by  Bloomfield's  lack  of  peace  officers  and  courts 
and  by  local  ranchers'  preoccupation  with  raids  on  their  herds  by  the 
Eskridge  gang  from  Animas  City.  In  Stockton's  gang  were  Ike  Stock- 
ton, Harg  and  Dice  Eskridge,  Bert  Wilkinson,  and  a  giant  of  a  man 
named  Lacy.  Cattle  stolen  by  them  were  sold  to  army  posts  or  to 
markets,  and  the  gang  even  operated  a  butcher  shop  in  Durango,  At 


TOUR    9     365 

one  time  two  score  ranchers  of  the  San  Juan  Basin  were  in  their  saddles 
day  and  night  trying  to  safeguard  their  property. 

Port  Stockton,  who  is  said  to  have  had  15  notches  on  his  gun  when 
he  blew  into  Bloomfield  from  the  Lincoln  County  War  (see  Tour 
12b),  was  killed  in  1881,  while  hiding  a  man  named  Puett  who  had 
shot  a  man  at  a  dance.  When  the  posse  went  after  Puett,  Stockton 
refused  to  surrender  him.  Shooting  began,  and  after  the  smoke  had 
cleared  Stockton  was  dead.  His  wife  rushed  from  the  house  with  a 
rifle,  -which  she  rested  on  a  wagon  wheel  for  a  better  sight.  One  of  the 
posse,  in  trj  ing  to  shoot  the  gun  out  of  her  hand,  hit  the  gun  barrel  and 
mangled  her  hand ;  but  she  recovered  and  soon  was  married  again. 

Shorfly  after  Stockton's  death  a  man  named  Blancett  arrived  at 
Bloomfield  and  opened  a  saloon.  Although  he  was  so  lame  that  he  was 
compelled  to  use  a  crutch,  Blancett  was  ready  for  anything  when 
armed  and  soon  his  bar  became  headquarters  for  gunmen.  Many  of 
them  had  drifted  in  from  the  upper  San  Juan  Valley,  after  having  been 
run  out,  and  they  found  Blancett  to  their  liking. 

Several  violent  deaths  were  instigated  by  him  and  he  was  finally 
killed  in  Utah,  where  he  was  shot  in  the  back.  Nothing  was  ever  done 
about  his  death;  it  was  considered  a  providential  disposition. 

Bloomfield  finally  settled  down  and  became  a  prosperous  little  town ; 
now  it  is  an  agricultural  center  and  surrounding  farms  produce  large 
crops  of  grain,  beans,  and  other  produce.  In  1906  land  owners  here 
organized  the  Citizens'  Ditch  and  Irrigating  Company  to  reclaim 
6,000  acres.  This  company  was  organized  on  May  19,  1906  and  was 
absorbed  in  March,  1911  by  the  Bloomfield  Irrigation  District,  which 
took  over  all  rights  and  properties  and  has  been  functioning  since.  The 
system  is  fed  from  the  San  Juan  River  by  a  canal  30  miles  long  and 
irrigates  4,000  acres.  It  is  said  to  have  the  best  heading,  that  is,  the 
best  constructed  intake  facilities,  of  any  similar  system  in  this  country. 

South  of  the  San  Juan  River,  US  84  crosses  Kutz  Canyon  Wash 
and  follows  a  hilly  winding  route  that  is  bordered  with  juniper  and 
gives  a  superb  view  of  KUTZ  CANYON  (L),  a  ravine  broken  by 
gray  mounds. 

ANGEL'S  PEAK  (L),  a  desolate  mountain  of  blue  and  gray 
shale  that  resembles  a  group  of  winged  angels,  is  visible  from  82.5  m. 
This  is  the  chief  landmark  of  the  GARDEN  OF  THE  ANGELS, 
which  covers  80  square  miles  and  is  almost  completely  devoid  of  vegeta- 
tion, but  has  been  eroded  into  a  great  confusion  of  mesas,  buttes,  anc1 
boulder-strewn  canyons.  These  badlands  are  arid,  completely  unin- 
habited except  by  the  Navaho,  and  most  uninviting.  But  to  the  artist 
they  present  a  challenge. 

From  893  m.  is  a  view  (L)  of  EL  HUfiRFANO  PEAK  (7,000 
alt.)  with  sides  rising  sheer  for  500  feet.  The  solitary  position  of  the 
peak  gives  it  the  name,  The  Orphan.  On  the  summit,  according  to 
Navaho  legend,  is  a  sacred  spring.  Only  Indians  have  been  allowed  to 
climb  it. 


366    NEW    MEXICO 

EL  HUfiRFANO  TRADING  POST  is  at  86  m.  near  the  foot  of 
the  peak. 

BLANCO  TRADING  POST  is  at  94  m.  at  the  junction  with 
NM  56  which  runs  (R)  to  CHACO  CANYON  NATIONAL 
MONUMENT.  (See  Tour  SB). 

At  102  m.  is  NAGEEZI  TRADING  POST  and  a  POST 
OFFICE. 

The  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE  (7,680  alt.)  is  crossed  at  140  m. 
and  the  western  boundary  of  the  SANTA  FE  NATIONAL  FOREST 
at  152  772. 

At  155  m.  is  the  junction  with  NM  96  running  along  the  Chama 
River  to  junction  with  US  84  (see  Tour  7 A). 

CUBA,  153  m.  (6,960  alt.,  841  pop.),  originally  named  Nacimiento 
(nativity),  is  the  center  of  a  ranching  country  where  cattle  and  sheep 
are  abundant.  It  is  situated  in  a  valley  between  the  Sierra  Nacimiento 
and  the  Cejita  Blanca  (little  white  peaks)  Ranges.  In  Cuba  is  a  junc- 
tion with  NM  126  (see  Tour  2A). 

LA  VENTANA,  167  m.  ("6,400  alt.,  263  pop.),  formerly  a  coal 
mining  town,  is  no  longer  active,  production  having  ceased. 

Less  than  a  mile  south  of  La  Ventana,  NM  44  traverses  what  was 
once  one  of  the  largest  land  grants  in  New  Mexico — the  OJO  DEL 
ESPIRITU  SANTO  (spring  of  the  Holy  Ghost).  According  to 
tradition  the  name  of  the  grant  came  from  the  experience  of  a  peon  who 
stood  guard  one  night  after  dinner.  Suddenly  he  rushed  toward  the 
camp,  crying  out:  "El  Espiritu  Santo!  El  Espiritu  Santo!"  and  the 
others,  leaving  camp,  saw  two  wraith-like  spirals  rising  from  the  ground 
in  a  near-by  canyon.  For  them  it  was  a  manifestation  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  springs  from  whence  the 
"miracle"  came. 

The  De  Bacas,  members  of  the  family  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  the  ex- 
plorer, were  given  this  area  of  more  than  113,000  acres  by  the  Spanish 
Crown.  The  grant  extending  westward  almost  to  the  Rio  Puerco  (dirty 
river)  and  Cabezon  (big  head)  Peak  and  eastward  as  far  as  the  Naci- 
miento Mountains,  contains  mountains,  foothills,  and  valleys  and  in- 
cludes much  valuable  pasture  land  and  a  deposit  of  gypsum.  The  estate 
was  sold  later  in  1934  to  the  United  States  Government  for  the  use  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians. 

CABEZ6N  PEAK  (R)  is  visible  from  187  m. 

NM  44  parallels  the  Rio  Salado  (saline  river)  as  far  as  San  Ysidro, 
where  the  stream  joins  Jemez  Creek  (see  below).  The  Rio  Salado 
flows  southward  from  its  source  in  the  Salado  Canyon  in  the  heart  of 
the  Ojo  Espiritu  Santo  grant,  leaving  the  grant  at  its  southeast  corner. 
The  river,  containing  calcite,  has  warm  currents  of  water  caused  by 
springs  along  its  course. 

The  highly  colored  mountainous  terrain  gives  way  to  relatively  level 
land. 


TOUR     9     367 

Improved  highways  have  developed  SAN  YSIDRO  194  m.t  (L) 
(5,450  alt.,  414  pop.),  from  a  post  office,  store,  and  filling  station 
patronized  by  tourists  and  ranchers  into  a  small  village. 

Left  from  San  Ysidro  on  NM  4  over  the  Jemez  River  and  across  the 
railroad  tracks.  J&MEZ  PUEBLO  (Pueblo  governor  for  a  fee  grants  per- 
mission to  photograph),  4.7  m.  (5,800  alt.,  1,500  pop.),  was  established  sometime 
between  1696  and  1700.  On  August  2,  Pecos  Day  is  celebrated  in  memory  of 
the  survivors  from  Pecos  Pueblo  who  came  here  a  hundred  years  ago  (see 
Tour  la),  and  the  patron  saint  of  the  village  is  honored  on  November  12. 
The  Jemez  people  make  little  pottery  but  specialize  in  elaborately  embroidered 
ceremonial  shirts  and  are  noted  for  their  weaving;  they  make  a  distinctive  type 
of  flat  basket  with  yucca  leaves.  On  the  western  edge  of  the  village  stands 
the  modern  Chapel  of  San  Diego,  built  in  1937  at  a  cost  of  $4,000.  Grouped 
round  it  are  the  post  office  and  the  parochial  day  school. 

Jemez  took  a  prominant  part  in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680.  In  June  1696 
a  small  detachment  of  Spaniards  from  Bernalillo,  with  allies  from  Zia,  attacked 
the  Jemez  and  defeated  them.  The  Jemez  retreated  to  the  Navaho  country, 
remaining  several  years,  then  returned  to  establish  the  present  village.  Be- 
cause of  its  proximity  to  Navaho  country  and  the  friendly  relations  between 
the  two  peoples,  there  were  many  intermarriages.  Some  anthropologists  say 
that  Jemez  is  "more  than  half  Navaho"  and  that  one  of  their  outstanding 
leaders,  Nazle,  was  Navaho  born.  Navaho  come  here  in  numbers  at  fiesta  time 
for  the  purpose  of  trade.  The  population  of  Jemez  was  given  as  3,000  in 
1630  and  as  5,000  in  1680,  but  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  to 
the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  remained  between  250  and  500.  JfiMEZ 
SPRINGS,  17.7  m.  (677  pop.),  is  a  hamlet  with  a  post  office,  a  dispensary,  a 
cafe,  and  a  trading  post  with  lunch  room  and  gas  station.  A  string  of  houses 
along  both  sides  of  the  road  make  up  the  village. 

The  J6MEZ  STATE  MONUMENT  (R),  19.6  m.  contains  the  ruins  of  the 
MISSION  OF  SAN  Jos£  DE  JEMEZ,  with  walls  in  some  places,  six  to  eight  feet 
thick  and  thirty  feet  high.  Across  the  road  from  the  entrance  to  the  monu- 
ment is  a  large  stone  house,  now  a  monastery.  This  was  once  the  site  of  ancient 
Giusewa  (Ge-oo-see-wah),  one  of  the  many  pueblos  occupied  when  the  early 
Spaniards  came.  It  is  supposed  there  were  about  800  inhabitants.  In  1617 
when  the  mission  was  built  this  was  an  important  village  of  the  Jemez  Valley 
but  was  abandoned  in  1622  owing  to  the  aggressions  of  the  Navaho.  The 
story  of  the  Jemez  pueblos  and  missions  is  a  stormy  one,  full  of  revolt,  abandon- 
ments, and  re-establishments  at  various  sites. 

The  site  of  Giusewa,  covering  about  six  acres,  was  acquired  by  the 
Museum  of  New  Mexico  in  1921  and  created  a  State  Monument  in  1935.  In 
1921-22  excavations  were  continued  by  the  School  of  American  Research  after 
earlier  collaboration  with  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  and  the  Royal 
Ontario  Museum,  and  in  193 5  they  were  resumed  in  co-operation  with  the 
University  of  New  Mexico. 

SODA  DAM  (R),  19.8  m.,  is  a  natural  dam  extending  like  a  huge  mis- 
shapen mushroom  from  the  canyon  floor.  Numerous  conical  rocks  and  sulphur 
springs  are  above  the  dam.  A  private  residence  with  white  stucco  buildings 
and  extensive  grounds  is  at  20.4  m. 

Between  San  Ysidro  and  Santa  Ana,  NM  44  follows  Jemez  Creek. 
At  198  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  1  m.  on  this  road  across  a  steel  bridge  to  ZfA  PUEBLO  (Pueblo 
governor  for  a  fee  grants  permission  to  photograph).  These  people,  like  those 
at  other  pueblos,  are  farmers  but  have  difficulty  growing  anything  on  this 
poor  soil.  They  manage  to  raise  corn,  wheat,  and  alfalfa  and  in  their  gardens 
work  hard  to  produce  watermelons,  chili,  beans,  and  cabbage.  The  tribe 


368    NEW   MEXICO 

participated  in  the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  1680,  and  in  1687  when  the  Spaniards 
were  attempting  to  reconquer  the  pueblos  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  here. 
General  De  Posada,  acting  under  orders  of  Governor  Cruzate,  marched  from 
El  Paso  as  far  as  this  pueblo.  Historians  say  that  600  Indians  were  killed 
and  70  taken  prisoners.  The  latter  were  condemned  to  slavery  for  ten  years 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  old  men  who  were  executed.  The  mission  was 
reestablished  by  De  Vargas,  and  from  the  ruins  of  the  old  church  the  present 
adobe  MISSION  OF  NUESTRA  SENORA  DE  LA  AsuNCi6N  was  built  October  24,  1692. 
It  is  a  simple  structure  with  massive  buttresses  on  the  front  fagade.  The 
second-floor  gallery  porch  over  the  entrance  has  a  solid  railing  with  a  pattern 
of  crude,  circular  openings  cut  out  along  the  bottom.  In  the  center  above  the 
gallery's  wooden  roof  is  a  bell  hung  in  a  stepped  adobe  gable. 

Zia  has  always  made  fine  pottery  which  is  distinctive  in  color  and  design. 
Their  annual  fiesta  (August  15)  honors  Our  Lady  of  the  Ascension,  their  patron 
saint. 

At  207  m,  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  .2  m.  then  across  a  ford  in  the  Jemez  River.  This  cross- 
ing is  difficult,  often  dangerous,  and  unless  others  are  near  by  to  render  aid 
or  to  advise  about  conditions,  it  is  better  not  to  attempt  it,  for  even  when  the 
river  bed  is  dry  the  sand  is  deep  and  treacherous. 

SANTA  ANA  PUEBLO  (obtain  permission  to  photograph),  0.8  m.  (5,500 
alt,  375  pop.),  is  usually  in  charge  of  caretakers  while  most  of  its  people  are 
at  the  farming  settlement,  El  Ranchito  (see  Tour  Ib).  The  CHURCH  OF  SANTA 
ANA  DE  ALAMILLO  was  rebuilt  by  De  Vargas  in  1692  on  the  site  of  the  mission 
church  erected  about  1600  and  burned  in  1687.  It  is  an  adobe  structure  with 
a  walled  forecourt  and  low,  one-story  buildings  on  both  sides.  Over  the 
entrance  to  the  church  proper  is  a  crude  wooden  gallery  supported  at  each 
e.nd  by  an  extension  of  the  church's  side  walls  and  protected  from  the  weather 
by  a  flat  canopy  above.  In  the  center  of  the  entrance  fagade,  a  stepped 
gable  with  a  bell  opening  rises  above  the  square  mass  of  the  church. 

At  213  m.  on  NM  44  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  1.5  m.  to  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road.  Left  on  this  in 
the  CORONADO  STATE  MONUMENT  are  two  pre-Columbian  Tiguex  pueblo  ruins: 
KUAUA  (L),  0.9  m.j  and  PUARAY  (R),  2  m.,  two  of  the  several  pueblos  of  the 
pre-Columbian  "province  of  Tiguex"  where  Coronado  had  his  headquarters  in 
1540-42.  It  is  not  known  definitely  in  which  one  of  the  dozen  or  more  Tiguex 
pueblos  in  this  region  Coronado  quartered  his  soldiers,  and  there  is  even 
disagreement  over  the  identification  of  Kuaua  and  Puaray.  In  1581  the 
Rodriguez-Chamuscado  expedition  entered  the  Tiguex  province,  and  the  three 
Franciscan  leaders  chose  a  town  called  Puaray  as  the  site  of  their  missionary 
labors;  all  three  were  killed  by  the  Indians.  By  1680  when  the  pueblos  revolted 
only  four  of  the  Tiguex  villages  were  inhabited  but  these  took  an  active  part 
in  the  rebellion. 

Archeological  research  has  been  done  here  by  the  University  of  "New  Mexico 
and  the  School  of  American  Research  at  Santa  Fe  with  financial  aid  from  the 
Federal  Emergency  Relief  Administration  and  Work  Projects  Administration. 
The  most  interesting  find  was  a  series  of  murals  along  three  sides  of  a  square 
subterranean  kiva.  The  walls  had  been  covered  with  29  washes  of  adobe 
plaster,  and  from  7  to  12  of  these  layers  contained  mural  decorations.  The 
walls  were  removed  intact,  after  being  covered  inside  and  out  with  reinforce- 
ments of  plaster  of  Paris,  glue,  and  burlap,  and  all  the  successive  layers  have 
been  removed  at  the  State  University  where  copies  were  made  of  the  drawings 
on  each  layer. 

NM  44  joins  US  85  at  BERNALILLO,  217  m.  (see  Tour  Ib). 


TOUR     10     369 


Tour 


10 


Clovis — Portales — Roswell — Hondo — Tularosa — Alamogordo — Las 
Cruces — Deming — Lordsburg — (Duncan,  Arizona)  ;  US  70. 
Clovis  to  Arizona  Line,  436  m. 

Two-lane  and  four-lane  bituminous-paved  road  throughout. 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  roughly  parallels  route  between  Clovis 

and  Roswell;    Southern   Pacific  Railroad   between   Tularosa   and   the   Arizona 

Line. 

Accommodations  in  principal  towns. 

This  route  which  connects  modern  Roswell  with  historic  Las  Cruces 
crosses  level  plains  extending  west  of  Roswell,  traverses  Lincoln  County, 
scene  of  Billy  the  Kid's  daring  exploits  in  the  Lincoln  County  War,  and 
winds  between  beautiful  mountains  in  the  Mescalero  Apache  reserva- 
tion. It  cuts  through  the  White  Sands  National  Monument  and  west 
of  the  Rio  Grande  gains  altitude,  crossing  the  Victoria  and  Pyramid 
Mountains  near  the  Arizona  Line. 

Section  a.     CLOVIS  to  ALAMOGORDO,  $27  m. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  US  70  runs  through  plains  made 
productive  by  irrigation  and  crosses  the  Mescalero  Ridge  and  the  Pecos 
Valley,  in  pioneer  days  a  famous  cattle  run  and  a  region  where  Billy 
the  Kid  operated. 

US  70  branches  south  from  US  60  (see  Tour  8a)  in  CLOVIS, 
0  m.  (4,218  alt.,  23,713  pop.),  which  was  named  by  the  daughter  of  a 
Santa  Fe  Railway  official  for  the  first  Christian  King  of  France.  The 
town  began  in  1907  as  Riley's  Switch,  a  siding  on  the  Santa  Fe,  but 
grew  rapidly  after  the  railroad  brought  its  shops  and  warehouses  here 
from  Melrose  (see  Tour  8a).  It  is  now  a  four-way  division  point  of 
the  Santa  Fe,  a  junction  of  US  60  and  70  and  84;  important  east-west 
highways,  and  NM  18,  a  north-south  artery  which  taps  the  rich  oil 
centers  of  southeastern  New  Mexico.  Clovis  is  also  a  jobbing  center 
with  many  warehouses,  a  storage  point  with  six  large  elevators  for 
wheat  and  other  grain  grown  in  this  area,  and  a  feeding  point  for  live- 
stock being  shipped  east.  Cattle  from  the  western  grazing  lands  are 
often  sent  on  a  "stop  in  transit"  billing  that  permits  a  stop-over  at  the 
Clovis  feeding  pens  for  fattening.  Several  Federal  and  State  agencies 
for  agriculturists  and  ranchers  maintain  offices  here. 

Adjoining  the  eastern  city  limits  is  HILLCREST,  a  i4O-acre 
municipal  park  with  a  Q-hole  golf  course,  a  $100,000  swimming  pool, 


3?O     NEW     MEXICO 

sunken  garden,  wading  pool,  tennis  courts,  zoo,  a  lake  stocked  for  young 
fishermen,  and  a  baseball  park. 

PORTALES  (Sp.  entrance)  19  m.  (4,002  alt.,  10,000  pop.),  the 
seat  of  Roosevelt  County,  is  in  the  well-irrigated  Portales  Valley.  In 
1890  when  shallow  underground  water  was  discovered,  cattlemen  and 
farmers  moved  into  this  region.  Although  the  Portales  Irrigation 
Company  organized  in  1910  failed  financially  in  1918,  several  farmers 
continued  to  raise  irrigated  crops  here.  Today  385  private  wells  are 
furnishing  water  for  14,000  acres  that  produce  tomatoes,  peanuts,  and 
sweet  potatoes  that  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country;  also  melons, 
strawberries,  cucumbers,  and  grapes.  Dairying  has  become  a  consider- 
able industry.  In  Portales  is  Eastern  New  Mexico  University. 

EASTERN  NEW  MEXICO  UNIVERSITY  is  modern  in  style 
and  with  a  versatile  academic  program.  It  was  opened  in  1934;  estab- 
lished by  constitutional  provision.  Its  valuation  is  approximately 
$8,000,000.  Its  spacious  9O-acre  campus  has  over  30  buildings.  The 
university  is  co-educational  and  issues  bachelor  and  master  degrees  in 
five  schools.  Faculty  and  staff  numbers  over  124,  with  a  student  body 
on-campus  of  1,800. 

Southwest  of  Portales  the  highway  crosses  typical  grazing  lands  and 
more  farming  areas  chiefly  planted  with  sorghums,  which  are  converted 
into  syrup. 

The  Brazos  River,  which  flows  principally  through  Texas,  is  crossed 
at  21.3  m, 

ELIDA,  4-3  772.  (4,280  alt.,  534  pop.),  was  settled  in  1880  by  George 
Littlefield  whose  family  now  owns  16,000  acres  in  vicinity,  and  has 
always  been  a  trading  point  for  ranchers. 

From  KENNA,  54  m.  (4,200  alt,  133  pop.),  established  in  1906 
as  a  cattle-shipping  point,  Kenna  Mesa  is  visible  (R). 

ACME,  85.2  772.  (3,750  alt.,  20  pop.),  was  named  for  the  Acme 
Cement  Company  which  in  1905  constructed  a  cement  mill  nearby. 
Plaster  and  cement  blocks  were  manufactured  until  1931.  when  high 
freight  rates  caused  the  plant  to  close  down. 


US  70  crosses  the  PECOS  RIVER,  94  m.  which  is  usually  a  small, 
sluggish  stream  but  if  heavy  rains  prevail  the  water  mounts  close  to 
the  bridge  floor. 


TOUR     10     371 

In  ROSWELL,  110  m.  (3,600  alt.,  39,593  pop.)  (see  Tour  7£), 
are  junctions  with  US  285  (see  Tour  7b)  and  US  380  which  are 
united  with  US  70  between  Roswell  and  Hondo.  West  of  Roswell, 
the  route  begins  a  gradual  ascent  of  the  WHITE  and  CAPITAN 
MOUNTAINS  (R).  The  rich  green  of  the  jumpers  on  the  hillsides 
accents  the  soft  brown  and  gray  of  the  countryside. 

PICACHO  (Sp.,  peak)  HILL,  142.9  TTZ.,  so  steep  in  stagecoach 
days  it  was  a  hazard  for  inexperienced  drivers,  has  been  graded.  Prickly 
pear,  cactus,  and  ocotillo  eight  to  ten  feet  high  and  in  spring  tipped 
with  scarlet  blooms,  grow  on  the  hilltop.  The  highway  winds  around 
the  summit,  presenting  far  vistas  of  great  beauty.  In  the  canyon  at  the 
base  of  the  hill  wild  walnut,  hackberry,  and  mesquite  grow  in  profusion. 

The  highway  winds  beside  the  cottonwood  and  mesquite-lined  banks 
of  the  Hondo  River,  a  main  tributary  of  the  Pecos,  from  which  many 
small  farms  are  irrigated.  This  valley  divides  the  White  Mountains 
and  the  El  Capitan  country  (R). 

PICACHO,  148  m.  (4,964  alt.,  250  pop.),  named  for  the  peak 
(R)  which  dominates  the  little  adobe  village,  is  a  trading  center  for 
farmers  from  the  surrounding  sheep  ranches,  fruit  orchards,  and  truck 
farms.  The  first  ranchers  came  from  the  Rio  Grande  settlements  about 
1865,  braving  attacks  from  the  marauding  Apache.  The  cattlemen 
moved  in  about  1875. 

TINNIE,  153.8  m.,  originally  named  Analla  for  one  of  its  earliest 
settlers,  but  renamed  for  the  daughter  of  the  first  postmaster,  is  also  a 
trading  point.  In  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Hondo  Valley  apples  are 
the  principal  crop. 

HONDO,  157.8  772.  (5,280  alt,,  250  pop.),  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Bonito  (Sp.,  pretty)  and  Ruidoso  (Sp.,  noisy),  mountain  streams  which 
unite  to  form  the  Rio  Hondo,  is  a  typical  New  Mexican  settlement  built 
around  the  original  homestead  claim  of  L.  W.  Coe,  a  cousin  of  Frank 
and  George  Coe,  who  were  involved  in  the  Lincoln  County  War  (see 
Tour  18b).  Noted  for  fruit,  particularly  apples,  packed  here. 

In  Hondo  is  the  western  junction  with  US  380  which  branches 
(R)  (see  Tour  12b). 

US  70  traverses  the  scenic  Ruidoso  Canyon,  noted  for  its  forests  of 
tall  conifers,  trout  stream,  and  recreation  areas  for  campers  in  summer 
and  skiers  in  winter,  and  from  a  hilltop  is  a  vast  panorama. 

SAN  PATRICIO,  161  772.  (5,550  alt.,  466  pop.),  on  the  Rio 
Ruidoso,  is  in  a  crop-growing  and  grazing  area.  This  village  was 
settled  about  1875  by  farmers  and  cattlemen  from  neighboring  hamlets 
and  by  migrants  from  the  Rio  Grande.  The  church  built  here  by  the 
first  settlers  72  years  ago  was  for  many  years  the  only  one  in  an  area 
infested  by  cattle  rustlers  and  outlaws.  San  Patricio  was  a  favorite 
resort  for  Billy  the  Kid  and  his  band  (see  Tour  12b). 

US  70  crosses  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  LINCOLN  NA- 
TIONAL FOREST  at  164.2  TTZ.,  an  area  of  1,500,000  acres  covered 
with  large  pines  and  crossed  with  canyons  and  ravines.  The  mountain- 
sides are  stocked  with  game. 


372     NEW     MEXICO 

Southwest  of  GLENCOE,  170  m.  (6,000  alt.,  250  pop.),  another 
trading  center,  US  70  crosses  the  northern  boundary  of  the  MES- 
CALERO  INDIAN  RESERVATION,  182.7  m.f  which  is  35  miles 
long  and  25  miles  wide. 

In  MESCALERO,  197.9  m.  (6,475  alt.,  1,386  pop.),  is  the  agency 
headquarters.  Before  1872  the  Mescalero  Apache  were  quartered  at 
Fort  Stanton  with  the  Navaho.  In  1866  the  related  Athapascan  groups 
quarreled,  and  the  Mescalero  resumed  their  former  nomadic  life,  mur- 
dering, pillaging,  and  stealing  through  eastern  and  southern  New  Mex- 
ico. After  the  Army  had  succeeded  in  returning  800  of  them  to  the 
Fort  Stanton  Agency,  a  reservation  there  was  set  apart  for  them.  A 
series  of  executive  orders  had  been  issued,  each  giving  the  Mescalero  a 
new  home,  before  the  present  boundaries  were  established  March  24, 
1883.  Of  their  460,563  acres,  2,000  acres  are  suitable  for  dry  farming 
and  the  remainder  for  grazing  and  timber. 

In  1868,  on  the  sides  of  ROUND  MOUNTAIN  (R),  a  conical- 
shaped  hill  visible  from  206  m.,  United  States  soldiers  and  the  Apache 
fought  one  of  the  fiercest  engagements  of  the  Indian  campaign.  The 
Indians  captured  many  guns  and  much  ammunition  but  were  not  able 
to  use  them ;  and  the  troops  stampeded  many  Indian  horses,  so  that  the 
engagement  became  a  succession  of  individual  forays.  Though  neither 
side  won  a  decisive  victory  the  battle  saved  the  settlement  of  Tularosa, 
the  objective  of  the  Indian  marauders. 

The  name  of  TULAROSA,  215.5  772.  (4,515  alt.,  3,200  pop.),  is 
derived  from  tule  (Sp.,  reed  or  rush)  and  rosa  (Sp.  rose).  Founded 
in  1860  by  Spanish  and  Mexican  immigrants  from  the  Mesilla  Valley 
after  the  Rio  Grande  at  flood  stage  had  wiped  out  their  small  farms,  it 
prospered  for  one  year,  but  the  Apache  raided  the  settlement  so  fre- 
quently that  it  was  abandoned.  The  second  attempt  to  colonize  was 
in  1862  when  the  present  townsite  was  surveyed  and  platted  into  157 
hortalizas  (Sp.,  garden  or  orchard  tracts).  Tularosa  is  a  thriving 
community,  with  a  cotton  gin.  It  is  also  a  loading  point  for  cattle. 

In  Tularosa  is  the  junction  with  US  54  (see  Tour  18),  which  is 
united  with  US  70  to  a  point  2  miles  south  of  Alamogordo. 

A  side  road  from  Tularosa  used  to  run  west  across  the  White  Sands  area, 
and  across  Rhodes  Pass  in  the  San  Andre's  Mountains,  46.7  m.t  to  the  lonely 
GRAVE  OF  EUGENE  MANLOVE  RHODES  (1869-1934),  beloved  New  Mexican  author. 
Rhodes'  novels,  of  which  he  wrote  14,  and  his  many  short  stories,  are  considered 
to  be  among  the  best  interpretations  of  cowboy  life.  Annually,  usually  early 
in  June,  a  tour  to  the  grave  is  conducted  by  the  Alamogordo  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce; otherwise,  permission  required  as  site  is  still  in  restricted  area. 

South  and  west  of  Tularosa  US  70  crosses  the  TULAROSA  VAL- 
LEY, a  125-mile  long  desert  basin,  bounded  by  block  plateaus  or  gently 
tilted  stratified  formations.  It  extends  south  into  Texas  and  north  to 
the  Chupadera  Mesa  in  the  Cibola  National  Forest  and  lies  between 
the  east-facing  scarp  of  the  San  Andres  Mountains  (R)  and  the  west- 
facing  scarp  of  the  Sierra  Blanca  and  Sacramento  Mountains  (L). 


TOUR    10    373 

Between  Tularosa  and  Alamogordo  are  deltas  of  rich  soil  formed  by 
the  La  Luz  (the  light)  and  Alamogordo  Rivers;  underground  water  is 
abundant  and  farming  is  the  chief  occupation. 

ALAMOGORDO  (big  cottonwood  tree),  227  m.  (4,350  alt., 
21,723  pop.),  was  settled  in  1898  when  the  railroad  selected  this  site  for 
its  proximity  to  water  from  Alamo  Canyon,  three  miles  southeast  of  the 
present  city.  During  its  first  year,  Alamogordo  was  made  a  division 
point  and  its  population  grew  to  1 ,200.  Although  the  railroad  removed 
part  of  its  shops  in  1903,  the  natural  advantages  of  Alamogordo's 
position  had  already  made  it  a  trading  and  recreational  center;  and  as 
the  terminus  of  the  Southern  Pacific  branch  line  that  taps  the  lumber 
regions  of  the  Sacramento  Mountains,  it  continued  to  serve  the  lumber 
industry.  Trading,  ranching,  lumbering  are  the  principal  industries,  as 
well  as  being  a  railroad  center  and  focal  point  for  White  Sands  Missile 
Range. 

The  NEW  MEXICO  SCHOOL  FOR  THE  VISUALLY  HANDICAPPED,  a 
State  institution,  is  situated  here.  It  is  a  part  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem for  the  education  of  children  unable  to  attend  the  regular  school 
because  of  partial  or  total  blindness.  It  has  a  nine-month  session,  and 
room,  board,  tuition,  and  medical  care  are  furnished  free.  Kindergarten 
and  twelve  full  grades  are  taught  with  the  texts  transcribed  into  Braille, 
and  the  high  school  is  on  the  State's  accredited  list. 

Section  b.    ALAMOGORDO  to  ARIZONA  LINE,  209  m. 

South  of  ALAMOGORDO,  0  m.f  US  70  traverses  the  far-reaching 
wind-swept  plains  of  the  Tularosa  Valley.  The  few  ranches  are  away 
from  the  highway,  near  the  water  holes  in  the  valley. 

At  2  m.  is  the  southern  junction  with  US  54  (see  Tour  13)  which 
branches  L.  from  US  70. 

At  16.1  777.  is  the  junction  with  paved  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  the  WHITE  SANDS  NATIONAL  MONUMENT 
(adm.  50$)  0,2  m.,  an  area  supervised  by  the  National  Park  Service  and  includ- 
ing 140,247  acres  covered  with  gleaming  white  sands. 

(Vehicles  restricted  to  roads  and  parking  areas;  do  not  drive  on  sand  dunes 
— it  is  dangerous.) 

One  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  sands  is  that  gypsum  in  solution  was 
washed  down  from  the  surrounding  hills  and  carried  sometimes  on  top  of  the 
ground  and  sometimes  beneath,  finally  settling  in  the  old  lake  bed  to  the  south. 
Hot  sunlight  and  a  dry  atmosphere  caused  evaporation,  leaving  exposed  the 
grains  of  gypsum  which  the  prevailing  southwest  winds  piled  in  dunes  and 
drifts.  A  second  theory  is  that  there  are  underground  beds  of  pure  gypsum 
here  and  water  pushing  upward  (the  water  level  is  only  225  feet  below  the 
surface)  dissolves  the  gypsum,  bringing  it  to  the  surface.  Within  the  Monu- 
ment area  is  a  strange  boggy  old  lake  bed  10  miles  wide  and  20  miles  long. 
Settlers  say  toads  and  frogs  washed  down  in  the  summer  freshets  soon  die 
and  that  no  life  can  exist  on  the  lake  bed.  Topographically  the  area  is  diversi- 
fied with  dunes  and  banks,  in  many  forms  and  sizes — some  reaching  50  feet 
in  height.  Plant  life  is  confined  generally  to  the  outer  zones  and  differs  from 
similar  species  elsewhere.  Mice,  insects  and  beetles,  numerous  here,  are  white 
or  a  near-white  shade.  Of  special  interest  to  scientists  is  the  presence  of  plant 
life  in  an  area  free  of  nitrogen.  It  is  believed  that  these  plants  create  their 


374     NEW    MEXICO 

own  supply.     If  subjected  to  intense  -heat  the  sands  become   plaster  of  Paris. 

The  Museum  and  Park  Headquarters  building  have  interesting  exhibits. 

The  Park  Service  road  continues  past  interesting  formations  to  a  place, 
8  m.t  vrtiere  the  sands  are  rippled  and  glistening  white  (picnic  grounds). 

Land  adjacent  to  this  area  is  being  developed  into  a  wild  game  preserve.  A 
small  pool  having  as  its  source  a  mineral  well,  will  serve  as  a  breeding  and 
resting  ground  for  duck  and  other  fowl. 

US  70  proceeds  across  the  valley,  skirting  the  southern  part  of  the 
sands.  Colonel  A.  J.  Fountain,  a  former  army  officer,  took  this  road  to 
his  home  in  Las  Cruces  from  a  court  session  at  Lincoln,  where  he  had 
been  prosecuting  cases  against  some  of  the  notorious  cattle  thieves  caught 
during  the  Rustlers'  War  which  followed  the  close  of  the  Lincoln 
County  War  (see  Tour  12b).  He  was  driving  in  a  democrat  wagon 
accompanied  by  his  twelve-year-old  son,  and  was  seen  last  at  Apache 
Wells.  When  he  failed  to  reach  Las  Cruces  a  posse  was  sent  out. 
Somewhere  between  White  Sands  and  SAN  AUGUSTfN  PASS  (alt. 
5,654),  47.1  772.,  marks  indicated  that  his  team  had  been  forced  off  the 
road  at  a  gallop ;  the  posse  found  the  wrecked  wa.^on,  Fountain's  rifled 
traveling  bags,  his  legal  papers  scattered  about;  but  no  trace  of  him  or 
his  son.  Though  large  rewards  were  offered  for  information  leading 
to  the  recovery  of  the  bodies,  they  were  never  found.  It  is  supposed 
that  some  of  the  thieves  being  prosecuted  ambushed  the  father  and  son 
and  disposed  of  the  bodies  in  one  of  the  many  deep  arroyos  in  the 
vicinity.  Rumors  that  Fountain  and  his  son  had  been  seen  in  Mexico 
were  traced  to  his  supposed  abductors  but  still  persist. 

The  Organ  Mountains  (9,108  alt.)  which  the  highway  crosses 
through  San  Augustin  Pass,  are  spectacular  from  both  sides  of  the 
range.  They  contain  valuable  ores. 

On  FUNERAL  BUTTE  (L),  50  m.,  the  Mescalero  Apache  and 
other  earlier  tribes  buried  their  dead.  Rcw  after  row  of  remains  with 
ccouterments  of  all  descriptions  have  been  found. 

In  LAS  CRUCES,  67  m.  (29,367  pop.),  is  the  junction  with  US 
85  (see  Tour  Ic). 

West  of  Las  Cruces,  US  70  passes  through  fields  of  cotton,  corn, 
and  alfalfa  surrounding  numerous  dairy  farms.  A  little  north  of  US 
70  between  Las  Cruces  and  Deming  is  the  route  followed  by  the  Over- 
land Mail  between  1851  and  1861.  Jdhn  Butterfield's  stages  ran  from 
St.  Louis,  Missouri  to  San  Francisco,  California,  by  way  of  El  Paso 
and  Yuma  to  avoid  the  snows  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  trip 
usually  took  a  little  more  than  three  weeks;  the  record  was  21  days. 
About  every  20  miles  along  this  2,8oo-mile  route  were  stations  estab- 
lished primarily  as  points  to  change  horses  or  mules.  In  New  Mexico 
the  stations  were  of  adobe,  and  like  those  elsewhere,  designed  to  afford 
only  temporary  shelter  and  protection  to  travelers.  Mowry  Station  near 
Deming,  now  a  ruin  on  a  private  ranch,  was  an  ideal  site  for  its  pur- 
pose, having  water  and  pasturage  for  stock.  It  was  named  Mimbres, 
but  later  called  Mowry  for  Major  Mowry  who  was  in  command  of 
Fort  Webster  near  by.  Mowry  resigned  his  commission,  went  over  to 


TOUR    10    375 

the  Confederate  Army,  and  was  captured  by  the  California  Column. 
After  1 86 1  the  Overland  Mail  moved  to  a  route  farther  north. 

From  FAIR  ACRES,  70  772.,  a  cotton  gin,  a  service  station,  and  a 
store,  Robledo  Mountain  is  visible  to  the  north  (R). 

The  highway  traverses  a  rolling  desert  between  foothills  and  a  region 
where  continuous  fields  of  yucca  grow  masses  of  creamy  blossoms  in 
spring. 

The  FLORIDA  MOUNTAINS  (pron.  Flo-ree'-da  locally),  113 
m.  to  the  south  (L)  are  noted  for  their  purple  evening  hues  and  their 
rugged,  sharp  outlines  against  the  background  of  flaming  sunsets. 

At  DEMING  AIRPORT  AND  RODEO  STADIUM  (L),  123.9  m.,  a  rodeo 
and  Tri-State  Fair  are  held  every  year  (early  in  October). 

DEMING,  126  m.  (4,342  alt.,  6,764  pop.),  the  seat  of  Luna 
County,  is  more  like  the  rapidly  growing  towns  in  the  eastern  section 
of  the  State  with  their  Texas  flavor  than  a  typical  New  Mexico  town. 
It  is  in  the  Mimbres  Valley,  which  contains  many  thousand  acres  of  fine 
farm  land.  The  Mimbres  River  has  its  source  in  Grant  County  to  the 
northwest  of  Deming.  Until  it  reaches  a  point  approximately  20  miles 
north  of  Deming  its  course  is  above  ground.  It  then  passes  under- 
ground for  the  entire  remainder  of  its  length  emptying  into  a  drainless 
lake  in  Chihuahua,  Mexico.  Water  from  this  underground  supply, 
shown  by  U.  S.  Government  test  to  be  99.9  per  cent  pure,  is  tapped  to 
irrigate  the  valley  lands  growing  cotton,  feed  and  legumes.  Many  varie- 
ties of  fruit  also  are  produced  and  cattle,  horses,  hogs,  and  goats  graze 
on  the  uncultivated  areas.  To  the  north  and  south  the  valleys  are 
dotted  with  mines.  Lead  and  zinc  are  found  in  the  Cook's  Peak  dis- 
trict, 20  miles  north;  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  onyx  in  the  Tres  Her- 
manas  Mountains,  20  miles  to  the  south;  manganese  in  the  Florida 
Mountains,  20  miles  to  the  southwest,  and  fluorspar  is  mined  a  few 
miles  northeast  of  Deming  and  milled  at  the  city  limits. 

In  Deming  is  the  junction  with  US  260  (see  Tour  18). 

The  vast  fields  of  yucca,  west  of  Deming,  produce  a  quality  fiber 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  binder  twine,  upholstery,  bagging, 
mattress  materials,  and  auto  seat  pads. 

GAGE,  145  m.  (c.  200  pop.)  was  a  railroad  settlement  and  is  now 
a  small  trading  point. 

The  CONTINENTAL  DIVIDE  (5,000  alt.)  is  crossed  at  159  m. 

From  SEPAR,  165  m.  (161  pop.),  a  cattle  loading  station  and 
trading  point  for  ranches,  the  Pyramid  Mountains  are  visible  (L). 

LORDSBURG,  186  m.  (4,249  alt.,  3,436  pop.),  named  for  a  con- 
struction engineer  for  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  is  the  seat  of 
Hidalgo  County.  Next  to  catering  to  tourists,  the  chief  occupations  are 
mining,  farming,  ranching  and  trucking.  Large  mining  operations  are 
now  being  carried  on  3  miles  south  of  Lordsburg  in  the  Pyramid  Moun- 
tains. 


376    NEW    MEXICO 

Directly  south  of  the  town  (L)  is  the  Lordsburg  Airport,  dedicated 
by  Colonel  Charles  A.  Lindbergh  in  1927- 

US  70  crosses  the  ARIZONA  LINE  at  209  m.t  6  miles  southeast 
of  Duncan,  Arizona. 

&<X&^^^ 

Tour  ii 


Ranches  de  Taos— Mora — Junction  US  85.     NM  3. 
Ranches  de  Taos  to  Junction,  64  m. 

Two-lane,  graded  gravel  between  Rockwell  and  Holman.     Balance  bituminous- 
paved. 
Accommodations  in  Mora  and  Cleveland;  places  to  camp  out. 

This  route  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  vistas  and  panoramas,  espe- 
cially in  the  autumn,  when  the  color  -is  richer  than  at  any  other  time 
and  there  is  snow  on  the  mountains.  It  lies  through  forests  and  tiny 
settlements,  over  mountain  passes  on  an  all-weather  road,  and  past  farms 
and  cattle  ranches.  The  highest  elevation  of  the  road  itself  is  9,041  feet. 

South  of  RANCHOS  DE  TAOS,  0  m.t  NM  3  traverses  the  Talpa 
Valley,  passing  home  (R)  of  Andrew  Dasburg  who  is  one  of  the  best 
known  artists  of  the  Taos  group,  0.4  TTZ.  The  village  of  LLANO 
QUEMADO  (burnt  plain)  is  a  settlement  (R)  named  for  the  ruins 
to  the  south  excavated  in  1920  by  direction  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 
Some  anthropologists  believe  the  Taos  Indians  lived  here  first.  The 
reredos  from  the  church  at  Llano  Quemado  is  now  in  the  Palace  of  the 
Governors  at  Santa  Fe.  To  (L)  c.  1  m.  is  the  Morada,  where  Peni- 
tentes  present  Passion  Play,  afternoon  of  Good  Friday. 

TALPA,  1.9  m.  (1,021  pop.),  is  on  the  old  Spanish  land  grant  of 
Don  Cristobal  de  la  Sena.  NM  3  crosses  the  Rio  Chiquito  (little 
river)  for  which  the  settlement  was  formerly  named  and  passes  the 
private  chapel  of  the  Duran  family,  an  adobe  structure  built  about 
1820. 

On  a  side  road  (L)  near  the  highway  lives  Juan  Pedro  Cruz  (born 
about  1855) ,  a  village  weaver  whose  hand-made  loom  and  spinning  wheel 
were  used  for  decades.  Before  machine-made  blankets  and  carpets  were 
sold,  he  supplied  the  Taos  Indians  with  most  of  their  sarapes  and  the 
surrounding  villagers  with  the  black,  brown,  and  white  checked  jergas 
(small  rugs)  with  which  they  carpeted  their  dirt  floors.  He  also  wove 
the  white  sabanillas  used  as  foundations  for  the  elaborately  embroidered 
colchas  (bed  spreads)  now  sought  and  prized  by  collectors  of  Spanish 
handicrafts. 


TOUR    i  i     377 

Close  to  the  village  are  the  PONCE  DE  LEON  HOT  SPRINGS,  where 
the  Indians  of  ancient  times  and  the  early  Spanish  settlers  bathed. 
Before  Taos  had  plumbing,  the  springs  were  known  as  the  Taos  Bath- 
tub, since  many  of  the  town's  citizens  would  journey  here  for  baths. 

Two  excellent  poolsj  one  of  them  indoor,  and  the  other  outdoor, 
make  this  a  favorite  spot  for  swimming  from  early  spring  to  late 

autumn. 

South  of  Talpa  the  highway  begins  a  long  climb  through  forests 
over  U.  S.  Hill  in  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains.  It  is  so  called 
because  United  States  soldiers  camped  in  this  region  in  1847.  At  sunset 
the  coloring  of  the  distant  mountain  ranges  is  exceptionally  beautiful. 
From  the  summit  of  U.  S.  Hill  (8,500  alt.),  12.3  m.,  parts  of  the  old 
wagon  road  can  still  be  seen  (L)  just  below  the  edge  of  the  present 
highway.  Over  this,  a  section  of  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail  used  as  late 
as  1933,  Colonel  Price  brought  his  troops  from  Las  Trampas  to  Taos 
to  quell  the  uprising  of  1847.  They  marched  for  three  days  in  January 
through  deep  snow  and  over  the  rough  mountain  trails. 

The  highway  crosses  a  boundary  of  the  CARSON  NATIONAL 
FOREST  at  14.4  m.t  then  dips  sharply  downward  into  a  small  high 
valley.  At  16.5  m.  is  junction  with  oiled  road,  NM  75. 

Right  on  this  road  5.4  m.  is  Picuris  Pueblo  (see  Tour  Sa). 

NM  3  now  follows  the  Rio  Pueblo  de  Picuris,  a  tiny  stream  of 
sparkling  mountain  water.  For  several  miles  the  creek  seems  to  be 
flowing  upward.  A  Forest  Service  public  camp  (R)  is  at  17.6  m.,  and 
the  Agua  Piedra  (stony  creek)  Recreational  Area  is  at  23.6  m.  In  a 
pocket  of  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  near  TRES  RITOS  (three 
creeks),  25  772.  (7,500  alt.,  15  pop.),  is  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  La 
Junta  (junction  river),  the  Agua  Sarca  (blue  water),  and  the  Rio 
Pueblo  de  Picuris.  Another  Forest  Service  Sub-station  and  the  La  Junta 
Recreational  Area  are  in  the  village  (L).  At  the  latter  place  is  a  camp- 
ground with  stone  fireplaces,  tables,  and  sanitary  facilities.  Good  water 
and  wood  are  provided,  and  there  is  no  charge  for  camping. 

The  Rio  Pueblo  de  Picuris  drains  a  valley  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  about  10  miles  long  and  6  to  8  miles  wide 
above  the  crossing  of  the  highway.  It  affords  good  trout  fishing.  Tres 
Ritos  was  used  as  a  camping  ground  for  freighters  on  the  old  Taos-Las 
Vegas  Trail.  The  road  now  starts  ascending  and  slowly  rises  on  the 
climb  toward  the  summit  of  Holman  Hill.  At  29  m.  is  the  Angos- 
tura Public  Camp  Ground  (R),  maintained  by  the  Forest  Service  of 
Carson  National  Forest.  The  crest  of  Holman  Hill  (9,041  alt.)  is  at 
30.2  m. 

South  of  Holman,  NM  3  requires  great  care  in  driving.  It  twists 
and  turns  through  hilly  country  and  an  additional  hazard  is  provided  by 
the  many  horses,  cows,  and  chickens  that  wander  onto  the  highway. 

HOLMAN,  27  m.  (7,500  alt.,  30  pop.),  is  in  Mora  Valley,  ap- 
proximately 15  miles  long  and  from  one-half  to  two  miles  wide.  In 


378      NE"W     MEXICO 

pre-Spanish  times  this  valley  was  the  home  of  the  "wild  tribes"  of 
Indians,  the  Ute,  Comanche,  and  at  times  the  Jicarilla  Apache,  which 
greatly  retarded  its  early  settlement.  According  to  Spanish  archives, 
the  upper  part  of  the  valley  was  called  Valle  de  San  Antonio,  while 
the  lower  in  which  the  town  of  Mora  is,  was  called  Valle  de  Santa 
Gertrudes,  the  name  first  given  to  the  town.  The  ^  valley  was  first 
visited  in  1696  by  De  Vargas  in  pursuit  of  the  Picuris  and  other 
Pueblo  Indians,  leaders  of  the  second  Pueblo  revolt,  but  no  permanent 
settlement  was  attempted  until  the  nineteenth  century.  De  Vargas  on 
this  campaign  was  the  first  Spanish  officer  to  cross  the  main  range  of  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains  in  winter.  In  his  journal  he  describes  in 
detail  the  immense  snowdrifts.  Some  Frenchmen  and  at  least  one  Amer- 
ican, about  1804,  had  come  on  this  route  with  bands  of  Plains  Indians 
to  trade  with  the  Indians  and  whites  of  Taos.  This  afterward  became 
a  part  of  the  Dry  Cimarron  route  of  the  old  Santa  Fe  Trail,  and 
detachments  of  troops  from  Santa  Fe  were  kept  along  this  section  of 
the  trail  to  prevent  smuggling  and  to  collect  revenues  from  the  freight 
caravans  going  to  Taos. 

CLEVELAND,  30  m.  (7,400  alt.,  250  pop.),  was  formerly  called 
San  Antonio  and  later  named  for  President  Cleveland.  The  establish- 
ment here  of  a  store,  still  operating,  by  Dan  Cassidy  and  other  Irishmen 
said  to  be  from  County  Donegal,  Ireland  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  was  the  beginning  of  this  settlement.  Another  store  and 
a  post  office  have  been  added  to  the  adobe  houses  that  are  the  town. 
( Good  fishinff  at  a  small  lake  I  mile  west  of  the  post  office.) 

Entering  Mora,  old  COURTHOUSE  (R),  with  new  courthouse  behind 
it,  is  the  meeting  place  for  residents  of  the  many  small  rural  communities 
in  the  vicinity.  The  great  square  yard  about  the  stone  building  is  usually 
filled  with  horses,  autos,  and  wagons. 

Right  from  Mora  on  a  graded  dirt  road  to  ROCIADA  (dewy),  17  m. 
(6,989  alt.,  164  pop.),  settled  in  1846  by  Spanish-Americans  and  so  named  for 
the  frequently  heavy  dews.  At  one  time  this  was  the  home  of  Jose  Baca,  Lieu- 
tenant Governor  in  1924,  whose  widow  Marguerite  P.  Baca  was  secretary  of 
state  of  New  Mexico  from  1930-34.  On  the  hills  ahove  Rociada  is  the  elabo- 
rately equipped  dude  ranch,  the  Jac-C  Bar  Ranch  comprising  2,000  acres  of 
land. 

MORA,  33  77z.  (6,528  alt.,  1,167  pop.),  was  settled  in  1835.  The 
original  name,  Lo  de  Santa  Gertrudes  de  Mora,  is  thought  to  be  a 
contraction  of  el  ojo  (the  spring),  and  of  mora,  meaning  mulberry; 
but  the  French  called  it  L'eau  des  Morts  (water  of  the  dead),  after  a 
French  beaver-trapping  party  had  discovered  human  bones  in  the  stream 
now  called  the  Mora  River.  The  citizens  are  mostly  of  Spanish  ana 
Mexican  stock,  though  some  are  Irish,  German,  and  Syrian,  and  there 
are  two  descendants  of  early  French  settlers.  When  the  original  Mex- 
ican grant  was  made  by  Governor  Albino  Perez  in  1835  to  76  men  and 
women,  in  a  ceremony  symbolizing  possession  of  the  land  the  grantees 
"pulled  up  weeds,  threw  stones,  scattered  handfuls  of  dirt  and  gave 
thanks  to  God  and  their  nation." 

But  constant  raids  by  Comanche  Indians  made  it  necessary  for  them 


TOUR    ii   379 

to  build  their  houses  very  close  together,  and  there  was  much  hardship 
in  clearing  the  land.  In  1 843  a  party  of  Texans,  led  by  Colonel  Charles 
A.  Warfield,  an  ambitious  adventurer,  led  an  unsuccessful  raid  on  the 
town.  On  the  day  following  the  massacre  of  Governor  Bent  in  Taos, 
a  party  of  traders  returning  to  Missouri  were  captured  here  by  the 
insurgents  under  command  of  Manuel  Cortes,  a  Mexican  outlaw.  The 
entire  party  was  taken  out  and  shot,  and  their  wagon  train  and  goods 
confiscated.  Among  those  killed  was  Lawrence  L.  Waldo  of  St.  Louis, 
who  had  been  engaged  in  the  Santa  Fe  trade  for  many  years  and  was 
well  acquainted  with  this  section.  Six  days  before  his  death  in  a  letter 
to  his  brother,  who  was  a  captain  in  Doniphan's  regiment,  Lawrence 
Waldo  expressed  the  belief  that  "not  one  in  one  hundred  native  Mex- 
icans" was  content  under  the  rule  of  the  United  States. 

Ceran  St.  Vrain  (1798-1890),  who  had  come  to  Taos  from  St. 
Louis  in  1830,  settled  here  in  the  i86o's.  He  had  been  a  partner  of 
Governor  Charles  Bent,  and  had  served  as  colonel  of  the  First  New 
Mexico  Volunteer  Infantry,  but  ill  health  caused  him  to  resign,  and  his 
lieutenant  colonel,  Kit  Carson,  succeeded  him.  His  hacienda,  which 
contained  many  thousands  of  acres  under  a  Spanish  grant,  followed  the 
lavish  traditions  of  French  and  Spanish  hospitality.  Scores  of  servants, 
peons,  and  Negroes  from  a  Virginia  plantation — said  to  be  run-away 
slaves — as  well  as  captured  Indian  children  who  had  grown  up  in  the 
household,  served  the  St.  Vrains.  He  died  in  1890  and  was  buried  on 
a  low  hill  near  the  village. 

In  its  early  years  Mora  was  seldom  a  peaceful  town;  the  feuds, 
murders,  lynchings,  and  terrorism  of  the  scores  of  Las  Vegas  gangsters 
(see  Tour  la)  extended  throughout  Mora  County  and  sometimes  cen- 
tered in  this  village. 

The  SCHOOL  OF  THE  SISTERS  OF  LORETTO,  founded  by 
Father  Salpointe  who  later  was  assistant  to  the  Archbishop  of  Santa  Fe, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  as  were  two  succeeding  ones,  replaced  by  the 
present  convent.  The  Loretto  Sisters  teach  in  a  parochial  school  in  town. 

Mora  is  a  good  starting  point  for  a  trip  to  BLACK  LAKE  (good 
fishing) ,  to  Eagle  Nest  Lake,  which  is  considered  by  some  the  best  trout 
lake  in  the  State  of  New  Mexico. 

In  Mora  is  the  junction  with  NM  38,  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  BLACK  LAKE,  27.2  m.,  a  region  popular  with  fisher- 
men, and  continue  to  Eagle  Nest  Lake,  at  48  m. 

Southwest  of  Mora,  along  the  Mora  River,  the  highway  crosses  La 
Cueva  Valley,  a  beautiful,  well-irrigated  section  of  50,000  acres  or  more 
with  fine  orchards. 

LA  CUEVA  (cave),  39  m.  (L  1  m.)  (6,500  alt.,  289  pop.),  in  the 
heart  of  the  valley,  is  in  an  amphitheater  of  hills  with  lofty  mountains 
behind  them.  Shortly  after  the  building  of  Fort  Union  (see  Tour  la) 
in  1851,  La  Cueva  was  established  as  its  chief  supply  ranch  for  forage 
and  grains.  The  founder  of  the  town,  Vicente  Romero,  is  remembered 
chiefly  for  his  remarkable  irrigation  system  at  La  Cueva,  still  function- 


380     NEW     MEXICO 

ing.  La  Cueva  produces  livestock,  vegetables,  flour,  and  fruits,  par- 
ticularly apples  and  apricots. 

The  highway  passes  BUENA  VISTA,  40  m.  (7,000  alt.),  and 
SAPELLO,  52  m.  (6,900  alt.,  176  pop.),  at  the  junction  of  the 
Manuelitos  and  Sapello  creeks.  Buena  Vista  consists  of  a  post  office, 
two  stores,  and  several  frame  buildings  that  serve  the  wheat  and  alfalfa 
farmers  in  the  surrounding  area  and  the  hunters  who  come  during  deer 
and  turkey  season.  Southwest  of  Sapello  the  highway  leaves  Sapello 
Creek  and  continues  across  the  plain,  gradually  losing  altitude.  Along 
here  is  a  fine  view  (L)  of  the  TURKEY  MOUNTAINS,  a  low  range 
running  north  to  south. 

At  64  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  85  at  East  Las  Vegas  (see  Tour 
la). 


Tour  12 


( Brownfield,  Texas )  — Tatum — Roswell — Hondo — Carrizozo — San 

Antonio.     US  380. 

Texas  Line  to  San  Antonio,  242  m. 

Two-lane,  bituminous-paved   roadbed  throughout. 

Hotels  in  Roswell,  Carrizozo;  tourist  camps,  gas  stations  at  short  intervals. 

Near  the  Texas  Line  US  85  crosses  flat  plains  country,  where  stock 
grazing  and  agriculture  are  the  principal  industries.  West  of  Roswell 
it  runs  through  mountainous  country  and  the  scene  of  the  Lincoln 
County  War. 

Section  a.     TEXAS  LINE  to  HONDO,  135  m. 

US  380  crosses  the  TEXAS  LINE,  0  m.,  at  a  point  33  miles  west 
of  Brownfield,  Texas,  crossing  the  lower  end  of  the  Staked  Plains  (see 
Tour  6a)  and  climbing  almost  imperceptibly  to  the  caprock  formation, 
whence  it  descends  to  a  lower  sandy  plain  of  grasses  and  low  bushes. 
This  is  primarily  a  cattle  and  sheep  grazing  plain,  but  oil  wells  are 
encroaching,  and  this  area  will  probably  be  exploited  for  oil  as  vigor- 
ously as  the  region  to  the  south. 

At  14  77z.  is  the  REGISTRATION  STATION  where  out-of -state  trucks 
pay  a  mileage  tax  and  licenses  are  sold  to  out-of-state  cars  not  properly 
licensed. 

TATUM,  15.3  m.  (3,950  alt,  1,168  pop.),  was  founded  in  1909  by 
James  G.  Tatum,  who  started  a  small  general  store.  With  funds  real- 


TOUR     12      38l 

ized  from  neighborhood  dances  and  box  socials,  a  school  was  built  and 
the  settlers  had  a  permanent  community.  Recently  several  oil  leases 
have  attracted  attention  to  this  locality,  and  considerable  development 
(1952)  is  under  way.  Many  acres  are  irrigated  and  produce  cotton, 
hay  and  grains. 

US  380  continues  through  a  section  of  sheep  and  cattle  ranches 
where  Indian  artifacts,  camping  sites,  and  flint  mounds  are  evidence  of 
an  Indian  use  of  these  lands,  though  the  absence  of  burial  grounds 
indicates  temporary,  rather  than  permanent,  occupation.  The  Spanish 
explorers  recorded  finding  the  Comanche,  Kiowa,  and  Apache  here. 
Piles  of  broken  flint  recently  uncovered  indicate  the  meeting  place  of 
Apache  and  Comanche,  who  visited  and  traded,  meanwhile  shaping  and 
working  points  for  spears  and  arrows.  Traces  of  trails  in  the  caprock 
between  watering  places  usually  course  a  direct  route.  The  Indian's 
knowledge  of  the  short-cut  gave  him  an  advantage  when  pursued  over 
the  plains.  Several  rock  mounds  along  the  Mescalero  Ridge  (see  below) 
are  believed  to  have  been  buffalo  traps  used  in  the  days  before  the  Indians 
had  horses. 

The  most  primitive  and  dangerous  method  of  hunting  buffalo  was 
on  foot.  Wearing  wolf  skins,  the  Indian  stalked  his^prey  until  he  was 
within  bow  shot.  This  slow  and  tedious  method  was  succeeded  by 
trapping.  Wearing  a  buffalo  pelt,  the  Indian  attracted  the  animals  by 
his  antics.  As  they  moved  nearer  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  the  Indian  darted 
behind  a  mound  for  protection,  and  other  Indians  who  had  crept  up 
behind  the  buffalo  frightened  them,  causing  them  to  stampede  over  the 
edge  to  their  destruction.  A  third  method  came  in  with  the  horse,  when 
the  Indian,  covered  with  a  buffalo  robe,  worked  his  way  into  the  herd 
and  killed  several  before  there  was  a  stampede.  Later,  some  Indians 
used  the  rifle  but  the  majority  relied  on  the  spear  or  bow  and  arrow. 

Women  also  had  a  part  in  the  hunt.  Once  the  animal  had  been 
killed,  regardless  of  the  method  employed,  a  man's  work  was  done  and 
the  woman's  begun.  Squaws  with  sharp  stone  or  bone  knives  fell  to 
skinning  and  quartering.  If  the  kill  had  been  large,  they  were  busy  for 
days  taking  care  of  the  meat  and  every  part  of  the  buffalo  carcass.  If 
the  weather  was  cool,  much  of  the  meat,  after  a  few  days'  cooling,  was 
folded  in  leather  blankets,  to  be  carried  away  to  their  permanent  home 
or  stored  in  underground  pits  for  future  use.  When  the  weather  was 
warm,  they  sliced  it  almost  paper  thin,  and  smoked  and  dried  it  in  the 
sun.  This  was  called  charqui  or  "jerked"  meat.  Dried  meat  was  often 
pounded  with  fat  and  seasoned  with  herbs  and  berries  to  make  pemmi- 
can,  the  forerunner  of  sausages.  Many  of  the  hides  were  tanned  with 
the  hair  on  to  be  used  for  robes  and  covers,  but  others  were  made  into 
leather  for  tepees,  moccasins,  clothing,  and  other  coverings.  The 
tanning  was  a  laborious  process  of  soaking,  scraping,  oiling,  and  rub- 
bing, but  the  finished  product  was  an  exceptionally  fine,  light,  and 
almost  pliable  leather,  so  soft  that  rain  would  not  harden  it.  Sinews 
were  saved  and  split  for  thread.  Bones  were  made  into  various  tools 
and  teeth  into  ornaments.  It  is  an  old  Indian  saying  that  the  buffalo 


382      NEW     MEXICO 

supplied  the  bowstring  to  kill  himself,  the  tools  with  which  to  carve 
himself,  the  fuel  with  which  to  roast  himself,  and  the  thread  and  needle 
with  which  to  sew  himself  into  garments  as  well  as  to  make  articles  for 
trade.  With  the  buffalo  available,  the  Indian  felt  that  he  could  easily 
sustain  himself,  and  it  was  for  possession  of  the  buffalo  that  the  Co- 
manche  fought  so  desperately  to  keep  the  white  man  from  these  plains. 

Between  Tatum  and  CAPROCK,  40.3  m.  (12  pop.),  a  tiny  ham- 
let, the  highway  traverses  the  Simonola  Valley,  a  depression  in  the  plains 
having  several  well  known  ranches  where  water  is  easily  obtained. 

A  definite  break  in  the  caprock  of  the  Staked  Plains  occurs  at  about 
45  m.  MESCALERO  RIDGE,  named  for  an  Apache  tribe  of  mescal 
eaters  who  came  there  to  hunt,  is  a  north  to  south  uplift,  marking  the 
western  boundary  of  the  higher  plains,  the  lower  being,  geologically,  the 
valley  floor  of  the  Pecos  River. 

At  77  777.  is  a  junction  with  a  graded  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  to  BOTTOMLESS  LAKES  STATE  PARK,  3  m.,  an 
area  of  great  natural  beauty  in  this  arid  region.  Crystal-clear  and  mirroring 
the  tinted  bluffs  that  encircle  them,  the  lakes  are  from  45  feet  to  600  feet  deep 
and  vary  in  size  from  a  few  hundred  square  feet  to  300  acres.  The  cow- 
boys v/ho  discovered  these  lakes  thought  them  bottomless  because  numerous 
weighted  lariats  tied  together  never  came  to  rest  on  the  bottom.  This  was 
later  accounted  for  when  it  was  discovered  that  a  flow  below  caused  the 
lines  to  be  moved  along.  Geologists  say  that  the  lakes  were  formed  when 
pressure  of  underground  water  on  soluble  rock  caused  a  weakening  of  the 
substrata  and  a  consequent  caving  in  from  the  surface. 

In  ROSWELL,  87  m.  (3,600  alt.,  39,593  POP-)  (see  Tour  7b), 
are  junctions  with  US  285  (see  Tour  7b)  and  with  US  70  with  which 
US  380  is  united  between  this  point  and  HONDO,  135  772.  (see  Tour 
Wa)  where  US  380  branches  R. 


Section  b.    HONDO  to  SAN  ANTONIO  107  m. 

West  of  HONDO,  0  m.,  are  vistas  of  green  hills,  the  Bonito  Valley, 
and  mountains  in  the  distance.  This  is  Lincoln  County,  scene  of  a 
blocdy  quarrel  between  cattlemen  called  the  Lincoln  County  War 
(1877-78).  John  H.  Chisum,  the  reputed  cattle  king  of  New  Mexico, 
declared  that  small  owners  were  running  off  his  stock,  and  those  wLh 
fewer  herds  accused  the  Chisum  forces  of  similar  practices.  Allied 
with  Chisum  were  Alexander  McSween,  a  lawyer,  and  John  H.  Tun- 
stall,  a  wealthy  Englishman  who  furnished  capital  for  the  partnership. 
McSween  and  Tunstall  were  dealers  in  livestock  and  real  estate  in 
Lincoln,  the  county  seat.  Opposed  to  this  combination  was  the  firm 
Murphy-Dolan  whose  supply  store  was  patronized  by  the  opposition. 

Neither  Chisum,  Tunstall,  nor  McSween  was  accused  of  lawless- 
ness during  this  period,  but  many  of  their  ranch  hands  were,  and  evi- 
dently the  principals  made  no  effort  to  restrain  them.  Such  a  situation 
caused  Lincoln  County  to  become  a  magnet,  attracting  desperadoes  from 


TOUR     12      383 

other  sections  of  New  Mexico,  from  Colorado,  Texas,  and  even  from 
regions  south  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

In  and  out  of  this  turbulent  scene  rode  Billy  the  Kid,  who  killed 
to  amuse  himself,  to  avenge  a  fancied  insult,  to  aid  a  friend,  or  to  plun- 
der and  obtain  funds  that  he  promptly  lost  at  a  gambling  table.  The 
Kid  (William  H.  Bonney),  who  was  born  in  New  York  City  (1859), 
moved  with  his  family  to  Kansas  where  the  elder  Bonney  died  and  the 
widow  married  a  man  named  Antrim.  They  soon  moved  to  New 
Mexico  and  finally  settled  in  Silver  City  where  it  is  reported  that  at 
the  age  of  twelve  the  boy  committed  his  first  murder  by  stabbing  a  man 
who  had  insulted  his  mother.  That  started  him  on  his  career  of  kill- 
ing and  Billy  the  Kid  never  saw  any  member  of  his  family  again.  He 
was  next  heard  from  in  Arizona  where  he  killed  three  peaceful  Indians 
for  their  ponies  and  blankets.  Turning  these  into  cash  he  enjoyed  the 
hospitality  of  soldiers  at  Fort  Bowie  until  he  killed  an  enlisted  man 
who  worked  as  a  blacksmith.  The  Kid  fled  to  Mexico  where  he  killed 
at  least  three  men,  stole  horses,  and  dealt  monte.  At  the  age  of  17  he 
started  north  and  somewhere  in  Texas  killed  eight  Indians,  picking 
them  off  one  by  one  with  his  Winchester  and  thus  saved  an  emigrant 
train.  Arriving  in  New  Mexico  again  he  joined  forces  with  Jesse  Evans 
who  had  belonged  to  a  gang  once  led  by  the  Kid  in  Silver  City.  The 
Kid  and  Evans  crossed  and  re-crossed  the  Rio  Grande  several  times; 
they  stole  horses  on  one  side  and  sold  them  on  the  other,  and  during 
this  period  three  murders  were  committed.  In  avoiding  punishment 
for  his  crimes,  the  Kid  depended  as  much  on  his  expert  riding  as  on 
his  shooting.  Sheriff  Pat  Garrett  describes  the  dismay  of  the  Kid's 
enemies  who  "gazed  at  the  sight  of  a  gray  horse,  saddled  and  bridled, 
dashing  across  the  valley  with  no  semblance  of  a  rider  save  a  leg  thrown 
across  the  saddle  and  a  head  and  arm  protruding  from  beneath  the 
horse's  neck,  while  at  the  end  of  this  arm  the  barrel  of  a  pistol  glistened 
in  the  sunlight.  .  .  ." 

"The  Kid  had  a  lurking  devil  in  him,"  Garrett  continues.  "It  was 
a  good-humored,  jovial  imp,  or  a  cruel  and  blood-thirsty  fiend,  as  cir- 
cumstances prompted.  He  always  laughed  when  killing,  but  fire  seemed 
to  dart  from  his  eyes."  Because  Jesse  Evans  joined  the  Murphy-Dolan 
forces  in  the  cattle  rustling  war  the  Kid  did  likewise,  but  later — 
influenced  by  his  deep  admiration  for  Tunstall — withdrew  from  the 
war  and  for  several  months  quietly  'tended  range  cattle  for  the  English- 
man. When  the  latter  was  murdered  by  members  of  a  deputy  sheriff's 
posse  after  he  had  surrendered  and  handed  over  his  gun,  the  infuriated 
Kid  resumed  his  former  life,  killing  Sheriff  Brady  and  others. 

From  then  until  the  war  ended  with  the  bloody  battle  in  the  county 
seat  (see  below),  Jesse  Evans  for  one  faction  and  the  Kid  the  other. 

After  the  war  the  Kid  continued  his  savage  career.  He  was  finally 
captured  by  Sheriff  Garrett  and  at  the  age  of  22  was  sentenced  to  be 
hanged.  Because  he  had  small  hands  and  large  wrists  he  was  able, 
after  starving  himself  for  several  days,  to  shake  off  his  handcuffs;  he 


384      NEW     MEXICO 

killed  his  guard  and  also  the  jailer  and  then  took  time  to  do  a  trium- 
phant jig  on  the  balcony  of  the  jail,  singing  his  defiance,  before  he 
mounted  a  horse  and,  with  one  leg  iron  still  dangling,  escaped.  A  year 
later  Sheriff  Garrett  trailed  the  Kid  to  Pete  Maxwell's  house  in  Fort 
Sumner  (see  Tour  8a)  where  well  directed  revolver  shots  put  an  end 
to  Billy  the  Kid. 

Americans  of  Spanish  and  Mexican  stock  founded  the  first  settle- 
ment in  the  present  county  in  1855,  and  other  settlements  followed, 
but  it  was  a  region  of  large  ranches,  and  except  for  Lincoln,  the  county 
seat,  sparsely  populated. 

For  most  of  the  distance  between  Hondo  and  Carrizozo  US  380 
traverses  the  LINCOLN  NATIONAL 'FOREST. 

This  area  comprises  five  mountainous  divisions  that  provide  timber 
and  water  that  are  so  essential  to  the  general  development  of  this  sec- 
tion of  the  State.  Along  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Rio  Bonito,  Rio 
Ruidoso,  Rio  Hondo,  Rio  Felix,  and  Rio  Penasco,  which  feed  the  Pecos 
River,  there  are  several  prosperous  farms.  There  are  great  expanses 
of  high,  wooded  slopes.  It  was  named,  as  were  the  county  and  town 
of  Lincoln,  for  the  Civil  War  President.  Settlement  of  the  Sacramento 
division  of  this  forest  began  as  early  as  1851  on  the  west  side  in  the 
La  Luz  and  Tularosa  valleys.  The  stockmen  from  west  Texas  began 
to  settle  the  east  side  in  1870. 

Timber  for  some  of  the  early  Spanish  missions  was  carried  from 
the  forest  a  hundred  miles  or  more.  It  is  said  that  the  vigas  (beams) 
for  the  old  church  at  Juarez,  Mexico  came  from  the  Sacramento  area, 
but  lumbering  on  a  large  scale  did  not  begin  until  the  completion  of 
the  railroad  to  Cloudcroft,  about  1910. 

Notorious  in  the  late  1870*8  as  the  scene  of  part  of  the  Lincoln 
County  War,  it  is  now  famous  as  a  stock  grazing  region  and  a  popular 
recreation  area.  There  are  numerous  public  campgrounds  with  con- 
veniences, as  well  as  many  attractive  camping  sites.  There  are  many 
summer  homes,  and  campers  and  visitors  are  encouraged  to  make  use 
of  the  area.  Game  is  plentiful  and  the  region  attracts  scores  of  hunters 
and  fishermen. 

LINCOLN,  10.2  m.  (5,600  alt.,  438  pop.),  is  near  the  first  settle- 
ment in  this  county  on  the  Rio  Bonito.  Later  settlements  were  a  vil- 
lage on  the  Hondo  called  the  Missouri  Plaza  (see  Tour  7&)>  and,  in 
the  Ruidoso  Valley,  settlements  at  Hondo  and  San  Patricio  (see  Tour 
lOa).  Irrigation  systems  were  laid  out  so  that  this  fertile  land  could 
be  farmed.  Because  of  the  rich  grass,  stock  raising  was  also  important. 
When  Lincoln  was  settled  in  1859  it  was  named  Las  Placitas  (small 
settlements),  but  after  the  county  was  named  for  President  Lincoln 
the  name  of  the  town  was  changed.  It  was  the  county  seat  until  1913, 
when  the  seat  was  transferred  to  Carrizozo. 

LINCOLN  COUNTY  COURT  HOUSE  STATE  MONUMENT  (open  to  the 
public  from  p  to  4:30)  has  (L)  been  restored  and  it  is  now  administered 
by  the  Old  Lincoln  County  Memorial  Commission  for  the  State  of 
New  Mexico.  It  once  held  the  Murphy-Dolan  store,  downstairs,  while 


TOUR     12     385 

the  second  floor  contained  the  courtroom,  jail,  and  bedrooms.  The 
courtroom  upstairs  is  now  the  auditorium  and  one  of  the  bedrooms  is 
an  art  gallery,  in  which  exhibits  of  local  artists  as  well  as  traveling 
exhibits  from  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  are  shown.  The  two  rooms 
on  the  first  floor  house  historical  and  archeological  material.  The  His- 
tory Room  includes  economic  exhibits,  such  as  mining  and  cattle  raising 
as  well  as  mementoes  of  the  Lincoln  County  War.  The  Archeology 
Room  represents  the  Mescalero  Apache,  pueblo  ruins,  cave  ruins,  and 
cave  dwellings.  Cases  of  exhibits  are  installed  in  both  rooms,  and 
above  the  cases  are  dioramas  explaining  the  use  of  the  items. 

In  the  noted  battle  of  Lincoln  County  War,  the  Deputy's  men  oc- 
cupied the  Murphy-Dolan  store  in  this  building  and  the  Kid  and  19 
followers  were  entrenched  in  the  spacious  McSween  home  diagonally 
opposite,  where  Watson's  drugstore  was  later  erected.  For  three  days 
rifle  fire  was  exchanged  and  there  were  several  casualties.  The  McSween 
House  was  finally  set  on  fire  and  Billy  the  Kid  escaped  with  several  of 
his  gang,  leaving  dead  or  wounded  behind.  The  War  smouldered  on; 
Gen.  Lew  Wallace,  author  of  Ben  Hur,  appointed  Territorial  Governor 
to  end  the  trouble,  tried  to  do  so.  Finally  Federal  troops  were  ordered 
in,  but  the  War  ended  before  they  could  act. 

Near  the  site  of  the  McSween  House,  on  the  same  side  of  the  street, 
is  the  ToRREON  (admission  free;  key  available  at  Tunstall  Store 
Museum),  built  by  early  settlers  in  1852  for  protection  against  Indian 
raids.  It  is  of  red-brown  adobe  brick,  three  stories  in  height,  with  loop- 
holes in  each  floor  level  and  gun  embrasures  on  the  roof.  Ascent  is  by 
a  ladder  inside.  It  was  restored  by  the  Chaves  County  Historical  So- 
ciety of  Roswell  in  1935. 

At  17.2  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 

Left  on  this  road  3  m.  to  FORT  STANTON,  now  a  State  Tuberculosis 
Sanitarium.  It  was  established  on  the  Bonito  2  miles  south  of  this  site  in 
1855  to  restrain  the  Mescalero  and  White  Mountain  Apache,  but  was  more 
of  a  stockade  than  a  fort,  with  few  buildings  and  little  equipment.  In  1861 
the  crude  fortifications  were  destroyed  by  Confederate  troops  from  Texas. 
Reoccupied  by  Union  forces  in  1863,  it  was  rebuilt  in  1868.  Still  later,  when 
the  site  was  moved  here,  substantial  buildings  were  erected,  most  of  which 
still  stand,  and  are  occupied  by  officers,  attendants,  and  patients.  The  last 
of  the  soldiers  left  in  1896,  and  three  years  later  it  was  turned  over  to  the 
Public  Health  Service,  and  now  is  operated  as  a  sanitarium.  In  the  old  days 
when  the  railroad  was  more  than  a  hundred  miles  away,  the  fort  depended 
to  a  large  extent  on  food  raised  in  the  neighborhood,  and  all  prices  were 
high.  Prairie  hay  sold  at  $50  per  ton,  corn  at  $2.50  per  bushel,  and  other 
commodities  in  proportion. 

CAPITAN,  22.3  m.  (6,350  alt.,  552  pop.),  was  named  for  the 
Capitan  Mountains  (R)  to  the  northeast.  When  the  old  El  Paso  and 
Northeastern  Railway  ran  its  line  up  from  El  Paso  in  1897  to  the 
coal  deposits  here,  the  village,  named  Gray  for  a  homesteader  in  the 
cattle  business  (1887),  was  established,  and  while  is  was  on  the  main 
line  it  flourished.  Later  the  route  was  changed  and  the  branch  line  from 
Capitan  abandoned.  Capitan  is  in  the  center  of  mining,  stock  raising, 


386    NEW   MEXICO 

and  farming  areas,  has  excellent  hunting  and  fishing  and  a  reputation  as 
a  health  resort. 

At  CARRIZOZO,  42  m.  (1,546  pop.),  the  junction  with  US  54 
(see  Tour  IS),  the  route  is  over  lava  beds  and  many  miles  of  open 
country,  with  the  beautiful  Oscura  (dark)  Mountains  on  both  sides. 
There  are  few  settlements  and  little  traffic  along  the  route  in  this  vast, 
silent,  barren  country. 

BINGHAM,  78  772.  (6,000  alt.,  15  pop.),  is  a  post  office  near  the 
old  Carthage  coal  mines  that  were  developed  in  the  i88o's  when  a  spur 
of  the  Santa  Fe  Railway  was  laid  from  San  Antonio  (see  below).  When 
the  mines  were  no  longer  productive,  they  were  abandoned,  and  the 
town  declined. 

US  380  passes  the  little  settlement  of  San  Pedro  and  crosses  the 
Rio  Grande  just  east  of  SAN  ANTONIO,  107  m.f  in  which  is  the 
junction  with  US  85  (see  Tour  Ic). 


&<K&^^^ 


Tour  13 


(Dalhart,  Texas) — Santa  Rosa — Carrizozo — Alamogordo — Newman; 

US  54. 

From  Texas  Line  to  Texas  Line,  355  m. 

Two-lane   and   four-lane,   bituminous  paved    throughout. 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad  parallels  entire  route. 

Hotels  in  principal  towns;  tourist  camps,  gas  stations  frequent. 

This  route  running  alternately  through  level  plains  and  mountains 
gives  access  to  forests,  fishing,  and  hunting  grounds  as  well  as  mines, 
pueblo  ruins,  and  grazing  lands. 

US  54  crosses  the  TEXAS  LINE,  0  m.,  at  a  point  41  miles  west 
of  Dalhart,  Texas  and  runs  through  a  section  of  the  former  "Dust 
Bowl."  Deep  well  irrigation  has  revitalized  many  places  barren  by 
drought  with  alfalfa  fields,  bumper  row  crops  of  maize  and  potatoes 
and  corn  which  may  be  found  between  Dalhart,  Texas  and  Mara  Visa, 
New  Mexico.  In  some  places  the  deep  well  irrigation  has  increased 
the  growth  of  grass  for  grazing.  Fat,  well-bred  cattle  are  a  common 
sight  in  this  area  and  large  ranches  produce  thousands  of  head  of  market 
cattle. 

In  NARA  VISA,  5  m.,  a  shipping  center  and  tourist  town,  is  a 
REGISTRATION  STATION  for  all  trucks  (see  General  Information). 

The   llano   Estacado    (see    Tour  6a)    here  is   broken   by   ravines, 


TOUR     13     387 

arroyos,  sharp  cliffs,  and  red  sandstone  outcrops  that  create  a  magnifi- 
cent picture  in  the  slanting  light  of  the  setting  sun. 

LOGAN,  28.6  7w.  (512  pop.),  another  trading  point  for  ranchers 
and  a  station  on  the  Rock  Island  Railway,  was  named  for  Captain  H. 
Logan,  a  Texas  ranger  who  had  filed  a  claim  on  this  site. 

US  54  crosses  a  grassy  plain  and  at  43.2  m.  is  a  view  of  the  DON 
CARLOS  HILLS  (R). 

Near  the  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  49.5  m^  is  a  large 
depression  (L)  that  when  full  of  water  becomes  a  red  lake. 

In  TUCUMCARI,  51.9  m.t  is  the  junction  with  US  66  with  which 
this  route  is  united  to  SANTA  ROSA,  111  772.  (see  Tour  6a).  Here 
US  54  branches  southwest  over  high  plains,  level  and  rich  in  pasturage, 
a  cowman's  and  sheepman's  paradise.  During  the  i88o's  and  iSpo's, 
the  territory  was  used  exclusively  for  cattle  grazing,  but  at  the  turn  of 
the  century  with  the  development  of  the  ranches  on  the  Staked  Plains 
(see  Tour  6a),  the  cattlemen  moved  eastward  and  left  this  section  to 
the  sheep.  As  a  result,  Guadalupe  County  became  and  has  continued 
to  be  a  wool-raising  region,  the  annual  clip  exceeding  three  million 
pounds. 

PASTURA,  129  m.f  is  merely  a  small  trading  center  in  the  midst 
of  pasture  land  which  stretches  away  on  all  sides. 

US  54  joins  US  60  at  VAUGHN,  150  TTZ.  (1,170  pop.,  (see 
Tour  8a),  and  branches  (L)  from  US  60  at  155  m.  winding  over 
high  plains  country. 

DURAN,  162  m.  (6,000  alt.,  221  pop.),  a  shipping  point  for  the 
wool  industry,  preceded  Tucumcari  as  a  division  point  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad. 

TORRANCE,  179.6  m.  (5,860  alt.,  9  pop.),  now  only  a  flag  stop 
and  a  small  cluster  of  adobe  houses,  was  formerly  a  terminus  of  the 
New  Mexico  Central  Railroad  with  a  population  of  1,500. 

South  of  Torrance,  US  54  rises  gradually  through  high  plateau 
country  covered  with  juniper  and  pifion  trees.  Pinon  nuts  provide  rev- 
enue for  the  inhabitants,  and  the  timber  is  used  for  ties  and  fence  posts. 

CORONA,  181  m.  (6,666  alt.,  420  pop.),  at  the  foot  of  the 
GALLO  (rooster)  MESA  just  north  and  east  of  the  GALLINAS 
(chickens)  MOUNTAINS  (R),  is  a  thriving  trading  and  shipping 
center,  serving  a  wide  territory.  Founded  in  1899  upon  land  home- 
steaded  by  Captain  Frank  A.  DuBois  of  Shelby,  Ohio,  it  has  steadily 
grown  in  importance.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  goat  ranching  are  the  leading 
industries,  though  considerable  dry  farming  is  carried  on  and  beans  are 
a  major  crop. 

West  of  Corona  lies  a  part  of  the  Cibola  National  Forest,  its 
eastern  boundary  extending  along  the  highway  15  miles  north  and  south. 

The  huge  Gallo  Mesa  known  as  the  Gallinas  Mining  Area  was  for 
a  time  the  scene  of  feverish  mining  activities.  Five  mines,  Old  Hick- 
ory, Hoosier,  Corona  Queen,  Red  Cloud,  and  Deadwood,  produced 
mostly  copper  and  zinc.  Except  for  the  holdings  of  the  Corona  Lead 


388    NEW    MEXICO 

and  Zinc  Company,  operations  are  now  suspended  here.  On  this  mesa 
was  a  mine  called  the  Millionaire,  which  for  a  time  produced  consider- 
able copper  but  at  a  depth  of  150  feet  was  underlain  by  rock  so  hard 
that  it  could  not  be  drilled.  As  the  walls  of  the  shaft  showed  rich 
copper,  the  owner  who  called  himself  "Lord  Lincoln"  had  no  trouble  in 
managing  a  sale  at  a  good  price,  but  in  the  contract  he  always  inserted 
a  clause  that  the  purchaser  must  sink  the  shaft  50  feet  during  the 
ensuing  year  or  the  holdings  would  revert  to  "Lord  Lincoln."  The 
baffled  lessee  always  lost,  and  the  mine  was  repossessed  each  year. 
"Lord  Lincoln"  lived  in  luxury  for  a  decade  until  his  location  rights 
ran  out,  and  another  jumped  his  claim. 

ANCHO  (wide),  207  m.  (L)  3m.  (6,160  alt.,  269  pop.),  in  wide 
Ancho  Valley  (L),  is  the  trading  center  for  miners  who  work  the  gul- 
lies and  streams  of  the  Jicarilla  Mountains  (see  below)  for  gold  and  for 
the  ranchers  who  graze  their  cattle  and  sheep  on  the  mountainsides. 
Ruins  of  1 6  brick  kilns  are  all  that  remain  of  a  $250,000  investment 
to  use  clay  deposits  found  near  by.  The  plant  was  never  operated,  the 
venture  suffering  a  financial  collapse  before  operations  were  started. 

South  of  Ancho  the  highway  winds  through  the  foothills  of  the 
Jicarilla  Mountains  (L),  named  for  the  Jicarilla  Apache.  The  mining 
district  is  rich  with  placer  gold,  but  the  absence  of  water  has  impeded 
development  except  in  the  White  Oaks  district  (see  below). 

At  226  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  is  WHITE  OAKS,  7  m.  (6,400  alt.,  109  pop.),  which 
at  one  time  boasted  a  population  of  2,000. 

John  Wilson,  who  had  a  price  on  his  head,  discovered  gold  on  the  site 
of  Baxter  Mountain  in  1880  but  did  not  profit  from  the  find  because  he 
preferred  the  life  of  a  desperado.  Wilson,  escaping  from  a  Texas  jail,  cut 
across  the  mountains  to  visit  two  friends,  Jack  Winters  and  Harry  Baxter, 
who  were  placer  miners.  The  day  after  his  arrival,  Wilson  started  for  the 
top  of  Baxter  Mountain  to  obtain  a  view  of  the  country  through  which  he 
expected  to  travel.  He  took  a  pick  with  him  and  jokingly  said  that  he  was 
going  to  find  a  gold  mine.  Halfway  to  the  summit  he  sat  down  to  rest  and 
began  to  chip  pieces  from  the  rock.  Examining  the  chips,  he  found  them 
speckled  with  yellow.  When  he  returned  to  the  cabin  Winters  asked  Wilson 
if  he  had  found  his  mine  and  Wilson  passed  over  the  chips.  One  glance  at 
the  rock  sent  Winters  into  the  air  with  a  yell,  and  Harry  Baxter,  awakened 
from  a  nap,  became  equally  excited.  It  was  now  pitch  dark,  but  the  three 
made  a  climb  for  the  spot  by  lantern  light.  The  two  miners  set  out  stakes, 
and  when  Wilson  was  asked  for  his  full  name,  so  they  could  locate  the  claim 
for  the  three,  he  answered,  "I  have  no  use  for  gold."  Thus  the  North 
Homestake  and  South  Homestake  claims  came  into  being  and  were  later  sold 
for  $300,000  apiece.  Wilson  left  next  day  with  nine  silver  dollars  and  a 
good  pistol,  a  present  from  the  two  prospectors.  The  Old  Abe  Mine,  the 
original  strike,  has  produced  $3,000,000  and  is  still  being  worked. 

The  stark  buildings  still  standing  in  this  great  ghost  town  include  the 
Exchange  Bank,  whose  second  story  housed  the  young  lawyers  W.  C.  Mc- 
Donald, later  the  first  governor  of  New  Mexico  under  statehood,  H.  B. 
Fergusson,  delegate  to  Congress,  and  John  I.  Hewitt,  a  powerful  politico  of 
territorial  days.  In  the  Little  Casino,  Madam  Varnish,  so  called  for  her 
slick  ways,  dealt  faro,  roulette,  and  poker  during  the  two  decades  when 
White  Oaks  boomed  and  was  noted  for  its  bawdy  gaiety.  East  of  White  Oaks 


TOUR     13    389 

are  iron  ore  deposits  and  soft  coal.  The  latter  is  burned  in  the  power  plant 
that  supplies  electricity  to  Carrizozo  and  other  near-by  communities. 

Emerson  Hough,  a  reporter  on  the  Golden  Era,  a  weekly  newspaper  pub- 
lished during  the  i88o's,  wrote  Heart's  Desire  with  White  Oaks  for  its  locale. 

The  side  road  continues  to  junction  with  US  54,  3  m.  north  of  Carrizozo. 

CARRIZOZO,  231  7w.  (5,425  alt.,  1,546  pop.),  the  thriving  seat 
of  Lincoln  County,  has  a  name  derived  from  the  Spanish  word  carrizo, 
a  reed  grass  that  grows  abundantly  in  surrounding  regions.  The  town 
is  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  wide  elevated  valley  between  the  Carrizo 
and  Sierra  Blanca  Mountains  (L),  and  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
low  Oscuras  (R).  This  valley  is  approximately  30  miles  wide  and  is 
generally  known  as  the  CARRIZOZO  PLAIN. 

Carrizozo  had  its  beginning  with  the  coming  of  the  El  Paso  & 
Northeastern  Railroad  (see  Transportation)  in  1899.  The  town  was 
laid  out  by  a  subsidiary  of  the  railroad  company  and  soon  after  was 
made  a  division  point  with  the  erection  of  a  roundhouse  and  shop 
employing  many  workmen.  In  a  short  time  it  became  a  supply  center 
and  shipping  point. 

Carrizozo  is  at  the  junction  with  US  380  (see  Tour  l%b). 

US  54  south  of  Carrizozo  crosses  the  Tularosa  Valley  (see  Tour 
lOa)  with  the  White  and  Sacramento  Mountains  forming  a  protective 
wall  on  the  east.  The  basin  extends  to  the  Texas  Line,  walled  in  on 
both  sides  by  uplifts  that  protect  the  valley  from  high  winds  and  give 
it  an  equable  temperature.  Water  from  the  mountains  fills  deltas  on  the 
east  side  of  the  valley,  where  cattle  find  abundant  grasses. 

THREE  RIVERS,  260  m.  (4,562  alt.,  268  pop.  in  area),  trading 
center  and  railroad  loading  point,  has  gained  world-wide  attention  be- 
cause it  is  the  loading  point  for  the  famous  TRES  RITOS  (three  rivers) 
RANCH,  formerly  owned  by  Albert  B.  Fall,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in 
the  Harding  cabinet.  The  settlement  of  Three  Rivers  began  when  Pat- 
rick Coghlan  came  to  this  section  in  1874  and  devoted  his  energies  to 
building  a  cattle  empire.  His  holdings  eventually  were  purchased  by 
Fall,  as  were  those  of  Mrs.  Susan  Barber,  widow  of  Alexander  Mc- 
Sween  (see  Tour  12b),  who  had  a  large  ranch  here  late  in  the  1890*5. 
Many  stories  are  told  of  the  Cattle  Queen  of  New  Mexico  who  rode  as 
hard  and  shot  as  straight  as  any  man,  and  never  asked  for  quarter.  In 
1917  she  also  sold  out  to  Fall  and  retired  to  White  Oaks. 

The  holdings  of  the  Hatchett  Land  and  Cattle  Company,  another 
large  ranch,  are  now  owned  by  T.  A.  Spencer  and  Associates,  under  the 
firm  name  of  QUATRO  AMIGOS  CATTLE  COMPANY,  and  the 
Fall  Ranch  and  grazing  lands  are  owned  by  Thomas  Fortune  Ryan,  3rd. 
Much  of  the  area  is  within  the  White  Sands  Missile  Range. 

i.  Left  from  the  railroad  station  on  a  dirt  road  through  the  60,000  acre 
Fall  estate  to  the  site  of  the  old  Fall  residence,  one  wing  of  which  has  been 
preserved.  Thomas  Fortune  Ryan  bought  the  Fall  place  in  1941  and  his  archi- 
tects told  him  it  would  cost  more  to  restore  the  old  house  than  to  build  a  new 
one,  so  he  built  a  beautiful  new  home  for  himself,  equipped  with  every  com- 
fort and  convenience.  The  old  Fall  home  was  dismantled,  except  the  one  wing 
which  had  been  the  library. 


390     NEW    MEXICO 

2.  Left  from  Three  Rivers  on  a  dirt  road  to  some  exceptionally  fine 
examples  of  pictographs  (L)  and  petroglyphs,  4  m.  Black  rocks,  covering 
several  acres  and  ranging  in  size  from  one  foot  to  ten  feet  across,  are  covered 
with  representations  of  animal  life  and  geometric  figures.  Early  artists  used 
the  contours  of  the  rocks  to  aid  their  design,  the  corner  of  a  rock  repres'ent- 
ing  the  human  face,  with  an  eye  and  an  ear  on  each  side  of  a  pointed  corner 
representing  the  nose. 

In  TULAROSA,  277  m.  (4,436  alt,  3>200  pop.),  is  the  junction 
with  US  70,  with  which  US  54  is  united  12  m.  (see  Tour  Wa)  where 
US  70  branches  R. 

As  US  54  traverses  the  Tularosa  Valley  the  road  is  bordered  by  the 
Sacramento  Mountains  (L)  and  the  Jicarilla  Mountains  (R)  while 
the  southern  terminus  of  the  San  Andres  Range  (R)  slants  into  the 
western  sky.  Still  farther  south  are  the  Organ  Mountains  (R)  and  the 
Hueco  (hollow)  Range  (L),  a  low  uplift  near  the  Texas  Line. 

The  valley  between  these  ranges  is  a  windy,  semiarid  region  fairly 
suitable  for  grazing  and  permitting  some  dry  farming. 

The  name  of  VALMONT,  300  m.  (4,024  alt.,  127  pop.),  a 
hamlet  on  a  level  plain  bordered  by  the  Sacramento  Mountains,  is  de- 
rived from  vale  and  mountain.  When  it  was  founded  in  1900  as  a 
farming  community  it  was  called  Dog  Canyon  for  a  near-by  canyon  of 
the  same  name.  Later  it  became  Camp  City,  then  Shamrock,  and 
finally  Valmont.  Drought  caused  so  many  farmers  to  leave  in  the  1920*8 
and  1930'$  that  it  has  shrank  to  a  small  trading  point. 

OROGRANDE  (much  gold),  326  m.  (4,170  alt.,  268  pop.),  on 
the  plains  southeast  of  the  JARILLA  MOUNTAINS  and  first  called 
Jarilla  Junction,  grew  from  a  camp  to  a  town,  then  a  little  city  when 
a  gold  rush  occurred  in  1905-6.  It  was  a  lively  community  for  two 
years  with  a  peak  population  of  2,000.  Two  smelters  were  built  here 
and  the  railroad  constructed  a  spur  to  the  Silver  Hill  mining  district 
where  the  ore  was  found.  Occasional  mining  is  done  now.  This  area 
has  long  been  noted  for  its  turquoise,  which  was  mined  by  the  Apache, 
and  later  by  white  men  under  both  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  regimes. 
The  Tiffany  interests  purchased  the  properties,  but  no  work  is  now  car- 
ried on.  Valuable  specimens  of  pottery,  metates,  manos,  and  broken 
fragments  of  various  stone  utensils  have  been  taken  from  the  hills  in 
this  area  which  was  occupied  by  the  Apache. 


NEWMAN,  355  m.,  a  border  hamlet,  was  named  for  a  real  estate 
man  from  El  Paso  who  sold  building  sites  to  home  seekers.  Archeolo- 
gists  say  Newman  is  an  old  Indian  pueblo  site  and  many  relics  of  pueblo 
habitation  have  been  uncovered  here.  At  Newman  US  54  crosses  the 
Texas  Line  17  miles  northeast  of  El  Paso. 


TOUR     14    391 


Tour  14 


(Seminole,  Texas)  —  Lovington  —  Artesia  —  La  Luz  —  Junction  US 

54;  NM  83. 

Texas  Line  to  Junction  with  US  54,  194  772. 

Two-lane,   bituminous-paved   throughout. 

Terminus  of  Texas  &  New  Mexico  Railroad  at  Lovington.     Route  crosses  Atchi- 

son,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  at  Artesia. 

Accommodations   in   Lovington,   Artesia    and   Alamogordo;    few   tourist  camps, 

gas  stations. 

This  route  connects  the  oil-producing  plains  around  Lovington  with 
the  mountain  and  recreation  region  in  Lincoln  County.  Between  the 
Texas  Line  and  Artesia  in  the  Pecos  Valley  no  houses  are  seen  for  sev- 
eral miles.  Across  this  area  thousands  of  cattle  were  driven  to  the  plains 
of  eastern  New  Mexico  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
West  of  Artesia  the  road  rises  and  enters  Lincoln  National  Forest, 
scene  of  many  encounters  with  the  Apache  in  territorial  days ;  now  it  is 
a  resort  for  Texans  anxious  to  escape  summer  heat. 

NM  83  crosses  the  TEXAS  LINE,  0  772.,  at  a  point  50  miles  north- 
west of  Seminole,  Texas,  and  traverses  a  level  plains  country. 

LOVINGTON,  18  m.  (3,944  alt.,  9,660  pop.),  seat  of  Lea  County 
and  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Texas  &  Pacific  Railroad,  is  in  the 
center  of  an  area  where  the  ground  water  level  is  near  the  surface.  The 
economy  of  Lovington  is  three-fold :  oil,  agriculture  and  ranching.  It 
is  the  center  of  one  of  the  largest  oil  empires  in  the  nation.  Lea  County 
has  8,830  producing  oil  wells  and  1,217  producing  gas  wells,  which  in 
1960  produced  nearly  75  million  barrels  of  crude  oil  and  420  million 
M/C/F  of  natural  gas.  Cotton,  grain  sorghum,  and  crops  of  vege- 
tables grow  in  abundance  here.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are  produced 
in  this  area  in  great  abundance.  When  the  town  was  founded  in  1908 
on  the  homestead  of  R.  R.  Love  who  became  its  first  postmaster,  mail 
had  to  be  brought  from  Knowles,  20  miles  southeast.  As  the  white 
man  drove  out  the  Indian  from  this  region,  cows  supplanted  buffalo  and 
cattlemen  from  Texas  established  small  ranches  here.  A  one-room 
schoolhouse  was  built  and  free  residence  lots  given  to  school  patrons. 
The  first  teachers  homesteaded.  In  1909  Lovington  had  its  first  bank, 
its  first  newspaper,  and  its  first  church.  For  a  time  Lovington  pros- 
pered with  farms  and  gardens,  but  a  drought  not  only  destroyed  crops 
but  caused  cattle  prices  to  slump,  and  the  town  suffered.  Oil  develop- 
ment in  the  late  1920*5  saved  many  ranchers  from  ruin,  and  brought  an 
extension  of  the  railroad  to  this  point  in  1930. 


3Q2     NEW     MEXICO 

The  area  has  sand  storms  but  no  winds  severe  enough  to  destroy 
property.  When  asked  why  there  were  no  cyclones  an  old-timer 
answered :  "Humph !  there  couldn't  be.  Our  straight  winds  would  blow 
the  hell  out  of  a  cyclone."  Lea  County,  containing  nearly  3,000,000 
acres,  is  fortunate  in  having  an  underground  water  supply  for  there 
is  not  a  stream  of  any  kind  within  its  boundaries.  Nevertheless  several 
grasses  clothe  the  plain:  buffalo  and  grama  on  the  harder  soil,  sedge 
and  shinnery  (a  low-growing  shin  oak)  on  the  sandy  areas.  There 
are  mesquite  and  some  varieties  of  yucca  and  cactus.  The  wildlife  is 
limited  to  coyotes,  skunks,  badgers,  prairies  dogs,  jack  rabbits,  eagles, 
hawks,  prairie  chickens,  blue  quail,  and  doves. 

This  recently  developed  region  known  as  Little  Texas,,  had  no  New 
Mexico  missions  here,  and  until  1930  there  was  not  a  Catholic  Church 
in  Lovington,  although  now  over  30  faiths  are  represented.  The  ratio 
of  people  of  Spanish  descent  is  slightly  over  10  per  cent.  Lovington 
has  a  9-hole  golf  course,  two  man-made  lakes  where  members  may  fish 
or  participate  in  water  sports.  Also  there  is  a  public  swimming  pool, 
among  other  recreational  facilities.  In  the  area  is  some  of  the  best 
hunting  for  wild  game. 

Between  Lovington  and  Artesia  the  route  crosses  the  lower  end  of 
the  Staked  Plains  and  the  Mescalero  Ridge  (see  Tour  12a),  a  region  of 
ranches  and  vast  grazing  lands  where  mirages  are  seen  but  seldom  last 
more  than  an  hour.  When  the  buffalo  disappeared  and  cattle  came  the 
grass  was  so  thick  and  high  that  many  herdsmen  were  not  aware  of 
outcropping  rock  until  a  few  years  of  close  grazing  cut  the  grass  down 
near  the  sod.  More  of  the  rock  appeared  when  they  began  fencing. 
Such  land  grows  the  best  grazing  feed,  the  most  nutritive  grasses;  and 
because  the  State  designated  such  land  as  unfit  for  farming — a  fact  for 
which  the  stockmen  never  ceased  being  grateful — it  was  saved  for  cat- 
tle. The  farmer  may  have  some  livestock,  but  the  sheep  or  cowman 
rarely  farms,  and  many,  especially  those  who  have  witnessed  the  dust 
storms  and  the  horrors  of  uncontrolled  soil  erosion,  refuse  to  allow  the 
sod  to  be  broken  by  a  plow.  So  dependable  and  so  persistent  are  native 
grasses  that  Will  Rogers  once  said  the  Texas  Panhandle's  wind  erosion 
problem  was  "good  enough  for  the  fools  who  had  plowed  up  such  a 
wonderful  turf  and  ruined  the  grandest  cow  country  in  the  world." 

The  climate  here,  though  in  many  ways  delightful,  is  variable. 
Ground  freezing  is  rare.  It  seldom  rains,  but  when  it  does  it  is 
usually  in  the  form  of  a  downpour.  The  altitude  is  sufficient  to  insure 
pleasant  nights  on  the  warmest  days,  and  cold  spells  in  winter  are 
never  sustained. 

Around  MALJAMAR,  44  772.,  are  large  numbers  of  blue  quail  and 
dove.  Many  antelope  are  in  the  outlying  districts,  and  hunters  may 
seek  this  game  in  season.  The  natural  breeding  grounds  of  the  prairie 
chicken  lie  to  the  north  and  east;  these  are  said  to  be  the  most  ex- 


TOUR    14    393 

tensive  in  the  Southwest,  and  there  is  hunting  permitted  in  season.  Two 
miles  south  is  the  large  Maljamar  Oil  Field. 

West  of  Maljamar  the  route  traverses  the  plains  to  the  Pecos  Valley 
(see  Tour  6a),  crossing  the  Pecos  River  at  78  m. 

In  ARTESIA,  82.9  m.  (3,350  alt.,  12,000  pop.) ,  is  the  junction  with 
US  285  (see  Tour  7b). 

West  of  Artesia,  NM  83  goes  through  open  range  country  cov- 
ered with  short,  coarse  grass  and  with  occasional  cane  cactus  and  a 
clump  of  soapweed  and  Spanish  dagger.  From  the  Artesia  Golf  Club, 
85.5  m.,  is  a  very  extensive  outlook  reaching  to  the  horizon  in  a  smooth 
line  broken  only  by  the  sharp  spikes  of  Spanish  dagger.  Occasional 
flocks  of  sheep  graze  near  the  yucca  and  greasewood.  Lombardy  pop- 
lars appear  at  100  m.  with  orchards  and  cottonwoods;  the  road  rises 
gently. 

HOPE,  104  m.  (4,085  alt.,  185  pop.),  was  called  Badgerville 
when  it  was  settled  in  1885  because  the  homes  were  dug  out  of  the 
ground  and  the  roofs  alone  were  of  timber.  The  name  was  changed  to 
Hope  when  a  post  office  was  opened  in  the  same  building  as  Jim 
Jerald's  store  and  saloon;  the  saloon  had  to  be  moved  to  the  rear  be- 
cause of  a  law  prohibiting  a  post  office  and  saloon  being  under  the  same 
roof.  The  Rio  Penasco  supplied  sufficient  water  for  irrigation  until 
1942  when  the  supply  failed  owing  to  drainage  of  marshes  on  the 
Penasco  and  the  deforestation  of  near-by  mountain  slopes.  The  com- 
plete failure  of  crops  discouraged  many,  and  the  town  dwindled  to  185. 
Another  adversity  befell  in  1912  when  construction  was  begun  on  a 
railroad  between  El  Paso  and  Artesia.  While  a  station  was  being 
built  here,  Lord  Pierson,  head  of  the  syndicate  that  was  to  buy  the 
rails,  lost  his  life  in  the  Titanic  disaster.  The  road  was  never  finished, 
and  the  frontier  opportunists  left  the  stricken  community  for  greener 
pastures. 

The  Resettlement  Administration  in  1937  provided  markets  by 
trucking  and  resettled  some  of  the  farmers  in  other  parts  of  the  State — 
around  Fort  Sumner,  Taos,  and  Los  Lunas. 

West  of  Hope  the  Sacramento  Mountains  form  an  effective  back- 
ground for  the  thick  clumps  of  cactus  growing  beside  the  road.  Bands 
of  light  encircle  the  Guadalupe  Mountains  to  the  south  (L),  where 
the  ribbon-like  line  of  its  crest  runs  across  the  sky.  Cattle  graze  on 
the  foothills  of  the  Pajarito  (little  bird)  Mountains  (R). 

Cane  cactus  becomes  profuse  as  a  succession  of  hills  piles  up  one 
after  the  other;  and  in  the  foreground  are  groves  of  trees  by  the 
Penasco.  Dark  hills  run  high  across  the  upper  end  of  the  valley. 

LOWER  PENASCO,  136  m.  (240  pop,),  is  a  small  farming  com- 
munity. 

Near  PENASCO,  137  m*f  the  road  looks  down  on  a  narrow  gorge, 
with  the  valley  beyond. 

Winding  across  the  floor  of  the  valley,  it  passes  a  graveyard  (L) 
surrounded  by  poplars.  At  Culbertson's  Saw  Mill,  conifers  appear 
(R),  giving  notice  of  the  approach  of  Lincoln  National  Forest. 


394    NEW    MEXICO 

ELK,  143  m.  (5,350  alt.,  65  pop.),  named  for  near-by  Elk  Can- 
yon, is  a  farming  and  stock  raising  community  settled  in  1885  and  1887. 
Archaeologists  have  removed  artifacts  from  several  sites  in  this  vicinity  ; 
in  one  an  unbroken  bowl  containing  burnt  beans  indicated  a  hasty 
flight.  This  region  had  its  Indian  troubles,  too.  The  first  settler  was 
killed  in  1871;  and  near  here  Captain  Stanton  was  slain  (see  below). 
Large  herds  of  elk  roamed  this  section  in  early  times. 

In  the  James  Valley,  NM  83  crosses  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
LINCOLN  NATIONAL  FOREST  at  144  m. 

MAYHILL,  155  m.  (6,500  alt.,  350  pop.),  settled  in  1876  as 
Upper  Penasco  by  migrants  from  Texas,  is  interested  in  lumbering, 
sheep  ranching,  farming,  fruit,  and  truck  gardening.  An  Apache  strong- 
hold was  formerly  in  the  hills  west  of  the  village;  and  in  1854,  Captain 
Stanton  raided  the  settlement  and  destroyed  200  Apache  dwellings. 
Stanton  was  later  killed  on  Mayhill  Mesa.  The  doctor  attending  him 
froze  his  body  and  took  it  to  Old  Mesilla  for  burial,  but  later  the  Rio 
Grande's  channel  changed  its  course  and  the  graveyard  crumbled  off 
into  the  river  and  disappeared  (see  Tour  Ic). 

The  pines  are  taller  and  the  road  climbs  higher  west  of  Mayhill. 

CLOUDCROFT,  173  TTZ.  (8,640  alt.,  251  pop.),  is  a  shipping 
point  for  timber  and  a  recreation  center,  with  a  summer  population  in- 
crease of  several  thousand.  It  was  settled  when  J.  A.  and  B.  C.  Eddy 
built  a  branch  of  the  Southern  Pacific  east  and  up  from  Alamogordo 
(see  below)  to  the  timber  here.  The  Eddys  abandoned  the  project, 
but  the  son  of  a  surveying  engineer  took  a  transit  and  surveyed  a 
switchback,  and  the  railroad  became  a  reality.  Later  the  legislature 
dedicated  2,300  acres  for  a  summer  resort,  and  the  railroad  gave  up  its 
land.  Camps  were  laid  out  for  summer  visitors  as  well  as  those  who 
wished  to  remain  the  year  round. 

The  golf  course  at  Cloudcroft  is  said  to  be  the  highest  in  North 
America. 

West  of  Cloudcroft  the  route  lies  along  Fresnal  Canyon,  descending 
to  MOUNTAIN  PARK,  181  m.f  a  farming  community  which  was 
once  a  resort  for  tuberculous  patients.  The  road  twists  and  turns  on 
the  descent,  offering  many  fine  panoramas  of  the  Sacramento  Mountains 
and  passing  HIGH  ROLLS,  183  m.,  whose  hotel  and  cabins  are 
deserted.  Both  Mountain  Park  and  High  Rolls  (named  for  the  char- 
acter of  the  country)  are  trading  centers.  There  are  large  orchards 
and  truck  farms  in  this  area. 

Past  more  magnificent  vistas  of  mountains,  the  road  emerges  from 
the  forest  over  rich  red  land  at  the  bottom  of  the  canyon. 

At  190  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  54.  (R)  2  m.  on  US  54  to  a 
paved  road.  (R)  on  this  road,  2  m.  to  LA  LUZ. 


TOUR    15    395 

LA  LUZ  (4,850  alt.),  is  a  farming  community  best  known  for  the 
beauty  of  its  setting,  its  public  cactus  garden,  and  the  La  Luz  pottery 
made  near  by.  The  name  is  an  abridgement  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  la 
Luz  (Our  Lady  of  Light),  the  mission  founded  in  1719  by  the  Fran- 
ciscan padres.  The  first  settlers  here  were  immigrants  from  Mexico, 
but  its  beautiful  setting  and  delightful  winter  climate  have  attracted  a 
more  cosmopolitan  population.  Its  courteous  citizens,  when  asked  by 
visitors  to  point  out  the  burial  place  of  Anthony  Adverse,  indicate  dif- 
ferent places — under  the  chapel,  under  a  clump  of  cactus,  or  in  any  other 
spot  that  impulse  leads  them  to  designate. 

Returning  to  US  54,  this  tour  is  ended,  Tularosa,  7m.  (R).  Ala- 
mogordo,  5  m.  (L). 


Tour  75 


Junction  with  US  85 — Madrid — Quarai — Mountainair — Gran  Quivira 
— Junction  with  US  54;  163  m.  NM  10. 

Two-lane,  bituminous  road  except  between  Gran  Quivira  and  Jet.  US  54. 
Accommodations   at  Mountainair. 

Although  this  route  is  through  a  region  of  exceptionally  fine  vistas 
and  of  coal,  gold,  and  turquoise  mines,  it  is  known  particularly  as  the 
route  to  Gran  Quivira  National  Monument. 

NM  10  branches  south  from  its  junction  with  US  85,  0  m.,  at  a 
point  9.1  miles  south  of  Santa  Fe,  and  traverses  the  Santa  Fe  Plateau, 
skirts  the  Cerrillos  Hills  (R),  and  cuts  through  pastures  and  grazing 
land.  Ahead  are  the  Ortiz  Mountains,  where  gold  was  first  discovered 
in  New  Mexico,  and  the  Sandia  Mountains  (R). 

At  72  m,  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  the  TURQUOISE  MINES,  3.4  m.  (see  Tour  Ib). 

Southward  from  11  m.  is  a  fine  view  of  the  Galisteo  Valley.  Wind- 
ing downward,  NM  10  crosses  several  washes  that  are  dangerous  when 
the  water  is  running. 

CERRILLOS  (hills),  14.3  m.  (5,688  alt.,  107  pop.),  once  the  center 
of  a  mining  district  and  railroad  loading  point.  After  the  larger  mines 


396    NEW    MEXICO 

were  abandoned  at  the  turn  of  the  century,  Cerrillos  lost  most  of  its 
population  and  became  a  trading  center. 

South  of  Cerrillos,  NM  10  crosses  the  Galisteo  River,  usually  dry 
but  in  flood  times  rampant ;  then  enters  the  foothills  of  the  Ortiz  Moun- 
tains whose  sides  bear  pinon  and  scrub  juniper  and  are  marked  with 
mine  drifts  and  abandoned  workings.  Tree  cactus  and  yucca,  blooming 
in  June,  are  abundant. 

MADRID,  17  m.  (6,000  alt.,  50  pop.),  is  owned  and  operated 
by  the  Albuquerque  &  Cerrillos  Coal  Company.  Of  all  the  mines  on 
the  Santa  Fe  Plateau  and  contiguous  country,  the  coal  mines  of  Madrid 
alone  had  yielded  a  record  of  comparatively  steady  production,  but  to- 
day the  mine  is  operating  to  supply  only  a  few  scattered  users.  Veins 
of  both  anthracite  and  bituminous  yielded  approximately  100,000  tons 
annually.  Coal  was  discovered  here  in  1835,  but  not  until  1869,  when 
the  operation  of  the  old  placer  mines  nearby  created  a  steady  market,  was 
any  appreciable  amount  produced.  Madrid  today  is  practically  a  ghost 
town. 

GOLDEN,  28  m.  (64  pop.),  now  a  small  village,  was  active  dur- 
ing development  of  a  new  placer  mining  district  in  the  San  Pedro 
Mountains  (R)  and  has  a  history  of  placer  mining  dating  back  to  the 
sixteenth  century,  when  the  Spaniards  worked  deposits  with  Indians  as 
slaves.  In  1933  power  shovels  of  idle  contractors  started  operations, 
but  without  success,  although  local  residents  found  free  gold  in  gulches 
after  rains  and  cloudbursts.  There  is  little  placer  mining  now. 

In  the  San  Pedro  Valley  (R)  on  the  old  San  Pedro  Grant,  south  of 
the  mining  camp  of  San  Pedro  are  the  RUINS  OF  PAAKO  (Paw-aw-ko; 
San  Pedro  de  la  Cuchilla),  a  former  Indian  pueblo  known  also  as  San 
Pedro  Ruins.  There  is  doubt  whether  this  was  a  Keres-  or  a  Tiwa- 
speaking  pueblo.  It  possibly  marks  the  southernmost  limit  of  the  Tano 
Pueblos,  and  is  separated  from  the  Tiwa  villages  to  the  south  and  west 
by  the  densely  wooded  Sierra  de  Carnue.  Onate  in  1598  called  it  Tano, 
and  the  Keres  of  Santo  Domingo  say  it  belonged  to  their  people.  Many 
of  the  early  Spanish  documents  refer  to  it  as  a  Tiwa-speaking  settle- 
ment, and  add  "San  Pedro,"  its  patron  saint,  to  its  name.  Its  houses, 
according  to  Hodge,  were  apparently  constructed  of  rubble  and  gen- 
erally consisted  of  two  stories.  The  village  had  three  kivas.  Bandelier 
records  that  it  was  inhabited  as  late  as  1626  but  abandoned  before  1670. 
Shea,  in  his  Catholic  Missions,  says  that  a  mission  was  founded  in  1661 
at  "San  Pedro  de  la  Cuchilla,"  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  site. 
This  ruin  enclosed  by  a  barbed  wire  fence  is  owned  and  has  been  in 
part  excavated  (1936)  by  the  University  of  New  Mexico. 

The  small  settlement  of  SAN  ANTONIO  (7,000  alt.,  361  pop.), 
40  m.,  is  a  typical  New  Mexican  mountain  village  whose  residents 
support  themselves  mainly  by  dry  farming  and  grazing  sheep.  Con- 
siderable wood  is  hauled  to  Albuquerque  from  the  near-by  Sandia 
Mountains  and  foothills. 


TOUR    15    397 

At  41  772.  is  the  junction  with  the  graded  Sandia  Rim  Drive  (see 
Albuquerque). 

Traversing  TIJERAS  CANYON,  main  pass  between  the  Sandia 
and  Manzano  Mountains,  the  highway  passes  CEDAR  CREST,  45 
m*,  a  mountain  resort  where  many  residents  of  Albuquerque  have  sum- 
mer homes. 

In  TIJERAS  (scissors),  46  m.  (6,318  alt.,  1,000  pop.),  two  can- 
yons intersect  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  an  outline  similar  to  open  scis- 
sors; hence  the  name. 

NM  10  reaches  a  high  point  at  60  m.f  that  offers  broad  views,  and 
at  66  m.  is  a  magnificent  panorama  of  the  wide,  luxuriant  ESTANCIA 
VALLEY  (L)  with  its  bean  farms. 

CHILILf,  66  m.  (6,000  alt.,  100  pop.),  on  the  Arroyo  de  Chilili, 
one  of  the  Saline  pueblos,  was  first  visited  by  Chamuscado  in  1581 
and  by  Onate,  seventeen  years  later.  At  that  time  the  site  of  the 
pueblo  was  south  of  the  present  town,  but  practically  no  ruins  of  the 
once  flourishing  village  are  now  visible.  Benavides  in  1630  also  men- 
tioned the  pueblo  as  a  mission  dedicated  to  Nuestra  Senora  de  Navidad 
(Our  Lady  of  Nativity).  Here  were  interred  the  remains  of  Fray 
Alonzo  Peinado  who  came  to  New  Mexico  in  1608  and  to  whom  was 
accredited  the  conversion  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  and  the  erection  of  the 
old  church  which  stood  on  the  bluff  south  of  town,  across  Chilili 
Creek.  The  pueblo  was  abandoned  between  1669  and  1676  on  account 
of  the  hostility  and  continued  raids  of  the  Apache,  the  inhabitants  join- 
ing the  Tiwa  along  the  Rio  Grande.  It  was  again  populated  in  1680, 
so  Vetancurt  records,  and  was  the  home  of  500  Piro-speaking  Indians 
at  that  time ;  although  Bandelier  claims  they  were  Tiwa.  This  pueblo, 
one  of  the  seven  "cities  that  died  of  fear"  was  abandoned  by  its  in- 
habitants to  avoid  the  marauding  Apache.  From  this  region  came  ex- 
citing tales  of  buried  gold  and  treasure  uncovered  beneath  the  altar  of 
the  church. 

TAJIQUE  (pron.  Ta-Ae£-ke),  79  772.  (200  pop.),  is  a  village  of 
farming  mountaineers  at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Manzano 
Range.  Tajique  is  probably  phonetic  Spanish  for  the  Tiwa  Taskike, 
name  of  the  pueblo  that  once  was  here  and  of  which  nothing  now  re- 
mains but  a  mound.  Old  records  concerning  Taskike  show  that  Fray 
Geronimo  de  la  Liana,  who  built  the  mission  at  Quarai  (see  below), 
died  here.  His  body  was  removed  to  Santa  Fe  100  years  later.  This 
pueblo  was  a  refuge  from  the  Apache  for  the  people  of  Quarai  in  1674. 
Vetancurt,  in  his  Cronica,  records  the  escape  of  a  priest  and  two  Span- 
iards in  one  of  the  early  raids.  Taskike  was  credited  with  500  in- 
habitants in  its  heyday  and  possibly  was  inhabited  prior  to  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

TORREON  (tower)  (6,991  alt.,  519  pop.),  81  m.,  is  a  mountain 
village  of  small  ranches  and  farms.  Here  too  are  ruins  of  a  Saline 
pueblo,  so  called  because  of  proximity  to  the  salt  lakes  eastward. 

MANZANO  (apple),  87  m.  (6,960  alt.,  434  pop.),  a  cluster  of 
red  adobes  surrounded  by  verdant  fields,  was  settled  about  1829  and  is 


398    NEW    MEXICO 

still  a  primitive  settlement.  Tiwa  Indians  now  living  near  El  Paso 
claim  to  have  come  from  this  place.  Tradition  claims  the  trees  in  an 
old  apple  orchard  that  gives  the  town  its  name  were  planted  during  the 
mission  period  before  1676,  but  Professor  Florence  M.  Hawley,  Uni- 
versity of  New  Mexico,  dates  them  from  ring  growth  as  being  planted 
no  earlier  than  1800.  MANZANO  PEAK  (10,608  alt.)  towers  (R) 
above  the  town  and  at  its  base  is  EL  OJO  DEL  GIGANTE  (giant 
spring),  a  flow  of  cold  water  that  forms  a  lake  around  which  cluster 
adobe  houses.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake  is  a  torreon 
(tower)  built  as  a  defensive  work  and  watch  tower. 

PUNTA  DE  AGUA  (point  of  water),  92  m.f  commonly  known 
as  QUARAI  (215  pop.)  because  of  its  proximity  to  Quarai  Ruins,  is 
a  village  of  farmers  and  woodcutters. 

Here  is  the  junction  with  a  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  QUARAI  RUINS,  1.1  m.,  the  southernmost  pueblo  of 
the  Tiawa  region.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  Spanish  mission  (1629)  founded  by 
Fray  Francisco  de  Acevedo  and  contains  the  ruins  of  the  IMMACULATE 
CONCEPTION  MONASTERY  AND  CHURCH  built  of  red  and  brown  sand- 
stone. Some  church  walls  standing  20  feet  high  extend  to  the  former  roof 
height,  but  the  thinner  monastery  walls  have  been  half  razed  to  furnish 
building  stone.  It  is  in  a  meadow  near  a  cottonwood  grove,  in  which  is  a 
spring  now  walled  and  covered.  In  the  grove  are  camping  accommodations 
with  outdoor  grills,  tables,  seats,  and  other  conveniences. 

These  mission  ruins  are  surrounded  by  those  of  the  ancient  pueblo,  now 
showing  only  as  grass-grown  mounds.  Vetancurt  says  that  Quarai  had  600 
inhabitants  immediately  prior  to  its  abandonment.  During  a  period  of  friend- 
liness with  the  Apache,  sometime  between  1664-69,  the  people  of  Quarai 
conspired  with  the  Apache  to  drive  out  the  Spaniards  but  the  plot  was  dis- 
covered and  the  leaders  executed.  The  Apache  compelled  the  abandonment 
of  the  pueblo  about  1674,  when  the  inhabitants  fled  to  Tajique,  where  they 
remained  perhaps  a  year  longer.  When  Tajique  was  abandoned,  the  Tiwa 
fled  to  El  Paso  and  settled  in  the  village  of  Ysleta  del  Sur,  farther  south  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  where  their  descendants  live  today.  Twenty-two  skeletons 
have  been  found,  also  pottery  and  a  number  of  artifacts  pointing  to  a  long 
pre-Spanish  occupation.  Quarai,  spelled  variously  in  the  old  documents  Cuara, 
Cuaray,  Coarae,  and  Cuarae,  figures  prominently  in  the  Spanish  annals  as  an 
important  outpost.  Conversion  to  Christianity  is  credited  to  Fray  Esteban  de 
Perea  between  1617  and  1630,  probably  about  1628.  Among  the  missionaries 
perhaps  the  best  known  was  Fray  Geronimo  de  Liana,  1659. 

Besides  the  scourge  of  the  Apache,  there  were  other  contributing  causes 
to  abandonment,  such  as  epidemics  and  drought.  Quarai  was  at  one  time  a 
walled  city,  as  was  Pecos  and  even  Santa  Fe.  Along  the  road  to  the  ruins 
at  times  ^  are  seen  small  processions  of  devout  women  carrying  the  image  of 
the  Virgin  in  their  arms  and  chanting  prayers. 

In  MOUNTAINAIR,  100  m.  (7,550  alt.,  1,605  pop.),  is  the  junc- 
tion with  US  60  (see  Tour  8).  A  view  of  GRAN  QUIVIRA  at 
114  m.t  reveals  a  pile  of  blue-gray  limestone  austere  and  aloof  against 
the  sky.  At  the  small  settlement  of  GRAN  QUIVIRA,  125  m.,  is 
the  junction  with  the  Gran  Quivira  Road. 

Straight  ahead,  leaving  NM  10,  to  GRAN  QUIVIRA  NATIONAL  MONU- 
MENT, .7  m.  (6,620  alt.).  The  ruins  of  two  Spanish  Mission  churches  here 
stand  as  a  memorial  to  the  growing  tide  of  Spanish  power  and  influence  in 
New  Mexico  during  the  lyth  century.  Accompanying  the  Spanish  explorers 


TOUR    15    399 

came  the  Franciscan  missionaries  to  establish  a  mission  system  to  convert  and 
Christianize  the  Indians.  Gran  Quivira,  known  to  the  Spaniards  as  HUMANAS, 
was  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Indian  pueblos  at  that  time  and  is  one  of  the  best 
known  of  the  early  Franciscan  Missions.  Next  to  the  two  churches  are  21 
ruined  house  mounds  where  an  estimated  population  of  1,500  Piro  Indians  lived. 

The  Piro,  one  of  the  principal  Pueblo  groups,  had  two  major  divisions  in 
the  iyth  century.  One  lived  along  the  Rio  Grande  Valley  from  San  Marcial 
north  to  La  Joya.  The  other  lived  to  the  east  in  the  high  country  of  the 
Chupadera  Mesa.  The  Piro  first  settled  on  the  monument  site  about  1300  A.D., 
farming  the  fields  in  the  lowlands  around  the  hill.  The  pueblo  prospered 
and  increased  in  size.  When  the  Spaniards  arrived  it  was  the  largest  in 
the  region. 

Don  Antonio  de  Espejo  in  1582  entered  the  Chupadera  Mesa  from  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  and  visited  several  pueblos,  one  of  which  may  have  been 
Humanas.  In  1598  Don  Juan  de  Onate  received  the  submission  of  the  Saline 
Pueblos,  including  Humanas..  On  St.  Isidro's  Day,  April  4,  1627  Fray  Alonso 
de  Benavides  dedicated  a  mission  at  Humanas  and  converted  at  least  a  part 
of  the  inhabitants.  San  Isidro  was  built  in  1629  by  Fray  Francisco  de  Letrado. 
After  his  transfer  to  Zuni  in  1631  Humanas  was  without  a  resident  priest  for 
nearly  30  years.  It  became  a  Visita  of  Abo  and  was  administered  from  there. 

Fray  Diego  de  Santander  was  assigned  to  Humanas  in  1659  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  larger  mission  of  San  Buenaventura,  started  about  1642,  was 
completed  by  him.  San  Buenaventura  was  one  of  the  largest  mission  struc- 
tures built  in  New  Mexico  and  contained  the  church  proper  and  an  adjoining 
convento  and  corral.  The  whole  structure  measures  200  feet  on  the  front  by 
a  maximum  depth  of  140  feet.  Original  walls  still  stand  to  a  height  of  about 
30  feet  and  one  of  the  original  beams  from  the  church  may  be  seen  in  the 
museum.  Just  south  of  the  church  is  the  convento,  a  group  of  rooms  used  as 
living  quarters  for  the  priests,  arranged  around  an  open  patio.  Next  to  the 
convento  on  the  south  was  the  corral.  In  1659  Humanas  also  resumed  the  ad- 
ministration of  its  own  affairs  and  in  1661  Tabira  (Pueblo  Blanco)  became  a 
Visita  of  Humanas,  rather  than  of  Abo. 

The  padres  were  responsible  for  numerous  changes  in  the  life  of  the 
Indians,  especially  in  their  tools  and  diet.  Stone  and  bone  tools  were  being 
replaced  with  copper  and  iron.  New  grains,  condiments,  grapes,  and  live- 
stock such  as  sheep,  goats,  cattle,  and  horses  were  introduced.  Pottery  styles 
changed  with  the  introduction  of  new  forms  such  as  candlesticks,  soup  plates, 
and  cups  with  handles.  Attempts  were  also  made  to  imitate  some  of  the 
pottery  imported  from  Mexico. 

Troubles  were  beginning,  however,  which  were  finally  to  cause  the  aban- 
donment of  the  pueblo.  A  drought  and  famine  in  1668  caused  450  Humanos  to 
starve  to  death  and  three  years  later  a  pestilence  killed  many  others.  The 
Apaches  were  also  continually  raiding  the  pueblo.  Sometime  between  1672 
and  1675  Humanas  was  abandoned.  Some  of  the  people  joined  another  Piro 
group  near  Socorro.  Others  moved  to  the  vicinity  of  El  Paso,  Texas  and  were 
joined  in  1680  by  the  Socorro  group  who  were  fleeing  with  the  Spaniards  from 
the  Pueblo  Revolt  of  that  year. 

Through  the  years  the  ruins  lost  their  identity,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
1 9th  century  the  name  Gran  Quivira  was  applied  in  a  mistaken  identification 
of  the  ruins  with  the  Quivira  of  Coronado  and  Onate. 

Gran  Quivira  was  established  as  a  National  Monument  November  i,  1909. 
Rangers  are  on  duty  at  a  museum  (open  daily  8  AM-$  PM)  with  archeo- 
logical  and  historical  exhibits.  A  self-guiding  trail  takes  one  through  the 
ruins.  The  monument  has  a  picnic  area  in  which  camping  is  permitted. 

NM    10   continues    south    and   southeast    through    the   village    of 
CLAUNCH  (6,700  alt.,  75  pop.),  139  m.f  in  an  area  of  bean  farms. 


4OO     NEW     MEXICO 

Claunch,  named  for  the  Claunch  Cattle  Company  that  grazed  cattle 
and  sheep  here,  has  had  a  post  office  since  1931. 

South  of  Claunch  is  rolling  terrain ;  small  thistle  poppies  blow  white 
in  late  spring  and  early  summer,  and  purple  wild  verbena  mingles  with 
them.  That  rare  bird,  the  snowy-white  heron,  has  been  seen  along  this 
road.  The  trees  are  few  and  desert  flora  take  their  place ;  the  Jicarilla 
Mountains  appear  to  the  east  and  southeast. 

At  163  m.  is  the  junction  with  US  54,  seventeen  miles  north  of 
Carrizozo  (see  Tour  18). 


Tour  16 


(Seminole,  Texas)— Hobbs— Carlsbad— (Van  Horn,  Texas) ;  US  62- 

180. 

Texas  Line  to  Texas  Line,  J 10  m. 

Two-  and  four-lane,  bituminous-paved  road,  throughout. 

Texas  &  New  Mexico  Railroad  touches  the  route  at  Hobbs ;  the  Atchison,  Topeka 

&  Santa  Fe  Railway  at  Carlsbad. 

Hotels  at  Hobbs  and  Carlsbad;  tourist  camps,  gas  stations  along  the  road. 

The  southeastern  corner  of  New  Mexico  is  rich  in  oil;  it  produces 
a  large  percentage  of  the  very  considerable  petroleum  output  of  the  state. 
Culturally,  topographically,  linguistically,  and  in  background  Lea 
County  is  so  typically  Texan  that  it  is  called  Little  Texas.  The  eastern 
half,  flat  as  a  map,  gleams  with  aluminum-painted  tanks.  Flares  from 
wells  wave  flaming  tongues  as  waste  gas  is  carried  upward  through  tall 
stacks  or  pipes,  in  order  to  safeguard  public  health. 

When  some  of  the  first  cattlemen  settled  in  Lea  County,  more  than 
50  years  ago,  they  found  water  near  the  present  Monument  (see  below) 
at  a  depth  of  only  six  feet.  They  had  no  windmill,  so  horses  were  used 
for  pumping.  All  of  the  ranchers  who  followed  those  pioneers  knew 
that  shallow  water  was  to  be  found  in  many  spots  in  the  country,  but 
it  was  48  years — in  1932 — before  the  United  States  Government  made 
a  survey  of  shallow  waters  suitable  for  irrigation.  Before  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry  and  Soils  made  its  soil  and  water  survey,  a  number  of 
ranch  people  had  made  use  of  the  plentiful  shallow  water  for  irrigation 
of  gardens  and  learned  they  could  raise  whatever  they  knew  how  to 
plant  and  tend. 


Arts  and  Crafts 


Rug  weaving  in  front  of  a  Navaho  hogan 

Wood  carver  at  work  at  his  ancient  craft 


Weaver  working  on  a  Chimay6  blanket 


Work  of  a  student  at  the  U.S.  Indian  School 
Traditional  Zuni  scene  painted  by  an  Indian  student 


Navaho  Gods  Sanclpainting,  N.  M.  State,  Museum 
Sandpainting  by  Navaho  Indians 


Indian  craftsmanship  in  jewelry-making 


Maria  Martinez,  famous  potter  of  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo 


Amphitheatre  of  the  Santa  Fe  Opera  Association 

Studio  of  the  late  Eugene  Manlove  Rhodes,  writer 


TOUR     I  6     401 

HOBBS,  5  77z.  (3,600  alt,  26,275  pop.),  market  center  for  a  shallow 
water  area  of  approximately  a  million  acres,  was  founded  in  1907  by 
James  Hobbs,  a  Texan,  and  was  a  small  settlement  until  the  discovery 
of  oil  in  1927,  Since  then  many  wells  have  been  brought  in  at  Eunice 
and  Monument  to  the  south  (see  below),  also  in  West  Texas  counties, 
and  Hobbs,  now  the  headquarters  for  oil  well  supplies,  has  grown  so 
rapidly  that  the  census  of  1960  shows  an  increase  in  population  of  over 
8,000.  In  Lea  County  alone  there  were  4,500  producing  wells  in  Dec., 
1951  with  a  pressure  so  great  that  only  4  per  cent  of  them  required 
pumps.  In  1960  there  were  8,000  oil  wells  in  the  Hobbs  area. 

The  town,  having  many  new  public  buildings,  is  proud  of  its  pro- 
gram of  self-improvement  and  sure  of  its  future  since  oil  is  not  its  only 
source  of  income.  Lea  County  is  an  important  ranching  area,  with  large 
herds  of  cattle,  flocks  of  sheep,  and  many  farms.  Of  121,000  acres  of 
fanned  land,  some  1 17,000  acres  are  regularly  irrigated.  Chief  products 
of  irrigated  areas  are  potatoes,  cotton,  alfalfa,  onions,  corn,  melons  and 
cantaloupes,  tomatoes,  and  many  others,  including  grapes  and  berries. 
Irrigation  has  been  fairly  recently  established  and  because  the  district  is 
underlain  by  shallow  water,  its  truck  crops  and  other  produce  pay  well. 
There  is  also  dairying  and  hog  and  poultry  raising.  Hobbs  has  a  modern 
sewer  system  with  disposal  plant  facilities,  a  community  asset  more  rare 
in  New  Mexico  than  it  should  be. 

There  was  no  train  service  in  Hobbs  until  April,  1930  when  the 
Texas  &  New  Mexico  Railway  came  in. 

In  Hobbs  is  junction  with  NM  18. 

i.  Left  on  NM  18,  18  m.f  then  right,  2  m.  on  NM  176  to  EUNICE  (3,390  alt., 
3,533  pop.),  proclaimed  a  city  by  the  Governor  on  April  26,  1937.  The  popula- 
tion given  was  in  excess  of  2,188  and  the  assessed  valuation  within  the  bound- 
aries, $141,191.  Eunice,  named  for  the  eldest  daughter  of  J.  N.  Carson,  was 
founded  in  1909.  Carson  homesteaded  the  site  which  is  at  the  southern  end  of 
the  Staked  Plains  (Llano  Estacado)  on  the  Texas  &  New  Mexico  Railroad. 
After  the  homestead  was  filed,  Carson  opened  a  store  and  supplies  were  hauled 
from  Midland,  Texas.  Mail  was  brought  once  a  week  from  Shafter  Lake, 
Texas  and  later  twice  a  week  from  Monument,  New  Mexico  (see  below).  A 
one-teacher  subscription  school  was  started  by  the  homesteaders;  a  physician 
was  advertised  for  and  free  living  quarters  provided,  but  there  was  not 
enough  illness  to  support  him. 

The  settlement  remained  fairly  constant  in  appearance  and  population  until 
1927,  when  oil  was  discovered  near  Jal  (see  below),  and  the  town  was  platted. 
Leases  were  made  and  they  increased  in  value,  but  the  greatest  development 
did  not  begun  until  1934  when  the  discovery  well  in  this  field  was  drilled. 
Production  wells  are  now  within  three  miles  of  the  town.  There  are  125 
of  them,  and  the  activity  so  overshadows  everything  else  that  other  industries, 
including  ranching,  which  was  the  principal  interest  before  oil  came,  are 
scarcely  noticed.  Many  homesteaders  who  held  onto  their  claims  through 
drought  and  hard  times  are  now  enjoying  a  reward  they  never  anticipated 
in  the  form  of  lease  and  royalty  money.  Some  have  used  oil  incomes  to  pay 
off  mortgages  that  had  piled  up  on  both  ranch  and  stock  during  bad  years. 
Oil  derricks  are  scattered  in  the  fields  south  and  west  of  town  and  thousands 
of  barrels  of  oil  flow  daily  into  pipe  lines.  Where  cattle  grazed,  truckloads 


4O2      NEW     MEXICO 

of  workers  and  machinery  rush  by.  Where  buffalo  fed,  arrow  and  spear 
points  were  found  in  the  early  days,  but  no  one  bothers  about  artifacts  now. 
The  old  84.  Ranch,  two  miles  northeast,  was  one  of  the  first  in  Lea  County. 
Barney  and  Jim  Whalen,  former  buffalo  hunters,  occupied  ^this  region  by 
right  of  discovery  in  1885,  digging  a  well  and  putting  a  windmill  over  it. 
They  controlled  some  300,000  acres  of  Government  grazing  land  that  took 
care  of  10,000  head  of  cattle.  The  encroachment  of  settlers  reduced  the  open 
range  until  only  a  thousand  acres  now  go  with  the  old  homestead  that  still 
stands. 

2.  JAL,  41  m.  (3,000  alt.,  3,000  pop.),  was  named  for  the  old  J  A  L  Ranch 
in  Monument  Draw,  six  miles  east  of  the  present  site.  The  post  office  that 
was  opened  on  the  ranch  was  moved  here  in  1916,  but  the  town  had  no 
perceptible  growth  until  1927  when  the  Texas  Production  Company  brought 
in  its  No.  i  Rhoads  well.  In  1910  in  order  to  acquire  the  ranch  post  office, 
mail  was  carried  free  for  three  months  by  the  sons  of  Charles  W.  Justis,  the 
first  postmaster.  They  rode  horseback  through  25  miles  of  deep  sand  from 
Kermit,  Texas.  The  homesteads  filed  on  at  that  time  proved  too  dry  for 
general  farming  and  too  small  for  stock  raising,  so  that  many  people  left  for 
other  sections.  Supplies  were  hauled  from  Midland  or  Pecos,  ^  Texas ;  ten 
days  for  the  round  trip  to  Midland  and  five  for  Pecos.  For  a  time  Jal  was 
just  a  country  store  19  miles  from  the  Texas  Line.  Now  owing  to  oil  dis- 
coveries there  are  several  stores,  lumber  yards,  an  oil  field  supply  house, 
machine  shops,  boiler  works,  and  other  enterprises,  including  hot-dog  stands, 
beauty  parlors,  beer  parlors,  domino  parlors,  and  pool  halls.  Most  of  these 
are  housed  in  sheet  iron  and  plaster  board  shacks  hastily  thrown  together 
when  Jal  was  expanding  under  its  first  oil  boom*  It  has  a  Rotary  Club  and 
nearby  oil  company  camps.  Recently  some  modern  buildings  have  been  erected. 

Hackberry  trees,  a  ground  tank,  and  parts  of  a  rock  wall  at  the  edge  of  town 
mark  the  site  of  a  well  dug  by  hand  in  the  old  days.  The  oil  is  at  a  depth 
of  4,000  feet  and  drillers  have  brought  up  segments  of  mastodon  bones. 
Although  several  wells  are  still  active,  the  height  of  Jal's  first  boom  has 
passed  leaving  a  sprinkling  of  for-rent  and  for-sale  signs,  but  there  are 
indications  of  a  new  boom. 


At  12.7  m.,  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 


Left  on  this  road,  5  m.  to  MONUMENT  (4,200  alt.,  88  pop.),  named  for 
an  old  monument  erected  to  mark  the  location  of  water.  In  the  spring  of 
1870,  two  buffalo  hunters,  Falkner  and  Hill,  trailed  a  band  of  Indians  travel- 
ing eastward,  hoping  they  would  lead  them  to  water.  On  the  fourth  day  the 
hunters  carrie  in  sight  of  a  hill  surrounded  by  a  pile  of  rock  about  30  feet 
square  and  18  or  20  feet  high.  This  was  the  marker  for  the  spring,  which  lay 
about  a  mile  east. 

No  train-  comes  to  this  section  of  the  oil  fields,  but  there  is  a  daily  mail 
car  that  carries  passengers.  The  HAT  Ranch  house  was  built  here  in  the  early 
i88o's  with  thick  walls  and  portholes. 

There  is  plenty  of  shallow  water  around  Monument,  but  not  enough  rain- 
fall for  successful  farming,  so  stock  raising  became  the  chief  occupation. 
Guy  Falkner  sold  the  Monument  Springs  for  $400  in  1885  to  an  Englishman 
named  Kennedy,  who  sold  it  four  years  later  to  General  McKenzy,  who  later 
sold  it  to  Winfield  Scott  and  Sug  Robinson  in  1893.  They  named  it  the  H  A  T 
for  their  old  Texas  ranch.  Subsequently  it  was  sold  to  Billy  Weir.  The 
Chisum  Trail  (see  Tour  7b)  passed  through  the  ranch,  and  many  persons, 
famous  and  otherwise,  have  visited  or  worked  here  at  different  times.  Many 
large  oil  wells  recently  brought  in  are  responsible  for  the  present  (1940) 
boom.  A  refinery  has  been  built,  also  several  pipe  lines. 

A  few  miles  southwest  of  Monument  is  an  Indian  battlefield  where  hun- 
dreds of  points  of  various  sizes  have  been  found.  The  people  of  Monument 
who  have  time  to  think  of  something  besides  oil  like  to  imagine  that  the 


TOUR     I  6     403 

sculptured   Indian  that  stands   in   the  town   facing  toward   the   Monument   is 
listening  for  the  war  cry  of  his  people  and  the  crack  of  the  cowboys'  forty-five. 


At  24  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  paved  road. 


Left  on  this  road  to  PEARL,  1  m.,  at  one  time  a  post  office  in  a  residence 
— both  gone.  One  autumn  when  most  of  the  ranchers  here  had  only  grain-fed 
horses  about  their  camps,  the  Indians  succeeded  in  stealing  so  many  horhes 
that  the  owners  started  in  pursuit.  Four  mounted  men,  Jim  Ramer,  Joe  Nash, 
Boston  Witt,  and  Tom  Fennessy,  with  a  pack  horse  took  up  the  trail  at  John 
Aiken's  camp  and  followed  it  north  for  more  than  70  miles,  then  climbed  the 
cap  rock.  There  they  sighted  three  Indians  with  20  or  more  stolen  horses. 

The  Indians  saw  the  ranchers  just  as  quickly,  and  moved  on  with  the  stock. 
The  ranchers  fired  a  few  shots  and  the  Indians  rode  away,  leaving  the 
animals  behind.  The  ranchers  rounded  up  the  horses,  turned  them  back,  then 
gave  chase  to  the  Indians,  who  had  gained  a  lead  of  a  mile,  and  soon  dis- 
appeared over  a  rise.  The  pursuers  kept  on  for  two  miles,  then  stopped  to 
reconnoiter.  In  the  distance  were  the  Indians  who  had  circled  and  recovered 
the  horses.  The  thieves  were  too  far  away  to  warrant  pursuit,  and  bobbing 
along  with  them  was  the  ranchers'  pack  horse  carrying  food  and  blankets.  To 
add  to  their  discomfort  the  ranchers  were  out  of  water,  and  upon  arriving  at 
Monument  Spring  they  had  to  strain  the  water  through  soiled  handkerchiefs 
to  keep  out  the  insects  and  hoped  that  the  dead  buffalo  in  the  pool  wouldn't 
prove  to  be  the  death  of  them.  This  story  wasn't  told  for  some  time.  "We 
didn't  talk  about  it  because  we  were  ashamed,"  said  the  narrator. 

At  56.6  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Left  on  this  road  3.1  m.  to  the  UNITED  STATES  POTASH  COMPANY 
MINE,  producing  since  1931. 

According  to  a  story  in  the  Carlsbad  Daily  Cur  rent- Argus,  potash  was 
discovered  1,000  feet  deep  in  this  area  by  Dr.  V.  H.  McNutt,  geologist,  who 
found  a  high  percentage  of  polyhalite  at  several  horizons  in  the  Snowden- 
McSweeney  oil  test.  It  was  McNutt's  interest  in  this  discovery  and  his 
appraisal  of  its  value  that  led  to  the  first  core  testing  in  the  area.  What  once 
was  the  bed  of  an  inland  sea  now  is  the  Permian  basin,  extending  over 
southeastern  New  Mexico  into  Texas  and  northward  into  Oklahoma  and 
Kansas.  In  this  basin,  Carlsbad's  two  potash  companies  mine  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  tons  each  year.  The  lowest  part  of  the  Permian  basin  is  in  the 
Carlsbad  area.  Here  were  concentrated  the  intensely  saline  brines,  con- 
centrated by  evaporation,  in  the  closing  stages  of  the  basin's  history.  There  is 
enough  stored  potash  salts  to  supply  the  entire  needs  of  the  United  States 
for  many  years. 

Although  potash  has  been  manufactured  in  the  United  States  since  1608, 
when  Polish  colonists  skilled  in  making  the  salts  from  wood  ashes  plied  their 
trade  in  the  early  colonies,  it  was  not  until  1916  that  it  was  produced  on  an 
extensive  scale  at  Searles  Lake,  in  California;  and  it  was  not  until  1931 
that  potash  salts  were  mined. 

Potash  is  of  prime  importance  in  agriculture  as  a  plant  food  and  is 
widely  used  in  the  chemical  industry.  Its  name  was  derived  from  the  manner 
in  which  it  first  was  manufactured,  by  evaporating  a  solution  leached  from 
ashes  of  plants. 

When  natural  potash  salts  were  discovered  in  Germany  in  1861,  the  subse- 
quent educational  programs  devised  to  stimulate  use  of  potash  as  a  fertilizer 
made  it  in  great  demand.  During  the  World  War  Germany's  monopoly  of 
the  potash  industry  was  keenly  felt  in  the  United  States,  and  more  extensive 
production  of  the  salts  was  started  in  California.  But  it  was  not  until  1931, 
with  the  United  States  Potash  Company  operations  in  the  Carlsbad  field,  that 
the  United  States  was  freed  from  German  monopoly.  Although  a  recurrence 


404      NEW     MEXICO 

of  the  war-time  shortage  with  its  ruinous  high  prices  need  never  be  feared 
again,  the  Carlsbad  potash  mines  still  face  strong  competition  from  Germany 
and  other  countries.  Deposits  are  being  worked  in  Germany,  France,  Spain, 
Russia,  and  Poland. 

United  States  Potash  Company  started  sinking  its  shaft  in  December  1929 
and  completed  it  in  January  1931.  The  Potash  Company  of  America  (see 
below)  started  and  completed  its  first  shaft  in  1933.  Both  mines  follow  the 
old  room  and  pillar  method  in  removing  the  ore  from  the  bed  of  halosylvite, 
averaging  about  eight  feet  thick  and  about  1,000  feet  below  the  surface. 

Mechanical  treatment  of  the  crude  sal.ts  is  similar  in  both  plants,  except 
that  the  Potash  Company  of  America  does  primary  crushing  underground. 
United  States  Potash  Company  refines  potash  salts^  by  a  process  of  solution 
and  fractional  crystallization.  The  final  product  is  more  than  99  per  cent 
pure.  Potash  Company  of  America  employs  a  newer  method  by  which  the 
crude  salts  are  concentrated  by  flotation.  Both  are  members  of  the  Potash 
Institute,  active  in  disseminating  information  regarding  the  uses  of  potash. 

Potash  from  this  area  is  marketed  both  in  the  crude  form,  called  manure 
salts,  and  in  the  refined  form.  However,  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of 
manure  salts  is  now  shipped. 

The  Indians  used  wood  ashes  and  fish  to  fertilize  their  crops,  but  since 
the  discovery  of  potash,  its  use  has  increased  steadily  in  the  United  States. 
During  the  World  War  of  1914-18,  potash  sold  as  high  as  $987  a  ton,  but  in 
1934  it  was  reported  moving  freely  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at  $27  a  ton, 
although  the  lowest  published  price  was  $40. 

At  58.9  m.  is  the  junction  with  a  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  to  the  POTASH  COMPANY  OF  AMERICA  MINE, 
6.1  m.,  formed  in  1933  and  still  active. 

In  CARLSBAD,  74  m.  (3,102  alt.,  20,000  pop.),  is  the  junction 
with  US  285  (see  Tour  7b)  with  which  US  62  is  united  for  2.7  miles. 

WHITE'S  CITY,  94  m.,  is  the  junction  with  the  road  to  Carls- 
bad Caverns  (see  Tour  16 A). 

US  62  continues  through  a  rolling  terrain,  with  the  Guadalupe 
Mountains  (R)  to  the  west.  Many  tales  of  secret  gold  mines  are  told 
of  these  mountains.  One  of  them  concerns  a  man  named  Sublette,  a 
water  witch  for  the  railroad,  who  with  a  hazel  wand  located  wells  along 
the  right  of  way.  It  is  said  that  his  wand  served  him  to  even  a  better 
purpose  and  that  one  day  he  returned  from  a  trip  into  the  Guadalupe 
Mountains  with  a  sack  of  gold  bullion,  but  refused  to  tell  where  and 
how  he  had  made  'the  find.  Repeated  efforts  to  discover  his  secret  were 
unsuccessful,  for  Sublette  was  a  good  shot  and  left  no  tracks.  Some 
time  after  Subletted  death,  a  native  sheepherder  told  two  men  who 
were  looking  for  the  mine  that  it  had  already  been  found  by  a  man 
named  Long,  and  express  office  records  revealed  that  an  Ed  Long  had 
consigned  $30,000  in  gold  to  himself  in  California. 

The  Guadalupes  are  also  a  rich  field  for  archeologists.  Dr.  H.  P. 
Mera  of  the  Laboratory  of  Anthropology  in  Santa  Fe  spent  two  seasons 
excavating  several  Basket  Maker  II  (see  Archeology)  cave  sites  in  the 
limestone  cliffs.  Dr.  E.  B.  Howard  of  the  Museum  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  worked  in  the  area  and  found  Folsom  points  (see 
Tour  4)  in  association  with  the  bones  of  extinct  species  of  mammals. 
Dr.  Deric  Nusbaum  of  Gila  Pueblo,  Globe,  Arizona,  who  has  also 


TOUR       I  6  A     405 

studied  these  sites,  says,  "The  known  stages  of  the  culture  sequence  in 
the  area  cover  a  period  of  ten  or  twelve  millennia.  Folsom  hunters 
occasionally  penetrated  the  mountains  from  the  Pecos  drainage  to  the 
east  and  Crow  Flat  to  the  west.  Basket  Maker  II  people  occupied  the 
dry,  corridor-shaped  caves  as  hunters  and  seed  collectors;  later  they  ac- 
quired maize  and  agricultural  techniques.  Remains  of  two  horizons  of 
the  later  Pueblo-Mogollon  phase  are  of  common  occurrence  on  shoul- 
ders of  the  foothills  and  around  springs  of  water  holes  in  the  canyons. 
'Mescal  Pits,'  hollow  rings  of  burnt  limestone,  often  contain  habitation 
debris  manifested  by  a  surface  sprinkling  of  potsherd  and  flint  chips; 
most  sand  dune  areas  were  used  as  camp  sites;  hearths,  broken  pottery, 
worked  flint,  and  grinding  stone  speak  of  seasonal  occupation  by  a  semi- 
sedentary  group  of  Indians  who  were  subject  to  culture  influence  from 
the  Plains  tribes  to  the  east.  A  few  half  breeds  are  all  that  remain 
today  of  the  aggressive  Mescalero  Apache,  best  known  through  the 
activities  of  their  powerful  chief,  Geronimo." 

The  Butterfield  Trail,  a  main  route  to  California  during  the  gold 
rush  days  (see  Tour  lOb),  rounds  the  southern  point  of  these  mountains. 
The  limestone  caves,  partly  hidden  and  easily  defended,  were  favorite 
haunts  of  bandits  who  preyed  upon  wagon-train  shipments  of  gold  and 
merchandise;  later  the  same  caves  served  as  hideouts  for  cattle  rustlers 
and  outlaws,  including  Billy  the  Kid  (see  Tour  12  b). 

At  110  m.  is  the  REGISTRATION  STATION  (see  General 
Information)  on  the  Texas  Line,  at  a  point  85  miles  northeast  of  Van 
Horn,  Texas. 


Tour  i6A 


Carlsbad — Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park,  27  m.;  US  62-180  and 
NM  7,  Caverns  Road. 

Two-lane,  bituminous-paved   road  throughout. 

Accommodations:  None  overnight  within  the  Park;  modern  motels,  hotels,  and 
trailer  courts  in  nearby  towns  along  approach  highways. 

US  62-180-285  goes  south  from  Carlsbad  to  a  point,  2  m.,  where 
US  285  turns  (L)  ;  then  straight  ahead  on  US  62-180  to  the  junction 
with  the  Caverns  Road  (R)  at  White  City.  The  Caverns  Road  goes  up 
Walnut  Canyon  through  rocky  mesas  covered  with  Spanish-dagger 
(yucca),  pricklypear,  soapweed,  and  other  species  of  desert  flora,  in- 
cluding chiefly  cholla  (cho-ya),  cane  cactus,  ocotillo  (oak-oh-tee-yo), 


4O6     NEW     MEXICO 

and  mesquite.  In  the  spring  the  snowy-clustered  blossoms  of  the  Span- 
ish-dagger and  the  clear  magenta  of  cactus  bloom  are  points  of  color 
against  the  gray  of  the  grasses. 

CARLSBAD  CAVERNS  NATIONAL  PARK,  27  m. 

Every  day,  morning  through  early  afternoon,  conducted  4-hour  com- 
plete tours  start  at  the  natural  entrance.  Shorter  trips — the  Big  Room 
tours — start  at  the  elevators  in  the  visitor  center.  Lunch  on  tour, 
reasonable  rates;  comfortable  walking  shoes  and  light  sweater  recom- 
mended; constant  temperature  of  56°  F.  within  the  caverns.  Nominal 
fee  for  guide  service,  which  includes  the  use  of  the  elevator.  Children 
under  12  years  of  age  and  organized  groups  of  elementary  and  high 
school  children,  regardless  of  age,  and  accompanying  adults  responsible 
for  their  safety  and  conduct  admitted  free,  regardless  of  age.  (Ar- 
rangement should  be  made  in  advance  for  school  groups  to  facilitate 
handling). 

Carlsbad  Caverns  are  renowned  throughout  the  world  for  their 
magnificence,  the  spaciousness  of  their  rooms  and  passages,  and  the  num- 
ber and  dimensions  and  variety  of  their  stalactites  and  stalagmites.  To 
illustrate:  a  single  room  within  the  caverns  has  a  floor  as  expansive  as 
14  football  fields  and  a  ceiling  as  high  as  a  22-story  building. 

Although  many  miles  of  passages  have  been  explored,  other  passages 
remain  unexplored,  and  so  the  full  extent  of  the  caverns  is  not  known. 
Development  has  been  limited  to  the  750-  and  829-foot  levels,  which 
you  can  reach  by  trail  through  a  natural  entrance  or  by  elevator.  You 
can  see  parts  of  an  undeveloped  section  from  certain  places  along  the 
trail.  A  passage  (not  open  to  the  public)  that  extends  eastward  from 
the  lunchroom  has  been  explored  to  a  depth  of  1,100  feet. 

In  the  exhibit  room  you  can  study  a  scale  model  of  the  caverns  that 
give  an  overall  picture  of  them  and  an  idea  of  their  size  and  direction 
with  relation  to  surface  features.  A  series  of  other  exhibits  shows  how 
the  caverns  were  formed,  why  and  how  stalactites  and  stalagmites  ap- 
pear and  grow,  and  the  record  of  man  in  the  caverns  from  the  time  of 
prehistoric  Indians.  Exhibits  describing  the  plants  and  animals  to  be 
found  below  and  above  ground  explain  the  biological  story  of  the  park. 
When  you  are  ready  to  enter  the  caverns,  you  may  purchase  your 
ticket  at  the  booth  in  the  lobby.  All  tours  end  in  the  visitor  center 
building  after  an  elevator  ride  from  the  caverns. 

The  uniformed  members  of  the  National  Park  Service  accompanying 
your  group  invite  you  to  ask  questions  pertaining  to  the  things  that 
you  see  along  the  route.  The  walking  distance  of  the  complete  tour, 
beginning  at  the  natural  entrance,  is  3  miles.  The  most  strenuous  part 
is  the  first  ify  miles,  over  which  the  trail  descends  829  feet  and  then 
climbs  80  feet  to  the  underground  lunchroom.  If  you  do  not  wish  to 
take  this  part  of  the  tour,  you  may  enter  the  caverns  by  elevator  and 
join  those  who  have  walked  in  as  they  reach  the  lunchroom  i£4  hours 
after  the  start  of  their  trip.  The  Big  Room  tour,  while  less  strenuous, 
enables  you  to  visit  only  a  part  of  the  underground  chambers. 


TOUR       I  6  A     407 

The  main  corridor  of  the  caverns,  beneath  the  entrance,  is  immense, 
with  high  ceilings  and  large  passages,  but  its  beauty  does  not  compare 
with  that  of  the  chambers  beyond.  These  chambers  (the  Green  Lake 
Room,  the  King's  Palace,  the  Queen's  Chamber,  and  Papoose  Room,  the 
scenic  rooms)  are  the  lowest  on  the  caverns  tour,  and  they  are  un- 
paralleled in  their  splendor.  If  you  take  the  complete  tour,  you  may 
see  all  these  rooms  before  you  reach  the  underground  lunchroom,  the 
central  point  of  the  caverns,  where  you  may  stop  for  food  and  rest. 
If  you  take  the  Big  Room  tour,  you  will  miss  these  scenic  rooms,  but 
there  is  much  else  to  be  seen. 

After  lunch,  you  may  visit  the  Big  Room,  the  most  majestic  of  the 
caverns'  many  chambers.  The  trail  around  its  perimeter,  I J4  miles 
long,  encompasses  a  floor  space  of  14  acres.  At  one  place  the  ceiling 
arches  285  feet  above  the  trail.  Also  in  the  Big  Room  are  the  famed 
Rock  of  Ages  and  the  Giant  Dome,  the  latter  bearing  a  striking  re- 
semblance to  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa. 

Upon  returning  to  the  lunchroom,  you  will  board  an  elevator  and 
ride  smoothly  back  to  the  surface.  The  elevators  can  transport  1,200 
people  per  hour. 

HOW  THE  CAVERNS  WERE  FORMED 

These  caverns  were  hollowed  out  of  two  rock  formations,  the  Tansill 
formation  and  Capitan  limestone,  by  the  dissolving  action  of  under- 
ground water.  All  large  caverns  in  limestone  are  products  of  similar 
processes. 

The  limestones  here  originated  as  an  organic  reef  around  the  edge  of 
a  warm  shallow  sea  during  the  Permian  period,  about  200  million  years 
ago.  During  subsequent  periods,  other  seas  brought  in  sedimentary 
material  that  covered  the  reef.  About  60  million  years  ago,  earth  move- 
ments, which  were  responsible  for  the  uplift  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  frac- 
tured the  reef  and  permitted  surrounding  ground  water  to  enter  along 
fracture  lines  and  begin  work  in  fashioning  the  caverns.  The  water  at 
first  dissolved  small  crevices  in  the  limestone.  As  more  water  came  in, 
the  crevices  enlarged  to  cavities,  called  solution  pockets.  Then  the 
walls,  floors,  and  ceilings  of  the  pockets  dissolved  and  collapsed,  join- 
ing the  pockets,  while  the  solution  process  continued,  eventually  form- 
ing the  huge  rooms  that  you  see  today. 

About  three  million  years  ago,  another  series  of  earth  movements,  the 
Guadalupe  Mountain  uplift,  raised  the  area  above  the  ground  water 
level.  Water  that  had  been  inside  the  caverns  drained  away  and  was 
replaced  by  air.  Most  solution  stopped,  but  large  sections  of  partially 
dissolved  walls  and  ceilings  collapsed  under  their  own  weight.  Stability 
was  finally  achieved,  however,  and  probably  no  rock  has  fallen  within 
the  caverns  during  the  past  several  thousand  years. 

But  even  before  collapsing  had  ended,  another  phase  of  cavern  de- 
velopment had  already  begun.  Rainwater  and  snowmelt  slowly  seeped 
into  the  caverns.  Droplets  of  water,  each  holding  quantities  of  dis- 


408     NEW    MEXICO 

solved  limestone  in  solution,  appeared  upon  the  ceilings.  Exposed  to 
the  air,  the  droplets  evaporated  and  left  their  mineral  content  as  calcite 
and  aragonite — crystalline  forms  of  limestone.  Over  centuries  of  time, 
this  process  of  evaporation  and  deposition  had  built  a  myriad  of  crystal- 
line stalactites  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  Water  that  dripped  to  the  floor 
evaporated  and  deposited  the  calcite  and  aragonite  to  build  stalagmites. 
When  joined  together,  stalactites  and  stalagmites  become  columns,  or 
pillars.  In  the  scenic  rooms,  you  will  see  helictites — twisted  formations 
that  seem  to  defy  gravity  in  their  growth. 

The  formations  in  the  caverns  are  variously  colored  to  shades  of 
brown,  red,  and  yellow  by  the  presence  of  small  amounts  of  iron  oxide 
and  other  minerals.  When  saturated  with  water,  the  formations  glisten 
and  appear  translucent.  When  dry,  they  appear  dull  and  assume  a 
powedered  look.  The  variety  and  color  of  the  stalactites  and  stalag- 
mites and  the  vastness  of  the  underground  chambers  make  Carlsbad 
Caverns  outstanding  among  the  known  caverns  of  the  world. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CAVERNS 

Bones  of  an  extinct  giant  ground  sloth  and  of  an  ancestral  jaguar 
that  were  found  in  the  caverns  tell  us  that  an  opening  into  the  caverns 
existed  at  least  10,000  to  15,000  years  ago.  Evidence  of  man  in  the 
area  at  that  time  has  been  suggested  by  studies  in  other  parts  of  the 
Guadalupe  Mountains. 

The  first  real  evidence  of  man  visiting  the  caverns*  entrance  dates 
back  more  than  1,000  years.  At  that  time,  a  group  of  Indians  with  an 
archaic  culture  roamed  throughout  the  Guadalupe  Mountains.  That 
this  nomadic  group  of  hunters  and  gatherers  used  the  entrance  is  indi- 
cated by  the  cooking  pits  above  the  entrance  and  pictographs  (picture 
writings)  on  the  south  wall  of  the  entrance.  It  is  doubtful  that  these 
early  people  ventured  into  the  dark  recesses  of  the  caverns. 

Another  tribe  of  Indians,  the  fierce  nomadic  Apaches,  apparently 
moved  into  this  area  about  500  years  ago.  If  the  earlier  Indians  were 
still  here,  they  were  either  driven  out  or  absorbed  by  the  Apache  group. 
Because  of  their  nomadic  ways,  the  Apaches  might  have  used  the  caverns' 
entrance  for  shelter. 

Spanish  conquistadores,  the  first  white  men  to  enter  this  part  of 
New  Mexico,  journeyed  northward  along  the  nearby  Pecos  River  in  the 
late  I5oo's.  Later,  pioneers  continued  to  use  the  Pecos  River  Valley, 
but  not  until  the  i88o's  did  ranchers  venture  into  the  mountainous  area 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  caverns.  The  settlers,  who  referred  to  the  caverns 
as  the  Bat  Cave,  might  have  explored  parts  of  the  passages.  Later,  the 
caverns  became  known  as  Carlsbad  Cave. 

The  first  real  interest  in  the  caverns,  however,  resulted  from  the 
finding  of  the  valuable  deposits  of  guano,  a  nitrate-rich  fertilizer  much 
in  demand.     At  the  turn  of  the  century,  mining  of  the  guano  began. 
Among  the  miners  was  a  local  youth,  James  Larkin  White,  who  be- 
came curious  about  what  might  lie  beyond  his  lantern's  dim  light  and 


TOUR       I  6  A     409 

took  every  opportunity  to  explore  the  caverns.  Through  White's  efforts, 
the  significance  of  the  caverns  was  brought  to  public  attention.  A  re- 
port in  1923  by  Robert  Holley,  of  the  General  Land  Office,  U.  S. 
Department  of  the  Interior,  so  stressed  the  beauty  of  the  caverns  that 
Carlsbad  Cave  National  Monument  was  established,  on  October  25, 
1923,  by  Presidential  proclamation.  People  throughout  the  country 
learned  of  the  size  and  magnificence  of  the  caverns  when  the  National 
Geographic  Society  published  findings  of  comprehensive  explorations 
made  in  1923  and  1924  by  Dr.  Willis  T.  Lee,  of  the  Geological  Survey, 
U.  S.  Department  of  the  Interior.  These  explorations  were  conducted 
under  the  sponsorship  of  the  National  Geographic  Society. 

By  act  of  Congress,  approved  May  14,  1930,  the  area  became  Carls- 
bad Caverns  National  Park. 

And  what  became  of  Jim  White  ?  At  first  he  was  an  unofficial  guide 
for  the  visitors  who  came  to  the  caverns.  Later,  under  the  National 
Park  Service,  he  became  a  park  ranger  and  finally  the  chief  ranger. 
His  name  and  his  memory  will  endure  as  long  as  people  come  to  gaze  in 
awe  at  the  sights  he  first  beheld  in  the  flickering  lantern  light. 

Within  the  present  boundaries  of  the  park,  which  enclose  more  than 
77  square  miles  of  surface  area,  are  many  other  caves  of  either  scenic 
or  archaeological  interest  that  have  not  yet  been  developed. 

THE  BAT  FLIGHT 

The  bat  flight  is  one  of  the  park's  greatest  attractions.  Flying  from 
the  caverns  each  evening  from  April  through  October,  bats  in  incredible 
numbers  spiral  upward  out  of  the  entrance  and  fly  southward  over  the 
rim  of  the  escarpment  to  feed  in  the  valleys  of  the  Black  and  Pecos 
Rivers  below.  They  may  range  as  far  as  50  miles  away. 

Size  and  density  of  the  flight  varies  according  to  the  availability  of 
food.  When  night-flying  beetles  and  moths  are  abundant,  millions  of 
bats  are  in  flight;  but  during  the  winter,  when  no  insects  are  available, 
most  of  the  bats  of  Carlsbad  Caverns  migrate  to  warmer  regions. 

The  bats  return  from  their  nocturnal  feeding  just  before  dawn, 
diving  swiftly  and  from  high  altitudes  into  the  entrance.  Flying  di- 
rectly to  the  bat  cave,  they  spend  the  day  hanging  head  downward  in 
dense  clusters  from  the  walls  and  ceilings. 

Probably  because  they  are  nocturnal  and  seem  to  prefer  dark,  damp 
places,  bats  have  been  maligned  in  folklore  as  evil  creatures.  The 
many  species  in  Carlsbad  Caverns  are  quite  harmless,  however,  and  are 
actually  beneficial  to  man  because  they  feed  on  destructive  insects. 

Of  the  14  species  of  bats  found  in  the  caverns,  the  most  numerous 
are  the  Mexican  free-tailed  bats,  so  called  because  they  are  abundant 
in  Mexico  and  because  they  have  a  tail  that  projects  about  an  inch 
beyond  the  tail  membrane.  This  species  migrates  to  semitropical  loca- 
tions in  winter  and  is  more  prone  to  colonize  than  other  species. 

Included  among  the  other  more  common  species  are  the  fringed 
myotis,  the  lump-nosed,  the  western  pipistrel,  and  the  pallid  bats. 


4IO     NEW     MEXICO 

A  park  naturalist  explains  the  bat  flight  and  discusses  the  bats  them- 
selves in  more  detail  in  a  talk  given  at  the  entrance  to  the  caverns  each 
evening  just  before  the  flight  begins. 

OTHER  ANIMALS 

Contrary  to  the  popular  belief  that  desert  areas  are  practically  devoid 
of  wildlife,  the  desert  around  Carlsbad  Caverns  abounds  with  animals. 
Because  most  species  are  nocturnal  or  are  burrowers  or  are  well  camou- 
flaged, they  are  seldom  seen. 

But  you  may  see  mule  deer,  largest  mammals  in  the  park,  at  almost 
any  time.  Watch  for  the  fawns  in  late  June  and  early  July,  for  the 
young  are  born  late — later  than  the  young  of  the  white-tailed  deer. 

You  may  see  pronghorns  in  the  valley  flats  and  lower  canyons.  These 
graceful  antelope-like  creatures  are  the  swiftest  of  all  North  American 
mammals.  The  pronghorn,  riot  a  true  antelope,  is  the  only  species  of 
its  family. 

Unless  you  are  from  the  West,  the  black-tailed  jackrabbits  may  seem 
strange  to  you,  but  you  should  have  no  trouble  in  identifying  them  by 
their  long  legs,  long  ears,  blackish  ear  tips,  and  blackish  tail  tops. 
The  desert  cottontails,  which  are  found  here,  closely  resemble  the  wide- 
spread eastern  cottontails. 

Most  prevalent  of  the  two  species  of  ground  squirrels  found  in  the 
park  is  the  rock  squirrel. 

Among  the  night-foraging  mammals  that  live  in  the  park  are  skunks 
(spotted,  striped,  and  hog-nosed),  raccoons,  foxes  (kit  and  gray),  and 
ringtails.  Ringtails  have  faces  like  tiny  foxes,  bodies  like  squirrels, 
tails  like  raccoons,  and  very  short  legs  like  weasels. 

The  presence  of  pocket  gophers  is  indicated  by  their  mounds  of  dirt, 
and  several  species  are  representd  within  the  park.  These  short-tailed 
vegetarians  do  their  harvesting  from  below,  as  they  feed  on  the  roots 
of  plants. 

The  long  list  of  birds  common  to  the  park  throughout  the  year  in- 
cludes the  black-throated  sparrow,  ladder-backed  woodpecker,  scaled 
quail,  mourning  dove,  cactus  and  rock  and  canyon  wrens,  and  great 
horned  owl.  During  the  summer,  the  blue  grosbeak,  black-chinned 
hummingbird,  Scott's  oriole,  western  tanager,  and  Audubon's  warbler 
add  colorful  species.  In  winter  the  summer  birds  are  replaced  by  the 
white-crowned  sparrow,  brown  towhee,  and  the  beautiful  pyrrhuloxia. 
Turkey  vultures  and  occasionally  golden  eagles  circle  high  above  the 
desert  floor.  On  warm  summer  evenings,  common  nighthawks  and  poor- 
wills  flit  overhead  in  their  quest  for  insects. 

An  interesting  swallow,  the  cave  swallow,  plasters  its  nest  high  up 
on  the  walls  of  a  number  of  caves  within  the  park,  where  it  rears  its 
young. 

Perhaps  the  most  amusing  bird  in  the  park  is  the  roadrunner,  the 
State  bird  of  New  Mexico.  A  member  of  the  cuckoo  family,  this  strong- 
legged  bird  seldom  flies;  instead  it  walks  or  runs  among  the  rocks  and 


TOUR       I  6  A     411 

cactuses  in  search  of  lizards  and  insects.  You  can  get  an  idea  of  its 
ground  speed  by  watching  it  sprint  away  from  your  car. 

Desert  reptiles  are  numerous.  The  term  "desert  reptiles"  probably 
suggests  rattlesnakes  to  you,  and  it  is  true  that  rattlesnakes  are  not 
uncommon.  Although  it  is  unlikely  that  you  will  see  any  of  them,  you 
should  be  wary,  especially  on  warmer  winter  days  and  on  summer  nights. 

Lizards  of  many  types  may  be  seen  perched  on  the  tops  of  rocks 
sunning  themselves  while  watching  for  food  or  enemies.  Among  the 
most  striking  and  colorful  are  the  collared  lizards  and  the  racerunners. 
During  the  breeding  season,  the  collared  lizards  are  bright  bluish-green 
with  a  black  collar.  The  racerunners  are  noted  for  their  blotched 
coloration  and  extremely  long  tails.  Another  species,  the  earless  lizard, 
uses  its  black  and  white  banded  tail  as  a  warning  signal,  waving  it  back 
and  forth  at  any  sign  of  danger.  Both  the  collared  and  earless  lizards 
will,  on  occasion,  run  on  their  strong  hind  legs,  using  their  tails  for 
balance. 

Insects,  which  are  numerous,  are  best  represented  in  summer  by 
brightly  colored  butterflies  and  by  crickets  and  cicadas — more  apt  to 
be  heard  than  seen. 

Though  animal  life  is  plentiful  in  the  desert,  it  is  by  no  means  re- 
stricted to  the  surface.  Underground,  and  deep  within  the  caverns,  is 
a  multitude  of  other  types.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  life  without  sun- 
light, existing  in  absolute  darkness.  Yet,  the  cave  environment  sup- 
ports many  organisms. 

PLANTS 

From  the  observation  tower  above  the  visitor  center,  you  can  see 
the  desert  like  flatlands  sweeping  away  to  remote  horizons,  the  canyon 
through  which  you  passed  on  your  way  upward  to  the  caverns'  entrance, 
and  endless  ranks  of  other  mountaintops.  Over  it  all,  flatlands  and 
mountains  and  canyons  and  valleys,  a  grayish-green  veneer  of  low-grow- 
ing desert  plants  softens  and  outlines  and  emphasizes  the  great  distances. 

Descend  from  the  tower.  Stroll  along  the  self-guiding  nature  trail 
and  you  will  be  among  the  kinds  of  plants  you  saw  in  the  distance  from 
the  tower. 

Park  regulations  are  designed  to  protect  the  scenic  and  historic 
objects,  the  plant  and  animal  life,  and  to  provide  for  your  safety,  com- 
fort, and  convenience.  Uniformed  employees  of  the  National  Park 
Service  are  here  to  help  and  advise  you.  Call  on  them  if  you  need 
information  or  have  any  difficulty. 

The  above  information  on  Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park  was  taken 
from  the  informational  leaflet,  published  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  the  Interior,  National  Park  Service,  titled  "Carlsbad  Caverns  Na- 
tional Park,  New  Mexico  (1961)" 


412      NEW     MEXICO 


Tour  77 


(Antonito,  Colorado)   —  Tres  Piedras  —  Embudo  —  Espanola  — 

Santa  Fe. 

Colorado  Line  to  Santa  Fe,  119.6  m. 

US  285  roughly  parallels  route  throughout. 
NM  285  roughly  parallels  route  throughout. 
Accommodations  in  Espanola  and  Sante  Fe. 

The  old  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  on  which  this 
tour  was  formerly  taken,  has  been  abandoned.  So' the  tour  itself  is  im- 
possible now.  There  is  no  road  by  which  it  can  be  followed.  The  only 
road  there  is,  is  impassible  between  Taos  Junction  and  Embudo  and  is 
used  today  only  by  fishermen.  However,  description  of  the  old  tour  has 
been  retained  because  of  its  characteristic  flavor. 

The  trip  on  the  old  narrow-gauge  railroad,  the  Denver  &  Rio  Grande 
Western,  that  ran  between  Santa  Fe  and  Colorado  points,  connecting 
with  the  standard  gauge  line  in  Colorado,  was  such  an  interesting  trip 
and  had  such  an  old-world  flavor,  besides  affording  magnificent  views 
not  possible  from  any  of  the  highways  in  the  State,  that  it  was  a  tour 
well  worth-while  taking.  It  was  a  funny  sort  of  a  road  and  New 
Mexicans  poked  fun  at  it,  although  they  felt  an  affection  for  it,  because 
it  was  part  of  the  New  Mexico  scene  and  gave  such  fine,  surprising  views 
of  the  landscape.  After  all,  there  were  few,  if  any,  such  railroads  left 
in  this  country,  and  it  was  a  tie-up  with  that  lush  period  of  the  railroads 
in  the  i88o's,  since  the  engine  and  coaches  were  of  that  vintage.  Al- 
though it  had  charm  and  its  own  peculiar  quality,  it  did  furnish  very  fast 
freight  service  into  New  Mexico  from  Denver,  and  this  service  might 
have  eventually  pulled  the  road  out  of  receivership.  A  ride  on  this  train 
was  an  amusing  experience  as  well  as  a  delightful  one,  and  the  train 
served  a  definite  need  in  hauling  freight. 

This  was  the  equivalent  of  a  walking  tour  by  train.  The  'trip  was 
made  either  from  Antonito,  Colorado  near  the  New  Mexico  Line  by 
way  of  Denver  or  Alamosa,  Colorado,  or  by  round  trip  from  Santa  Fe. 
There  was  service  every  day  except  Sunday.  The  trip  from  Santa  Fe, 
especially  on  upgrades,  was  leisurely  enough  to  give  the  illusion  of  walk- 
ing through  fields  of  grasses  and  wild  flowers,  and  this  was  heightened 
by  growth  right  up  to  the  tracks.  There  were  panoramas  not  seen  from 


TOUR     17      413 

any  highway  in  the  State.  The  road,  run  into  Santa  Fe  in  1881,  until 
abandoned,  kept  the  same  rolling  stock,  although  the  plush  seats  were 
replaced  by  imitation  leather  and  the  coaches  improved.  The  fancy  oil 
lamps  hanging  from  the  ceiling  still  served  on  this  run,  although  there 
were  electric  lights  that  could  be  used  when  the  coach  was  hooked  up 
with  a  train  that  had  electricity.  The  trip  was  made  in  daylight,  but  in 
winter  it  was  often  dark  by  the  time  of  arrival  at  either  terminus.  Small 
coal  stoves  at  each  end  of  the  coach  furnished  adequate  heat.  There  was 
but  one  coach  in  regular  service,  the  rest  of  the  train  being  made  up  of 
freight  and  baggage  or  express  cars.  These  were  few,  because  when 
loaded  the  engine  was  taxed  on  the  climbs.  While  it  would  pull  as  much 
as  400  tons  on  the  level  stretches,  187  tons  was  all  it  could  drag  out  of 
Rio  Grande  Canyon,  which  offers  a  fairly  steep  climb  as  well  as  a  mag- 
nificent view. 

Following  is  a  mile-by-mile  record  of  the  former  train  trip. 


From  the  COLORADO  LINE,  0  m.,  6  m.  south  of  Antonito,  Col- 
orado, the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  runs  across  a 
high  plateau  flanked  by  mountains.  The  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range  (L) 
continues  down  into  New  Mexico,  and  beautiful  San  Antonio  Peak  (R) 
is  a  few  miles  south  of  the  Colorado-New  Mexico  Line.  (See  Tour  5 
for  a  description  of  the  towns  along  this  route.) 

The  track  curves,  skirting  arroyos  and  hills.  Yucca,  cactus,  loco- 
weed,  vetch,  wild  gourd  vines,  purple  verbena,  bee  balm,  aster,  chamiso, 
and  other  wild  flowers,  including  mallow  and  flowering  grasses,  give 
beauty  to  the  foreground,  while  the  hills  and  mountains  in  the  distance 
make  for  greater  loveliness,  with  sky  and  piling  clouds  over  all.  The 
train  moves  so  slowly  that  instead  of  the  confusing  blur  when  close 
objects  are  passed  at  a  rapid  rate,  form  and  color  are  defined  and  each 
object  stands  out  for  examination. 

As  the  train  approaches  TAOS  JUNCTION,  the  Taos  Mountains 
are  visible — more  of  them  than  from  many  points.  This  is  the  stop  near- 
est Taos,  and  before  the  days  of  automobiles  the  stage  from  Taos  here 
met  passengers  bound  for  that  place. 

The  train  descends  into  Rio  Grande  Canyon,  looking  down  on  the 
winding  track  below  and  over  (L)  at  a  panorama  of  the  canyon — a 
world  of  mesas,  peaked  hills  stepping  back  to  the  horizon,  small  culti- 
vated fields  in  green  patches  on  the  canyon  floor,  occasional  farm  houses, 
and  clumps  of  trees.  Past  aromatic  sagebrush  and  black  boulders  strewn 
along  the  sides  of  the  cut,  the  train  clatters  down  into  Embudo,  which 
is  on  the  Rio  Grande.  Here  the  canyon  is  narrow,  and  traffic  is  visible 
moving  along  the  highway  across  the  river.  It  is  on  this  downgrade  into 
Embudo  that  the  accident  described  below  occurred,  according  to  the 
New  Mexico  Daily  Examiner,  which  carried  the  following  story: 


414     NEW     MEXICO 

DENTAL  MISHAP  FAILS  TO  DELAY 

Lost  time  and  teeth  seem  to  be  of  equal  value  to  the  D&RGW. 

The  Saturday  afternoon  train,  right  on  time,  was  coming  down  the 
Embudo  hill  on  its  way  to  Santa  Fe.  Engineer  Albee  ^of  Alamosa,  Colo., 
felt  an  urge  to  cough,  and  inadvertently  faced  the  cab  window  when  he  did 
so.  As  a  result,  his  false  teeth  sailed  out  the  window. 

Engineer  Albee  immediately  stopped  the  train,  then  backed  it  up  to  the  hill  to 
the  place  where  the  accident  happened.  The  train  crew  and  some  of  the 
passengers  joined  the  search,  and  finally  F.  D.  Casan  of  Chicago  found  the 
missing  dental  work.' 

Albee  wiped  oif  his  teeth  with  his  machine  rag,  replaced  them,  and  raced 
the  train  into  Santa  Fe,  arriving  promptly  on  schedule. 

On  hearing  yesterday  of  the  dental  mishap  on  the  D&RGW,  State  Cor- 
poration Commissioner  Bob  Valdez  announced  that  plans  would  be  made  to 
issue  orders  to  all  railroads,  asking  them  to  clear  brush  from  the  vicinity  of 
the  tracks  in  order  that  wigs,  teeth,  and  other  detachable  objects  might  more 
easily  be  found. 

Leaving  Rio  Grande  Canyon,  the  train  skirts  the  edge  of  Mesa 
Prieta  (Dark  Mesa)  and  follows  the  course  of  the  Rio  Grande  past 
Alcalde  and  into  Espanola,  another  stop.  In  the  old  days,  visitors  to 
Puye  ruins  would  take  the  train  to  Espanola  and  then  by  horse-drawn 
vehicle  cover  the  remainder  of  the  journey.  One  resident  of  those  days, 
then  new  to  the  country,  tells  of  waiting  here  for  the  train  to  Santa  Fe. 
She  asked  when  the  train  was  due,  and  was  told  that  it  would  be  there 
soon,  the  station  agent  adding,  "You'll  know  it's  coming  when  you  see 
the  engineer's  dog  running  down  the  track  ahead  of  it." 

Placitas  and  settlements  tucked  away  down  near  the  Rio  Grande  are 
visible;  cultivated  fields  on  both  sides  are  seen  in  summer,  but  midsum- 
mer is  not  the  most  comfortable  time  for  the  trip,  because  of  heat  and 
flies. 

As  the  train  nears  6towi,  after  passing  Santa  Clara  Pueblo  (L),  the 
Black  Mesa  and  San  Ildefonso  Pueblo  (L)  are  visible  across  the  river. 
A  line  of  mesas  (the  Parajito  Plateau)  and  the  foothills  of  the  Jemez 
Mountains  (R)  mark  the  limits  of  the  sweeping  view  to  the  west.  The 
train  stops  on  signal  at  Otowi,  as  at  other  places  along  the  route,  then 
crosses  the  bridge  over  the  Rio  Grande.  On  the  face  of  cliffs  (R)  are 
some  Indian  petroglyphs.  Along  here,  Paramount  dammed  the  river 
and  filmed  water  scenes  for  The  Light  that  Failed.  Here  is  Buckman, 
a  shipping  point  for  cattle  in  the  old  days,  now  abandoned.  The  views 
of  the  mesas  around  Buckman  are  extraordinary,  giving  a  sense  of  this 
section  of  New  Mexico  that  the  tourist  by  motor  never  experiences. 

Approaching  SANTA  FE,  119.6  mv  there  is  a  view  of  the  ancient 
city  spread  out  below  that  is  also  different  from  the  view  from  other 
points.  Bundles  are  gathered  up,  along  with  babies  and  luggage  and 
boxes.  Near  the  little  station,  the  train  crosses  a  trestle  in  front  of  the 
Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe  (R)  with  brave  sound  of  bell  and 
show  of  steam  and  at  the  station  the  engineer  stands  proudly  by  while 
passengers  descend. 


TOUR     l8     415 


Tour  18 


Deming  —  Silver  City  —  Glenwood  —  (Springerville,  Ariz.)  US  260. 
Deming  to  Arizona  State  Line,  167  m. 

Two-lane  and  four-lane  bituminous-paved  road  between  Deming  and  State  Line. 
The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Ry.  parallels  the  highway  (L)  from  Deming 
to  Silver  City. 
Accommodations  at  Deming,  Silver  City  and  Glenwood. 

US  260  north  of  DEMING,  0  m.,  courses  through  the  Mimbres 
Valley,  a  productive  region  adjacent  to  a  highly  mineralized  area  which 
has  always  been  the  "promised  land"  for  the  inveterate  prospector.  As 
the  early  home  of  the  Mimbres  tribe  of  Apache,  it  is  also  rich  in  history 
and  legend. 

The  mountains  to  the  (R)  of  the  highway  are  the  COOK  MOUN- 
TAINS ;  the  highest  peak  at  the  southern  extremity  is  COOK'S  PEAK, 
an  old  landmark  for  early  travelers  and  drivers  of  the  stage  or  the  But- 
terfield  Trail. 

At  24.1  m.  is  junction  with  dirt  road. 

Right  on  this  road  is  FAYWOOD  (also  known  as  Faywood  Springs)  2.1  m., 
formerly  a  health  resort  where  numerous  hot  mineral  springs  give  water  said 
to  be  very  beneficial  for  the  treatment  of  infantile  paralysis. 

Near  the  Springs,  a  few  miles  eastward  (R)  on  the  desert  is  the 
so-called  CITY  OF  ROCKS  STATE  PARK  ;  a  rock  formation  which  creates 
the  illusion  of  a  metropolitan  skyline. 

The  tiny  hamlet  of  APACHE  TEJO  (pronounced  Teho)  is  passed 
at  34  m.  In  the  environs  were  the  Apache  tejo  (quoit)  pits  and  an- 
nually the  champions  of  the  several  tribes  would  repair  here  to  defend 
their  laurels.  Fine  springs  are  also  located  here. 

HURLEY,  37.9  TO.,  a  company  village  owned  by  the  Chino  Mine 
Division  of  the  Kennecott  Copper  Company,  is  the  site  of  the  concen- 
tration mill  for  the  Santa  Rita  Mine.  It  is  directly  connected  by  rail- 
road with  Santa  Rita. 

The  village  consists  of  468  company  houses,  a  reduction  and  power 
plant,  and  several  stores  and  mercantile  establishments.  Until  1934 
when  the  Santa  Rita  Mine  closed  down,  it  was  completely  occupied,  a 
beehive  of  industrial  activity,  and  with  the  reopening  of  the  mine,  work 
here  has  been  resumed,  and  the  1950  census  shows  a  population  of  2,079. 

At  43.8  m.  is  the  junction  with  NM  180  (see  Tour  1A). 

CENTRAL,  43.8  m.  (1,075  pop.),  because  of  its  proximity  to  old 
Fort  Bayard  and  the  present  United  States  Veterans'  Hospital  grew 
from  a  small  settlement  to  its  present  moderate  size. 


NEW     MEXICO 

At  45.1  77z.  is  a  junction  with  a  side  road,  NM  180  (see  Tour  1A), 

Right  on  this  road  is  FORT  BAYARD  UNITED  STATES  VETERANS'  HOSPITAL,  1  m. 
Originally  an  early  fort  and  Army  hospital,  it  was  later  transferred  to  the 
United  States  Public  Health  Service  and  now  is  under  the  guidance  of  the 
United  States  Veterans'  Administration.  Included  in  the  physical  equipment 
is  the  hospital  with  a  capacity  of  215  beds,  several  buildings  for  the  hos- 
pitalization  of  general  medical  and  surgical  patients,  and  quarters  for  the  staff 
physicians,  nurses,  and  employees. 

CAMERON  CREEK  RUINS,  3  m.,  south  of  Fort  Bayard  are  the  remains  of  a 
pueblo  civilization,  one  of  such  units  which  thickly  dot  the  Mimbres  Valley. 
Inquire  for  directions  at  Fort  Bayard. 

Excavation  work  here  has  been  carried  on  by  private  expeditions  of  the 
University  of  New  Mexico  and  the  University  of  Minnesota.  The  Cameron 
Ruins  and  the  Swarts  Ruins  farther  north  are  the  main  structures  so  far  to 
receive  the  attention  of  the  archeologists. 

The  Cameron  Creek  Ruins,  located  on  a  short  ridge  that  projects  into  the 
Cameron  Creek  Valley,  has  yielded  pottery,  shell  beads,  necklaces,  bracelets, 
skeletal  material,  and  a  structure  of  135  pit  rooms,  a  distinctive  type  of  early 
pueblo  architecture.  The  pit  room  type  is  so  named  because  the  first  two 
to  three  feet  of  the  structure  was  subterranean,  the  roof  being  about  three 
feet  from  the  ground  level. 

The  burial  grounds,  also  unusual,  were  oval  pits  under  the  ground  flopr  of 
the  rooms  into  which  the  bodies  were  placed  in  a  flexed  position.  Personal 
belongings  were  buried  with  the  deceased;  notable  are  their  personal  jars. 
These  mortuary  jars  were  perfectly  drilled  through  the  bottom  in  most  cases, 
said  to  be  done  to  allow  the  spirit  of  the  jar  to  escape  with  the  soul  of  the 
departed.  Interesting  is  the  fact  that  no  kivas  have  been  found  in  the 
Mimbres  ruins. 

There  is  practically  nothing  left  of  these  ruins  except  the  walls  of  the 
rooms.  Most  of  the  "finds"  have  been  taken  to  the  Smithsonian  Institute 
and  to  the  Museum  of  New  Mexico  at  Santa  Fe. 


At  48.5  m.  is  the  junction  with  NM  25. 


Right  on  this  road  is  the  GILA  WILDERNESS  AREA,  31.2  m.,  super- 
vised by  the  National  Park  Service.  Accessible  only  by  a  jeep  or  by  a  high- 
centered  pick-up  with  a  compound  low  gear.  Private  automobiles  are  not 
permitted  in  the  area,  which  is  accessible  only  on  foot  or  horseback.  (Write 
Si'ver  City  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  names  of  guides  available  for  pack 
trips.)  From  NM  180,  junction  with  NM  187,  the  road  is  through  broken, 
hilly  country,  with  juniper,  pifion,  and  oak  on  both  sides.  Abandoned  mines 
and  mine  dumps  are  visible  from  time  to  time,  with  far  vistas  of  mountain 
ranges  on  all  sides;  in  the  foreground  are  clumps  of  cholla,  agave,  and  some 
mescal.  Past  peach  orchards  and  cultivated  fields,  through  the  village  of 
Pinos  Altos,  5.9  m.f  the  road  crosses  the  southern  boundary  of  GILA  NA- 
TIONAL FOREST,  7.6  m.  Skirting  the  edge  of  Cherry  Creek  Canyon  whose 
floor  is  6,958  alt.,  past  Forest  Service  Station,  13.1  m.,  to  M'MULLA'N  PUBLIC 
CAMP  GROUNDS  (R),s14.6  m.  Through  stands  of  Douglas  fir,  Ponderosa  pine, 
spruce,  pinon,  and  juniper,  past  fields  of  yellow  genestra,  blue  lupin,  and 
masses  of  ferns  to  the  highest  point  on  the  road  (7,431  alt.).  Here  there  is  a 
descent  into  the  Gila  drainage,  then  over  Wild  Horse  Mesa  to  PINE  FLATS 
PUBLIC  CAMP  GROUND,  20.2  m.f  where  stands  of  alligator-bark  juniper  are 
visible.  At  25.2  m.t  turn  into  Copperas  Canyon  Truck  Trail  (L),  over  a  very 
rough,  rocky  road  with  fine  panoramas,  to  the  entrance  of  Gila  Wilderness 
Area. 

The  GILA  CLIFF  DWELLINGS  NATIONAL  MONUMENT,  an  area  of 
approximaetly  50  miles,  is  accessible  only  on  foot  or  horseback,  jeep  or  truck. 


TOUR     l8     417 

Wild  deer  and  birdh  seldom  seen  except  in  protected  regions  abound  here. 
Up  a  Canyon  (L)  off  the  west  fork  of  the  Gila  River  are  the  cliff  dwellings. 
Too  little  research  has  been  done  on  them  as  yet  to  obtain  a  complete  picture 
of  the  Jife  and  work  of  these  early  people,  but  the  ruins  themselves,  under  a 
sheltering  wall  of  rock,  are  sufficiently  preserved  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
kind  of  community  it  was.  Pueblo  Indians  lived  in  this  area.  Mr.  Erik  K. 
Reed,  archeologist  with  the  National  Park  Service,  who  has  studied  this 
section,  states  that  the  Pueblos  living  in  the  northern  Southwest  a  thousand 
years  ago  spread  down  into  southwestern  New  Mexico,  changing  and  sub- 
merging the  local  people  and  culture.  They  cultivated  maize,  pumpkins,  and 
beans,  often  employing  irrigation.  They  hunted  deer,  jack  rabbit,  turkey,  and 
many  other  animals;  wore  skins;  had  blankets  and  other  articles  of  dress 
woven  of  cotton;  made  good  pottery,  also  awls,  needles,  whistles,  and  other 
instruments  from  mammal  and  bird  bones.  They  used  various  kinds  of  stones 
for  axes  and  corn  grinders,  arrow-points,  and  knives.  They  made  small 
ornaments  from  other  kinds  of  stone,  including  turquoise,  and  had  other  orna- 
ments made  from  sea  shells  from  the  Gulf  of  California,  received  by  trade, 
and  many  of  these  cultural  traits  have  persisted. 

US  260  continues  over  a  bituminous-paved  roadbed  to  the  outskirts 
of  Silver  City. 

SILVER  CITY,  50.5  m.  (6,972  alt.,  7,022  pop,),  occupies  a  beau- 
tiful setting  in  the  foothills  of  the  Pinos  Altos  Range,  an  extension  of 
the  Mogollon  Mountains.  It  is  a  shipping  point  for  the  nearby  Chino 
mines  and  livestock  ranches,  business  center  of  southeastern  New  Mex- 
ico, and  now  the  home  of  the  New  Mexico  Western  College.  It  was 
founded  in  1870  as  a  small  Spanish  settlement  called  San  Vicente  de  la 
Cienega  (St.  Vincent  of  the  Marsh),  one  of  the  camping  sites  of  the 
Gila  and  Mimbres  Apache  Indians  who  claimed  ownership  of  the  en- 
tire district,  contending  that  the  United  States  should  have  negotiated 
with  them,  in  1847,  instead  of  with  the  Spanish.  In  1874  it  became 
the  seat  of  Grant  County,  formerly  a  part  of  Dona  Ana  County,  which 
at  first  included  the  entire  southern  part  of  the  territory  acquired  from 
Mexico  by  the  United  States  under  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo 
(1848)  and  the  Gadsden  Purchase,  1854  (^e  Tour  ic).  Silver  City 
was  the  first  town  of  its  kind  in  New  Mexico  to  be  incorporated  (1876). 

Early  in  its  history  it  was  continually  menaced  by  the  Apache  who, 
after  several  broken  promises  made  by  Spaniards,  were  irreconcilably 
hostile  to  all  white  men,  and  this  animosity  extended  to  those  who  came 
in  following  American  Occupation.  They  drove  off  cattle  grazing  just 
outside  the  settlement  and  killed  them,  and  roads  were  unsafe  in  all 
directions.  They  gave  the  highway  to  the  army  post  at  Fort  Bayard 
special  attention,  for  the  whites  depended  upon  this  for  protection. 
Tales  of  these  raids  are  still  told  in  Silver  City.  One  that  received 
Nation-wide  attention  was  the  capture  on  March  28,  1883,  of  little 
Johnnie  McComas,  son  of  Judge  McComas,  after  his  parents  had  been 
killed.  It  is  not  known  for  certain  whether  the  boy  was  killed,  for  tales 
of  his  survival  persist,  the  latest  being  the  news  story  in  May,  1938,  of 
an  archeologzcal  expedition  into  Mexico  discovering  a  so-called  lost 
tribe  of  Apache  that  had  escaped  from  the  United  States  at  the  time  of 


418     NEW     MEXICO 

Geronimo's    capture.      Their    leader,    red-haired    and    blue-eyed,    was 
thought  to  be  the  lost  Charley  McComas. 

Following  an  earlier  raid  upon  Silver  City  on  July  II,  1871,  Cap- 
tain John  Bullard  went  into  the  hills  and  defeated  an  Apache  war  part\. 
While  bending  over  a  supposedly  dead  Indian,  the  man  grabbed  his  gun, 
and  he  was  shot  through  the  heart.  This  was  on  the  slope  of  the  peak 
that  was  named  for  him.  One  of  the  main  streets  in  town  also  bears  his 
name. 

Like  most  western  mining  towns,  Silver  City  had  its  share  of  no- 
torious resorts.  Soft-handed  gamblers  in  wide-brimmed  black  hats, 
frock  coats,  and  diamond-studded  cravats  presided  at  gaming  tables. 
Cowboys  strode  up  to  the  bar  in  high-heeled  boots  and  demanded  shots 
of  red-eye,  bug  juice,  or  mescal  for  themselves  and  companions  from 
Shady  Lane.  If  their  demands  were  not  supplied  immediately,  they 
shot  out  the  lights,  the  bar  mirror,  and  any  other  attractive  target,  then 
turned  over  the  roulette  tables. 

Before  the  railroad  was  built,  prior  to  1881,  12-  and  14-horse  teams 
hauled  ore  and  bullion  into  Silver  City  from  mining  camps  in  the 
Mogollons.  Bricks  of  gold  and  silver  were  stacked  on  sidewalks  out- 
side shipping  offices.  Attempts  at  robbery  were  discouraged  by  nu- 
merous hangings.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  when  the  rich 
pockets  of  almost  pure  silver  and  gold  placers  were  exhausted,  the  town 
declined,  but  the  introduction  of  modern  irrigation  and  farming  into  the 
Mimbres  and  the  Gila  River  Valleys  gave  it  new  life.  It  became  the 
shipping  point  for  this  region.  About  1908  capital  was  again  attracted 
when  gold  was  found  in  the  Mogollon  Mountains  and  iron  at  Fierro, 
and  the  cattle  industry  was  revived.  It  has  continued  to  flourish,  a 
thriving,  modern  city.  The  annual  rodeo,  on  July  Fourth^  is  known 
throughout  the  Southwest,  and  Silver  City  is  the  center  for  pack  trips 
into  the  many  hunting,  fishing,  and  recreational  areas  in  the  surround- 
ing mountains.  It  is  headquarters  for  the  Gila  National  Forest. 

The  COUNTY  COURT  HOUSE,  with  murals  by  Theodore  Van  Soelen, 
at  ico  West  Cooper  Street,  and  New  Mexico  Western  College,  1008 
West  College  Avenue,  are  points  of  interest.  The  very  high  curves 
and  the  deep  depression  running  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  town, 
one  block  east  of  and  paralleling  Bullard  Street,  are  the  result  of  tor- 
rential rains,  in  1895,  which,  falling  on  the  denuded  slopes  of  near-by 
hills,  caused  such  flood  conditions  in  the  town  that  the  main  street  was 
a  river ;  stores  and  dwellings  tumbled  into  the  flood,  and  receding  waters 
left  a  gaping,  irregular  gulch.  In  1935  C.C.C.  workers  networked  the 
hillsides  with  thousands  of  small  dams  to  check  the  run-off  and  lined 
the  Big  Ditch  with  terraced  masonry  walls,  transforming  it  into  an 
attractive  park. 

At  Silver  City  is  the  junction  with  NM  180. 

Left  on  this  road  12.7  m.  is  TYRONE  (245  pop.),  the  de  luxe  model 
mining  camp,  called  the  most  expensive  in  the  world,  which  was  designed  by 
Goodhue  and  built  by  Phelps-Dodge  interests  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  The 
beauty  and  substantial  character  of  the  buildings  and  houses  is  incredible> 


TOUR     I  8     419 

unless  actually  seen.  Tyrone,  at  the  base  of  Little  Burro  Mountains,  has  a  fine 
railroad  station,  which  has  a  marble  drinking  fountain,  handmade  benches, 
and  an  overhead  chandelier  elaborate  enough  to  adorn  a  palace.  Fred  Boren- 
stein,  retired  Silver  City  businessman,  purchased  the  railroad's  holdings  for 
salvage  when  Tyrone  was  abandoned.  But  he  didn't  have  the  heart  to  wreck 
the  station.  "It  was  too  beautifully  done,"  he  said.  "Wrecking  it  would  have 
destroyed  the  symmetry  of  the  finely  planned-and-built  town."  Today,  Tyrone 
is  known  as  the  "million  dollar  ghost  town." 


West  from  Silver  City,  US  260  skirts  the  edge  of  Gila  National 
Forest  (L),  with  mountains  on  both  sides,  crossing  the  Gila  River  at 
RIVERSIDE,  78.9  772.  The  Gila  is  important  to  irrigation  in  both 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Rising  in  the  Gila  National  Forest,  its 
regular  flow  supplies  water  for  the  Coolidge  Dam  in  Arizona.  Several 
hot  springs  near  its  source  and  small  tributary  streams  add  to  its  flow. 

At  CLIFF,  79  m.  (283  pop.  in  area),  is  the  junction  with  an  oiled 
road. 

Right  on  this  road  2.7  m.  is  GILA  (500  pop.  in  area),  one  of  the  starting 
points  and  supply  depots  for  pack  trips  into  the  Mogollon  Mountains  and  the 
Gila  Wilderness  Area, 

Several  well-kept  farms  lie  in  the  valley  northwest  of  Cliff,  and 
cottonwood  and  walnut  trees  line  the  banks  of  the  Gila. 

BUCKHORN,  87  m.  (4,700  alt.,  84  pop.),  is  a  trading  center. 
The  MOGOLLONS,  named  for  Don  Juan  Ignacio  Flores  Mogollon, 
Governor  of  the  Province  of  New  Mexico  (1712-15),  bound  the  valley 
(R).  These  mountains  are  one  of  the  few  places  where  the  grizzly 
bear  is  found;  black  and  brown  bear  are  numerous;  also  white-tailed, 
fan-tailed,  and  mule  deer.  Mountain  lion,  bobcat,  and  coyote  still  prey 
upon  the  stock  that  grazes  in  this  region  under  Government  permit. 

US  260  continues  through  mountainous  areas  covered  with  thick 
stands  of  timber. 

PLEASANTON,  110  m.  (4,637  alt.,  46  pop.),  is  situated  on  the 
San  Francisco  River,  surrounded  by  small  farms,  orchards,  and  cattle 
ranches. 

GLENWOOD,  113  m.  (4,746  alt.,  264  pop.),  is  near  the  junc- 
tion of  several  deep  canyons,  almost  hidden  in  a  grove  of  cottonwoods. 
In  the  midst  of  a  hunting  and  fishing  region,  many  trails  into  these 
areas  lead  from  it. 

At  ALMA,  118  m.,  a  small  settlement,  is  the  junction  with  NM  78. 

Right  on  this  road  is  MOGOLL6N,  8  m.  (20  pop.),  a  small  settlement  in 
the  center  of  the  Cooney  mining  district,  named  for  Sergeant  James  Cooney 
who  came  to  Fort  Bayard  in  1870.  While  on  duty  as  a  scout,  he  discovered 
gold  quartz  rock,  but  said  nothing  about  it,  and  after  his  discharge  came 
here  with  two  buddies  and  worked  the  claim.  The  Apache,  a  continual 
menace,  killed  him,  and  he  was  buried  in  Cooney' s  Canyon  in  a  sepulchre 
carved  out  of  rock  and  sealed  with  gold-and-silver-bearing  rock  taken  from 
the  mine  he  discovered. 


42O     NEW     MEXICO 

US  260  crosses  Mineral  Creek  and  the  San  Francisco  River  as  it 
veers  north  to  the  junction  with  NM  12,  149.3  m.,  at  STEVENS  SAW 
MILL  (see  Tour  8b). 

LUNA,  159  772.  (7,052  alt.,  250  pop.),  was  first  settled  by  Solomon 
Luna  who  grazed  his  sheep  in  the  valleys  and  on  mountainsides.  Later 
this  region  was  populated  by  Mormon  families  who  journeyed  from  Salt 
Lake  and  who  prospered  here. 

At  167  77z.,  US  260  crosses  the  ARIZONA  LINE  at  a  point  32 
miles  southeast  of  Springerville,  Arizona  (see  Arizona  Guide). 


tWWXSK^ 


PART  IV 
Appendices 


Chronology 


INDIAN  CHRONOLOGY 


(The   New  World  pre-history  dates  have  been   determined  by  tree-ring 

chronology) 

?-3Oo  A.D.  Basket  Maker  II:  A  semi-nomadic,  pre-Pueblo  people  who 
inhabited  the  Southwest  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  First 
agriculturists  in  New  Mexico;  excelling  in  basket  weaving. 

300-700  Basket  Maker  III:  First  truly  sedentary  people  in  New  Mex- 
ico; built  crude  slab  houses;  cultivated  corn,  squash,  beans,  and 
tobacco;  invented  pottery  in  the  Southwest. 

700-900  Pueblo  I:  A  roundheaded  people,  believed  to  have  come  from 
the  Northwest,  who  conquered  and  absorbed  the  earlier  Basket 
Maker  people  and  their  culture;  introduced  horizontal  masonry, 
the  bow  and  arrow,  and  developed  pottery. 

900-1150  Pueblo  II:  Sometimes  called  the  developmental  period;  was  a 
growth  of  the  Pueblo  I  culture.  The  unit  type  house  became  the 
small  village  or  group  dwelling. 

1150-1350     Pueblo  III:     The  classic  or  great  period  of  Pueblo  culture. 

1350-1700  Pueblo  IV:  The  maximum  expansion  of  Pueblo  culture  in 
New  Mexico. 

1700-     Pueblo  V:     Modern  Pueblo. 


NEW  MEXICO  UNDER  SPAIN 
1540-1821 

1528-1531  First  rumors  of  inhabited  cities  in  the  north  gained  from  an 
Indian  in  possession  of  Nuno  de  Guzman,  whose  expedition  fails  to 
discover  the  cities,  but  explores  country  as  far  north  as  Culiacan, 
which  he  founded. 

1536  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  en  route  to  New  Spain  from  east 
Texas,  passed  through  New  Mexico.  Indians  farther  south  tell  him 
of  northern  pueblos. 

1539  In  May,  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza,  with  the  Negro  Moor  Estevan,  dis- 
covers the  "Seven  Cities*'  of  Cibola  (Zuni) ;  takes  formal  possession 
for  Spain  of  region  embracing  present  New  Mexico. 

1540  February  23,  Coronado's  expedition  leaves  Compostela  to  conquer 
Cibola.     He  reaches  region  July  7,  captures  pueblo  of  Hawikuh 
winters  at  Tiguex,  near  Bernalillo. 

1541  April  23,  leaving  Tiguex,  Coronado  crosses  buffalo  plains  to  Quivira 
(Kansas-Nebraska  border) ;  returns  to  Tiguex  for  second  winter. 

1542  In  spring,  Coronado  and  army  return  to  New  Spain. 

423 


NEW     MEXICO 

1543-4  The  Franciscans  Juan  de  Padilla  and  Luis  de  Escalona  remain 
as  first  missionaries,  and  later  martyrs,  of  New  Mexico. 

1546  Gastaldi  map  shows  Cipola  (Cibola)  and  Nova  Hispania,  which 
appear  north  of  Mexico,  with  "Le  Sete  Cita,"  north  of  Cipola. 

1569    Mercato  map  shows  Hispania  Noua. 

1581  June  6,  missionary  expedition  of  Fray  Agustin  Rodriguez  and  two 
other  Franciscans  with  12  soldiers  under  Capt.  Francisco  Sanchez 
Chamuscado  follows  new  route  up  Rio  Grande  de  Puaray,  one  of 
the  Tiguex  pueblos,  near  Bernalillo. 

Franciscans  remaining  after  return  of  soldiers  to  New  Spain  are 
killed  by  Indians. 

1582-1583  Relief  expedition  of  Fray  Bernadino  Beltran  and  Capt.  An- 
tonio Espejo  to  ascertain  fate  of  the  Franciscans.  Casilda  de  Anaya, 
wife  of  a  soldier,  third  of  the  white  women  in  New  Mexico.  The 
name  "New  Mexico"  appears  for  first  time  on  title  page  of  Luxan's 
Journal  of  expedition  (1583). 

1587  Hakluyt  map  on  which  appear  Quivira,  Tiguex,  and  Nuevo  Mexico, 
north  of  Nova  Hispania  and  Mexico. 

1590-1591  First  attempt  (unauthorized)  to  colonize  New  Mexico:  by 
Capt.  Caspar  Castano  de  Sosa,  with  170  persons  including  women 
and  children,  and  wagon  train  of  supplies.  After  about  a  year  Cas- 
tano arrested  by  Capt.  Juan  Morlete  for  having  entered  the  country 
without  a  license  and  returned  to  Mexico. 

1593-1594  Unauthorized  exploring  party  under  Capts.  Humana  and  Bo- 
nilla. 

1595  September  21,  Don  Juan  de  Onate  given  contract  for  colonization  of 
New  Mexico  at  his  own  expense. 

1598  April  30.  Onate  takes  formal  possession  of  New  Mexico  at  point  on 
Rio  Grande  below  El  Paso  del  Norte. 

July  n,  Onate  established  first  Spanish  settlement  and  capital  in 
New  Mexico  at  San  Juan  pueblo. 

August  n,  Onate  begins  work  on  first  Spanish  irrigation  ditch. 
September   8,   first   church   built   in    New   Mexico   at   new   capital 
dedicated  to  San  Juan  Bautista.    Franciscans  assigned  to  missions  in 
seven  pueblos. 

1599  January  22,  23,  24,  battle  of  Acoma;  Spanish  victory. 

1600  Tattonus  map  shows  Tiguex  with  church  north  of  New  Granada. 
December  24,  new  capital  of  San  Gabriel  del  Yunque  established 
some  time  before  this  date  at  Yugeuingge  on  west  bank  of  Rio 
Grande  from  San  Juan. 

1601  June  23,  Onate  leaves  San  Gabriel  for  Quivira,  probably  reaching 
Wichita,  Kansas;  returns  November  24. 

1605  April  1 6,  Onate  returning  from  Gulf  of  California  leaves  name  on 
Inscription  Rock,  now  El  Morro  National  Monument. 

1609     Death  of  Fray  Cristobal  de  Quinones,  first  music  teacher;  installed 
organ  and  taught  Indians  to  sing  at  San  Felipe  pueblo. 
Plans  made  for  new  capital  at  Santa  Fe. 


CHRONOLOGY    425 

1610  Santa  Fe  founded  as  new  capital  under  the  title  La  Villa  Real  de 
la  Santa  Fe  de  San  Francisco  de  Assisi  (The  Royal  City  of  the 
Holy  Faith  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi),  by  Don  Pedro  de  Peralta, 
third  governor  of  New  Mexico. 

Regular  mission  supply  service  started  between  Mexico  City  and 
Santa  Fe. 

Villagra's  epic  poem,  Historia  de  la  Nueva  Mexico,  published  at 
Alcala  de  Henares,  Spain;  Villagra  first  poet  of  present  United 
States. 

1613-1614  Fray  Isidro  Ordonez,  agent  of  the  Inquisition,  holds  Gov. 
Peralta  a  prisoner  at  Sand' a  pueblo  for  nearly  a  year. 

1617     Eleven  mission  churches  in  New  Mexico. 
White  population  48  men. 

1625  Fray  Alonzo  de  Benavides  arrives  in  Santa  Fe  as  custodian  of  Fran- 
ciscan mission  province  and  agent  of  the  Inquisition. 

1627     Parish  church  built  in  Santa  Fe. 

1632  February  22,  Fray  Francisco  de  Letrado  killed  at  Hawikuh. 
December  28,  Fray  Pedro  de  Miranda,  Taos  priest,  and  guard  of 
two  soldiers  killed  by  Indians. 

1633  Fray  Estevan  de  Perea,  custodian  and  agent  of  Inquisition,  investi- 
gates witchcraft,  bigamy,  and  use  of  peyote. 

1639  February  21,  Cabildo  (Town  Council)  of  Santa  Fe  complains  to 
viceroy  in  Mexico  City  against  Franciscans,  who  declare  Gov.  Rosas 
persecutes  them. 

1644-1647  Religious  persecution  of  Indians  results  in  conspiracies  and 
sporadic  outbreaks  against  Spaniards.  First  outbreak  caused  by  the 
whipping,  imprisoning,  and  hanging  of  40  Indians  who  refused  to 
relinquish  their  native  religion  and  become  Catholics;  uprising  sup- 
pressed. Later,  the  Jemez  and  Apaches  conspire,  but  are  soon 
crushed,  29  being  caught  and  punished. 

1650  Pueblos  of  Jemez,  Isleta,  Alameda,  San  Felipe,  and  Cochiti  conspire 
with  Apaches  to  expel  Spaniards;  plot  discovered,  nine  ringleaders 
hanged,  and  others  sold  into  slavery  for  10  years. 
At  about  this  time  Taos  Indians  plan  general  revolt,  outlining  their 
plans  on  deerskins;  plot  failed  because  the  Moqui  (Hopi)  refused 
to  join  them.  Many  of  the  Taos  fled  to  Cuartelajo  in  eastern  Colo- 
rado, whence  they  were  later  induced  to  return. 

1659  New  Mexican  Franciscans  establish  mission  of  Nuestra  Senora  de 
Guadalupe  at  El  Paso  del  Norte  on  west  bank  of  Rio  Grande  (now 
Juarez,  Mexico). 

1660  Conflict  between  civil  and  religious  authorities  so  grave  that  Fran- 
ciscans threaten  to  abandon  New  Mexico. 

1661-1664  Gov.  Don  Diego  de  Penalosa  forbids  exploitation  of  Indians  by 
friars  in  "spinning  and  weaving  cotton  mantas."  On  return  to  Mex- 
ico City,  Penalosa  tried  by  Inquisition  for  offenses  against  clergy; 
ruinous  fine  imposed.  Later  in  Paris,  Pefialosa's  schemes  stimulate 
expedition  of  La  Salle  (1684-1687)  to  limit  expansion  of  Spanish 
possessions. 


426     NEW     MEXICO 

1675  Four  Indians  hanged,  and  43  whipped  and  enslaved  on  conviction  by 
a  Spanish  tribunal  of  bewitching  the  superior  of  the  Franciscan  Mon- 
astery at  San  Ildefonso. 

1676  Apache  destroy  several  pueblos  and  churches,  killing  Spaniards  and 
converted  Indians ;  those  arrested  are  hanged  or  sold  into  slavery. 

1680  August  10,  Pueblo  Revolt  led  by  Indian,  Po-pe;  Spanish  rule  ended 
August  21 ;  all  Spaniards  killed  or  driven  from  New  Mexico,  retreat- 
ing to  El  Paso  del  Norte  \^here  capital  was  maintained  for  13  years. 
The  Coronelli  map  of  about  this  year  first  notes  that  the  Rio  Grande 
empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  not  the  Gulf  of  California. 

1685  March  26,  registration  of  mine,  Nuestra  Senora  del  Pilar  de  Zara- 
gosa,  in  Fray  Cristobal  Mountains. 

1692  Reconquest  by  Gov.  Don  Diego  de  Vargas. 

September  13,  De  Vargas  enters  Santa  Fe;  Indians  yield  peacefully. 

1693  De  Vargas  recolonizes  New  Mexico  with  70  families,  100  soldiers, 
and  17  Franciscans;  reenters  Santa  Fe  December  16. 

1695  Franciscan  missions  reestablished. 

Villa  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada  refounded. 

1696  In  June,  final  Pueblo  rebellion  and  defeat;  Spaniards  execute  sev- 
eral Pueblo  governors. 

1706    Albuquerque  founded  by  Gov.  Don  Francisco  Cuervo  y  Valdes. 
1710    San  Miguel  chapel  restored  by  Gov.  Penuela. 
1712     First  fiesta  season  proclaimed  in  Santa  Fe  on  September  16. 
1716    Gov.  Felix  Martinez  tries  and  fails  to  conquer  Hopi  pueblos. 
1718    On  the  Delisle  map  appear  Santa  Fe,  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  and 
Albuquerque. 

1720  Expedition  under  Capt.  Pedro  de  Villasur  (to  investigate  French  ac- 
tivity on  northeastern  frontier)  destroyed  by  Pawnee  Indians,  French 
allies. 

1721  In  August,  public  schools  established  by  royal  decree. 

1725     Spanish  Government  forbids  trade  with  French.    Trade  with  Plains 

Indians  limited  to  those  coming  to  Taos  and  Pecos;  beginning  of 

Taos  annual  fairs. 
1739    Mallet  brothers  and  seven  or  eight  other  French  Canadians  visit  New 

Mexico;  two  remain. 

1743    A  Bellin  map  shows  Nouveau  Mexique — Santa  Fe. 
1748    Sandia  pueblo  refounded. 
1760     Bishop  of  Durango  visits  New  Mexico;  Cofradia    (Confraternity) 

of  Our  Lady  of  Light  organized  in  Santa  Fe;  Gov.  Marin  del  Valle 

building  the  Military  Chapel. 
1767     Great  flood  in  Santa  Fe. 
1776     In  July,  Fray  Escalante  and  Fray  Dominguez  with  eight  companions 

leave  Santa  Fe  to  find  trail  to  new  missions  at  Monterey,  California. 

Their  route  into  central  Utah  became  first  stage  in  later  famous 

Spanish  Trail,  Santa  Fe  to  Los  Angeles. 
1779     Gov.  De  Anza's  campaign  against  Comanches.    Cuerno  Verde  and  38 

principal  Indians  killed  in  battle  95  leagues  northeast  of  Santa  Fe. 


CHRONOLOGY     427 

De  Anza  passes  in  full  view  of  peak  later  named  for  Zebulon  M. 

Pike. 
1780    Smallpox  epidemic  among  Pueblos,  Moquis,  and  Spanish  following 

three  year  drought. 
1787     Pedro  Vial  traces  trail  from  San  Antonio  north  to  Red  and  Canadian 

Rivers  on  to  Santa  Fe. 
1790     In  November,  total  population  in  New  Mexico  including  Indians, 

30,953- 

1792  May  21,  Pedro  Vial  blazes  trail  from  Santa  Fe  to  St.  Louis  and  re- 
turns following  year;  first  complete  journey  across  later  famed  Santa 
Fe  Trail. 

1800  Lt.  Col.  Carrisco  discovers  the  Santa  Rita  copper  mine  near  Silver 
City. 

1804  First  important  mining  development;  Santa  Rita  mine  worked  by 
Don  Francisco  Manuel  Elguea,  of  Chihuahua. 

Baptiste  Lalande,  a  Frenchman  from  Kaskaskia,  reaches  Santa  Fe 
with  a  stock  of  merchandise,  which  he  disposes  of  at  a  profit;  forced 
to  remain. 

1805  First  vaccination  in  New  Mexico. 

James  Purcell    (Pursley),  a  Kentuckian,  having  left  St.  Louis  in 

1802,  after  three  years  of  wandering  reaches  Santa  Fe. 
1807     March  2,  arrest  of  Maj.  Zebulon  M.  Pike  and  party  by  Gov.  Alen- 

•caster's  order;  brought  to  Santa  Fe;  later  sent  to  Chihuahua,  and 

finally  released  on  Louisiana  frontier. 

Gov.  Alencaster  institutes  measures  to  prevent  American  influences 

from  entering  New  Mexico. 
1810    August   n,   Pedro  Bautista  Pino  chosen  first  representative   from 

New  Mexico  to  the  Cortes  in  Spain. 

NEW  MEXICO  UNDER  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  MEXICO 

1821-1846 

1821  September  27,  independence  of  Mexico  from  Spain;  New  Mexico 
becomes  a  province  of  Mexico. 

1822  In  the  spring,  William  Becknell,  "Father  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail," 
brings  first  wagons  from  east  across  plains  to  Santa  Fe. 

April  27,  first  public  school  law  in  New  Mexico;  action  of  the 
provincial  deputation:  "Resolved,  that  the  said  ayuntamientos 
(town  councils)  be  officially  notified  to  complete  the  formation  of 
primary  public  schools  as  soon  as  possible  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  each  community.1' 

July  5,  Francisco  Xavier  Chaves  appointed  political  chief,  reliev- 
ing Facundo  Melgares,  the  last  governor  of  New  Mexico  under 
Spanish  rule. 

1824  July  6,   New  Mexico  changed  to  a  territory  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico.   Bartolome  Baca,  political  chief. 

1825  United  States  survey  maps  route  for  Santa  Fe  Trail  from  Missouri 
to  Taos. 


428     NEW     MEXICO 

1828  Republic    of    Mexico    ratifies    earlier    treaty    of    1819,    regarding 
boundaries  between  Spanish  possessions  and  the  United  States. 
Old  placer  gold  mines  discovered  about  30  miles  southwest  of  Santa 
Fe. 

1829  June  3,  first  military  escort  furnished  for  Santa  Fe  Trail  by  U.  S. 
Government;  consisted  of  170  men  from  Ft.  Leavenworth,  led  by 
Capt.  Bennett  Riley. 

1830  First  oxen  used  on  Santa  Fe  Trail. 

1833  First  gold  lode  or  vein  west  of  Mississippi  River  discovered  and 
worked  on  famous  Sierra  de  Oro  (Mountain  of  Gold),  now  known 
as  Ortiz  Mine. 

1834  In  fall,  first  newspaper  in  New  Mexico,  El  Crepusculo  de  la  Liber- 
tad    (The   Dawn  of  Liberty),  published   at   Santa   Fe   by  Antonio 
Barreiro  on  first  press  in  New  Mexico  owned  by  Don  Ramon  Abreu, 
printer  Jesus  Maria  Baca. 

1835  In  November,   Padre  Antonio  Jose  Martinez  began  printing  pam- 
phlets and  school  manuals  on  this  press  which  had  been  moved  to 
Taos,  with  Jesus  Maria  Baca  as  printer. 

1837  August  3,  dissatisfaction  with  revised  Mexican  constitution,  central- 
izing power  and  imposing  unaccustomed  taxes,  causes  uprising;  Gov. 
Albino  Perez  assassinated.   A  counter  movement,  starting  at  Tome 
and  Albuquerque,  is  used  by  Gen.  Manuel  Armijo  to  seize  control; 
his  appointment  as  governor  arrives  from  Mexico  City  in  December. 

1838  January  28,  last  rebel  leaders  captured  and  shot. 

1841-1842  Armijo  arrests  members  of  Texas-Santa  Fe  expedition  and 
sends  them  to  Mexico  City ;  released  later  due  to  pressure  by  U.  S., 
British,  and  Texas  Governments. 

1843—1844  President  Santa  Ana  closes  the  frontier  custom  house  at  Taos 
August  7,  1843,  by  decree,  but  repeals  the  act  March  31,  1844. 

1844  Printing  press  removed  from  Taos  to  Santa  Fe  for  printing  an  offi- 
cial periodical  called  La  Verdad  (The  Truth),  edited  by  Donaciano 
Vigil;  and  after  Kearny's  occupation  of  the  Territory  in  1846,  it  was 
used  for  printing  the  laws  of  the  Territory. 


AMERICAN  OCCUPATION— NEW  MEXICO  A  TERRITORY  OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES 

1846-1912 

1846    May  13,  proclamation  of  war  with  Mexico.   United  States  plans  to 
invade  New  Mexico. 

August  18,  Gen.  Kearny  occupies  Santa  Fe  peacefully,  declaring  end 
of  Mexican  and  beginning  of  American  rule.  Establishment  of 
Kearny  Code  of  law  for  New  Mexico. 

August  23,  Missouri  volunteers  begin  construction  of  Fort  Marcy, 
Santa  Fe. 

September  22,  proclamation  of  civil  government;  Charles  Bent  ap- 
pointed civil  governor. 


CHRONOLOGY     429 

November  22,  Col.  Doniphan  makes  first  U.  S.  treaty  with  Navaho. 
December  25,  battle  of  Brazito,  only  battle  of  Mexican  War  on 
New  Mexican  soil;  American  victory. 

Palace  of  the  Governors  said  to  be  only  building  in  New  Mexico 
having  window  glass  instead  of  gypsum  panes. 

1847  January  19,  Taos  Revolt;  revolutionists  and  Taos  Indians  assassinate 
Gov.  Bent  and  other  officials;  revolt  spreads  with  preparations  to 
march  on  Santa  Fe. 

February  3,  Col.  Price  ends  revolt  by  firing  on  insurgents  in  Taos 

pueblo  church. 

September  4,  first  English  newspaper,  Santa  Fe  Republican. 

In  December,  first  sawmill,  erected  on  Santa  Fe  River. 

1848  February  2,  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  providing  that  Mexico 
give  up  all  claim  to  territory  east  of  Rio  Grande,  and  cede  New 
Mexico  and  Upper  California  to  United  States. 

August  28,  first  English  school  founded  at  Santa  Fe. 
October   14,   people   of  New   Mexico,   in  convention   at  Santa  Fe, 
petition  Congress  for  a  territorial  government,  oppose  the  dismem- 
berment of  their  Territory  in  favor  of  Texas,  and  ask  protection  of 
Congress  against  the  introduction  of  slavery. 

1849  Establishment  of  regular  stage  line  between  Santa  Fe  and  Inde- 
pendence; round  trip  twice  monthly,  carrying  mail  by  contract. 
April  7,  James  S.   Calhoun  appointed  first  Indian  Agent  in  New 
Mexico. 

1850  U,  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico  (including  area  of 
present  State  of  Arizona  and  small  portion  of  Colorado) :  61,547. 
In  May,  constitutional  convention  meets  in  Santa  Fe,  and  frames 
constitution  for  State  of  New  Mexico. 

In  June,  F.  X.  Aubrey  rode  from  Santa  Fe  to  Independence,  Mis- 
souri, 850  miles  in  five  days  and  16  hours  on  a  wager,  and  won 
$10,000. 

June  20,  constitution  for  "State"  of  New  Mexico,  declaring  against 
slavery,  ratified  by  decisive  vote  and  submitted  to  Congress.  The 
State  legislature  under  this  constitution  creates  Socorro  County. 
September  9,  Congress  passed  Organic  Act  creating  Territory  of 
New  Mexico,  and  settling  long  controversy  with  Texas  over  region 
east  of  Rio  Grande. 

September  27,  Congress  authorizes  monthly  mail  routes  east  and 
establishment  of  post  offices. 

1851  Santa  Fe  receives  city  charter. 

March  3,  James  S.  Calhoun  inaugurated  first  governor  under  Or- 
ganic Act. 

July  14,  first  legislative  assembly  under  Organic  Act,  makes  Santa 
Fe  territorial  capital. 

In  summer,  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Lamy,  bishop  of  newly  established  Ro- 
man Catholic  Diocese  of  Santa  Fe,  reaches  capital;  institutes  im- 
portant religious  and  educational  reforms. 


430     NEW     MEXICO 

1853  Christopher   (or  Kit)   Carson  appointed  an  Indian  Agent  in  New 
Mexico. 

Beall  &  Whipple  make  railroad  survey,  35th  parallel  route. 
December  30,  Gadsden  Purchase  adds  to  New  Mexico  southern  half 
of  Gila  Valley,  believed  necessary  for  railroad  to  Pacific* 

1854  Railroad  survey  made  on  32nd  parallel  route. 

January  15,  first  Protestant  (Baptist)  church  in  Territory  dedi- 
cated at  Santa  Fe. 

August  4,  territory  acquired  from  Mexico  under  the  Gadsden  pur- 
chase is  incorporated  within  the  Territory  of  New  Mexico. 

1856  Surveyor-general   investigates    Pueblo    Indian   land   claims;    recom- 
mends confirmation  of  grants  to  18  pueblos. 

1857  During  summer,   San  Antonio,  Texas,  and  San  Diego,   CaL,   mail 
begins;  service  each  way  twice  monthly.    Contract  to  John  Butter- 
field  for  carrying  mail  from  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco. 

1858  July  24,  first  weekly  mail  from  east 

Establishment  of  overland  mail  coach  line  to  Pacific  coast  via  Me- 
silla,  making  trip  from  San  Francisco  to  southwest  Missouri  in  12 
and  14  days. 

1859  Mesilla  Valley  and  settlers  in  Gadsden  Purchase  south  of  the  Gila 
River  apply  to  Congress  for  establishment  of  new  Territory  out  of 
southern  New  Mexico  to  be  known  as  Arizona;  not  granted. 
December  26,  Historical  Society  of  New  Mexico  organized. 
Territorial  legislature  passes  act  recognizing  slavery  as  legally  ex- 
isting, and  providing  safeguards  for  its  protection  and  security. 

1860  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico  (including  area  of 
present  State  of  Arizona  and  small  portion  of  Colorado):  93,516. 
Legislature  passes  first  real  public  school  law,  providing  for  a  school 
in  each  settlement. 

1861  February  28,   formation   of  Territory  of   Colorado   reduces   New 
Mexico  in  size;  northern  boundary  fixed  at  37th  parallel. 

July  I,  Lt.  Col.  John  R.  Baylor  of  Confederate  army  occupies 
Mesilla;  prepares  to  attack  Fort  Fillmore  which  Maj.  Lynde  evac- 
uates. Baylor  captures  Lynde's  entire  force. 

August  I,  proclamation  by  Col.  Baylor  organizing  all  of  New  Mex- 
ico south  of  34th  parallel  as  Territory  of  Arizona;  recognized  by 
Confederate  Congress. 

1862  February  21,  battle  of  Valverde  between  U.  S.  forces  under  Gen. 
Canby  and  Confederate  forces  under  Gen  Sibley;  Confederate  vic- 
tory. 

March  10,  Confederate  forces  occupy  Santa  Fe  without  opposition; 

territorial  government  moved  to  Las  Vegas. 

March  27,  28,  battle  of  Apache  Canon  and  Glorieta ;  Union  victory ; 

ends  Confederate  control  in  New  Mexico. 

April  8,  Confederate  forces  evacuate  Santa  Fe. 

April  u,  Union  forces  reoccupy  Santa  Fe. 

April  15,  battle  of  Peralta;  skirmish  between  Union  and  retreating 

Confederate  forces. 


CHRONOLOGY     43! 

1863  February  24,  Territory  of  New  Mexico  again  reduced  by  creation 
of  Territory  of  Arizona 

1864  Col.  Kit  Carson  defeats  Navaho  in  Canyon  de  Chelly  stronghold, 
and  transfers  them  to  Bosque  Redondo  (circular  grove  of  trees). 

1867  Portion  of  New  Mexico  above  37°  attached  to  Colorado. 
March  2,  Congress  formally  abolishes  peonage,  or  debt  servitude. 
Gold  discovered  in  Moreno  district,  Colfax  County. 

1868  U.  S.  Government  returns  Navaho  to  former  area. 
Daily  mail  from  east. 

1869  July  8,  completion  of  military  telegraph  line  from  Fort  Leavenworth 
to  Santa  Fe. 

1870  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico  r   91,874. 
Archives  of  New  Mexico,  partly  destroyed  in  1680,  are  further  de- 
pleted under  the  rule  of  Gov.  Pile,  when  reputedly  sold  for  waste 
paper  and  only  about  one-quarter  of  them  recovered. 

1871  Legislature  provides  for  common  schools  under  a  board  of  super- 
visors and  directors  elected  by  each  county. 

In  November,  total  indebtedness  of  New  Mexico,  $74,000. 

1875  February  12,  archdiocese  of  Santa  Fe  created;  Rt.  Rev.  John  B. 
Lamy,  archbishop. 

U.  S.  military  telegraph  line  completed  from  Santa  Fe  to  Mesilla. 

1876  Beginning   of   Lincoln    County   War  between    rival   cattlemen    and 
political  factions ;  Billy  the  Kid  takes  leading  part. 

Legislature  enacts  a  blue  law. 

1877  Extension    of    telegraph    communication    to    San    Diego,    Cal.    and 
El  Paso. 

In  December,  tri-weekly  passenger  coach  line  starts  between  Santa 
Fe  and  Garland  City;  time,  30  hours. 

1878  During  April — July,  Ute  Indians  removed  from  New  Mexico  to 
the  Colorado  reservation. 

October  I,  President  Hayes  appoints  Gen.  Lew  Wallace  territorial 
governor  for  specific  purpose  of  ending  Lincoln  County  War. 
October  7,  presidential  proclamation  authorizes  use  of  troops  in  Lin- 
coln County  to  aid  civil  authority. 

November  30,  first  railroad  track  laid  inside  Territory. 
December  7,  first  locomotive  crosses  summit  of  Raton  Pass. 

1879  February  13,  first  passenger  train  comes  into  New  Mexico. 
In  March,  mining  camps  established  at  Los  Cerrillos. 

In  April,  Chief  Victorio  and  Apache,  on  warpath,  leave  Mescalero 

Reservation  and  terrorize  southern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

July   I,  railroad  track  laid  into  Las  Vegas;  railroad  extended  to 

Santa  Fe,  February  9,  1880;  Albuquerque,  April  22,  1880;  crossed 

Rio  Grande  at  Isleta,  May  I,  1880;  completed  to  Deming,  March 

10,  1881,  forming  first  all  rail  route  across  New  Mexico  to  San 

Francisco. 

September  3,  Apache  begin  massacres. 

Gold  discovered  at  White  Oaks;  mining  camp  established. 


432     NEW    MEXICO 

1880  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:  119*565- 
January  12,  first  omnibus  in  Santa  Fe. 

February  10,  Denver  &  Rio  Grande  Western  Railroad  enters  Ter- 
ritory from  north,  having  Rio  Grande  Valley  and  Santa  Fe  as  ob- 
jectives. 

March  18,  completion  of  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  to  Tucson,  connecting  with  San  Francisco  and  Pacific 
system  of  railroads. 

July  7-15,  Gen.  and  Mrs.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  visit  New  Mexico. 
December  5,  gas  lighting  begun  at  Santa  Fe. 

1881  In  July,  completion  of  Atlantic  &   Pacific  Railroad   between   Rio 
Grande  Valley  and  Arizona  boundary,  via  Laguna  Indian  Pueblo 
and  Fort  Wingate. 

July  14,  Billy  the  Kid  shot  by  Pat.  F.  Garrett,  sheriff  of  Lincoln 
County;  buried  following  day  in  old  military  cemetery  at  Ft.  Sumner. 
October  3-8,  first  annual  territorial  fair  held  at  Albuquerque. 
October  9,  Victorio  killed  in  Chihuahua. 
In  November,  telephone  introduced  in  Santa  Fe. 
1883    Apache  raids.   Tertio-Millenial  celebration  at  Santa  Fe. 

1885  Geronimo    flees    San    Carlos    Reservation    in    Arizona,    terrorizing 
southern  New  Mexico. 

1886  New  capitol  building  completed  at  Santa  Fe. 

September  4,  Geronimo  surrenders  to  Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles. 
In  December,  New  Mexico  Educational  Association  organized   at 
Santa  Fe. 

Hemenway  Expedition  excavates  ruins  near  Zuiii.  First  scientific  ex- 
cavation in  New  Mexico. 

1889  Beginning  of  Pecos  Valley  Irrigation   and   Investment  Company's 
great  system. 

February  28,  Gov.  Edmund  G.  Ross  signs  bill  creating  university  at 
Albuquerque,  agricultural  college  at  Las  Cruces,  and  school  of 
mines  at  Socorro. 

September  3-21,  constitutional  convention  drafts  a  constitution  for 
the  proposed  State  of  New  Mexico. 

1890  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:    160,282. 
August  18,  constitution  amended;  rejected  by  the  people,  October  7. 

1891  Common  school  law  enacted;  first  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion appointed. 

March  3,  Congress  approves  act  for  establishment  of  Court  of  Pri- 
vate Land  Claims,  which  finally  settles  Spanish  and  Mexican  grant 
titles  in  Southwest. 

1892  January  n,  President  creates  Pecos  Forest  Reserve. 

May  12,  new  capitol  building  burns  at  Santa  Fe,  destroying  many 
public  documents. 

1893  New  Mexico  Normal  University  at  Las  Vegas  and  New  Mexico 
Normal  Training  School  at  Silver  City  founded, 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines  opens  its  first  session  September  5. 

1894  January  18,  prehistoric  ruins  near  Szuita  Cruz  opened  and  examined. 


CHRONOLOGY     433 

1895     June  25,  Peralta  land  grant  claimed  by  J.  Addison  Reavis  for  12,- 
800,000   acres  of  New   Mexico   and  Arizona  declared  fraudulent; 
Reavis  sentenced  to  a  term  in  prison. 
July  23,  Silver  City  suffers  disastrous  flood. 

1898  April  23,  President  McKinley  calls  on  New  Mexico  for  340  volun- 
teer cavalrymen  for  Rough  Riders  in  Cuba  under  Col.  Leonard 
Wood  and  Lt.  Col.  Theodore  Roosevelt  in  Spanish-American  War. 
In  eight  days  entire  quota  mustered  into  service  at  Santa  Fe. 

1900  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:    195,310. 

June  4,  dedication  of  completed  new  capitol  building  at  Santa  Fe. 

1901  During    March,    Rock    Island    railroad    enters    Northeastern    New 
Mexico. 

August  19,  unveiling  of  Kearny  marble  slab  in  the  Plaza  at  Santa 
Fe  by  D.  A.  R. 

1902  August  29,    disastrous    floods   on   Mimbres   River,    Grant   County; 
hundreds  homeless;  governor  asks  public  aid. 

1904  During  September  and  October,  most  disastrous  floods  in  New  Mex- 
ico's history;  hundreds  homeless;  many  lives  lost;  railroad  traffic 
demoralized  for  two  months. 

1906  Electors  of  Arizona  defeat  proposed  joint  statehood. 

1907  Palace  of  the  Governors   at  Santa  Fe  becomes  Museum  of  New 
Mexico  and  seat  of  the  School  of  American  Research. 

1909  Spanish-American  Normal  School  established  at  El  Rito. 

U.  S.  War  Department  classes  New  Mexico  Military  Institute  as 

distinguished. 

Oil  discovered  in  encouraging  amounts  in  well  near  Dayton,  Eddy 

County. 

1910  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:   327>3O1- 

June  20,  Congress  passes  Enabling  Act  providing  for  admission  of 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona  into  Union  as  separate  States. 

1911  January  21,  voters  adopt  State  constitution. 

August  21,  Congress  passes  and  President  Taft  signs   State  Con- 
stitution. 

STATEHOOD 
1912 

1912  January  6,   President  Taft  proclaims   New  Mexico  47th  State  of 
Union. 

January   15,  William   C.   McDonald   inaugurated   first   State   Gov- 
ernor. 

1916  March  9.  Francisco  (Pancho).  Villa  raids  Columbus,  border  town, 
killing  American  citizens. 

March  15,  Gen.  John  J.  Pershing  crosses  Mexican  border  with  ex- 
pedition to  capture  Villa. 

May  12,  New  Mexico  National  Guard  mobolized  at  Columbus. 
Elephant  Butte  Dam  completed. 

1917  In  January,  Gen.  Pershing  and  entire  force  move  back  across  border. 
April  5,  National  Guard  mustered  out  of  service. 


434    NEW    MEXICO 

May  I,  State  Legislature  in  special  session  to  provide  for  defense 
of  State  and  assistance  of  government  in  World  War,  creates  State 
Council  of  Defense  to  organize  resources  of  State;  appropriates 
$750,000  for  war  purposes. 

In  June  1,300  guardsmen  mobilized  at  Camp  Funston,  Albuquerque. 
In  September  Battery  A,  machine  gun  unit  of  I46th  Artillery,  leaves 
for  Camp  Greene,  North  Carolina;  before  close  of  year,  in  France 
as  first  distinctively  New  Mexican  unit,  firing  opening  guns  at 
Chateau-Thierry. 

In  October  other  New  Mexican  units  to  Camp  Kearny,  California; 
later  to  France.  In  all  branches  of  service  New  Mexico  contributed 
17,157  men,  larger  number  in  proportion  to  population  than  average 
for  whole  country. 

November  6,  prohibition  amendment  to  State  constitution. 
Art  Museum  dedicated  at  Santa  Fe. 
1920     U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:    360,350. 

1922  Discovery  of  Hogback  and  Rattlesnake  oil  fields  on  Navaho  Indian 
Lands  in  San  Juan  County;  assures  importance  of  New  Mexico  as 
oil  producing  State. 

Discovery  of  Artesia  oil  field,  Eddy  County. 

1923  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  and  Federal  Land  Office  survey  three  miles 
of  Carlsbad  Caverns,  later  proclaimed  National  Monument  by  Presi- 
dent Coolidge. 

1924  In  June,  act  of  Congress  creates  Pueblo  Indian  Lands  Board  to  set- 
tle non-Indian  claims  to  land  within  or  in  conflict  with  Pueblo  Land 
grants. 

1930    U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:   423,317. 

In  May,  President  Hoover  creates  Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park. 
1933     U.  S.  and  Mexico  ratify  treaty  for  regulating  course  of  Rio  Grande 

from  El  Paso  to  Fort  Quitman,  and  building  dam  at  Caballo  just 

below   Elephant   Butte    reservoir   to   assist   control    of   lower    Rio 

Grande  flood  waters. 

September  19,  voters  of  New  Mexico  repeal  prohibition  amendment 

of  State  constitution. 

1935  State  legislature  establishes  New  Mexico  Relief  and  Security  Au- 
thority to  assist  unemployed  to  secure  work  on  Federal  Projects. 

1936  Road  mileage  in  State  totals  31,950.6,  of  which  10,348.7  miles  are 
State  highways   (all  types),  and  21,601.9  miles  are  rural  roads. 
Work  begun  for  the  Coronado  Cuarto  Centennial  in  1940. 

1937  May  15,  New  Mexico  participates  in  a  highway  conference  at  Chi- 
huahua City  called  by  Gov.  Talamantes  with  a  view  to  reopening 
the  sixteenth  century  highway  from  Mexico  City  to  Santa  Fe. 

1938  Increasing  number  of  oil  wells  brought  in  and  developed  in  south- 
eastern part  of  State. 

1939  Conchas  Dam  completed. 

Gross  income  from  cattle  and  calf  sales  $29,079,880;  gross  income 
from  all  classes  of  livestock  and  livestock  products  more  than 
$40,000,000. 


CHRONOLOGY      435 

Due    to    activity   in   oil   fields    around    Hobbs,    population   increases 
make  it  fifth  city  in  New  Mexico. 

Total  road  mileage  in  State  increased   to  double  that  of   1936,  ap- 
proximately 62,000  miles. 

1940  Coronado    Cuarto     (fourth)    Centennial;    celebration    of    Coronado 
entrada  in  1540. 

U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:  531,818 

1941  Relics  of  450  A.D.  pit  dwellers  discovered  in  Apache  National  Forest. 

1942  Virtually  half  of  2,300  Nationalized  New  Mexican  National  Guard 
unit  lost  resisting  Japanese  on  Bataan  and  Corregidor  in  the  Philip- 
pines, World  War  II. 

1943  Los  Alamos  atomic  energy  project  created  near  Santa  Fe ;  birthplace 
of  atomic  bomb. 

1945  First  atomic  bomb  test  at  "Trinity  Site,"  White  Sands  Proving 
Grounds  area,  July  16. 

1948  Indians  granted  right  to  vote  as  federal  court  in  Santa  Fe  ruled  con- 
stitutional provision  invalid. 

1949  Los  Alamos,  32nd  county  in  New  Mexico,  organized  from  parts  of 
Sandoval  and  Santa  Fe  counties. 

1950  U.  S.  Census   reports  population  of  New  Mexico:  681,187.     Albu- 
querque, largest  city,  population  increase  173  per  cent  from  35,449  in 
1940  to  96,815  in  1950;  1952  estimate,  122,000;  1953  estimate,  128,000. 

1951  Exploration  underway  in  McKinley  and  Valencia  counties  due  to  new 
uranium  deposits  found. 

1954  Continued  severe  drought  condition  plagues  certain  areas  designated 
disaster  status  by  President,  bringing  Federal  aid. 

1955  New  discoveries  of  oil  and  gas  in  Farmington  area.     Added  uranium 
finds,  more  mills,  give  impetus  to  industry.     New  State  penitentiary 
completed  near  Santa  Fe. 

T957  State's  serious  drought  status  relieved  by  good  spring  rains.  Oil,  gas, 
and  uranium  developments  accelerated. 

1958  Navaho  Indians  given  boost  in  their  development  and  cultural  pro- 
grams with  $70,000,000  oil  lease  money  from  Four  Corners  region  on 
their  reservation. 

1960  U.  S.  Census  reports  population  of  New  Mexico:  951,023,  almost 
doubled  since  1940.  Albuquerque,  largest  city,  201,189;  plus  40,000 
outside  central  city;  total  metropolitan  area,  241,216.  Santa  Fe  cele- 
brates 35Oth  anniversary  of  its  founding. 


Some  Books  about  New  Mexico 


Amsden,  Charles  Avery.     Navajo  Weaving.     Santa  Ana,  1934. 

Applegate,  Frank  G.    Indian  Stories  from  the  Pueblos.    Philadelphia,  1929. 

Native  Tales  of  New  Mexico.    Philadelphia,  1932. 

Armer,  Laura  Adams.     Waterless  Mountain.     New  York,   1931. 

Austin,  Mary.   The  Land  of  Little  Rain.   New  York,  1903. 

Land  of  Journey's  Ending.     New  York,  1924. 

Bailey,  Florence  Miriam.    Birds  of  New  Mexico.    Santa  Fe,  1928. 

Bailey,  Vernon.  Life  Zones  and  Crop  Zones  of  New  Mexico.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1913. 

Mammals  of  New  Mexico.   Washington,  D.  C.,  1931. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe.  The  History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexicot  1530- 
1888.  San  Francisco,  1889. 

Bandelier,  Adolph  F.  A.  Final  Report  of  Investigations  Among  the  Indians 
of  the  Southwestern  United  States.  2  vols.  Cambridge,  1890-92. 

Hemenway  Southwestern  Archaeological  Expedition.  Cambridge, 

1890. 

and  Hewett,  Edgar  L.    Indians  of  the  Rio  Grande.    Albuquerque, 

1937- 
•  The  Journey  of  Alvar  "Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  His  Companions 


from  Florida  to  the  Pacific,  1528-1536.   New  York,  1905. 
-  The  Delight-Makers.   New  York,  1918. 


Barker,  Ruth  Laughlin.   Caballeros.  New  York,  1931. 

Benavides,  Alonso  de.     The  Memorial  of  Fray  Alonso  de  Benavides,  1630. 

Chicago,  1916. 

Blake,  Forrester.  Riding  the  Mustang  Trail.  New  York,  1935. 
Bloom,  Lansing  B.  and  Donnelly,   C.    New  Mexico  History  and  Civics. 

Albuquerque,  1933. 
Bolton,  Herbert  Eugene,  ed.  Spanish  Explorations  in  the  Southwest.    New 

York,  1925. 

Branch,  E.  Douglas.     The  Hunting  of  the  Buffalo.    New  York,  1929. 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  Annual  Reports  and  Bulletins^  Washington, 

1879  to  date. 
Buttree,  Julia  M.    The  Rhythm   of  the  Red  Man,  in  Song,  Dance  and 

Decoration.   New  York,  1930. 
Bynner,  Witter.  Indian  Earth.    New  York,  1929. 
Carson,  Christopher.   Kit  Carson  s  own  story  as  dictated  to  Col.  and  Mrs. 

D.  C.  Peters  About  1856-57.  Santa  Fe,  1926. 

Gather,  Willa.    Death  Comes  for  the  Archbishop.     New  York,  1936. 
Chapman,  Kenneth  M.,  comp.   Decorative  Art  of  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
west.  Santa  Fe,  1934. 
,  ed,  and  annot.    Pueblo  Indian  Pottery.    Nice,  C.  Szwedzicki,  vol. 

I,  1933  and  vol.  2,  1936. 

Church,  Margaret  Pond.    Familiar  Journey.    Santa  Fe,  1936. 

436 


SOME     BOOKS    ABOUT     NEW     MEXICO     437 

Coe,  George  W.   Frontier  Fighter.    Boston,  1934. 

Cole,  M.  R.  Los  Pastor es;  a  Mexican  Play  of  the  Nativity.   Boston,  1907. 

Conard,  Howard  Louis.     ''"Uncle  Dick"  Wootton.     Chicago,  1891. 

Connelley,  William  Elsey.  The  War  with  Mexico,  1846-1847.  Topeka, 
1907. 

Cook,  James  H.  Fifty  Years  On  the  Old  Frontier.   New  Haven,  1923. 

Coolidge,  Mary  Roberts.    The  Rainmakers.    Boston,  1929. 

Corbin,  Alice.     The  Sun  Turns  West.     Santa  Fe,  1933. 

Cosgrove,  H.  S.  and  C.  B.  The  Swarts  Ruin.  (Papers  of  Peabody  Mu- 
seum, Vol.  XV.,  No.  I.)  Cambridge,  1932. 

Coues,  Elliott,  ed.  The  Expedition  of  Zebulon  Montgomery  Pike  to  the 
Headwaters  of  the  Mississippi  Rvjer  Through  Louisiana  Territory^ 
and  in  New  Spain  During  the  Years  1805-1807.  New  York,  1895. 

Coze,  Paul.    Rodeos  de  Cow-Boys  et  les  Jeux  du  Lasso.     Paris,  1934. 

Cremony,  John  C.    Life  Among  the  Apaches.    San  Francisco,  1868. 

Crichton,  Kyle  S.     Law  and  Order,  Ltd.     Santa  Fe,  1928. 

Cushing,  Frank  Hamilton,  comp.  and  trans.  Zuni  Folk  Tales.  New 
York,  1931. 

Davis,  William  Watts  Hart.    El  Gringo.    Santa  Fe,  1938. 

De  Huff,  Elizabeth  Willis.     Tay-Tay's  Memories.    New  York,  1924. 

Dobie,  J.  Frank.     Coronado's  Children.    Dallas,  1930. 

Duffus,  Robert  L.     The  Santa  Fe  Trail.    New  York,  1930. 

Dunton,  Nellie.     The  Spanish  Colonial  Ornament.     Philadelphia,   1935. 

Espinosa,  Aurelio  Macedonio.     Los  Comanches.    Albuquerque,  1907. 

Fergusson,  Erna.     Dancing  Gods.     New  York,  1931. 

Fergusson,  Harvey.    Rio  Grande.     New  York,  1933. 

Fewkes,  Jesse  Walter.  Reconnaissance  of  Ruins  in  or  Near  the  Zuni  Res- 
ervation. Cambridge,  1891. 

Finger,  Charles  J.     The  Distant  Prize.    New  York,  1935. 

Fulton,  Maurice  Garland  and  Horgan,  Paul.  New  Mexico's  Own  Chron- 
icle. Dallas,  1937. 

Fulton,  Maurice  Garland,  ed.  Pat  F.  Garrett's  Authentic  Life  of  Billy 
the  Kid.  New  York,  1927. 

Goddard,  Pliny  Earle.    Indians  of  t^e  Southwest.    New  York,  1931. 

Gregg,  Josiah.     Commerce  of  the  Prairie.     Dallas,  1933- 

Guthe,  Carl.    Pueblo  Pottery-Making.     New  Haven,  1925. 

Hafen,  Le  Roy  R.     The  Overland  Mail.     Cleveland,  1926. 

Haley,  J.  Evetts.  Charles  Goodnight,  Cowman  and  Plainsman.  New 
York  and  Boston,  1936. 

Hammond,  George  P.  Don  Juan  de  Onate  and  the  Founding  of  New 
Mexico.  Santa  Fe,  1927. 

and  Rey,  Agapito,  trans,  and  ed.     Expedition  Into  New  Mexico  by 

Antonio  de  Espejo,  1582-1583.    Los  Angeles,  1929. 

Haury,  Emil  W.  The  Mogollon  Culture  of  Southwestern  New  Mexico. 
Globe,  1936. 

Henderson,  Alice  Corbin.    Brothers  of  Light.    New  York,  1937. 

Hewett,  Edgar  Lee.  Ancient  Life  in  the  American  Southwest.  Indian- 
apolis, 1930. 


438      NEW     MEXICO 

Hewett,  Edgar  Lee.     The  Chaco  Canyon  and  Its  Monuments.    Albuquer- 
que, 1936. 

Hodge,  Frederick  Webb.  History  of  Hawikuh,  New  Mexico.  Los  An- 
geles, 1937. 

The  Early  Navajo  and  Apache.    Washington,  D.  C,  1895. 

and  Lewis,  Theodore  H.,  eds.  Spanish  Explorers  in  the  Southwest- 
ern United  States,  1528-1543.  New  York,  1925. 

Hogner,  Dorothy  Childs.    Navajo  Winter  Nights.    New  York,  1935. 

Horgan,  Paul.  From  the  Royal  City  of  the  Holy  Faith  of  St.  Francis. 
Tesuque,  N.  Mex.,  1936. 

Hfdlicka,  Ales.  Physiological  and'  Medical  Observations  Among  the  In- 
dians of  the  Southwestern  United  States  and  Northern  Mexico.  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  1908. 

Ickes,  Anna  Wilmarth.    Mesa  Land.    New  York,  1933. 

Inman,  Henry.     The  Old  Santa  Fe  Trail.    Topeka,  1916. 

James,  George  W.  New  Mexico,  Land  of  the  'Delight-Makers.  Bos- 
ton, 1920. 

James,  Thomas.  Three  Years  Among  the  Mexicans  and  Indians.  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  1916. 

Janvier,  Thomas.    Santa  Fe's  Partner.     New  York,  1907. 

Jones,  Fayette  Alexander.  New  Mexico  Mines  and  Minerals.  Santa  Fe, 
1904. 

Kidder,  Alfred  Vincent.  An  Introduction  to  Southwestern  Archaeology. 
New  Haven,  1924. 

Larkin,  Margaret.     The  Singing  Cowboy.    New  York,  1931 

Laut,  Agnes  C.    Romance  of  the  Rails.    2  vols.     New  York,  1929. 

Lawrence,  D.  H.    Mornings  in  Mexico.    New  York,  1928. 

Leigh,  William  R.     The  Western  Pony.     New  York,  1935. 

Lockwood,  Frank  C.     The  Apache  Indians.    New  York,  1938. 

Lummis,  Charles  Fletcher.    Mesa,  Canyon  and  Pueblo.    New  York,  1925. 

Mac  Leish,  Archibald.    Conquistador.    Boston,  1932. 

Magoffin,  Susan  Shelby.  Down  the  Santa  Fe  Trail  and  Into  Mexico.  New 
Haven,  1926. 

Marcy,  Randolph  B.     The  Prairie  Traveller.    London,  1863. 

Matthews,  Washington.    Navajo  Legends.    Boston,  1897. 

Mera,  Harry  P.  Ceramic  Clues  to  the  Prehistory  of  North  Central  New 
Mexico.  Santa  Fe,  1935. 

Mills,  Enos,  A.    Romance  of  Geology.    Boston,  1932. 

Morris,  Ann  Axtell.     Digging  in  the  Southwest.    Garden  City,  1933. 

Nusbaum,  Aileen.    Zuni  Indian  Tales.    New  York,  1926. 

Otero,  Miguel  Antonio.  My  Life  on  the  Frontier,  1864-1882.  New  York, 
1935-  Vol.  II,  Albuquerque,  1939. 

Otero,  Nina.    Old  Spain  in  Our  Southwest.    New  York,  1935. 

Parsons,  Elsie  Clews.     Tewa  Tales.     New  York,  1926. 

Pearce,  T.  M.  Southwest  Heritage ,  a  Literary  History  and  Bibliog- 
raphy. Albuquerque,  1938. 

Prince,  L.  Bradford.  Spanish  Mission  Churches  of  New  Mexico.  Cedar 
Rapids,  1915. 


SOME     BOOKS     ABOUT     NEW     MEXICO     439 

Reichard,  Gladys  A.    Navajo  Shepherd  and  Weaver.    New  York,  1936. 

Rhodes,  Eugene  Manlove.     Once  in  the  Saddle  and  Paso  por  aqui.     New- 
York,  1927. 

Rollins,  Philip  Ashton.    The  Cowboy.    New  York,  1936. 

Santee,  Ross.     The  Cowboy.     New  York,  1928. 

Saunders,   Charles   Francis.     Finding  the   Worthwhile   in    the  Southwest. 
New  York,  1924. 

Sears,  Paul  B.    Deserts  on  the  March.    Norman,  1935. 

Sedgwick,  Mrs.  William  T.    A coma ,  the  Sky  City.    Cambridge,  1935. 

Segale,  Sister  Blandina.     At  the  End  of  the  Santa  Fe  Trail.     Columbus, 
1932. 

Siguenza  y  Gongora,  Don  Carlos  de.     The  Mercurio   Volante.     Los  An- 
geles, 1932. 

Siringo,  Charles.    Riata  and  Spurs.    New  York,  1921. 

Sperry,  Armstrong.     Wagons  Westward.    New  York,  1936. 

Stacey,  May  Humphreys.     Uncle  Sam's  Camels.     Cambridge,  1929. 

Stevens,  Thomas  Wood.    Westward  Under  Vega.    New  York,  1938. 

Thorp,  N.  Howard.     Tales  of  the  Chuck  Wagon.     Santa  Fe,  1926. 

Thwaites,  Ruben  Gold,  ed.  Early  Western  Travels,  1748-1846.  32  vols. 
Cleveland,  1904-1907. 

Twitchell,  Ralph  Emerson.     Old  Santa  Fe.     Santa  Fe,  1925. 

Leading  Facts  of  New  Mexico  History.     2  vols.     Cedar  Rapids, 

1911-1912. 

Vestal,  Stanley.     The  Mountain  Men.    Boston,  1937. 

Villagra,  Caspar  Perez  de.     History  of  New  Mexico.    Los  Angeles,  1933. 

Walter,  Paul  A.  F.     The  Cities  That  Died  of  Fear.    Santa  Fe,  1916. 

Walton,  Eda  Lou,  ed.    Dawn  Boy.    New  York,  1926. 

Webb,  Walter  Prescott.     The  Great  Plains.     Boston,  1931. 

Winship,  Georsje  Parker,  ed.  The  Journey  of  Francisco  Vdsquez  de  Core- 
nado,  1540-1542.  San  Francisco,  1933. 

Wissler,  Clark.     The  American  Indian.    New  York,  1932. 

SOME  BOOKS  ABOUT  NEW  MEXICO  PUBLISHED 
SINCE  1940 

Adair,  John.  The  Navajo  and  Pueblo  Silversmiths.  Norman,  University 
of  Oklahoma  Press,  1944,  $4.00. 

Bolton,  Herbert  S.  Coronado  on  the  Turquoise  Trail,  Knight  of  Pueblos 
and  Plains.  Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1949, 
$8.00. 

Brewster,  Mela  Sedillo.  Mexican  and  New  Mexican  Folk  Dances.  2nd 
edition.  Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1945,  $1.50. 

Calvin,  Ross.  Sky  Determines.  Revised  edition,  illustrated  by  Peter  Hurd. 
Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1948,  $4.50. 

Collier,  John.  Patterns  and  Ceremonials  of  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest, 
with  over  100  lithographs  and  drawings  by  Ira  Moskowitz  with  an  in- 
troduction by  John  Sloan.  New  York,  Dutton,  1949,  $15.00. 

Dickey,  Roland  Francis.  New  Mexico  Village  Arts\  drawings  by  Lloyd 
Lozes  Goff.  Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1949, 
$7.00. 


44O      NEW     MEXICO 

Donnelly,  Thomas  C.     Government  of  New  Mexico.     Albuquerque,  Uni- 
versity of  New  Mexico  Press,  1947,  $4.00. 
Dutton,  Bertha  P.,  editor.    Pocket  Handbook,  New  Mexico  Indians.    Santa 

Fe,  Association  on  Indian  Affairs,  1951,  $1.00. 
Fisher,  Reginald,  compiler  and  editor.     An  Art  Directory  of  New  Mexico. 

Santa  Fe,  Museum  of  New  Mexico  and  School  of  American  Research, 

1947,  $1.00. 
Gilpin,  Laura.     The  Rio  Grande,  River  of  Destiny ;  an  interpretation  of  the 

river,  the  land  and  the  people.     New  York,  Duell,  Sloan  and  Pearce, 

1949,  $6.00. 
Hewett,   Edgar   L.   and    Bertha   P.   Dutton,    The   Pueblo    Indian    World. 

Santa  Fe,  School  of  American  Research,  1945,  $4.00.      (Handbooks  of 

archaeological  history,  No.  6.) 
Keleher,  William  A.     Fabulous  Frontier.     Santa  Fe,  Rydal  Press,    1945, 

$3.00. 
Turmoil  in  New  Mexico,  1846-1868.     Santa  Fe,  Rydal  Press,  1952, 

$6.00. 
Kluckhohn,  Clyde  and  Katherine  Spencer.      A  Bibliography  of  the  Navaho 

Indians.     New  York,  J.  J.  Augusrin,  1940,  $1.50. 
Kluckhohn,  Clyde  and  Dorothea  C.  Leigh  ton.     The  Navaho.     Cambridge, 

Harvard  University  Press,  1947,  $2.50. 
Luhan,  Mabel  Dodge.     Taos  and  Its  Artists.     New  York,  Duell,  Sloan  and 

Pearce,  1947,  $3.75. 
Northrop,  Stuart  A.     Minerals  of  New  Mexico.    Albuquerque,  University 

of  New  Mexico  Press,  1944,  $3.00. 

Pearce,  T.  M.  and  Mabel  Major,  compilers.     Signature  of  the  Sun.     Albu- 
querque, University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1950,  $4.00. 
Pearce,  T.  M.  and  A.  P.  Thomason,  editors.     Southwesterners  Write,  the 
American  Southwest  in  stories  and  articles  by  thirty-two  contributors. 

Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1949,  $4.00. 
Pillsbury,  Dorothy  L.    No  High  Adobe.    Albuquerque,  University  of  New 

Mexico  Press,  1950,  $3.50. 
Rader,  Jesse  L.     South  of  Forty;  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

Norman,  University  of  Oklahoma  Press,  1947,  $10.00. 
Reichard,  Gladys  Amanda.    Navaho  Grammar.     New  York,  J.  J.  Augus- 

tin,  1952,  $7.op.     (American  Ethnological  Society.     Publication  21.) 
Saunders,  Lyle.     A  Guide  to  Materials  Bearing  on  Cultural  Relations  in 

New  Mexico.    Albuquerque,  University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1944, 

$5.00. 

Waters,  Frank.     Masked  Gods,  Navaho  and  Pueblo  Ceremonials.     Albu- 
querque, University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1950,  $6.50. 
Whitman,  William  3rd.     The  Pueblo  Indians  of  San  Ildefonso:  a  Changing 

Culture.     New  York,  Columbia  University  Press,  1947,  $2.75. 
Wilder,  Mitchell  A.  and  Edgar  Breitenbach.     Santos:  the  Religious  Folk 
Art  of  New  Mexico.     Colorado  Springs,  Taylor  Museum  of  the  Colo- 
rado Springs  Fine  Arts  Center,  1943,  $4.00. 

For  selected  titles  since  1950,  see  page  471. 


Index 


Abalos,  Pedro  de,  87 

Abiquiu,  345 

Abo,  358 

Abo  State  Monument,  rums",  358 

Abreu,  Ramon,  71 

Acevedo,  Fray  Francisco,   398-9 

Acme,  370 

Acoma,  64,  328-33 ;  St.  Joseph  (paint- 
ing) lawsuit,  332-3 

Acoma,  the  Sky  City,  139 

Addn  y  Eva,  102 

Adobe,  see  Building  Materials 

Adventures  in  New  Mexico  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains r  132 

AGRICULTURE  AND  STOCKRAISING,  82-6 

Agua  Fria,  275 

Aiken,  John,  403 

Aikman,  Duncan,  138 

Airlines,  97 

Alaraeda,  247 

Alamogordo,  373 

Alamogordo  Dam,  see  Dams  and 
Reservoirs 

Albuquerque,  173-186:  as  a  health  cen- 
ter, 178;  civic  and  social  aspects, 
178;  environs  and  environs  tours, 
186;  founded,  68;  history,  175-6; 
industries,  177-8 ;  "new  town"  176- 
8 ;  Old  Town,  174-6 

Albuquerque,  Duke  of,  175,  198 

Alcalde,  291 

Alencastre,  Joaquin,  70 

Algodones,   246 

Allison,  Clay,  104,  273 

Allison-James  School   (Santa  Fe),  200 

All  the  Young  Men,  136 

Alma,  419 

Along  Old  Trails,  135 

Alvarado,  Hernando,  at  Taos  Pueblo, 
215 

Amador,  Don  Martin,  259 

Amalgamated  Copper  Co.,  265 

American  Anthropologist,   140 

American  Rhythm,  135 

American  Smelting  &  Refining  Co., 
265 

Anaya,  Casilda  de,  63 

Ancho,  388 

Ancient  Life  in  American  Southwest, 

139 
Anderson,  Maxwell,  137 


"Anglo-American,"  4 

Anthony,  261 

Anthropology,  see  ARCHEOLOGY,  INJ 
DIANS 

Ant6n  Chico,  316 

Antonio,  Fray  Salvador  de  San,  see 
San  Antonio,  Fray  Salvador  de 

Anza,  Gov.  Juan  Bautista  de,  58,  69, 
198 ;  Comanche  campaigns,  305-7 

Apache  Canyon,  battle  of,  see  Battles 
and  Battlefields 

Apache  Indians,  49-56;  divisions,  50; 
raids,  78 

Apache  National  Forest,  26,  359 

Apache  Tejo,  415 

"Apartment  Houses,"  see  Indian 
Ruins,  Indians,  Pueblo 

Applegate,  Frank,  139,  166,  167 

Aragon,  359 

Archeological  Museums,  42 

Archeology,  35-42;  Basket  Maker 
period,  36-7;  Folsom  culture,  36; 
Pueblo  culture,  37-42 

ARCHITECTURE,  148-55 

Arivaipo  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 

Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  133 

Armijo,  248 

Armijo,  Gov.  Manuel,  seizes  governor- 
ship, 71-2;  209;  assassinates  gov- 
ernor, 217 

Armer,  Laura  Adams,  140 

Arroyo  Hondo,  286 

Art,  156-70;  Modern,  167-70;  Pre- 
Columbia'n,  155-62;  Spanish  Colo- 
nial, 162-6 

Art  Centers,  170 

Arteaga,   Fray  Antonio  de,  254 

Artesia,   349 

Artesian    wells,    346 

Arvide,  Fray  Martin  de,  289,  326 

Asque,  Joe,  104 

Atlantides,   135 

Augustine,   359 

Austin,  Mary,  109,  135,  136,  139,  165, 
166,  299 

Authentic  Life  of  Billy  the  Kid,  132 

Authors,  see  LITERATURE 

Avalon,  Lake,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

Awa  Tsireh,  162,   199,  278 

Ayala,  Fray  Pedro  de  Avilla  y,  326 


44! 


442      INDEX 

Aztec,  364 

Aztec  Ruins  National  Monument,  364 

Baca,  Elfego,  137;  battle  at  Reserve, 
360-1 

Baca,  Jesus,  71 

Baca,  Jose,  378 

Baca,  Luis  Maria  C.  de,  234 

Baca,  Marguerite,  378 

Bailey,  Vernon,  15 

Bajada,  243 

Bakos,  Josef,  167 

Balink,  Henry,  168 

Ballads,  see  Songs  and  Ballads 

Bancroft,  Hubert  How,  133 

Bandelier,  Adolph,  133,  136,  139,  192; 
at  Frijoles,  281 

Bandelier  National  Monument,  281-2; 
Navawi,  280;  6towi  ruins,  279-80; 
Rito  de  los  Frijoles;  Tsinkawi, 
280-1;  Tshirege,  281;  Tyuonyi,  282 

Bands  and  Orchestras,  146-7 

Banking,  90,  178 

Barber,  Mrs.  Susan,  389 

Bard,   312 

Barker,  Ruth  Laughlin,  139 

Barnes,  Will  C.,  139 

Barreiro,  Antonio,  71 

Barrows,  Charles,  168 

Bartlett,  W."  H.,  270-1 

Barton,  316 

Basket  Makers,  36-7,  404.  see  also 
ARCHEOLOGY 

Bats,  Carlsbad  Caverns,  406-7 

Battles  and  Battlefields:  Apache  Can- 
yon, 72,  240-1;  Brazitos,  73;  Civil 
War  Summary,  75-6;  Parral,  80; 
Pidgin's  Ranch,  76,  240-1;  Val- 
verde,  254 

Baumann,  Gustave,  167 

Baxter,  Harry,  388 

Baylor,  Lt.  Col.  John  R.,  75,  260 

Bazan,  Don  Ignacio,  298 

Bazan,  Juan,  164-5,  298 

Bazan,  Ricardo,  164-5 

Beale,  Lt.  Edward  F.,  at  Zcnl,  326-7; 
camel  train,  95,  311-2;  life  sketch, 

3" 

Beale's  Wagon  Road,  95 
Beauregard,  Donald,  168,  199 
Bechdolt,  Frederick  R.,  138 
Becknell,   William,    "Father   of  Santa 

Fe  Trail,"  71;  Cimarron  Route,  94 
Helen,  249 
Bell,  269-70 
Bell,  Marion,  269 
Bell  Ranch,  86 
Bellows,  George,  167,  199 
Beltran,  Fray  Bernardino,  expedition, 

63,  120 


Benavides,  Alonzo  de,  66,  201-2;  Com- 
ment on  Saline  Pueblos,  399;  Mem- 
orial, 120;  Picuris,  290;  San  Ilde- 
fonso,  277-8 ;  Socorro  mission,  253 

Ben  Hur,  132 

Bent,  Gov.  Charles,  appointed  gov- 
ernor, 72-3;  assassinated,  217; 
house,  223 

Bernal,  237 

Bernal,  Juan  de  Jesus,  284 

Bernalillo,  246 

Bernardo,  358 

Berninghus,  Oscar,  167 

Bilingual  Aspects,   see  LANGUAGE 

Billy  the  Kid,  death,  78 ;  <'E1  Cabrito," 
grave,  356;  life-sketch,  383-4 

Bingham,  386 

Birds,  see  Fauna 

Birds,  Beasts  and  Flowers,  135 

Bisttram,  Emil,  167,  169,  222 

Black  Lake,  379 

Black  Mesa,  277-8 

Blackwater  Draw  (Clovis),  36,  370 

Blea,  Don  Jesus,  320 

Blizzard  of  1888,  301 

Blood  of  the  Conquerors,   135 

Bloom,  Lansing,  B.,  133 

Bloomfield,    364-5 

Bloomfield  Irrigation  District,  365 

Bluewater,  321 

Bluewater  Reservoir,  see  Dams  and 
Reservoirs 

Blumenschein,  Ernest  L.,   167,  218 

Bonanza,  242 

Bonilla,  see  Humana  and  Bonilla 

Bonney,  William  H.,  see  Billy  the  Kid 

BOOKS    ABOUT    NEW    MEXICO,    SOME, 

436-9 

Booms,  effect  of,  5 
Boot  Hill  Cemetery,  313 
Border  Raids,  80 
Bosque,  250 
Bosque    Redondo,    76,    355.    see    also 

Navaho 

Bottomless  Lakes  State  Park,  382 
Bouquet  Ranch,  134 
Boyd,  E.,  1 68 
Braden,  John,  185 
Branson,  J.  F.,  304 
Brazitos,  see  Battles  and  Battlefields 
Breakers  and  Granite,   135 
Brett,  Hon.  Dorothy,  137,  167,  286 
Brewster,  Mela  Sedillo,   168 
Brink,  Rev.  L.  P.,  322,  338 
Broeske,  Fritz,   169 
Brothers   of  Light,   the  Penitentes   of 

the  Southwest,  139 
Bucket  of  Blood,  The,  177 
Buckhorn,  419 
Bueyeros,  232 


INDEX    443 


Buffalo,  15 

Buffalo  Bill,  273 

Buford,  316 

Building  Materials,  native,   149-52 

Building  Methods,  Indian,  149;  Mod- 
ern, 153-5;  pre-Columbian,  149-50 

Bullard,  Capt.  John,  death  of,  417 

Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  140 

Burnham,  Clinton,  340 

Burnham,  Luther  C.,  125 

Burnham,  Roy,  340 

Burns,  Walter  Noble,  138 

Burro   of  Angelitos,  The,  140 

Butterfield  Stage,  95-6.  See  also 
TRANSPORTATION 

Butlerfield  Trail,  405 

Bynner,  Witter,   135 

Caballeros,   139 

Caballo,  258 

Caballo  Dam,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

Cactus  Gardens,  407 

Cadman,   Charles  Wakefield,   143 

Cain  y  Abel,  102 

Calhpun,  Gov.  James  C.,  74 

Calvin,  Ross,  139 

Camels,  in  New  Mexico,  95,  310-2 

Cameron  Creek  Ruins,  416 

Camino  Real,  93-4,  2.27 

Campa,  Dr.  Arthur  L.,  144 

Canadian  River,  basin,  23 

Canby,  Gen.  E.  R.  $.,  76,  176 

Candelaria,  Don  Felix,  248 

Canjil-on,  345 

Canon,  276  . 

Canoncito,  241 

Canyon  de  Chelly,  77.  see  also  Navaho 

Capitan,  385 

Cap  rock,  382 

Capulin  National  Monument,  269 

Caravan',  135 

Carbon  dioxide  gas,  see  Mines  and 
Mineral  Resources 

Carrisco,  Lt.  Csl.  Manuel,  264 

Carleton,  Gen.  James  H.,  Apache  cam- 
paign, 55;  at  Fort  Wingate,  322; 
Fort  Sumner,  355 

Carlsbad,  350 

Carlsbad  Caverns  National  Park,  80; 
description  of,  406-11;  tour  of  Cav- 
erns, 407-11 

Carlsbad  Reclamation  Project,  22, 
35° 

Carrizozo,  386,  389 

Carson,  Kit  (Christopher),  books  on, 
139;  grave,  222;  house,  222;  In- 
dian campaigns,  51,  76;  Navaho 
campaigns,  355-6 

Carson,  J.  N.,  401 


Carson  National  Forest,  26,  376,  377 

Casa  Blanca,  328 

Cassidy,  Dan,  378 

Cassidy,  Gerald,  167,  195,  199 

Castaneda,  15 

Castillo,  Alonzo  de,  60 

Gather,  Willa,  109,  123,  135 

Catholic  Missions,  396 

Cattle  raising,  see  Stockraising 

Cattle  Trails,  see  Trails 

Caverns,  see  Carlsbad  Caverns 

Caves,    Grenville,    303.    see    also    Ice 

Caves,  Carlsbad  Caverns 
Cedarvale,  294 
Central,  415 
Ceramics,  see  Pottery 
Ceremonialism,   Pueblo,   46;    Navaho, 

Cerrillos,  395-6 

Cervantez,  Pedro,  169 

Chaco  Canyon  National  Monument, 
334-7J  list  of  ruins,  334 

Chacon,  Gov.  Fernando,  290 

Chama,  345 

Chama  River,  21 

Chamita,  345 

Chamuscado,  Capt.  Francisco  Sanchez, 
expedition,  62,  120 

Chandler^  Harry,  271 

Chapman,  Kenneth,  167-8,  199,  278 

Charles  Goodnight,  313 

Chase  Ranch,  274 

Chdvez,  Amado,  127 

Chdvez,  Don  Fernando  de,  214  - 

Chdvez  County  Historical  Society,  385 

Chetro  Ketl,  ruins,  335-6 

Chico,  231 

Chihuahua  Trail,  191 

Children  Sing  in  the  Far  West,  135 

Chilili,  397 

Chimayd,  165,  297 

Chimay6  Rebellion,  295 

Chiricahua  Apache,  54 

Chisum,  John,  348;  in  Lincoln  County 
War,  282 

Chisum  Ranch,  348 

Chisum  Trail,  402 

Chivington,  Major,  241 

Chloride,  257 

Corchado,  Fray  Andre's,  330 

Choregraphy,  Indian,  324 

Chronology,  423-35:  Indian,  423;  New 
Mexico  a  Territory,  428-33;  New 
Mexico  under  Mexico,  427-8;  New 
Mexico  under  Spain,  423-7;  State- 
hood, 433-5 

Christian  Reform  Church,  333 

Church  and  State  in  New  Mexico  in 
1610-1650,  121 

Churches,  see  Missions  and  Churches 


444    INDEX 


Church,  Peggy  Pond,  135,  140 

Cibola  National  Forest,  26,  358,  361 

Cicuye,  see  Pecos  Pueblo 

Cimabue,  Giovanni,  203 

Cimarron,  271-4 

Ciraarron  News  &  Press,  273 

Cinco  Pintores,  Los,  168 

Civil  War,  in  New  Mexico,  75-6;  in 
Albuquerque,  176;  Pidgin's  ranch, 
241;  ValveMe,  254.  See  also  Battle- 
fields 

Clans,  see  INDIANS 

Clark,  Allan,  168,  277 

Claunch,  399-400 

Claunch  Cattle  Co.,  400 

Clayton,    300-3 

Cleveland,  378 

Cliff.  419 

Cliff  Dwellings,  35,  279-83,  416-17 

Clifton  House,  230-1 

Clines  Corners,  316,  346 

Cloudcroft,   394 

Clovis,  355,  369 

Coal,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Coan,  Charles  F.,  133 

Cochise,  55 

Cochiti  Pueblo,  244 

Cody,  William  F.,  see  Buffalo  Bill 

Coe,  Frank,  371 

Coe,  George  W.,  138,  267-8,  371 

Coe,  L.  W.,  371 

Coghlan,  Patrick,  389 

Colfax,  271 

Colleges,  see  Schools  and  Colleges 

Colraor,  232 

Colorado  Volunteers,  76 

Columbus,  80 

Columbus  Raid,  80 

Comanche,  raids,  58;  Anza's  cam- 
paign, 58;  customs,  59;  reserva- 
tions, 58 

Comancherla,  58 

Commerce  of  the  Prairies,  131,   190, 

234,  310 

Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  see 
United  States  Commissioner  of  In- 
dian Affairs 

Conchas  Dam,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

Confederacy,  see  Civil  War 
Connelly,   Gov.   Henry,  76 
Conservation,   forest,   28;   soil,   28-31; 

water,    20 

Constitution,  convention,  74,  79 
CONTRIBUTIONS  TO   LANGUAGE,    107-9; 

Glossary,  110-9 
Cook,  Capt.  James  W.,  137 
Cooke,  Phillip  St.  George,   133,  255 
Cooke's  Route,  95 


Coolidge,  Dane,  136,  138,  139 
Cooney,  Sgt.  James,  419 
Copper,  see  Mines   and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 
Corbin,   Alice,    see   Henderson,    Alice 

Corbin 
Cordova,  299 

Corn  Dance,  see  Indian  Dances 
Corn  Maidens  of  Zuni,  99 
Corona,  294,  387 
Coronado  National  Forest,  26 
Coronado,   Francisco   Vasques,    leaves 
Mexico,    61;    at    Puerto    de    Luna, 
315;  at  Tiguex,  61-2;  at  Zuni,  325; 
headquarters,  246;  into  Kansas,  62; 
returns  to  Mexico,  62 
Coronado     State     Monument,     ruins, 

368;  Kuaua,  368;  Puaray,  368 
Coronado's   Children,   140 
Corpus  Christi,  ceremonies,  189 
Corrida  de  Gallo,  238 
Cortes,  Manuel,  379 
Corvera,  Fray  Francisco,  278 
Costales,  Don  Jose  Maria,  258 
Costilla,  284 
Court   of   Private   Land    Claims,    see 

United  States    Court 
Couse,   Irving,   167,   218 
Cox,  "Uncle"  Washington,  364 
Coyotero  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 
Coyote  Steals  Fire,  100-1 
Crane,  Leo,   139 
Cremony,  John,  355 
Crile,  Dr.  Austin  D.,  348 
Crockett,  Davey,  274 
Crook,  Gen.  George,  55,  78 
Crops,  principal,  82;  grain,  83;  pinto 

beans,  357 

Cross  of  the  Martyrs,  200 
Cross,  W.  A.,  302 
Crow,  Louise,  167 
Crowfoot  Ranch,  269 
Crown  Point,  333 
Cruz,  Juan  de  la,  62,  109 
Cruz,  Juan  Pedro,  376 
Crystal,  339 
Cuba,  366 
Cubero,  319 
Cuchillo,  257 
Cuerno    Verde,    capture,    58;    death, 

306-7 

Cuervo,  314 

Cuervo    y   Valdes,    Francisco,    founds 
Albuquerque,      68,       175;      Picuris 
Treaty,  290 
Culiacdn,  60 
Culture  Periods,  Basket  Maker,  36-7; 

Folsom,  36;  Pueblo,  37-42 
Cundiy6,  299 
Cunningham,  305 


INDEX    445 


Cunningham,  Eugene,  138 

Curtis,  Natalie,  142 

Gushing,  Frank  Hamilton,  133,  140 

Custodia    de    la    Conversion    de    San 

Pablo,  352 

Cutting,  Sen.  Bronson  M.,  144 
Cutts,  James  Madison,  ,133 
Cuyamungue,  292 

Daily  Current- Argus,  403 

Dams  and  Reservoirs: 
Alamogordo,  23,  355;  Avalon,  23; 
Bluewater,  322;  Cabello,  22;  Con- 
chas, 23,  314;  Eagle  Nest,  23,  275; 
Elephant  Butte,  21-2,  255 ;  El  Valdo, 
22,  345;  McMillan,  23;  San  Acacio, 
251;  Santa  Cruz,  299 

Dana,  Richard  Henry,  132 

Dances,  Indian,  see  Indian  Dances 

Dancing  Gods,  139 

Dark  Circle  of  Branches,  140 

Datil,  359 

Davey,  Randall,  168 

Davis,  W.  W.  H.,  132-3 

Dawson,  270 

Dawson,  J.  B.,  270 

Dawson,  L.  S.,  270 

Dayton,  349 

Death  Comes  for  the  Archbishop,  123, 

135,  '89 

DeHuff,  Elizabeth  Willis,  140 
Delight   Makers,   The,    133,    136,   192, 

281 

Deming,  375 
Dendro-chronology,      see      Tree-ring 

Dating 
De  Niza,  Fray  Marcos,  see  Niza,  Fray 

Marcos   de 

Densmore,  Frances,  142 
Denver    and    Rio    Grande,    Western 

R.R.,  tour,  412 
Desert  Drums,  139 
Des  Moines,  304 

De  Vaca,  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza,  66 
De  Vargas,  Gen.  Don  Diego,  against 

Picuris,  290;  at  Acoma,  331,  326;  at 

San  Ildefonso,  278;  death,  53,  246; 

enters  Santa  Fe,  189;  founds  Santa 

Cruz,  295;  history,  194;  reconquest, 

68;  Rosario  Chapel,  200-1 
Devoy,  Michael,  266 
Dexter,  349 
Dilia,  316 

Dobie,  J.  Frank,  109,  140 
Dominguez,  Fray,   69 
Dona  Ana,  258-9 
Don  Fernando  de  Taos,  see  Taos 
Doniphan,  Col.  Alexander  W.,  treaty 

with  Navaho,  72-3 
Don  Tomds,  380 


Dorantes,  Andres,  60 
Dosso,  F.  E.  Del,  168 
Douglass,  Prof.  A.  E.,  38 
Douglass,  Ralph  W.,   168 
Drexel,  Mother  Catherine,  201 
Dripping  Springs,   358 
Drolets,  339 

Dry  Ice  Industry,  see  Mines  and  Min- 
eral Resources 

Du  Bois,  Capt.  Frank  A.,  387 
Duffus,  R.  L.,  139 
Dunton,  W.  Herbert,  199 
Durdn,  387 
Dur£n,  Friar  Anares  ( Andres  J,  278 

Eagle  Nest,  275 

Eagle  Nest  Dam,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

Earl,  John  and  George,  124 
Early  Americana  and  Other  Stories, 

i36 

Earth  Horizon,  136 

East  Vaughn,  346,  387 

Eastern  New  Mexico  Normal  School 
(Portales),  129 

Eastern  New  Mexico  State  Park,  370 

Eddy,  B.  C.,  394 

Eddy,  Charles  B,,  349 

Eddy,  J.  A.,  394 

EDUCATION,  126-9 

Education,  State  Department  of,  128 

Edwards,  F.  S.,  133 

El  Crepusculo  de  la  Libertad,  71, 
217 

El  Cristo,  137 

El  Gringo,  or  New  Mexico  and  Her 
People,  132 

El  Morro,  321 

El  Morro  National  Monument,  321 

El  Nino  Per  dido,  102 

El  Palacio,  140 

El  Paso,  founded  by  Otermin,  66 

El  Vado  Dam,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

Elephant  Butte  Dam,  see  Dams  and 
Reservoirs 

Elephant  Butte  Regatta,  257-8 

Elguea,  Don  Francisco,  264 

Elida,  370 

Elizabethtown,  275 

Elk,  394 

Ellis,  Fremont,  168 

Embargo,  285 

Embudo,  291 

Emery,  Madison,  267 

Enabling  Act,  79 

Enchanted  Mesa,  The,  328 

Encino,  346,  357 

Endee,  312 

Enemy  Gods,  The,  136 


446    INDEX 

Erosion,    examples,    13,    see    Natural 

Resources 

Escalante,  Fray,  50,  69 
Escalona,   Fray  Luis   de,   62,    120;    at 
Pecos  Pueblo,  239 
Espanola,  345 

Espejo,   Antonio   de,   63,    120 
Espinosa,  Aurelio,  145 
Espinosa,  Gilbert,  130 
Esquillon,   Rt.  Rev.,   202 
Esquival,  Juan  Jose,  295 
Estancia,  293 
Estevan,  60- 1 
Etheridge,  Dice,  364 
Etheridge,  Harg,  364 
Ethnology,    see   ARCHEOLOGY,    INDIANS 
Eunice,  401 
Evans,  Joe,  383 

Fair  Acres,  375 
Falkner,  Guy,  402 
Fall,  Albert  B.,  389;  home,  389 
Fandango,  135 

Fara6n  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 
Farmington,  363 

Farms    and    Farming,    see    AGRICUL- 
TURE AND  STOCKRAISING 
Fauna,   15-20;  243 
Fauntleroy,  Gen.  Thomas  T.,  322 
Favour,  Alpheus  A.,  138 
Fay  wood  Springs,  415 
Federal  Board  of  Vocational  Educa- 
tion, 128 

Fennessy,  Tom,  403 
Fergusson,  Erna,   109;   139 
Fergusson,  Harvey,   109,   135;   139 
Fergusson,  H.  B.,  388 
Feschin,  Nicolai,   167 
Feudal  System,  7 
Fewkes,  Dr.  J.  Walter,  142 
Ficke,   Arthur   Davison,    135 
Fifty  Years  on  the  Old  Frontier,  137 
Fire  in  the  Night,  136 
"First  American,"  36 
Fish,  see  Fauna 
Fish  Hatcheries,  34 
Fishing  sites,  240,  255,  258,  261,  275, 

299-300,   322,   345,   377,   379 
Fleck,  Joseph,  167 
Fletcher,  John  Gould,  135 
Floods,  79 

Flood  Control,  see  Irrigation 
Flora,   13-5;  243 
FOLKLORE,  98-106 
Folsom,  267-9 
Folsom,   culture   period,    36;    Folsom- 

point  finds,  305,  404*5 
Forest  Service,  26 
Forests,     25-28.     see     also     National 

Forests 


Fort  Sumner,  356 

Forts  and  Military  Reservations: 
Bayard,  416;  Fauntleroy,  322; 
McRae,  21;  Marcy,  72,  200;  Sel- 
don,  258;  Stanton,  285;  Sumner, 
255-6;  Thorn,  258;  Tularosa,  360; 
Webster,  374;  Wingate,  74,  322-3; 
Union,  324 

Fossils,  see  Geology 

Fountain,  Col.  A.  J.,  374 

Franciscan  Order,   122:   see  RELIGION 

Franciscans,  66-8,  143,  174;  see  also 
RELIGION 

Fremont,  Col.  J.  C.,  arrival  in  Taos, 
218 

French,  231 

French,  Capt.  William,  231 

French  "Invasion,"  see  Racial  Ele- 
ments 

Frontier  Fighter?  138 

Frontiers,  changing  of,  4 

Fruitland,  363 

Fulton,  Maj.  Maurice  Garland,  138 

Furniture,  164 

Gadsden,  James,  75 

Gadsden  Purchase,  see  Treaties 

Gage,  375 

Gailan,  308 

Galisteo,  292-3 

Gallegos,  Padre,  122 

Gallup,  323-5 

Gallup  Indian  Ceremonial,  324 

Gambel,  William,  15 

Game  and  Fish,  32-4.  see  also,  Fish- 
ing Sites,  Hunting  Sites 

Game  and  Fish  Department,  State,  33 

Game  Refuges,  15,  33,  264 

Gamerco,  337 

Garden  of  the  Angels,  365 

Garrand,  Lewis  H.,  131-3,  218 

Garrett,  Sheriff  Pat  F.,  78,  104,  132; 
captured  Billy  t!he  Kid,  383-4 

Caspar,    Leon,    167 

General  Educational   Board,   128 

Geology,  10-3 

Genizarost  249,  345 

Geronimo,  55 ;  surrender  to  Miles,  55, 

78 
Gibbroek,  Robert,  169 

Gifford,  E.  W.,  260 
Gila,  419 
Gila  Apache,  54 

Gila  Cliff  Dwellings  National  Monu- 
ment, 416-7 

Gila  National  Forest,  26,  263,  416 
Gila  River,  basin,  24-5 
Gila  Wilderness  Area,  27,  416 
Gileno  Apache,  see  Gila  Apache 
Gilman,  Benjamin  Ives,   142 


Girl  of  the  Golden  West,  The,  185 

Girls  Welfare  Home,  see  Schools  and 
Colleges 

Glencoe,  371 

Glenrio,   312 

Glenwood,  419 

Glidden,  Fred,  277 

Glidden,  John,  277 

Glorieta,  241 

Glorieta  Pass,  241 

Glossary,  Southwestern  terms,     110-19 

Goddard,  Earle  Pliny,  139 

Gold,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Golden,  396 

Golden  Era,  The,  134,  389 

Gonzales,  Louis,  278 

Goodbear,  Paul  Flying  Eagle,  168 

Goodin,   "Shotgun   Mary,"   303 

Goodnight,  Charles,  95;  Cattle  drives, 
315;  Comanchero,  313 

Goodnight-Loving  Trail,  95,  348 

Governor's  Palace,  see  Palace  of  the 
Governors 

Granada,  61 

Grand  Canyon,  discovery  by  Coro- 
nado's  men,  61 

Gran  Quivira  State  and  National 
Monument,  ruins,  398 

Grant,  Blanche,   139 

Grants,  320 

Grapes  of  Wrath,  The,  309 

Graydon,  Capt.  Paddy,  254 

Grazing,  see  Stockraising 

"Greaser,"  origin  of,  108-9 

Gregg,  Josiah,  131,  190,  234,  310 

Grenville,  303 

Grenville  Caves,  303 

Grier,  355 

"Gringo,"  3,  4,  108-9 

Groll,  Albert,  167 

Gusdorf,  276 

Gutierre-,  Eli,  270 

Gutierrez,  Fred,  270 

Guzman,  Nuno  de;  explorations,  60 

Hadley,  Hiram,  122,  260 

Hagerman,  349 

Hagerman,  J.  J,,  349 

Haines,  William  B.,  364 

Haley,  J.  Evetts,  139,  313 

Hall,  Edward  T.,  Jr.,  305 

Hammond,  Dr.  George  P.,  133,  140 

Harrington,  E.  R.f  320 

Harris,  Lawren,   169 

Harwood,  Burt,  167,  222 

Harwood  Foundation,  167,  description. 

222 

Harwood,  Mrs.  Lucy  Chase,  222 
Harwood,  Rev.  Thomas,  124 


INDEX    447 

Hassler,  Carl  Von,  168 

Hat  Ranch,  402 

Hawikuh,  6x;  see  Archeology 

Haynes,  366 

Hayward,  Alfred  E.,  168 

Hearts  Desire,  134,  389 

Hemenway  Archeological  Expedition, 
142 

Henderson,  Alice  Corbin,  109,  135,  139 

Henderson,  William  P.,  167 

Hendricks,  W.  P.,  363 

Henri,  Robert,  167 

Hewett,  Dr.  Edgar  Lee,  139,  161-2; 
Indian  art,  278;  Chetro  Ketl,  336 

Hewitt,  John  L,  388 

Higgins,  Victor,  167,  222 

High  Rolls,  394 

Hill,  John  C.,  301 

Hillsboro,  262 

Historia  del  Nuevo  Mexico,  64, 
130 

Historical  Society  of  New  Mexico, 
194 

History,  60-8 1 ;  New  Mexico  under 
Spain,  60-70;  under  Mexico,  70-2; 
American  Territorial,  72-9;  State- 
hood, 79-81 

Hobbs,  401 

Hodge,  Dr.  F.  W.,  41 

Hogans,  Navaho,  53,  317,  3»7 

Holbrook,  Joe,  274 

Holley,  Robert,  80,  406 

Holman,  377 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  199 

Home  and  Training  School  for  Men- 
tal Defectives,  see  Schools  and  Col- 
leges 

Hondo,  371 

Hope,  393 

Horgan,  Paul,  136 

Horizontal^  "Yellow,  135 

Horse  Springs,  359 

Hot  Springs,  257-8 

Hot  springs,  medicinal:  Faywood, 
415;  Je'mez,  367;  Mimbres,  264; 
Montezuma,  236;  Ojo  Caliente,  306; 
Palomas,  257-8;  Ponce  de  Leon,  377 

Hough,  Emerson,  134,  139,  388 

Howard,  Dr.  E.  B.,  404 

Howard,  W.  G.,  303 

Hoxie,  231 

Hughes,  J.  T.,  133 

Humana  and  Bonilla,  63 

Humphrey,  Phlem,   302 

Huning,  Franz,  184-5 

Hunter,  Vernon,  169 

Hunting  and  Fishing,  see  Game  and 
Fish,  Fishing  sites,  Hunting  sites 

Hunting  sites,  257-8,  300,  358,  419 

Hurd,  Peter,  169,  348 


448      INDEX 

Hurley,  415 
Hurst,   Sheba,   263 
Hurtado,  Juan  J.,  295 

Ibarra,  Francisco  de,  63 
Ice   Caves:  Johnson  Mesa,  270;   per- 
petual, 320-1 ;   Sierra  Negras,   266 
Immigration,  see  Racial  Elements 
Indian  Arts  and  Crafts  Board,   161 
Indian  Arts  Fund,  205,  278 
Indian  Dances:   Cochiti,   245;   Gallup 
Indian    Ceremonial,    324;    Laguna, 
319;     Navaho     Night     Chant     and 
Mountain    Chant,     52;     Santo    Do- 
mingo   Corn    Dance,   46,    54-7,    141, 
24.6;    Taos,    219-20;    Zuni    Shalako, 
46,   141.     See  also   INDIANS,  Music, 
CALENDAR  OF  ANNUAL  EVENTS 
Indian   Ruins:   Cameron    Creek,   416; 
Chaco  Canyon,  334-7;   Chetro  Ketl, 
335-6;    Chilili,    397;    Homayo,    308; 
Houiri,  308;  Kinyai,  333;  Los  Gua- 
jolotes,   248;    Navawi,    280;    Otowi, 
279-80;   Paako,   396;   Pecos,   238-9; 
Pindi,  209;  Pose-Uingge,  308;  Pua- 
ray,  368;  Pueblo  Alto,  334;  Pueblo 
Bonito,  335;  Puretuay,  248;  Quarai, 
398;    Rito    de    los    Frijoles,    282-3; 
Servilleta,  251;    Swartz,  416;   Tey^- 
pana,  251;  Torreon,  397;  Tsankawj, 
280-1;     Tshirege,     281;     Tyuonyi, 
282;    Zuni    mission,    325.    See    also 
ARCHEOLOGY 

Indians,  43-59:  arts  and  crafts,  156- 
62;  building  methods,  149-50;  gov- 
ernment, pueblo,  44-5 ;  hunting 
methods,  381-2;  legends,  98;  list  of 
pueblos,  49;  Navaho,  52;  Nomadic, 
49-59J  painting,  161-2;  pottery,  156; 
Pueblo,  43-9;  schools,  129;  songs, 
141-3 

Indian's  Book,  The,  143 
Indians  of  the  Rio  Grand*,  139 
Indians  of  the  Southwest,  139 
Indian     Stories     from     the     Pueblos, 

139 
INDUSTRY,  COMMERCE  AND  LABOR,  87- 

92 

Infantile  Paralysis,  257,  415 
Ingersoll,  Col.  Robert  R.,  231 
Inquisition  vs.  Governors,  67 
Insects,    control    of,    83-4.    See    also 

Fauna 

Inscription  Rock,  65,  68,  321 
Interlinear  to  Cabeza  de  Baca,  136 
Introduction   to    the   Study   of  South- 
western Archaeology,  139 
Irrigation,  20-5,  47,   80-1 
Isleta    Pueblo,    see   Albuquerque    En- 
virons, 186 


Jaffa,  Henry,  first  mayor,  177 

Jacona,   277 

Jackson,  419 

Jal,  402 

J-A-L  Ranch,  402 

James,  Ahlee,  140 

Janvier,  Thomas  AM  134,  296 

Jarales,  250 

Jeancon,  Jean,  143 

Jemez  Pueblo,  367 

Jemez  Springs,  367 

Jemez  State   Monument,  ruins,   367 

Jesuit  Order,  122;  see  also  RELIGION 

Jewish  Temples,  125 

Jicarilla  Apache,  54 

Johnson's  Ranch,  241 

Johnson,  J.  L.,  269 

Johnson,  Lige,  269 

Johnson,   Spud,   135 

Jones,  D.  Paul,  168 

Jonson,  Raymond,  168-9 

Jornada  del  Muerto,  64,  253 

Journal  of  American  Ethnology  and 
Archaeology,  142 

Journal  of  American  Folklore,  140 

Journal  of  a  Tour  Through  the  In- 
terior Parts  of  New  Spain,  131 

Journey  of  Death,  see  Jornada  del 
Muerto 

Judd,  Neill  M.,  335 

Justice,  Charles  W.,  402 

Kaboti,  Fred,  162,  199 

Kansas,        Coronado's        exploration, 

62 
Kearny,  Geti.  Stephen  Watts,  72,  133, 

190 

Kearny's  Gap,  236 
Kehl,  Jeff,  268 
Kelley,  Barry,  239 
Kelly,  Florence  Finch,  134 
Kenna,  370 

Kephardt,  Rev.  W.  T.,  124 
Kern,  E.  M.,  218 
Kern,  R.  H.,  218 
Ketchum,     "Black    Jack,"     104,    273; 

hanged,  301-2 
Kidder,  Dr.  A.  V.,  41,  139 
King,  Frank  M.,  293 
King,  John,  268 
Kingston,  263 
King,  Rev.  Fn,  122 
Kiowa  Ranch,  286 
Kiowa  Trail,  220 
Kit  Carson,  138 
Kit  Carson's  Own  Story,  139 
Kivas,  construction,  150 
Klah,  340 
Knee,  Gina,  168 
Kneeling  Nun,  264 


INDEX    449 


Koenig,  William,  232 
K os hare,  see  INDIANS 
Kosloskie,  Andrew,  238 
Kosloskie's  Ranch,  238 

La  Aparicion  de  Nuestra  Senora  de 

Guadalupe,  103 
La  Bajada  Hill,  243 
La  Boheme,  185 
Labor,  91-2 
Laboratory    of    Anthropology,    204-5; 

see  also  Museums 
La  Conquistadora,  189,  200-2 
Lacher,  Gisella  Loeffler,  168 
La  Cueva,  379-80 
La  Farge,  Oliver^  136 
Laforet,  Don  Francisco,  285 
Laguna    Pueblo,    318-9;     reservation, 

317;  St.  Joseph   (painting)   lawsuit, 

33^-3 

Lakes,  natural  and  artificial:  Avalon, 
23;  Bluewater,  322;  Bottomless,  382; 
Eagle  Nest,  23;  Elephant  Butte, 
255;  El  Vado,  345;  McMillan,  23; 
Salt  Lakes,  294,  357;  Santa  Cruz, 
299 

Lake  wood,  350 

La  Luz,  395 

Lamy,  345 

Lamy,  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.,  74,  122; 
death,  123;  educational  reforms, 
126,  189,  201 

LAND,  THE,  9-34;  Fauna,  15-20;  Flora, 
J3-5;  Geology,  10-2;  Natural  Re- 
sources, 20-33;  Scenic  Geologic 
Features,  12-3 

Land  Grants,  Indian,  44,  78;  Spanish, 
6;  Acoma,  331;  Beaubien-Miranda, 
271;  Cpchiti,  244;  De  Baca,  366; 
Don  Cristobal  de  Sena,  376;  Jacona, 
277;  Mora,  378;  San  Clemente,  248; 
Sandia,  247;  San  Udefonso,  278; 
San  Pedro,  396;  Tesuque,  292; 
Vigil,  281 

Land  of  Journey's  Ending,  139 

Land  of  Poco  Tiempo,  The,  133 

Land  of  the  Pueblos,  132 

Language,  Apache  divisions  of,  50; 
bilingual  aspects,  6;  Pueblo  Indian 
divisions  of,  47;  see  also  CONTRIBU- 
TIONS TO  THE  LANGUAGE 

La  Pas't6nf  102 

Largo  Pete,  sub^Chief,  363 

Larkin,  Margaret,  137,  145 

Las  Cruces,  259 

Las  Palomas,  258 

Las  Posadas,  102 

Las  Trampas,  289 

Las  Vegas,  234-6;  outlawry,  235 

Las  Vegas  Gazette t  273 


Laughing  Boy;  A  Navaho  Romance, 
136 

Lava  Beds,  320 

La  Ventana,  366 

Law  and  Order,  Ltd.,  137 

Lawrence  and  Brett,  137 

Lawrence,  D.  H.,  135,  137,  139,  141, 
213 

Lawrence,  Frieda,  137,  286 

Lea,  Capt.  Joseph  C.,  347 

Lea,  Mrs.  Sally  Wildy,  347 

Lead,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Lee,  Dr.  Willis  T.,  80,  406 

Legends,  see  Myths  and  Legends 

Lemitar,  251 

Libraries:  Historical  Society  (Santa 
Fe),  195;  Laboratory  of  Anthropol- 
ogy (Santa  Fe),  205;  Museum  of 
New  Mexico  (Santa  Fe),  195; 
School  of  American  Research 
(Santa  Fe),  195;  Thomas  Branni- 
gan  (Las  Cruces),  259;  University 
of  New  Mexico  (Albuquerque),  179- 
82 

Lieu  ranee,  Thurlow,  143 

Life  in  the  Far  West,  132 

Life  Zones:  Alpine,  15;  Canadian,  14; 
Hudsonian,  15;  Lower  Sonoran,  13, 
16;  Transition,  14;  Upper  Sonoran, 

i3>   i* 

Light,  Dr.  Gertrude,  376 

Light  That  Failed,  The,  414 

Lincoln,  384-5 

"Lincoln  Canes,"  44,  331 

Lincoln  County  Courthouse,  384-5 

Lincoln  County  Society  of  Art,  His- 
tory, and  Archeology,  384 

Lincoln  County  War,  77;  books  on, 
138,  322-4;  end  of,  385 

Lincoln  National  Forest,  26,  371,  384, 

394 

Li  pan  Apache,  54 
LITERATURE,  130-40 
Little  Valley,  136 
Littlefield,   George,  370 
Livestock,  see  Stock  raising 
Lizards,  see  Fauna 
Liana,  Fray  Geronimo  de  la,  at  Qua- 

rai,  398;  death  of,  397 
Llanero  Apache,  50 
Llano  Estacado,  -309-11,  313-4 
Llano  Quemado,  376 
Lobo,  King  of  the  Corrumpaw,  302 
Locke,  William,  364 
Lockwood,  Ward,  222 
Logan,  387 
Long, -Ed,  404 
Long,  Haniel,  135,  136 
Lopez,  Fray  Francisco,  62,  332 


450     INDEX 


Lopez,  Jose  Maria,  299 

"Lord  Lincol.n,"  388 

Lordsburg,  375 

Lorenzo  in  Taos,  137 

Loretto  Academy  (Las  Cruces),  259 

Loretto    Academy     (Santa    Fe),    127, 

203 

Loretto  School  (Mora),  379 
Los  Alamos,  280 

Los  Chavez,  249 

Los  Cinco  Pintores,  168 

Los  Comanches,  103,  287 

Los  Luceros,  291 

Los  Lunas,  248 

Los  Moros  y  los  Cristianos,  102,  297 

Los  Padillas,  248 

Los  Pastores,  102 

Los  Reyes  Magos,  102 

Los  Tres  Hijos,  101 

Lost  Mines,  see  Myths  and  Legends 

Lotave,  Carl,  195,  198 

Love,  R.  R.,  391 

Loving,  350,  39i 

Loving,  Oliver,  95 

Lovington,  391 

Lower  Penasco,  393 

Luhan,  Mabel  Dodge,  137 

Lummis,  Charles  P.,  109,  133,   140 

Lumpkins,  Bill,  169 

Luna,  420 

Luna,  Antonio  de,  248 

Luxan,  63 

Lynde,  Maj.  Isaac,  76 

McCarty's,  320 

McComas,  Johnnie,  mystery  of,  417- 
8 

McDonald,  Gov.  William  C.,  79,  388 

McGaffey,  322 

Machbeuf,  Rev.  Joseph  P.,  122 

McHenry,  C.  H.,  364 

MacKenzie,  Col.  R.  S,,  312 

McKnight,  Robert,  264 

McMillan,  Lake,  see  Dams  and  Reser- 
voirs 

McMurdo,  Jim,  168 

McNutt,  Dr.  V.  H.,  403 

McSween,  Alexander,  in  Lincolo 
County  War,  382,  389 

"Madam  Varnish,"  388 

Madrid,  396 

Magdalena,  359 

Maldonado,  Alonso  de  Castillo,  60 

Maldonado,  Fray  Lucas,  331 

Maljamar,  392-3 

Mallet  Bros.,  69 

Maltzahn,  Baron  Von,  287 

Manby,  A.  R.,  223 

Manchero,  Fr.  Juan,  247 

Mangas  Coloradas,  Chief,  360 


Manuelito,  327 

Manuelito,  Chief,  327 

Manzano, '397 

Ma-Pe-Wi,  162,  199 

Marable  Ranch,  350 

Marcos,  Fray,  see  De  Niza,  Fray 
Marcos 

Marcy,  Capt.  R.  B.,  310 

Mark  Twain,  263 

Marta,  Bernardo  de,  144 

Martinez,  Crescencio,    162,  278 

Martinez,  Fray,  253 

Martinez,  Julian,   156;   pottery,  278 

Martinez,  Marie,  156;  pottery,  278 

Martinez,  Padre  Antonio  Jose,  71, 
122;  history,  216 

Matthews,  Dr.  Washington,  133 

Maxwell,  231 

Maxwell,  Lucien,  home  at  Fort  Sum- 
ner,  356;  land-baron,  271-2;  opens 
bank,  90;  ranch  home,  272 

Maxwell  House,  272 

Maxwell  Land  and  Irrigation  Co., 
231 

Mayhill,  394 

Medicine  men,  Navaho,  52 

Melines,  James  F.,  132 

Melrose,  355 

Mendoza,  Antonio  de,  60,  6 1 

Mera,  Dr.  H.  P.,  404 

Merriam,  Dr.  C.  Hart,  15 

Mescalero  Apache,   54,  372 

Mesilla  River,  21 

Mesilla  Times,  260 

Mesita,  317 

Metcalf,  Bill,  266-7 

Mexican  Springs,  338 

Mexico,  4,  80 

Middle  Rio  Grande  Conservancy  Dis- 
trict, 21 

Miguel  of  Bright  Mountain,  136 

Miles,  Gen.  Nelson  A.,  55,  78,  176; 
quells  Comanche,  312 

Military  Reservation,  see  Forts  and 
Military  Reservations 

Miller,  Florence,  169 

Mills,  Judge,  302 

Mimbrefio  Apache,  54 

Mimbres  Hot  Springs,  264 

Minerals,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Mines  and  Mineral  Resources,  31-2; 
coal,  80,  89-90;  copper,  88;  dry  ice, 
232;  gas  and  petroleum,  80,  88,  363, 
400-1 ;  gold,  87 ;  lead,  88 ;  potash, 
403-4;  silver,  88;  State  Production, 
89;  zinc,  88 

Mining  Districts:  Cerrillos,  242-3, 
395-6;  Deming,  375;  Gallinas,  387- 
8;  Gallup,  337;  Lake  Valley,  262; 


INDEX     451 


Mogoll6n,  419;  Santa  Rita,  264-5; 
Silver  City,  418;  Socorro,  252; 
White  Oaks,  388 

Mines:  Ortiz  Mine,  71;  Potash  Mines, 
403-4;  Zaragoza  Mine,  87,  258 

Mirages,  392 

Miranda,  Fray  Pedro  de,  mission  at 
Taos,  215;  establishes  mission, 
219 

Missions  and  Churches:  Antome  Mis- 
sion (near  Bluewater),  333;  Buena- 
ventura de  Cochiti  (Cochiti),  244- 
5;  Catholic,  120-2;  El  Cristo  Rey 
(Santa  Fe),  202;  Guadalupe  Church 
(Santa  Fe),  208;  Jewish,  125;  Mor- 
mon, 287;  Parroquia  (Santa  Fe), 
121,  201;  Protestant,  287;  Reheboth 
Mission  (Reheboth),  323;  Rosario 
Chapel  (Santa  Fe),  189,  200-1;  St. 
Francis  de  Assisi  (Ranches  de 
Taos),  287-8;  St.  Francis  Cathedral 
(Santa  Fe),  201;  Santa  Ana  de 
Alamillo  (Santa  Ana),  368;  Santa 
Clara  Mission  (Santa  Clara),  352; 
San  Esteban  Rey  (Acoma),  331-2; 
San  Felipe  (San  Felipe),  246;  San 
Felipe  de  Neri  (Albuquerque),  121, 
175,  184;  San  Jose  de  Laguna  (La- 
guna),  319;  San  Lorenzo  (Picuris), 
289-90;  San  Miguel  (Santa  Fe), 
202;  San  Miguel  del  Bado  (San 
Miguel),  237;  San  Miguel  Mission 
(Socorro),  252-3;  Santo  Tomas 
(Trampas),  289;  Santuario  de  Chi- 
may6  (Chimay6),  298-9;  Seiiora  de 
la  Asuncion  (Zia),  368;  Senora  de 
los  Dolores  (Arroyo  Hondo),  287; 
see^  also  RELIGION 

Mission  Supply,  see  Camino  Real 

Mogollon,  419 

Mogollon,  Don  Juan  I.  Flores,  53,  419 

Mogollon  Apache,  54 

Moieties,  see  Indians,  government 

Montezuma  Hot  Springs,  236 

Montoya,  313 

Montoya,  Juan   Martinez;   elect  gov., 

65 

Monument,  402 
Monuments,     National:    Aztec,     364; 

Bandelier,     281-2;     Capulin,     269; 

Chaco    Canyon     334-7:    El    Morro, 

321;    Gila    Cliff    Dwellings,   416-7; 

Gran  Quivira,  389-9;  White  Sands, 

373-4 
Monuments,    State:   Ab6,    358;    Coro- 

nado,     368;     Gran     Quivira,     398; 

Jemez,  367;  Lincoln  County,  384-5; 

Paako,   396;   Pecos,  238-9;    Quarai, 

398 
Mora,  378 


Morales,  Fray  Luis  de,  278 

Morefio,  Fray  Antonio,  278;  at  Santa 
Cruz,  295 

Moriarty,  293 

Morlete,  Juan,  62 

Mormon  Battalion,  95,  255-7 

Mormon  settlements,  125;  see  also  Ra- 
cial Elements 

Mornings  in  Mexico ,   139 

Morris,  Jim,  168 

Mt.  Dora,  303 

Mountain  Against  Mountain,  135 

Mountain  Chant,  see  Indian  Dances 

Mountain  Men,  138 

Mountain  Park,  394 

Mountainair,  358,  398 

Mo  wry,  Major,   374'5 

Mozley,  Loren,   16$ 

Mruk,  Walter,  168 

Museums:  Archeological,  list  of,  42; 
Laboratory  of  Anthropology  (Santa 
Fe),  204-5;  Museum  of  Anthro- 
pology (Albuquerque),  179;  Mu- 
seum of  Navaho  Ceremonial  Art 
(Santa  Fe),  143,  204;  see  also  Mu- 
seum of  New  Mexico 

Museum  of  Navaho  Ceremonial  Art, 
204 

Museum  of  New  Mexico:  Art  Museum 
(Santa  Fe),  198-9;  Lincoln  County 
Courthouse  (Lincoln),  384-5;  list  of 
branch  museums,  42;  Palace  of  the 
Governors  (Santa  Fe),  193-8 

Music,  141-7;  Anglo-American,  145-7; 
Indian,  141-3;  Spanish,  143-5 

Myers,  Datus,  168 

Myths  and  Legends:  Angla- American, 
103-6;  buried  treasure,  399$  cowboy 
tales,  314-5;  Indian,  98-100;  lost 
mines,  404;  Pecos  Legend,  239;  see 
also  FOLKLORE;  Spanish,  100-2 

Nambe  Pueblo,  see  Santa  Fe  Environs, 

210 

Nara  Visa,   386 
Narvaez  Expedition,  60 
Nash,  Joe,  403 
Nash,  Willard,  168 
National    Forests:    Apache,    26,    359; 

Carson,    26,    276,    377;    Cibola,    26, 

358,    361;    Coronado,    26;    Gila,   26, 

263,  416;  Lincoln  26,  371,  384,  394; 

Santa  Fe,  26,  240 
National  Guard,  80 
National  Parks,  see  Carlsbad  Caverns 

National  Park;  see  also  Monuments 
National      Park      Service,      Regional 

Hdqts.,  205 

Native  Talcs  of  New  Mexico,  139 
Natural  Resources.  20-34;  forests,  25- 


452     INDEX 

8;    game    and    fish,    32-4;    mineral, 
31-2;  soil,  28-31;  water,  20-5 

Navaho  Apache,  50 

Navaho  Fair,  363 

Navaho  Indians,  50-3;  at  Bosque  Re- 
dondo,  355-6;  chants,  52;  hogans, 
53,  317,  327;  sand  paintings,  52, 
204;  silversmithing,  159-160;  song 
collections,  142;  weaving,  157-9 

Navaho-  Indians ,  139 

Navaho  Legends,  13 

Navaho  Tales,  140 

Navaho  Trail,  220 

Nevada  Consolidated  Copper  Co.,  265 

Newcomb,  340 

Newcomb,  Arthur  J.,  340 

Newcomb,  Mrs.  Franc  J.,  340 

Newkirk,  313 

Newman,  390 

NEW  MEXICAN  ART,  156-170 

Indian  art,  156-62;  Spanish  Colo- 
nial, 162-6;  Modern  Art  Move- 
ment, 167-70 

New  Mexico  Art  League,  168 

New  Mexico  Department  of  Voca- 
tional Education,  128 

New  Mexico  Educational  Board,   128 

New  Mexico  Girls  Welfare  Home 
(Albuquerque),  129 

New  Mexico  Historical^  Review,  140 

New  Mexico  Industrial  School  for 
Boys  (Springer),  129 

New  Mexico  Magazine,  140 

New  Mexico  Military  Institute  (Ros- 
well),  79,  129,  347-8 

New  Mexico  Normal  University  (Las 
Vegas),  128 

New  Mexico  Painters  Society,  167,  168 

New  Mexico  Quarterly,  140 

New  Mexico  School  for  Blind  (Ala- 
mogordo),  373 

New  Mexico  School  for  Deaf  (Santa 
Fe),  129,  210 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines  (So- 
corro),  127,  253 

New  Mexico  State  College,  see  New 
Mexico  State  University 

New  Mexico  State  Teachers  College 
(Silver  City),  128,  417-8 

New  Mexico  State  University  (Las 
Cruces),  82,  127,  259-60 

New  Mexico  University,  see  Univer- 
sity of  New  Mexico 

Nicholson,  Rev.  E.  G.,  124 

Nieto,  Gov.  Francisco  Manuel  de 
Silva,  at  Zuni,  330 

Night  Chant,  see  Indian  Dances 

Night  over  Taos,  137 

Niza,  Fray  Marcos  de,  60- 1;  at  Zuni, 
325 


No  Agua,  306 
No   Quarter   Given,    136 
Nomads,  49-59 
Nordfelt,  B.  J.  O.,  167 
Not  I  but  the  Wind,  137 
Nusbaum,  Aileen,  99,  140 
Nusbaum,  Dr.  Deric,  404 


O'Foliard,  Tom,  104 

Ojo  Caliente,  306 

Ojo  Caliente  Hot  Springs,  308 

Ojo  del  Gigante,  398 

Old  Bill  Williams,  138 

Old  Bill  Williams,  books  on,  138; 
life-sketch,  343-5 

Old  San  Miguel  Church  (Santa  Fe), 
203 

Old  Spain  in  Our  Southwest,  139,  297 

"Oldest  Apple  Orchard,"  397-8 

Omega,  362 

Onate,  Cristobal  de,  elected  gov.,  65; 
death,  66 

Onate,  Gov.  Juan  de,  arrest  and  sen- 
tence, 66;  at  Acoma,  330;  at  In- 
scription Rock,  68 ;  established  cap- 
ital, 63,  64;  explorations,  64-5; 
quells  Acoma,  64;  removed  from  of- 
fice, 65 

One  Smoke  Stories,  136 

Orchard,  Sadie,  stage  driver,  262-3 

Orchestras  and  Bands,   146-7 

Organic  Act,  74 

Oro  Grande,  390 

Ortiz,  Juan  Felipe,  122 

Ortiz  Mine,  71 

Otermin,  Antonio  de,  flight  from 
Santa  Fe,  68;  founds  El  Paso,  68, 
194;  Pueblo  Revolt,  67;  Tortugas, 
260-1 

Otero,  Don  Manuel,  293 

Otero,  Gov.  Miguel  A.,   138 

Otero,  Nina,  109,  139,  297 

Otis,  337 

Otis,  Raymond,  136 

6towi,  ruins,  279-80 

Out  West,  134 

Paako  State  Monument,  ruins,  396 
Padilla,  Juan  de,  62,  120 
Paguate,  318 
Painting,  see  Art 
Pancho  Villa,  82 
"Paper  Bread,"  292 
Paper  Flower  Making,   165 
Pajarito,  248 
Pajarito  Plateau,  279 
Palace  of  the  Governors,   154-5,    ^9, 
190-1,  193-8;  see  also  SANTA  FE 


INDEX    453 


Palacio  Real,  see  Palace  of  the  Gov- 
ernors 

Palma,  316 

Palomas  Cattle  and  Land  Co.,  389 

Pankey,  Benjamin  F.,  346 

Paraje,   319 

Parks,  National,  see  Carlsbad  Cav- 
erns National  Park;  see  also  Monu- 
ments 

Parks,  State:  Bottomless  Lakes,  382; 
Eastern  New  Mexico,  370;  Hyde 
Park,  21 1 ;  Santa  Fe  (see  map), 
196-7;  Tucumcari,  313 

Parroquia,  121,  201 

Parsons,  E.  C.,  99 

Parsons,  Sheldon,  167 

Pastura,  387 

Patterson,  Howard  Ashmun,   168 

Pattie,  James  O.,  71 

Paxton  Springs,  321 

Pearce,  T.  M.,  138 

Pecos,  240 

"Pecos  Bill,"  314 

Pecos  Forest  Reserve,  78 

Pecos  Pueblo,  visited  by  Coronado, 
62;  ruins,  238-9 

Pecos  River,  basin,  22-3 

Pecos  State  Monument,  ruins,  238-9 

Pecos  Valley  Irrigation  and  Invest- 
ment Co.,  78 

Peinado,  Fray  Alonzo,  397 

Pena  Blanca,  244 

Pena,  Tonita,  162,  199 

Penalosa,  136 

Penalosa,  Diego  de;  vs  Inquisition, 
67;  fosters  French  exploration  (La 
Salle),  67 

Penasco,  290,  393 

Penitentes,  123-4 

Penuela,  Marque's  de  la,   192,  203 

Peonage,  7,  77 

Peral,  403 

Feralta,  Don  Pedro  de,  appointed  gov- 
ernor, 65;  founds  Santa  Fe,  66,  126, 
188;  jailed,  247 

Perea,  Fr.  Estevan,  247 

Perez,  Gov.  Albino,  126,  208-9;  assas- 
sinated, 295;  Mora  Grant,  378 

Perrin,  C.  M.,  301 

Pershing,  Gen.  John  C.,  80 

Pest  Control,  see  Insects 

Peters,  Col.  D.  C.,  139 

Peters,  Mrs.  D.  C.,  139 

Petroleum,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Phillips,  Bert,  167,  218 

Philmont  Ranch,  274 

Physiographical  Division,  8-9 

Pi,  Oqwa,  162 

Picacho,   371 


Picuris  Pueblo,  289 

Picuris  Trail,  220 

Pidgin's  Ranch,  241 

Pie  Town,  362 

Pierce,  Edma,  168,  260 

Pierce,  H.  Towner,  169 

Pierson,  Lord,   393 

Pike,  Albert,  131 

Pike,   Lt   Zebulon   M.,   70,    108,   131; 

at    Ojo    Caliente,     307;     at    Santa 

Cruz,  295;  Santa  Rita,  264 
Pilabo,  see  Socorro 
Filar,  288 

Pile,  Gov.  William  A.,  77-8 
Pima  Indians,  122 
Final  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 
Pinaleno  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 
Pindi,  ruins,  209 
Pino,  Pedro  Bautista,  70 
Pinto,  Antonio,  51 
Pio,  Antonio  Sanchez  de,  278 
Piro  Indians,  252-3,  398-9 
Placer  Mining,  87-8,  396 
Placita,  287 
Pleasanton,  419 

Poets  and  Authors,  see  LITERATURE 
Pojoaque,  291 
Polelonema,  Otis,  199 
Polvadera,  251 

Ponce  de  Le6n  Hot  Springs,  377 
Pony  Express,  96 
Po-pe",  67,  121,  189 

Population,  see  HISTORY,  ARCHEOLOGY 
Portair,   355 
Portales,  370 
Posada,  Gen.  de,  368 
Poseyemo,  308 

Potash  Company  of  America,  404 
Potash  deposits,  403-4 
Potrero  Viejo,  244 
Pottery,    Indian,    48,     156;    see    also 

Archeology 

Predatory  Animals,  see  Fauna 
Price,  Col.  Sterling,  73,  296 
Primitive  Areas,  27,  416 
Prince,  L.  Bradford,  133 
Prose  Sketches  and  Poems,  Written  in 

a  Western  Country,  131 
Puarajr,  ruins,  62-3,  368 
Puccini,  Giacomo,  185 
Pueblos,  list  of,  49 
Pueblo  Bonito,  ruins,  335 
Pueblo  Indian  Lands  Board,  80 
Pueblo  Rebellion,  see  Pueblo  Revolt 
Pueblo  Revolt,   47,   67,   68,   121,    189; 

at  Picuris,  279;   at  Santa  Fe,  194; 

in  Taos,  215-6 
Puerto  de  Luna,  315 
Punta  de  Agua,   398 
Puye,  see  Indian  Ruins 


454    INDEX 

Puye  City,  291 
Pye,  Harry,  257 

Quarai,  398 

Quarai  State  Monument,  ruins,  398 

Quemado,  362 

Querecho  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 

Questa,  275,  285 

Quinpnes,  Fray  Cristobal  de,  143 

Quivira,  Coronado's  search  of,  61 

Quivira,  Gran,  see  Gran  Quivira 

Rabbit  Ears,  Chief,  303 

Rabal,  Gov.  Don  Joachin  Codalls  y, 
Sandia  grant,  247 

Racial  Elements,  3-5;  English,  69,  71; 
French  "Invasion,"  68-9;  "Little 
Texas,"  125,  400;  Mormon,  125; 
"Mountain  Men,"  216 

Railroads,  96-7;  see  also  TRANSPORTA- 
TION 

Rain  Makers,  139 

"Rain  Makers,"  ceremonies,  338 

Raine,  William  McLeod,  139 

Rainfall,  average,  10 

Ramah,  331 

Ramer,  Jim,  403 

Ramirez,  Fray  Juan,  330-2 

Rancho,  El,  246 

Ranches  de  Taos,  212,  287-8 

Rangeland,  see  Stockraising 

Raton,  230 

Rat6n  Pass,  229 

Read,  Benjamin,  133 

Read,  Rev.  Henry  W.,  124 

Real  Story  of  Billy  the  Kid,  138 

Reclamation,  see  Irrigation 

Recreational  Areas,  27-8,  377,  416 

Red  Earth,  135 

Redin,  Carl,  168 

Reed,  Erik  K.,  417 

Reheboth,  323 

Reich ard,  Gladys  A.,  340 

RELIGION,  120-5 

Remington,  167 

Reminiscences  of  Early  California,  95 

Reservations:  Apache,  55;  Comanche, 
59;  Laguna,  317;  Mescalero,  372; 
Navaho,  338,  362 

Reservations,  Military,  see  Forts  and 
Military  Reservations 

Reserve,  360 

Reservoirs,  see  Dams  and  Reservoirs 

Revista  Cat6lica,  122 

Rhodes,   Eugene,   Manlove,   134,   136; 

grave,  371 

Rhodes  Pass,  134,  372 
Riata  and  Spurs,  138 
Ricter,  Conrad,  136 
Riggs,  Lynn.  137 


Rinconada,  289 

Rio  Grande,  139 

Rio  Grande,  basin,  21-2 

Rio     Grande     Federal     Reclamation 

Project,  21 

Rio  Grande  Painters,   168 
Ritch,  William  G.,  133 
Rito  de  los  Frijoles,  see  Indian  Ruins 
Roads  and  Thoroughfares,  97,  see  also 

Trails 

Roberts,  "Buckshot,"   104 
Roberts,  Mary,  139 
Robinson,  Sug,  402 
Rociada,  378 
Rock  of  Ages,  411 
Rodriguez,    Fray    Agustin,    63,    120; 

Camino  Real 
Rollins,  Warren  E.,  r67 
Rolshoven,  Julius,  168,  199 
Romero,  Don  Trinidad,  237 
Romero,  Vicente,  379 
Romeroville,  237 
Rooke,  Sarah  J.,  268-9 
Roosevelt,  Franklin  D.,  257 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  79 
Ross,  Gov.  Edmund  G.,  78 
Roswell,  347-8,  382 
Roughing  It,  263 
Rough     Riders      (Spanish     American 

War),  79 
Roy,  232 

Royal  City  of  the  Holy  Faith,  136 
Royal  Road,  The,  see  Camino  Real 
Roybal,  Ignacm  dc,  277 
Rucker,  Gen.  George,  176 
Ruins,  Indian  and  Mission,  see  Indian 

Ruins 

Rush,  Olive,  167,  201,  260 
Russet  Mantle,  137 
Ruxton,  George  Frederick,  132 
Rydal  Press,  140 

Saayedra,  R.  M.,  304 

Sabin,  Edwin  L.,  139 

Sabinal,  250 

Saga  of  Billy  the  Kid,  ^38 

St.   Catherine's  Indian  School   (Santa 

Fe)j  201 

St.  Francis  Feast  Day;  see  RELIGION 
St.  Joseph  (painting)  lawsuit,  332-3 
St.  Michael's  College  (Santa  Fe),  127, 

203 
St.  Vrain,  Ceran,  71;  home  in  Mora, 

379 
Salazar,  Friar  Cristobal  de,  253;  San 

Ildefonso  mission,  277 
Salem,  258 
Salpointe,   JRt.    Rev.,    202;    school    at 

Mora,  374 
Salt  Lakes,  294 
San  Acacio,  251 


INDEX    455 


San  Antonio,  253 

San  Antonito,  396 

San  Antonio,  Fray  Salvador,  121 

San  Cristobal,  286 

San  Felipe  Pueblo,  246 

San  Fidel,  320 

San  Gabriel  del  Yunque,  64 

San    Geronimo    de    Taos,    see    Taos 
Pueblo 

San  lldefonso,  277-9 

San  Jon,  312 

San  Jose",  238 

San  Jose,  102 

San  Jose  Training  School   (Albuquer- 
que), 128 

San  Juan  Bautista,  64 

San  Juan  River,  basin,  24 

San  Marcial,  254 

San  Mateo,  319 

San  Miguel  del  Bado,  237 

San  Patricio,  370 

San  Pedro  Ruins,  see  Paako 

San  Rafael,  320 

San  Ysidro,  367 

Sanchez,  Abel,  278 

Sandia   Loop   and  Rim  Drive    (near 
Albuquerque),  186 

Sandia  Pueblo,  247 

Sandia   School   for   Girls    (Albuquer- 
que), 129 

Sand  paintings,  see  Navaho 

Sand  Paintings  of  the  Navaho  Shoot* 
ing  Chant,  340 

Sandzen,  Birger,  199 

Sangre  de  Cristo  Mountains,  285 

Santa  Ana  Pueblo,  368 

Santa  Clara  Pueblo,  351-2 

Santa  Cruz,  295 

Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada,  66,  68 

SANTA  FE,  187-211: 
American  occupation,  190;  climate, 
188;  description  of,  187-8;  found- 
ing, 188;  points  of  interest,  192- 
210;  points  of  interest  in  environs, 
210-1;  Pueblo  Revolt,  189;  recon- 
quest,  189 

Santa  Fe  Celebrations,  192 

Santa  Fe  Fiesta,  192 

Santa    Fe*s    Partner,     134;     excerpt, 
296 

Santa  Fe  National  Forest,  26,  240 

Santa  Fe  Republican,  73 

Santa    Fe   Trail,   70-1,   91,    94-5,   139, 
220,  227 

Santa  Maria  dc  Acoma,  320 

Santa  Maria,  Juan  de,  62 

Santa  Rita,  264 

Santa  Rita  Mine,  discovered,  264 

Santa  Rosa,  315 

Santo  Domingo  Pueblo,  246 


Santo  Domingo,  corn  dance,  46,  141; 
songs,   142 

SapelhS,  380 

Sauerwine,  Frank,  167,  199 

Saville,  Bruce,  168 

Scapitta,  Cartaino,  199 

Scenic  Geologic  Features,   12-3 

Schleeter,  Howard,  168,  260 

Schmidt,  Albert  H.,  168 

Scholes,  France  V.,  121 

Scholle,  358 

Schools,  Indian,   129 

Schools  and  Colleges: 

AlKson- James  School  (Santa  Fe), 
200;  College  of  St.  Joseph  on  the 
Rio  Grande  (Albuqueique),  129; 
Eastern  New  Mexico  University 
(Portales),  129;  Loretto  Academy 
(Santa  Fe),  127,  203;  Loretto 
School  (Mora),  375,  ;  St.  Cath- 
erine's Indian  School  (Santa  Fe), 
201;  St.  Michael's  College  (Santa 
Fe),  127,  203;  Northern  New 
Mexico  Normal  (£1  Rito),  128: 
New  Mexico  State  University  (Las 
Cruces),  82,  127,  259-60;  State 
Girl's  Welfare  Home  (Albuquer- 
que), 129;  State  Industrial  School 
for  Boys  (Springer),  129;  New 
Mexico  Military  Institute  (Ros- 
well),  79,  129,  347;  New  Mexico 
Highlands  University  (Las  Vegas), 
128;  State  School  for  the  Blind 
(Alamogordo),  373;  State  School 
for  the  Deaf  (Santa  Fe),  129,  210; 
State  School  for  Mental  Defectives 
(Los  Lunas),  129;  New  Mexico 
Institute  of  Mining  and  Technol- 
ogy (Socorro),  127,  253;  New 
Mexican  Western  College  (Silver 
City),  128,  417-18;  see  also  EDU- 
CATION and  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEW 
MEXICO 

School   of    American    Research,    194; 
Indian  Art,  278 

Scott,  Winfield,  402 

Sea  of  Grass,  136 

Seboyeta,  316 

Sedgwick,  Mrs.  W.  T.,  139 

Separ,  375 

Servilleta,  306 

Seton,  Ernest  Thompson,  302 

Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  60-1,  325 

Seven  Lakes,  334 

Shalako,  see  Zuni  Pueblo 

Sharp,  Joseph  Henry,  167,  218 

Sheep,  see  Stock  raising 

Sheridan,  Gen.  Phil  H.,  176 

Sherman,  Gen.  William  T.,  176 


4.56    INDEX 

Ship  rock,  363 

Shiprock  (Peak),  341 

Shonnard,  Eugenie,  168 

Shrines,  Catholic,  Our  Lady  of 
Lpurdes,  318 

Shrines,  Indian,  La  Cueva  Pintada, 
282-3;  stone  Lions,  282;  Yapashi, 
282 

Shupe,  W.  K.,  125 

Shuster,  Will,  168 

Sibley,  Gen.  Hopkins  H.,  76,  176,  190; 
at  Valverde,  241,  254 

Sierra  Negra  Ice  Caves,  see  Ice  Caves 

Silver,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Silver  City,  417-8 

Silversmithing,  Navaho,   159-61 

Simpson,  William  Haskel,  135 

Singing  Cowboy,  145 

Siringo,  Charles  A.,  138 

Skarda,  306 

"Sky  City,"  see  Acoma 

Sky  Determines,  139 

Slavery,  75 

Sloan,  John,  168,  199 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  128 

Smith,  Van  L.,  347 

Snakes,  see  Fauna 

Society  for  Preservation  and  Restora- 
tion of  New  Mexico  Churches,  299 

Socorro,  251-3 

Soda  Dam,  367 

Soelen,  Theodore  Van,  418 

Soils,  29 

Soil  Conservation,  28-31 

Soil  Conservation  Service,  29 

Some  Recollections  of  a  Western 
Ranchman,  137 

Songs  and  Ballads,  Indian,  141-3 ; 
Spanish,  143-4 

Songs  of  the  Cowboy,  1 34 

Sosa,  Caspar  Castano  de,  63 

"Spanish-American,"  4 

Spanish- American  Normal  School  (£1 
Rito),  128 

Spanish-American  War,  Rough  Rid- 
ers, 79 

Spanish-Colonial  Art  Society,  166 
Spanish  Conquest  of  New  Mexico,  133 
Spanish  Pioneers,  The,  133 
Spanish-Pueblo  Architecture,  see  AR- 
CHITECTURE 

Spanish  Trail,  see  Trails 
Springer,  232 
Springer,  Charley,  273 
Springer,  Frank,  168,  199,  273 
Spring,  John,  303 

Staked  Plains,  see  Llano  Estacado 
Stanton,  Capt.,  death  of.  394 
Starry  Adventure,  136 


Starvation  Peak,  237 

State  Department  of  Vocational  Edu- 
cation, 1 86 

State  Monuments,  see  Monuments, 
State 

State  Penitentiary    (Santa  Fe),  210 

STATE  TODAY,  3-9 

Statehood,  see  HISTORY 

Steinbeck,  John,  309 

Stepsons  of  Light,  134 

Stockraising,  27-8,  177;  see  also  AGRI- 
CULTURE AND  STOCKRAISING 

Stockton,  Ike,  364-5 

Stockton,  Porter,  364-5 

Stockton,  Tom,  230 

Stover,  Gov.  H.  H.,  177 

Strange  Corners  of  Our  Country,  133 

Swapp,  John  William,  125 

Swartz  Ruins,  416 

Tabira",  ruins,  398 

Tajique,  397 

Talbot,  Rev.  J.  C.,  124 

Tales  oj  the  Chuck  Wagon,  134 

Talraadge,  Dr.  S.  B.,  270 

Talmadge  Glacier,  270 

Talpa,  376 

Taos,  212-23:  as  art  center,  217-8; 
description  of,  212;  history,  215-7; 
origin  of  name,  214;  points  of  in- 
terest, 220-3  »  points  of  interest  in 
environs,  223;  racial  aspects,  216 

Taos  Junction,  306,  412 

Taos  Pueblo,  217-20 

Taos  Revolt,  73 ;  Gov.  Bent  murdered, 
217;  Santa  Cruz  battle,  296 

Taos  Society  of  Artists,  167,  218 

Tatum,  380 

Tatum,  James  G.,  380 

Tay-Ta/s  Memories f  140 

Tay-Tay's  Tales,  140 

Tecolote,  237 

Temperature,  average,  10 

Tent  Caterpillar  Laboratory,  84 

Tesuque  Pueblo,  292 

Tewa  Firelight  Tales,  140 

Texas,  74;  see  also  Racial  Elements 

Texico,   355  ^ 

Teypana,  ruins,  253 

Thacker,  Charles  B.,  230 

Thatcher,  Billy,  268 

Thompson,  Winifred,  168 

Thoroughfares,  see  Roads  and  Thor- 
oughfares 

Thorp,  N.  Howard   (Jack),   105,  109, 

134,  138 

Three  Rivers,  389 
Tierra  Amarilla,  345 
Tiguex,  Coronado  at,  61 
Tijeras,   316,   397 


Tinnie,  371 

Tin  work,  see  Art 

Tohatchi,  338 

Tonto  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 

Tooth  of  Time,  274 

Topography,  10 

Torreon,  397 

Torreon,  ruins,  397 

Torrance,  387 

Tortugas,  47,  260-1 

Trails:  Beale,  95;  Butterfield,  405; 
Camino  Real,  93-4,  227;  Chihuahua, 
191;  Chisum,  402;  Cooke,  95;  Good- 
night-Loving, 95,  348;  Jornada  del 
Muerto,  64,  253;  Kiowa,  220;  Na- 
vaho,  220;  Picuris,  220;  Santa  Fe, 
94,  190-1,  220,  227;  see  also  HIS- 
TORY, TRANSPORTATION 

Transcedental  Painting  Group,  169 

TRANSPORTATION,  93-7 

Treaties,  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  73; 
Gadsden  Purchase,  75,  260 

Tree-ring  Dating,  38,  397-8 

Trees,  see  Flora 

Tres  Piedras,  306 

Trevino,  Gen.  Juan  Francisco,  278 

Truchas,  299 

True,  Allen,  168 

Tsabiyo,  277-9 

Tsankawi,  ruins,  280-1 

Tshirege,  ruins,  281 

Tsireh,  Awa,  see  Awa  Tsireh 

Tucumcari,  312-3 

Tucumcari  State  Park,  313 

Tularosa,  372 

Tunstall,  John  G.,  138;  in  Lincoln 
County  War,  382-3 

Tunyo,  277-8 

Tu-pa-tu,  Chief,  290 

Turley,  Simeon,  286-7 

Turley's  Mill,  286-7 

Turquoise  mines,  242-3 

Twitchell,  Ralph  E.,  90,  123,  133 

Two  Thousand  Miles  on  Horseback, 
132 

Two  'Years  Before  the  Mast,  132 

Tyrone,  318-9 

Tyuonyi,  ruins,  282 

Ufer,  Walter,  167 

Ulibarri,  Juan  de,  290 

Under  the  Sun,  136 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Indian 
Affairs,  52 

United  States  Court  of  Private  Land 
Claims,  78 

United  States,  Department  of:  Agri- 
culture, 84;  Forest  Service,  26;  In- 
terior, 52,  128;  Soil  Conservation 
Service,  29 


INDEX   457 

United  States  Indian  Arts  and  Crafts 

Board,  161 
United    States    Indian    Schools,    see 

Schools  and  Colleges 
United  States  Potash  Co.,  403 
University  of  New   Mexico:  archeo- 

logical   sites   for  field  classes,   239, 

337»  368,  416;  Art  Department,  168; 

campus    tour,    179;    description    of, 

178;  folkcrafts,   166;   History,   127; 

president's    home,    182;    University 

Library,  179-80 
Updegraff,  Captain,  355 
U.  S.  Hill,  377 
Ute  Indians,  57-8 
Ute  Park,  274 

Vadito,  291 

Valdes,     Francisco     Cuervo     y,     see 

Cuervo  y  Valdes 
Valdez,  Antonio  Jose,  222 
Valdez,  Antonio  Jose  Maria,  233 
Valle,  Alex,  241 
Valle  Grande,  283 
Valley,  266 
Valmont,  390 

Vaquero  Apache,  see  Apache  Indians 
Vaughn,  387 
Vega,  Lope  de,  143 
Velarde,  291 
Velasco,    Fray    Fernando    de,    slain, 

239 

Velez,  Gov.  Don  Tomas,  71 
Veri,  Pascualo  de,  202 
Vermejo  Park,  270 
Vestal,  Stanley,  135,  138 
Vial,  Pedro   (Pierre),  70 
Victoria,  Chief,  55,  78,  262 
Vierra,  Carlos,   167-8,  199 
Vigil,  Donaciano,  72 
Villa,  Pancho  (Francisco),  80 
Villa's  Raid,  80 
Villagra,  Captain  Don  Gaspar  Perez 

de,  64,  65,  130,  195 
Villaneuva,  316 
Villasur,  Pedro,  68 

Wagon  Mound,  232 

Wah-to    Yah,   The    Taos   Trail,   131, 

218 

Waldo,  Lawrence  L.,  379 
Wallace,  General  Lew,  77,  132,  195 
Wallace,  Mrs.  Lew    (Susan  B.),   132 
Wallace,  Vincent,  185 
Warfield,  Col.  Charles,  379 
Warner,  Edith,  277 
Washington,  Lt.  Col.  John  M.,  339 
Water,  underground,  12;  basins,  21*4 
Waterless  Mountain,  140 
Watrous,  233 


458    INDEX 

Weaving,    Indian     (Navaho),    157-9; 

Spanish   (Chimay6),  164 
Weir,  Billy,  402 
Wells,  Cady,  168,  277 
Western  Livestock  Journal,  293 
West  is  West,  136 
Westlake,  Inez  B.,  168 
Whalen,  Barney,  402 
Whalen,  Jim,  402 

Wheelwright,  Miss  Mary  C.,  142,  204 
When  Old  Trails  Were  New,  139 
White,  Dr.  H.,  232;  slaying,  232-3 
White,  Jim,  406 

"White  Caps,"  range  troubles,  235 
White  Elephant,  'The,  177 
White  Mountain  Apache,  see  Apache 

Indians 

White  Oaks,  388-9 
White     Sands     National     Monument, 

373-4 

White's  City,  404 
Whitman,  William,  140 
Whitney,  James,  293 
Wilburn,  Aaron  O.,  347 
Wildlife,  see  Game  and  Fish 
Wildy,  Maj.  W.  W.,  347 
Wilkerson,  Bert,  364 
Will  Rogers,  309,  392 
Willard,  294,  357 
Williams,  "Old  Bill"   (William  Sher- 

ley),  see  Old  Bill  Williams 
Willis,  Brooks,  168 
Wilson,  John,  388 
Wind  Singer^  136 
Wingate,  Capt.  Benjamin,  322 
Winged  Rock,  The,  341 
Wislizenus,  Dr.  A.,  15,  235 
With  Hoops  of  Steel,  134 


Witt,  Boston,  402 

Wolf  Song,  135 

Wood,  Col.  Leonard,  79 

Wootton,    "Uncle    Dick,"    adventures, 

227-9 
Writers'  Editions,  140 

Yankee,  270 

Yebechai,   Navaho,   141 ;   see   also   In- 
dian Dances 
Yeso,  357 

Young-Hunter,  John,  167 
Yucca,  see  Flora 
Yugeuingge,  64 
Yunque-Yunque,   120 

Zaldivar,  Juan  de,  slain  at  Acorn  a,  64 

Zaldivar,  Vicente;  arrest  and  sen- 
tence, 66 ;  captures  Acoma,  64 ;  con- 
quers Aco ma,  330 

Zamora,  Fray  Francisco  de,  289 

Zarate-Salmeron,  Fray  Ger6nimo,  330 

Zia  Pueblo,  367-8 

Zimmerman,  James  F.,  president,  Uni- 
versity home,  182 

Zinc,  see  Mines  and  Mineral  Re- 
sources 

Zubira,  Bishop,  122 

Zuni  Creation  Myths,  133 

Zuni  Folk-Tales,  133 

Zuni  Indian  Tales,  139 

Zuni  Pueblo,  Hawikuh,  325-6;  history, 
325-7;  mission  ruins,  325;  Shalako, 
46,  141,  325;  songs,  6 1,  142 

Zuniga,  Friar  Garcia  de,  mission  at 
Socorro,  253 ;  San  Antonio  mission. 
254 

Zutucopan,  Chief,  330 


KEY 


l"  PRIMARY  STATE  AND  FEDERAL  SYSTEM  ROUTES 
SECONDARY  STATE  ROUTES 


OD  t=»  •>  «B        THIRD  CLASS  STATE  ROUTES 
INDICATES  MILEAGES  BETWCCN  TOWNS  AND  JUNCTIONS 


NATIONAL   MONUMENTS  AND  PARKS  **• 

STATE  MONUMENTS  I 

STATE    PARKS  H 

WINTER  SPORTS  AREAS-IMPROVED  •* 

STATE  HIGHWAYS  «• 
U  S.  HIGHWAYS 

AIRPORTS 
$    MUNICIPAL(C  A  A  RATING) 

0      ARMY 

A      CAA   INTERMEDIATE 


RAILROADS 

INDIAN  PUEILOS 

COUNTY  SEATS 

OTHER  CITIES  OR  TOWNS 

ROAD  JUNCTIONS  AND  POINTS 

ON  STATE  BOUNDARY  LINES 


SECTIONAL  DIVISION  OF 
STATE  MAP 


0      10     20     30     40     50  MILES 


10     20     30     40     50  MILES 


0      10     20     30     40     50  MILES 
I       I 1 


0      10     20     30     40     50  MILES 


INDEX  TO  STATE  MAP  SECTIONS 


Abiquiu 

Abbott 

Acoma 

Alamillo 

Alamogordo 

Albuquerque 

Algodones 

Alma 

Amistad 

Ancho 

Animas 

Antelope  Wells 

Anthony 

Anton  Chico 

Apache  Creek 

Aragon 

Arch 

Arroyo  Hondo 

Artesia 

Augustine 

Aztec 

Bayard 

Beaverhead 

Belen 

Bell 

Bellview 

Berino 

Bernal 

Bernalillo 

Bernardo 

Biklabito 

Bingham 

Black  Lake 

Blanco 

Bland 

Bloomfield 

Bluewater 

Bluit 

Brazos 

Broadview 

Buckhorn 

Bueyeros 


SEC- 
TIONS 

II 

III 

I 

V 
V 

II 
II 

IV 

III 

V 
IV 
IV 

V 

II 

IV 
IV 

VI 

II 

VI 
IV 

I 

IV 
IV 

II 
III 
III 

V 

II 

II 

II 

I 

V 

II 
I 

II 
I 
I 

VI 

II 

III 

IV 

III 


Caballo 

Cameron 

Canjilon 

Capitan 

Caprock 

Capulin 

Carlsbad 

Carrizozo 

Cebolla 

Cedarhill 

Cedarvale 

Central 

Cerrillos 

Chama 

Chilili 

Chimayo 

Cimarron 

Claud 

Claunch 

Clayton 

Cliff 

Clines  Corners 

Cloudcroft 

Clovis 

Colfax 

Colmor 

Columbus 

Corona 

Correo 

Costilla 

Counselors 

Cowles 

Coyote 

Crossroads 

Crownpoint 

Crystal 

Cuba 

Cuchillo 

Cuervo 

Datil 
Deming 
Des  Moines 


SEC- 
TIONS 

IV 

III 

II 

V 

VI 

III 

VI 

V 

II 

I 

II 

IV 

II 

II 

II 

II 

III 

III 

V 

III 

IV 

II 

V 

III 
III 
III 

IV 
V 

I 

II 
I 

II 
II 

VI 

I 

I 

II 

IV 

III 

IV 
IV 

III 


4.67 


468    NEW   MEXICO 


Dexter 

Dilia 

Dixon 

Domingo 

Dona  Ana 

Dora 

Duke 

Dunken 

Dunlap 

Duran 

Dusty 

Dwyer 

Eagle  Nest 

Edgewood 

Elephant  Butte 

Elida 

Elk 

El  Morro 

El  Porvenir 

El  Rito 

El  Vado 

Embudo 

Encino 

Encinosa 

Endee 

Engle 

Escondida 

Espanola 

Estancia 

Eunice 

Farley 
Farmington 
Fay  wood 
Fence  Lake 
Field 
Florida 
Floyd 
Folsom 
Forrest 
Fruitland 
Ft.  Stanton 
Ft.  Sumner 

Gage 


SEC- 

TIONS 

VI 

Galisteo 

II 

Gallegos 

II 

Gallina 

II 

Gallinas 

V 

Gallup 

VI 

Gamerco 

II 

Garfield 

V 

Gavilan 

VI 

Gladiola 

II 

Gladstone 

IV 

Glenrio 

IV 

Glenwood 

Glorieta 

II 

Gobernador 

II 

Golden 

V 

Grady 

VI 

Gran  Quivira 

V 

Grants 

I 

Grenville 

II 

Guadalupita 

II 

II 

Hagerman 

II 

Hanover 

II 

Hatch 

V 

Hatchita 

III 

Hermanas 

V 

Hernandez 

V 

High  Lonesome 

II 

Hillsboro 

II 

Hobbs 

VI 

Hollywood 

Holman 

III 

Hondo 

I 

Hope 

IV 

Horse  Springs 

I 

House 

I 

Hurley 

IV 

VI 

Isleta 

III 

III 

Jal 

I 

Jemez  Springs 

V 

Jordan 

III 

Kenna 

IV 

Kingston 

SEC- 
TIONS 

II 

III 

II 

V 

I 

I 

IV 

II 

VI 

III 
III 

IV 

II 
I 

II 
III 

V 

I 

III 
II 

VI 
IV 
IV 
IV 
IV 

II 

VI 

IV 

VI 

V 

II 

V 
VI 
IV 

III 

IV 

II 

VI 

II 
III 

VI 
IV 


INDEX     TO     STATE     MAP     SECTIONS      469 


La  Cueva 
Laguna 
La  Jara 
Lake  Arthur 
Lake  Valley 
La  Liendre 
La  Madera 
La  Mesa 
Lamy 
La  Plata 
Las  Cruces 
Las  Vegas 
La  Union 
La  Ventana 
Levy 
Lincoln 
Lindrith 
Lingo 
Loco  Hills 
Logan 
Lordsburg 
Los  Alamos 
Los  Lunas 
Los  Montoyas 
Loving 
Lovington 
Lucy 

Lumberton 
Luna 

Madrid 

Magdalena 

Malaga 

Maljamar 

Manuelito 

Manzano 

Maxwell 

Mayhill 

McAlister 

McDonald 

Melrose 

Mesa 

Mescalero 

Mesilla 

Mesilla  Park 


SEC- 

TIONS 

Mesquite 

II 

Miami 

I 

Mills 

II 

Milnesand 

VI 

Mogollon 

IV 

Monero 

II 

Monticello 

II 

Montoya 

V 

Monument 

II 

Mora 

I 

Moriarty 

V 

Moses 

II 

Mosquero 

V 

Mountainair 

II 

Mt.  Dora 

III 

Mule  Creek 

V 

II 

Nageesi 

VI 

Naschitti 

VI 

Nara  Visa 

III 

Newcomb 

IV 

Newkirk 

II 

Newman 

II 

Nogal 

II 

Norton 

VI 

Nutt 

VI 

II 

Obar 

II 

Ocate 

IV 

Oil  Center 

Ojo  Caliente 

II 

Ojo  Feliz 

IV 

Organ 

VI 

Orogrande 

VI 

Oscuro 

I 

Otowi 

II 

III 

Parkview 

V 

Pasamonte 

III 

Pastura 

VI 

Pecos 

III 

Pep 

VI 

Peralta 

V 

Pietown 

V 

Pilar 

V 

Pine  Lodge 

SEC- 
TIONS 

V 

III 
III 

VI 
IV 

II 

IV 

III 

VI 

II 

II 

III 

III 

II 

III 

IV 

I 
I 

III 
I 

III 

V 
V 

III 

IV 

III 
II 

VI 

II 
II 

V 

V 
V 

II 

II 

III 

II 

II 

VI 

II 

IV 

II 

V 


47°      NEW     MEXICO 


Pinon 

Pinos  Altos 

Placitas 

Pleasanton 

Pojoaque 

Portales 

Pueblo  Bonito 

Puertecito 

Puerto  de  Luna 

Puye 

Quay 

Quemado 
Questa 

Radium  Springs 

Ragland 

Rainsville 

Ramah 

Ramon 

Ranches  de  Taos 

Raton 

Rattlesnake 

Red  Hill 

Red  River 

Regina 

Reserve 

Rincon 

Riverside 

Road  Forks 

Rodeo 

Romeroville 

Rosebud 

Roswell 

Rowe 

Roy 

Ruidoso 

Salt  Lake 
San  Antonio 
San  Antonito 
Sands 
San  Fidel 
San  Jon 
San  Lorenzo 
San  Mateo 


SEC- 

SEC- 

TIONS 

TIONS 

V 

San  Miguel 

V 

IV 

San  Rafael 

I 

II 

Santa  Fe 

II 

IV 

Santa  Rita 

IV 

II 

Santa  Rosa 

III 

VI 

San  Ysidro 

II 

I 

Sapello 

11 

I 

Scholle 

II 

III 

Sedan 

III 

II 

Seneca 

III 

Senorita 

II 

III 

Separ 

IV 

I 

Sheep  Springs 

I 

II 

Shiprock 

I 

Silver  City 

IV 

V 

Socorro 

V 

III 

Solano 

III 

II 

Springer 

III 

I 

Stanley 

II 

V 

State  College 

V 

II 

Stead 

III 

III 

Steins 

IV 

I 

Sunset 

V 

IV 

II 

Tajique 

II 

II 

Taos 

II 

IV 

Tatum 

VI 

V 

Taylor  Springs 

III 

II 

Teague 

VI 

IV 

Tesuque 

II 

IV 

Texico 

III 

II 

Tierra  Amarilla 

II 

III 

Tijeras 

II 

VI 

Thoreau 

I 

II 

Three  Rivers 

V 

III 

Toadlena 

I 

V 

Tohatchi 

I 

Tolar 

III 

I 

Torrance 

II 

V 

Torreon 

II 

II 

Tres  Pied  r  as 

II 

II 

Tres  Ritos 

II 

I 

Trujillo, 

III 

III 

Truth  or  Consequences 

IV 

IV 

Tucumcari 

III 

I 

Tularosa 

V 

INDEX    TO     STATE     MAP     SECTIONS      471 


Tusas 
Tyrone 

Ute  Park 

Vado 

Vallecitos 

Valley 

Valmont 

Variadero 

Vaughn 

Veguita 

Velarde 

Villanueva 

Virden 


SEC- 

TIONS 

II 

Wagon  Mound 

IV 

Walnut  Wells 

Watrous 

Weber  City 

Weed 

White  City 

V 

White  Rock 

II 
III 

White  Signal 
Willard 

V 

Wilna 

III 

Wingate  Sta. 

II 

Winston 

II 

II 

Yankee 

II 

Yeso 

IV 

Zuni 

SEC- 
TIONS 

III 

IV 

II 
III 

V 
VI 

II 

IV 

II 

IV 

I 

IV 

III 
III 

I 


SOME  BOOKS  ABOUT  NEW  MEXICO 
PUBLISHED  SINCE  1950 


Adams,  Ramon  F.     A  Fitting  Death  For  Billy  The  Kid.  Norman,  Uni- 
versity of  Oklahoma  Press,  1961,  $4.95. 
Arnold,  Elliot.     The  Time  of  the  Gringo.  New  York,  Alfred  A.  Knopf, 

1953,  $4-95- 

Blacker,  Irvin  R.     Taos.  Cleveland,  World  Publishing  Co.,  1950,  $5.95. 

Corle,  Edwin.  The  Gila,  River  of  the  Southwest.  New  York,  Rinehart 
and  Company,  1951,  $4.50. 

Fugate,  Francis  L.  The  Spanish  Heritage  of  the  Southwest.  El  Paso, 
Texas  Western  Press,  1952,  $5. 

Garrard,  Lewis  H.  PPah-To-Yah  and  the  Taos  Trail.  Norman,  Uni- 
versity of  Oklahoma  Press,  1955,  $2. 

Gentry,  Claude.    Kit  Carson.  Baldwyn,  Miss.,  Magnolia  Publishers,  1956, 

$3- 
Gregg,  Kate  L.     The  Road  to  Santa  Fe.  Albuquerque,  University  of  New 

Mexico  Press,  1952,  $4.50. 
Hutchinson,  W.  H.     A  Bar  Cross  Man,  The  Life  and  Personal  Writings 

of  Eugene  Manlove  Rhodes.  Norman,  University  of  Oklahoma  Press, 

1956,  $5. 
Keleher,  William  A.     Violence  in  Lincoln  County,  1869-1881.  Albuquerque, 

University  of  New  Mexico  Press,  1957,  $6. 

Kerby,  Robert  Lee.     The  Confederate  Invasion  of  New  Mexico  and  Ari- 
zona 1861-1862.  Los  Angeles,  Westernlore  Press,  1958,  $7.50. 
Lipsky,  Eleazar.    Lincoln  McKeever.  New  York,  Appleton-Century-Croft, 

Inc.,  1953.  $3-50. 


472     NEW     MEXICO 

Mann,  E.  B.  and  Fred  E.  Harvey.    New  Mexico:  Land  of  Enchantment. 

East  Lansing,  Michigan  State  University  Press,   1955,  $5- 
Pearson,  Jim  Berry.     The  Maxwell  Land  Grant.  Norman,  University  of 

Oklahoma  Press,   1961,  $5. 
Pillsbury,  Dorothy  L.    Adobe  Doorways.  Albuquerque,  University  of  New 

Mexico  Press,   1952,  $3.50. 
Roots  in   Adobe.  Albuquerque,    University   of   New    Mexico   Press, 

1959,  $4- 

Powell,  Lawrence  Clark.  Books  in  My  Baggage.  New  York,  World  Pub- 
lishing Co.,  1961,  $4.50. 

Richter,  Conrad.     The  Lady.  New  York,  Alfred  A.  Knopf,  Inc.,  1957,  $3. 

Russell,  Marion  Sloan.  Land  of  Enchantment,  Memoirs  of  Marion  Russell 
Along  the  Santa  Fe  Trail.  Evanston,  Branding  Iron  Press,  1954,  $7.50. 

Sanford,  Trent  Elwood.  The  Architecture  of  the  Southwest;  Indian,  Span- 
ish, American.  New  York,  W.  W.  Norton  and  Co.,  1950,  $6. 

Sonnichsen,  C.  L.  The  Mescalero  Apaches.  Norman,  University  of  Okla- 
homa Press,  1958,  $5.75. 

Stanley,  F.    Fort  Union.  Denver,  World  Press,  Inc.,  1953,  $5. 

Wallis,  George  A.  Cattle  Kings  of  the  Staked  Plains.  Dallas,  American 
Guild  Press,  1957,  $3-75- 

Wellman,  Paul  I.  Glory,  God,  and  Gold,  A  Narrative  History.  Garden 
City,  Doubleday  &  Co.,  1954,  $6.