UNIVERSITY
CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
THE
NEW
NATURAL HISTORY
By
RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
and
R. BOWDLER SHARPE, H. A. MAcPHERSON, F. O. PICKARD-CAM-
BRIDGE, W. R. OGILVIE GRANT, C. J. GAHAN, F. A. BATHER,
EDGAR A. SMITH, R. I. POCOCK, M. BERNARD,
H. BERNARD AND R. KIRKPATRICK.
Wiih Preface by
JOEL A. ALLEN
CURATOR OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Illustrated with
SEI/ENTY-TU/O COLOURED PLATES AND SIXTEEN HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS
VOLUME IL
NEW YORK
MERRILL & BAKER
PUBLISHERS
LTF.RARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
CONTENTS
MAMMALS
CHAPTER XVI. — CARNIVORES,— continued.
PAGE
BEARS (Ursidce). — General Characteristics— Distribution — The Typical Bears (Ursus) — Polar
Bear — Brown Bear — Crowther's Bear — Grizzly Bear — American Black Bear — Hima-
layan Black Bear — Spectacled Bear — Malayan Bear- — Extinct Cave-Bear — The Sloth-
Bear (Melursus) — -The Parti-Coloured Bear (&luropus) — Extinct Bear-like Genera, . 1
CHAPTER XVII.— CARNIVORES, — -continued,
THE RACCOON TRIBE (Procyonidce). — -Distinctive Features of Raccoons — Their Peculiar Distri-
bution— The Panda (t'Kliirus) — Raccoons (Procyon) — Habits — Crab-Eating Raccoon —
Cacomistles (Bassaris) — Coatis (Nasua) — The Kinkajou (Cercoleptes), . . .35
CHAPTER XVIII.— CARNIVORES, —continued.
THE WEASEL TRIBE (Mnxklida) — Characteristics and Distribution — Tayra and Grison (Galictis)
— Martens, Polecats, and Weasels (Mustela) — Pine-Marten — Beech-Marten—Sable —
American Marten — Fisher-Marten—Indian Marten — Polecat — Sarmatian Polecat —
Black-Footed Polecat — Ferret — Weasel — Stoat or Ermine — Other Species — Extinct
Forms — Mink — Its Fur in commerce — Siberian Mink — South African Weasel
(Pcecilocjale) — Glutton or Wolverene (Gulo) — The Skunks (Mephitis and Conepattu) —
Common Skunk — Long- Tailed Skunk — Lesser Skunk— White-Backed Skunk— Fossil
Skunks — The Cape Polecat (Ictonyx) — Ferret-Badgers (Helictis) — Ratels (Mdlivora) —
Fossil Species — The American Badger (Taxidea) — Common Badger (Meles) — The
Malayan Badger (Mydaus) — The Sand-Badger (Arctonyx) — Otters (Lutra)— European
Otter — Habits — Tame Otters — Otter-Hunting — North American Otter — Brazilian
Otter— Feline Otter— Smooth Indian Otter— Hairy-Nosed Otter— Clawless Otter —
African Otters -Spotted - Necked Otter— Extinct Otters— The Sea-Otter (Latax), . 46
VOL. II
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER XIX.— CARNIVORES,— concluded.
EARED SEALS, WALRUSES, AND SEALS (Otariidce, Trichechidce, and Phocidce). — Distinctive
Characters of the Group — The Eared Seals (Otariidce) — Habits — Hair-Seals and Fur-
Seals — Southern Sea- Lion — Distribution and Habits — Northern Sea-Lion — Distribution
— Californian Sea-Lion — Hooker's Sea-Lion — Australian Hair-Seal — The Northern
Sea-Bear — Seal-Rookeries — Southern Fur-Seals — South American Fur-Seal — Cape
Fur-Seal — New Zealand Fur-Seal — The Walrus (TrichecJms) — The True, or Earless
Seals (Phocidce) — Their Distinctive Features, Distribution, and Habits — The Grey Seal
(Halichosrus) — Common and Greenland Seals (Phoca) — Allied Species — The Monk-Seal
(Monachus)— West Indian Seal — The Leopard-Seal (Ogmorhinus) — Crab-Eating Seal
(Lobodon) — Weddell's Seal (Leptonychotes) — Ross's Seal (Ommatophocci) — Crested Seal
(Oystophora) — Elephant-Seal (Macrorhinus) — Seal-Hunting — The Primitive Carnivores, 102
CHAPTER XX. — THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS, — Order Ungulata.
THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS (Bovidce). — Characters of Ungulates— Their Feet — Odd-
Toed and Even- Toed Groups — Structure of Teeth — Characteristics — Size — Horns —
Distribution — Hollow-Horned Ruminants — • Even-Toed Ungulates — Oxen (Bos) —
Characters, Distribution, Habits, and Specialisation- — Aurochs and Domestic Oxen —
Domestication — Park Cattle — Chillingham Cattle — Cadzow Cattle — Chartley Cattle —
Other Herds — Shetland Cattle — Highland Breed — Welsh Breed — Kerry Breed — Polled
Angus — Galloways — Polled Suffolk — Alderneys and Jerseys — Ayrshire — Devons —
Heref ords — Longhorns — Shorthorns — Continental Breeds — Indian Cattle — American
and Australian Cattle — Humped Cattle — Galla Cattle — Extinct Species — The Gaur
—The Gayal — The Banting — The Yak — -European Bison — The American Bison —
Extinct Bison — The Cape Buffalo — Short-Horned Buffalo — Extinct Forms — The Indian
Buffalo — Fossil Indian Species — The Tamarao — The Anoa — The Musk-Ox (Ovibos) —
Its Distribution and Habits — -Sheep (Ovis) — Their Characters and Distribution —
American and Kamschatkan Wild Sheep — The Mongolian and Tibetan Argalis — The
Pamir Wild Sheep — The Urial or Sha — Armenian, and Cyprian Sheep — The Moufioii
— Domestic Sheep — Flat-Tailed Sheep — Shetland Breed — Scotch Breeds — Welsh Sheep
— Irish Breeds — Heath Breed — Cheviots — Norfolk Breed — Moor Breeds — Southdowns
— Dorsets — Merino and Long-Woolled Breeds — The Bharal — Barbary Sheep— The
Goats (Capra)— Their Characteristics and Distribution — Caucasian Wild Goats, or Tur
— Pallas's Tur — Caucasian Tur — Severtzow's Tur — Spanish Wild Goat— Persian Wild
Goat — Domestic Goats — Angora Breed — Kashmir Goat— Syrian Goat — Egyptian Goat
— Sudan Goat — Feral Goats — Ibex — Alpine Ibex — -Himalayan Ibex — Arabian Ibex
— Abyssinian Ibex — The Markhor — The Tahr and Nilgiri Wild Goat (Hemitmcjus)
— The Gorals (Cemas)— The Serows (Nemorhcedus) — The Takin (Budorcas)— Rocky
Mountain Goat (/fapZoeeros)— The Chamois (Rupicapra) — Eland (Orias)— Character
and Distribution of Antelopes — Size, Distribution, and Habits of Eland — Derbian
Eland — -Kudu (Strepsiceros) — Common and Lesser Kudu — Harnessed Antelopes (Trag-
elaphus) — -Bongo — Nyala — West African Harnessed Antelope — Nakong — Guib — The
Nilgai (Boselaphus)— The Addax(^<Max)— Oryx(0rp;)— Gemsbok — Beisa — East African
Oryx— Beatrix Antelope — Sabre-Horned Antelope — Extinct Forms — Sable Antelope
and Roan Antelope (Hippotrcujus) — Blaubok — Baker's Antelope — Extinct Species, . 151
CHAPTER XXL— UNGULATES,— continued.
THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS, — continued. — The Gazelles (Gazella) — Springbok — Dorcas
Gazelle — Indian Gazelle — Persian Ga/elle — Grant's Gazelle — Thomson's Gazelle — Other
Species — Clarke's Antelope (Ammodorcas)— Gerenuk (Lithocranius) — Chiru, or Tibetan
Antelope (Pantholops) — The Saiga (Saiga) — Palas (JEpyceros) — Lesser Pala — Angola
CONTENTS vil
PAGE
Pala — Black Buck (Antilope) — Reitbok (Cervicapra) — Water-Buck, Lichi, etc. (Cobus) —
Sing-Sing — Puku — Rhebok (Pelea) — Klipspringer (Oreotragus) — Steinboks (Nanotragus)
— Oribi — Grysbok — Salt's Antelope (Neotragus) — Duikerbok (Cephalophus) — Red Buck
— Blue Buck — Zebra-Antelope — Wood -Antelope — Four-Horned Antelope (Tetraceros)
— Wildebeests (Connochcetes) — Hartebeests, Blessbok, and Bontebok (Bubalis) — Titel —
Hartebeest — Cooke's Hartebeest — Konzi — Herota — Korigum — Sassabi — Blessbok —
Extinct Species .......... 289
CHAPTER XXIL— UNGULATES,— continued.
THE PRONGBUCK (Antilocapridce), and the Giraffe (CHraffidce) — The Prongbuck (Antilojcapra)
— Shedding and Renewal of Horns — Habits — Hunting — Extinct Forms — The Giraffe
(Giraffa) — Distribution — Habits — Hunting— Extinct Mammals allied to the Giraffe —
Samothere — Sivathere, ......... 325
CHAPTER XXIII. — UNGULATES, — continued.
THE DEER-TRIBE (Oervidce) — Nature and Growth of Antlers — Other Characters — The Red
Deer Group (Cervus elaphus, etc.) — Characters and Habits of Red Deer — Allied Species
— Hangul — Shou — Maral — Wapiti — The Japanese Deer Group (G. sika, etc.) — Mant-
ch.urian Deer — Dybowski's Deer — Formosan Deer — Caspian Deer — Indian Spotted
Deer, or Chital (G. axis) — The Sambar Group (G. unicolor, etc.) — Allied Species — Hog-
Deer — The. Swamp-Deer Group (G. duvauceli, etc.) — Schomburgk's Deer — Eld's Deer —
David's Deer (G. davidianus) — Fallow Deer Group (G. dama, etc.) — Persian Fallow
Deer — Extinct Irish Deer — The Muntjacs (Gervulus) — The Tufted Deer (Elaphodus) —
The Reindeer (Ranyifer) — Caribou — The Elk, or Moose (Alces) — Distribution — Habits
— Hunting— The Roe Deer (Gapreolus) — Tartarian Roe — Chinese Water-Deer (Hydro-
potes) — The American Deer (Cariacus) — Characters of their Antlers — Brockets — Costa
Rica Deer — Guemals — Pampas Deer — Marsh-Deer — •Virginian Deer— Naked-Eared
Deer — Mule-Deer — Black-Tailed Deer — The Pudu Deer (Pudua)— The Musk-Deer
(Moschus), ........... 338
CHAPTER XXIV.— UNGULATES,— continued.
CHEVROTAINS AND CAMELS (Tragulidce and Gamelidre). — The Chev-rotains — True Chevrotains
(Tragulus) — Water-Chevrotain (DorcatJierium) — Camels and Llamas — Their Distinctive
Characters — The Camels (Camelus) — Arabian Camel — Its Various Breeds — Bactrian
Camel — The Llamas (Lama) — Vicuuia — Guanaco — Llama — Alpaca — Extinct Camel-
like Ungulates, .......... 398
CHAPTER XXV. — UNGULATES, — continued.
THE PIG-LIKE UNGULATES, PIGS, PECCARIES, AND HIPPOPOTAMI. — The Pigs (Suid(e)— The
True Pigs (Sus) — European and Indian Wild Boars— Andaman Pig — Pigmy Hog —
Malayan Pigs — Domestic Swine — European Breeds — Masked Swine — Bush-Pigs—
Extinct Pigs — The Babirusa (Babirusa) — Its Remarkable Tusks — The Wart-Hogs
(Phacochcertis) — The Peccaries (Dicotylidce) — Extinct Types — Hippopotami (Hippopo-
tamidw) — Common Hippopotamus — Its Distribution and Habits — Hunting — The
Pigmy Hippopotamus — Extinct Species, ....... 420
CHAPTER XXVI.— UNGULATES,— continued.
TAPIRS, RHINOCEROSES, AND HORSES.— Characteristics of Odd-Toed Ungulates— The Tapirs
(Tapiridcf) — Characters and Distribution — Malayan Tapir — American Tapirs — Habits
— Hunting — The Rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidce) — Characteristics — Teeth — Horns —
Habits — The Asiatic Rhinoceroses — Indian Rhinoceros — Javan Rhinoceros — Allied
viii CONTENTS
PAOE
Extinct Species — Sumatran Species — African Rhinoceroses — Common African Species
— Size of Horns — Habits — Hunting — Burchell's Rhinoceros — Holmwood's Rhinoceros
— Extinct Rhinoceroses — The Horse-Tribe (Equidce) — Characteristics — Specialisation —
Equus — Nomenclature of Limbs — Indications of Age — The Horse— Its Distribution —
Tarpan — Prejevalski's Horse — Domestication — In. America — In Australia — Barbs and
Arabs — Arab — Levant and Persian Horses — English Race-Horse — Hunters, etc. —
Leaping Powers — American Trotter — Shetland, and other Ponies — Cart-Horses —
Shire-Horse — Clydesdale — Suffolk Punch — Foreign Breeds — The Zebras — True Zebra
— Burchell's Zebra — Grevy's Zebra— Quagga — The Asses— Asiatic Wild Ass — Varieties,
Distribution, and Habits — African Wild Ass — Domestic Ass — Mule — Fossil Horses —
Other Extinct Odd-Toed Ungulates — Ancestry of the Horse — Palseotheres and Lophio-
dons — Titanotheres and Chalicotheres — Palseosyops, ..... 454
CHAPTER XXVII.— UNGULATES,— conceded
HYRACES, ELEPHANTS, ETC. — Characters of Foot in the Elephants and their Allies — The Hyraces
(Hyracoidea) — Characters of the Procaviidce — Distribution — Abyssinian Hyraces —
Cape Hyrax — Syrian Hyrax — Tree-Hyraces — Elephants (Proboscidea) — Characters of
the Elephantidce — The Skull and Teeth — -Habits — Indian Elephant — Distribution —
Habits — Breeding — -Elephant - Shooting — Modes of Capture — Value and Uses of
Elephants — The Mammoth — The African Elephant — Distribution — Habits — Hunting
— Mode of Capture — Extinct Elephants — Sutledje Elephant — Narbada Elephant —
Straight-Tusked Elephant — Pigmy Species — Southern Elephant — Stegodont Elephants
— The Mastodons — The Dinothere — Short-Footed Ungulates (A mblypoda) — The Macrau-
chenia and its Allies (Litopterna) — The Astrapotheres and their Kin (Astrapothcria) —
The Toxodonts (Toxodoiriia), . . . . . . . .517
CHAPTER XXVIII.— MANATLS AND DUGONGS,— Order SIRENIA.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP. — Mode of Life — Distribution — Classification — Manatis
(Manatus) — Distribution and Number of Species — Habits — The Dugong (Halicore) —
Distribution— Habits — Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina) — Distribution and Habits —
Extermination — Tertiary Sirenians, ....... 567
INDEX, ... .577
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
COLOURED PLATES
THE EUROPEAN BISON, ,
WHITE-NOSED COATI,
EUROPEAN OTTER,
HOOKER'S SEA-LION,
LEOPARD-SEAL,
BHARAL, .
DORCAS GAZELLE,
SOUTH AFRICAN GIRAFFES,
FALLOW DEER,
INDIAN RHINOCEROS,
ZEBRA,
AFRICAN ELEPHANT,
Frontispiece
Facing pnge 44
93
108
144
232
289
332
364
464
505
545
PAGE PLATES
POLAR BEARS AND THEIR PREY,
THE GRIZZLY BEAR,
SLOTH-BEARS IN A FOREST GLADE,
A FAMILY PARTY OF SOUTHERN SEA-LIONS,
WILD CATTLE OF CADZOW PARK,
DOMESTIC YAK, ....
ALPINE IBEX,
CHAMOIS AT BAY,
MALE AND FEMALE KUDU,
GROUP OF AFRICAN ANTELOPES,
A FAMILY OF RED DEKR,
ARABIAN CAMEL, ....
A FAMILY OF EUROPEAN WILD SWINE,
INDIAN ELEPHANT,
THE HAUNT OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT,
Page 7
„ 15
„ 28
„ 103
„ 165
„ 184
„ 246
„ 264
„ 272
„ 317
„ 342
„ 405
,, 423
„ 531
547
TEXT ENGRAVINGS
Brown Bears on the March,
Skeleton of Bear, .
Polar Bear Climbing a Floe,
The Brown Bear, .
Head of Brown Bear,
The American Black Bear,
PAOE
1
2
5
10
11
18
The Himalayan Black Bear,
The Malayan Bear,
Skull of Cave-Bear,
The Parti-Coloured Bear, .
Jaw of Ar. : othere,
Molar Teeth of Hyacnarctus,
PAGE
21
24
25
33
34
34
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Palate of the Cacomistlc, . . .35
The Panda, .... 37
Skeleton of Raccoon, . . .39
The Common Raccoon, . . .40
The Cacomistle, . . . .42
The Kinkajou, . . . .45
Skeleton of Weasel, . . .46
The Tayra, . . . .48
The Pine-Marten, . 51
The Beech-Marten, . . .53
The Sable, • . .55
Skeleton of Polecat, . . .58
The Polecat, . . . .59
The Ferret, . . . .61
The Weasel, . . . .63
The Stoat, or Ermine, in Winter Dress, . 65
European Mink, . . . .68
The Glutton, or Wolverene, . . 71
White-Backed Skunk, . . .76
The Cape Polecat, .... 79
The Cape Ratel, . . . .81
Palate of Fossil Indian Ratel, . .82
Skeleton of Badger, . . .84
The Common Badger, . . .85
The Malayan Badger, . . 85
Palate of Clawless Otter, ... 91
Skeleton of Otter, . .92
Tooth of Extinct Otter, ... 97
The Sea-Otter, . . . .98
Northern Sea-Lion, . . .111
Head of Calif ornian Sea-Lion, . . 113
Northern Sea-Bear, , .116
Skeleton of Walrus, . . .124
Head of Walrus, . .125
Walruses on the Ice, . . .126
Flippers of Ringed Seal, . .132
Skeleton of Seal, . . .136
Common Seal, . . .137
Greenland Seal, . . . .138
Seals Swimming, . . . .140
Skull of Leopard -Seal, . . .142
Crested Seal, . . . .144
Teeth of Elephant-Seal, . . .146
Bones of Wrist and Foot of Coryphodon, . 152
Bones of the Left Wrist and Foot of
Titanothere, . . . .152
Bones of Left Fore-Foot of Three-toed and
Four-toed Horse-like Animals, . .153
Bones of Foot of Horse and Deer, . 154
Teeth of Nilgai and Merycopotamus, . 155
Teeth of Four-Horned Antelope, . 158
Skeleton of European Bison, . . 158
Skull of Swayne's Hartebeest, . .159
Skull of Aurochs, . . . .162
PAGE
Durham Shorthorn, . . .167
Friburg Bull, .... 169
Dutch Cow, . . . .171
Skull of Galla Ox, . 173
Indian Humped Bull, . . .174
Galla Bull,. . . . .175
Bull Gaur, ... 176
Cow Gayals, . .. . .180
The Banting, . . . .182
Skull of Domestic Yak, . . .186
American Bison, . . . .192
Head of Bull Bison, . . . ] 94
Cape Buffalo, . . .199
Short-Horned Buffalo, . . . 201
Congo Variety of Buffalo, . . . 203
Indian Buffalo, .... 204
The Anoa, ..... 207
The Musk-Ox, . .209
Head of Bull Musk-Ox, . . . 210
Musk-Oxen at Bay, . . .211
Skeleton of Mouflon, . . .212
Bones of Foot of Sheep, . . .213
Skull of Kamschatkan Wild Sheep, . 214
American Wild Sheep, or Bighorn, . 215
Head of Kamschatkan Wild Sheep, . 216
Skull and Horns of Tibetan Argali, . 218
Pamir Wild Sheep, . . . 221
Skull and Horns of Pamir Sheep, . 222
Head of Cyprian Sheep, . . . 225
The Mouflon, .... 226
Black-Headed Sheep, . . . 228
Head of Merino Rani, . . . 230
Barbary Sheep, .... 233
Skeleton of Ibex, .... 235
Horns of Pallas's Tur, . . . 236
Spanish Wild Goat, . . . 238
Persian Wild Goat, . . . 240
Angora Goat, .... 242
Head of Himalayan Ibex, . . . 248
Arabian Ibex, .... 249
The Markhor, Cabul Variety, . .251
Head of Pir Panjal Markhor, . . 253
The Himalayan Tahr, . . . 255
The Goral, . . . .267
Horns of Himalayan Serow, . . 259
Skull and Horns of Takin, . . 260
The Chamois, .... 262
The Leap of the Chamois, . . 266
Head of Bull Eland, . . .267
The Eland, . .268
Skeleton of Addax, . . . 269
Head of Kudu, . . . .273
Head of West African Harnessed Antelope, ^70
Male and Female Guib, . . .277
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XI
PAGE
[•he Nilgai, . .279
[Tie Ad. lax, .. . . .280
Head of Gemsbok, . . .282
The Beisa, . . . . .283
Sabre-Horned Antelope, . . 284
Sal ilc Antelope and Roan Antelope, . 286
Head of Fringe-Eared Oryx, etc., . . 287
Head of Sable Antelope, . . .288
A " Trek " of Springbok, . . .289
Head of Grant's Gazelle, . . .290
The Springbok, . . .291
Dorcas Gazelle, . . . .292
Skull of Indian Gazelle, . . .293
Horns of Thomson's Gazelle, . . 294
Head of Clarke's Antelope, . . 295
Head and Neck of the Gerenuk, . . 296
Head of Chiru, . . . .297
The Saiga, . . . . .298
Head of Pala, . . .299
Male and Female Black-Buck, . . 300
Skull of Black-Buck, . . .301
Head of Water-Buck, . . .303
The Puku, . . . 304
Male and Female Klipspringer, . . 306
The Oribi, . . . . .308
The Duikerbok, . . . .309
Male and Female Four-Horned Antelopes, 311
Skull of Four-Horned Antelope, . . 312
White-Tailed Wildebeest, . . .313
Blue Wildebeest, . . . .314
Wildebeests curveting round a Waggon, . 315
Hartebeest, .... 319
Skull and Horns of Cooke's Hartebeest, . 320
Head of Swayne's Hartebeest, . .321
Head of Hunter's Hartebeest, . . 322
Head of Korigum or Senegal Antelope, 323
Group of Prongbuck, . . . 326
Head of Prongbuck, with newly -growing
Horns, ..... 328
Giraffes at a Pool, . . . .331
Skeleton of Giraffe, . . .332
South African Giraffe, . . . 334
Skull of Samothere, . . 337
Skull of Sivathere, . . 337
Skeleton of Male Red Deer, . 338
Head of Red Deer with new Antlers in
the " Velvet," . . .339
Left Antlers of Asiatic Deer, . . 340
Aiiil.-r of Red Deer, . . .344
l Deer at a Pool, . . .346
Wapiti Chased by Wolves, . . 349
Antlers of Spotted Deer, Swamp-Deer,
and Sanibar, .... 353
Indian Spotted Deer, . . 355
PAOE
The Sambar, . . .357
Head of Schomburgk's Deer, . .361
Antlers of Irish Deer, . . 365
The Indian Muntjac, . . . 366
Head of Hairy-Fronted Muntjac, . . 367
Michie's Deer, . . . 368
Bones of Foot of Roebuck, . . 370
Foot of Reindeer, . .370
Reindeer, . . . .371
Foot of Elk, . .376
A Family of Elk, . .377
A Moose- Yard, .... 379
Male and Female Roe Deer . . 382
Skull of Chinese Water Deer, . . 384
Antlers of Marsh, Virginian, and Mule Deer, 385
The Red Brocket, . . . .386
Pampas Deer, .... 388
Virginian Deer, .... 390
Virginian Deer Swimming, . . 392
Head of Mule-Deer, . . .393
Head and Shoulders of Pudu Deer, . 395
Male and Female Musk Deer, . . 396
Bones and Foot of Chevrotains, . . 399
The Smaller Malayan Chevrotain, . 400
Skeleton of Arabian Camel, . . 402
Bones of Camel's Foot, . . . 403
Water-Cells in Camel's Stomach, . . 403
The Bactrian Camel, . . .410
A Drove of Vicunias, . . . 412
The Llama, . . . .416
The Alpaca, . . . .418
Skeleton of Wild Boar, . . .420
Molar Teeth of Extinct Pig-like Animals, 421
Bones of Foot of Pig, . . 422
Skull of Bearded Pig, . . .422
Molar Tooth of Pig, . . .425
A "Sounder "of Wild Swine, . . 427
Berkshire Pig, . . . .428
Harrison Pig, .... 430
Dwarf Chinese Pig, . . 432
Masked Japanese Pig, . . . 434
The Red Bush-Pig, . . ,435
The Babirusa, . . .437
Skull of Babirusa, . . .438
.Elian's Wart-Hog, . . .439
Head of Pallas's Wart-Hog, . . 440
The Collared Peccary and Young, . 442
Skeleton of Hippopotamus?, . . 445
A Family Party of Hippopotami, . 447
Hippopotami at Home, . . .451
Skeleton of Malayan Tapir, . . 454
Bones of Foot of Rhinoceros, . . 455
Teeth of the Anchithere, . . . 455
Malayan Tapir, .... 458
Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
I'AliK
American Tapir, .... 460
Teeth of Rhinoceroses, . . . 464
Indian Rhinoceros in Zoological Gardens, 466
The Indian Rhinoceros, . . . 468
The Sumatran Rhinoceros, . . 471
The Common African Rhinoceros, . 473
Head of Common African Rhinoceros, . 474
Burchell's Rhinoceros, . . . 480
Head of Burchell's Rhinoceros, . . 482
Skull of Extinct Rhinoceros, . . 484
Teeth of Anchithere, Horse, and Hipparion, 487
Skull of Three-Toed Horse, . 488
Shire Stallion, . . . .489
Teeth of the Horse at Various Ages, . 490
English Race- Horse (" Doncaster ") . 492
The Tarpan, . . . .494
English Race-Horse ("Bend-Or") . 496
German Half-Bred Horse, . . 498
Percheron Cart- Horse, . . . 501
Clydesdale Mare, . . . .502
Burchell's Zebra, . . .504
Grevy's Zebra, . . 506
TheQuagga, . . .507
Tibetan Wild Ass, or Kiang, . . 508
A Troop of Persian Wild Asses, . . 510
The African Wild Asses, . . .511
Domestic Ass, . . . .513
Cheek-Teeth of Palseothere, . . 515
PAGE
Molar Teeth of Palseosyops, . . 516
Foot-Bones of Elephant, . . 517
Skeleton of Cape Hyrax, . . .518
Foot-Bones of Hyrax, . . . 519
Syrian Hyrax, .... 520
Tree-Hyrax, . . . .521
Skeleton of Indian Elephant, . . 523
Molar Teeth of Mammoth, . 525
Molar Tooth of Cliffs Elephant, . . 526
Molar Tooth of Elephant, . . . 528
Indian Elephant Drinking, . . 533
Indian Elephants Enjoying Themselves, . 535
Indian Elephant Kneeling, . . 540
Elephant Carrying Timber, . . 542
Molar Tooth of African Elephant, . 545
Last Molar Teeth of Mastodons, . . 556
Molars of Mastodons, . . . 557
Skull of Dinothere, . . . 559
Cheek-Teeth of Uintathere, . . 560
Palate of Homalodontothere, . . 562
Lower Jaw of Astrapothere, . . 563
Skeleton of Toxodon, . . .565
Skull of Nesodon, . . . .566
Skeleton of Manati, . . . 568
The American Manati, . . . 570
The Dugong, .... 573
Skeleton of Northern Sea-Cow, . . 574
Head of the African Elephant, . . 576
^ ^aW^v*/^*
Jt^^^rit
.0 Ottomar'Ansc/iiM.z-
MAMMALS
CHAPTER XVI.
CARNIVORES, — continued.
BEARS.
Family UnsiDJE.
THE bears are so different in appearance from the other Carnivores that no one
could fail to recognise their representatives at a glance, or would hesitate to admit
that, so far at least as living forms are concerned, they are entitled to constitute a
group by themselves. The number of species included in the family is compara-
tively small; and the whole of them are arranged under three genera, two of
which are represented by but a single species each.
Bears differ from the Carnivores hitherto noticed in an important feature
connected with the hinder-part of t;he under-surface of the skull. Thus, whereas
in all the preceding families the so-called tympanic bulla at the base of the
internal portion of the ear forms an inflated bladder-like capsule, which is
VOL. II. — I
2 CARNIVORES.
generally divided internally by a larger or smaller bony partition, in the bears
(as well as in the following families of the raccoons and weasels), this bulla is
depressed and flattened, and has no trace of an internal partition ; and its mouth,
leading to the external ear, is produced much further outwards. There are
also other characters connected with the skull which help to distinguish the bears
and the members of the next two families from the Carnivores hitherto described,
but the bulla alone is sufficient to determine at a glance to which of the two groups
any given skull may belong, and the reader will accordingly perceive how import-
ant is this apparently insignificant feature. The degree of inflation of the bulla
of the skull is doubtless associated with the acuteness of hearing ; the Carnivores
with the longest ears, like the African fennec, having larger bullge than their nearest
SKELETON OF BEAR.
relatives. Bears are notoriously deficient in the sense of hearing ; and it is probable
that raccoons and weasels are also less acute in this respect than cats, civets, and
dogs. Although many of the Carnivores with inflated bullse have, like the cats, com-
paratively small ears, it is noteworthy that no bear, raccoon, or weasel has these
organs of very large dimensions, while in some instances they are almost absent.
The members of the bear family are characterised by their heavy and massive
build, their thick limbs, extremely short tails, and the presence of five toes,
armed with powerful claws, on both the fore and hind -feet. Moreover, when
walking, the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground, in the old-fashioned
plantigrade manner, so that the impression of a bear's foot presents a considerable
superficial resemblance to that of a man. The claws of the feet are incapable
of being retracted, and are well adapted for digging, although no members of
the family are in the habit of constructing burrows for themselves after the
manner of foxes. In most bears the under surface of the sole of the foot is
BEARS, 3
mpletely devoid of hair ; and the ordinary gait is peculiarly slow and measured.
All the bears are of considerable bodily size, while some of them are among the
largest of the Carnivores.
The. living species of bears, with which alone we are at present dealing, are
likewise readily distinguished from other Carnivores by the characters of their
teeth. They agree with the true dogs in having two pairs of molars in the upper
jaw, and three pairs in the lower jaw, but the shape of these teeth is different; the
crowns being nearly flat, very broad, and mainly adapted for grinding, while those of
the upper jaw are either oblong or square, and, therefore, quite unlike the triangular
upper molars of the dogs. Then, again, the flesh-tooth in both jaws is very unlike
that of ordinary Carnivores ; the upper one being small, and having no inner root,
and its crown looking much like that of a molar. Similarly, the lower flesh-tooth
(which we may once more remind our readers is the first of the molar series, while
the upper one is a premolar) is very like the two molars by which it is followed.
A third distinctive feature is that the first three premolar teeth in both jaws are
exceedingly minute, and are very generally shed when their owner attains maturity.
The peculiar characteristics of the cheek-teeth clearly indicate that the food
of the bears is very different from that of other Carnivores ; and, as a matter of
fact, the majority of these animals subsist on a vegetable diet, or on insects, to a
much greater extent than on flesh. From their evident descent (as we shall fully
indicate later on) from dog-like animals, it is clear that the peculiar features of the
dentition of the bears have been acquired ; and we may hence regard these animals,
so far as their teeth are concerned, as highly specialised. The loss of the tail is
likewise a specialised feature. On the other hand, in their retention of the old-
fashioned plantigrade mode of walking, bears are much more generalised animals
than dogs, and in this respect retain a feature which was present in the ancestral
types from which the two groups have sprung.
The whole of the members of the family have a marked resemblance to one
another, so that the characters by which the different species are distinguished are
apparently somewhat trivial. Their fur is coarse, and generally long, thick, and
shaggy, although it may be short and thinner in some of the tropical species. Except
for the not unfrequent presence of a white collar round the throat, the fur is
nearly always of one colour, and generally some shade of either brown or black. It
is true, indeed, that the Polar bear is a marked exception to this rule, but in this
case the colour of the fur has evidently been specially modified to suit the natural
surroundings. The great prevalence of black among the bears is a feature unknown
in any other group of Carnivores, and is, indeed, rare among Mammals in general.
Bears have a wide geographical distribution, occurring throughout Europe,
Asia, and North America, while one species inhabits the South American Andes,
and another the African Atlas. South, however, of the Atlas not a single member
of the family is to be found throughout the length and breadth of Africa. Geologi-
cally speaking, true bears, that is to say those which can be referred to the
genera now living, are of comparatively recent origin, none being yet known
before the Pliocene, while it is not till the succeeding period that they became
abundant. This late appearance of the bears is in harmony with what we have
already stated as to their specialisation.
4 CARNIVORES.
THE TYPICAL BEARS.
Genus Ursus.
With the exception of the Indian sloth-bear and a peculiar species from
Tibet, all the bears are now generally included in the genus Ursus. This genus is
characterised by having a total of 42 teeth (when all the small premolars are
present), of which f are incisors, | canines, £ premolars, and § molars on each side.
In the adults, as already mentioned, several or all of the three anterior premolars
may disappear from both jaws, although the one immediately behind the tusk
may remain longer than the others. The molar teeth are characterised by their
crowns being longer than they are broad; the last upper molar being a much
elongated tooth, while in the lower jaw the last molar is shorter than the tooth
which precedes it. As a rule, the soles of the feet are naked ; and the claws are
of moderate length and curvature. As in the other genera of the family, the ears
are small, erect, and thickly haired ; and the pupil of the eye is round. The
geographical distribution of the genus is coextensive with that of the family.
THE POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus).
Not only does the Polar bear differ from all other bears by its pure white coat,
but it is also distinguished from the greater number of white Mammals in that this
colour is retained at all seasons of the year, instead of being exchanged in summer
for a darker tint. In addition to this distinctive white coloration, the Polar bear is
further characterised by the relatively small size and extremely elongated form of
its head, as well as by the molar teeth being relatively smaller and narrower than
in the other members of the genus. Moreover, the soles of the feet have a certain
amount of hair growing upon them, doubtless for the purpose of enabling the
animal to have a better hold upon the ice. The neck is also longer than in other
bears, while the ears are unusually small. It is one of the largest members of
the group, not unfrequently attaining a length of close upon 9 feet, although
exact measurements from recently killed wild examples are but few.
The Polar bear is found throughout the Arctic regions of both hemispheres.
It is now rare on the south-western coasts of Spitzbergen and Novaia Zemlia,
where the ice almost completely disappears in summer. According to Baron
Nordenskiold, it is more common on the northern parts of those islands, where there
is perpetual ice. On the north coasts of America and Asia it is found everywhere,
and becomes more and more numerous as we travel northwards. In Labrador,
where it is now very rare, there is evidence that it was once comparatively common,
and Dr. A. S. Packard is of opinion that its range originally extended even down
into the State of Maine. The white bears seen by John Cabot in the year 1497
are believed by Dr. Packard to have been observed in Newfoundland ; while
further evidence of their former existence is afforded by the observations of
Corte Real in 1500 and Cartierin 1534. The bones found in the shell-mounds of
Goose Island, Casco Bay, Maine, are considered to belong to the present species,
and thereby indicate the probability of its range having extended thus far south.
BEARS. 5
[n Southern I^abrador the Polar bear seems to be totally extinct, the last specimen
it was seen on the shores of the Strait of Belle Isle (dividing Labrador from
lewfoundland) having been killed in the year 1849. In Labrador the range of
the white bear overlaps that of the American black bear.
Baron Nordenskiold states that the Polar bear generally lives on
such coasts and islands as are surrounded by ice, while it is often
found on the ice-fields far out at sea, which form its best hunting-grounds. In
3gard to the numbers of these animals, he states that the Norwegian " vessels from
"romsoe brought home in 1868 twenty, in 1869 fifty-three, in 1870 ninety-eight,
1871 seventy-four, and in 1873 thirty-three bears. It may be inferred from
this that the Norwegian walrus-hunters kill yearly on an average at least a
Habits.
POLAR BEAR CLIMBING A FLOE.
hundred bears. It is remarkable that in this large number a pregnant female or
one with newly -born young is never found. The female bear appears to keep her-
self well concealed during the time she is pregnant, — perhaps in some ice-hole in
the interior of the country."
In Nordenskiold's opinion it is uncertain if the Polar bear hibernates, although
there are several circumstances indicating that it probably does so. In the most
northerly wintering-stations of ships, the bears almost completely disappear during
the long arctic winter, while there are cases where some of them have been
found concealed in holes. It will, however, be obvious that this disappearance
from the more northern regions in winter may well be due to migration, while
the individuals found in concealment may all have been females, which are known
to bring forth their young beneath the snow. Other writers, as we shall see
below, definitely state that in many districts males and young cubs are to be
6 CARNIVORES.
found in active life throughout the winter ; but it is quite possible that in the most
northern portions of its range both sexes may habitually hibernate. According
to Eskimo accounts, the female bears are very fat at the time they retire beneath
the snow. During their extended excursions after prey, the male and the female,
the latter generally attended by one or two good-sized young ones, keep each other
company. More are seldom seen together, unless at places where many carcases
of walruses, seals, or white whales are lying. Formerly the sight of a bear created
dismay in Arctic travellers, but now the walrus-hunters do not hesitate a moment
to attack, lance in hand, considerable numbers of bears. The bear's principal
food consists of the seal and walrus. There is not the least doubt, continues
Nordenskiold, "that, along with flesh, the bear also eats vegetable substances,
as seaweed, grass, and lichens. The flesh of the bear, if he is not too old or has
not recently eaten putrid seal-flesh, is very eatable, being intermediate in taste
between pork and beef. The flesh of the young bear is white, and resembles veal."
In addition to seals and walruses, the Polar bear also subsists on the flesh of
certain Cetaceans, and our illustration represents a female carrying a porpoise in
her mouth. In some districts the Polar bear consumes a large quantity of fish,
more especially salmon. It is in summer that it resorts to a vegetable diet.
From the personal experience of Dr. Robert Brown it appears that the ac-
counts given by the older voyagers of the ferocity of the Polar bear were con-
siderably exaggerated, although at close quarters it is a formidable foe. " Unlike
its congeners," writes Dr. Brown, " it does not hug but bites ; and it will not eat
its prey till it is dead, playing with it like a cat with a mouse. I have known
several men who, while sitting watching or skinning seals, have had its rough
hands laid on their shoulders. Their only chance then has been to feign being dead,
and manage to shoot it while the bear was sitting at a distance watching its
intended victim. Though Eskimo are often seen who have been scared by it,
yet, unless attacked or rendered fierce by hunger, it rarely attacks man. During
our last trip to Greenland none of our party saw one ; indeed, they are only
killed in the vicinity of Disco Bay during the winter or spring, when they
have either come or drifted south on the ice-floes."
Much the same account is given by Mr. G. S. M'Tavish, of the Hudson's Bay
Company, who states that in his district it is only occasionally that a Polar bear
will attack first. This observer writes that " although the Polar bear is synony-
mously termed the white bear, they are not all white. Those that are most likely
to run away from the hunter are pure white. From the smallest to the largest
size these white bears are timid, and I have noticed, on their being killed, they are
the fattest. The most dangerous and aggressive kinds, other than females with
cubs, is the large-sized male bear of a yellowish, dirty colour. . . . Another sort is
the small-sized bear, of both sexes, neither white nor yellow, but rather dirty-
looking ; and these are likewise the best runners."
Mr. M'Tavish proceeds to observe that the pace of a Polar bear is considerable,
and that he has known instances where they have overtaken and killed Indians in
a fair chase. Their fleetness depends, however, largely upon their condition at
the time, the thinner they are the greater being their speed. The weight of a large
and fat Polar bear is estimated at from 600 to 700 Ibs.
POLAR BEARS AND THEIR PREY.
BEARS. 9
In the Hudson's Bay district, the female bears proceed to their winter
hibernation for the purpose of producing their young at the end of September
or beginning of October, and return in March, April, or May. The hibernation
always takes place some distance inland, and the males accompany their consorts
to their resting-places, after which they come back to the coast, where they hunt
throughout the winter. Generally two cubs are produced at a birth, but the
number may be sometimes diminished to one, and occasionally increased to
three.
Mr. M'Tavish gives the following account of the manner in which these bears
capture their prey : — " The bear having discovered a seal asleep on an ice-floe
immediately slips into the water if he himself be on another ice-floe. Diving,
he swims under water for a distance, then reappears and takes observations.
Alternately diving and swimming, he approaches close to his victim. Before his
final disappearance he seems to measure the intervening distance, and when he
next appears it is alongside of the seal. Then, either getting on the ice, or
pouncing upon the seal as it tries to escape, he secures it. Both seals and
porpoises are not unfrequently met with, bearing the marks of a bear's claws upon
their backs."
THE BROWN BEAR ( f/rsus arctos).
With the brown bear we come to the typical and best known representative
of the entire group. It is distinguished from the Polar bear, not only by its
colour, but also by its larger and wider head, in which the muzzle is shorter, the
profile more curved, and the ears larger. The neck is also shorter and thicker, the
teeth are relatively larger, and the soles of the feet are entirely naked.
Owing to variations in colour several so-called species, such as the Syrian
bear and the snow or isabelline bear of the Himalaya, have been established on
what are now known to be merely local races of the brown bear.
Including all these varieties, the brown bear may be described as one of the
largest species of the genus, furnished in winter with long, thick, shaggy, and soft
fur, beneath which is a thick and woolly under-fur ; the ears being of moderate
size, and covered with long hair. The colour is generally some shade of brown,
although subject to great individual and local variation. In general it varies
from very pale to very dark brown, some of the lighter varieties being almost
cream-coloured in certain parts ; while, in a variety from Eastern Tibet, the fur on
the back and limbs is blackish, with tawny tips to the hairs. In other varieties,
again, the fur has a silw tinge, owing to the hairs being tipped with white ;
while some specimens have a decidedly reddish tinge. In the light Himalayan
variety the colour deepens with age, this darkening being generally most developed
in old males, which are frequently indistinguishable in colour from the ordinary
European form. Young animals have a white collar on the throat, traces of which
may frequently be observed in the newly-grown fur of the adult. The summer
coat is much shorter and thinner than the winter dress, and is likewise darker
in colour. The claws are of moderate length, and their colour varies from brown
to nearly white.
Mr. Blanford suggests that the generally lighter colour of the Himalayan
10
CARNIVORES.
brown bear may be due to the circumstance that it inhabits more open ground
than the European variety. To this I would add that the silver-barked birch,
among which these bears are so often found, suggests another reason why their
colour should so generally be comparatively light, as among such surroundings a
dark animal would be conspicuous. Moreover, it may be that the snow lies
longer on the ground in the regions frequented by the Himalayan bear than is the
THE SHOWN BEAK
case in the habitats of the European bear. It should also be mentioned that
Himalayan bears are decidedly lighter when they issue from their winter sleeping-
places than they are later on in the season ; and as it is then that they are
generally shot, on account of the fur being in its best condition, the prevalent
idea as to their extremely light colour has been intensified.
Although, as in the other species of the genus, the males are considerably
larger than the females, there is nearly as much variation in point of size in the
brown bear as there is in respect of colour. As a rule, the Himalayan race is
BEARS.
IT
laller than the European. Exact measurements of large European examples
not easy to obtain, but it is probable that some specimens reach at least
feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. In the Himalaya the
same dimensions are not generally more than 5 or 5j feet, but large specimens
reach about 7 feet, and one has been recorded of 7| feet in length and 3 feet 5
inches in height. The tail does not measure more than 2 or 3 inches.
The brown bear may be regarded as an inhabitant of almost the whole of
Europe, and of Asia northwards of the Himalaya ; its former range extending
from the British Islands and Spain in the west to Kamschatka in the east.
Bears are still found in the Pyrenees, and are comparatively common in many
parts of Scandinavia, Germany, Hungary, and Russia. At what date they
finally disappeared from the British Islands cannot be determined. Mr. Harting,
however, adduces evi-
dence to show that bears
were still in existence in
the eighth century; and,
in the time of Edward the
Confessor, the town of
Norwich had to furnish
annually one bear to the
king. There is no decisive
historical evidence as to
the existence of bears in
Ireland, but remains have
been found there in
various parts, which in all
probability belonged to
the present species, al-
though they have been
referred by some to the
American grizzly bear.
In the Himalaya the
brown bear is found from Afghanistan in the west to Nipal in the east. It does
not occur in the more or less Tibetan districts of Zanskar and Ladak, but
extends up the valley of the Indus as far as Gilgit. In the mountains around the
valley of Kashmir brown bears were once very numerous, but they have, I believe,
become much rarer now. When I first knew Kashmir, in 1874, it was no
uncommon event in -the Tilel district to see several at once, when standing on a
mountain ridge ; but eight years later I saw but very few the whole time I was
there, and it would be interesting to hear the reports of sportsmen who have
recently visited Tilel and the neighbouring valleys.
In Kamschatka, Dr. Guillemard, in the Cruise of the Marchesa, speaks of
brown bears being extremely plentiful and attaining large dimensions. The
country near the rivers is there covered by an almost impenetrable jungle, but the
bears manage to force themselves through it without much apparent difficulty.
" Just inside the forest," writes Dr. Guillemard, " at a distance of six or eight feet
HEAD OF BROWN BEAR. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1867.)
12 CARNIVORES.
from the river-bank, is a firmly-trodden path some two feet in width, made
entirely by these animals ; and, as these paths are to be found without a break
on either side of the river in its whole course through the forest country — a dis-
tance of about five hundred miles — it will be understood why bears' skins do not
command a very high price in the peninsula."
The brown bear is a comparatively unsociable animal, though not unfrequently
a male and a female may be seen together, while the females are, of course,
accompanied by their cubs. Their favourite haunts are wooded, hilly districts.
In the Himalaya the brown bear is to be found at considerable elevations, in the
spring haunting the higher birch and deodar forests, while in the late summer it
ascends to the open grass-lands above, where it may not unfrequently be seen
grazing close to herds of ponies and flocks of sheep or goats. Both in these regions,
and the colder districts of Europe and Northern Asia, these bears regularly
hibernate ; and while they are extremely fat at the commencement of their winter
sleep, they are reduced to little more than skin and bone at its conclusion. In
the Himalaya the winter's sleep generally lasts till April or May, but varies some-
what in different districts according to the date at which the snow melts. The
cubs are generally born during the latter part of the hibernation, and accompany
the mother when she issues forth. They are almost invariably two in number,
and are born blind and naked, in which condition they remain for about
four weeks. In Europe the brown bear not unfrequently kills and eats other
animals, its depredations extending, it is said, even to cattle and ponies ; but in the
Himalaya, except when carcases come in its way, the animal is almost exclusively
an insect and vegetable feeder. There it is fond of the numerous species of
bulbous plants growing on the mountains around Kashmir; but it will also
descend into the orchards of the upland villages to plunder the crops of
mulberries, apricots, walnuts, etc. On such occasions it ascends the trees readily
enough, although it is by no means such a good climber as its cousin the Himalayan
black bear. It seeks for insects by overturning stones.
In Kamschatka the brown bear is stated to subsist for a certain portion
of the year upon salmon ; Dr. Guillemard observing that in some places he
met with numerous half-eaten fish left by the bears, and adding that he found
in almost every instance that " though the head had been crunched up, it had,
together with the tail and intestines, invariably been rejected. We were never
fortunate enough to witness these animals fishing, but we were told that they
walk slowly into the water, where it is about eighteen inches in depth, and, facing
down stream, motionless await their prey. The incautious fish, swimming heed-
lessly up the river, doubtless mistake the bear's broad legs for a rock or tree-stump,
and those who have once witnessed the almost lightning-like rapidity of a stroke
from Bruin's fore-paws will have no difficulty whatever in completing the drama
for themselves. The fish is apparently always taken to the bank to be devoured,
for even the small ones do not appear to be eaten whole."
As we have already had occasion to mention, the brown bear, in common with
its relatives, is dull of hearing, and it is also by no means well gifted as regards
sight. What it lacks in these respects it makes up for, however, in the great
development of the sense of smell. Owing to this deficiency of hearing, a bear can
BEARS. 13
be approached from the leeward to within a very short distance, and the writer
shot many in the Himalaya with a smooth-bore gun. Care should, however,
always be taken to approach a bear from above, as a wounded one rolling down
hill on to the hunter is a very dangerous object. If two bears are feeding together
and one is hit by a bullet, it will not unfrequently turn fiercely on its companion,
apparently under the impression that the latter was its aggressor. In the
Himalaya, at least, the brown bear never voluntarily attacks human beings if
unmolested, and it rarely turns on them when wounded, unless brought to close
quarters. There is but little doubt that the current stories of the fierceness of
the European bear are exaggerated. In regard to the proverbial "hug," Mr.
Blanford observes that the story is apparently devoid of foundation. " A bear,
from its anatomical structure, strikes round with its paws, as if grasping, and
the blow of its powerful arm drives its claws into the body of its victim, causing
terrible wounds, but the idea of its 'hugging' appears not confirmed by recent
observers."
At the best, a brown bear is uncouth and grotesque in its movements,
and in no case is this more marked than when one of these animals suddenly
catches a whiff of human scent, and starts off with a loud " whuff" at a
shambling gallop. In spite, however, of their uncouthness, bears can travel
pretty quickly when so minded, although their usual gait is deliberate in the
extreme.
The brown bear is easily tamed, and both in Europe and India is the companion
of itinerant showmen, by whom it is taught to dance, and go through various
other performances. Formerly native English bears, and subsequently foreign
ones imported for the purpose, were kept in England for the purpose of " bear-
baiting," and the office of Master of the Bears was a Crown post, while every
nobleman kept his " bear- ward." Bear-baiting was continued up to the reign of
Queen Anne. The well-known bear-garden at Berne in Switzerland is doubtless
a survival of the mediaeval establishments kept up for this so-called sport. As
showing the age to which the brown bear may live, it is worthy of mention that
one kept in the garden at Berne survived for upwards of forty-seven years, while
it is on record that a female gave birth to young at the age of thirty-one years.
From the beauty of their colour, and the length of their fur, the skins of the
Himalayan brown bear, if procured early in the spring, are held in high
estimation.
We have already mentioned that fossil remains, referred to the brown bear,
have been found in the superficial deposits of Ireland ; and it may be added that
bones and teeth undoubtedly belonging to this species occur in the fens, brick-
earths, and caverns of this country, as well as the corresponding deposits of the
continent. Whether the remains from the same formations that have been
assigned to the grizzly bear do not likewise belong to the European species, may,
we think, be a subject of doubt.
Crowther's bear (U. crowtheri} is a closely-allied if not identical form from
the Atlas Mountains, and it is probable that a bear exists in Morocco and Algeria
which may be either the common brown bear or Crowther's bear, if the latter be
distinct.
14 CARNIVORES.
THE GRIZZLY BEAR ( Ursus horribilis).
The gigantic grizzly bear of Western North America, whose range extends
from Alaska through the Rocky Mountains to Mexico, is generally regarded as a
species distinct from the brown bear, although there can be no question but that
the two are very closely related. There are, however,some slight differences in the
characters of the skull and cheek-teeth in the two forms, while the grizzly bear
is generally larger in size, greyer in colour, and has shorter and less valuable fur
than its European cousin. Some of the brown bears from Northern Asia are
probably nearly or quite as large as an average-sized grizzly ; while the difference
in this respect between brown bears from different districts indicates that mere
size cannot be a matter of much importance. All the American hunters recognise
several varieties of greyish bears, respectively known as the " silver-tip," " roach-
back," and the " barren-ground " bear, in addition to the typical grizzly ; and Dr.
Hart Merriam is disposed to regard the last as a distinct species, under the name
of U. richardsoni. We prefer, however, to adopt the view that there are but two
distinct species of North American bears. Occasionally, as in the case of the black
bear, there may be cinnamon-coloured varieties of the grizzly ; and it was at one
time considered that such yellow-haired bears constituted a distinct species — the
so-called cinnamon bear ( U. cinnamomus), but it is now known that such colora-
tion is merely a phase common to each species. Dr. W. S. Rainsford states, indeed,
that he has seen a female grizzly with three cubs, of which one was almost
yellow, a second nearly black, and the third grey. The so-called barren-ground
bear of Arctic America is stated to come very close to the European brown bear,
and may indeed prove to be the connecting link between it and the typical grizzly.
Whether, then, the grizzly bear be rightly regarded as a distinct species, or
whether it be merely a well-marked race of the brown bear, we take it to include
all the grey and brownish bears of North America. In addition to this wide range
in colour, there are considerable differences in form. Thus some have a well-
marked hump at the back of the head, extending to the shoulders, which is
totally wanting in others ; while the width of the sole of the hind-foot is subject
to great individual variation.
The accounts of the size and weight of the grizzly are very
Dimensions.
discrepant, and have probably been much exaggerated ; most of the
measurements having been taken from pegged-out skins, while the weights are
mere estimates. It is said that the finest grizzlies hail from Alaska, but it is
probable that those formerly inhabiting the Pacific flanks of the high Sierra
Nevada were really the largest. These, however, have been nearly or completely
exterminated by the shepherds, who poisoned them on account of the ravages
they committed on their flocks. These Sierra grizzlies are reported to have been
of the enormous weight of 1800 Ibs. ; and there seems no doubt that instances of
1400 and 1200 have been reached. Dr. Rainsford states, however, that he
estimates the weight of the largest grizzly with which he was acquainted at
1000 Ibs., and gives 900 Ibs. as that of an unusually large male. The skin of this
animal measured 9 feet 3 inches from the nose to the hind-foot, when pegged out
without undue stretching; another skin measured in the same manner reached
THE GRIZZLY BEAR.
BEARS. 17
feet, while a third was still larger. Unfortunately the length from the nose to
e root of the tail is not given, but it is probable that in large specimens this must
close on 9 feet.
We have already seen that the grizzly is found from Alaska
Distribution. ,_ . J
to Mexico ; and it may be added that rrom east to west it reaches
from the Coast Range across the Sierra Nevada to the Big-Horn Range in
Wyoming, and some distance on to the plains at its foot. Its distribution is, how-
ever, becoming gradually more and more restricted. In 1868 bears were to be
found on the plains for several hundred miles eastward of the Big-Horn, but they
arc now rare even in that range itself. Similarly, they have greatly diminished
in numbers in Southern California and the parallel valleys of the Coast hills
further to the northward.
That the grizzly bear will eat flesh whenever it has the chance
is admitted by all, but there is some discrepancy of opinion as to
whether it ever kills large mammals for the sake of their flesh. Thus while Sir
Samuel Baker denies that they ever do so, Dr. Rainsford relates a case where his
hunter saw a grizzly attack one of three bisons. Wherever wapiti are abundant
there will grizzly bears be found. Failing meat, they, according to Dr. Rainsford,
thrive on nuts, acorns, etc. ; " and," he says, " the fattest grizzlies I ever killed were
those that had been feeding for weeks on the pine-nuts that the mountain squirrels
stow away in such great plenty in the little colonies on the upper hillsides.
Where the nut-pine is plentiful, you may also expect to find bears." The grizzly
is a bad climber, and seldom resorts to trees at all. Its strength is, however,
prodigious. One has been seen to break the neck of a tall bison with a single
blow of its paw ; another has bodily carried off, over very rough ground, a male
wapiti, weighing nearly 1000 Ibs.
Sir Samuel Baker states that a frequent practice in bear-shooting is to kill
several deer, and leave them untouched on the ground as baits. " At daybreak on
the following morning the hunter visits his baits, and he will probably find that
the bears have been extremely busy during the night in scratching a hole some-
what like a shallow grave or trench, in which they have rolled the carcase ; they
have then covered it with earth and grass, and in many cases the bears may be dis-
covered either in the act of working, or, having completed their labour, they may
be found lying down asleep, half gorged with flesh."
In the northern part of its range the grizzly bear hibernates, but it is probable
that in the south it remains active throughout the winter. When it first comes
out in the spring, it has a habit of standing upright against a pine or other
tree and scoring its bark with its claws. Very incorrect conclusions have been
drawn from these marks as to the size of the bears by which they were made,
it having been forgotten that the animals were generally standing on from three
to five feet of snow when they thus scored the trees.
The grizzly has been accredited with extreme ferocity towards man; but,
granting that its great strength and extreme tenacity of life make it a most
formidable foe when brought to close quarters, Dr. Rainsford is inclined to think
that there has been considerable exaggeration on this point, and many of the stories
of these animals charging is due to their rolling downhill upon the hunter who
VOL. II. — 2
i8
CARNIVORES.
has incautiously fired at them from below instead of from above. The same writei
also considers that at the present day Winchester repeaters and other rifles have
established in the grizzly a wholesome dread of man, and that it is now altogether
a more cautious and timid animal than formerly.
THE AMERICAN BLACK BEAR ( Ursus americanus).
The American black bear is a well-marked species, differing from the brown
bear much more decidedly than does the grizzly. It is a smaller animal than the
brown bear, from which it differs by the proportionately smaller head, the sharper
BLACK. BKAK (i's Uat. size).
muzzle, and more regularly convex profile of the face, as well as by the much
shorter hind-foot. In length this bear seldom exceeds 5 feet. The fur is less
shaggy, and altogether smoother and more glossy than that of either the brown or
grizzly bear ; being typically of a uniformly black colour, except on the muzzle,
where it becomes tawny yellow. Occasionally, however, specimens are found with
white margins to the lips and white streaks on the chest. The smaller size of the
hind-feet of this species renders its trail distinguishable at a glance from that of
the grizzly bear. As already mentioned, the so-called cinnamon bear may be a
pale-coloured variety, either of the black bear or of the grizzly.
The black bear formerly had a wider distribution than the grizzly, extending
from Labrador and Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the east to the west
coasts of the continent. Colonel D. G. Alexander states that it frequented " all
BEARS. 19
ie mountains, the thickets of the vast plains, and every creek, river, and bay
or bottom. At the present day its habitat is, however, confined to some portions
of the various ranges of mountains south of the St. Lawrence River, the Great
Lakes, and, east of the Mississippi River, to parts of those portions of the
Mississippi River and its tributaries which are yet unsettled, and where it has
l>rru able to escape destruction from hunters. Some few are yet found in the
druse thickets of the Colorado, Trinity, and Brazor rivers." As with other bears,
the male of this species is much larger than the female ; when full grown the
former, according to Colonel Alexander, will stand about 3 feet in height, and
will often turn the scale at from 600 to 700 Ibs.
According to Dr. Merriam, the food of the American black bear " consists not
only of mice and other small mammals, turtles, frogs, and fish, but also, and
largely, of ants and their eggs, bees and their honey, cherries, blackberries, rasp-
berries, blueberries, and various other fruits, vegetables, and roots. He sometimes
makes devastating raids upon the barn-yard, slaying and devouring sheep, calves,
pigs, and poultry." Another writer, Mr. C. C. Ward, states, as the result of his
own experience, that the black bear " is growing more carnivorous and discontented
with a diet of herbs. Assuredly, he is growing bolder. He is also developing a
propensity to destroy more than he can eat, and it is not improbable that his
posterity may cease to be frugi-carnivorous. It is fortunate that an animal of the
strength and ferocity which he displays when aroused seldom attacks man. The
formation of his powerful jaws and terrible canine teeth are well adapted to seize
and hold his prey, and his molars are strong enough to crush the bones of an ox.
His great strength, however, lies in his fore-arms and paws. His mode of attacking
his prey is not to seize it with his teeth, but to strike terrific blows with his fore-
]>;i\vs. His weakness is for pork, and to obtain it he will run any risk. When the
farmers, after suffering severe losses at his hands, become unusually alert, he retires
to the depths of the forest and solaces himself with a young moose, caribou, or
deer. He seldom or never attacks a full-grown moose, but traces of desperate
encounters, in which the cow-moose has battled for her offspring, are frequently
met with in the woods." Dr. Merriam states that the black bears visit the Adiron-
dacks from the wooded districts about twenty miles to the westward in Lewis
County during the autumn, crossing a fertile and well-cultivated valley. They
are good climbers, but, from their weight, are unable to ascend to the tree-tops or
climb far out on the branches, although they will ascend straight stems for a
considerable height after honey. They are also excellent swimmers, many being
killed while swimming in the lakes. We likewise learn that, as a rule, the black
bear hibernates, although its torpor is not deep, and the time of entering upon
the winter repose depends upon the severity of the season, and the amount of
food-supply. And it appears that the males will remain active in any weather,
so long as they can find abundance of food. The female is, however, compelled to
seek shelter sooner on account of her prospective family. The winter den of a
black bear is generally a partial excavation under the upturned roots of
a fallen tree, or beneath a pile of logs, with perhaps a few bushes and leaves
scraped together by way of a bed, while to the first snowstorm is left the
task of completing the roof and filling the remaining chinks. Not unfrequently
20 CARNIVORES.
the den is a great hole or cave dug into the side of a knoll, and generally under
some standing tree, whose roots serve as side-posts to the entrance. The amoun
of labour bestowed upon it depends upon the length of time the bear expects to
hibernate. If the prospects point towards a severe winter, and there is a scarcity
of food, they " den " early, and take pains to make a comfortable nest ; but when
they stay out late, and then " den " in a hurry, they do not take the trouble to fix
up their nests at all. At such times they simply crawl into any convenient shelter
without gathering so much as a branch of moss to soften their bed. Snow com
pletes the covering, and as their breath condenses and freezes into it an icy wal
begins to form, and increases in thickness and extent day by day till they are soon
unable to escape, even if they would, and are obliged to remain in this icy cell til
liberated by the sun in April or May.
The young are born about January or February, and are usually two or three in
number, although four have been found in a litter. It is believed that the female
does not give birth to young oftener than every alternate year.
The black bear was pursued by the early colonists of North America by " still
hunting," or what would be called in England stalking ; and it appears that thi
requires much more care than in the case with other bears, since the American
black bear is very acute of hearing. A favourite expedient was to watch a herd
of pigs in the cultivated districts, upon which the bears would make a raid,
and could then be shot with ease. Mr. C. C. Ward writes that " sometimes the
black bear is hunted with dogs trained for the purpose. The dogs are not taught
to seize the bear, but to nip his heels, yelp around him, and retard his progress,
until the hunters come up and despatch him with their rifles. Common yelping
curs possessed of the requisite pluck are best adapted for the purpose. Large dogs
with sufficient courage to seize a bear would have but a small chance with him, for
he could disable them with one blow of his powerful paw. Another way of
hunting is to track Bruin to his winter den, and either smoke or dig him out, when
he may be despatched by a blow on the head with the pole of an axe as he struggles
out. Various kinds of traps, set-guns, and dead-falls are also employed against him."
THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR (Ursus torquatus).
With the black bear of the Himalaya we come to a very different animal,
readily recognised by the white chevron or inverted crescent on the chest, from which
it takes its scientific title, and which stands out in marked contrast to the jetty
black of the remainder of the fur. This species does not attain by any means such
large dimensions as the brown or grizzly bear ; the length from the tip of the snout
to the root of the tail usually averaging in Nipalese examples from about 4f to 5|
feet, although one specimen has been recorded measuring 6 feet 5 inches. We think,
however, that bears of this species from Kashmir would average somewhat larger.
The fur is very different to that of either of the three preceding species, being
short and smooth, without any under fur, and becoming very thin in summer. In
winter the hair on the shoulders becomes considerably elongated, so as to produce
the appearance of a kind of hump. The ears are relatively large, and covered with
rather long hair. In addition to the white mark on the chest, the chin is also
BEARS.
21
\vhite ; while the upper lip may be whitish, and the nose reddish-brown,
claws are comparatively short, and black in colour.
Mr. Blanford gives the weight of full-grown males as varying from 200 to
-2~i() Ibs.; but these weights are probably exceeded in autumn, when the Himalayan
The
SSSi.
THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR (^ nat. Size).
black bear becomes enormously fat, the thickness of the fat on the haunches
reaching several inches. At such seasons the skin — never very valuable — becomes
utterly useless, from being saturated with oil. The skull of this bear has a
relatively shorter muzzle and a longer portion behind the eye than that of the
brown bear ; from which it may also be distinguished by the slight development
of the bony ridge along the middle of the brain-case.
22 CARNIVORES.
The Himalayan black bear is an exclusively forest-dwelling animal, except in
Baluchistan, where it inhabits open country. Its range extends from about the
eastern portion of Persia through Baluchistan into Afghanistan and Sind; and
thence through the forest-clad portions of the Himalaya to Assam, and so on into
Burma. The species is also found in the south of China and the islands of Hainan
and Formosa, but in Ladak and Tibet it is quite unknown.
The black bear may be found in the Himalaya, from near the foot
to elevations of some ten thousand to twelve thousand feet in summer.
It is, perhaps, most abundant in the dense chestnut and oak woods surrounding the
valley of Kashmir, whence it issues forth at night to make extensive depredations
on the crops and orchards of the natives. Although, according to General Kinloch,
the black bear will at times take to killing sheep, cattle, and ponies, it is, as a rule,
a vegetable feeder. In the forest the chief food of these bears consists of chest-
nuts, acorns, roots, berries, ants, and honey. Whenever they raid the cultivated
grounds, they consume maize, rice, buckwheat, and a number of fruits, such as
mulberries, apples, pears, apricots, and walnuts — the latter being especial favourites.
The gourds and melons which are cultivated in many of the gardens in Kashmir
are also sometimes eaten by these bears. So numerous are they that it is by no
means unfrequent to see two, three, or even more, up a single fruit tree in some of
the less frequented districts of Kashmir. They are, indeed, excellent climbers;
and their short claws are much better adapted for this purpose than for digging.
When in the forests they may be stalked during the day with comparative ease,
and will generally be found feeding on roots or wild fruits. This sport, as the
writer can state from personal experience, is by no means very exciting, as
they are easy of approach. Another method of hunting is by beating small
patches of jungle on the hills — from below upwards — when the bears will be
driven out. They very frequently go in family parties, comprising the two
parents, the two youngest cubs, and one or perhaps two cubs of the preceding
litter. When driven from the forest, the \vhole party emerges in single file,
headed by the male, who is followed by the female, after which come the cubs
according to seniority. They always break cover with the usual deliberate and
sober pace characteristic of all bears, and when the party comprises five or six
individuals the sight is ludicrous in the extreme.
The black bear, which is known in Kashmir as the Siyah Haput (in
contradistinction to the Kunea Haput, or brown bear), does not thoroughly
hibernate, but, according to General Kinloch, " appears to pass a great deal of his
time during the cold months in a state of semi-torpor ; occasionally wandering out
in search of food, when an unusually mild day thaws his blood and awakens him
to the sense of hunger."
Like its similarly-coloured relative in North America, the black Himalayan
bear is sharper in hearing than the brown bear, and it may be that the black
coloration has some connection with the greater development of this sense. In
disposition the black bear is decidedly more savage and prone to attack man than
the brown bear ; and in the fruit-season a large number of natives are annually
badly mauled in Kashmir by its talons. It must be confessed, however, that these
wounds are largely due to the foolhardiness of the natives themselves, who will
BEARS. 23
)t hesitate to drive off the bears from their crops and orchards when armed
solely with a stick. In addition to its skill as a climber this bear is a good
swimmer. The young, which are nearly always two in number, are born in the
spring.
The small variety from Baluchistan, locally known as the Mam,
Allied Forms. . . J J '
and originally described as a distinct species, under the name or u.
(jcilrosianus, is chiefly interesting as inhabiting a country of such a totally
different nature from the typical habitat of the present species. The Japanese
black bear ( U. japonicus) is so nearly allied to the Himalayan species that it is
regarded by some writers merely as a local variety, mainly characterised by
the white mark on the throat being less distinct. It appears to be very common
in Northern Japan, where it is of great importance to the Ainos, who use its skin
for clothing, its flesh for food, and the stones in its gall-bladder for medicine.
Aino houses are commonly decorated with the skulls of these bears ; and, according
to Miss Bird, " the Ainos may be distinguished as bear- worshippers, and their great
religious festival, or saturnalia, as the Festival of the Bear. . . In all Aino houses,
specially near the chief's house, there are several tall poles with the fleshless skull
of a bear on the top of each ; and in most there is also a large cage, made gridiron
fashion of stout timbers, and raised two or three feet from the ground. At the
present time such cages contain young but well-grown bears, captured when quite
small in the early spring. After the capture the bear cub is introduced into a
dwelling-house, generally that of the chief or sub-chief, when it is suckled by a
woman, and played with by the children, till it grows too big and rough for
domestic life, and is placed in a strong cage, in which it is fed and cared for, as I
understand, till the autumn of the following year, when, being strong and well-
grown, the Festival of the Bear is celebrated. The customs of this festival vary
considerably, and the manner of the bear's death differs among the mountain and
coast Ainos ; but everywhere there is a general gathering of the people, and it is
the occasion of a great feast, accompanied by much sake, and a curious dance, in
which men alone take part. Yells and shouts are used to excite the bear, and
when he becomes much agitated a chief shoots him with an arrow, inflicting a
slight wound which maddens him, on which the bars of the cage are raised, and he
springs forth, very furious. At this stage the Ainos run upon it with various
weapons, each one striving to inflict a wound, as it brings good luck to draw his
blood. As soon as he falls down exhausted, his head is cut off, and the weapons
with which he has been wounded are offered to it, and he is asked to avenge
himself upon them. Afterwards the carcase, amidst a frenzied uproar, is distri-
buted among the people, and amidst feasting and riot the head, placed upon a pole,
is worshipped, i.e. it receives libations of sake, and the festival closes with general
intoxication." In another part of the country the neck of the bear is broken by
means of a pole placed across it, upon which a number of men bring their weight
together. Somewhat similar customs used to take place in Norway when a brown
bear was killed.
The spectacled The spectacled bear of the Peruvian Andes ( Ursus ornatus),
which is the sole representative of the family inhabiting South
America, is a small-sized black species, which derives its name from the tawny
24 CARNIVORES.
rings or semicircles round the eyes, whereby a most grotesque appearance is
communicated to the whole physiognomy. The jaws, cheeks, throat, and chest
are white ; and the whole length of the animal is only about 3i feet. It has been
generally considered that this bear is nearly related to the next species ; but, al-
though specimens have been exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens,
little or no information exists as to its habits in the native state.
Ij
THE MALAYAN BEAK (fa nat. Size).
The Malayan The small black Malayan bear ( Ursus malayanus) is a very
Bear. well-marked species, distinguished by its small and rounded ears,
covered with short hair, its much elongated and almost prehensile tongue, its very
short and wide molar teeth, and the shortness and breadth of the skull, in which
SEARS.
ic nose is but slightly produced. The claws are considerably curved, and pale
in colour. The fur of this species is very short and coarse, and is mostly black,
although tending to brown in some parts ; the whole of the muzzle is paler, or
whitish, and the light band on the chest varies from white to orange, and is
subject to considerable diversity of form, sometimes extending as a streak on to
the under-part of the body. The general length of the head and body is only
about 4 feet, and, according to Mr. Blanford, never exceeds 4| feet. A female
mentioned by the same writer, although fully adult, had a length of only 3£ feet,
and did not weigh more than 60 Ibs. This species is found in the Malay Peninsula,
and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and also extends through Burma
into the Garo Hills in North-Eastern India. Of its habits, Mr. Blanford states
that little is known except in captivity. It is a purely forest animal, and an
admirable climber. It is essentially frugivorous, but like other bears occasionally
kills and eats mammals and birds. It is said to be very fond of honey, and it
probably devours insects and larvae. When caught young, it is generally easily
tamed, and is usually gentle and amusing when in captivity. Its general pace is
much quicker than that of other bears, and a specimen kept some years ago in the
Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, used to pace up and down its cage with great
rapidity, turning very suddenly every time it came to the end of its track. A
fragment of the jaw of an extinct bear, obtained from the gravels of the Narbada
Valley, in India, appears to indicate a more or less closely allied species.
THE EXTINCT CAVE-BEAR (Ursus spelceus).
No account of the typical bears would be complete without some reference to
the great extinct cave-bear, of which the remains are found in such profusion in
the caverns of Europe, and
less commonly in the brick -
earths and other superficial
deposits. This gigantic
species, of which the skull is
represented in the annexed
figure, was a contemporary
of the mammoth and early
human inhabitants of Europe.
The skull is readily dis-
tinguished from that of all
other species by the great
prominence immediately
above the eyes ; while the molar teeth are characterised by the extremely fine
tuberculation of their crowns, in which, when unworn, the enamel has a kind of
wavy pattern.
The cave-bear, although it had a wide range in Europe, is unknown both in
the extreme north and the extreme south of that continent; it is found in the
British Isles as far north as Yorkshire, but is not definitely known to occur in
Ireland. The number of individuals inhabiting Brixham Cave, near Torquay, and
SIDE-VIEW OF SKULL OF CAVE-BEAK
26 CARNIVORES.
the celebrated cavern of Gailenreuth in Franconia, must have been prodigious,
although it will be obvious that all of these did not exist at one time. From its
size, which exceeded that of the largest grizzly, as well as from its numbers, it
must have been a formidable foe to the early hunters of Europe, armed only with
flint hatchets and spears. In the earlier Pliocene deposits of Europe there occur the
remains of the Etruscan bear ( U. arvernensis), which was considerably inferior in
size to the brown bear. The extinct Theobald's bear (U. theobaldi) from the
Siwalik Hills of Northern India, appears to have been a species closely connecting
the typical bears with the one next on our list.
THE SLOTH-BEAR.
Genus Melursus.
The well-known Indian sloth-bear (Melursus ursinus), commonly known in
its native country by the name of Bhalu, but by the Mahrattas termed the Aswal,
differs so remarkably from all the other members of the family that it is generally
regarded as forming a genus by itself. It differs from all the typical bears by
having but two pairs of incisor or front-teeth in the upper jaw, so that the total
number of teeth is forty instead of forty-two. Moreover, all the cheek-teeth are
much smaller in proportion to the size of the skull than in other bears, while the
palate of the skull is deeply concave, instead of being nearly flat. The claws are
also unusually large and powerful, and the snout and lower lip are much elongated
and very mobile. The sloth-bear is, at best, but an ugly-looking animal, and
is generally of smaller size and less bulk than the Himalayan black bear. It is
covered with very long and coarse fur, which attains its greatest length on the
shoulders. With the exception of the end of the muzzle being dirty grey, and of
the white chevron on the chest, the colour of the fur is black, but the long claws
are white. As regards size, this species measures from about 4| feet to 5 feet 8
inches in the length of the head and body, the tail generally measuring from 4 to
5 inches, exclusive of the hair; the height at the shoulder varying from 2 feet
2 inches to about 2 feet 9 inches. Large males may weigh as much as 280 Ibs.,
while there is one instance recorded of a specimen weighing as much as 320 Ibs.
The sloth-bear may be regarded as one of the most characteristic, and at the
same time one of the commonest of the mammals of India. It is found in Ceylon,
and in the peninsula of India from Cape Comorin nearly to the foot of the
Himalaya. Mr. Blanford states that it ranges as far west as the province of
Katiawar, and is also occasionally found in Cutch, while to the northwards its range
is probably limited by the great Indian desert. It occurs in North-Eastern Bengal,
but how far its range extends in this direction is not fully ascertained, there
being some doubt whether the large black bear found in the plains of Assam is this
species or the Himalayan black bear. Within the last thirty or forty years it has
been completely exterminated from some parts of Bengal and the Deccan.
Habits Perhaps the best account of the habits of this bear is one drawn
up by Mr. Blanford, partly from the results of his own observations
and partly from those of others. It is there stated that these bears " are generally
SLOTH-BEARS IN A FOREST GLADE.
BEARS. 29
mnd solitary or in pairs, or three together ; in the latter case a female with two
ibs, often nearly or quite full-grown. Occasionally four or five are met with in
company. They inhabit bush and forest, jungle and hills, and are particularly
fond of caves in the hot season and monsoon, and also when they have young.
Throughout several parts of the peninsula of India there are numerous hills of a
granitoid gneiss that weathers into huge loose rounded masses. These blocks
remain piled on each other, and the great cavities beneath them are favourite
resorts of bears, as in such, places the heat of the sun, and some of the insects that
are most troublesome in the monsoon can be avoided. In the cold season, and at
other times when no caves are available, this animal passes the day in grass or
bushes, or in holes in the banks of ravines. It roams in search of food at night,
and near human habitations is hardly seen in the daytime; but, in wild tracts
uninhabited by man, it may be found wandering about as late as eight or nine
o'clock in the morning, and again an hour or even more before sunset in the
afternoon. In wet or cloudy weather, as in the monsoon, it will sometimes keep
on the move all day. But the sloth-bear, although, like most other Indian animals,
it shuns the midday sun, appears by no means so sensitive to heat as might be
expected from its black fur, and it appears far less reluctant to expose itself at
noonday than is the tiger. I have seen a family of bears asleep at midday in May
on a hillside in the sun. They had lain down in the shade of a small tree, but the
.shade had shifted without their being disturbed. It is scarcely necessary to observe
that this bear does not hibernate. Owing to its long, shaggy, coarse fur, its
peculiarly shaped head, its long mobile snout, and its short hind-legs, this is
probably the most uncouth in appearance of all the bears, and its antics are as
comical as its appearance. Its usual pace is a quick walk, but if alarmed or
hurried it breaks into a clumsy gallop, so rough that when the animal is going
away it looks almost as if propelled from behind and rolled over and over. It
climbs over rocks well, and, like other bears, if alarmed or fired at on a steep
hillside, not unfrequently rolls head-over-heels down hill. It climbs trees, but
slowly and heavily; the unmistakable scratches left on the bark showing how
often its feet have slipped back some inches before a firm hold was obtained."
As might have been predicted from the small size and half -rudimentary
condition of its molar teeth, the food of the sloth-bear consists almost exclusively
of fruits, flowers, and insects, together with honey. Its favourite fruits appear to be
those of the ebony tree, the jujube-plum, several kinds of figs, and the long pods of the
cassia. Whether grapes, as shown in our illustration, form also part of the diet of
these bears, or whether this is merely a fancy on the part of the artist, we are unaware.
During the months of February and March, in many parts of India, the beautiful
fleshy scarlet flowers of the mowha tree are nightly shed in great profusion, and
form a rich feast for many denizens of the jungle, prominent among which is the
sloth-bear, by whom these flowers are greatly relished. In addition to beetles and
their larvae, as well as young bees and honey, the sloth-bear is also passionately
fond of white ants or termites. On this point Colonel Tickell, as abridged by Dr.
Jerdon, observes that " the power of suction in this bear, as well as of propelling
wind from its mouth, is very great. It is by this means it is enabled to procure
its common food of white ants and larvae with ease. On arriving at an ant-hill,
30 CARNIVORES.
the bear scrapes away with the fore-feet until he reaches the large combs at the
bottom of the galleries. He then with violent puffs dissipates the dust and
crumbled particles of the nest, and sucks out the inhabitants of the comb by such
forcible inhalations as to be heard at two hundred yards' distance or more. Large
larvae are in this way sucked out from great depths under the soil. Where bears
abound, their vicinity may be readily known by numbers of these uprooted ants'
nests and excavations, in which the marks of their claws are plainly visible. They
occasionally rob birds' nests and devour the eggs. . . . The sucking of the paw,
accompanied by a drumming noise when at rest, and especially after meals, is
common to all bears, and during the heat of the day they may often be heard
humming and puffing far down in caverns and fissures of rocks."
Like the fox-bats and the palm-civets, the sloth-bear will often visit the
vessels hung on the palm-trees for the sake of their juice, and is said frequently to
become very drunk in consequence. Sugar-cane is likewise a favourite dainty of
these bears, which frequently do a large amount of damage to such crops.
Although they generally subsist entirely on vegetable substances and insects,
it seems that they will occasionally eat flesh ; Sanderson mentioning an instance
where one of them devoured the carcase of a recently-killed muntjac deer, the
proof that a bear was the devourer being afforded by the imprints of its feet in
the wet soil. The same observer also mentions that he has known bears gnaw
the dry bones of cattle that have died in the jungle.
With the exception of the puffing and humming noises already mentioned, the
Indian sloth-bear is generally a silent animal. Mr. Blanford states, however, that
'•' occasionally they make the most startling noise, whether connected with pairing
or not I cannot say. I have only heard it in the beginning of the cold season,
which is not their usual pairing-time. They occasionally fight under fruit-trees,
but I think the noise then made is rather different."
Like most other members of the family, the sloth-bear has the sense of
hearing but poorly developed, and its eyesight is also far from good ; and hence
it has a peculiarly comical way of peering about when it suspects intruders,
as though it were short-sighted. From these deficiencies of sense it can be
approached very closely from the leeward side. Its sense of smell, is, however,
wonderfully acute, and by its aid it is enabled to detect concealed supplies of
honey, and also to scent out ants' nests when situated far below the ground.
The number of cubs produced at a birth is, as in most bears, usually two, but
it appears that there may sometimes be three. The young cubs are generally
carried on the back of the female when the animals are on the move ; and the
author last mentioned observes that it is an amusing sight to watch the cubs
dismount at the feeding-grounds, and scramble back to their seat at the first
alarm. We are informed by Mr. Sanderson that the cubs are carried about in
this manner till they are several months old and have attained the dimensions of
a sheep-dog, and that when there is room for only one cub on the maternal back
the other has perforce to walk by the side.
In regard to their family life, Mr. Sanderson observes that these " bears are
exceedingly affectionate animals amongst themselves, and are capable of being most
thoroughly tamed when taken young. Either wild or tame they are very amusing
BEARS. 31
in their ways, being exceedingly demonstrative and ridiculous. Though hard to
kill, they are very soft as to their feelings, and make the most hideous outcries
when shot at — not only the wounded animal, but also its companions. It has
frequently been stated by sportsmen that if a bear be wounded he immediately
attacks his companions, thinking that they have caused his injuries. But I think
this is not quite correct, at least in the majority of cases. I have observed that a
wounded bear's companions generally rush to him to ascertain the cause of his
grief, joining the while in his cries, when he, not being in the best of humours, lays
hold of them, and a fight ensues, really brought about by the affectionate but ill-
timed solicitude of his friends."
In commenting upon the latter portion of this passage, Mr. Blanford supports
the old view that the attack is made directly by the wounded animal ; and one
instance is mentioned where he saw a female when wounded immediately commence
an unprovoked attack upon her two half -grown cubs, which were severely cuffed.
In another case, when two full-grown bears were both hit, they stood up and fought
on their hind-legs, till one fell dead from the effects of the bullet.
Although generally timid in their nature, sloth-bears will on rare occasions
attack human beings without provocation, and when they do so, fighting both with
teeth and talons, and inflicting terrible wounds, more especially on the head and
face. These attacks generally occur when a bear is accidentally stumbled upon by
a native wandering in the jungle, and are then due more to timidity than to
ferocity. Mr. Sanderson is of opinion that a bear, being a slow-witted animal, is
more likely to attack in such a case than is a tiger or a leopard, which more rapidly
collect their senses, and are thus less embarrassed by the sudden and unexpected
encounter. Mr. Blanford states that when thus surprised a sloth-bear will some-
times merely knock a man over with its paws, although thereby inflicting severe
wounds ; but on other occasions it seizes and holds in its paws its unfortunate
victim, who is not released until bitten and clawed to death. Females with young,
and occasionally solitary bears, will at times make unprovoked attacks of great
ferocity. The idea that sloth-bears hug their victims is scouted by both writers.
Sloth-bears are usually hunted in India either by driving them from cover
with a line of beaters, or by the sportsman going to their caves or lairs among the
rocks at daybreak, and shooting them as they return home from their nightly
wanderings. Mr. Sanderson says that in the forests of Mysore he was in the habit
of shooting bears by following them with trackers ; and that, as they seldom left
off feeding before nine in the morning, it was generally possible by starting at
daybreak to come up with them before they had retired to rest for the day. If,
however, the party did not succeed in this, the bears would generally be found
lying asleep under the shade of a clump of bamboos, or a rock, as there were no
caves in the district into which they could disappear. Elephants, it appears, have
a great dislike to bears, and on this account, as well as from the rocky nature of
the country generally inhabited by these animals, are but rarely employed in bear-
shooting. Mr. Sanderson was also in the habit of hunting bears with large dogs,
and despatching them when brought to bay with his hunting-knife ; and in this
exciting sport was very successful.
Regarding the sport afforded by the sloth-bear, the same hunter observes that
32 CARNIVORES.
" bear-shooting is one of the most entertaining of sports. Some sportsmen have
spoken disparagingly of it, and I daresay sitting up half the night watching for a
bear's return to his cave, and killing him without adventure, may be pooi
fun. . . . But bear-shooting conducted on proper principles, with two or three
bears afoot together, lacks neither excitement nor amusement. It is not very
dangerous sport, as the animal can be so easily seen, whilst he is not so active as a
tiger or a panther. Still he is very tough, and to anyone who would value him
for his demonstrations, he would appear sufficiently formidable. If a bear charges
he can generally be killed without more ado by a shot in the head when within
two paces. The belief that a bear rises on his hind-legs when near his adversary
and thus offers a shot at the horseshoe mark on his chest, is groundless. I have sho1
several bears within a few feet, and they were still coming on on all-fours. No
doubt when a bear reaches his man he rises to claw and bite him, but not before."
Jerdon states that in the extreme south of India, among certain hill-
tribes known as Polygars, sloth-bears used to be hunted with large dogs, am
when brought to bay were attacked by the hunters with long poles smeared at the
end with bird-lime. The bird-lime caused the shaggy coat of the bears to become
fixed to the end of the pole, so that the animals soon became firmly held. A single
fragment of a bone of the fore-limb discovered in a cave in Madras proves that the
sloth-bear has been an inhabitant of India since a period when several kinds o:
extinct mammals flourished there. And the extinct Theobald's bear from the
Siwalik Hills, mentioned on p. 26, serves to indicate that the sloth-bear is a
specially-modified form derived from bears belonging to the typical genus, since the
skull of that extinct species presents characters intermediate between those o:
ordinary bears and that of the sloth-bear.
THE PARTI-COLOURED BEAR.
Genus ^Muropus.
A large number of the mammals from the highlands of Tibet belong to type
quite unlike those found in any other part of the world ; and in no case is this
dissimilarity more marked than in the animal which may be termed the parti
coloured bear (JEHuropus melanoleucus).
This strange animal, which has been known to European science only since
the year 1869, is of the approximate dimensions of a small brown bear, and has a
general bear-like aspect, although differing from all the other members of the
family in its parti-coloured coat. The fur is long and close, with a thick, woolly
under-fur. The general colour is white, but the eyes are surrounded with black
rings, the small ears are also black, while the shoulders are marked by a transverse
stripe of the same colour gradually increasing in width as it approaches the fore
limbs, which are also entirely black, as are likewise the hind-limbs. This peculiar
coloration communicates a most extraordinary appearance to the creature ; anc
without knowing more of its natural surroundings it is difficult to imagine the
object of such a staring contrast. The tail is extremely short ; and the soles of the
feet are hairy.
BEARS.
33
In addition to these external characteristics, the parti-coloured bear also
presents some peculiar features in regard to the skull and teeth. Thus the skull is
remarkable for the great width of the zygomatic arches and the enormous develop-
ment of the longitudinal ridge on the upper-surface of the brain-case, both these
features indicating greater power of jaw than has at present been found in any
other member of the entire carnivorous order. Then, again, the teeth differ both in
number and form from those of all the other Ursidse. Instead of the forty-two teeth,
characteristic of the typical bears, the parti-coloured bear has but forty teeth, all
told ; the diminution in number being due to the absence of the first pair of premolar
THE PARTI-COLOURED BEAR.
teeth in the lower jaw. As regards form, the molar teeth are distinguished from
those of other bears by their shorter and wider crowns ; this being most marked in
the first molar of the upper jaw, which is broader than it is long. The second
upper molar tooth agrees, however, with the corresponding tooth of other bears in
being longer than the one in front of it. The pattern formed by the tubercles
on the crowns of these teeth is exceedingly complex, and approaches to that
obtaining in the panda, among the raccoon family, to be noticed in the next
chapter.
The parti-coloured bear is reported to inhabit the most inaccessible districts of
Eastern Tibet, and to be of extremely rare occurrence. Unfortunately we are
at present quite ignorant of its habits, although it is said to feed chiefly on roots
and the young shoots of bamboos, and to be entirely herbivorous.
VOL. II. — 3
CARNIVORES.
EXTINCT BEAR-LIKE GENERA.
At the close of the preceding volume it has been mentioned, that, unlike
as modern dogs and bears are to each other, yet both families are merely
divergent branches from a common stock. In that passage we referred only
to those extinct animals most nearly related to the modern dogs, and it was
then shown that the so-called amphicyon of the Miocene and upper part of the
Eocene period appeared to be a dog with one more pair of upper molar teeth
than the true dogs, and approaching the bears in its plantigrade feet. We
have now to allude to the extinct genera more nearly allied to the modern
bears. The first of these is a bear-like animal from the superficial deposits of
South America, known as the arctothere. This animal, of which the left side of
the palate is shown on a greatly-
reduced scale in the accompanying
figure, had the same number of
teeth as the true bears. The upper
molar teeth (the two on the right
side of the figure) are, however,
relatively shorter and wider than
in the latter, and the second is not
greatly larger than the first. Then,
THE LEFT HALF OF THE UPPER JAW OF THE ARCTOTHERE— again, the upper flesh - tooth (the
AN EXTINCT SOUTH AMERICAN BEAR - LIKE ANIMAL ,, . -. P • i , • ,1
(much reduced). third from the ngh* m the %ure)
is much larger than in modern
bears, and is thus more like the corresponding teeth of other Carnivores. Further,
the upper arm-bone, or humerus, has a perforation at its lower end, which is not
found in any living dog or bear, although occurring in the extinct amphicyon.
Another type is the so-called hyaenarctus, of which large species occur in the
Siwalik Hills of India and the Pliocene deposits of Europe, while smaller ones are
found in the European Miocene strata ; the two upper molar
teeth of one of the latter being shown in the accompanying
woodcut. In these animals the upper molars (as in our
illustration) were sometimes oblong, with the second not
longer than the first ; while, in other cases, they were more
or less completely triangular, and thus but little different
SMALL in form from the corresponding teeth of the dogs. The
most important difference from the bears occurs, however, in
the form of the flesh-tooth in both jaws ; these teeth being
very similar to those of the dogs, and of a thoroughly carnivorous type. Whereas,
however, the upper flesh-tooth of the dogs has but two lobes to its cutting blade,
that of the hysenarctus had three such lobes. That the hygenarctus was a
thoroughly carnivorous animal, there can be no reasonable doubt. Another
Miocene Carnivore, known as the hemicyon, has still more dog-like teeth; and
the transition from this animal to the plantigrade and dog-like amphicyon is,
therefore, scarcely more than a step, so that the passage from the dog-like bears to
the bear-like dogs is practically complete.
THE LEFT UPPER MOLAR
TEETH OF A
SPECIES OF HY.3EN
ARCTUS.— After Koken.
CHAPTER XVII.
CARNIVORES, — continued.
THE RACCOON FAMILY.
Family PROCYONID^!.
THE raccoons and their allies constitute a very small family of Carnivores, which,
with the exception of one outlying and somewhat aberrant genus, are confined to
America, and are very characteristic of the central and southern portions of that
continent. Their nearest allies are the bears, with which they appear to be
connected by the panda, of which the teeth present some
resemblance to those of the parti-coloured bear. The skull
has the same essential characteristics as in the bears, and
the accompanying illustration of the right half of the skull
in one of the raccoons is intended to show the position
of the tympanic bulla, and its general form and relations in
the present family and in the two allied families of the
bears and the weasels.
The raccoons agree with the bears in their plantigrade
feet (as is well exhibited in our figure of the panda), but
differ in that they have only two, in place of three, molar
teeth in the lower jaw. The upper molar teeth are, more-
over (as shown in the accompanying figure), usually of the
same general type as those of the dogs, having squared or
triangular crowns, and being generally elongated in the
transverse rather than in the antero-posterior direction ;
while the second of these teeth is smaller, instead of larger,
than the first. Moreover, the flesh - tooth in each jaw
approaches the ordinary carnivorous type, and is thus
very different from the corresponding tooth of the modern
bears ; it has, however, three lobes to the blade, and a very
large inner tubercular portion.
The members of the raccoon family are all animals
of comparatively small size; and they differ markedly in
general appearance from the bears in having well-developed
tails, which may be of great length. Very generally the
hair of the tail is marked by alternate dark and light rings.
The whole of these animals are good climbers, and they
are generally of more or less exclusively nocturnal habits.
THE RIGHT HALF OF THE
PALATAL ASPECT OF THE
SKULL OF THE CACO-
MISTLE.
The letters am. indicate
the entrance to the tympanic
bulla, which is the swelling
between that and the point
indicated by car. The other
letters indicate the various
foramina, etc. (From Proc.
Zool. Soc.— After Sir W. H.
Flower.)
36 CARNIVORES.
It is noteworthy that, with the exception of the one Old World genus, no remains
of this family have ever been discovered beyond the limits of the New World.
THE PANDA.
Genus
The curious animal represented in the accompanying illustration, and known
as the panda (JElurus fulgens), is one in regard to whose serial position there has
been much diversity of opinion. It was at one time placed in the bear family,
next to the parti-coloured bear; while it has also been regarded as the repre-
sentative of a distinct family by itself. Mr. Blanford has, however, come to the
conclusion that its true position is in the raccoon family, and it is probable that
this view will be pretty generally adopted in the future.
The panda, or, as it is often called, the red cat-bear, is restricted to the South-
Eastern Himalaya, and may be compared in size to a large cat. Externally it is
characterised by its broad and rounded head, in which the muzzle is extremely
short, the small eyes are" directed forwards, and the ears are of considerable size.
The stout limbs are furnished with large, curved, and sharp claws, which can be
partially retracted ; and the soles of the large feet are covered with hair. The
tail is long and rather thick, its length being nearly equal to that of the body, or
rather more than two-thirds of that of the head and body together. The fur is
long and thick, with a woolly under-fur.
In colour, a large portion of the fur of the panda is a bright, rusty red, of
somewhat variable shade ; this colour prevailing on the back, the upper part
of the head, and the darker rings on the tail. The forehead is of a lighter tint of
red, as are also the paler rings on the tail, its tip being black. The under-parts
and the inner-surfaces of the limbs are black, tending to a brownish tint on the
abdomen. The face, like the lower lips, is white, except for a vertical stripe of
red proceeding from each eye to the angle of the mouth. Occasionally, how-
ever, as in the specimen here figured, there is also a red stripe running down
the middle of the nose. The inner surface of the ears •are also white, as are also
the claws. A large male panda measured 24 inches from the tip of the snout to
the root of the tail ; while the length of the tail was 17 inches without the hair
at the end, and 19£ inclusive of the hair. Other specimens measured respectively
20 and 22 inches to the root of the tail.
It is, however, not only externally that the panda is a remarkable creature.
In its skull and teeth it is very unlike other Carnivores. Thus the skull is
remarkably short, with the profile from the front teeth to the occiput forming a
regular curve, which approximates to a semicircle. The lower jaw is also
remarkable for its extremely convex and regularly-curved inferior border, and
also for the great length of the portion which ascends on the sides of the skull.
The total number of teeth in the panda is 38, of which, on each side of the jaws.
§ are incisors, J- incisors, f premolars, and f molars. The canines, or tusks, are
of no great size, but are remarkably flattened from side to side. The upper
molars have very wide crowns, which are nearly square in outline, and carry
RACCOON FAMILY.
37
r main tubercles and an inner ridge ; while the flesh-tooth in each jaw differs
from that of all other members of the family in presenting but little approximation
to the ordinary carnivorous type; being, indeed, more like that of the parti-
coloured bear.
There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of the name panda, by which
the animal is very generally known in this country, unless, indeed, it be a
corruption of the Nipalese niyalya-ponga ; the latter name, according to Mr.
Blanford, meaning bamboo-eater. It is also known in Nipal as the wah. The
panda is unknown in the Himalaya to the westward of Nipal ; but it there lives
at elevations of from seven thousand to twelve thousand feet. Its eastward range
THE PANDA. (From Proc. Zool. Soc. — After Sclater.)
extends through the mountains to the north of Assam into the Chinese province
of Yunnan.
An excellent account of the habits of the panda was published many years
ago by Mr. Brian Hodgson, of which the following is a summary : — As we might
have supposed from the structure of its teeth, the animal is mainly herbivorous.
It is also an excellent climber, although feeding chiefly on the ground, and having
its retreat and breeding-place in holes and clefts of the rocks. Its chief food is com-
posed of various fruits, acorns, the young shoots of bamboos, roots, etc. It will,
however, also eat eggs, but it is doubtful whether, as asserted, it will touch insects
or their larvae, while recent observers are in accord as to its habitual rejection of
all kinds of flesh. Hodgson states that it will sometimes steal down to the villages
and feast on milk and butter. These animals feed in the morning and evening, and
38 CARNIVORES.
sleep much during the day, although they are by no moans exclusively nocturnal
in their habits. On the ground, their movements are somewhat awkward and
ungainly ; and they are generally sluggish and stupid in disposition, and allow
themselves to be captured without much difficulty. They hiss and spit like cats
when angered, and occasionally utter a low deep growl, somewhat like that of a
young bear. According to Mr. Hodgson they drink by lapping with the tongue,
but, from observations made on specimens in the Zoological Society's Gardens, this
is denied by Mr. A. D. Bartlett, who states that they drink by putting their noses
to the ground, after the fashion of a bear. They generally sleep curled up side-
ways, with the head concealed by the thick tail, but will also frequently repose
by sitting down on their haunches with the head tucked in between the fore-paws,
their habits being very similar to those of some of the raccoons.
In addition to the cries already mentioned, it appears from the account of an
observer who watched a pair of these animals high up in the trees near Darjiling,
that the panda will at certain times — probably the breeding-season — utter loud and
somewhat unearthly cries, which may be heard at a considerable distance. They
call one another by a kind of chirping cry. The panda is a quite harmless, and
apparently an almost defenceless animal, its sharp and partially retractile claws
being evidently adapted for the purpose of climbing, rather than as weapons of
offence or defence.
The young, generally two in number, are born in a nest formed in some hollow
tree or cavity among rocks. They are produced in the spring, and are helpless for
a long period. It is stated that the cubs of one litter remain with the parent, till
shortly before the birth of a second brood.
In captivity these animals are gei \e and easily tamed, even when not
captured until they have attained ma -ity. In this country they require
great care and attention, from their reme susceptibility to cold; but in
the more congenial climate of Calcutta, uiey thrive well in cages placed in the
open air.
It is a remarkable circumstance that an extinct species of panda, about half as
large again as the living form, once flourished in England. This is proved by the
occurrence of teeth and fragments of jaws in the so-called Red Crag of the Suffolk
coast, which belongs to the Pliocene period. It is, therefore, probable that the
genus was once widely spread over the O] ~ World ; while its occurrence in England
proves that -the country must have been . ^rmerly thickly covered with forest, and
have enjoyed a climate of a subtropical n ,ure.
THE RACCOONS.
Genus Procyon.
The widely - known raccoons, of which there are two or three species, are
the typical representatives of the family, and, like all the remaining forms, they
are exclusively American. These animals have a total of forty teeth, or two more
than in the panda, owing to the presence of the whole of the four typical pairs of
premolars in the lower jaw. The cheek-teeth differ from those of the latter in
RACCOON FAMILY. 39
being more like the ordinary carnivorous type ; while the skull has not the short
and convex form of the panda's.
Externally, the raccoons are characterised by their thickly-built and stout
bodies, their heads broad behind but tapering to a sharp point at the muzzle, and
their medium-sized and distinctly-ringed tails. The ears are small and rounded.
When walking, the entire sole of the foot is not applied to the ground, as it is when
the animal is standing at rest ; while the toes themselves, and more especially those
of the fore-feet, can be spread out very widely. The compressed and curved nails
differ from those of the panda in being entirely non-retractile. The fur is
characterised by its length, softness, and thickness, and is greatly developed on the
tail, but is very short on the feet, of which the soles are naked.
The best-known species is the common raccoon (Procyon lotor), of which a
group is represented on the next page. The total length of this animal varies
from about 32 to 36 inches, of which some 10 inches are occupied by the tail. The
body is covered with thick and rather coarse fur, of a dark brown colour, with the
SKELETON OF
tips of the hairs greyish ; but there is a distinct black patch on either side of the
face, including the eyes, and the muzzle is naked. The tail has five black rings,
separated by others of a whitish colour, and its tip is black. When in its best con-
dition, which is usually in the autumn, a raccoon will weigh from 15 to 25 Ibs.
There is considerable local variation in- '-e colour of this species ; the coloration
being most brilliant in the southern pOl'ix^n of its range, where its bodily size is
also greater than in the north. The conl/iion raccoon is confined to Northern and
Central America, extending from Alaska in the north to Costa Rica in the south,
and occurring over the whole of the United States, where these animals used to
be among the commonest.
The best of the recent accounts of this raccoon is given by Dr.
Habits. J
Hart Merriam, who tells us that raccoons are exceedingly common
about the borders of the Adirondacks, but avoid the dense evergreen forests of
the interior. Although, with the exception of bats and flying squirrels, they are
the most strictly nocturnal of all North American Mammals, yet they may
occasionally be seen abroad on cloudy days. In diet they are thoroughly car-
nivorous— feeding upon mice, young birds, birds' eggs, fresh-water tortoises and
40 CARNIVORES.
their eggs, frogs, fish, cray-fish, molluscs, insects, nuts and fruits and corn ; while
they will sometimes kill and eat domestic poultry. They delight to sport in the
shallow water on the margins of pools and streams, where they capture the cray-
fish lurking beneath the stones, and the fresh-water mussels buried in the mud
and sand. They also catch such fish as happen to get stranded or detained in the
small pools near the shore, although they are unable to dive in pursuit of their
prey. They are, however, good swimmers. Although first-rate climbers, anc
making their nests in a hollow high up in some large tree, raccoons cannot be
considered by any means thoroughly arboreal animals. Thus they neither hunl
their prey among the tree-tops, nor gather nuts and fruits from the branches, nor
do they feed upon the young shoots and twigs. Trees form, however, their resting
and their breeding-places, and likewise their refuge when pursued by human or
other foes. With the falling shades of night they invariably descend to hunt their
prey and search for food.
RACCOON FAMILY. 41
Continuing our account in Dr. Merriam's own words, we find that in the
Ldirondack region " the raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the winter,
^tiring to his nest rather early, and appearing again in February or March,
^cording to the earliness or lateness of the season. Disliking to wade through
deep snow he does not come out much till the alternate thawing and freezing of
the surface, suggestive of coming spring, makes a hard crust upon which he can
run with ease. He does not usually walk many miles during a single night, and
consequently is soon tracked to the tree, in some hole of which he has retired for
the day. It is unusual to find a raccoon alone, for they commonly live and travel
in small companies, consisting of the several members of a single family. They do
not return to the same nest every morning, but often make little excursions in
various directions, being gone several days at a time, and taking refuge, about day-
light, in any convenient arboreal shelter. Though preferring a hollow limb high
up in some giant elm, ash, or basswood, they will put up with almost any kind of
a hollow trunk. I have known them to spend the day in old stubs, in hollow logs,
and even in the poor shelter afforded by the angle where a falling tree had lodged
in a crutch." Probably, in Central America and the more southern districts of
North America, this raccoon remains active throughout the winter, as the climate
would not necessitate any hibernation. In the Adirondacks the young are
produced in the spring — generally during the month of April ; and there are
usually from four to six in a litter. They remain with their parent about a
twelvemonth. The nest which, as already mentioned, is placed high up in a
tree, has but little care bestowed upon its construction.
It has long been known that this raccoon is in the habit of moistening its food
with water before eating it ; and it doubtless received its distinctive specific name
from this habit, which has been of late years verified by Mr. Bartlett's observa-
tions on specimens in the Zoological Society's Gardens. The raccoon is one of the
most valuable of the fur-bearing animals of North America, and is consequently
much persecuted. Raccoon skins were formerly used as a recognised circulating
medium in the States of the Mississippi Valley, and were usually valued at 25
cents apiece.
According to Mr. D. Arrowsmith, the raccoon may be easily caught in steel
traps ; but it is essential that these should be set under water near the margins
of swamps or streams. The more sporting method is, however, to hunt these
animals at night with specially - trained dogs, which are usually a breed of
fox-hounds. It has often been stated that the raccoon leaves a very faint foot-
scent ; but this opinion is controverted by Mr. Arrowsmith, who states that he has
known a hound hunt a raccoon at midday over snow, on a trail which had been
made the previous night. The raccoons, after a short run, invariably take to the
tree, where they are shot by the hunter, unless they conceal themselves in a hole.
Crab-Eating The crab - eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus) is a nearly-allied
Raccoon. South American species, distinguished by its superior dimensions and
its much shorter fur, as well as by its proportionately larger teeth. It is found
typically from Panama to Colombia and Guiana ; but Professor Mivart is of opinion
that the raccoons found further to the south, and extending through Brazil to
Paraguay, are entitled to rank as a distinct species, on account of their darker
42 CARNIVORES.
feet. The name of black-footed raccoon has, accordingly, been proposed for this
southern form. These raccoons are very common in certain districts, and appear
to agree closely in habits with their northern cousin.
THE CACOMISTLES.
Genus Bassaris.
The cacomistles, of which the skull is shown on p.- 35, are animals nearly
allied to the raccoons, but of more slender build, with a sharper muzzle, longer tail,
less perfectly plantigrade feet, and teeth of a more typically carnivorous type.
The common cacomistle (Bassaris astuta), represented in the accompanying
illustration, is an inhabitant of the United States and Mexico. It is covered with
THE CACOMISTLE (i nat. size).
long and soft fur ; and has also well-developed and pointed ears, of which the outer
surfaces are nearly naked. The feet have naked pads, but are otherwise hairy ;
and their short claws are partially retractile. In size this animal may be compared
to a cat, the length of the head and body being about 17£ inches, and that of the
tail (including the hair at the end) nearly the same. The general colour is
brownish-yellow mixed with grey on the upper-parts, and whitish below ; but the
tips of the ears, and two pieces of spots above and below the eyes, are yellowish-white.
The bushy tail, which differs from that of the raccoons in being depressed instead
of cylindrical, has a black tip and seven or eight blackish-brown rings, separated
by white intervals.
This animal dwells among rocks and trees ; and although, on account of its
purely nocturnal habits, but seldom seen, is far from uncommon in certain
localities. Like the raccoons it is easily tamed, and makes a pretty pet, being
sometimes kept for the purpose of killing rats and mice. It is, however, for its
size, a bold and ferocious animal, and is reported to be very destructive to poultry.
Cacomistles prefer woods well supplied with water, and make their nests in
RACCOON FAMILY. 43
the holes of trees. The natives are in the habit of finding out whether such a hole
is tenanted by a cacomistle, by noting if the bark surrounding the aperture
1ms been removed; this removal of the bark being an invariable custom of the
animal. From three to four young are produced at a birth. B. astuta is in
the habit of carrying its tail bent back over its back. The only other species is
Sumichrast's cacomistle (B. sumichrasti) from Central America.
Another raccoon-like type of animal has been named Bassaricyon, and is at
present known to science only by a single skull from Costa Rica, and a skin from
Ecuador. These animals, which are probably extremely rare, have the same
number of teeth as the raccoons, but approximate so closely in appearance to the
under-mentioned kinkajou, that they are probably often mistaken for it by
collectors. Mr. O. Thomas considers that the resemblance of the two animals is a
case of true mimicry, although he is unable to imagine of what advantage it can be
for the bassaricyon to be mistaken for a kinkajou.
THE COATIS.
Genus Nasua.
The coatis, or, as they are often called, coatimundis, are easily recognised by
the great length of their snouts, on which account they are called by the Germans
Rilsselbdren (proboscis*- bears). They have the same number of teeth as the
raccoons, but the tusks, or canines, are longer and more flattened ; while, in con-
formity with the length of the snout, the skull is relatively longer and narrower.
The snout, which is naked at the tip, is somewhat upturned, and projects far
beyond the extremity of the lower jaw, as is well shown in our coloured Plate ; it
is capable of a considerable amount of motion. The body is long, and rather
flattened, and the tapering tail is also elongated and of considerable depth. The
toes are more closely connected together than the raccoons, and are provided with
longer and stouter claws. There are two species of coatis. One of these, the
white-nosed coati (Nasua nasica), which is the species represented in the coloured
Plate, inhabits Mexico and Central America. It is characterised by the white
nose and upper lip, the dark brown fac.e and cheeks, arid the length and softness
of its fur. In colour the long hairs of the back are tipped with either -rufous,
fulvous, or whitish ; and the tail is frequently of the same colour as the back,
though it may have dark and light rings on the under-side of the basal half, or, as
in our illustration, complete rings.
The second species is the red coati (N. rufa), inhabiting South America from
Surinam to Paraguay. In this species the fur is generally short and harsh, with
the longer hairs on the back tipped with black. The ears are relatively larger and
more hairy ; and the tail is invariably marked with from seven to nine broad fulvous
or rufous rings alternating with black ones ; its tip being black. Both species are
subject, however, to considerable individual variations of colour, and the distinction
between them is sometimes difficult to make out.
These animals usually go about in small troops, comprising from
about eight to twenty individuals ; and are mainly arboreal. Their
44 CARNIVORES.
food includes fruits, young birds, eggs, lizards, and insects. In Costa Rica they are
found in the mountains at elevations of from six thousand to seven thousand feet.
In Nicaragua Mr. Belt observed them hunting the large lizards known as iguanas.
When, however, an iguana was surprised by a coati, it immediately fell from the
bough on which it was reposing to the ground, and thence escaped to another.
Nothing daunted, the coati would renew the pursuit again and again. Frequently
the coatis would divide their troop into two sections, one of which made its way
through the branches above, while the other hunted on the ground below, so
that any prey which might fall from the trees had but a poor chance of escape.
In Guatemala coatis are among the most common of all mammals, and may
be found at all elevations in the mountain-forests, from the level of the sea up
to nine thousand feet. They are very readily tamed, and are often kept by the
Spaniards in South America chained to one of the pillars of the corridor
surrounding the courtyards of their houses.
That coatis are aboriginal inhabitants of South America is proved by the
occurrence of their fossilised remains side by side with those of many extinct
mammals in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil. They are also represented in
deposits of still earlier age in Argentina, where the species have been referred to a
distinct genus (Cynonasua).
THE KINKAJOU.
Genus Cercoleptes.
THE last representative of the Raccoon family is the kinkajou, or jupura (C.
caudivolvulus), which is the most arboreal form of all, and is distinguished by its
prehensile tail — a character possessed by it in common with the Indian binturong.
The kinkajou is distinguished from the other American members of the family by
having but thirty-six teeth, owing to the disappearance of a pair of premolars
in each jaw. It is a long and rather low-bodied animal, with a rounded and
broad head, in which the muzzle is short, and the front of the nose marked by
a median vertical groove. The ears are small and rounded. The limbs are short,
with naked soles to the feet, and long, powerful, and much curved claws. The
tail, which, as we have said, is prehensile, is cylindrical, of moderate thickness, and of
great relative length, being fully as long as the head and body together. The
animal is further distinguished by the great length of its tongue, which can be
protruded a considerable distance in front of the mouth. The fur is soft, short,
and of an almost woolly nature, with nearly the same length over the whole body
and tail, and is of a pale yellowish-brown colour throughout. In size the kinkajou
may be compared to a cat. It is found in wooded districts from Central Mexico
to the Rio Negro in Brazil. In Guatemala, where it is far from rare, it ranges to
elevations of four thousand and five thousand feet above the sea. It conceals itself
in the holes of trees, — in which it probably also breeds, — issuing forth only at night
in search of food. A specimen which fell, when wounded, from a tree into a river
below swam well. It feeds on small mammals, birds and their eggs, honey and
fruits, and appears to be specially partial to oranges and bananas.
The expression of the kinkajou reminded Bates strongly of that of some of the
WHITE-NOSED COATI
RACCOON FAMILY.
45
uirs ; and he was also struck with the extreme brightness of its dark eyes. " I
once saw it," he writes, " in considerable numbers -when on an excursion with an
Indian companion along the low Ygapo shores of the Teffe, about twenty miles
above Ega [on the upper Amazon]. We slept one night at the house of a native
family living in the thick of the forest, where a festival was going on, and there
being no room to hang our hammocks under shelter, on account of the number of
visitors, we lay down on a mat in the open air, near a shed which stood in the
midst of a grove of forest trees and pupunha palms. Past midnight, when all
became still after the uproar of the holiday-making, as I was listening to the dull,
fanning sound made by the wings of impish hosts of vampire-bats crowding
THE KINKAJOU (\ nat. size).
round the cajer trees, a rustle commenced from the side of the woods, and a troop
of slender, long-tailed animals were seen against the clear moonlit sky, taking
flying leaps from branch to branch through the grove. Many of them stopped at
the pupunha trees, and the hustling, twittering, and screaming, with the sounds
of falling fruits, showed how they were employed. I thought at first they were
Nyctipithed, but they proved to be jupuras, for the owner of the house early
next morning caught a young one, and gave it to me. I kept this as a pet animal
for several weeks, feeding it on bananas and mandioca-meal mixed with treacle.
It became tame in a very short time, allowing itself to be caressed, but making
a distinction in the degree of confidence it showed between myself and strangers.
My pet was unfortunately killed by a neighbour's dog, which entered the room
where it was kept."
CHAPTER XVIII.
CARNIVORES, — continued.
THE WEASEL FAMILY.
Family
WITH the Weasel family, in which are included not only the weasels and their
immediate allies, but likewise the badgers and otters, we come to the last group
of terrestrial Carnivores. The family is thus a very extensive one, and also one
in which many of the various members differ very widely from one another in
external appearances, as well as in the structure of their teeth. A large number
of the species — and among them the typical forms — are, however, characterised by
SKELETON OF WEASEL.
their long and slender bodies and short limbs; while the great majority are of
medium or small size, and none are very large.
In the general characters of the base of the skull the members of the Weasel
family agree with the Bears and Raccoons. They are, however, distinguished-
from these by having but a single pair of molar teeth in the upper jaw, while
they agree with the raccoons in generally having but two pairs of these teeth
in the lower jaw. The ratels have, however, only a single pair of lower molar
teeth. The skull of any member of the family may always be distinguished from
that of any other Carnivore by the inner portion of the upper molar tooth being
wider in the antero-posterior direction than its outer portion, this character being
exhibited in the figure of the palate of an otter given later on, although in this
case the whole tooth is relatively wider than usual. The skull is further
characterised by the great development of the curved ridges of bone by which
the lower jaw is held in place, which grip the condyle of the latter so tightly
that it is sometimes difficult or impossible to detach it from the skull proper.
As in the two preceding families, the feet are in all cases provided with five toes.
From the structure of the skull, as well as from certain features in the
WEASEL FAMILY. 47
itomy of the soft parts, it has been generally considered that the weasels are
most nearly allied to the bears and raccoons ; and, as a matter of convenience, it is
found best to continue to place them in this position, as it somewhat simplifies
classification. The evidence furnished by the numerous forms of extinct Carnivores,
which have been discovered of late years in the middle and lower Tertiary rocks
of Europe and North America, points, however, very strongly to the conclusion that
the nearest allies of the weasels are in reality the civets, and that the former group
is the direct descendant of the latter. If this view be true, — and the evidence in
its favour is very strong indeed, — it follows that the structural resemblance of
the weasels to the bears and raccoons is an instance of what is termed parallel
development, and indicates no near genetic connection between the two groups.
The family is a very widely distributed one, having representatives on all the
great continents, with the exception of Australia. It attains, however, its maximum
development in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere ; and it may be
noted that none of its members inhabit Madagascar. In regard to coloration there
is an enormous amount of variation. Several of the northern forms have a dark
summer and a light winter dress, and thereby differ from all other Carnivores
except the Arctic fox. Then a large number of the martens and weasels and all
the otters are clothed with fur of a nearly uniform dark tint, while one of the
martens and some of the badgers are remarkable for their extreme brilliance.
Moreover, the American skunks and the Cape polecat (Ictonyx) are remarkable
for their contrasting bands of black or dark brown and white, and thus form some
of the most conspicuously-coloured of all mammals. It is also noteworthy that
in the parti-coloured examples there is a great tendency for the under-parts of
the body to be darker than the upper ; whereas, it is scarcely necessary to observe,
the reverse is the case in the great majority of mammals. Again, there is a
tendency for the different colours to arrange themselves in longitudinal lines or
patches, or so as to make the whole of the upper-surface of the body light, and its
under-surf ace dark ; and in no case are there either spots or transverse bands of
colour, while equally noteworthy is the entire absence of alternating dark and
light rings of colour on the tail. Many of the members of this family yield furs
of great commercial value.
The various members of the family are generally divided into three main
groups, distinguished from one another by the characters of their teeth and claws.
These groups are the weasels, the badgers, and the otters, which we proceed to
consider in the order named.
THE TAYRA AND ORISON.
Genus Galictis.
The first representatives of the weasel group are the peculiar South and
Tropical American species, which are respectively known as the tayra and the
grison. The principal distinctive features of the group to which these belong are
briefly as follows.
In the whole group the toes are short and only partially webbed, with short,
48
CARNIVORES.
sharp, and curved claws, which may be partially retractile. The single upper
molar tooth on each side is characterised by its narrowness from front to back, and
its moderate dimensions. With the exception of the wolverene, all the members of
the group are distinguished by their long and weasel-like bodies and short legs,
while all are terrestrial and arboreal in their habits. Exclusive of the members
of the present genus and one South-African species, the group is mainly confined
to the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and North America, only a single representa-
tive occurring in Peninsular India, Burma, and the Malayan region, and one in
South America.
The tayra and grison are characterised by having a total of 34 teeth, of which
§ are incisors, \ canines, f premolars, and £ molars. Their skulls may be readily
THE TATRA (J nat. size).
distinguished from those of the martens and weasels by the tubercle on the inner
side of the upper flesh-tooth being placed near the middle of the tooth, instead of
close up to its front edge. They walk to a great extent on the soles of their
feet, which are completely naked, so that their feet are almost, but not quite,
plantigrade. The claws cannot be retracted. The head is characterised by its
breadth and flatness, and is furnished with very small and rounded ears. The
tail varies in length from about one-half to three-quarters the length of the head
and body.
The tayra (Galictis barbara) is the largest species, and may be
compared in size to the common otter, its total length being a little
over a yard, of which rather less than half is occupied by the tail. The body and
limbs are usually of a uniform dark brown colour, becoming almost black in some
individuals, while in others it is lighter. There is always a lighter spot on the
chest. The head and neck are generally grey, but in two immature individuals in
Tayra.
WEASEL FAMILY. 49
British Museum they are nearly white, with the exception of the muzzle,
which is dark. Occasionally, individuals are met with in which the whole of the
fur, except that on the muzzle, ears, and feet, is entirely white ; one such example
being shown in the upper figure of our illustration. The nose has a vertical groove
at its extremity, the teeth are relatively large and protruding, and the aspect of the
animal is ugly and forbidding.
The range of the tayra is generally stated to extend from Mexico in the north
to the Rio de la Plata in the south, but it also includes some of the more southerly
portions of the Argentine pampas. In British Honduras tayras were observed
by Moore hunting in companies of from fifteen to twenty, and although some
writers have doubted the correctness of this statement, it is fully confirmed by
Mr. Hudson in Argentina. Rengger states that the tayra lives both in open grass-
clad country, and likewise in forest. Writing of this and the next species, Mr.
Hudson says that, on the pampas of Argentina, "there are two quaint -looking
weasels, intensely black in colour, and grey on the back and flat crown. One is a
large bold animal (G. barbara) that hunts in companies ; and when these long-
bodied creatures sit up erect, glaring with beady eyes, grinning and chattering at
the passer-by, they look like little friars in black robes and grey cowls ; but the
expression on their round faces is malignant and bloodthirsty beyond anything in
nature, and it would, perhaps, be more decent to liken them to devils rather than
to humans."
Although largely nocturnal in its habits, the tayra will frequently hunt till
midday, when it seeks its lair and reposes till evening. This lair is generally either
the deserted burrow of an armadillo, or some hole in a tree. The food of the
animal consists of such mammals as it is able to kill, such as agutis and other
rodents, but it also eats birds and their eggs. In inhabited districts the tayra
frequently raids on poultry-houses, among the inmates of which it commits much
havoc. Honey it also readily eats. The nest, which is sometimes made in the
cavities of rocks, instead of in a hollow tree or deserted burrow, is constructed
with much care. In one nest, examined by Hensel, two young were found, which
were then quite blind, and had much the appearance of young foxes.
This (G. vittata) is a smaller animal than the tayra, and may
be compared in size to a marten or an Indian mungoose. It is also
readily distinguished by its relatively shorter tail, of which the length does not
exceed half that of the head and body, and likewise by its coloration. The latter
is of that peculiar type to which we have already referred, in which the under-
parts are much darker than the upper. The snout, the under-surface of the neck,
and the under-parts of the body are very dark brown, whereas the whole of the
upper-surface, from the forehead nearly to the tip of the tail, is of a uniform bluish-
grey tint, the individual hairs being ringed with black and white. From the
forehead to the shoulder the grey and brown areas are divided by a lighter band
with a yellowish tinge, while the tip of the tail and the ears are distinctly yellow.
There is no groove on the nose. The grison is found over the greater part of South
America, as well as in Central America and Mexico ; and there is also Allemand's
grison (G. allemandi), which is of larger size, but has the same general coloration,
although presenting some approximation to the tayra.
VOL. ii. — 4
50 CARNIVORES.
The general habits of the grison appear to be very similar to those of the
tayra. It is described as being the Carnivore most commonly encountered on the
coasts of South America ; but in Brazil it is stated to be less frequent than its
cousin. By preference it appears to select the open country, although it may also
be found in forests. It frequents plantations, and commits great depredations upon
domestic poultry. Hollow trees, clefts in rocks, and deserted burrows, are its
favourite retreats ; but it is said that, when hunted with dogs, the grison will never
attempt to climb, and invariably takes shelter under rocks, or beneath the roots
of trees. Fossil remains of various species of this genus have been found in the
caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; while, what is more noteworthy, others have
been obtained from the superficial deposits of the United States, thus indicating
that the genus formerly extended far to the northwards of its present limits in
Mexico.
THE MARTENS, POLECATS, AND WEASELS.
Genus Mustela.
The martens and their near allies the polecats, stoats, and weasels, constitute
the typical group of this subdivision. By many writers the large martens are
separated as a genus from the smaller polecats, stoats, and weasels, the three lattei
being grouped together under the title of Putorius, but in this we are not disposed
to concur. It is true that the martens have one more pair of premolar teeth in
each jaw than their smaller relatives ; but we cannot in any case attach much
importance to such a difference, and its triviality is proved by extinct species
which exhibit a considerable amount of diversity in this respect.
Regarding, then, all the animals above mentioned as constituting but a single
genus, we have to indicate the features by which the group is distinguished.
In the first place, the number of teeth may either be the same as in the tayra,
or there may be an additional premolar tooth on each, side of both the upper and
the lower jaw, thus raising the number of teeth to forty. The upper flesh-tooth,
as already mentioned, differs from that of the tayra by having the lobe on its
inner side placed close up to its front edge. With regard to external characters,
the martens and weasels are distinguished from the members of the preceding
genus by their habit of walking almost entirely on their toes (digitigrade), and
also by their short and compressed claws being capable of partial retraction.
Their tails are either long or of medium length, and more or less bushy. It may
be added that the lower flesh-tooth of the martens and weasels is characterised
by the small size or total absence of the cusp on the inner side of the second lobe
of the blade ; and as the heel at the hinder end is also rather small and furnished
with a cutting edge, the whole tooth consists of three main cusps, of which the
two end ones are similar. Such a tooth is, therefore, totally unlike the lower flesh-
tooth of a civet.
The well-known European pine-marten, or yellow-breasted marten
Pine-Marten.
(M. martes), may be regarded as the typical representative of the
martens, all of which possess the following features in common. First of all, they
have four pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw ; while the flesh-tooth of the lower
WEASEL FAMILY. 51
iw has a distinct cusp on the inner side of the second lobe of the blade. Moreover,
they are of comparatively large size, and may be compared in this respect to the
domestic cat. In all of them the body is much elongated, although to a less degree
than is the case with the polecats and weasels. The martens are found only in the
Northern Hemisphere, and range far to the northwards; one species, however,
occurring as far south as India and the Malayan region.
The pine-marten has a total length of from 25 to 30 inches, of which from 16
to 18 inches are occupied by the head and body, and from 9 to 12 inches by the
tail, inclusive of the hair at its extremity. As in the other members of this group,
the muzzle is sharply pointed, with the nose extending a little beyond the lips ;
and the ears are thickly covered with hairs on both sides. Beneath the glossy
outer fur there is a thick coat of under-fur ; and the soles of the feet have a thick
coat of fur between the bare pads.
The pine-marten is characterised by the rich brown colour of the fur, and the
reddish grey tint and yellow tips of the under- fur ; the light-coloured fur on the
throat and chest varying in tint from yellowish white to a bright orange. The
range of this species includes a large portion of Northern Europe and Asia ; and in
former years the animal was common in the British Isles, where it is now restricted
to the wilder districts. From the specific designation of this marten, it would
naturally be supposed that it exhibits an especial predilection for pine-forests.
This, however, does not appear to be the case, and it would seem that the name
was given merely from the circumstance that pine forests are abundant in many
of the districts which it inhabits.
52 CARNIVORES.
Like the other members of the group, it is chiefly arboreal in its
habits, and thereby differs markedly from the weasels, which are
more terrestrial. " Creeping from branch to branch in silent and stealthy pursuii
of birds, squirrels, and other small animals," writes Bell, " their sharp and long
claws afford them a firm and secure hold of the bark, whilst the long and some-
what bushy tail must considerably aid them in maintaining their balance on the
boughs ; the ears, too, are large and open, a circumstance which is of greai
advantage to them in discovering and pursuing their prey, amidst the dense foliage
in which they love to conceal themselves." Martens will, however, frequently
descend to the ground, when they will destroy mice, rats, and moles, as well as
rabbits and hares, and, it is said, even lambs. They are also deadly enemies tc
domestic poultry of all kinds ; while in the neighbourhood of the sea-coast thej
are also reported to feed on mussels. When domesticated, it is said on gooc
authority that they will eat fruit.
Although it was long considered that the beech-marten was also found in the
British Islands, it is now ascertained that the present species is the only membei
of the group that has ever occurred here. Regarding its present distributior
here, the late Mr. Alston, to whom we are indebted for the clearing up of this
confusion, writing in 1879, states that in the wilder districts of Scotland, as well as
in the north of England, Wales, and Ireland, the marten still holds its own ; while
specimens are occasionally captured in districts where it is now practically extinct
Thus one was shot in Norfolk in the year 1878, while another was killed ir
Hertfordshire in 1872. In Ireland the animal was, when Mr. Alston wrote
occasionally seen even in County Dublin.
The beech or white - breasted marten (M. foina), formerly
supposed to be an inhabitant of the British Islands, is generally o:
a greyish brown colour, although the tint may vary from a whitish brown tc
deep blackish brown, with the tail and limbs generally darker than the body
The light area on the throat and chest, which may vary considerably in extent ir
different individuals, is invariably white ; while the colour of the under-fur varies
from ashy to pure white. The skull is also proportionately wider than in the
last species, and there are also certain characters in the teeth by means of whict
the one species can be distinguished from the other. The length of the head
and body is about 18 inches, and that of the tail, with the hair at the end
13 inches.
This species is a more southern form than the last, being widely
distributed in Europe, but not reaching either the British Islands or
Scandinavia ; while to the eastward it extends into Asia as far as Turkestan anc
the Eastern Himalaya. In the latter districts examples have been procured from
Afghanistan in the west to Sikhim in the east, and also from Kumaun and Ladak
further eastwards it appears to be unknown. Throughout the Himalaya it is
generally found at considerable elevations, although descending as low as five
thousand feet in the Gilgit district. It inhabits the whole of Central Europe and
Italy, the warmer parts of European Russia as far as the Urals, as well as the
Crimea ; the western and northern slopes of the Caucasus, Palestine, Syria, and
Asia Minor. It appears, however, to be unknown in Persia.
WEASEL FAMILY.
53
Habits.
Over the greater part of Europe this marten is a commoner animal
than the preceding, which it also exceeds in the greater boldness of
its disposition. Although it is a frequenter of woods and trees, it is also found
not uncommonly among rocks and stones, and hence receives its German name
of steinniarder. In barren districts like Ladak this marten must, of course, nearly
always dwell among rocks. From its bold disposition it is frequently found in the
neighbourhood of human habitations, where it inflicts much damage on poultry.
In its general mode of life the species closely resembles M. martes. The nest
is carefully formed of hay and straw, and situated in a hole in a tree, in the
crannies between rocks, or in an old barn or granary. The young, generally from
four to five in number, are born about the month of April, and are blind for the
first fortnight of their existence. Its wanderings at night during the summer are
THE BEECH-MARTEN (\ nat. size).
extensive ; and no dove-cot — however lofty it may be — is safe when there is a
marten anywhere in the neighbourhood. The food of this species is much the
same as that of the last, although in inhabited districts including more domesti-
cated animals. It feeds on mice, rats, rabbits, and all kinds of birds ; and, when
dwelling in woods, hunts and kills squirrels, lizards, and frogs. It likewise eats
fruits of various kinds, such as cherries and plums; and in some parts of the
Continent is considered to do so much harm to orchards that the stems of the trees
are washed with tobacco-juice or petroleum in order to prevent the marten from
ascending them. Like all its kindred, the beech-marten is, for its size, an ex-
ceedingly bloodthirsty creature, and will often kill more than it can devour.
Although generally silent, in the pairing-season, which takes place towards the
end of February (or about three weeks later than that of the pine-marten), these
animals utter a kind of mewing sound not unlike that of a cat ; and a pair of them
in a tree may be heard for a considerable distance.
54 CARNIVORES.
In general the fur of this species is less valued than that of the pine-marten ;
but some skins from Afghanistan and Turkestan have beautiful fur, with long,
glossy, nearly black piles, and very soft white or pale ashy under-fur. These
Turkestan martens were at one time regarded as belonging to a distinct species.
The inferiority of the fur of the ordinary beech-marten, as compared with that of
the sable, is due not only to its colour and actual length, but likewise to the relative
length of the long piles as compared with that of the under-fur, which is scarcely
concealed by them. The more northern skins are always superior to those from
Southern Europe ; and a large number are imported into this country and sold as
an inferior kind of sable. As already mentioned, it was considered by the late
Professor Rolleston that the domesticated animal employed by the ancient Greeks
for the purposes for which we now use the cat, and called by them the Ailouros,
was this marten, which is often spoken of as the white-breasted marten. Fossil
remains of martens occur in the cavern deposits of the Continent ; but only those
of the pine-marten have as yet been found in England.
The sable (M. zibellina) is so nearly allied to the pine-marten
that some writers have considered that it should be regarded merely
as a variety distinguished by the greater length and fineness of the fur. Brehm
states, however, that it has a much more distinctly cone-shaped head, larger ears,
longer and stouter limbs, and proportionately larger feet. In the most highly-
esteemed specimens the fur should be thick, soft, and nearly uniformly coloured.
Such skins are blackish above, having a mixture of black and grey on the snout,
grey on the cheeks, chestnut-brown on the neck and flanks, and orange-yellow, or
sometimes reddish orange on the throat. The margins of the ears are either
greyish white or light brown in colour. In a number of cases there is a larger
or smaller admixture of white hairs among the dark fur of the back, while the
muzzle, cheeks, breast, and under-parts are white. In other specimens the fur on
the back is yellowish brown, while that of the under-parts is nearly white, and
only the legs black. Good skins should exhibit a kind of " watering," owing to
the reddish tint of the woolly under-fur showing through the long outer hairs.
An average sable will measure about 20 inches from the snout to the root of the
tail ; the length of the tail being 7 inches. The skins are valued only when they
have their winter fur, the summer coat being much shorter. In spring, although
the winter fur may still be retained, the skins are quite useless, as the hair will
drop off even after the skins have been dressed.
The ranp;e of the sable originally extended from the Ural
Distribution. ^ J
Mountains to Behring Sea, and from the mountains on the southern
borders of Siberia to the 68th parallel of north latitude. It is, however, now much
curtailed, owing to the incessant persecution to which the animal has been so long
subject ; and the chief haunts are now the mountain forests of North Asia, more
especially Eastern Siberia and Kamschatka.
According to reports furnished to Dr. Guillemard by a native
hunter, it appears that sables are for the most part of nocturnal
habits, and, though they occasionally feed by day, generally spend that period of
the twenty-four hours in holes at the roots or in the trunks of trees. They dislike
the presence of man, and are rarely to be found in the neighbourhood of the
WEASEL FAMILY.
55
ages ; their favourite resort being the depths of the forest least frequented by
the natives. It is considered that the most inaccessible and least known parts of
the country are the best hunting-grounds. They live on hares, birds of all kinds,
and, in short, almost every living thing they can kill, but they are also said to eat
berries, and even fish. There are, indeed, but few animals, apparently, which do
not live on fish in Kamschatka. They have only one litter during the year,
generally in the month of April, and bring forth four or five young at a birth in
a nest in the holes of trees. The same writer tells us that whereas formerly a
large number of sables were caught in traps in Kamschatka, they are now more
generally hunted there with dogs; these dogs being specially trained for the
purpose, and either running down their quarry on the deep snow, driving them
into trees, or smelling them out when lying asleep in holes. The great object in
THE SABLE (% nat. size).
such hunts is to " tree " the sable, when the tree is surrounded with nets, and the
animal either shaken from the boughs or knocked off them by means of poles. If
the sable does not fall into the nets, it is again pursued by the expectant dogs,
by whom it is either run down, or once more " treed." When the tree is too high
to allow of the sable being dislodged by the usual methods, it is either felled, or
the animal is shot ; but recourse to guns is if possible avoided, as the shot does
damage to the skins. If the distance they have to travel be a long one, the
Kamschatkan hunters start on their winter expeditions after the sable towards
the end of September ; but, if the district is nearer, they wait until the first fall
of snow or about six weeks afterwards. If a single hunter takes twenty sable
skins in a season, he considers himself fortunate ; but Dr. Guillemard mentions
that in a little-known district one party bagged upwards of 140 skins. The total
number annually taken in Kamschatka must be very large ; the number exported
in the year 1882 from Petropaulovsky (which receives the majority) being over
5 6 CARNIVORES.
two thousand. The price of a single sable skin in St. Petersburg ranges from £2
to £25, according to its quality and condition. The Kamschatkan peasant receives
an average of sixteen roubles for each skin ; and this he has to take out in kind.
American This species (M. americana) is so nearly related to the pine-
Marten, marten and the sable that there may be a question whether it should
be regarded as anything more than a variety. The long hair is very like that of
the pine-marten, to which it is most nearly allied ; its general colour being more
or less uniformly brown, the breast-spot yellow, and the head and ears grey or
whitish.
It is found in the Hudson's Bay district, Labrador, Alaska, and other parts of
North America, descending on the eastern side as far south as the Adirondack
Mountains, near New York.
In habits it appears to be similar to the pine-marten. In the Adirondacks it
inhabits the evergreen forests, and is chiefly, although not exclusively, nocturnal.
Its food consists of partridges, rabbits, and other smaller rodents, birds' eggs, young
birds, frogs and toads, and large insects. It is said to display a distinct preference
for forests of conifers, and is thoroughly arboreal, never venturing into the neigh-
bourhood of human dwellings. Although generally gentle-looking in appearance
it is related that when attacking animals larger than itself, such as hares, it becomes
as fierce in demeanour, in proportion to its size, as a tiger. When one is seen
among the tree-tops, the hunter has but to whistle and thus attract its attention,
when it will afford a ready shot.
The fur is of great commercial value; the best skins selling at about £3,
15s. each. Of recent years the annual imports into this country have exceeded
100,000. Curiously enough, at certain periods this species becomes exceedingly
scarce ; the periods of scarcity recurring with great regularity at intervals of about
ten years. How the animals disappear is, however, unknown, since there is no
region into which they can migrate without the knowledge of the hunter, and
none are found dead. The best season for obtaining the skins is in November ;
the animals being generally caught in wooden traps, which are set in lines for
miles across the country. In spite of the incessant persecution to which it is
subject, it does not appear that this species has appreciably diminished in number
in the wilder regions of its habitat.
The largest of all the martens is the so-called fisher marten (M.
pennanti), an animal rejoicing in a number of names — both popular
and scientific — being variously designated as the "pekan," "Pennant's marten,"
" black fox," and " black cat." The two latter titles are due to the large size, stout
build, and dark colour of the animal, which in point of form may be more aptly
compared to a fox than to a weasel. It measures from 24 to 30 inches from the
tip of the snout to the root of the tail. Its general colour is blackish brown,
becoming grey on the head and neck; while the throat is distinguished by the
absence of the light-coloured patch distinctive of all the other species. It ranges
over the greater part of North America, as far northwards as Alaska and the
Great Slave Lake, while to the southwards it is found in the upper part of Texas
and about latitude 35°. Continual hunting has, however, exterminated the animal
from the more settled districts of the United States east of the Mississippi.
WEASEL FAMILY. 57
Dr. Hart Merriam observes that " the name of fisher is somewhat
of a misnomer, for these animals commonly frequent deep swamps
ami wooded mountain sides, away from the immediate vicinage of water, and are
not known to catch fish for themselves as do the mink and otter. However, they
;nv fond of fish, and never neglect to devour those that chance to fall in their way.
They prey chiefly upon hares, squirrels, mice, grouse, small birds, and frogs, and
are said to eat snakes. They also catch and feed upon their own congener, the
marten, and make a practice of devouring all that they discover in dead-falls and
steel-traps." It also appears that porcupines compose a considerable proportion of
their food in some districts; specimens being sometimes killed with numbers of
porcupine-quills in their skin and flesh. Curiously enough, these needle-like quills,
which often exceed 2£ inches in length, seem to cause it but little or no incon-
venience. Instances are recorded where the fisher marten has attacked and routed
such a comparatively large animal as the raccoon.
In its chiefly nocturnal and largely arboreal habits the fisher marten resembles
most of the other members of the group ; its agility in the forests is, however, very
remarkable, and when much frightened, or in pursuit of prey, it has been known
to leap from tree to tree. The nest is usually built in the hole of a tree at a great
height above the ground ; the young being generally from two to four in number,
and produced at the end of April or beginning of May.
The fisher marten is trapped for its skins in the northern parts of America
from October till May, those captured in the early part of the season being in the
best condition. The fur is not nearly so valuable as that of the American marten ;
the usual price being about a dollar and a half per skin. In the European markets
the fur is generally known as Virginian polecat.
Readily distinguished from all the other species by its more
' brilliant coloration, and the greater relative length of the tail, which
is fully equal to two-thirds that of the head and body, the Indian marten (M.
jl(i'-igula) is the handsomest member of the group. The soles of the feet are,
moreover, at least partially naked, although this character is less marked in
Himalayan specimens than in those from more easterly regions.
The fur is generally short, although longer in the Himalayan than in other
examples, and has a thick, woolly under-fur during the winter. There are two
varieties of this animal, one of which is more brightly coloured than the other. In
the former, or common Indian type, the upper part of the head and neck, the rump,
the tail, and the limbs, are either glossy blackish brown or black ; while the middle
of the back is of a paler brown, sometimes with a whitish tinge. The chin and
upper part of the throat are white, while the lower throat and chest are either of
a brilliant orange, brownish yellow, or pure yellow tint. In the second variety,
with the exception of the white chin and throat and the pale yellow chest, the
whole of the fur is dark brown. The length of the head and body varies from
20 to 22 inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the hair at the tip, from 17 to 20
inches. According to Mr. Blanford, the Indian ma'rten is found throughout the
Himalaya, from the regions to the westward of Kashmir to Eastern Assam, and
thence through the hilly districts of Burma to the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
In Peninsular India it occurs on the Nilgiri and Travancore Hills ; whilst to the
58 CARNIVORES.
eastward its range extends as far as South China and Amurland. It is always
found at a considerable elevation above the sea-level, ranging in the Himalaya up
to seven thousand or eight thousand feet ; and its occurrence in ranges so remote
from one another as the Himalaya and Nilgiri would seem to indicate a former
colder condition of climate in order to have enabled the animal to have traversed
the intervening hot districts.
This marten is only found where the hills are thickly clothed
Habits
with forest, and is by no means exclusively nocturnal. Although
apparently far from uncommon in the Himalaya, it is, according to the writer's
personal experience, but seldom seen. He had, however, once the good fortune to
see a pair of these handsome animals descend from the trees, and gambol in a
forest-glade at a short distance from his position. Other observers state that it
may sometimes be seen in parties of five or six, hunting for prey either among
brushwood or on the branches of trees. The late Prof. L. Adams states that, when
on the move, it is continually uttering a kind of low chuckle, prolonged into a
harsh cry when it becomes excited. Its food, which includes large insects, appears
to be very similar to that of the other martens, but it is reported to kill young
deer. It is noteworthy that a fossil marten, probably nearly allied to this species,
occurs in the Pliocene strata of the Siwalik Hills of Northern India, and is thus
the oldest representative of the group yet known.
With the well-known European polecat (M. putorius), we come
to the first representative of the second great group of the genus
Mustela, or that which includes the polecats, weasels, stoats, and minks.
As already mentioned, the chief characters by which these animals are
distinguished from the martens are the absence of the first pair of premolar teeth
SKELETON OF THE POLECAT.
in both jaws, the sharper cusps on the crowns of all the cheek-teeth, and the,
absence of a cusp on the inner side of the blade of the flesh-tooth in the lower jaw.
The members of this group are, moreover, of smaller size than the martens, and
have, as a rule, longer bodies and proportionately shorter legs ; and, whereas the
martens give but little smell, the animals remaining for consideration are of ill
reputation in this respect — as testified by the old name of foumart (foul-marten)
applied to the polecat.
The common polecat is the best known representative of a small group of
• five species, distinguished from the stoats and weasels by their larger size and
more powerful build. In length the head and body usually measure about 17
inches, while that of the lail is 6 inches. The nose is rather sharp, the small
WEASEL FAMILY.
59
irs are rounded, the neck is relatively long, and the tail is bushy. In colour the
long hair of the body and limbs is brownish black or black, darkest on the head,
tail, feet, and under-parts ; while the ears are white, and there are some brown
and white markings on the face and mouth. The woolly under-fur is a pale yellow,
or fulvous, and by showing through the long hair communicates a general brown
tinge, mingled with yellow, to the whole pelage ; the tint varying considerably in
different individuals. The fur is very long and loose on most parts of the body,
and is commercially known as " fitch," from the name Fitchet, or Fitcher, applied
in many parts of the country to this animal. The range of the polecat includes
the greater part of Europe, extending as far northwards as the southerly districts
of Sweden and the White Sea, but not including the Mediterranean countries.
THE POLECAT (\ nat. size).
In Western and Northern Asia it is replaced by the closely-allied Siberian polecat
(M. eversmanni), which appears to be distinguished mainly by the head and back
being nearly white, and by certain differences in the form of the skull. A third
nearly-allied kind is the Tibetan polecat (M. larvata), inhabiting Ladak and Tibet,
which differs only from the last by certain features in the base of the skull.
sarmatian The Sarmatian polecat (P. sarmaticus) is, however, a very
Polecat. distinct species, of rather smaller size than the common kind, and
well distinguished by the fur of the under-parts being of a glossy black, while that
of the upper parts is a mixture of brown and yellowish white. This species, often
known as the mottled polecat, presents, therefore, another instance of that peculiar
distribution of dark and light colours which we have already alluded to as
characteristic of several members of the family. It is found in South-East Europe,
60 CARNIVORES.
northwards from Poland, whence it extends into Western Asia, where it is common
in the neighbourhood of Kandahar.
Black-Footed Lastly, we have the American, or black-footed polecat (M.
Polecat. nigripes), which is generally of a brownish-white colour, with the
feet, the tip of the tail, and a broad stripe across the forehead, black. It is larger
than the common species ; the length of the head and body measuring 19 inches,
and that of the tail, with the hair at the end, 5| inches. It inhabits the central
plateau of the United States, ranging as far south as Texas.
The habits of all these five species of polecat appear to be
very similar, and the whole of them are characterised by their
extremely fetid odour. From the barren nature of the country which it
inhabits, the Tibetan polecat probably, however, dwells among rocks and stones ;
while the Sarmatian species generally resides in the deserted burrows of other
animals.
The common polecat, whose habits will in the main serve to illustrate those
of the other species, is chiefly a nocturnal animal, lying concealed during the day
in woods, in fox or rabbit holes, woodstacks, or among rocks, and issuing forth at
evening for its devastations. In winter it frequently seeks shelter in old farm-
buildings or outhouses. It is far less arboreal in its habits than the martens, and
is also less active in its ways. The polecat is a deadly enemy to hares, rabbits,
and partridges, and equally destructive to all kinds of domestic poultry, from the
pigeon to the turkey ; while in addition to the smaller mammals and birds, it will
consume eggs, lizards, snakes, and frogs. It is stated on good authority that it
always carries away its food to its lair ; this would be obviously impossible with
such large birds as geese and turkeys, which are, perhaps, merely killed for that
insatiable thirst for blood, which is its characteristic. Indeed, wherever a polecat
gains access to a poultry-house, the owner will be pretty sure to find the majority
of the occupants lying dead in the morning. The polecat is, moreover, a no less
deadly enemy to the game preserver; the authors of Bell's British Quadrupeds
remarking that " the destruction which it occasions among the eggs and young of
pheasants and partridges, young hares and rabbits, is incalculable ; and, in the
latter case particularly, it follows these animals into their burrows with such
facility that a single family of polecats would shortly produce a sensible
diminution in numbers amongst the denizens of a whole warren."
Fortunately, however, of late years its numbers have been vastly diminished,
and it is now chiefly confined to regions with thick woods affording it compara-
tively inaccessible retreats. In the Alps it wanders in summer far above the
limit of trees, although retreating to lower elevations in winter. The nest of
the polecat is made in a deserted rabbit-hole, in the crevices of rocks, or amongst
heaps of stones overgrown with brushwood or weeds ; and here the young are born
in the months of April and May, or, more rarely, the beginning of June. The
number in a litter may vary from three to eight, although it is more usual to find
four, five, or six. When captured early, the young may be easily trained for the
purpose of rabbit-catching. Fossil remains of the polecat, like those of the weasel
and the stoat, have been obtained from the cavern-deposits of this country and
the continent, in association with the bones of extinct mammals.
WEASEL FAMILY.
61
Ferret.
After much discussion and difference of opinion, zoologists are
agreed that the ferret is merely a variety of the polecat, somewhat
modified by the effects of long-continued captivity. It is usually smaller and more
slender than the polecat, and is generally of a yellowish white colour, with pink
eyes, but there is also a brown variety known as the " polecat-ferret." Ferrets are
bred chiefly for rabbit and rat-hunting, both in Europe and the United States.
Although they learn to know their masters to a certain extent, they are un-
trustworthy animals, and should be handled with caution. The ferret has no
strong local attachments, and, therefore, requires to be strictly secured. It is also
very susceptible to cold. As is the case with many domesticated animals, ferrets
are more prolific than their wild allies, the number in a litter usually varying
THE FERRET (£ natural size).
from five to ten. The young are born in the spring; but it is said that there
may sometimes be two litters in the year.
In rabbit-catching the ferret is usually sent into the hole either muzzled or
attached to a coil of string, by which it can be withdrawn. If allowed to enter a
rabbit-hole unmuzzled, or without a string, ferrets are very likely to remain in
such good quarters, and to slaughter the occupants one after another. The usual
plan is to stop all the entrances to the burrows by means of small bag-like nets, in
which the rabbits are caught when they bolt ; but sometimes they are allowed to
bolt freely, and are either shot or coursed with dogs. In ferreting it is essential
that those who are present should be perfectly silent, as otherwise the rabbits will
prefer to be eaten alive by the ferret in their holes rather than attempt to escape.
It is also important that no one should stand immediately in front of the entrance
to the hole. When a ferret enters a burrow in which there are several rabbits, a
62 CARNIVORES.
prodigious scuffling and scurrying immediately takes place in the interior ; and
after a few minutes, if not frightened by sounds above, the occupants soon begin
to bolt in rapid succession at the various exits. Like the other members of its
tribe, a ferret almost invariably seizes a rabbit immediately behind the ear.
The common weasel of Europe (M. vulgaris) is the first of several
species, distinguished from the polecats by their smaller size, longer
bodies, and the much slighter development of the ridges and crests on their skulls.
The difference in the proportionate length of the weasel and the polecat will be
made evident by comparing the figure of the skeleton of the former given on
p. 46 with that of the latter on p. 58. Moreover, whereas none of the martens or
polecats have a winter coat markedly different in colour from that which they
wear in summer, the weasels and stoats in northern regions generally or
invariably change their summer dress of brown for a white winter garb.
The common weasel, which ranges over the whole of Europe, Northern and
Central Asia, and a large portion of the northern part of America, usually varies
from 6 to 8 inches in length from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail ; the
tail itself, with the hair at the end, varying from 2 to 2i inches. In colour the
upper-parts are usually some shade of mahogany brown in the summer dress,
while the throat and under-parts are white, without any tinge of yellow. The
outer sides of the limbs are coloured like the back, but it appears that the feet may
be either of the same tint as the back or as the under-parts. There is considerable
individual variation in the shade of the brown, as there is with regard to the
limits of demarcation between the brown and the white areas. The tail is cylin-
drical and pointed, with its tip of nearly or exactly the same tint as the back.
The female weasel is considerably smaller than the male, and appears to be the
animal locally known as the cane.
In the northern parts of the whole extent of its range the weasel assumes a
white dress in winter, although it appears that this change of dress is less regular
than in its cousin the stoat, and requires a greater intensity of cold for its produc-
tion. This change occurs but rarely in the British Islands. Even in the winter
dress, the tip of the tail, although paler than ordinary, retains the reddish brown
colour. In North America the weasel turns white in the northern parts of New
England and the Adirondack Mountains near New York, but in the latitude of
Massachusetts it retains the dark colour throughout the year.
The weasel, in suitable localities, may be found almost every-
HaMts. . . J
where, — in hedgerows, woods, among stones, in water-courses, and
along the edges of swamps. Its general food consists of small creatures, such as
mice, rats, small birds, moles, shrews, insects, etc. ; but there is no doubt but
that it will occasionally make inroads on poultry, and sometimes attack rabbits
and sleeping partridges. The accusations of killing rabbits and hares habitually,
which are so frequently levelled against the weasel, should, however, in most cases
be transferred to the stoat. Indeed, from the war incessantly waged by the weasel
against rats, mice, and voles of all kinds, it ought to be protected by the farmer, if
not also by the gamekeeper, rather than ruthlessly destroyed whenever encountered.
In spite, however, of these services, there is no doubt that the weasel does sometimes
take to rabbit-hunting in good earnest; and several will combine together in
WEASEL FAMILY. 63
companies the better to effect their object. Thus the late Richard Jefferies mentions
that he has seen five, and heard of eight weasels together. " The five I saw,"
writes this observer, " were working a sandy bank drilled with holes, from which
the rabbits in wild alarm were darting in all directions. The weasels raced from
hole to hole, and along the sides of the bank exactly like a pack of hounds, and
seemed intensely excited. Their manner of hunting resembles the motions of ants ;
these insects run a little way very swiftly, then stop, turn to the right or left, make
a short detour, and afterwards on again in a straight line. So the pack of weasels
darted forward, stopped, went from side to side, and then on a yard or two, and
repeated the process. To see their reddish heads thrust for a moment from the
holes, then withdrawn to reappear at another, would have been amusing had it not
THE WEASEL (| nat. size).
been for the reflection that their frisky tricks would assuredly end in death." In
another passage the same author graphically describes the chase of an unfortunate
rabbit by a weasel — the timid fear and almost complete paralysis of the pursued
through sheer terror, and the bold confidence of the bloodthirsty pursuer.
In all cases the weasel is a bold and inquisitive animal, exhibiting but little
fear of man, and poking out its nose from some hole or cranny to survey his pro-
ceedings with the greatest indifference and self-possession. In spite, however, of
this curiosity, the weasel is ever on the alert to withdraw its head at the slightest
symptom of attack. When on the ground, weasels generally proceed in a series of
small leaps, stopping at intervals to take a careful survey of their surroundings,
and not unfrequently raising themselves on their haunches in order to obtain a
better view. From its elongated, almost snake-like, body the weasel can follow most
of the small mammals on which it preys to their holes or hiding-places. As Bell
64 CARNIVORES.
observes : " It follows the mole and the field-mouse to their runs ; it threads the
mazes formed in the wheat-rick by the colonies of mice which infest it, and its long
flexible body, its extraordinary length of neck, the closeness of its fur, and its
extreme agility and quickness of movement, combine to adapt it to such habits, in
which it is also much aided by its power of hunting by scent." The weasel is
likewise an expert climber, seizing hen-birds while sitting in their nests, and thus
gaining both parent and offspring, or eggs, at a single stroke. Although probably
more prone to wander by night than by day, it can scarcely be regarded as a
nocturnal creature, and may, indeed, as in the instance above recorded, be
frequently observed hunting by day. Professor Bell states that the weasel brings
forth four or more frequently five young, and is said to have two or three litters
in a year. The nest is composed of dry leaves and herbage, and is warm and dry,
being usually placed in a hole in a bank, in a dry ditch, or in a hollow tree. As
is well known, the female weasel will defend her helpless young with great
fury and desperation, risking her own life freely rather than leave them.
Occasionally, too, the male will join in endeavouring to protect or carry off the
young from danger.
The stoat or, as it is generally called when in winter dress, the
ermine (M. erminea), is closely allied to the weasel, from which it is
chiefly distinguished by its superior size, and the black tip to the tail, which
retains its colour when the rest of the fur turns white. On account of its superior
size the stoat is frequently known as the greater weasel.
In summer the colour of the fur of the upper-parts of the stoat is dull
mahogany brown, while the under-parts are of a pale sulphur yellow, and are
thus easily distinguished from the pure wThite of the weasel. The length of the
head and body is usually from 9 to 10 inches, but it may occasionally fall as low
as 8 inches, or reach to 11 ; the length of the tail, with the hair, varying from
about 3 to 5 inches.
The distribution of the stoat is nearly the same as that of the
Distribution. . , . „
weasel ; the animal being widely spread over the northern regions or
both hemispheres ; it is, however, not improbable that the stoat extends into
portions of the Western Himalaya, where its cousin is unknown. In all the more
northern parts of its habitat the stoat invariably assumes the well-known white
winter dress which constitutes the valuable ermine of commerce. In the British
Islands this change always takes place in the Highlands of Scotland ; while in the
northern English counties, like Northumberland and Durham, it is frequent but by
no means universal. Proceeding further south, the change of colour becomes more
and more rare, taking place only occasionally in counties like Cambridgeshire and
Lincolnshire, while in Cornwall and Hampshire it is almost unknown. In North
America the change takes place in the more northerly of the United States and all
the regions to the northward; specimens captured during the winter in Massa-
chusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania being almost invariably white. Some of
those from Virginia turn partially white, while in South Carolina there is no
change at all.
The nature of the change from the dark summer to the white
Change of Coat. . . • ., i i , i
winter dress in the stoat and other animals has given rise to much
WEASEL FAMILY. 65
discussion. It was originally considered that the animal sheds its coat in the
autumn and spring ; the dark summer coat being gradually replaced by the advent
of the white hairs of the winter one. Doubts then arose whether the change
in colour was always coincident with the development of the winter and summer
coat, and whether the hairs themselves might not actually change colour. Dr.
Elliott Coues succeeded, however, in proving that the change might take place
in either way, some specimens taken in spring showing the long, woolly white
winter coat on some parts of the body, while on other parts they had the short,
coarse, brown hair of summer; and he observes that "we may safely conclude
that if the requisite temperature be experienced, at the periods of renewal of the
coat, the new hairs will come out of the opposite colour ; if not, they will appear
THE STOAT OR ERMINE IN WINTER DRESS (^ nat. size).
of the same colour, and afterwards change ; that is, the change may or may not be
coincident with the shedding."
Dr. Coues attributed the reason of the colour-change entirely to the effects of
temperature ; but strong objection is taken to this view by Dr. Hart Merriam, who
observes that it occurs in captive specimens kept continually in warm rooms. Dr.
Merriam relies, however, chiefly upon the circumstance observed by himself and
others that among the stoats of the Adirondack Mountains the winter change never
takes place till after the first fall of snow, which generally occurs towards the end
of October or the beginning of November. Although the temperature of the air
may be much lower before than subsequent to this first snowfall, yet it is true
" that ermine caught up to the very day of the first appearance of snow bear no
evidence of the impending change. Within forty-eight hours, however, after the
occurrence of the snowstorm the coat of the ermine has already commenced to
VOL. ii. — 5
66 CARNIVORES.
assume a pied and mottled appearance, and the change now commenced progresses
to its termination with great rapidity. In early spring, the period for the reversal
of this process, the changing back from the white coat of winter to the brown
summer coat is determined by the same cause — the presence or absence of snow."
These arguments appear conclusive that the change is really due to the necessity
of the colour of the animal being adapted to its external surroundings ; the change
in captivity being owing to the influence of hereditary habits, which cannot be
overcome in the short period during which the animals are under observation.
In habits the stoat is in general very similar to the weasel,
* although from its larger size and greater strength it more com-
monly attacks larger animals, such as hares, rabbits, and poultry, than its
smaller relatives. In America it is very fond of the ruffed grouse, and will often
overcome the large northern hare ; while its destruction of poultry is proved by a
statement of Audubon to the effect that one has been known in a single night to
slay upwards of forty well-grown fowls. When food is abundant, it is stated that
the stoat only sucks the blood or eats the brains of its victims, leaving the flesh
untouched. The late Richard Jefferies states that these animals usually hunt
in couples, although occasionally three may be seen together; and that their
range of destruction seems only to be limited by their strength.
The stoat hunts its prey both by day and by night, and is fully as good a
climber as the weasel. Although it cannot in any way be considered an aquatic
animal, there is good evidence to show that it is an excellent swimmer, and will,
when occasion arises, take readily to the water. Its favourite haunts appear to
be stony places and thickets, which secure it a safe refuge from its foes ; and it
is also very partial to patches of impenetrable gorse, while it will sometimes take
up its abode in a deserted rabbit burrow. In spite of its destructiveness to
poultry and game of all kinds there can be no doubt that from the number of
rats, mice, and voles it consumes, the stoat is a benefactor to the farmer ; and it
is a remarkable fact that, whenever unusual numbers of any of the rodents above
mentioned have appeared in any district, they have almost invariably been
followed by a large assemblage of stoats and weasels who wage war upon them.
It is almost superfluous to add that the stoat, when angered, emits a most
noisome and penetrating smell.
The young in England are generally produced during the months of April
and May, in a nest constructed in a hole in some dry bank. Prof. Bell states that
the usual number of young in a litter is five ; Dr. Coues states that the number
may vary from a pair to as many as a dozen, although five or six may be taken as
the average. In America the stoat has occasionally been employed in the same
manner as the ferret for rabbit-catching, and appears to take to the work readily.
In most parts of England stoats seem to be far less common than weasels, although
the reverse is stated to be the case in Scotland.
The fur of such individuals as assume in Britain the white winter dress is
always far inferior in quality to that of skins obtained from more northerly
regions ; the inferiority consisting in the shorter and thinner hairs, and the less
pure and bright tint of the whole pelage. The importation of ermine skins into
England was formerly very large, more than 105,000 having been landed in the
WEASEL FAMILY. 67
year 1833 ; but at a later period, owing to depreciation in value, the Hudson's
Bay Company found that ermine skins were not worth the trouble of collection.
At the present day the ermine is much more abundant in British North America
and Alaska than it is in the United States ; the largest number of skins being
obtained from Alaska.
In addition to the weasel and stoat, there are a number of more
or less closely-allied species inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere,
while a few descend below the Equator. In North America, inhabiting the
region of the Upper Missouri, we have the long-tailed stoat (M. longicauda),
distinguished from the ordinary stoat by its longer tail. The Brazilian, or
bridled weasel (M. frenata), is a more southerly species, ranging from Texas to
Brazil, and distinguished by the head being darker than the body and blotched
with white, and also by the retention of the dark colour throughout the year. A
weasel from Patagonia may be only a variety of this species.
Asia also possesses a number of representatives of the group, such as the
Himalayan weasel (M. hemachelana), in which the under-parts are brown and
the tip of the tail dark; the striped weasel (M. strigidorsus), of Sikhim, in
which there is a pale stripe down the back; the yellow-bellied weasel (M.
catkia), from the Central and Eastern Himalaya ; the pale weasel (M. alpina),
ranging from the Altai to Gilgit ; as well as several others, some of which are
confined to Tibet.
Weasels were also well represented in past epochs of the earth's
Extinct Forms. . • , • -T j •-, j £
history, the remains 01 numerous species having been described from
the Miocene or Middle Tertiaries of Europe. Of those referred to the existing
genus Mustela, some differ from living weasels, and thereby agree with the larger
martens, in having four pairs of premolar teeth in both jaws ; while others have
four pairs of these teeth in the upper jaw, and only three in the lower jaw ; and
others, again, have the reverse of this arrangement. Another extinct weasel-like
animal from the same deposits, for which the name Plesictis has been proposed, is
one of the forms already alluded to as apparently connecting the weasels so
intimately with the civets.
The animal represented in the illustration on the next page forms
one of a group of three species of comparatively large size, whose
nearest allies are the polecats. The European representative of this group
(M. lutreola), is generally known on the Continent as the nertz, or sumpf-otter
(marsh-otter), and has no recognised English title, although the name of
European mink has been suggested for it, and is adopted in this work. The
second species is the true mink ( M. vison) of North America ; while the third
is the Siberian mink (M. sibirica), which is stated to connect the other two with
the polecats.
These three are distinguished from the other members of the genus, not
only by their semi - aquatic habits, but by certain structural peculiarities.
While agreeing with the polecats in the number of their teeth, the minks
differ from them, as well as from the weasels, by the narrower muzzle to their
skulls, being thus more like the martens. The premolar teeth are relatively
larger than in their nearest allies ; while a more important point of distinction is
68
CARNIVORES.
afforded by the partial webbing of the toes, which are also peculiar in possessing
no long hair between their naked pads.
The European and North- American minks are such closely-allied animals that
they cannot be even distinguished from one another externally ; and in our own
opinion it would be better to regard them as mere local varieties of a single
species. The European mink has, however, very generally a white upper lip, which
is but rarely exhibited in its American relative. When the skulls of the two forms
are compared together it will be found that in the American form the upper molar
tooth is invariably decidedly larger than in the European ; and it is on account of
this difference that the two are regarded as specifically distinct from one another.
Like the martens, the minks have a uniformly long and somewr-' bushy
THE EUROPEAN MINK (^ liat. size).
tail, differing markedly from that of the weasels ; its whole length being approxi-
mately equal to half that of the head and body. The ears are smaller than
in any of the allied forms, and scarcely appear above the general level of the fur.
The pelage consists of a dense, soft, and matted under-fur, mixed with long, stiff,
and glossy hairs ; the gloss being most marked in the fur of the upper-parts, while
the hairs of the tail are more bristly than elsewhere. In colour the mink, accord-
ing to Dr. Coues, varies from a light dull yellowish brown to a rich black chocolate-
brown ; the ordinary tint being a rich dark brown, scarcely, if at all, paler below
than above. The tail is always decidedly blackish. Our illustration exhibits the
white upper lip usually distinctive of the European mink. In both the eastern
and western forms the chin is always white, although the extent of the white area
is subject to individual variation. In addition to the white on the chin, there may
also be small irregular patches of the same colour on the under-parts, while, as a
rare abnormality, the tail may also be tipped with white.
WEASEL FAMILY, 69
As a rule, the American mink is somewhat larger than the European ; and in
both the male is always larger than the female. The American form may vary
in length from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail from 15 to 18 inches ;
while the length of the tail, inclusive of the hair, ranges from about 8 to 9 inches.
The European mink is an inhabitant of Eastern Europe, occurring at the present
day in Poland, Finland, and the greater part of Russia, although unknown to the
eastward of the Ural Mountains. The American species ranges over the greater
part of North America, although not found in the extreme north of that continent.
In its general habits the mink, in both hemispheres, is thoroughly
amphibious, and is therefore only found in districts where water is
abunda ':: Indeed, these animals may in this respect be regarded as presenting
precisely the same relationship to the polecat as is held by the water-vole to the
land- vole. The mink, writes Dr. Hart Merriam, " not only swims and dives with
facility, but can remain long under water, and pursues and captures fish by follow-
ing them under logs or other places from which there is no free escape. It has
thus been known to catch as swift and agile a fish as the brook -trout, and Audubon
says that he has seen a mink catch a trout of upwards of a foot in length. It is
remarkably strong for so small an animal, and a single one has been known to drag
a mallard duck more than a mile, in order to get to its hole, where its mate joined
in the feast." Generally, the food of the mink consists of various aquatic creatures,
such as frogs, crayfish, and molluscs ; but it will also eat various small aquatic
mammals, such as voles, as well as mice and rats, while in America it is reported to
prey at times upon the comparatively large musquash. Marsh -frequenting birds
also fall victims to the mink, and their eggs are probably also consumed. Other
wild birds are, however, comparatively safe from the attacks of this animal, as its
climbing powers are of the feeblest. Poultry are not unfrequently attacked ; but
in these and other attacks the mink does not exhibit that wholesale destructive-
ness characteristic of the stoat. In hunting, the mink has been often observed to
pursue its prey entirely by scent ; and it may be observed on its hunting expedi-
tions both by night and by day.
As a rule, minks appear to be comparatively solitary animals, but Dr. Merriam
mentions having once seen three in company. The abode of the mink is usually a
hole in the bank of a stream or lake ; and a well-trodden path always leads from
the entrance of the burrow down to the water. From such abiding places it
appears that the animal will not only make daily excursions for the sake of pro-
curing food, but also wander into neighbouring districts, from which it sometimes
does not return till after the lapse of a week or two. .
The nests of the mink are situated either in the above-mentioned holes, or in
hollow logs, and are generally well lined with feathers and other soft substances.
The usual number of young in a litter is from four to six ; and in the Adirondack
region of New York these are born early in May, and remain with the female
until the following autumn. In America minks have been extensively bred in a
semi-domesticated state, for the purpose of being used as ferrets ; and in this con-
dition it appears that the number of young in a litter may vary from three to as
many as ten. The scent characteristic of all the members of the weasel-group is
extraordinarily developed in the mink, Dr. Coues observing that in America no
7o CARNIVORES.
animal, with the exception of the skunk, possesses such a powerful, penetrating,
and lasting effluvium.
All who have hunted the mink bear witness to its extraordinary tenacity of
life, the writer last quoted stating that he has known several instances of these
animals being found alive after having lain for fully four-and-twenty hours with
their bodies crushed flat beneath a heavy log. The countenance of the mink is
described as at all times far from prepossessing ; but when caught alive in a steel-
trap these animals are said to have an expression almost diabolical.
Some years ago the fur of the mink was but little esteemed, and
the price was at one time said to be so low as not to repay the cost of
transport. Recently mink fur has, however, been more appreciated, and the animal
has consequently been more vigorously trapped, with the result that in some districts
there has been a considerable reduction in its numbers. In 1865 the value of a
good mink skin was reported to have reached five dollars; and at that date
upwards of 6000 of these skins were annually exported from Nova Scotia alone.
It is stated that while for two decades the total number of European mink skins
averaged 55,000, the exports of American mink reached 160,000; but in the year
1888 the number of American was upwards of 370,000. At the latter date the value
of Russian mink varied from about one to four shillings per skin, while American
skins fetched from four to ten shillings. Much higher prices were, however,
current a few years previously. American mink always obtains higher prices than
Russian, the best skins coming from Alaska and New England.
The Siberian mink is a little-known species inhabiting the
Siberian Mink. ^ • T> •
districts to the eastwards of the Yenesei River, but unknown in
Siberia. It is more like a polecat in general appearance, having similar dark and
light markings on the head and face. The colour is a clear rich tawny or fulvous
brown, as dark below as above.
THE SOUTH-AFRICAN WEASEL.
Genus Poecilogale.
The pretty little South-African weasel (Poecilogale albinucha) is worthy of a
separate heading, not only on account of its remarkable coloration, but also as
being, with the exception of one species belonging to the typical genus Mustela,
the sole representative of the weasels in Africa south of the Sahara. This species
is distinguished from all the other weasels by having the ground-colour of the fur
black, with the upper part of the head and neck white, and four pale brownish
white stripes running along the back ; the tapering tail being white. This peculiar
coloration is almost precisely similar to that of the so-called Cape polecat, to be
mentioned later on ; and it may be that we have here another instance of true
mimicry among mammals. In addition to its coloration, the species is also dis-
tinguished by having but two pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, while very
generally there is but a single pair of molar teeth in the lower jaw ; and it is on
these differences in the number of teeth that zoologists chiefly rely in referring this
weasel to a distinct genus.
GLUTTON.
THE GLUTTON, OR WOLVERENE.
Genus Gulo.
The glutton (Gulo luscus), which is the only representative of the genus to
which it belongs, is a very different-looking animal to any of the foregoing, from
THE GLUTTON, OB WOLVERENE (£ nat. size).
which it is likewise distinguished by its superior dimensions. In spite, however,
of these differences, naturalists are in accord in regarding the glutton (or, as it is
called in America, wolverene) as a member of the typical or weasel-like section
of the family.
The glutton, which is an inhabitant of the northern regions of both the
Western and Eastern Hemispheres, has the same number of teeth as in the martens ;
but these are unusually large and powerful, and distantly recall those of the
7 2 CARNIVORES.
hyaenas. The whole animal is heavily and rather clumsily built, and walks with
the greater part of the soles of the feet applied to the ground. The limbs are
thick and rather short ; the feet are provided with long, curved, and compressed
claws, and have their soles thickly haired. The back is much arched, and both
the head and tail are carried low. Dr. Coues compares the whole appearance of
the animal to that of a bear cub, with a superadded tail. The head is broad and
rounded, with a rather short and pointed muzzle, small and widely-separated eyes,
and small rounded ears, projecting but little above the general level of the fur.
The tail is comparatively short, thick, and bushy, with hairs varying from 6 to
8 inches in length; and it has somewhat the appearance of having been
truncated at the end. The fur of the body and limbs is rather coarse, long, and
thick ; and there is also a thick woolly under-fur. The general colour is dusky or
blackish brown; but there is a distinct band of chestnut, or some lighter tint,
commencing behind the shoulders, then running along the flanks, and meeting its
fellow at the root of the tail. The front and sides of the head are light grey,
while upon the throat and chest there may be one or more light spots. The limbs
and under-parts, together with most of the tail, are very dark. The claws are
nearly white. There is considerable individual variation in the size of the glutton,
the length of the head and body in seven examples measured by Dr. Coues varying
from 26^ to 36 inches ; and that of the tail, with the hairs at the end, from 12^ to
15 inches. About 29 inches may, however, be set down as the length of the head
and body in average-sized specimens.
In Europe the glutton appears to have been long regarded as a kind of
fabulous creature ; and it is remarkable that it is known by the same name —
vielfrass — in almost all the continental countries. What may be the meaning
of this name is uncertain ; some writers considering that it is compounded of two
Swedish words signifying rock-cat, while others refuse to admit its Scandinavian
origin. By the French Canadians the animal is termed Carcajou, and by the
English residents of British North America, Quickhatch ; the latter, and probably
also the former, being derived from some almost unpronounceable native name.
The glutton is a forest-haunting animal, and in America is to be
found in all suitable districts to the north of the United States as far
as the Arctic coast, traces of its presence having been observed on Melville Island,
in about latitude 75°. Its southern limits on the eastern side of the continent may
be set down as about latitude 42° or 43°, or, roughly speaking, that of Lake Erie ;
but on the western side it descends lower, having been definitely recorded from
Salt Lake, while in the mountains it may extend as far as Arizona and New Mexico.
The animal is, however, now virtually exterminated throughout the United States.
In Europe the glutton is found at the present day in Norway, Sweden, Lapland,
the north of Russia, namely, in the neighbourhood of the White Sea, in the
Government of Perm, and the whole of Siberia, and Kamschatka. In the time of
Eichwald it was still to be found in Lithuania, but is now extinct there. Solitary
specimens have, indeed, been killed in Saxony and Brunswick ; but these must be
regarded merely as stragglers, and not as indicating that the range of the species
extended so far south within historic times. At an earlier period of the earth's
history the glutton ranged, however, to the British Isles, its fossilised remains
GLUTTON, 73
having been discovered in the caverns of Derbyshire, Glamorganshire, and the Vale
of Clwyd, while they also occur in the older " forest-bed " of the Norfolk coast.
K\ idence of the former existence of the glutton on the continent has also been
obtained in the caves of the Dordogne in the south of France.
In habits the glutton is almost exclusively nocturnal, there being
but few instances of its having been seen abroad during the day ; and
in two of these cases the animal was seen to sit up and shade its eyes with its paws,
as if suffering from the unaccustomed light. The glutton does not hibernate, and
there is no marked difference in the colour of the winter and summer coat. In
spite of its clumsy-looking appearance the animal when disturbed can make off at
a very rapid pace, and hunters who have occasionally seen a glutton in the shades
of evening speak of the hopelessness of pursuing it. It likewise ascends rough-
barked trees with facility, although it is said that its climbing powers are only
exerted when it scents food. In the pursuit of prey the glutton will readily
swim rivers. As a rule it is silent, although when attacked it will give vent to
angry growls.
Gluttons are found either solitary or in pairs, but generally solitary. During
the day they live concealed in subterranean holes, which are usually their breeding-
places, and which are frequently the deserted lairs of bears. In North America
the young are born in June or July, the number of individuals in a litter being,
according to Coues, generally four or five, but it is stated that there are sometimes
only a pair. The young remain with their mother till the following winter, when
they have to shift for themselves. The Cree Indians state that the mother is
exceedingly fierce when defending her offspring, and at such times will not hesitate
to attack human beings.
In regard to food, it appears that the glutton will devour any animal that it
can catch and overmaster, and that it is by no means averse to carrion. The
activity of the animal is such that it can at times, according to Dr. Coues, capture
such nimble prey as hares and grouse, while disabled or weakly deer are always
successfully attacked. The stories of its attacking healthy full-grown reindeer
are, however, improbable. Foxes, rabbits, marmots, etc., are dug out from their
burrows and eaten.
Although much exaggerated by the older writers, the voracity of the glutton
is extreme. It is stated by North American hunters that a freshly-killed animal
may be safely left out in the woods for the first night, as the glutton will not touch
it ; but the second night the animal will return and gorge itself on the flesh,
burying such portions as it is unable to consume. So pertinacious, indeed, are
these animals in quest of slaughtered carcases, that they have even been known to
gnaw through a thick log of wood and to dig a hole several feet deep in frozen
ground, in order to gain access to the body of a deer concealed by hunters.
Gluttons are in the habit of robbing the traps set for other animals, and when
one of them has discovered a line of marten traps the trapper may as well relinquish
his trade until he has destroyed the marauder. Every trap along the line will be
pulled to pieces and the bait or captured marten removed ; and after the hunger of
the glutton is satisfied the remainder of the booty will be buried. Another curious
propensity of the glutton is its habit of stealing and hiding articles which can be
74
CARNIVORES.
of no possible use to it ; and one instance is recorded where these animals removed
and concealed the whole paraphernalia of an unoccupied hunter's lodge, including
such articles as guns, axes, knives, cooking vessels, and blankets.
Dr. Coues states that the glutton " may be captured in wooden
traps similar to those used for martens, but of course made on a much
larger scale, as" the animal's strength is enormous, even for its size. The traps are
sometimes built with two doors ; but so great is the cunning and sagacity of the
beast, that the contrivance for its destruction must be very perfect. The traps
should be covered up with pine-brush, and made to resemble a cache as much as
possible, as the wolverene is then likely to break in and get caught. The bait,
ordinarily the conspicuous feature of a trap, must in this instance be concealed, or
the animal will either break in from behind or, failing in this, will pass on his way.
It is sometimes also taken in steel traps, or by means of a set gun, but both these
methods are uncertain."
THE SKUNKS.
Genera Mephitis and Conepatus.
The handsome but ill-savoured skunks introduce us to the second great group
of the present family, which includes the skunks, badgers, and their allies, and
is characterised as follows. The feet are long, with straight toes, and the claws
are blunt, but slightly curved and compressed, and quite incapable of retraction ;
those of the fore-feet being remarkable for their large size. The form of the
molar tooth of the upper jaw is somewhat variable. Most of the members of this
group are terrestrial and fossorial in their habits.
The skunks, of which there are several species, are an exclusively American
group, of which all but one are referred to the genus Mephitis ; our example on
page 76 being the exception, and forming the genus Conepatus.
The typical forms have 34 teeth, of which ^ are incisors, y canines, | premolars,
and \ molars ; and the whole of them are easily recognised by their large bushy
tails, usually carried over the back, and their general black colour variegated with
white stripes on the back ; this coloration being another instance of the tendency
of the upper part of the body to be lighter than the lower among many members
of the family.
The common skunk (Mephitis mephitica) is an inhabitant of
Northern and Central America, ranging from Hudson's Bay in the
north to Guatemala in the south, and it may be compared in size to a rather small
cat, the length of the head and body always exceeding a foot, although there is
considerable local variation in this respect. It is a stoutly-built animal, with a
small head, short and rounded ears, a moderately -elongated body, and legs of
medium length ; the mode of walking being partially plantigrade. The long and
bushy tail is thickly clothed with very long and fine hair, and is, as already
mentioned, generally carried curled over the back when the animal is walking.
Its length, inclusive of the hair, is somewhat less than that of the head and body.
The general colour of the moderately long hair of the body is black or blackish ;
SKUNKS. 75
and, although there is a great amount of individual variation, the white markings
usually take the form of a streak on the forehead, a spot on the neck, and two
stripes running down the back. The tail is black, more or less mixed with white,
or merely tipped with the same. In some cases the white stripes do not extend
beyond the neck, so that the back is entirely black.
Long-Tailed The nearly-allied long-tailed skunk (M. macrura) from Mexico
Skunk. differs by its longer and more bushy tail, of which the whole length
is not less than that of the head and body.
More distinct is the lesser skunk ( M. putorius), ranging from the
southern United States to Yucatan and Guatemala. This species
never exceeds a foot in length from the snout to the root of the tail, the whole tail
being distinctly shorter than the head and body. It has four interrupted white
stripes on the body, together with some spots, and the tail is tipped with white.
There are also certain differences in the characters of the skull.
White-Backed In South America the group is represented by a very distinct
skunk. species known as the white -backed skunk (Conepatus mapurito),
which is the one figured in our illustration. This skunk differs from all the others by
its heavier build and more pig-like head and snout, in which the nostrils are directed
downwards and forwards, instead of laterally. There are, moreover, important
differences in the form of the skull and teeth, the latter being usually only thirty-
two in number, owing to the absence of the first pair of premolar teeth in the lower
jaw. Then, again,, the ears are extremely small, and the tail is shorter and less
bushy than in the other skunks. In size this species is the largest of the group,
some specimens attaining a length of about 24 inches, exclusive of the tail, although
the more usual dimension is about 18 inches. The colour is even more variable
than in the common skunk, but in general the two white stripes on the back are
very wide, and may either completely unite, or, as in our illustration, be separated
merely by a narrow dark band, the tail being either pure white or black and white.
The coloration of this species shows, therefore, very markedly the general light
colour of the upper, as compared with the lower surface of the body.
The range of this species extends .northwards from Patagonia and Chili through
Central America to Texas.
Subject to certain modifications, engendered by their surroundings,
the habits of all the species of skunks are very similar, and they will
accordingly be treated of collectively.
Skunks are good climbers, but appear to prefer clearings and open glades
rather than dense forests, and they may be frequently found in the neighbourhood
of human dwellings ; although in Patagonia and the Argentine pampas they inhabit
perfectly open country. In common with other members of the family they are
largely nocturnal, but may be met with walking abroad in the evenings in North
America, while Darwin states that in Patagonia the white-backed species, " conscious
of its power, roams by day about the open plains, and fears neither dog nor man."
This indifference to the presence of other creatures is, indeed, one of the most
striking characteristics of the group, and is, as suggested in the passage cited,
doubtless due to the immunity of attack which these creatures possess, owing to
their nauseous secretion. Thus Mr. Belt states that in Nicaragua " the skunk goes
7 6 CARNIVORES.
leisurely along at night, holding up his white tail as a danger-signal for none to
come within range of his nauseous artillery." And Dr. Merriam relates that so
indifferent is the common skunk to the presence of man, that in many parts of the
United States these creatures are not unfrequently run over in the evenings on the
roads by passing vehicles. The peculiar and conspicuous coloration of the skunks
is generally regarded by naturalists as belonging to the class of so-called " warning
colours." Such warning colours would seem, observes Mr. Poulton, " to benefit the
would-be enemies rather than the conspicuous forms themselves. . . . But the
conspicuous animal is greatly benefited by its warning colours. If it resembled its
THE WHITE-BACKED SKUNK (\ nat. size).
surroundings, like the members of the other class, it would be liable to a great
deal of accidental or experimental tasting, and there would be nothing about it to
impress the memory of an enemy, and thus to prevent the continual destruction
of individuals. The object of warning colours is to assist the education of enemies,
enabling them to easily learn and remember the .animals which are to be avoided."
In the Adirondack region the chief food of the common skunk consists of mice,
salamanders, frogs, and the eggs of birds that nest on or near the ground, while
such hens' nests as are met with are sure to be robbed, and an occasional raid is
made on the poultry-yard. A large number of beetles, grasshoppers, and other
insects are likewise consumed by these animals.
SKUNKS. 77
Owing to its fearless and unsuspicious nature, the North-American skunk may
be taken in almost any kind of trap ; and these animals are often a considerable
annoyance to the trapper owing to their habit of frequently entering the snares
set for more valuable quarry. The skunk, observes Dr. Merriam, is slow in
movement and deliberate in action, and does not often hurry himself in whatever
lie does. His ordinary gait is a measured walk, but when pressed for time he
breaks into a slow, shuffling gallop. It is hard to intimidate a skunk, but when
once really frightened he manages to get over the ground at a very fair pace.
The same writer further observes that in the Adirondack region skunks
remain active during the greater part of the year, and hibernate only during the
severest part of the winter. " They differ from most of our hibernating mammals
in that the inactive period is, apparently, dependent solely upon the temperature.
That the amount of snow has no influence upon their movements is evident from
the fact that they are frequently out, in numbers, when its average depth exceeds
five feet on the level. Neither can it be a difference in food-supply that affects them,
for at this season they subsist almost entirely upon mice and shrews, and I have
repeatedly noticed these little beasts scampering about on the crisp snow when the
thermometer indicated a temperature below 20° F." In the more southern
districts of North America skunks doubtless remain active throughout the year,
and the same is probably the case with those inhabiting Central and South
America.
The nests of these animals are formed either in holes in the ground, in hollow
trunks of trees, or among rocks ; and in the North- American species the number in
a litter is usually from six to ten. The young are born in the spring, and generally
remain with their parents as inhabitants of the same hole till the following spring,
when they have to make way for a fresh family. Dr. Merriam states that if a
trap be set at the entrance of one of these holes the whole family may commonly
be captured, at the rate of one per night. Surprising as it may at first sight
appear, the common skunk, especially when captured young, is said to make a
pretty and agreeable pet, gentle in manners, and cleanly in habits ; while the
beauty of its fur makes its personal appearance highly attractive. Moreover, the
flesh of these animals is said to be white, delicate, and highly palatable.
The secretion that has given the skunk such an ill name is contained in a
pair of glands situated beneath the tail, and can be ejected at the will of the
animal ; such ejection taking place only when the creature is attacked or irritated.
So forcibly can the fluid (which is of an amber colour) be ejected, that it will
carry from a distance of 13 feet to a little over 16 feet. It appears that there
is a marked difference in the intensity of the odour of the secretion in different
individuals of the common skunk, which is probably in part due to the age of the
animal, and in part to the length of time which has elapsed since the preceding
discharge took place. When freshly ejected, the fumes from the secretion are
pungent and acrid in the extreme, and are probably capable of producing extensive
swelling of the respiratory passages. Dr. Merriam states that " when inhaled
without the admixture of a large amount of atmospheric air the unhappy victim
loses consciousness and breathes stertorously, the temperature falls, and the pulse
slackens, and if the inhalation were prolonged the results would doubtless prove
78 CARNIVORES.
fatal." It has been stated that the secretion is not only used as a means of defence
but also as a means of attracting these animals towards one another. This,
however, is strenuously denied by Dr. Merriam.
Of the lasting and pernicious effects of even a drop of skunk secretion, no
more striking instance exists than one recently published by Mr. W. H. Hudson,
who writes of the South-American species. This observer relates, as a not
uncommon event on the Argentine pampas, that a settler starts one evening to
ride to a dance at a neighbour's house. " It is a dark windy evening, but there is
a convenient bridle-path through the dense thicket of giant thistles, and striking
it he puts his horse into a swinging gallop. Unhappily the path is already
occupied by a skunk, invisible in the darkness, that, in obedience to the promptings
of its insane instinct, refuses to get out of it, until the flying hoofs hit it and send
it like a well-kicked football into the thistles. But the fore-feet of the horse, up
as high as his knees perhaps, have been sprinkled, and the rider, after coming out
into the open, dismounts and walks away twenty yards from his animal, and
literally smells himself all over, and with a feeling of profound relief pronounces
himself clean. Not the minutest drop of the diabolical spray has touched his
dancing-shoes. Springing into the saddle he proceeds to his journey's end, and is
warmly welcomed by his host. In a little while people begin exchanging whispers
and significant glances; . . . ladies cough and put their handkerchiefs to their
noses, and presently begin to feel faint and retire from the room. Our hero begins
to notice that there is something wrong, and presently discovers its cause;
he, unhappily, has been the last person to remark that familiar but most
abominable odour, rising like a deadly exhalation from the floor, conquering all
other odours, and every moment becoming more powerful. A drop has touched
his shoe after all."
Fossil remains of skunks belonging to the same genus as the
Fossil Skunks. . . .... ... . ,*» ,.
species still inhabiting the country are met with in the caverns or
Lagoa Santa in Brazil, where they are accompanied by those of a number of other
animals of totally extinct types.
THE CAPE POLECAT.
Genus Ictonyx.
As will be apparent at a glance from our illustration, the South- African
animal, commonly known as the Cape polecat (Ictonyx zorilla), is so like a small
skunk in coloration and general appearance that it might well be taken for a
member of the same group. Although the number of the teeth in the present
animal is the same as in the skunks, the teeth themselves are relatively smaller than
in the latter, with smaller cusps, and are thus more like those of the polecat, between
which and the skunks the Cape polecat appears to form a kind of connecting link.
A skull of the present animal may be readily distinguished from that of a skunk
by the upper molar tooth being smaller, instead of larger, than the flesh-tooth.
In size the Cape polecat agrees approximately with the true polecat, and has a
somewhat similarly-shaped body, and proportionately short limbs. The head is
CAPE POLECAT.
79
broad, and the muzzle long and sharp, while the ears are very small and rounded.
The tail is comparatively long and bushy, and about three-quarters the length of
the head and body ; and the whole of the fur is relatively long and thick. The
ground-colour of the fur is a glossy-black, marked with a variable number of
white stripes and spots. Frequently, as in our illustration, there is a white spot
between the eyes, and another over each of the latter ; but sometimes all the three
THE CAPE POLECAT (& nat. size).
are united. The hinder-part of the head is frequently white, and from this white
area there are given off pure white stripes (separated by three narrow black ones),
which unite near the tail ; the upper part of the latter being also mostly white.
In other cases, however, the whole of the hinder-parts of the head, the neck, and the
anterior portion of the back are white.
Distribute ^ie ^aPe P°lecat ranges from the Cape to Senegal ; but in Sennaar
and Egypt it is replaced by another nearly-allied species (/. frenata).
8o CARNIVORES.
It is probably the latter which, according to Brehm, ranges across the Isthmus of
Suez into Asia Minor, and the neighbourhood of Constantinople.
These animals frequent rocky districts, hiding either in the clefts
of rocks, or among bushes and trees, and are purely nocturnal. They
feed on mice and other small mammals, birds and their eggs, and lizards and frogs ;
and in inhabited districts they destroy poultry. In their general habits they are
unlike the martens and polecats, being unable to climb, and only taking to the
water under compunction, although, when the necessity arises, they can swim well.
Their great protection against their foes is their intolerable odour, which is
described as being almost, if not quite, as offensive as that of the skunks. In many
houses of the Dutch boers of South America tame individuals of the Cape polecat
may be found, which are kept for the purpose of catching rats and mice.
THE FERRET-BADGERS.
Genus Helictis.
The ferret-badgers form a small group of four species from Eastern Asia,
which in some respects serve to connect the preceding forms with the true badgers,
having relatively longer bodies, shorter limbs, and longer tails than the latter.
They are all of comparatively small size, and are distinguished from the other
members of the badger-like group by having the under-surface of the body lighter
coloured than the back. One species is further remarkable for the brilliant orange
tint of the under-parts and portions of the head.
All these animals have the same number of teeth as the martens ; the upper
molar and flesh-tooth being remarkable for their broad and squared crowns. The
head is elongated, and terminates in a prolonged and naked muzzle, with obliquely
truncated nostrils; and the ears are small but distinct. The claws are very
narrow, and about twice as long in the fore as in the hind-feet ; the soles of the feet
being naked. The tail, which is more or less bushy, may be either rather more
or rather less than half the length of the head and body.
Of the four species, the brown ferret-badger (Helictis orientalis), in which the
length of the head and body is 16 inches, and that of the tail, with the hair, 9
inches, inhabits the Nipal Himalaya and Java, and is characterised by its brown
or yellowish brown colour, and its relatively long tail. The Burmese ferret-badger
(H. personata), which differs in the greyish tint of the upper-parts, inhabits Lower
Burma and Manipur, and probably some neighbouring districts. The two
remaining species, viz. H. moschata and H. sabaurantiaca are from China. The
latter is characterised by its relatively short tail, and the brilliant orange colour of
the snout and the sides and the under-parts of the head and throat ; the ears, a
stripe down the neck, and the under-parts and feet being yellow. The upper-part
of the head and face is chocolate-brown, forming a most marked contrast with the
orange ; while the back and tail are olive-colour.
The ferret-badgers are purely nocturnal, and differ from the
Habits.
other members of the present group in being able to climb with
facility. The Indian species are almost omnivorous in their food, eating both
RATELS.
81
small mammals and birds as well as fruits and insects. All the species live in
forests as a rule.
THE RATELS.
Genus Mellivora.
The ratels or, as they are frequently called, honey-badgers, are distinguished
from all the members of the family hitherto noticed by their more badger-like
shape, very short tails, and the absence of any external ears. They are aptly
THE CAPE RATEL (£ nat. Size).
compared in gait and appearance by Mr. Blanford to small bears. There are
but two living species, of which one is confined to India, and the other to
Africa.
In addition to their short tails and the absence of external ears, the ratels are
characterised by their stoutly-built bodies, and short, powerful limbs, of which the
front pair are provided with enormous claws. They walk with the greater part
of the naked soles of the feet applied to the ground. As regards coloration, they
show in a most marked degree the peculiarity to which we have already referred
as characterising many members of the family ; that is to say, the under-parts are
dark, and the upper-parts lighter. In the present instance, the whole of the
VOL. n. — 6
82
CARNIVORES.
Distribution.
muzzle, together with the under-parts of the head, body, and tail, and the entire
limbs, are black ; while the upper portion of the head, body, and fore-half of the
tail are whitish grey.
The skulls of the ratels may be distinguished by the small number of the
large and powerful teeth. The total number is only 32, there being but three
pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, and no tubercular
molar in the lower jaw behind the flesh-tooth. The upper
teeth, as shown in the figure of the palate of a fossil
species, are characterised by the molar (m) being very
narrow from front to back, and of the characteristic
musteline dumb-bell-shape ; and also by the flesh-tooth, or
fourth premolar (p.ty, being larger than the molar, with
the tubercle on the inner side placed near the front edge.
Moreover, in the lower jaw, the flesh-tooth has a very
minute heel at its hinder end. The ratels may be com-
pared in size to a badger, the length of the head and body
of the Indian species varying from about 26 to 32 inches, and
that of the tail, inclusive of the hair, from 6 to 6J inches.
The Indian ratel (Mellivora indica) is
found from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin,
but is unknown in Ceylon or to the eastwards of the Bay
of Bengal. The African species (M. ratel) occurs through-
out Africa, but more especially in the southern and western
parts of the continent. Mr. Blanford has some doubts as
to whether the African and Indian ratels are really entitled
to be regarded as distinct species ; but the former, as shown
in our illustration on page 81, is distinguished by the
presence of a well-marked white line dividing the dark area of the under-parts
from the grey of the back.
Both species are strictly nocturnal in their habits, and reside
during the day in burrows, which are probably excavated by them-
selves. The Indian species is most commonly met with in hilly regions, or along
the high-scarped banks of the great rivers, which afford good situations in which
to construct its burrows. Ratels generally go about in pairs, and feed on rats,
birds, frogs, insects, and honey ; while in cultivated districts they commit frequent
raids on poultry. The accusation of digging up corpses from graveyards, which
has earned for the Indian species the name of " Gravedigger " among Anglo-Indians,
is, according to Mr. Blanford, probably unfounded. The African species exhibits
a very strongly-marked taste for honey, together with the larvae of bees in the
combs ; digging out the latter from hollow trees by the aid of its powerful front
claws. The account given by Sparrmann of the ratel's mode of operations when
about to attack a bees' nest is not, however, to be wholly relied upon, since it is
largely drawn from native sources of information.
In captivity ratels are easily tamed, and frequently exhibit a peculiar habit
of turning complete somersaults each time they walk up and down the cages in
which they are confined.
THE EIGHT HALF OP THE
PALATE OF THE FOSSIL
INDIAN EATEL.
in. molar tooth ; pA, fourth
premolar, or flesh - tooth ; c.
canine tooth, or tusk (broken).
Habits.
BADGERS. 83
From the rocks of the Siwalik Hills of North-Eastern India,
belonging to the Pliocene period, and likewise from formations of
corresponding age in the Punjab, there have been obtained the remains of ratels
closely allied to the living species ; so that it may be concluded that India was the
original home of these animals, and that thence they migrated into Africa.
THE AMERICAN BADGER.
Genus Taxidea.
The American badger (Taxidea americana) brings us to the first of four
genera which may be collectively called badgers, and the whole of which are
confined to the Northern Hemisphere. They all have the same number of teeth as
in the martens, that is to say, 38, of which § are incisors, } canines, ^ premolars,
and | molars on each side of the jaws. All of them have stoutly built bodies, and
short limbs adapted for digging ; while, with one exception, the tail is very short.
They are further characterised by the unusually large size of the molar tooth of
the upper jaw, and likewise by the. elongation of the posterior heel of the flesh-
tooth of the lower jaw.
In the American badger the skull is very wide posteriorly, the body depressed,
and the tail very short. The skull may be at once distinguished from that of the
true badgers by the proportionately larger size of the upper flesh-tooth, and the
smaller upper molar, which is triangular in form, with the apex directed outwards.
The fore-claws are enormous, the eyes are very small, and the muzzle is hairy right
up to the obliquely truncated nostrils. The low, rounded, and broad ears are
remarkable for the large size of their apertures. In length the animal, from
the snout to the root of the tail, measures about 24 inches, and the tail 6 inches.
The general colour of the coarse fur of the body is a blackish grizzle, mingled with
either white, grey, or tawny, or the whole of these together, on the upper-parts,
while below it is uniformly whitish, sometimes shaded with grey or tawny. The
head is darker than the body, with a white stripe down the middle, and the limbs
are blackish brown.
The ordinary form of the American badger extends from British
North America, from at least latitude 58°, over the greater portion of
the United States. Near the Mexican border of the States, as in Eastern and
Central Mexico itself, it is, however, replaced by a variety distinguished by a white
stripe, sometimes interrupted, running down the back from the nose to the tail.
In habits the American badger appears to closely resemble the
common European species, being strictly nocturnal, and living in
burrows constructed by itself. In the colder portion of its habitat it hibernates.
Although but very seldom seen, Dr. Coues states that these animals live in count-
less numbers in the region of the upper Missouri River and its tributaries ; tracts
of sandy soil being so full of their burrows as to render travelling on horseback
dangerous. These badger -holes can be distinguished from those of the prairie-
marmot by their larger size and the absence of a circular mound of earth at their
entrance; though many such holes are merely burrows of the prairie-marmot,
84 CARNIVORES.
which have been enlarged by the badger in order to capture the original excavator.
This abundance of the American badger is doubtless largely due to its immunity
from foes and the plentiful supply of food.
In addition to the various species of Rodents, which form its principal food,
the American badger will also eat smaller animals, — even insects and snails, — while
it is also partial to birds' eggs and to bees' nests with their honey and larvae. In
disposition it is shy and retiring, always seeking to avoid rather than to court
danger. If brought to bay, it will fight with all the fierceness and stubbornness
characteristic of its European cousin, and it also exhibits the same tenacity of life.
In some parts of the Western States badger-baiting used to be as favourite a sport
as it once was in our own country, but it is now discontinued.
But little appears to have been ascertained as to the breeding habits of the
American badger, but it seems that three or four is the usual number in a litter.
In British North America the period of hibernation lasts from October till April,
and the animals are said to come forth after their long fast in good condition.
American badger fur is of some value, and is at times largely
used for robes, muffs, tippets, and trimmings ; while a considerable
quantity of the long hairs are employed in the manufacture of shaving and other
brushes, although in many cases the hairs are too soft for this purpose. In 1873
the prices of American badger skins varied from one to seven shillings each in
London ; while three years later the price per skin for the best samples in New
York was one dollar. At the present time, according to Mr. Poland, the price in
London varies from six to twenty-two shillings.
THE COMMON BADGER.
Genus Meles.
The common badger (Meles taxus) is the best known member of a group
of five closely -allied species distributed over a considerable portion of Europe
and Asia, although unknown in the Indian and Malayan regions. All these
SKELETON OF THE COMMON BADGER.
animals are readily distinguished from the American badger by the characters
of the skull and teeth. The skull itself is characterised by the great height
of the bony ridge running along the middle of the brain-case, and afford-
ing attachment for the powerful muscles which render the badger's bite so
BADGERS. 85
severe. Then, again, the upper molar tooth, instead of being triangular and of
nearly the same size as the flesh-tooth, is oblong in form, and very much larger
than the latter, recalling in this respect the corresponding tooth of the bears ; a
further analogy with that group being presented by the small size of the first
three premolar teeth. Another feature in which the true badgers differ from the
American badger is to be found in the great development of the posterior heel of
the lower flesh-tooth, which exceeds in length the whole of the remainder of the
THE COMMON BADGER (l nat. size).
tooth, this expanded heel having to bite against the enlarged upper molar tooth.
The skull of the badger is also peculiar on account of the close interlocking of the
lower jaw with the skull proper, the articulation being so perfect that it is im-
practicable to detach the one from the other without fracture. Needless to say, it
is, therefore, impossible for one of these animals to dislocate its lower jaw.
In general bodily conformation the Old World badgers very closely resemble
their transatlantic ally ; and their hairs are similarly banded with different colours,
producing the well-known grizzled hue of the fur so characteristic of all these
animals. The skin of the common badger is remarkably large and loose, enabling
86 CARNIVORES.
the animal, when seized by almost any part, to turn and bite its aggressor ; and the
fur is long and loose. With the exception of a black stripe on each side, starting
between the nose and the eye and running backwards to include the ear (of which
the tip is white), the head of the badger is white. The lower jaw, throat, and all
the under-parts, as well as the limbs, are black ; while the upper-parts are reddish
grey, and the flanks and tail light grey. The length of a full-grown badger from
the snout to the root of the tail, will vary from about 25 to 29 inches, that of the
tail being about 7| inches ; and the weight has been estimated at from 25 to 30 Ibs.
The common badger or, as it used to be called in England, the
brock, is distributed over the whole of Europe, with the exception
of the north of Scandinavia and the island of Sardinia ; and it is also widely spread
over Northern Asia, where it ranges in Siberia as far as the river Lena. It is
probably also this species which inhabits Syria; but it is at present uncertain
where the range of the common badger in Western Asia terminates, and where
that of the smaller and paler coloured Persian badger (M. canescens) of Eastern
Persia commences. In China and other parts of continental Asia the group is
represented by the white-tailed badger (M. leucurus) and the Chinese badger
( M. chinensis) ; while a fifth species (M. anacuma) inhabits Japan.
On the continent, especially in many parts of Germany (where
it is known as dachs), the badger is very common, and does much
damage to the vineyards. In the British Islands, as we may judge both from the
frequency with which its remains are met with in the cavern and other superficial
deposits, as well as from the number of places in England, such as Brockenhurst
and Brockley, which derive their names from this animal, the badger must once
have been very commonly distributed. At the present day, writes Mr. J. E.
Harting, " many people seem to be under the impression that the badger, if not
actually extinct in the British Islands, is at all events a very scarce animal. This
is far from being the case. In many parts of the country the badger is still not at
all uncommon, and in certain districts which might be named it is even on the
increase, owing to the protection afforded it. The reason for its supposed scarcity
arises from two causes, firstly, the nature of its haunts, which are generally in the
deep recesses of large woods, fox-covers, and quarries ; and, secondly, the nature of
its habits, which are shy and retiring, and chiefly nocturnal."
The favourite haunts of the badger are the deepest and thickest woods, or
coppice-clad cliffs and quarries ; and in such situations it digs a large and roomy
burrow. Here it sleeps during the day, issuing forth at evening in search of food,
and sometimes joining with its fellows in this quest ; Mr. Harting having observed
three badgers together in Gloucestershire, while the late Mr. C. St. John on one
occasion saw no less than seven in company on the shore of Loch Ness. In the
colder portions of its habitat the badger hibernates during the winter, the length
of the hibernation depending upon the latitude and the degree of severity of the
season. In England the hibernation appears to be always interrupted. Mr. Ellis,
of Loughborough, who has a number of badgers on his estate, recently wrote that
he has known one of the burrows covered with snow for a fortnight or more,
during which time the animals remained below, and only ventured out when a thaw
came. In Sweden it is stated that badgers generally retire about the middle of
BADGERS. 87
November, and do not reappear till the middle of the following March, unless there
should be a protracted thaw, during which they will sally forth in search of food.
In order to afford additional security, the mouth of the burrow is blocked from the
inside by its occupant. The burrow is always kept scrupulously clean, and is lined
with fern and other vegetable substances ; and Mr. Ellis states that " as the winter
approaches, the old bedding is replaced by dry fern and grass raked together by
the badger's powerful claws. This is often left to wither in little heaps till dry
enough for the purpose. Partially concealed, I have watched a badger gathering
fern, and using a force in its collection quite surprising."
The peculiar conformation of the upper molar teeth of the badger at once
proclaims that the diet of the animal is by no means exclusively carnivorous ; and
Professor T. Bell states that its food " consists indifferently of various roots, earth-
nuts, beech-mast, fruits, the eggs of birds, some of the smaller mammals, frogs, and
insects." It is also ascertained that the badger is in the habit of digging up wasps'
nests for the purpose of feeding upon the larvae in the combs ; and it has an equal
partiality for the contents of the nests of wild bees.
It has been very generally asserted that badgers and foxes do not get on well
together, and that the former kill the cubs of the latter. Mr. Ellis states, however,
that, on his estate at least, " the badgers and the foxes are not unfriendly, and last
spring a litter of cubs was brought forth very near the badgers ; but their mother
removed them after they had grown familiar, as she probably thought they were
showing themselves more than was prudent." Mr. Harting also mentions more
than one instance where these two animals have lived amicably together in the
same burrow ; in one of these cases a fox having annually given birth to cubs in
the badger's den.
Within the deep recesses of its burrow, which often terminates in a fork-like
manner, are born the young of the badger ; the number in a litter being usually
three or four. The young are produced during the summer ; and are at first blind,
not acquiring the power of sight till the tenth day. It is a curious, but apparently
well-ascertained circumstance, that the female badger, like the roe-deer, has the
power of extending the time of gestation considerably beyond the usual period.
Quoting once more from Mr. Ellis, that gentleman, writing in the autumn of
1877, states that on his estate " in June the first young badger appeared at the
mouth of the earth, and was soon followed by three others, and then by their
mother. After this, they continued to show every evening, and soon learnt to take
the food prepared for them. The young are now almost full grown, and, forgetting
their natural timidity, will feed so near that I have placed my hand on the back
of one of them. The old ones are more wary, but often feed with their family,
although at a more cautious distance. Their hearing and sense of smell are most
acute, and it is curious to see them watch, with lifted head and ears erect, then, if
all is quiet, search the ground for a raisin or a date. But the least strange sight
or sound alarms them, and they rush headlong to earth with amazing speed."
When taken young, badgers may be easily and perfectly tamed.
The difficulty of " drawing a badger " when in a tub is well
known, and tries the pluck of the best bred terriers to the utmost.
It appears, however, that in Germany dachshunds usually bolt the badger from its
88 CARNIVORES.
burrow, unless they are foiled by the creature digging deeper down and burying
himself beneath the upturned soil. Other methods employed in Germany are
either digging the animal out by following the course of the burrow, or by boring
directly down upon it by means of a kind of gigantic corkscrew. Digging out is
also sometimes resorted to in England, but the more common plan is to tie an
empty sack, with a running noose round the mouth, in the entrance of the badger's
burrow while the occupant is abroad, and then drive him in with dogs.
The fur and hairs of the common badger are used for the same
Fur
purposes as those of its American cousin ; but the hairs, being stiffer,
are better adapted for brushes.
It has already been mentioned that fossil remains of the common
' badger are met with in the cavern and other superficial deposits of
this country ; and it may be added that they also occur in those of the Continent.
Beyond these, however, no fossil badgers have hitherto been met with, except in
strata of the Pliocene period in Persia. When our comparatively full acquaintance
with the extinct Tertiary Mammals of Europe and Northern India is taken into
account, this remarkable absence of the remains of badgers is strongly suggestive
that Persia or the adjacent regions must have been the original ancestral home of
these animals, from whence they migrated westwards.
THE MALAYAN BADGER.
Genus Mydaus.
As being the sole representative of the badgers inhabiting the islands of the
Malayan region, the curious looking animal depicted in the accompanying illustra-
tion may be appropriately designated the Malayan badger. It is known to the
natives of Java as the Teledu, while by the Germans it is termed, on account of
its evil odour, Stinkdachs ; its technical name being Mydaus meliceps.
The Malayan badger forms a kind of connecting link between the true
badgers and the under-mentioned sand-badgers, having a tail shorter than in
the former, while its cheek-teeth are much more like those of the latter. It is
a comparatively small animal, the length of the head and body being about 15
inches, and that of the stumpy tail only some f of an inch. With the exception
of the back of the head, the top of the neck, a stripe down the back, and the tip
of the tail, which are whitish, the general colour of the long and thick fur is dark
brown, but lighter below than above. There is a kind of crest of long hair on the
back of the head and neck. The muzzle is long and pointed, and almost entirely
naked in front of the eyes, with the flesh-coloured nostrils obliquely truncated and
mobile. The Malayan badger appears to be confined to the mountains of Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo, ranging in the former island from an elevation of about five
hundred to upwards of seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. In Borneo
it is found at elevations of not more than eighty or one hundred feet, and in
Sumatra does not ascend above one thousand feet. It is a nocturnal and burrow-
ing animal, not uncommon in some districts.
Horsfield, the original describer of this animal, says that when killed carefully,
BADGERS.
89
and the scent-glands immediately removed, the flesh of the Malayan badger is
quite free from odour, and far from unpalatable. The secretion of the glands is,
however, foetid in the extreme, and has been compared to that of the skunks. As
in the latter, it can be ejected by the animal to a considerable distance. We have
but little information as to the habits of this animal in a wild state ; but it is
stated to be gentle and easily tamed when in captivity.
THE MALAYAN BADGER (f Hat. size).
THE SAND-BADGER.
Genus Arctonyx.
With the sand-badger or, as it is often termed, the hog-badger (Arctonyx
collaris), we come to our last representative of the badgers, and at the same time of
the present section of the Weasel family. The ordinary sand-badger is an Indian
species, ranging from the Eastern Himalaya through Assam and the neighbouring
regions to Tenasserim and Lower Burma. There is, however, also a smaller species
(A. taxoides}, inhabiting Assam and Arakan, and possibly China ; while there is
probably a third in Eastern Tibet.
The sand-badgers are easily distinguished from the other members of the group
by their proportionately longer tails ; that of the Indian species being from a quarter
to a third the length of the head and body. The long and naked snout is very like
that of the Malayan badger; the eyes are small, and the ears also small and
rounded. The body is rather flattened from side to side ; and only a portion of
the naked soles of the feet are applied to the ground in walking, so that these
animals may be described as digitigrade rather than plantigrade when in motion.
9o CARNIVORES.
The pelage consists of a full soft under-fur, mingled with long stiff hairs. In
colour the Indian sand-badger is dirty grey both above and below, with a more or
less marked blackish tinge on the back, most of the individual hairs being dirty
white throughout their length, but the longer ones on the back and sides having
black tips. The head is white, with some variable black bands, while the lower
parts and limbs are dusky, the limbs being sometimes black. Here, then, we have
another instance of the tendency in the present family for the under-parts to be
lighter than the upper regions. In length the Indian sand-badger measures about
30 inches from the snout to the root of the tail ; the length of the latter, inclusive
of the hair at the tip, being about 11 inches.
The most marked peculiarities of these animals are, however, to be found in
the structure of their skulls. Thus the skull differs from that of any other
mammals, except some of the edentates and dolphins, in having the bony palate
prolonged as far back as the level of the cavity for the reception of the condyle of
the lower jaw. The teeth are numerically the same as in the true badgers, but the
upper molar tooth, instead of forming a regular oblong, has its hindmost outer
angle excavated, so that the inner border of the tooth is much longer than the
outer one. The first premolar tooth in the upper jaw is very minute, and is often
soon shed.
Writing of the habits of the Indian sand-badger, from notes
Ha bits
supplied by Colonel Tickell, Mr. Blanford states that it " frequents
undulating stony ground or small hills among jungle, and lives in fissures of the
rocks or holes dug by itself. It is thoroughly nocturnal. In captivity it is dull
and uninteresting, feeding voraciously on meats, fish, reptiles, or fruits, and it is
particularly fond of earth-worms. One individual used to pass the day sleeping in
a hole that it had dug, and was very savage if disturbed. When angry it made a
loud grunting noise and bit fiercely. It was dull of sight, and its only acute sense
appeared to be that of smell. It was in the habit of raising its snout in the air in
order to scent any one who approached, much as a pig does. This animal had no
disagreeable smell."
THE OTTERS.
Genus Lutra.
The otters, which, with the sole exception of the sea-otter, are included in a
single genus, constitute the third and last main group into which the members of
the Weasel family are divided. They are characterised generally by their short
and rounded feet, — although the hind-feet of the sea-otter are an exception in this
respect, — their webbed toes, and their small, curved, and blunt claws. They all
have very broad and flattened heads, furnished with small external ears, and joined
to the long flattened body by a thick neck, which passes imperceptibly from the
head in front into the trunk behind. The tail is moderately long, while the limbs
are extremely short. The fur is soft, thick, and of a uniformly brownish colour over
the whole body, except on the under-parts, where it is generally of a more greyish
hue. The teeth of the otters are characterised by the nearly square form of the
molar in the upper jaw, which, as shown in the accompanying figure, has its inner
OTTERS. 91
portion much expanded. All the species of these animals are thoroughly aquatic
in their habits.
The typical otters, which include all the species except the sea -otter, are
characterised by their hind-feet being of normal form, and by the number and
structure of their teeth. As a rule, the total number of teeth is 36, of which, on
each side of the jaws, | are incisors, \ canines, ^ premolars, and \ molars. The
first premolar tooth in the upper jaw is, however, always very small, and in some
species (as in the case of the palate here figured) may be totally wanting, thus
reducing the number of the teeth to 34.
The general characteristics of the teeth of
the upper jaw will be apparent from the
figure, and it will be seen that the hinder
teeth are furnished with a number of sharp
cusps, admirably adapted to assist in retain-
ing the slippery prey of these animals. In
addition to the peculiar characters of the
teeth, the skull of an otter may always be
recognised at a glance by its extreme con-
striction immediately behind the sockets of pALAT£ OF THE CLAWLESS OTTER
the eyes, and the equally marked expansion _
* . rf . The uppermost tooth on each side is the molar,
of the flattened brain-case; the portion of immediately below which is the flesh-tooth.
the skull forming the face being also very
short in proportion to the remainder. The tail is thick at the base, and some-
what flattened from above downwards. In most cases there are short claws
on all the feet, but in a few species they may be either rudimentary or
absent.
In all parts of their organisation otters are admirably adapted for their
particular mode of life ; their elongated forms, with but slight constriction at the
neck, being perfectly suited to glide through the water with the greatest ease
and speed ; their thick, dense fur forming a perfect protection against chill, and
their teeth, as we have mentioned, being specially modified in order both to hold
such slippery prey as fishes, and at the same time to pierce with facility their hard
scales. Probably, in consequence of their precisely similar habits and mode of life,
all the otters are so like one another that it is extremely difficult to determine the
exact number of species, and scarcely any group has proved more puzzling in this
respect to the systematic zoologist. It appears, however, that there are about ten
species of true otters, of which one is European and Oriental, three are exclusively
Oriental, two are African, and four American. The largest of all is the Brazilian
otter, while the two smallest species are the feline otter of South America and the
Indian clawless otter. The geographical distribution of the genus is wider than
that of any other single Mammalian genus, with the exception of certain bats ;
otters having been obtained from all parts of the world except the Antarctic and
Arctic regions, Australasia, and Madagascar. We shall allude to the various species
of the genus according to their geographical distribution.
The European otter (L. vulqaris), which is the one represented
European Otter. .
in our coloured Plate, is taken first, as being not only the type of the
92 CARNIVORES.
genus, but likewise the best known ; and many of our remarks on its habits
will also apply equally well to the others.
In size this species occupies a kind of central position in the group, the average
length from the snout to the root of the tail being about 26 to 28 inches, and that
of the tail 15 to 16 inches, while the weight is from 16 to 18, up to as much as 24
Ibs. The fur consists of a soft under-fur, in which the hairs are whitish grey,
with brown tips, and of longer stiff hairs, which are greyish at the base, and rich
brown at their tips on the upper-parts of the body and the outer surfaces of the
limbs ; the cheeks, throat, the under-parts of the body, and the inner surfaces of
the limbs being brownish grey. The upper margin of the naked nose terminates
behind in an angle, while, as in the other species, the muzzle is provided with long
" whiskers." In the Indian variety, which was formerly regarded as a distinct
species, the fur of the back is generally grizzled, while the size of the animal is
slightly less than in the ordinary European form. The claws on all the feet are
well developed, and there are four premolar teeth in the upper jaw.
The common otter is found all over Europe in suitable localities,
Distribution. • • » •
and also extends over a large portion or Asia northwards or the
Himalaya. It is likewise represented by the ordinary form in the North- Western
SKELETON OF THE COMMON OTTER.
Himalaya, and by the above-mentioned smaller and greyer variety in India and
Ceylon, as well as in some of the districts to the eastwards of the Bay of Bengal.
Writing of the habits of the common otter, Bell observes that
Habits.
"it swims and dives with great readiness, and with peculiar ease
and elegance of movements; and although its action on land is far from being
awkward and difficult, yet it is certainly in the water that the beautiful adaptation
of its structure to its habits is most strikingly exhibited. It swims in nearly a
horizontal position, and dives instantaneously after the fish that may glide beneath
it, or pursues it under water, changing its course as the fish darts in various
directions to escape from it, and, when the prey is secured, brings it on shore to its
retreat to feed. As the otter lives exclusively on fish, when it can procure them,
it frequents lakes, rivers, smaller streams, or ponds, and not unfrequently descends
to the sea ; and the havoc which it makes among the finny inhabitants is almost
incredible. In feeding, it holds the fish between its fore-paws, eating first the head,
and then downwards to the vent, leaving the tail." The fish actually eaten by the
otter form, however, but a small proportion of those captured ; this animal being
one of those which appears to delight in killing for killing's sake. In India the
OTTERS. 93
common otter is occasionally found in the large tanks so common throughout the
country, and it is stated by Mr. Blanford to be common in the great backwaters
off the Western Coast, and in the Chilka Lake of Orissa.
Otters are generally found either in pairs or in family parties of five or six
individuals, the latter comprising the parents and their partially or full-grown
progeny. Their habitations are usually made in or near the banks of the waters
they frequent, the hollows beneath the roots of trees growing on a river's margin
being especial favourites, while in hilly districts the clefts between rocks are selected,
and where the soil is of an alluvial nature deep burrows, with several entrances,
one of which usually opens beneath the water, are excavated in the banks. A large
pile of loose stones, forming one of the piers of a timber bridge over the Indus
above the town of Leh has long been the favourite resort of a colony of otters.
The presence of numerous bones and scales of fish, as well as the peculiar web-
footed tracks of the animals themselves, will always indicate whether or not an
otter's den or " holt " is inhabited.
Otters apparently never hibernate, and in consequence must be hard pressed
to supply themselves with food during the winter in the colder portions of their
habitat. At such times they are asserted in inhabited districts to make occasional
raids on the farmyard, where they have been known to kill poultry and, it is said,
even young lambs and pigs. Water-fowl are probably also attacked at such
periods, while it is stated that eggs are always acceptable to these animals. In
addition to fish, otters are in the habit of eating frogs and such fresh-water or
marine crustaceans as are found in the waters they frequent.
Although chiefly nocturnal, — more especially in districts where they are much
harassed, — otters may not unf requently be seen hunting in the morning and evening,
Mr. Blanford stating that he has frequently observed them in India at work up
to nine or ten o'clock in the morning. When fishing, it appears that all the
members of a party of otters are in the habit of combining their efforts to surround
or drive a shoal of fish. General M'Master had on one occasion the good fortune to
observe a party comprising at least six individuals thus engaged in the Chilka Lake
of Orissa. " They worked," writes the narrator of the incident, " most systematically
in a semicircle, with intervals of about fifty yards between each, having, I suppose,
a large shoal of fish in the centre, for every now and then an otter would disappear,
and generally, when it was again seen, it was well within the semicircle, with
a fish in its jaws, caught more for pleasure than for profit, as the fish, so far as I
could see, were always left untouched beyond a single bite."
The large size of the aperture in the skull below the socket of the eye for the
transmission of the nerves supplying the muzzle, indicates that the " whiskers " of
the otter must be extremely sensitive. With regard to their powers of hearing,
smell, and sight, Mr. Blanford believes that, while the two former are well developed,
otters are somewhat deficient in the latter. Their general intelligence is decidedly
high, and they likewise often display much cunning and forethought, more especially
in avoiding the traps set for their capture. When excited they utter a kind of
yelping bark, and they are stated to give a sort of whistle as an alarm-note to
their fellows. There is still a dearth of information as to the breeding-habits of
the otter. It appears, however, that the young may be produced at any season of
94 CARNIVORES.
the year, although the winter is the more usual time. The number of young in a
litter generally varies from two to five, the cubs themselves being born blind.
The otter is readily tamed if captured at a sufficiently early age,
Tame Otters. * , , ., ./ ... J
and then becomes much attached to its owner, whom it will follow
about after the manner of a dog. The natural instincts of these animals are taken
advantage of by the native fishermen of some oriental countries to aid them in
their avocations. The late Bishop Heber, when voyaging up one of the rivers of
Bengal, states that his vessel passed " a row of no less than nine or ten large and
very beautiful otters tethered with straw collars and long strings to the bamboo
stakes on the banks. Some were swimming about at the full extent of their strings,
or lying half in and half out of the water ; others were rolling themselves in the
sun on the sandy bank, uttering a shrill whistling noise, as if in play. I was told
that most of the fishermen in the neighbourhood kept one or more of these animals,
who were almost as tame as dogs and of great use in fishing, sometimes driving the
shoals into the nets, sometimes bringing out the larger fish with their teeth."
According to later authorities it appears, however, that the bishop was misinformed
as to the otters being employed to catch fish with their teeth, their sole use in India
being to drive the latter into the nets. In China, on the other hand, otters are
actually employed in the former operation.
Otter-hunting in England has been already alluded to briefly
under the head of the otter-hound ; and from the facts there mentioned
it will be gathered that these animals are still fairly numerous in many of the
wilder parts of the country.
Otter fur, from its close texture, fine gloss, and rich colour, is
Pelage. . . . .
much esteemed as a trimming, and commands a rather high price in
the market. A large number of the otter skins imported into this country belong,
however, to the North American species. Skins of the European species vary from
five to thirty shillings in price.
Fossil remains of the common otter have been obtained from the
Fossil Remains.
superficial deposits and caverns of this country and the Continent,
and likewise from the so-called " forest-bed " of the Eastern Coast, which is some-
what older. A fossil otter from the still more ancient Norwich Crag, belonging to
the upper portion of the Pliocene period has, moreover, been identified with the
present species. i
North American This otter (L. canadensis) is distinguished from the preceding
otter. by the much larger size of the naked area at the tip of the muzzle,
which extends far above and to the sides of the nostrils, instead of being entirely
confined to the space between them, as in the latter. According to Dr. Coues, it is
very variable in point of size and colour. It may, however, attain a total length
of 4 feet or more, while the general colour of the fur is liver-brown with a purplish
gloss, the chin, throat, and under-parts being paler. This species occurs over the
whole of North America in suitable regions, although apparently nowhere very
numerous; its northern range extending along the Mackenzie and other rivers
nearly to the Arctic Ocean.
Habits There does not appear much that is especially noteworthy or
peculiar in the habits of this species. Dr. Hart Merriam states that in
OTTERS. 95
the Adirondack region the number of fresh- water cray-fish consumed by these otters
is enormous, this crustacean apparently forming as important a portion of their food
as fish. The same writer also bears testimony as to the long journeys undertaken
by the North American otter from river to river across country ; these journeys
mostly taking place during the winter. On such occasions they " go so fast that a
man has great difficulty in overtaking them. On the ice they proceed by a series
of what boys call ' a run and a slide,' that is, they make several jumps and then
slide ahead flat on their bellies, as far as their impetus and the smoothness of the
ice permit, and then do the same thing over again, and so on." A curious habit of
this otter is its propensity for sliding down smooth and steep banks, either of snow
or of mud. Such gambols have been watched by several observers, from whose
accounts it appears that in winter the animals select the highest ridge of snow, on
to the top of which they scramble, whence, as Dr. J. D. Godman writes, they give
themselves an impulse with their hind-legs, and swiftly glide head-foremost down
the declivity, sometimes for a distance of twenty yards. This sport they continue
apparently with the greatest enjoyment until fatigue or hunger induces them to
desist. A pair on a mud-bank made upwards of twenty-two slides before they
were disturbed. The number of young in a litter is said to be usually two, although
there may occasionally be either one or three. They are born about the middle of
April, and during the summer and autumn the female is generally to be seen
accompanied by her two young.
The fur of the otter is more valuable than that of any other
North American animal, and is in good condition from November till
the spring, but is at its best period during the latter season. It is stated by Dr.
Coues that the number of skins of the American otter exported by the Hudson's Bay
Company to London in the year 1873 exceeded 11,000, while in 1891 the same
company sold 8171 skins. The ordinary price varies from thirty to fifty shillings
per skin.
These otters are usually caught in steel traps, which are set
beneath the water where one of the " slides " or tracks of the animals
leads to the margin. Sometimes the trap is, however, placed at the top of the slide
and covered with snow. In neither case is any bait used; but in all methods
the greatest care is necessary that no traces of the trapper's presence should
remain, as the otter has very acute smell anu sight, and is exceedingly wary and
cunning.
South America possesses at least three species of otters, of which the most
noteworthy are the Brazilian otter and the feline otter. The Brazilian otter (L.
brasiliensis) is much the largest of all the living species, and is dis-
tinguished by the presence of a distinct ridge running along each
side of the tail, whence it is often termed the margined-tailed otter. It inhabits
the rivers of Brazil and Guiana, where it is known as the Ariranha. The length
of the head and body is over 40 inches, while that of the tail is about 23 inches.
The nose is completely covered with hair, and the general colour of the pelage is
chocolate-brown, becoming lighter on the under-parts. The chin, as well as a large
irregular patch on the throat, and some spots on the under-surface of the body are,
however, whitish or yellow.
96 CARNIVORES.
In some of the South American rivers these otters may be met
with in large companies, and they differ from most other species in
being purely diurnal, commencing their hunting with the dawn of day and con-
tinuing till nightfall. When in such companies, the otters utter a kind of whistling
sound, which is said to have some resemblance to the mewing of cats. Hensel
states that, when travelling on the Brazilian rivers in a canoe, the voyager, when
shooting out from beneath the overhanging branches of a tree, may often see a
number of black objects in the water, which at his approach tend to collect together.
Careful observation will show that these are otters, but by the time the canoe has
reached the spot where they were first seen all will have disappeared. Soon,
however, the traveller's ears are struck by a peculiar snorting sound, and, as he
looks around, he sees the water on all sides dotted with the dark heads of the giant
otters, which, with a second snort, disappear again as quick as lightning beneath
the surface.
The feline otter (L. felina) is, on the other hand, one of the
Feline Otter. . ...
smallest members or the group, agreeing approximately in size with
the Indian clawless otter. It is characterised by its relatively short face and its
light and delicate teeth, the inner tubercle of the upper flesh-tooth being much
smaller than in the other species from the same regions. This species also
differs from other otters in being almost exclusively marine in its habits. In
regard to its distribution, Mr. O. Thomas states that "in the Southern Hemi-
sphere it extends to the Straits of Magellan, where its range meets that of the
larger Brazilian otter. Thence northward it is exceedingly common along the
coasts of Patagonia and Chili, where the complex labyrinths of gulfs and channels
are highly favourable to its manner of life." It has been found in Peru and
Ecuador.
In regard to the naked-nosed and flat-headed South American otters, inter-
mediate in size between the two last species, there is still much uncertainty, but
they are all provisionally included under the name of L. paranensis.
smooth Indian In addition to the common European otter, which, as we have
otter. already seen, is represented by a variety in India, there are three
Indian and Malayan representatives of the group. The first of these species is the
smooth Indian otter (L. macrodus), readily distinguished from the common otter by
the upper border of the naked portion of the muzzle forming a straight line, while
the fur is very smooth and short. Then, again, the skull is less depressed and
flattened, and the molar and flesh-tooth in the upper jaw are very large, the latter
differing from the corresponding tooth of the common species by the larger
proportionate size of the tubercular portion on the inner side of the blade. This
otter is found all over India, and also extends to Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and
Sumatra. . Its habits appear to be very similar to those of the common otter, and,
like the latter, it is trained for fishing.
Hairy-Nosed The hairy-nosed otter (L. sumatrana) is a very well-marked
otter. species from the Malayan region, distinguished, as its name implies,
by the muzzle being completely covered with hair ; the inner tubercle of the upper
flesh-tooth being relatively small. A closely-allied extinct species (L. palceindica)
occurs in the Siwalik Hills of Northern India.
OTTERS. 97
There is also the much smaller Indian clawless otter (L. cinerea),
differing from the others not only by its inferior dimensions, but
also by the rudimentary condition, or even total absence, of the claws. The upper
teeth (shown in the figure on p. 91) are distinguished by the absence of the first
premolar, and the great length from front to back of the molar tooth. Moreover,
the whole skull is much shorter than in the other species. The length of the head
and body of this otter varies from 22 to 24 inches, and that of the tail from 10| to
13 inches. The clawless otter ranges from India through Burma and the Malay
Peninsula and islands to China. In India it occurs in the Himalaya at low eleva-
tions, in Lower Bengal and the Nilgiri Hills of Madras, and perhaps also in Ceylon.
It appears to be the only otter found in Java. According to Mr. Blanford, the
habits of this otter are similar to those of the other oriental species.
The whole African continent possesses but two members of the
' group under consideration. The first of these is the African clawless
otter (L. capensis), from South and West Africa, which, while agreeing with the
Indian clawless otter in the rudimentary condition of its claws, is distinguished
by its greatly superior dimensions ; being, next to the Brazilian otter, the largest
representative of the whole group. Writing of this species, which he alludes to
under another Latin name, the late Professor Moseley states that " amongst the
animals which live on the Cape Peninsula, the clawless otter is worthy of
mention ; it is a very large otter, twice or three times as large when full-grown as
the European one. It lives about the salt-marshes and lakes, and is tolerably
common ; it hunts, like the South American marine otter, in companies, but only
of three or four. It has no claws on the fore-feet, having lost them by natural
selection in some way or other, and on the hinder-feet the claws are wanting on
the outer toes, and only rudiments of them remain on the middle ones. There are,
however, pits marking the .places where the claws used to exist. The webbing
between the toes is also in this otter rudimentary ; the beast altogether is very
heavily built, with the head very broad and powerful. It appears to be an otter
bent on returning to land habits."
spotted-Necked The spotted-necked otter (L. maculicollis) is one of the smaller
otter. members of the group, with well-developed claws. It has a naked
nose, and very long hind-feet; the colour of the fur being
blackish brown, with yellow spots on the throat, chest, and under-
parts. This otter has been obtained from the Cape and Natal.
Reference has already been made to the occur-
Extinct Otters. J . ' « . , j
rence or the common otter in the superficial deposits
of Europe, and also of an extinct species allied to the hairy-nosed
otter in the Siwalik Hills of India. In addition to these, there
- IUUTH Or
are numerous extinct otters in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits AN EXTINCT INDIAN
of Europe, some of which appear to connect existing forms with OTTER-
the martens and their allies. Another is remarkable as appearing The. outer
to indicate affinities between the otters and the civets, and thus broken.
serves to confirm the previously-mentioned evidence as to the
existence of some relationship between the now widely divergent families of
the weasels and civets. The otter-like animal in question is distinguished from
VOL. ii. — 7
98 CARNIVORES.
all other members of the present family by having two molar teeth on each side of
the upper jaw.
Especial interest must also attach to some giant otters from the Siwalik Hills
of India, which were even larger than the existing Brazilian otter. An upper
flesh- tooth of one of these otters is represented in the cut on page 97, which
will give some idea of their dimensions. By comparing this figure with the corre-
sponding tooth of the recent skull represented on p. 91, it will be observed that
these gigantic Siwalik otters are distinguished by having three distinct cusps,
instead of a crescentic cutting-edge on the inner tubercular portion of the upper
flesh-tooth.
THE SEA-OTTER.
Genus Latax.
As we have already seen, the feline otter of South America is in the habit of
frequenting the lagoons and bays of its native coasts rather than rivers, and these
THE SEA-OTTER (^ nat. size). (After Wolf.)
marine habits are still more characteristic of the animal known as the sea-otter
(Latax lutris), which is regarded as forming a genus by itself.
The Sea-Otter has a total length of about 4 feet, of which 1 foot, or rather less,
is occupied by the tail. In general appearance it is compared by Dr. Coues to one
of the eared seals, a resemblance which is increased by the long and flipper-like
hind-feet, quite unlike those of all other members of the family to which it belongs.
The body has a bolster-like form, tapering in front to join the rather .small and
rounded head, without any marked constriction at the neck. Both the limbs and
tail are short, the latter being cylindrical; slightly tapering, and somewhat trun-
SEA-OTTER. 99
cated at the end ; while the disparity in the size of the fore and hind-feet is quite
unknown in any of the Carnivores hitherto described. The skin is remarkably
large and loose for the size of the animal, so that when removed from the body it
can readily be stretched to a third more than its normal length. The pelage
consists mainly of a fine soft woolly under-fur, among which are a small proportion
of long stiff hairs. The general colour is dark liver-brown, silvered over with the
greyish tips of the long hairs.
Remarkable as are the external characteristics of the sea-otter, it is not, how-
ever, solely, or even chiefly on them, that the zoologist relies in referring the animal
to a genus apart from that containing the true otters. Equally noteworthy
peculiarities occur in the number and structure of the teeth. . In the first place,
there are but two pairs of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, — a feature in which this
species differs not only from other otters but likewise from every other true
Carnivore. The total number of teeth is, therefore, thirty -two, as against thirty -six
in the common otter ; there being, as in the Indian clawless otter, but three pairs of
premolar teeth in both the upper and the lower jaws. The cheek-teeth, although of
the same general plan of structure as in the true otters, differ by their extremely
blunted and rounded cusps. " If," remarks Dr. Coues, " the teeth of ordinary
carnivorous quadrupeds be likened to fresh-chipped, sharp, and angular bits of
rock, those of the sea-otter are comparable to water- worn pebbles " ; and we know
of no simile which can better express the difference between the cheek-teeth of the
common and the sea-otter.
The sea-otter is an inhabitant of both coasts of the North
Habitat.
Pacific; its chief haunts on the American side being Alaska, the
Aleutian Islands, the neighbourhood of Sitka Island on the west coast of Canada,
and Vancouver Island; its southern limits being the shores of Oregon. On the
Asiatic side it occurs in Kamschatka, but apparently more rarely than on the
eastern shores of the Pacific.
It is stated by Mr. H. W. Elliot that when the Russian traders first opened up
the Aleutian Islands, they found the natives commonly wearing cloaks made of the
fur of the sea-otter, which they were at first willing to sell for a mere trifle,
esteeming these skins much less than they did those of the fur-seals. Again, when
the Prybiloff Islands, situated in Behring Sea to the eastward of the Aleutians,
were first discovered, upwards of five thousand skins of this species were taken in
the first season, while in six years these animals had completely disappeared from
the islands. Nearly the same story is told in all the haunts of the sea-otter, which
has now become a very rare animal indeed, and stands in sore need of protection if
it is to escape total extermination. Mr. Elliot states that " over two-thirds of all
the sea-otters taken in Alaska are secured in two small areas of water, little rocky
islets and reefs around the islands of Saanach and Chernobours, which proves that
these animals, in spite of the incessant hunting all the year round on this ground,
seem to have some particular preference for it to the practical exclusion of nearly
all the rest of the territory, This may be due to its better adaptation as a breeding-
ground.'' A similar preference for a small area in the neighbourhood of Gray's
Harbour over the whole of the remainder of the coast of Washington and Oregon
is also exhibited by these animals.
100
It is not the mainland of Saanach Island which is frequented by the sea-otters,
but the small islets and reefs lying to the southward and westward at a distance of
about five miles, and thence stretching seawards, most of which are left bare at
low water. Either on these islets and reefs, or, in calm weather, in the open sea
around, the sea-otters are to be found.
The female sea-otter has only two teats, and produces but a
single young one at a birth, so that the increase of the species can be,
at the best, but slow. The young may apparently be born at any season of the
year, and do not attain maturity till four or five years old. Writing of the general
habits of the species, Mr. Elliot observes that the " mother sleeps in the water on
her back, with her young clasped between her fore-paws. The pup cannot live
without its mother, though frequent attempts have been made by the natives to
raise them, as they often capture them alive, but, like some other species of wild
animals, it seems to be so deeply imbued with fear of man that it invariably dies
from self-imposed starvation."
The remarkable difference in the structure of the cheek-teeth of
the sea-otter from those of the true otters, clearly indicates that there
must be an equally marked difference in the food of the two ; and the rounded
prominences on the crowns of those of the present species would further suggest
that they were adapted for pounding and crushing hard substances. As a matter
of fact, Mr. Elliot tells us that the food of the sea-otters " is almost entirely com-
posed of clams, mussels, and sea-urchins, of which they are very fond, and which
they break by striking the shells together, held in each fore-paw, sucking out
the contents as they are fractured by these efforts; they also undoubtedly eat
crabs, and the juicy tender fronds of kelp or sea- weed, and fish. They are not
polygamous, and more than one individual is seldom seen at a time when out at
sea. The flesh is very unpalatable, highly charged with a rank smell and flavour.
They are playful, it would seem, for I am assured by several old hunters that they
have watched the sea-otter for half an hour as it lay upon its back in the water
and tossed a piece of sea-weed up in the air from paw to paw, apparently taking
great delight in catching it before it could fall into the water. It will also play
with its young for hours. The quick hearing and acute smell possessed by the
sea-otter are not equalled by any other creatures in the territory. They will take
alarm and leave from the effects of a small fire four or five miles to the windward
of them ; and the footstep of man must be washed by many tides before its trace
ceases to alarm the animal, and drive it from landing."
In Alaska the sea-otter is often captured by shooting it in the
Hunting. .
head with a rifle-bullet when the animal is sporting in the surf ; the
booming of the surf deadening the report of the rifle, and thus allowing successive
shots to be taken till one is successful. An older plan is, however, for a party to
go out in canoes when a sea-otter has been observed, and by arranging themselves
in a circle around its last point of disappearance, so harass the creature on its
subsequent emergence that eventually it becomes exhausted from sheer inability
to breathe. The third method is by knocking the animals on the head with heavy
clubs ; but this can only be done during the winter, at such times when strong
gales are blowing from the northward. Then, writes Mr. Elliot, the boldest of the
SEA-OTTER. ici
natives set out in their canoes from Saanach, " and scud on the tail of the gale to
the far outlying rocks, just sticking out above surf -wash, where they creep up from
the leeward to the sea-otters found there at such times, with their heads stuck into
the beds of kelp to avoid the wind. The noise of the gale is greater than that
made by the stealthy movements of the hunters, who, armed each with a short,
heavy wooden club, despatch the animals one after another without alarming the
whole body, and in this way two Aleuts were known to have slain seventy-eight in
less than an hour and a half." Instead of these methods, which are employed in
Unalaska Island and the districts to the eastwards, among the Atka Aleuts the
sea-otters are caught in small coarse-meshed nets. These nets are spread out over
the kelp-beds upon which the otters are in the habit of sleeping. The animals,
getting entangled in the meshes on their arrival, appear to become almost paralysed
with fear, and thus fall an easy prey to the hunters.
On the other hand, in Kamschatka, according to Dr. Guillemard, the sea-otter
is always shot with a bow and arrows. " The former is a tough piece of wood five
or six feet in length, which is enormously strengthened by a band of plaited hide
on the outer face, so tightly fixed as to give the bow a curve in the opposite direction
when unstrung. The arrows are of wood for three-quarters of their length, with
feathers fitted diagonally along the shaft, so as to produce a rotatory motion. The
remaining portion is of walrus ivory, provided at the end with a socket, into which
a barbed copper point is inserted. This is connected to the arrow by a long string
of plaited sinew wound around the shaft. When the otter is hit, the barb, which
is very loose, becomes at once detached, and if the animal gain the sea, its where-
abouts is indicated by the arrow floating above it."
The skin of the sea-otter is perhaps the most valuable of all furs,
Pelage.
and when prepared for use has all the long hairs removed, leaving
only the under- fur. In Kamschatka Dr. Guillemard states that a good skin will
bring even as much as a hundred roubles to the native hunter, while a perfect
example has been known to realise, according to Mr. Poland, as much as £200 in
the European market. The average price in 1891 was £57 per skin.
CHAPTER XIX.
CARNIVORES, — concluded.
EARED SEALS, WALRUSES, AND SEALS.
Families OTARIID^:, TRICHECHID^E, and PHOCIDJE.
THE whole of the Carnivores treated of in the preceding chapters constitute the
more typical representatives of the order, and are hence collectively termed by
zoologists true or fissiped Carnivores. In contrast to these is a much smaller group
comprising the eared seals, the walruses, and the true seals, differing from the
above by their flipper-like limbs, and hence known as the pinniped or fin-footed
Carnivores. By some writers the pinnipeds are regarded as entitled to form an
order by themselves, quite distinct from the Carnivores ; but by the majority of
naturalists, in England at least, they are considered to form merely a sub-order.
The members of the pinniped group have their entire organisation adapted
for ah aquatic life ; this adaptation showing itself most markedly in the
structure of their limbs. Thus both the fore and hind-limbs are modified into
paddle or flipper-like organs, with nearly the whole of their upper portions, as far
as the wrist and ankle, enclosed in the common integument of the body ; while the
feet themselves are greatly elongated — more especially in the hind-limb — and much
expanded, with the whole of the five toes completely connected together by web.
A peculiarity of the toes of the hind-foot is to be found in the circumstance that
the first and the fifth toes, that is to say those corresponding respectively with the
human great and little toes, are stouter, and in most cases also longer, than the
three middle toes ; an arrangement which is quite unknown among the true
Carnivores, where the first toe is the shortest of the series. The pinnipeds are
also characterised by the structure of their teeth, which are simpler than those of
the true Carnivores, and never show a specially-modified " flesh-tooth " in one jaw
biting against a somewhat similarly modified tooth in the opposite jaw. As a
general rule, the cheek-teeth comprise four premolars and one molar on either side
of each jaw ; all these teeth being very similar to one another in general structure,
and usually consisting of a pointed main cone, which may be flanked in front and
behind by smaller cones, so as to produce a tricuspid tooth. Moreover, the number
of incisor teeth is invariably reduced below the typical three pairs in each jaw ;
there being very frequently three pairs of these teeth in the upper, and two in the
lower jaw, or but two pairs in each jaw. Then, again, all the pinnipeds are
characterised by the reduced or rudimentary condition of their milk or baby series
of teeth ; these teeth being never of any real use to their owners, and being not
unfrequently shed previous to birth. The foregoing characteristics are amply
SEALS AND WALRUSES. 105
sufficient to distinguish the pinnipeds from the true Carnivores, although these
animals also possess certain peculiarities in regard to their soft parts, into the con-
sideration of which it is unnecessary to enter here. It may be mentioned, how-
ever, that all the members of the group have very short tails, while they are all
remarkable for the large size and prominence of their eyes, this being probably
necessary in order to secure accurate vision under water. It is also noteworthy
that in all the members of the group the rudimentary collar-bones found in
most of the true Carnivores have completely disappeared.
Those who admit the doctrine of the evolution of organic nature can have no
hesitation in regarding the pinnipeds as a highly-specialised group, which has
originated either from some section or sections of the true Carnivores, or from an
extinct group, to be noticed later on. In the structure of their skulls the eared
seals come nearest to the bears ; and it is quite evident that the whole group must
have descended from Carnivores which still retained the typical five digits on each
foot. On the other hand, the true seals present some points of resemblance to the
otters, and the sea-otter shows us how easily the transition from the ordinary otter
type to the pinnipeds might have taken place. The sea-otter, however, is clearly
(from the structure of its teeth) in no sense a " missing link " ; and it is by no
means improbable that the pinnipeds will be found to trace their origin directly
to the extinct group of Carnivores to which allusion has been already made.
The pinnipeds are divided into three distinct families, namely, the eared seals,
the walruses, and the true seals. Before proceeding to the consideration of these
several families, we may refer, however, to a few characteristics common to the
whole group. In the first place, the pinnipeds, as already mentioned, are thoroughly
aquatic in their habits, resorting to the land only for the purpose of repose or
breeding, and when there moving in an awkward and clumsy fashion. Moreover,
they are, as a rule, marine ; although some ascend tidal rivers, and a few are found
in inland seas and lakes. In the latter instance there is, however, no reasonable
doubt but that access to the ocean has been cut off since the date when the seals
first reached the waters in which they are now confined.
In regard to their general characteristics, Mr. J. A. Allen, who has paid special
attention to the American representatives of the group, observes that all the
pinnipeds are distinguished by their high degree of intelligence, and are all capable
of being easily domesticated, when placed under favourable conditions. They are,
almost without exception, thoroughly carnivorous, " subsisting upon fishes, molluscs,
and crustaceans, of which they consume enormous quantities. The walruses and
eared seals are polygamous, and the males greatly exceed the females in size. The
ordinary or earless seals are commonly supposed to be monogamous, and there is
generally little difference in the size of the sexes. The walruses and eared seals
usually resort in large numbers to certain favourite breeding-grounds, and, during
the season of reproduction, leave the water, and pass a considerable period upon
land. The earless seals, on the other hand, with the exception of the sea-elephants,
do not so uniformly resort to particular breeding-grounds on land, and leave the
water only for very short intervals."
Only one member of the whole group appears to be strictly tropical, and
comparatively few even range into tropical regions; the great majority being
I06 CARNIVORES.
found in the Arctic, Antarctic, and Temperate zones, many of them being
exclusively Arctic or Sub- Arctic, while one is as entirely Antarctic. And whereas
the walruses are restricted mainly at the present day to the Northern regions, the
other two families are well represented on both sides of the Equator. Most of the
true or earless seals are confined to the colder latitudes, and generally produce
their young on the ice.
THE EARED SEALS.
Family QTARIIDJE.
Genus Otaria.
The eared seals form a well-marked family, which tends to connect the other
and more specialised representatives of the group with ordinary terrestrial Carni-
vores. In the first place, their hind-limbs are decidedly less modified; all the
eared seals, as is well shown in the illustration on p. 103, being characterised by
having, when on land, the hind-flippers turned forwards under the body in the
direction of the head, so that they aid in the support of the trunk in the ordinary
manner. They derive their distinctive title from the presence of a small but well-
defined external ear ; and by these two characters an eared seal may always be
distinguished at the first glance from all the other members of the group. They
are further characterised by having the soles of both the fore and hind-feet entirely
devoid of hair.
These animals also have well-marked necks, and their fore-feet are nearly as.
long as the hind ones. In the fore-feet the toes decrease in length from the first to-
the fifth, and have merely rudimentary claws; while in the hind-feet the three
small middle toes generally have better developed claws, while the lateral pair are
quite clawless. In both fore and hind-feet the skin extends considerably in advance
of the tips of the toes, where it terminates in flaps. Usually there are thirty-four
teeth, but sometimes, owing to the presence of a second pair of molars in the upper
jaw, there may be thirty-six. There are always three pairs of incisor teeth in the
upper, and two in the lower jaw.
The eared seals include the animals commonly known as sea-lions and sea-
bears ; and some of them furnish the " sealskin " of commerce. This sealskin is
the under-fur, from which the long hairs of the outer coat have been removed ;
and such species as possess this under-fur are consequently termed fur-seals.
Those species, on the other hand, which have only the ordinary close coat of hair,,
without any woolly under-fur, are commonly termed hair-seals; and their com-
mercial value is limited to the oil and leather which they yield. In regard to the
number of species of eared seals, and likewise as to whether they should all be
included in a single genus (Otaria), or referred to two or more genera, there have
been much discussion and difference of opinion. Writing in 1880 Mr. J. A. Allen
put down the number of definable species as nine, of which five are hair-seals and
four fur-seals. In the present work the whole of these will be included under the
single generic title of Otaria ; but an alternative plan is to restrict that name to
EARED SEALS. 107
the Patagonian sea-lion, which differs in certain points from all the rest ; and to
refer the rest to a second genus (Arctocephalus).
This group is widely distributed over the temperate and colder regions of both
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; but, doubtless from the absence of
suitable sites for breeding-places, is quite unrepresented in the North Atlantic.
As a rule, sea-lions or hair-seals, and sea-bears or fur-seals, are found frequenting
the same shores, but generally living apart from one another ; while, with but rare
exceptions, only one species of each section occurs in any one locality. Of the
nine species provisionally recognised by Mr. Allen, two out of the five hair-seals
are northern, and three arc southern ; while of the four fur-seals one is northern
and three are southern. By later writers it is considered, however, that there
are certainly two other species of southern eared seals.
As we have already had occasion to mention, the whole of the
eared seals spend a good deal of their time on land, where they
assemble in large companies ; and they are also polygamous. Moreover, the males
are generally much superior in size to their consorts. At the breeding-places,
which are known among sealers by the very inappropriate name of " rookeries,"
the older males are always the first to arrive, and thereupon select particular
stations for themselves, where they-await the advent of the females. A continual
warfare is maintained by the males among themselves for the preservation of these
stations, and also for the defence of their females. The strongest males are
naturally successful in obtaining possession of the largest number of females ; the
number of females on the stations of the largest males usually varying from ten to
fifteen or more. To guard such large harems requires constant vigilance on the
part of the males, who remain on land throughout the whole breeding-season,
during which period they undergo an unbroken fast of several weeks' duration.
When they first take up their stations on land, the males are fat and in good
condition ; but at the end of their sojourn they become emaciated and weak to the
last degree. The females, although after their arrival they remain continuously
for a certain period on the stations of their lords, do not spend nearly such a long
unbroken period on shore.
The largest members of the family are hair-seals, and the smallest
Colour.
fur-seals. Mr. Allen states that " all the hair-seals are yellowish or
reddish brown (in the Californian sea-lion sometimes brownish black), generally
darkest when young, and becoming lighter with age, and also in the same
individuals towards the moulting season. . . . All the fur-seals are black when
young, but they become lighter with age, through an abundant mixture of greyish
hairs which vary from yellowish grey to whitish grey. The southern fur-seals
are generally, when adult, much greyer than the northern." There is, however,
much individual variation in colour among the members of a species according
to age.
The fur-seals are, of course, far more valuable commercially than
the hair-seals. The best skins are afforded by young males and
females ; and these are prepared for use by the inner layer of the skin being shaved
away with a sharp knife, thus causing the long hairs, which are deeper rooted than
the woolly under-fur, to fall out.
io8 CARNIVORES.
At the close of the last and during the early part of the present
century fur-seals existed in countless numbers in many parts of the
world ; but human greed and folly have succeeded in so reducing their numbers in
most regions that their pursuit is no longer profitable. Fortunately, however,
both for science and for commerce, the seal rookeries of the Prybiloff Islands in
Behring Sea have been placed under such restrictions as to render the annual
slaughter compensated by the number of births. As an indication of the hosts
of fur-seals formerly existing in various parts of the world, we may quote some
figures given by Mr. Allen. Thus it is stated that in the year 1798 Captain
Fanning, of the ship Betsy of New York, after obtaining a full cargo of skins from
the island of Musapura, 011 the Chilian coast, estimated the number of fur-seals
remaining on the island at from 500,000 to 700,000; and it appears that but
little less than a million skins were subsequently taken from the same locality.
Fur-seals were still found on the Chilian coast in 1815. From the Georgian
Islands, at the extremity of South America, no less than 112,000 fur-seals are
reported to have been taken in the year 1800, of which 57,000 were obtained by
one American vessel. About this date the discovery of fur-seals in Australia
was announced ; and in 1804 a single ship obtained 74,000 skins. Large numbers
were also taken about the same period on Prince Edward's Islands, lying a few
hundred miles to the south-eastwards of the Cape of Good Hope. Again, between
the years 1820 and 1821, more than 300,000 skins were taken from the South
Shetland Islands alone; while it is estimated that at least 100,000 young seals
were left to perish miserably, owing to the destruction of their mothers. In 1814
and 1815 the number of skins exported from Antipodes Island, off the coast of
New South Wales, was upwards of 400,000, of which, it is said, no less than a
fourth were spoilt owing to bad curing, and on arrival in Europe were sold as
manure. As early, however, as the year 1830 the number of fur-seals in the southern
seas had been so greatly diminished that vessels generally made losing voyages ;
and at the present day such a voyage partakes largely of the nature of a lottery.
During the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, the late Professor Moseley states that
a considerable number of fur-seals were observed about Kerguelen Land; two
schooners having obtained seventy in one day, and twenty in another. The number
of skins taken in the Prybiloff Islands will be referred to later on ; but it may
be mentioned that at the present time, according to Mr. F. A. Lucas, the annual
slaughter of fur-seals throughout the world averages 185,000, while that of hair-
seals reaches the enormous number of 875,000.
THE SOUTHERN SEA-Liox (Otaria jubata).
The southern or Patagonian sea-lion, of which a group is represented in the
illustration on p. 103, is a hair-seal, and differs in certain respects both externally
and internally from all the other species. It inhabits the Galapagos Islands, and
the coasts of South America from Peru and Chili on the Pacific side, and from the
Rio cle la Plata on the Atlantic border, southwards to the Falkland Islands and
Tierra del Fuego. Externally this species is distinguished from all the others by
the long hair of the neck, which forms a kind of mane ; although this mane is but
& ;
£
EARED SEALS. 109
indistinctly seen when the skin is wet. The profile of the head is nearly straight,
the muzzle deep and somewhat truncated, and the naked portion of the nose large ;
while the upper lip has a number of thick bristles of considerable length, and
hanging nearly straight down. The ears are also shorter in this species than in
any other member of the group. There are likewise several features in the skull
of this seal by means of which it can be distinguished from all the other eared
seals ; but it will suffice to mention here that the palate is deeply hollowed out and
truncated behind, whereas in the other species it is neither hollowed out nor
truncated behind. There are six upper cheek-teeth. The males of this species
attain a length of about 7 feet from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the tail,
although Captain Cook states that in his time much larger individuals were to be
met with.
This species was one of the first members of the group known in
Habitat
Europe, having been met with by Magellan as long ago as the year
1579, and long afterwards by Cook. It was likewise the first exhibited alive in
England, a specimen having been bought by the London Zoological Society in 1866.
Subsequently other examples were obtained from the Falkland Islands by a French
sailor named Lecomte ; and all who visited the Society's Gardens during 1868 and
a few years later will have a vivid recollection of the docility and cleverness of
these animals — to say nothing of their marvellous activity when in the water.
Formerly these seals were extremely numerous in the Falkland Islands, and on the
coasts of Patagonia and other parts of South America ; but they are now compara-
tively few, and their distribution is restricted.
The following particulars of the habits of the sea-lion in the
Falklands were communicated by Lecomte to Dr. J. Murie. At
various times these seals were seen in parties of from six to twelve, and even as
many as twenty ; but fifteen may be taken as the average. Several such families
may congregate in the same creek, to the number of from forty to a hundred ; but
the individuals of different families do not associate with one another. "They
seem to prefer headlands or isthmuses, and choose the most southern locality
thereon as a resting-place. One of the old males is on guard as a sentinel. Usually
he is seen perched on an eminence, and invariably, as Lecomte affirms, with out-
stretched neck and upraised head, as if sniffing around for the slightest ominous
warning. The signal of a grunt or growl sets the others on the alert ; and on any
real approach of danger they rush all helter-skelter towards the water, from which
they never wander far. Their daily occupation seems divided between sleeping
and procuring food. They lie huddled together in a drowsy condition, or slumber,
for a great part of their time, and this both during the day and night. At high
tides, night and day, they take to fishing near the entrance of the fresh-water
rivulets into the sea. At such times they will remain a whole tide dabbling about
singly after food. This consists of fish and crustaceans. In capturing their prey
they swallow it either above or below the water. . . . Lecomte says these eared
seals never drink water; and he substantiates the fact that he kept the first
animal he brought to this country for a year without fluid, except such as adhered
to the fish he fed it with. He tells me, moreover, he has noticed the common seals
occasionally suck in water as a horse would, but the otaria never. Another curious
no CARNIVORES.
circumstance he assures me of is, that in the stomach of every one he has examined,
with the single exception of a young animal, there existed a quantity of pebbles.
The amount varied in individuals from a few to many."
The females give birth to a single young one about the end of
the year, equivalent to our midsummer. During the pairing season,
which is in February and March, pitched battles occur between the males, during
which the females look quietly on. At such times the males are savage ; and if
attacked will stand their ground. The old males generally utter a low kind of
growl, but in the breeding-season this is prolonged into a loud, voluminous, inter-
rupted roar. The young utter a kind of bleating cry. From July to November
these seals migrate southwards from the Falklands. In colour the young are of a
deep chocolate, but paler after the first year ; the old males being of a rich brown
tint, and the females greyer ; while at all ages, and in both sexes, the flippers are
of a darker hue than the body.
THE NORTHERN SEA-LION (Otaria stelleri).
The northern sea-lion, which is likewise a hair-seal, differs from the preceding
species, and agrees with all those that follow by the absence of a mane 011 its neck,
by its narrow and pointed nose, relatively long ears, and by the flattened palate of
the skull, which is not truncated behind. In the concave facial profile it differs
from the southern sea-lion.
This is the largest member of the whole group, full-grown males, according
to Mr. Allen, measuring from 11 to 12^ or 13 feet in total length, of which the tail
forms 3 or 4 inches ; while their girth varies from about 8 to 10 feet, and their
weight is estimated at from 1000 to 1300 Ibs. In colour the young are of a
rich dark chestnut-brown. The adults, when they first reach the breeding-grounds,
are of a light brownish rufous colour in both sexes, the tint being darker between
the fore-limbs and on the under-parts. Later on in the season the colour changes,
however, to a golden rufous or ochrey tint ; and when the new winter coat appears
in November, the colour has been described as a light sepia, or Vandyke brown,
with deeper tints on the under-parts ; and at this season of the year the females
are distinctly of a lighter colour than the males.
This fine seal inhabits the shores of the North Pacific from Behring
Strait southwards to California and Japan, and is one of the species
found in the Prybiloff Islands in Behring Sea ; its northern limits being apparently
determined by the southern border of the Polar floating ice. It was first discovered
in the year 1741, during Behring's first expedition, and was described by the
naturalist Steller, who accompanied that navigator.
. Mr. W. D. Elliot, writing of this species in the Prybiloff Islands,
observes that it has a really leonine appearance and bearing, greatly
enhanced by the rich golden-rufous of its coat, and the ferocity of its expression.
Although provided with flippers, to all external view the same as in the fur-seal, it
cannot, however, make use of them in the same free manner. While the fur-seal
can be driven five or six miles in twenty-four hours, the sea-lion can barely go two,
the conditions of weather and roadway being the same. The sea-lions balance and
EARED SEALS.
in
swing their long heavy necks to and fro, with every elevation of their hind-
quarters, which they seldom raise from the ground, drawing them up after the
fore-feet with a slide over the grass, sand, rock, etc., as the case may be ; and
pausing frequently to take a sullen and ferocious survey of the field and the
drivers. It further appears from the same account that the males are less systematic
and exacting in the formation and protection of their parties of females than is the
case with the northern sea-bear ; and they are not known to travel so far inland.
Moreover, these seals are very shy and wary, and never allow their haunts to be
THE NORTHERN SEA-LION (;)V nat. Size).
visited by man without making a sudden rush to the sea. The males leave the sea
and take up their stations on the narrow belts of ground, which they prefer, early
in May, while the females follow them after an interval of three or four weeks,
thus arriving during the first weeks in June. Usually each male during the
breeding-season is accompanied by from ten to fifteen females. The latter are
allowed to move freely from place to place ; and are accustomed to go down to
the shore, accompanied by their young — often carried by the nape of the neck
— and disport themselves in the surf; such rambles being never undertaken by
the female sea-bears. On the two main islands of the Prybiloff group, respect-
ively known as St. Paul's and St. George's, it was estimated by Mr. Elliot that
ii2 CARNIVORES.
not more than 25,000 of these seals were in the habit of visiting the former;
while from 7000 to 8000 landed on the latter. The voice of this species is described
as a deep, grand roar, forming a low muttering growl.
Another observer, Captain Charles Bryant, gave the following account of the
habits of these seals to Mr. Allen : — " From 15,000 to 20,000 sea-lions breed
annually on the Prybiloff or Fur-Seal Islands. They do not leave the islands in
winter, as do the fur-seals, to return in spring ; but remain during the whole year.
They bring forth their young a month earlier than the fur-seal, landing during the
months of May and June. They advance but little above high tide-mark ; and
those of all ages land together. The strongest males drive out the weaker, and
monopolise the females, and continue with them till September. They go with
them into the water whenever they are disturbed ; and also watch over the young.
When in the water, they swim about the young, and keep them together until they
have an opportunity to land again. The females also keep near, rushing hither
and thither, appearing first on one side and then on the other of the groups of
young, constantly uttering a deep, hoarse growl at the intruder whenever they
come to the surface. When left undisturbed they all soon land again, preferring
to spend the greater portion of their time at this season on the shore. During the
breeding-season they visit the same parts of the shore as the fur-seals ; but the
sea-lions, by their superior power and strength, crowd out the fur-seals — the latter
passively yielding their places without presuming to offer battle to their formidable
visitors. After having been disturbed, the sea-lions continue for some time in a
state of unrest, occasionally uttering a low moaning sound, as though greatly
distressed. Even after the breeding -season they keep close to the shore near
the breeding -station until the severe weather of January. After this, they
are seen only in small groups till the islands are free from ice and snow in the
spring."
The sea-lions on St. Paul's Island are driven a distance of from
Capture.
ten to twelve miles along the shore to the village where they are to
be killed ; and from their slow rate of motion, to which allusion has already been
made, the journey is a long and protracted business, usually taking about five days.
When once fairly started, and accustomed to the presence of man, the animals are,
however, readily controlled, and kept in the desired direction. At the end of a
day's journey they are allowed to refresh themselves by plunging in the pools found
in many parts of the route. When thoroughly tired out at the end of a day's
march, the unfortunate animals stretch themselves at full length on the ground,
with extended limbs. Even then, however, writes Captain Bryant, " their rest is
not peaceful, for some restless one soon starts up and flounders over the others, as
if seeking a better place. This disturbs the whole herd, which constantly keeps up a
low moaning, apparently expressive of sore distress." " By this time," the author
continues, the sea-lions have " become so accustomed to their captors that they will
sooner fight than run from them ; and they are too much deafened by their own
noise to hear or fear any other sound. As they lie on the ground in a compact
mass, one of the men takes an umbrella, and goes twenty to thirty yards to the
rear of the herds, and approaching stealthily until he is quite near, suddenly
expands the umbrella, and runs with it all along the edge of the herd ; then, closing
EARED SEALS.
it, he retires to repeat the manoeuvre. This lias the effect of rousing the rear rank,
which, thus suddenly alarmed, plunges forward and arouses those in front, which
suddenly begin struggling and biting. The return of the man with the umbrella
communicates another shock, and adds another wave to the sluggish mass. This
is repeated at intervals of four or five minutes, till the successive shocks have
aroused the whole herd, when, with much roaring and bellowing, the whole mass
begins to move, gradually extending itself in a long irregular line in open order,
each animal lumbering along as best it can. By shouting and waving flags at the
rear, and on the flanks of the herd, they are kept moving until it is necessary to
halt them again for rest."
Finally, the herd reaches the village, when the sea-lions, being far too formid-
able animals to be despatched with clubs, are shot with rifles ; the full-grown males
being killed first, after which the fore-part of the herd is driven back upon and
over the rear, when the slaughter is continued with lances. The description of
this scene is, however, by no means pleasant reading, and may accordingly be
passed over.
caiifornian The Calif ornian sea-lion (0. gillespii), which, far from being re-
Sea-Lion. stricted to the country from which it derives its name, is found on
both sides of the North
Pacific, is a much smaller
species than the last, from
which it is readily distin-
guished by the convex
crown of the head, and the
sudden descent of the
profile at the eye ; the side
view of the head somewhat
recalling that of the dog-
faced baboons. The bristles
on the side of the muzzle
are also very small. The
skull is characterised by its
narrowness and elongation,
and also by the great
development of the bony
crests on the brain-case. The general colour is a dark chestnut-brown, becoming
blackish brown on the under-parts and limbs; but there is great seasonal and
individual variation in this respect. Mr. Allen gives the total length of adult
males as varying from 7 to 8 feet; those measurements being taken from the
muzzle to the end of the outstretched flippers.
There has been some confusion as regards the habits of this
species, owing to its having been confounded with the northern sea-
lion. Both species occur on the Farallone Islands, near San Francisco ; but the
present species is by far the more numerous of the two, and appears to be the only
one represented on the neighbouring island of Santa Barbara. Mr. Elliot states
that the two species may be readily distinguished by their voices ; the northern
VOL. II. — 8
HEAD OP CALIFORNIAN SEA-LION. —After Forbes.
Habits.
II4 CARNIVORES.
sea-lion uttering only a deep, bass growl, and a prolonged, steady roar ; whereas
the Californian sea-lion never roars, but utters a sharp bark, sometimes almost
approaching a howl.
The general habits of this species seem to be very similar to those of the
northern sea-lion. On the Farallones these seals are found in vast numbers, and
their barking is described as forming an incessant din. Captain Scammon, writing
of his experiences with these animals on the island of Santa Barbara, during the
sealing season of 1852, states that soon after the arrival of his party, about the
end of May, the colonies of Californian sea-lions "began to augment, and large
numbers of huge males made their appearance, belching forth sharp, ugly howls,
and leaping out of or darting through the water with surprising velocity, frequently
diving outside the rollers, the next moment emerging from the crest of the foaming
breakers and waddling up the beach with head erect, or, with seeming effort,
climbing some kelp-fringed rock to doze in the scorching sunbeams ; while others
would lie sleeping or playing among the beds of sea-weed, with their heads and
outstretched limbs above the surface. But a few days elapsed before a general
contention with the adult males began for the mastery of the different rookeries ;
and the victims of the bloody encounter were to be seen on all sides of the island,
with torn lips or mutilated limbs and gashed sides, while now and then an
unfortunate creature would be met with minus an eye, or with the orb forced from its
socket, and, together with other wounds, presenting a ghastly appearance. As the
time for ' hauling up ' drew near, the island became one mass of animation ; every
beach, rock, and cliff, where a seal could find foothold, became its resting-place,
while a countless herd of old males capped the summit, arid the united clamourings
of the vast assemblage could be heard on a calm day for miles at sea. The south
side of the island is high and precipitous, with a projecting ledge, hardly perceptible
from the beach below, upon which one immense sea-lion managed to climb, and
there remained for several weeks."
The same observer adds that " at the close of the season — which lasts about
three months on the Californian coast — a large majority of the great herds, both
males and females, return to the sea, and roam in all directions in quest of food,
as but few of them could find sustenance about the waters contiguous to the islands,
or points on the mainland, which are their annual resorting places. They live
upon fish, molluscs, and sea-fowls, always with the addition of a few pebbles
or smooth stones, some of which are a pound in weight." The quantity of fish
consumed by these seals must, indeed, be enormous. Some years ago it was
estimated that the total number of sea-lions in the neighbourhood of San Fran-
cisco was upwards of twenty-five thousand, each of which consumed from 10 to 40
Ibs. weight of fish per diem. In capturing gulls the Californian sea-lions display
no little skill and cunning. When in pursuit of a gull Captain Scammon states
that the seal dives deeply under water, and swims some distance from where it dis-
appeared, then, rising cautiously, it exposes the tip of its nose above the surface, at
the same time giving it a rotary motion, like that of a water-buoy at play. The
unwary bird on the wing, seeing the object near by, alights to catch it, while the
sea-lion at the same moment settles beneath the waves, and at one bound, with
extended jaws, seizes its screaming prey, and instantly devours it.
EARED SEALS. 115
The Californian sea-lion is the species most commonly seen in captivity in
Europe, as it appears to thrive better than any other of the eared seals in that
state.
In captivity these sea-lions display great affection for one another ; and when
one of a pair dies the survivor not unfrequently pines away and dies soon after.
From observations made on captive specimens in Chicago, it appears that before
the cub takes to the water the parent secretes a kind of oily fluid from her body,
with which the hair of the cub becomes anointed, owing to both animals rolling on
the same spot.
Hooker's With this sea-lion (0. hookeri), we come to a southern species of
sea-Lion. hair-seal, first obtained from the Auckland Islands, lying to the south
of New Zealand, during the voyage of the Erebus and Terror. This species, of
which examples have of late years been exhibited alive in the London Zoological
Society's Gardens, is subject to great variation in colour, some specimens being
greyish, while others have a more or less markedly brown tinge. The head
is readily distinguished from that of the preceding species by its nearly straight
profile; the muzzle is of considerable length, the ear of medium size, and the
bristles on the muzzle well developed. The skull is characterised by the extreme
narrowness of the palate, and has seven upper cheek-teeth — in the latter respect
agreeing with that of the southern sea-lion.
Australian Hair- The hair-seal (0. lobata), inhabiting the seas of Australia, appears
seaL to form a kind of connecting link between the hair and the fur-seals,
the cubs having a thick coat of soft under-fur, which quite disappears in the
adult. This indicates that the distinction between hair and fur-seals is of no great
zoological importance, although it forms a convenient mode of classifying the
members of this difficult group. The profile of the head is nearly straight, and the
whole head large and massive, with rather small ears. The males are considerably
darker than the females, and the cubs are black. From the presence of a stripe
of rich deep fawn colour (which is lighter than the general tint of the body)
running across the hinder part of the head, nape, and sides of the neck, the name
of cowled seal has been applied to this species. The general length of old males is
from 8 to 9 feet, but few such specimens are stated now to exist. These seals were
found abundantly in King George's Sound, and also in Bass Strait. The Seal
Rocks off Port Stephens, to the northward of Sydney, partly derive their name
from the presence of colonies of this species.
THE NORTHERN SEA-BEAR (Otaria ursina).
The well-known northern sea-bear, or northern fur-seal, is the first representa-
tives of the true fur-seals, and the only one found in the Northern Hemisphere.
In this, as in the other fur-seals, the pelage is soft, with an abundant under-fur ;
and the colour of the adult is some shade of dark grey, while the young are black.
There are six cheek-teeth in the upper jaw.
The northern sea-bear, as shown in the accompanying illustration, is
distinguished at a glance from all the southern fur-seals by its extremely short
face, in which the profile is nearly straight, and likewise by its relatively weak
u6
CARNIVORES.
dentition. In the adult males the general colour of the upper-parts, with the
exception of the shoulders, is nearly black, with a more or less marked grey, or
reddish grey grizzle ; but the shoulders are distinctly grey. The sides of the nose
and lips are brownish, the breast is brownish orange, while the limbs and under-
parts are reddish brown. The females are much lighter in colour, being uniformly
grey above, with the under-parts brownish or rufous. In both sexes the individual
variations in colour are largely due to the varying proportions of the grey in the
THE NORTHERN SEA-BEAR (ijV nat. size).
hairs. The young when first born are of a uniform glossy black colour, with the
under-fur lighter in hue, and less abundant than in the adults.
These seals are much smaller than the larger sea-lions, the old males, according
to Captain Bryant, measuring from 7 to 8 feet in total length, and having a girth
of from 6 to 7 feet; while their weight is estimated at from 700 to 800 Ibs.
They do not attain their full size till about the sixth year. The females, which
reach their full dimensions when five years old, measure 4 feet in length and 2£
feet in girth, and weigh from 80 to 100 Ibs. The ears are absolutely longer than
in the far larger northern sea -lion. The difference in the dimensions of the two
sexes is greater than in any other member of the family.
EARED SEALS. 117
The northern sea-bear inhabits both shores of the Northern
Pacific, and is known to have been formerly abundant on the American
side as far south as California, although the precise limits to which it once ranged
in this direction have not been ascertained. On the Asiatic side of the Pacific its
range embraced Kamschatka and the Kurile Islands, and extended as far as the
southern extremity of Saghalien Island, where it was still abundant at the period
of the Crimean war.
At the present day, as is well known, the headquarters of the sea-bear are the
Prybiloff Group, which comprises four islands, respectively known as St. Paul's,
St. George's, Otter, and Walrus Islands ; the two former of which are alone visited
by the seals. Here the capture of the seals is strictly regulated, only a certain
number being allowed to be captured annually. The Alaska Commercial Company
leased from the United States Government in 1869 the sole right of sealing on
these islands ; the lease permitting them to capture 25,000 seals on St. George's and
75,000 on St. Paul's. And it appears that in the twenty years, from 1869 to 1889,
the company has realised upwards of thirty-three millions of dollars by the sale of
seal-skins. Of recent years large numbers of British vessels fitted out from
Victoria and British Columbia have, however, been in the habit of visiting Behring
Sea for the purpose of taking seals ; and it is stated that in consequence of this the
profits of the Alaska Company have considerably diminished. In the recent dispute
between the British and United States Governments regarding this sealing in
Behring Sea the United States declared that the sea in question was a mare
clausum, a claim which the British Government successfully resisted.
Besides St. George's and St. Paul's, no other islands in Behring Sea appear to
form suitable habitats for the sea-bears, which require a low, shelving coast, either
of smooth rocky ledges or of shingle, with a cold climate and a fog-laden atmo-
sphere. If the ground is such that water can collect in puddles, the seals avoid it,
and if the coast is sandy the wind blows the sand into their large, sensitive eyes,
causing them intolerable discomfort. The number of sea-bears on these two islands
during the breeding-season is so enormous as to defy anything like exact calcula-
tion. In the summer of 1872 Mr. Elliot estimated, however, that there were
upwards of 3,000,000 on St. Paul's, while in the following year he put down the
number on St. George's at about 163,000.
It is mainly to Mr. Elliot that we are indebted for a full and
Habits
adequate account of the habits of the sea-bears on the Prybilofis,
and it is from his graphic descriptions that the following summary is derived.
During the winter the Prybiloffs are deserted by these animals, which follow
the southward migration of the fish upon which they chiefly subsist. The old
males are the first to revisit their old haunts in the following spring ; and a few of
these may generally be found on the islands during the first week in May. At
this time the males are very shy and sensitive, and remain near the shore ; indeed,
many of them will sometimes spend several days in swimming round the rocks
before venturing to land. The first arrivals are not always the oldest, but rather
the finest specimens of their race ; and are always fully capable of maintaining
possession of the stations they select immediately after coming ashore. As a rule,
it appears that the males do not reoccupy the same stations year after year, although
n8 CARNIVORES.
sometimes a few may do this for a few seasons. " From the time of the first
arrival in May, up to the first of June, or as late as the middle of the month,"
writes Mr. Elliot, " if the weather be clear, is an interval in which everything seems
quiet ; very few seals are added to the pioneers. By the first of June, however, or
thereabouts, the foggy humid weather of summer sets in, and with it the bull-seals
come up by hundreds and thousands, and locate themselves in advantageous
positions for the reception of the females, which are generally three weeks or a
month later." Then comes the great struggle for obtaining and maintaining a
position on the land, those males which are the last to arrive, and also those
occupying the posts nearest the water's edge, having the greatest difficulties to
overcome. Frequently the combats which then take place result in death ; while
some of the earlier arrivals which have taken up stations near the shore become
exhausted by repeated struggles, and have to shift to more inland quarters. " The
fighting," says Mr. Elliot, " is mostly or entirely done with the mouth, the opponents
seizing each other with the teeth, and clenching the jaws. Nothing but sheer
strength can shake them loose and that effect almost always leaves an ugly
wound, the sharp canines tearing out deep gutters in the skin and blubber, or
shredding the flippers into ribbon-strips."
During the time that the males are thus engaged in selecting and maintaining
their positions, they may be approached from the leeward when asleep so closely as
to admit of the bristles on their muzzles being pulled. The adventurous investi-
gator is, however, warned that after one such experiment he must beat a hasty
retreat, if he would escape an unpleasant mauling from the animal's teeth.
At this period the males give vent to four distinct cries, namely, a hoarse,
resonant, long, and loud roar ; a low, gurgling growl ; a kind of hissing, chuckling,
piping whistle, which must be heard to be recognised ; and a kind of spitting sound
and action, which is the most characteristic of all. The females, on the other hand,
have only a kind of bleating cry, used merely to attract the attention of the cubs ;
while the call of the latter is still more sheep-like. Indeed, it is stated that some
sheep imported into St. George's were constantly misled by the cries of the females
and young seals into believing that others of their own species were in the
neighbourhood. The seals when on land are extremely impatient of heat, a
temperature of 48° being unpleasant to them ; while when the thermometer ranges
from 55° to 60° they appear to suffer great inconvenience. On such occasions they
may be seen lying in every conceivable position, industriously fanning themselves
with their flippers, sometimes holding the fore-flippers vertically upwards as a
kind of ventilator, while one or both of the hinder pair are employed as fans.
From their first arrival until the end of the pairing season, which terminates
during the first third of August, all the males which succeed in maintaining their
posts never leave them for a single instant ; and consequently never partake of
either food or water for at least three months, while in some instances this fast
endures for upwards of four months. During this time they must subsist entirely
on their own fat ; and it will not fail of notice that such a fast is very different
from that endured by bears and other hibernating animals, during which most of
the functions of the body are dormant. Nevertheless, no ill consequences appear to
accrue, since the old male sea-bears come back year after year as fat and sleek as ever.
EARED SEALS. 119
Between the 12th and 14th of June the first females make their appearance
on the Prybiloffs. When they first land, wet and dripping from the sea, they are
of a dirty grey colour, darker on the head and back than elsewhere ; but when
thoroughly dried their coat is of a steel-grey above, and nearly white beneath, with
a brilliant gloss. A few days' exposure to the weather is, however, sufficient to
tone down this brilliant dress to a sombre greyish brown above, and an ochrey tint
below. Immediately on their arrival, the females are received with most marked
attention by the males nearest the shore, but they are seldom allowed to rest long
with these, as the males on the more inland stations are ever on the watch to seize
and take possession of them during the time that their temporary masters are on
the look-out for fresh wives. In this manner the unhappy females may be seized
by the scruff of their necks as unceremoniously as a cat takes its kitten, and
passed on from male to male, until they reach a place of security in the stations
farthest away from the water. During all this time fierce contests are continually
taking place among the males. By the time of the arrival of the last batches of
females, which takes place usually between the 10th and 15th of July, the males
have become thoroughly exhausted, and have obtained as many females as they
desire. Consequently, the females are now allowed to crowd in through the fifteen
or sixteen rows of stations usually intervening between the shore till they reach
the open ground in the rear of the colony, where they congregate in droves, care-
fully selecting places where there are no pools of water.
It is considered by Mr. Elliot that, on the average, each male in the neighbour-
hood of the shore has from twelve to fifteen females, while those more inland have
only from five to nine. One old male was observed with upwards of forty-five
females under his charge, but this individual was favoured by his situation, which
had but one path of access. A certain number of males in the rear of the colony
never obtain partners at all ; though towards the close of the season some of them
may step into the places of those of their sex as have to leave their stations
through exhaustion. The males display extreme courage in defending and main-
taining their positions; and will even stand being fired at with shot without
forsaking their posts. The females, on the other hand, are remarkable for their
gentle disposition, never quarrelling among themselves, and but seldom uttering
a cry when roughly handled and severely wounded by the contending males.
During their sleep the bodies of all the sea-bears are continually undergoing
various quivering and rolling motions, accompanied by twitchings of the paddles.
The cubs are born shortly after the landing of the females, coming into the world
with their eyes open, and soon finding their voice, and taking to the water. It is
but rarely that there is more than a single cub at a birth. They weigh from 3 to
4 Ibs., and vary from 12 to 14 inches in length when born; their jet-black coat
being retained for three months. Both parents seem to treat their offspring with
marked indifference ; and a cub which has strayed a short distance from the station
of the father may be killed before the eyes of the mother without evoking any
concern on her part. Although the males will often rush right into the middle of
a whole party of cubs, it is but seldom that any of the latter are killed.
After the birth of their offspring, the females appear to make frequent visits
to the sea, usually returning close to the spot where their cubs were left, and
120 CARNIVORES.
singling out their own offspring by its cries without a moment's hesitation. The
cubs are accustomed at an early period to collect in large numbers, while from the
latter part of September to the time of departure in November, they assemble
together in tens of thousands. Even among such numbers, the female instantly
recognises the voice of her own offspring, and promptly makes her way by thrust-
ing right and left to that spot in the assembly where it may happen to be. It is
said that the cubs themselves do not know their own mothers, but as they inces-
santly utter their cry at short intervals, the females have no difficulty when return-
ing from the sea in finding their offspring.
Between the end of July and the close of the first week in August, the seal
colonies have entirely altered in appearance, owing to the breaking up of the
various family parties. The old males leave their stations, and betake themselves
to the sea, in a very emaciated condition ; the majority of them not returning to
the land. Such, however, as do make a second visit are in fine condition, and have
grown a new and brilliant coat of fur. The return visit does, not take place till
the end of September; and the males then prefer to congregate on the beach,
instead of going up to their old ground. After the departure of the old males in
the beginning of August, the females, cubs, and those males which did not succeed
in obtaining wives, take possession of the entire seal area in a very disorderly
manner ; while their numbers are augmented by the landing of a host of young
males which had hitherto been prevented by their elder brethren from obtaining a
footing on shore. At this time three-fourths of the females are generally in the
water, only coming ashore for short intervals to look after their cubs. They lie
idly in the waves, now and again lazily rolling over, and continually scratching
their sides and backs with their nippers. After the first week in August the cubs
nearest the shore make their first attempts at swimming, but are extremely
awkward, and quickly tire with their efforts. Soon, however, they become adepts
in the art, and may then be seen sporting and frolicking in the water with the
greatest apparent enjoyment. By the middle of September all the cubs have
become thoroughly familiar with the water, and have entirely deserted the higher
grounds to take up a position on the rocks and beaches near the water's edge,
previously unoccupied by any of the seals. Finally, in November the islands are
deserted by the great mass of the sea-bears, although some do not leave for their
southerly migration until driven off by the snow and ice, as late as the end of
December or the 12th of January.
The preceding observations relate almost exclusively to the old males, the
females, and the cubs ; but a few words are necessary as to the young males under
six years of age, which are known to the sealers as " bachelors." In the early part
of the season these come out of the sea in detachments of from a hundred to a
thousand strong, but later on by hundreds of thousands. They generally go to a
distance of from a quarter to half a mile from the shore, on what are technically
known as the " hauling-grounds," in contradistinction to the " rookeries." These
seals are in some cases allowed to pass up and down to their haunts by passages
left between the family parties on the rookeries ; but more generally repair to the
beaches unoccupied by the rookeries, where they will occupy the whole space from
the shore to a distance of a quarter of a mile or more inland. Some of the younger
EARED SEALS. 121
ones will, moreover, occasionally desert the neighbourhood of the shore, and proceed
still further inland to play among the fresh moss and grass which grows in the
interior. These young seals do not undergo any long periods of fasting, but are
constantly repairing to the sea at short but uncertain intervals. For instance,
during a few dull and foggy days they may be found by hundreds of thousands on
the hauliiig-grounds ; but a single warm and sunny day will drive almost the
whole assemblage to the sea, leaving their haunts well-nigh deserted. They are
thoroughly restless creatures, being constantly on the move ; and although very
frolicsome and sportive, never seen to quarrel or fight. In the water these young
seals distinguish themselves by their active evolutions ; frequently jumping out after
the manner of dolphins, more especially when surprised, and in such cases turning
their heads when in the air to catch a glimpse at the cause of their disturbance.
Mr. Elliot adds that sea-bears of all ages " swim with great rapidity, and may
be fairly said to dart along with the velocity of a bird on the wing under the
surface of the water; and in all their swimming I have not been able yet to
satisfy myself how they used their long, flexible hind-feet, other than as steering
mediums. The propelling motion, if they have any, is so rapid, that my eye is not
quick enough to catch it ; the fore-feet, however, can be very distinctly seen to
work, feathering forwards and sweeping back flatly, opposed to the water, with
great rapidity and energy, and are evidently the sole propelling power."
It appears that of the total number of sea-bears about half are
males and half females ; but some two-thirds of the former are never
permitted by their older and stronger brethren to mix with the females, but herd
together by themselves in the manner just described. It is these bachelor seals
which are alone allowed to be killed in the Prybiloffs ; and it will be evident that
their association by themselves — frequently miles away from the breeding-grounds
— must greatly facilitate the arrangements for their slaughter. When the bachelor
seals are assembled near the water, on some morning early in June, a small party
of natives will run along the beach, and readily turn thousands of them inland.
When once turned, the party is easy to manage ; and on firm or grassy ground the
whole herd in cool weather can be driven at the rate of half a mile an hour, but
frequent halts must be made. The weaker seals will, however, drop out from time
to time, and are left either to recover or to perish, especially when the march is
long ; it is therefore advisable to make the journey as short as possible.
Arrived at the place of slaughter, the seals are herded, and allowed to rest and
cool ; after which they are driven off in detachments of from fifty to two hundred,
and knocked on the head with heavy oaken bludgeons. The work of killing and
skinning is carried out with great rapidity ; a party of forty-five men having
driven, killed, and skinned upwards of seventy-two thousand sea-bears in less than
four weeks during the summer of 1872.
It has been already mentioned that the number of the sea-bears allowed to be
killed annually on the Prybiloffs is limited by the terms of the lease to 100,000.
There is, however, reason to believe that considerably more than this number are
killed by the natives ; and it is further asserted that the total number of sea-bears
visiting the islands is steadily diminishing.
In addition to the seals killed on the Prybiloffs, a large number have of recent
I22 CARNIVORES.
years been taken in open water by British vessels cruising in Behring Sea ; and it
was, as already said, in regard to these that the international dispute referred to
above arose. The seals thus taken appear to be exclusively young males or
barren females, which have remained at sea during the months of May and
June, when the great body has gone northwards to the Prybiloffs. Well-appointed
schooners are engaged in this trade, and the method of procedure is thus
described by a correspondent of the Times. When one of these vessels is at sea,
" and seal are sighted, the little boats are hoisted out ; a hunter, armed with two
shot guns and a rifle, and two sailors to pull the boat, take their places, and the
hunt begins. A seal swimming on the water, or perchance sleeping, is sighted, and
the boat is pulled quietly toward the animal. In nine cases out of ten, the seal
takes alarm and dives out of sight before the boat is brought close enough to use
the guns with effect, and in no case does the hunter shoot unless he feels sure of
his quarry. The seal, when shot, at once commences to sink, and the boat has to
be pulled rapidly up to it, when the carcase is ' gaffed ' and hauled aboard. This
is repeated as long as a seal can be seen. In many instances only one or two will
be killed during a whole day's hunting, but at other times as many as twenty will
be taken. After a day's hunt the boats return to the schooner, and the seals are
skinned and the pelts laid in salt in the hold. This goes on from day to day during
the season. The seal has a chance of escaping, and the percentage killed is very
small. When it is considered that an extent of ocean of nearly twelve thousand
square miles is hunted over, the chance is slight of the seals being exterminated by
the fleet of fifty or so vessels engaged in the seal-hunting business. It has been
asserted that only a few seals out of every hundred shot are captured by the
hunters ; that the balance sink or escape wounded, to die later on. This is not so.
On the contrary, a seal hardly ever escapes when shot. Of course a few do, but
the percentage is small, probably not over five or six out of the hundred." Although
it has been asserted that the number of sea-bears in the open sea is annually
diminishing, this is denied by unprejudiced experts ; and it is mentioned by the
writer last cited that "the oldest hands in the business state that there are
apparently as many seals in the sea nowadays as there were many years ago.
There is, however, some greater difficulty experienced in capturing them. The
older ones have learned what a sealing boat is, and at the sound of a gun, or at
the approach of a boat, the wary arimal is on its guard, and thus it is harder for
the hunter to get within range of his quarry. Yet, in spite of this fact, large
numbers are killed, and the business is fairly profitable." Of the two methods of
sealing, the shooting in the open sea is decidedly to be preferred on humanitarian
grounds, more especially if it be true, as asserted, that on the Prybiloffs a con-
siderable number of breeding female seals are killed before their cubs are old
enough to shift for themselves.
THE SOUTHERN FUR-SEALS.
In the Southern Hemisphere there are some four species of sea-bears or fur-
seals, all of which differ from the Northern sea-bear in their much longer,
narrower, and more depressed muzzles, and also in the circumstance that the flaps
EARED SEALS. 123
of skin projecting in advance of the toes of the hind-flippers are much less elongated.
The Southern fur-seals are also, as a rule, decidedly greyer in colour than their
northern cousin. There is still some uncertainty as to the number of species
belonging to this group, and their resemblance to one another is so close that it
requires an expert to distinguish between them.
South American The South American, or Falkland Island fur-seal (0. australis)
Fur-seals, inhabits the Galapagos Islands, and the shores and islands of South
America southwards from Chili on the western, and from the Rio de la Plata on the
eastern side ; being more numerous on the Falkland and South Shetland Islands
than on the continent itself. The males attain a length of from 6 to 7 feet, while
the females average about 5 feet ; the disproportion between the sexes being thus
much less than in the northern sea-bear. The colour of the fur is distinctly grey.
The habits of this species seem to be very similar to those of its
northern cousin ; the old males arriving on the Falklands before the
females, and similar contests taking place for the possession of the latter, which
arrive in December. The cubs are born during the same month, and are able to
swim well by February. The young males remain at sea during the greater part
of the summer, not landing till February or March. They sojourn on land till the
latter part of April, when they again take to the water ; but towards the end of
June they once more visit the shore for several weeks, remaining partly on land
and partly in the sea. When Weddell visited the South Shetlands during his
voyage, lasting from 1818 to 1821, these seals were very numerous, and had so
little fear of man that numbers of them were killed and skinned without disturbing
the remainder of the party. Moseley, during the voyage of the Challenger, found,
as already mentioned, these seals still fairly numerous on Kerguelen's Land, although,
from the reckless way in which they were slaughtered, they appeared in imminent
danger of total extermination. Like the sea-lions of the same regions, the southern
fur-seals prey at times upon penguins.
The Cape fur-seal (0. pusilla) is a very well-marked species,
characterised by the straight profile of the head, the overhanging
and sharply-pointed muzzle, the relatively long ears, and the extreme length of the
numerous bristles depending from the upper lip. A living example, formerly
exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens, had a whitish red fur
grizzled with blackish hairs, while the under-parts were of a reddish brown colour.
This seal appears to be confined to South Africa, inhabiting the small islands round
the Cape of Good Hope, as well as others some forty miles distant from Port
Elizabeth. It probably also once inhabited Tristan da Cunha. It is still fairly
common, but its fur is of comparatively little value, owing to the shortness of the
hair, although that of the young animals is longer. Some years ago, from 70,000
to 80,000 skins were annually imported from the Cape into London, but the number
is now much reduced. In Algoa Bay as many as from 200 to 300 of these seals
have been taken during a single night.
New Zealand There has been much uncertainty with regard to the fur-seals
Fur-seal. of the Australian seas, but it now appears that there is but one
species, namely, the New Zealand fur-seal (0. forsteri), of which the so-called
cinereous fur-seal CO. cinerea), according to Mr. H. O. Forbes, is the female. This
124
CARNIVORES.
seal is the only one found on the New Zealand coasts, and it also occurs at Chatham
Island and the Seal Rocks near Port Stephens. Although formerly abundant, it is
now becoming very rare. At the time of Flinders' visit in 1798 it was found in
thousands at Passage Point, to the north of Tasmania. The males are usually dark
grey above and brown below, while the lighter females are generally yellowish
brown above and dark below, some of them having a crest of long whitish hairs.
While the fur of the male is valuable and beautifully curled, that of the female
seems to have frequently but little under-fur, so that skins have been described as
those of hair-seals.
THE WALRUS.
Family TniCHECHIDJE.
The huge and ungainly animals, commonly known by the name of walrus
(from the Scandinavian valross, meaning whale-horse), constitute not only a
distinct genus of the Pinniped Carnivores, but are likewise the sole representatives
SKELETON OF THE WALRUS.
of a special family. Walruses are strictly confined at the present day to the Arctic
regions (of both hemispheres ; but there is some difference of opinion as to whether
those found in the Pacific are specifically distinct from the typical Atlantic form.
The two are, however, so extremely closely allied that we prefer to regard them as
belonging to a single species (Trichechus rosmarus).
In many respects the walrus is nearly allied to the eared seals, this being
especially shown in the structure of the hind-limbs. Thus the hind-feet are capable
of being turned forwards beneath the body, and are employed in locomotion on
land ; while they have the three middle digits much smaller than the outer pair.
Moreover, the toes of the hind-feet are similarly terminated by large lobes
projecting far beyond the extremities of the bones ; and the fore-limbs are nearly
as large as the hinder ones.
The walrus differs, however, from the eared seals in the total absence of
external ears, and also in its massive and clumsy build, as well as in the number
and structure of its teeth. Thus the front portion of the skull is greatly swollen,
and carries a pair of very long and laterally compressed tusks, or canine teeth,
WALRUS.
I25
depending from the upper jaw. In the adult animal internally to these tusks there
is usually a row of four small teeth, of which in the young state the first is
situated in advance of the latter, and is, therefore, an incisor ; the other three being
premolars. The lower jaw has but four teeth on each side, of which the foremost
corresponds to the upper tusk, while the other three represent the premolars.
Consequently, an adult walrus has but eighteen teeth altogether. The young
animal has, however, two pairs of incisor teeth in both jaws, and five upper and
four lower cheek-teeth ; thus, with the tusks, bringing up the total number of teeth
to thirty. We thus see that the young walrus presents resemblances to the eared
seals in respect of the number of its teeth, which are totally lost in the adult
animal. Our figure of the skeleton
of the walrus shows the tusks in
their full development; the illus-
tration of the living animal being
taken from examples with poorly-
developed tusks. With the excep-
tion of these large upper tusks, all
the teeth have low, blunted, sub-
conical crowns, admirably adapted
for crushing the molluscs on which
these animals so largely subsist.
In comparison with the size
of the body, the head of the walrus
is rather small, and while squared
and abruptly truncated in front is
somewhat rounded behind ; this
rounded appearance being increased
by the absence of all trace of
external ears. The muzzle seems to
be divided into two lobes by the
vertical groove below the nostrils, and is furnished on either side with a number of
stout translucent bristles growing from the upper lips. The eye is very small ; and
the entire head has a remarkably rugged and battered appearance ; the lower jaw
narrowing to a point between the upper tusks. The latter, which ordinarily project
to a length of from 12 to 15 or more inches below the level of the gum, com-
municate, of course, the most striking and characteristic feature to the head, and
indeed to the whole animal. Although relatively longer than in the true seals, the
neck is shorter than in the eared seals, and gradually thickens posteriorly, where
it imperceptibly merges into the trunk. The body is extremely bulky and
ungainly, with a rounded outline, and diminishing gradually in size from the
shoulders to the hind-quarters. The tail is very small ; and the limbs are to a
great extent enclosed in the skin of the trunk. There are five rudimentary claws
on both the fore and the hind-feet, the soles of which are completely devoid
of hair.
In the youngof the walrus the body is thickly covered with short, yellowish brown
fur, which is thinner and shorter on the under-parts and limbs than elsewhere,
HEAD OP WALRUS.
126
CARNIVORES.
where it also becomes of a reddish brown or chestnut tinge. This fur persists till
middle age, but in old age becomes gradually more and more scanty, frequently
disappearing almost completely, or even entirely, from patches of larger or smaller
WALRUSES ON THE ICE (fa nat. size).
extent ; while in some very old males of the Pacific walrus the whole skin may be
almost naked. The skin over the entire body is thrown into a number of folds
and wrinkles, these folds being heaviest in the region of the shoulders. The
frequent fights in which these animals engage add a number of scars to the skin.
Of four adult males measured by Mr. J. A. Allen the smallest had a length of 9|
WALRUS. 127
and the largest of 11 feet, from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. Other
individuals have, however, been recorded, measuring somewhat more than 12 feet
in total length; but the statements of 15 or even 16-feet walruses must be
received with hesitation. There is still much uncertainty as to the weight which
thrse animals will attain. Parry gives the weight of an immature female as
1550 Ibs. ; while other trustworthy writers set down the weight of full-grown
males at from 2250 to 3000 Ibs. Larger weights have, indeed, been suggested,
but it is probable that in those cases the estimates were far too high. In regard
to the size of the tusks of the Atlantic walrus, a fine pair mentioned by Mr.
Allen had a total length of 24 inches, of which probably about 18 inches would
have protruded from the jaw during life ; the weight of each of these being 4 Ibs.
Others have, however, been obtained with a total length of 31 inches, and a weight
of upwards of 8 Ibs. apiece ; but such are, now at least, extremely rare. The tusks
of females seldom exceed 20 inches in length. In the Pacific walrus the tusks
are said to be longer and thicker, and more convergent ; but we have not met
with any account of their maximum dimensions.
In addition to this difference in the form of the tusks, the Pacific walrus has
the muzzle proportionately broader and deeper, while the bristles on the upper lip
are shorter and smaller. Important differences also occur in the form of the skull
of the two varieties.
The geographical range of the walrus has been considerably
Distribution. . ? \ . . /
restricted in modern times owing to the incessant persecution or the
animal in all accessible regions, and it is now exterminated in many places where
it was formerly abundant. Its numbers have, indeed, been sadly diminished
everywhere, and unless it receive prompt and efficient protection it is one of those
creatures which stand a good chance of becoming extinct ; this being more
especially the case with the Pacific variety. The Atlantic walrus was known in
Europe during the latter part of the ninth century, and appears to have been
hunted on the coast of Finmark about a century later, while by the year 1600
walrus-hunting was a regular trade. Occasionally these animals wandered as far
southwards as the coasts of Scotland ; and they were abundant on many of the
islands near the northern coast of continental Europe, and even on the shores of
the continent itself ; while eastward their range extended into Asia as far as the
River Lena. Northwards the walrus appears to extend as far as vessels have
penetrated. In 1600 it was very abundant on Cheric, or Bear Island, lying
about two hundred and eighty miles to the northward of the North Cape, in
Norway ; no less than six or seven hundred having been killed on one occasion in
six hours, while on another from nine hundred to a thousand were slaughtered in
less than seven hours. The animals were accustomed to collect in large parties on
the shore ; and the plan adopted was first to shoot those nearest the sea, whose
bodies then formed a barrier, cutting off the retreat of the rest. In less than eight
years the walruses on Bear Island had become scarce and shy, and it was not long
before they were completely exterminated. The retreating walruses were then
followed to Spitzbergen and Greenland, and even there their numbers have so-
diminished that walrus hunting cannot be profitably conducted unless carried on in
conjunction with whaling. Baron Nordenskiold states that at the present day
i28 CARNIVORES.
the walrus is seldom found during summer on the west coast of Novaia Zemlia
to the south of Matotschkin Skar, but that on the east coast of the same island,
and in parts of the Kara Sea it is fairly common. It is but rarely seen in Iceland,
but is not unfrequent on the coasts of Western Siberia.
In America the Atlantic walrus formerly ranged from Nova Scotia to about
latitude 80°, and was at one time abundant in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the
eastern coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. About 1534 walruses were very
abundant on the Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and many
expeditions were soon after fitted out in Europe for the capture of the animals on
these and adjacent islands. Till a few years ago, the heaps of walrus bones on the
shores of the Magdalen Islands attested the slaughter that had taken place.
According to Dr. A. S. Packard, the last walrus seen in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
was killed in 1840; but a few have been observed subsequently on some of the
neighbouring coasts and islands. In Greenland it was stated that about the year
1877 the walrus was only sparsely distributed in most places, with the exception
of the tract lying between the 66th and 68th parallels, where it was sometimes
met with in considerable numbers, and was regularly hunted by the natives in
their canoes. Walruses also occur on the west c'oast of Baffin's Bay, and some of
the islands to the north ; but their range appears to be limited by the western
shore of Hudson's Bay ; and as they are not again met with till we reach
Alaska, a large part of the coast of Arctic America is probably uninhabited by
them.
Although the Pacific walrus has been known in Europe since the middle of
the seventeenth century, it was not much molested by hunters till about the year
1860, by which date whaling had become much less profitable than it had been.
The range of this variety was always much more restricted than that of its
Atlantic cousin, reaching from the limit of ice southwards on the American coast
as far as latitude 55°, and on the Asiatic shores to latitude 60°. In longitude its
range to the north of Behring Strait in the Arctic Sea was limited to the eastwards
by Point Barrow in Northern Alaska, and to the westward by Cape Chelagskoi,
in longitude 170°, on the northern coast of Siberia. As on the latter coast the
range of the Atlantic walrus did not extend eastwards of the Lena, the two varieties
were widely separated from one another in this direction, as they also were in the
opposite direction. On the Alaskan side of Behring Sea and Behring Strait the
Pacific walrus was formerly found in enormous herds in Bristol Bay and Norton
and Kotzebue Sounds ; and in summer it also visited the Prybiloff Islands in large
numbers. These animals were likewise common on the Aleutian Islands ; but in
the more southern portions of their range they were always sparsely distributed.
Up to the year 1874 they were still found in innumerable herds where the waters
of the Arctic Sea join with those of Behring Strait, and also in Behring Sea ;
but since that date their diminution has been rapid. It is stated that between
the years 1870 and 1880 close on 2,000,000 gallons of walrus-oil, and 400,000 Ibs.
weight of ivory were obtained from these regions ; thus representing the destruc-
tion of not far short of 100,000 animals. When the Russians first opened up the
Prybiloff Islands, walruses were found in numbers on both St. Paul's and St.
George's, but they soon retreated to Walrus Island, leaving the other two to their
WALRUS. 129
less timorous cousins the sea-bears and sea-lions. It is stated that in a single year
upwards of 28,000 Ibs. weight of walrus-ivory was obtained from the Prybiloffs
alone.
In prehistoric times the range of the Atlantic walrus was much more exten-
sive than during the historic epoch, on both the eastern and the western sides of the
Atlantic. Thus its remains have been dredged up from the Dogger Bank off the
eastern coast of England ; while a skull was dug up from the peat near Ely, in-
dicating that the animal formerly inhabited the valley of the Ouse, which was at
that time probably an estuary. On the eastern coast of America walrus bones
have been dug up as far south as New Jersey, Virginia, and even California. At a
still earlier period walruses, which are considered to belong to an extinct species,
inhabited both the eastern coast of England and the shores of Belgium ; numerous
remains having been obtained from the so-called crags of the Pliocene period in
both countries.
There appears to be no well-marked difference between the habits
Ma/bits
of the Atlantic and Pacific varieties. Walruses are usually found in
the neighbourhood of shores or masses of floating ice, and are but seldom seen in
the open sea. As a rule, they associate in companies or herds, depending in size
upon the number of individuals in the particular locality. In addition to this
fondness for each other's company, Baron Nordenskiold states that curiosity is a
distinguishing trait of the walrus, and relates how that when on one occasion he
rowed right into the midst of a herd, " part followed the boat long distances quite
peaceably, now and then emitting a grunting sound ; others swam quite close, and
raised themselves high out of the water, in order to take a view of the strangers.
Others, again, lay so closely packed on pieces of drift-ice as to sink them down to
the water's edge, while their comrades swimming about in the sea endeavoured
with violence to gain a position on the already overfilled resting-places, though a
number of unoccupied pieces of ice floated up and down in the neighbourhood."
When on shore, or on an ice-floe, the various members of a party of walruses are
described as huddling and pressing together against one another like pigs. From
April to June, according to the latitude, is the breeding-season ; and during this
period the walruses are stated to remain on shore for about a fortnight, during
which time they neither eat nor drink. Usually there is but a single young
produced at a birth ; and there is never more than a pair. The young are stated
to be suckled by the parent for upwards of two years ; and it is hence believed
that the same female breeds but once in every three years. The females, while
suckling their young, are said to assemble in herds apart from the males. Like
seals, walruses appear to have circular breathing-holes in the ice, to which they
can resort from below without exposing themselves. The voice of these animals is
a loud roar, which in the case of large herds can be heard at the distance of several
miles.
Unless molested, the walrus is stated to be gentle and inoffensive in dis-
position ; but when attacked displays great fierceness and vindictiveness, while its
huge bulk renders it a formidable antagonist, especially when its aggressors are
afloat in a small boat. Not less noteworthy is the affection of the female walrus
for its young, and likewise the sympathy of all the members of a herd for a
VOL. n. — 9
I3o CARNIVORES.
wounded comrade. When one of the herd is wounded, all its fellows are stated to
combine together for its defence ; and on such occasions the aspect of the animals
is described as absolutely terrific. Either through confidence in their size and
power, or from want of appreciation of danger, walruses when on shore or on the
ice can often be approached very closely, and may thus be easily dispatched ; they
learn, however, greater caution with experience. In other cases they seem to be
more vigilant on all occasions, having a certain number of their body acting as
sentinels. In hunting them the great object is to cut off their retreat to the
water, as if they once gain the open sea they generally escape. The number of
walruses formerly found on the ice-floes of Spitzbergen was so great, and so thickly
were the creatures crowded together, that an eye-witness wrote of them as pre-
senting the appearance of solid islands of animals.
The walrus feeds chiefly upon thick-shelled bivalve molluscs,
especially those commonly known as gapers. For crushing the shells
of these molluscs the stunted and short cheek-teeth of the walrus are admirably
adapted ; but it appears that, after being broken, the shells themselves are rejected,
and only the soft portions of the molluscs swallowed. This molluscan diet is also
supplemented by fish and various crustaceans; while in addition to these, large
quantities of sea-weed are also swallowed, although it is quite probable that their
introduction into the creature's mouth is not intentional. It appears to be now
ascertained beyond doubt that the chief use of the tusks of the walrus is to dig in
the mud and ooze for the purpose of raking up the molluscs, on which it feeds so
largely. Dr. K. Brown states, however, that he has seen walruses employ their
tusks to aid in dragging their unwieldy bodies on to the ice, and also to aid their
clumsy progress when on land. These observations are fully confirmed by Dr.
Kane, who states that he has known walruses in this manner drag themselves on
rocky islands to heights of sixty or a hundred feet above the level of the water.
The walrus is killed when on land or ice either by means of long
lances, or with rifles; while when at sea it is chased with special
boats and harpooned. Allusion has already been made to the enormous numbers
of these animals killed in the Magdalen Islands, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; but one more instance of an enormous de-
struction of these animals may be referred to in greater detail. This occurred in
the summer of 1852, on Thousand Island, lying off the south-west coast of Spitz-
bergen. Here, writes the narrator, Mr. Lament, "two small sloops, sailing in
company, approached the island, and soon discovered a herd of walruses, number-
ing, as they calculated, from three to four thousand, reposing upon it. Four boats'
crews, or sixteen men, proceeded to the attack with spears. One great mass of
walruses lay in a small sandy bay, with rocks inclosing it on each side, and on a
little mossy flat above the bay, but to which the bay formed the only convenient
access for such unwieldy animals. A great many hundreds lay on other parts of
the island at a little distance. The boats landed a little way off, so as not to
frighten them, and the sixteen men, creeping along shore, got between the sea and
the bay, full of walruses before mentioned, and immediately commenced stabbing
the animals next them. The walrus, although so active and fierce in the water, is
very unwieldy and helpless on shore, and those in front soon succumbed to the
EARLESS SEALS. 131
lances of their assailants ; the passage to the shore soon got so blocked up with the
dead and dying that the unfortunate wretches could not pass over, and were in a
manner barricaded by a wall of carcases." The slaughter went on until the men
were drenched with blood and thoroughly exhausted, while their lances became so
blunt as to be useless. After returning to the ship to refresh themselves and grind
their lances, the work of destruction was, however, resumed, and did not cease until
upwards of nine hundred animals had been slain. Even then, however, so sluggish
and lethargic were the walruses, that several hundreds were still lying on adjacent
parts of the island. When the narrator visited the spot six years later the
carcases were still lying as they fell, in some instances two or three feet deep, and
the stench from them was perceptible for miles out at sea. The worst feature of
this great slaughter was, indeed, the circumstance that the perpetrators, owing to
the size of their vessels, were only able to carry away a small proportion of their
victims.
The walrus is hunted for the sake of its oil, hide, and tusks. The yield of
oil is proportionately less than in the seals ; the amount obtained from the largest
specimens seldom exceeding 500 Ibs. ; and the quality also is stated to be inferior
to seal-oil. The hides are chiefly exported to Russia and Sweden, where the leather
is used for harness and the soles of boots and shoes, and also is twisted into tiller-
ropes. The value of the hides in America is stated to be from two to four dollars
per half skin. In thickness the skin varies from 1 to \\ inches. More valuable
are the tusks, although their ivory is far inferior to that of elephants. The
large amount of walrus-ivory annually obtained has been already mentioned ; and
it may be added that, in America, while the price per Ib. was only 40 or 45 cents.
in 1879, it had risen to a dollar or a dollar and a quarter in 1880 ; while in 1883
the price varied from four to four and a half dollars.
Another Scandinavian name for the walrus is morse, while to the Inuits the
animals is known as the awuk.
THE TRUE, OR EARLESS SEALS.
Family PHOClD^l.
With the true seals we come to the third and last family of the Pinniped
Carnivores. These animals are at once distinguished from the eared seals
and the walruses by the characters of the hind-limbs, which, as shown in the
accompanying figure, are permanently directed backwards, and conjointly form a
kind of rudder-like organ. Then, again, there is no trace of any external ear ; and
the neck is shorter than in either of the two preceding families. As additional
characters of the limbs, it may be mentioned that the front pair are always smaller
than the hinder, and that the first digit or thumb of the former is always longer
than the other digits ; while the whole of the digits are furnished with well-
developed claws situated at their extremities. The hind-feet, which are incapable
of the great expansion characterising those of the eared seals, usually have all
the digits armed with claws, and generally want the long flaps of skin at their
•extremities, which characterise those of the eared seals. The number of front or
132
CARNIVORES.
incisor teeth is variable in the different groups ; but there are constantly five pairs
of cheek-teeth in each jaw, of which the first four belong to the premolar series.
In all the species the under-surfaces
of both the fore and hind-feet are
covered with hair ; while the fur
clothing the body is invariably
stiff and devoid of any woolly
under-fur.
The true seals form a much
less homogeneous group than the
eared seals, and are arranged under
several distinct genera; the total
number of species being about
sixteen or seventeen, although there
is still a certain amount of doubt in
some cases as to whether some forms
should be regarded merely as local
races or as distinct species. The
greater number of the genera have
but a single species each, and in
only one of the genera does the
number of species exceed two.
Distribution and True seals occur along the shores of the temperate and colder
Habits. portions of the globe; but the greater number are found in the
Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, with the exception of the elephant-seals, the seals
of the Northern Hemisphere belong to genera distinct from those inhabiting the
Southern Hemisphere ; and the whole of the Arctic species are generically distinct
from those of the Antarctic regions. Nearly the whole of the true seals are
characterised by their strongly-developed social instincts and their extraordinary
affection for their young. In disposition they are, as a rule, gentle and submissive,
offering no resistance when attacked by man; although the crested seal of the
North Atlantic is an exception in this respect. Many of the species are accustomed
to assemble in large flocks during the breeding-season, while others are gregarious
at all periods of the year. It is, however, only the elephant-seals that resemble the
eared seals in passing a period of several weeks, during the breeding-season, entirely
on land, and without partaking of any kind of food. As a rule there is but a single
young one produced at a birth, and there is never more than a pair. All the seals
are in the habit of spending a large portion of their time basking in the sun on
sandy beaches or ice-floes.
Their food, of which a large quantity is necessary, consists chiefly of fish, but
also comprises crustaceans and molluscs ; and most of the species, like the eared
seals, are in the habit of swallowing a number of pebbles.
As may be at once seen from the total absence of external ears and the
structure of the hind-limbs, these seals are more specialised creatures than the eared
seals, and are thus more completely adapted for an aquatic life. This is especially
shown by the long period these animals can remain under water without coming
HIND-FLIPPERS OF RINGED SEAL— OPEN (A) AND CLOSED (B).
EARLESS SEALS. 133
up to breathe. According to Dr. Robert Brown, the average time of a seal's
submergence is from five to eight minutes, while the limit is set down by the same
observer, at a quarter of an hour. Other authorities state, however, that the time
may be extended to as much as twenty or thirty minutes. The sounds uttered by
seals are various, in some cases taking the form of a kind of barking note, while in
others they assume a more bleating tone, or even resemble the cry of a child ; the
note of the young being always more plaintive and less hoarse than that of the adult.
In no cases, however, do they utter barking roars comparable to those characteristic
of the eared seals.
The strange circumstance that young seals take to the water reluctantly, and
have to be taught the art of swimming by their parents, would alone appear to be
a sufficient indication that seals are originally descended from land Carnivores.
Among some species the young remain entirely on the land or the ice for the first
two or three weeks of their existence, or until they have shed their first coat of
woolly hair. Numbers of seals are destroyed by the Polar bear, while others fall
victims to the rapacious killer-whale. Others again are frequently destroyed by
being jammed between ice-floes ; and it is stated that thousands are sometimes
killed by this means. The reduction in their numbers by all these causes are,
however, trivial compared to those inflicted by man, who, according to Mr. J. A.
Allen, requires about a million and a half to supply his annual needs. So reckless,
indeed, has been the destruction of seals, that some species are already well nigh
exterminated, while others have been so reduced in numbers as to render their
pursuit no longer profitable.
Several species of seals inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere are in the habit of
making long migrations, moving southward to avoid the intense cold of winter,
and returning northward in summer ; such migrations being most marked in the
Greenland and the hooded seal. These movements have been carefully observed
by Mr. J. C. Stevenson, on the Atlantic coasts of North America. The southern
migration commences soon after the frost sets in ; and at this season, he writes,
" a fisherman, posted as sentinel on some headland commanding an extensive
sea-view, communicates to the hamlet the first indication of the approaching
host, the vanguard of which invariably consists of small detachments of from
half a dozen to a score of seals. Such parties continue to pass at intervals, gradu-
ally increasing in frequency and numbers during the first two or three days' of
the exodus, by the end of which time they are seen in companies of one or more
hundreds. The main body is now at hand, and during the greater part of the next
two days one continuous uncountable crowd is constantly in sight. The whole
procession coasts along at no great distance from the shore, presenting to an eye-
witness a most extraordinary scene. In all quarters, as far as the eye can carry,
nothing is visible but seals — the sea seems paved with their heads."
From the conformation of their hind-limbs, the true seals are unable to progress
on land in the manner characteristic of the eared seals and the walrus ; both the
latter being able to bring their hind-limbs under the body by arching the back and
carrying forward the hind-feet by a kind of jerk. Very generally the true seals
move on land merely by a kind of wriggling motion of the body, with the fore-
limbs held close to the sides of the trunk and the hind-limbs stretched out straight
i34 CARNIVORES.
behind. Dr. Murie has, however, ascertained that in the case of the Greenland and
crested seals there is a kind of motion somewhat intermediate between the above
and that characteristic of the eared seals. Thus the former of these two species
" very often uses its fore-limbs, placing these on the ground in a semi-grasping
manner, and, by an alternate use of them, drags its body along. The hind-legs
meantime are either trailed behind slightly apart, or with opposed plantar surfaces
slightly raised and shot stiffly behind. On uneven ground, or in attempting to
climb, a peculiar lateral wriggling motion is made ; and at such times, beside alter-
nate palmar action, the body and the hind- limbs describe a sinuous spiral track."
On the other hand, the common seal appears far less capable of making use of its
fore-limbs in progression on land, these being only occasionally employed to obtain
a hold on rocks.
On smooth ice seals are able to progress with considerable rapidity; the
average rate being about one mile an hour in cool weather. Such journeys are
always undertaken during the night ; and the seals advance by raising their bodies
from the ice by means of the fore-limbs, and then drawing themselves forward.
On land, seals will occasionally travel considerable distances ; and it is on record
that in the winter of 1829 a grey seal in Norway travelled through the snow a
distance of fully thirty miles; the time occupied in accomplishing this journey
being believed to have been about a week, during which period the creature could
not have touched food.
The true seals are not a very ancient group, geologically speaking, although
their remains are found through the Pleistocene and Pliocene strata, and in a portion
of those belonging to the Miocene period. Fossil seals are very common in the
Pliocene deposits of Belgium ; most of them being more or less nearly allied to the
species now inhabiting the Northern Hemisphere. It is very noteworthy that while
true seals range downwards to the Miocene period, no remains which can be
definitely assigned to the eared seals have hitherto been discovered in any but the
most recent and superficial deposits. If this apparently late origin of the eared
seals be confirmed by future researches, it will go far to confirm the suggestion
that the latter have taken rise from land Carnivores quite independently of the
true seals.
THE GREY SEAL.
Genus Halichoerus.
The grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), which is the sole representative of its
genus, belongs to a group confined to the Northern Hemisphere, and distinguished
from all the other members of the family by the presence of three pairs of incisor
teeth in the upper jaw, and two pairs in the lower jaw. A further characteristic
of the group is to be found in the presence of claws on all the toes of both pairs of
limbs ; while all those of the hind-feet are of nearly equal length.
The grey seal is at once distinguished from the other members of this group by
the circumstance that the crowns of the relatively large cheek-teeth are composed
of but a single conical cusp, although there may occasionally be fore-and-aft cusps
in the last two teeth of the lower jaw. Another peculiar feature of these teeth is
EARLESS SEALS. 135
that, with the exception of the last one or two in the upper and the last one in the
lower jaw, they are implanted in the jaws by means of only a single root each.
The grey seal is a rather large species, full-grown males usually measuring
about 8 feet in length, although occasionally reaching as much as 9 feet; these
measurements being taken from the tip of the nose to the end of the hind-feet.
The general colour of the fur is silvery or yellowish grey, becoming lighter on the
under-parts, and marked with a number of blackish or dusky ill-defined spots.
There is, however, great individual variation in this respect, some specimens being
uniformly silvery or yellowish white, with little or no trace of spots, while others
are almost black. The young are always white or yellowish white at birth, but,
as a rule, soon acquire darker tints.
The grey seal, according to Mr. Allen, is one of the least common
Distribution.
of the northern members of the family, and has a somewhat restricted
distribution, being only found within comparatively narrow limits in the North
Atlantic. On the shores of northern Europe it appears to be commoner than on
the American side ; and it occurs in Iceland, Scandinavia as far north as Finmark,
the British Islands, and probably Greenland. It appears, however, to be unknown
in Spitzbergen and the islands of the Arctic Sea, and is not met with, at all
events as a regular inhabitant, on the shores of the English Channel. On the
American coast this species extends as far south as Sable Island, off Nova Scotia,
while northwards it is met with occasionally in the Straits of Labrador and Belle
Isle, and ranges as far as Disco Island.
With the possible exception of the bearded seal, the present
species is peculiar in breeding in the autumn ; the young being pro-
duced in the Shetland Islands from September to November. There the grey seal
is commonly found associating in pairs, and frequenting the most exposed positions.
Describing the habits of this seal in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Mr. Lucas writes
that " it is fond of crawling out on the rocks, especially on sunny days, when it will
lie basking in the sunshine for hours at a time. The seals do not come on shore at
any convenient spot, but at a limited number of chosen localities, and these vary
according to the force and direction of the wind. Except in very light breezes the
lee-side of the island is selected, not entirely on account of the difficulty of effecting
a landing on the windward side, but also because the seal relies very largely upon
its acute senses of smell and hearing to warn it of approaching danger from the
land. The chosen landing-places are where a shelf of rock, raised but little above
the level of the sea, descends vertically for several feet beneath, thus enabling the
seal to plunge head-first into the water and disappear at once from sight. Before
landing, the animal will swim back and forth several times with head raised, and
eye, ear, and nose on the alert to detect any sign of danger, the wary nature of the
creature being well shown by the fact that almost immediately after emerging from
the water the animal turns completely around so as to lie with the head seaward,
and in readiness for an instant dive. The fairer the day and the lighter the breeze
the more readily the seals come ashore, while during rough weather they not only
do not land so often but are more watchful when they do come out." This species
is less docile and intelligent than the common seal, and cannot be tamed in the
same manner. A specimen measuring 8 feet in length weighed nearly 400 Ibs.
136 CARNIVORES.
THE COMMON SEAL AND THE GREENLAND SEAL.
Genus Phoca.
The common seal (Phoca vitulina) and the Greenland seal (P. grcenlandica)
may be selected as well-known examples of the genus Phoca, which is the only
genus in the family containing more than two species. All the members of this
genus differ from the grey seal by their smaller and more pointed teeth, but more
especially by the circumstance that each of the cheek-teeth, with the exception of
the first in each jaw, is implanted by two distinct roots, and has its crown composed
of three or four compressed cusps arranged in a line. In such a tooth there is one
large main cusp in the middle, which corresponds to the single cusp of the teeth of
the grey seal ; while in front and behind this are one or two much smaller cusps.
The common seal, which is the only species in addition to the
Common Seal.
grey seal ordinarily met with on the coasts of the British Islands, is
one of three nearly-allied forms, which in the young condition cannot always be
SKELETON OF THE COMMON SEAL.
satisfactorily distinguished from one another by colour alone. The three species
in question are the common seal, the ringed seal (P. hispida), and the Greenland
seal. All these three species are much smaller than the grey seal ; the ringed seal
being the smallest of all. The latter species can always be distinguished from either
of the others by the greater length of the first digit in the fore-foot, which exceeds
that of the other toes. When adult, the ringed seal is blackish grey above, with
oval whitish rings, and whitish on the under-parts ; its usual length varying from
4| to 5| feet. The common seal, on the other hand, can be easily distinguished
from either of the others by its more massive teeth ; the cheek-teeth being very
broad and thick, and set obliquely and close together in the jaws, instead of being
placed in the same straight line, and separated from one another by distinct
intervals. It is, moreover, a relatively stouter-built animal, with a larger head,
broader nose, and shorter limbs.
The adult of the common seal is very variable in colour, but the usual tint of
the hair on the upper-parts is some shade of yellowish grey, with irregular dark
brown or blackish spots ; the under-parts being yellowish white, generally marked
with smaller spots of brown. The length of the male varies from 5 to 6 feet. The
EARLESS SEALS. 137
young when first born are yellowish white, and are peculiar in that they shed their
woolly coat either on the day of birth or very shortly afterwards.
The common seal has a much wider distribution than the grey
seal, occurring not only in the North Atlantic but also in the North
Pacific, and extending on the shores of both oceans to the Arctic regions, and thus
being doubtless circumpolar. In the Atlantic it is found, though rarely, as far
southwards as the Mediterranean, and on the American side as far as New Jersey.
In the Pacific its southern limits appear to be marked on the Asiatic side by
Kamschatka, and on the American by Southern California. It is, moreover, by
no means confined to the coasts, but ascends some of the larger tidal rivers to a
considerable distance from their mouths ; and it has been known to pass up the St.
Lawrence to the Great Lakes. In the North Atlantic this seal is strictly littoral
in its habits, and always avoids the ice of the open seas. It is very common in
Spitzbergen and Greenland ; the number of individuals belonging to this species
THE COMMON SEAL.
and the ringed seal captured annually some years ago in the Danish settlements
in Greenland being, according to Dr. Robert Brown, upwards of 700,000. In the
British Islands, according to the authors of Bell's British Quadrupeds, this seal
" is found all round the coast in suitable places, but is much less abundant than it
formerly was, and has been quite banished from many places where it was formerly
well known. It is common on many parts of the Irish coast, and is very abundant
among the Scotch islands, especially in Shetland and Orkney. In Wales and
Cornwall it is well known, but is now very rarely seen on the shores of the
southern and eastern counties of England." Not many years ago one of them
was observed on the beach at Brighton.
The common seal does not make any seasonal migrations, but is
found in the same haunts throughout the year. It prefers sheltered
sounds and bays, with shallow water and an abundant supply of fish, to more
exposed positions ; and leaves the water at every tide to rest on the rocks or beach,
almost invariably selecting such rocks as are separated from the mainland. The
young are born in the latter part of May or June, and take to the water at an early
133
CARNIVORES.
period. Like other members of the family, this seal is readily attracted by music,
and will follow boats from which such sounds proceed to a considerable distance.
Whether, however, this attraction by musical sounds is due merely to the curiosity
characterising all the Pinniped Carnivores, or to an appreciation of the music itself,
has not been ascertained. In disposition the common seal is more intelligent and
gentle than most of its congeners; these qualities being displayed not only in
the care and affection they bestow on their offspring, but likewise by the
readiness with which they can be tamed, and their fidelity and affection for their
masters. There are, indeed, many instances where these seals have followed their
owners about like a dog ; and some where they have come back to a house after
every effort had been made to drive them away.
Greenland Seal.
THE GREENLAND SEAL (^ nat. size).
Although the Greenland or, as it is often called, the harp, or
saddle-backed seal, in its immature condition is not easy to dis-
tinguish from the common seal, in the case of adult males of the two species
there is no sort of difficulty in this respect, the peculiar coloration of the Greenland
species being amply sufficient. In the adult male, as shown in our illustration, the
general colour is yellowish white or white ; the nose and the fore-part of the head
to behind the eyes are black ; and there are very generally some black spots on
the throat and chest. The most characteristic mark is, however, the irregular
crescentic band of black on each side of the body, extending from the shoulders
nearly to the tail ; these bands being generally widest where they unite in the
middle line over the shoulders. They may be interrupted posteriorly, but more
generally join once more in front of the tail, so as to enclose an ellipsoidal
EARLESS SEALS. 139
area. The length of the male is usually from 5 to 5i feet, but may, it is
said, be as much as 6 feet. The female has generally much the same colora-
tion as the male when adult, but the black markings are less distinct, and may be
wanting. The full coloration is not obtained till the fifth year, and so different is
the appearance of the animal at different stages of its growth that the Greenlanders
have distinct names for it according to age. The white or yellowish white woolly
fur of the young is not changed for the hairy coat till several weeks after birth.
The Greenland seal, which can at most be regarded only as a very occasional
visitant to the British Isles, is essentially a northern species, ranging in the
Atlantic from Newfoundland and the North Sea to the Arctic regions, and
also occurring in the North Pacific.
The migratory habits of this species have been already alluded
to at sufficient length; the most noted breeding-stations are New-
foundland and the vicinity of Jan-Mayen, at which localities these animals may be
seen in enormous herds in the spring ; but where they pass the remainder of the
season is not ^ascertained. In Greenland these seals visit the coasts both in the
autumn and in the spring ; and it may be some of these herds that pass westwards
to Jan-Mayen. During their migrations the seals keep close to the coasts, and
frequently enter the bays and estuaries ; but when settled at their breeding-resorts
they prefer exposed ice-floes in the open sea, never resorting to the shores, and being
seldom met with on the firm ice. Everywhere the Greenland seal is in the habit
of assembling in immense herds ; and it is so abundant that its numbers probably
exceed those of all the other species put together. In consequence of this abund-
ance, it is this species which forms the main basis of the sealing trade of the
northern seas. Unlike the bearded and ringed seals, the Greenland seal never
forms a breathing-hole in the ice ; and this is doubtless the reason that it frequents
the ice-floes rather than the continuous stretches of unbroken ice. Off the coast
of Newfoundland the young are born in the early part of March, but in the Jan-
Mayen district not until the end of that month. When assembled in their count-
less herds on the ice-floes during the breeding-season, it is stated that their cry
may be heard at a distance of several miles, more especially if the ear be applied to
the ice. As an indication of the enormous numbers in which these seals once
existed, it may be mentioned that during the year 1866 a single steamer obtained
22,000 seals in nine days ; and it was not uncommon for a ship's crew to kill from
500 to 800 adults and 2000 young ones in a day. In Greenland the annual catch
was estimated at 33,000, while that in Newfoundland used to exceed 500,000, and
in the Jan-Mayen seas the total number killed each year was fully 30,000.
Of the remaining members of the genus Phoca our notice must
Other Species.
be very brief. It has been already mentioned how the ringed seal (P.
hispida) may be distinguished at all ages from the two preceding species, and refer-
ence has likewise been made to its adult coloration. It may be added that the ringed
seal differs from the common seal by its more slender form, longer limbs and tail,
narrower head, and more pointed nose. The ringed seal is an inhabitant of the
Arctic and North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, occasionally visiting the British
Islands ; but it may be regarded as pre-eminently boreal, its true home being the
icy Arctic seas. Its favourite resorts are stated to be sheltered bays and fjords,
140
CARNIVORES.
in which it remains so long as they are filled with solid ice ; but when this
breaks up the seals betake themselves to the ice-floes, upon which the young are
born in the months of March and April. The ringed seal is not a migratory species,
and in some localities is found in considerable numbers. It is one of those seals
which make a circular " blow-hole " in the ice, through which they can ascend or
descend at pleasure ; such apertures being made while the ice is forming.
Nearly allied to the ringed seal are the Baikal seal (P. sibirica) and the
Caspian seal (P. caspica), which are respectively confined to the inland seas from
which they take their names. Both these seals are rather larger than the ringed
seal, and are very similar to one another. Their especial interest is derived from
SEALS SWIMMING.
their habitat ; the Baikal seal inhabiting a fresh-water lake, while the waters in
which the Caspian seal dwells are but slightly salt. The curious part of the matter
is that neither Lake Baikal nor the Caspian Sea appear to have had any recent
connection with the Arctic Ocean ; and if, as is most probably the case with the
latter, we have to look to a former connection with the ocean to the southward, it
becomes difficult to see whence came the stock from which these two allied species
were derived. Mr. Allen has suggested, however, that the ringed, the Baikal, and
the Caspian seal may be all descended from an allied extinct species whose remains
are found in the Pliocene deposits of Belgium.
Lastly, we have the bearded seal (P. barbata), which is distinguished from all
the other members of the genus by its superior size, its broad muzzle and convex
EARLESS SEALS. 141
forehead, as well as by its small and weak teeth, some of which generally fall out
in the adult. Moreover, the front flipper differs from that of all the other species
in having the third or middle digit longer than the rest ; whereas in the other
species the digits decrease in size from the first or first and second together. The
colour of the bearded seal is some shade of grey, darker on the middle of the back
than elsewhere, but varying considerably in different individuals. In distribution
the bearded seal is circumpolar and almost exclusively boreal, its only migration
in winter being that due to the extension of the unbroken ice-fields, by which it is
compelled to move somewhat to the southward. On the American side of the
Atlantic this seal extends as far as Labrador, but not apparently down to New-
foundland. It is abundant on the coasts of Greenland, but in Europe does not
appear to occur further south than Iceland and the North Sea.
The bearded seal is by far the largest of all the northern seals, full-grown
males being said to attain a length of about 10 feet. An adult female skeleton,
measured by Mr. Allen, had a length of 7 feet 2 inches. The species is said to be
nowhere abundant, and is more or less solitary in its habits, never congregating in
large herds. It is fond of basking upon large pieces of floating ice, and generally
keeps well out to sea ; and upon such occasions is easily approached and killed by
the Eskimos. A distinctive peculiarity of this species is its habit of turning a
complete somersault when about to dive, especially when fired at. The skin is
thicker than that of any other northern seal, and is consequently valued by the
Eskimos, who employ it in making their harpooning lines. Its flesh and blubber
are stated to be more delicate in flavour than those of other species. Owing to its
comparative rarity, the bearded seal is of no commercial importance; the total
annual number caught some years ago in Greenland not exceeding a thousand.
THE MONK-SEAL.
Genus Monachus.
The monk-seal (Monachus albiventer) belongs to a group differing from the
preceding by having but two pairs of incisor teeth in both the upper and lower
jaws ; and also by the first and fifth toes of the hind-feet being much longer than
the others, and having their claws either rudimentary or absent. With the
exception of the first in each jaw, the cheek-teeth are implanted by double roots ;
and the total number of teeth is thirty -two, against the thirty-four of the last
group. The monk-seal is distinguished from the other members of the group by
the character of its cheek-teeth ; these being large, hollowed on the inner side, and
marked with a prominent ring at the base, while the cusps on either side of the
main cusp are very small. Moreover, the claws on all the toes are small and
rudimentary. The fur is short, and is dark brown mingled with grey on the
upper-parts, and whitish beneath. Full-grown males attain a length of from 7 to
8 feet, or more.
Together with its ally the West Indian seal (M. tropicalis). the
Distribution. B . J . . ^ .
monk-seal is the only species or the family inhabiting the warmer
seas ; it is found in the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and on the coasts of the
I42
CARNIVORES,
neighbouring portions of the Atlantic, extending to Madeira and the Canary
Islands. Although but little is known of its habits in a wild state, the monk-seal
is very readily tamed, and is the species which used to be exhibited in England as
the " talking fish."
The closely-allied West Indian seal is of nearly the same colour
as the monk-seal in the adult state, but the young are of a deep
glossy black. This species is interesting from its restricted distribution, and the
prospect of its impending extermination. Although discovered as far back as the
year 1494 by the flotilla of Columbus, when cruising in the West Indies, this seal,
up to the year 1883, was represented in scientific collections only by a single skin
sent to the British Museum in 1846 by Mr. P. H. Gosse. In the year 1687, when
Sir Hans Sloane visited the Bahamas, these seals were extraordinarily abundant,
the sealers sometimes killing as many as a hundred in a single night. In less than
two centuries they had, however, become exterminated from most of their former
haunts, although some were known to remain on the rocky islands of Pedro Keys,
to the southward of Jamaica. In 1886, as Mr. F. A. Lucas tells us, a vessel visited
three small islands lying between Yucatan and Florida, known as the Triangles,
with the hope of finding a colony of these seals. In this hope the expedition was
not disappointed, upwards of forty specimens being secured before the vessel was
compelled to put back from stress of weather. We are not told how many of these
seals were then remaining on the islands.
It has been already mentioned that the seals of this group have the first and
fifth toes of the hind-feet much longer than the others, and since this is a character
which they possess in common with the eared seals, it is interesting to learn that
the West Indian seal has the power of bringing the hind-feet forwards to a certain
extent when on land by curving the body upwards. When straightening itself
the creature pitches ahead on its breast, advancing about a foot by the operation.
THE LEOPARD-SEAL.
Genus Ogmorhinus.
The leopard-seal (Ogmorhinus leptonyx) may be taken as the best known
representative of four genera
confined to the Southern
and Antarctic Seas, and
each containing but a single
species. These seals differ
fa-" «ie monk -seal by
certain characters of their
skulls, and are likewise dis-
tinguished from that species
and from one another by the
SKULL OF LEOPAED-SEAL. „ „ ., . . , ,,
form or their cheek-teeth.
The leopard -seal or, as it is often called, the sea-leopard is distinguished by
the great length of its skull, and by the cheek-teeth consisting of three large and
EARLESS SEALS. 143
distinct cusps. The middle and largest of these cusps has its tip slightly inclined
backwards, while the summits of the two smaller cusps are curved towards the
middle one. Adult males of this species attain a length of as much as 12 feet.
Moseley describes these animals as much resembling the common seal in coloration ;
the short and glossy fur being spotted yellowish white and dark grey on the
back, and the under-surface of a general yellowish colour. The females are
usually darker than the males, in which the ground-colour of the fur is often
of a silvery grey.
The leopard-seal has a wide distribution in the southern, temperate,
and Antarctic seas, having been recorded from the coasts of New
Zealand, Australia, and the adjacent islands, from the Falkland Islands,
Kerguelen Land, and the shores of Patagonia, and being also found on the
pack-ice in the Antarctic Ocean. It does not appear to be migratory, and is
sometimes found on the ice or on islands in considerable herds. In Kerguelen
Land it was still pretty common at the date of the visit of the Challenger, a herd
estimated at four hundred in number being reported on one of the small islands
adjacent.
The first of the remaining members of this group is the crab-
Crab-Eating Seal. fe
eating seal (Looodon carcinopriaga) ot the Antarctic Ucean. It
is of a nearly uniform olive colour above, with the sides of the face and the
under-parts yellowish white, and sometimes a few light-coloured spots on the
flanks. The cheek-teeth are even more complex than those of the leopard-seal,
having one cusp in front of the large main cusp, and from one to three distinct
cusps behind the latter. The claws are entirely wanting on the hind-feet.
Practically nothing is known of the habits of this species.
Weddell's seal (Leptonychotes weddelli) is another Antarctic
Weddell's Seal
species, distinguished by the teeth having simple conical and some-
what compressed crowns, without additional fore-and-aft cusps. It was originally
obtained from the Southern Orkneys, but has also been obtained from Patagonia
and the Antarctic pack-ice. The general colour is very similar to that of the
leopard-seal, being pale greyish above, spotted with yellowish white on the back,
and yellowish beneath. The jaw is weaker and the sockets of the eyes larger than
in the leopard-seal.
The last of these four southern species is Ross's seal (Omma-
Ross's Seal. . ...
tophoca rossi), long known by two skulls and a single skin obtained
from the Antarctic pack-ice during the voyage of the Erebus and Terror in the
years 1839-1843, and appropriately named after the commander of that expedition.
The fur is rough and coarse, with a general greenish yellow colour, marked with
oblique yellow stripes on the sides of the body and paler on the under-parts.
There are no claws on the hind-feet, and but very small ones in front. The
skull is characterised by the immense capacity of the sockets of the eyes, and
also by the small size of the teeth. The cheek-teeth have very small fore-and-aft
cusps.
One of the two known skulls of this seal is peculiar in that, while on one side
the first upper cheek-tooth and both the corresponding lower teeth are imperfectly
divided by a vertical groove, on the opposite side of the upper jaw the place of this
144
CARNIVORES.
tooth is taken by two complete simple teeth. Hence it is obvious that we have
here a case where an originally single tooth divides into two distinct but simpler
teeth. This may not at first sight seem a fact of much importance ; but in reality
it serves to show how the numerous simple teeth characteristic of the toothed
whales may have been derived by the splitting up of teeth originally composed of
three distinct cusps like those of the leopard-seal ; each cusp of such a tooth forming,
as we shall see, a distinct tooth in the whales.
THE CRESTED SEAL.
Genus Cystophora.
The remarkable-looking animal represented in the accompanying illustration,
and commonly known as the crested, hooded, or bladder-seal (Cystophora cristata), is
THE CRESTED SEAL (^ nat. size).
at once distinguished from all the other members of the family by the casque-like
prominence crowning the fore-part of the head. This seal, together with the
under-mentioned elephant-seal, differs from all the species yet noticed in having but
thirty teeth, owing to the reduction of the incisors to two pairs in the upper, and
to one pair in the lower jaw. In both the cheek-teeth are small and simple, with,
EARLESS SEALS. 145
in general, but a single root each ; and in the males of both the nose is furnished
with an appendage which can be inflated at will. Moreover, the first and fifth
toes of the hind-feet are considerably longer than the three middle ones, and are
furnished with long lobes projecting in advance of the rudimentary claws, or the
position which these should occupy.
In the crested seal the appendage on the nose takes the form of a large sac,
which is in communication with the nostrils, and when inflated covers the head as
far back as the eye ; but the female has no trace of this appendage, which does not
make its appearance in the male till a considerable time after birth. The hind-feet
of this species are provided with small claws ; and the last cheek-tooth generally
has two roots. The ground-colour of the fur is bluish black, becoming lighter on
the flanks and under-parts, and marked with small irregular whitish spots ; the
head and limbs being uniformly black. Sometimes, however, the ground-colour is
light greyish white, varied with dark brown or blackish spots. The woolly fur of
the newly -born young is pure white. In size, full-grown males of this seal
vary from 7| to 8 feet in total length ; females measuring about 7 feet. The
skull is very short and broad; and the bony partition dividing the nostrils
is produced above the level of their margin in order to support the sac. This
seal is restricted to the colder regions of the North Atlantic and certain
portions of the Arctic Sea; its range extending from Greenland eastwards to
Spitzbergen, and thence along the northern coast of Europe. Southwards these
seals are but seldom found below Norway on the one side, and Newfoundland
on the other.
. In habits the crested seal is essentially migratory and pelagic,
travelling south in winter, and always preferring the drift-ice of the
open sea to the neighbourhood of land ; indeed, it very seldom, if ever, resorts to
the shores or even to outlying rocks. Compared with the Greenland seal, the
present species is a comparatively rare one, and is nowhere met with in large
numbers, although apparently more numerous in the Gulf of St. Lawrence than in
most of its haunts. Although at times the sexes are said to live apart, they usually
associate together in family parties or small herds during the breeding-season,
previous to which the males engage in fierce contests for the possession of the
females. While these fights are going on, the males utter cries which may be
heard at the distance of several miles. The young are born on the ice, far away
from land, during March ; and in defence of their offspring both parents will lose
their own lives rather than escape by flight. In disposition the crested seal is
much fiercer and bolder than any of the other members of the family ; and it will
not unfrequently turn upon its aggressor, so that its pursuit in the frail kayaks, or
canoes, of the Eskimo is attended with a considerable share of danger, the pro-
tection afforded to the head by the inflated sac rendering the males difficult
to kill in the ordinary manner by means of clubs. What is the precise use
of the appendage in question has not yet been fully determined; but from its
presence in the males only it may be inferred to be a sexual feature analogous to
the antlers of the deer. It was estimated some years ago that the total number of
these seals annually killed in Greenland did not exceed 3000. In addition to fish,
the crested seal feeds largely upon cuttles and squids.
VOL. ii. — 10
146
CARNIVORES.
THE UPPER TEETH OP THE ELEPHANT-SEAL.
THE ELEPHANT-SEAL.
Genus Macrorhinus.
In the elephant-seal or sea-elephant (Macrorhinus leoninus) the appendage on
the nose of the male takes the form of a short proboscis, which, though generally
hanging in a limp condition, can be expanded and dilated at the will of its owner.
The end of this proboscis is obliquely truncated, and penetrated by the nostrils, and
the whole organ communicates a most peculiar and almost ridiculous physiognomy
to the animal. The female, however, resembles an ordinary seal in the form of the
head. The teeth (which are shown in the accompanying woodcut) are very
small in proportion to the size of
the head; those of the cheek-
series being of simpler structure
than in the crested seal, and each
inserted only by a single root. In
the hind-feet the claws are want-
ing, and their first and fifth toes
are longer in proportion to the
others than is the case with the
crested seal.
The elephant-seal is the largest
of all the pinnipeds, not even ex-
The two on the right are the incisors, the next the tusk, and eluding the walrus, adult males
the five small ones to the left the cheek-teeth.— After Sir W. , , • • •• ,, ,. £
H Flower attaining a length of from 15 to
16 feet to the end of the body,
or, reckoning from the tip of the trunk to the extremities of the outstretched
flippers, a length of 20 or 22 feet. When in good condition the girth of an old
male will be as much as 15 or 16 feet, while the yield of oil from such an animal
will reach 210 gallons. The females are much smaller, not exceeding 9 or 10 feet
in total length. The general colour of the coarse and short fur is grey, with a more
or less marked blackish or olive tinge, darker on the upper than on the under-
parts.
The typical elephant-seal formerly inhabited many of the islands
in the South Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, as well as those in
the Antarctic Sea ; some of its favourite haunts being Juan Fernandez, the Falk-
land Islands, Kerguelen Land, New Georgia, the South Shetlands, and Tristan
da Cunha. In such places, during the earlier portions of this century and in the
preceding one, these animals were met with in enormous herds, as described in the
accounts of the voyages of Cook, Peron, and Anson. Northwards the elephant-
seal reaches Patagonia, and extends some distance up the western coast of South
America, but how far does not seem to be clearly ascertained, although it certainly
stops short of the tropic of Capricorn. When, however, we have crossed the Equator
and reached some distance north of the tropic of Cancer, elephant-seals are, or were,
once more met with between latitude 25° and 35° on the coast of California. The
difference between the Antarctic and Calif ornian elephant -seals is very slight
Distribution.
EARLESS SEALS. 147
indeed ; and it appears that the chief reason that the American naturalists have
for regarding them as distinct species is their isolated habitats. It may be that
the area between these two habitats was once occupied by these seals, but the
suggestion that the Californian race took origin from a few individuals that
succeeded in crossing the tropical zone appears the more probable view, as it
seems difficult to believe that the same species should inhabit both the Antarctic
Ocean and the Equatorial seas. In any case, the Californian elephant-seal, whatever
its origin, and whether it be a distinct species or only a local race of its Antarctic
cousin, is, from a distributional point of view, of considerable interest, and its
extermination, which, if not actually accomplished, must be imminent, cannot fail
to be a source of regret.
In the southern seas the elephant-seals have long since been
practically exterminated from the Falkland Islands; and at the
time of the visit of the Challenger Moseley states that, while elephant-seals had
completely disappeared from Tristan da Cunha, they were still to be met with
in Marian Island, were comparatively numerous in Kerguelen Land, and on
the neighbouring Heard Island occurred in thousands. After mentioning an
encounter with a male on Kerguelen Island, when the animal assumed a
threatening attitude, and raised its tail nearly to the level of its head, as
depicted in Anson's voyage, Professor Moseley goes on to state that, on the more
exposed side of Heard Island, " there is an extensive beach, called Long Beach.
This is covered over with thousands of sea-elephants in the breeding-season, but it
is only accessible by land, and then only by crossing two glaciers. No boat can
live to land on this shore, consequently men are stationed on the beach, and live
there in huts ; and their duty is constantly to drive the sea-elephants from this
beach into the sea, which they do with whips made of the hide of the seals
themselves. The beasts thus ousted swim off, and often ' haul up,' as the term
is, upon the accessible beaches elsewhere. In very stormy weather, when they are
driven into the sea, they are forced to betake themselves to the sheltered side of
the island. Two or three old males, termed ' beach - masters,' hold a beach to
themselves and cover it with cows, but allow no other males to haul up. The
males fight furiously, and one man told me that he had seen an old male take up
a younger one in his teeth and throw him over, lifting him in the air. The males
show fight when whipped, and are with great difficulty driven into the sea. They
are sometimes treated with horrible barbarity. The females give birth to their
young soon after their arrival. The new-born young are almost black, unlike the
adults, which are of a light slate-brown. They are suckled by the female for some
time, and then left to themselves lying on the beach, where they seem to grow fat
without further feeding. They are always allowed by the sealers thus to lie, in
order to make more oil. This account was corroborated by all the sealers I met
with. I do not understand it. Probably the cows visit their offspring unobserved
from time to time. Peron says that both parent elephant-seals stay with the
young without feeding at all, until the young are six or seven weeks old, and that
then the old ones conduct the young to the water and keep them carefully in their
company. The rapid increase in weight is in accordance with Peron's account.
Goodridge gives a somewhat different account, namely, that after the females
148 CARNIVORES.
leave the young, the old males and young proceed inland, as far as two miles
sometimes, and stop without food for more than a month, and during this time
lose fat. The male sea-elephants come on shore on the Crozets for the breeding-
season at about the middle of August, the females a little later."
i
SEAL-HUNTING.
Although incidental mention has been made here and there of the annual
catch of various species of the true seals, nothing has yet been said as to the
various modes in which these animals are captured. The chief sealing districts,
or, as they are technically called, "sealing -grounds," in the Arctic and North
Atlantic oceans are West Greenland, the Newfoundland district, the Jan-Mayen
seas, Novaia Zemlia and the Kara Sea, the White Sea, and the Caspian. The
most important of these is the Jan-Mayen area, where, as in all the other districts
except the Caspian, the Greenland seal is the species mainly hunted. So incessant
and unremitting has been seal-hunting in the icy Jan-Mayen seas that the numbers
of these animals have been very sensibly diminished ; and as far back as 1871
attention was called to the necessity of some stringent regulations being applied
to the sealing trade. This was followed in 1876 by an enactment on the part of
the British Government establishing a close-time for seals, so far as their own
subjects were concerned ; and not long after similar action was taken by the other
governments interested.
The chief sealing-trade in the North Pacific was the capture of the elephant-
seals on the Californian coast — a trade which has of necessity come to an end by
the extermination of the object of pursuit. In the more southern seas the trade
was likewise confined to the capture of elephant-seals. From their great numerical
abundance and their large size, the pursuit of these animals was an extremely
lucrative occupation in the early years of this century. Now, however, as we have
seen, these seals are exterminated from most of their former haunts, and only
remain in any numbers on Kerguelen and Heard Islands, where they would also
long since have disappeared had it not been for the inaccessible nature of the
beaches they frequent. Consequently, the southern sealing-trade has now shrunk
to an inappreciable fraction of its former volume, although there is a prospect of
its being revived in the neighbourhood of the Antarctic pack-ice.
Of the various methods of capturing: seals in the northern seas
Harpooning.
notably the oldest is that of harpooning from canoes, or kayaks, as
now practised by the Eskimo. The kayak, which is made of skins, although
upwards of eighteen feet in length, is so light as to be easily carried in the hand.
In " sealing " the victim is approached within some twenty-five feet, when the harpoon
is hurled from a wooden "thrower." The harpoon, in addition to its line, is
furnished with a bladder attached by another cord, which marks the course of
the seal while below the water, and enables the hunter to follow its track and
wound it with his lance time after time as it comes to the surface to breathe,
until it is finally despatched. The lance, it should be observed, is thrown
from the hand, and, after striking the seal, always detaches itself and floats on the
surface.
SEALING, 149
A large number of seals are also captured in nets, this method
being chiefly employed during the spring and autumn visits of the
migratory species to the shore. Nets appear to have been in use longest in the
Gulf of Bothnia, the Caspian Sea, and Lake Baikal, where they are set either from
the shore or beneath the ice. In the Gulf of Bothnia such nets are from 60 to
90 feet in length, and about 6 feet in depth. Two of them are generally set
together in the neighbourhood of rocks to which the seals resort, and are always
placed to the leeward of the mainland or some headland. When they strike
against the nets, the seals thrust their heads through some of the meshes, and by
twisting themselves about gradually become completely involved. In the Caspian
Sea the nets are usually hung from boats at a considerable distance from the
shore. In Lake Baikal, on the other hand, the nets are let down through the
breathing-holes of the seals in the ice, and the animals become entangled on
rising.
The seal-box used in parts of Scandinavia is a contrivance with
a swinging plank, upon which, when the seal lands, it is precipitated
headlong into a deep pit. Another Scandinavian plan is to surround a seal-rock
with a line armed with a number of barbed hooks. These hooks allow the seals to
land with impunity; but when a number of the animals are on the rock, and
through a sudden fright rush headlong into the water, some of them are pretty
sure to be caught. A third method employed in the same country is to fix a
harpoon in a tube, with a spring-and-trigger arrangement, and to bury the whole
contrivance in a hole bored in a seal-rock in such a manner that when a seal
presses against the trigger the weapon will be discharged into its body.
A large number of seals are also shot on the shore with rifles ; and others fall
to the harpoon of the Eskimo, who either steals up to them while asleep, or awaits
their rising at a breathing-hole. When a large number of seals can be surprised
on shore at one of their favourite landing-places, clubbing is resorted to as the
most effectual and speedy means of despatch; and it is said that sometimes as
many as 15,000 have been killed in this manner in one night,
capture on ice- The above methods apply only to sealing on or near the shore ;
Floes. 1-^ for the capture of seals on the ice-floes at long distances from
land, vessels of some kind have to be specially equipped. In the Gulf of Bothnia
these expeditions are or were carried out in open boats, each manned by eight
sailors ; but in the Newfoundland and Jan-Mayen seas steamers of considerable
size are now employed. When the seals are found on the ice, they are killed in
the same way as on shore, that is, either by shooting, harpooning, or clubbing.
The most valuable product of the sealing industry is the oil,
which is used both for lighting and for lubricating machinery.
Writing in 1880 Mr. J. A. Allen states that the total annual quantity of seal-oil
then obtained reached close on 90,000 barrels. Next in value to the oil are the
skins, which are manufactured into leather of various sorts ; a large number being
used for lacquered leather. To the northern tribes seals are all important, furnish-
ing not only the greater part of their food, but likewise most of the materials from
which their boats and sledges are made, as well as their clothes and their hunting
implements.
150 CARNIVORES.
THE PRIMITIVE CARNIVORES.
No account of the Carnivores would be complete without some reference,
however brief, to a number of peculiar species occurring in the Miocene and
Eocene formations of Europe and America, which differ so remarkably from all
living terrestrial representatives of the order, as to render it imperative to refer
them to a totally distinct group. These extinct primitive, or, as they are techni-
cally called, Creodont Carnivores, differ from modern land Carnivores in the
absence of a distinct flesh-tooth in either jaw ; all the molar teeth of each jaw
being constructed on the same plan, and the whole of those in the lower jaw being
frequently like the single flesh-tooth of other Carnivores. As a rule, the crowns
of the upper molar teeth are triangular in form, and of the type noticed on p. 340
of the first volume. And whereas in all existing Carnivores the two bones in the
upper row of the wrist, technically known as the scaphoid and lunar, are com-
pletely welded together, in nearly all the Creodonts they remain quite distinct.
These and other characters indicate that these primitive Carnivores are a much
more generalised group than the modern land Carnivores, of which they may have
been the direct ancestors. Moreover, the teeth of many of these extinct forms are
so like those of the carnivorous Marsupials (although agreeing generally in number
with the modern carnivorous type, as exemplified by some of the dogs), that there
is considerable probability that in these animals we have a direct connecting link
between the Marsupials and the existing land Carnivores. The best known repre-
sentatives of this group in Europe have been described under the names of Hyceno-
don and Pterodon ; and while some of the species were no larger than a fox,
others attained dimensions nearly or fully equal to those of a brown bear. There
is little doubt that from some of these primitive Carnivores — and more especially
the North- American forms known as Miacis — the majority of the existing land
Carnivores are descended. It is noteworthy that an American and European genus
known as Palceonictis shows a remarkable gradation in the structure of its teeth
towards the cats, although it is rather difficult to believe that the cats are directly
derived from this primitive form.
CHAPTER XX.
THE UNGULATES, OR HOOFED MAMMALS, — Order UNGULATA.
THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.
Family
IF we except the bats, in which the outermost fingers of the wings are clawless,
and some of the seals and their allies, the whole of the Mammals described in
the preceding chapters are characterised by having the digits of both the fore
and hind-limbs provided either with claws or with thin nails. Moreover, in the
greater number of instances, the fore-limbs themselves are endowed to a larger
or smaller degree with the power of free movement in several directions ; these
movements being displayed to the fullest degree among the Primates, where the
hand can be rotated upon the fore-arm, although they are also well-developed in
the Cat family. Then, again, the number of digits in the great majority of these
animals is five on either one or both pairs of limbs, and in no instance is it less than
four. Further, the crowns of their cheek-teeth are never complicated by vertical
and lateral infoldings of the enamel, so as to produce when worn down an elaborate
pattern.
The Ungulate, or Hoofed Mammals, such as cattle, deer, camels, swine, horses,
tapirs, rhinoceroses, and elephants, of which we have now to treat, differ in many
important respects from the above. Thus, while no existing member of the order
has the feet provided with claws, in the great majority of cases the toes are
enclosed in solid hoofs, although in a few instances they are furnished with broad
and flat nails. Then, again, the movements of the fore-limbs are mainly or entirely
restricted to a backwards-and-forwards motion, and in no case can the fore-foot
be rotated on the fore-leg. Many extinct forms had five or four functional and
well-developed digits to the limbs, but in all living members of the order, except
the elephants, there are never more than four functional digits ; and in a large
number of instances these functional digits are reduced to two, or more rarely
three in number. Some species, like the giraffe, have, indeed, but two digits to
each foot, while in the horse and its living allies only a single digit remains.
Feet of It must not, however, be assumed from the last sentence that the
Ungulates, toes are gradually reduced from three to two, and from two to one ;
the fact really being that the reduction takes place along two different lines, in one
of which the number is diminished from four to two, and in the other from three
to one. As it is of primary importance, in order to understand the relationship of
existing Ungulates to one another, to have a clear idea of the manner in which this
reduction of the digits takes place, the subject may be dealt with in some detail
UNGULATES.
In all the Ungulates the limbs have entirely ceased to be used as organs of
prehension, and there would seem to be no necessity why there should be any
adherence to the primitive five-toed type, as development advances. The majority
of the members of the order being, however, unable to protect themselves against
foes, and being also, in proportion to their height, heavy-bodied animals, the attain-
ment of a high degree of speed was essential to their well-being and development,
if not for their actual existence. For such a kind of life it will be obvious that
the greater the length and slenderness of limb, the greater will at first sight be the
speed. Now, in order to produce a long and slender, and at the same time a strong
limb, from a stout and short-toed one, greater strength will clearly be attained by
reducing the number of the toes, and lengthening and strengthening those which
remain, rather than by lengthening the whole of the five
toes, the slender bones of which would be liable to fracture
by the concussion of the solid hoofs against the ground.
Accordingly, among the Ungulates, the plan has been to
gradually lengthen and strengthen the bones of one or more
of the original five toes, and at the same time to dispense
more or less completely with the others. In almost the
lowest Tertiary rocks of Europe and North America there
occur, for instance, the remains of certain large Ungulates,
known as coryphodons, in which both the fore and hind-feet
(as represented in the accompanying figure) have five com-
plete toes. It will be observed that both the metacarpal
bones and the toe bones by which they are succeeded are very
short ; and these animals must accordingly have walked to a
certain extent upon the soles of their feet in the old-fashioned
plantigrade manner.1 It will also be noticed that the third
or middle toe (in) is larger than either of the others, and symmetrical in itself.
Another feature of this type of foot is that the component bones forming the two
horizontal rows of the wrist are placed almost verti-
cally one above another, the bone lettered I merely
touching the adjacent angle of the one marked u.
When we ascend to the overlying Miocene
Tertiary deposits we meet with other large
Ungulates having a foot of the type of that
shown in our second figure, where it will be
noticed that while all trace of the first toe (i) has
disappeared, the metacarpal bones of all the others
have become very much more elongated, in con-
sequence of which the animal no longer walked
BONES OF THE LEFT WRIST AND FOOT OF UpOn the soles of its feet, but entirely upon the
THE TITANOTHERE (4 nat. size). — After . ,, •> v •,• j ^^. 'n
Osborn- toes, or was, in other words, digitigrade. It will
also be observed that the third toe has become
still larger in proportion to the others. Moreover, the upper row of wrist-bones
1 As a matter of fact, the coryphodon was partially digitigrade in its fore-feet, but entirely plantigrade in the
hinder ones.
BONES OF THE LEFT WRIST
AND FORE-FOOT OF THE
CORYPHODON (£ nat. size).
The letters indicate the
bones of the wrist (cuneiform,
lunar scaphoid, trapezium,
trapezoid, magnum, unciform),
and the numerals those of the
metacarpxis. — After Osborn.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.
153
A THREE -TOED
HORSE -LIKE
ANIMAL.
appears to have been slided over those of the lower row towards the fifth toe, so
that the bone marked I largely overlaps the one lettered n ; and it will be obvious
that this interlocking of the bones of the wrist produces a joint much more capable
of resisting strain than is that of the coryphodon. The hind-foot of the titanothere,
as the extinct Ungulate we are now considering is called, exhibits a still further
advance, having lost the fifth as well as the first toe, and thus being three-toed.
The living tapirs are in a precisely similar condition, being four-
toed in front and three-toed behind ; but the rhinoceroses have
advanced one step still further, having but three toes both in front
and behind.
In the foot of the titanothere, while the bones of the meta-
carpus have become longer than in the coryphodon, the toe-bones
still remain as short as in the latter ; and the same is the case
with the rhinoceroses. All these are, indeed, bulky animals, fitted
for dwelling in swampy localities, and not specially adapted for
speed. In another group, however, as shown in our third figure, LEFT FORE-FOOT OF
the toe-bones themselves have become elongated, while the meta-
carpal bones are still longer and more slender. In the feet repre-
sented in our third and fourth figures the middle or third toe is
very much larger than either of the others; but whereas in the
one the fifth toe still remains, in the other it is represented only
by a rudiment of the upper end of its metacarpal bone. This
type of foot leads on to that of the extinct three-toed horse, or
hipparion, of the Pliocene Tertiary, shown in our fifth figure, where
the two side-toes have become still smaller, and the last trace of
the fifth has disappeared. Finally, at the very top of the geological
series, we have the horse, where the only remaining toe is the third,
now very large; the metacarpal bones of the second and fourth
toes being represented solely by the small splints on either side of BONES OF THE LEFT
the large metacarpal, now known as the cannon-bone.
A complete transition has thus been traced from a five-toed
Ungulate, walking partly on the soles of its feet, to one provided
with but a single toe to each foot, and walking entirely upon the
very tip of that one toe, by which means the full extent of the
limb comes into play as an aid to speed. Throughout this series it
is the third or middle toe which has undergone development at the
expense of the others; and since this toe is always symmetrical
in itself, the term Odd-Toed Ungulates is applied to the members
of the group thus characterised.
Odd-Toed and The resources of nature are, however, manifold,
Even-Toed and instead of this being the only line of evolution of
the Ungulates, nearly similar results have been reached
by a totally different series of modifications. Starting once more
from a foot somewhat similar to the one represented in the first
figure of this chapter, it will be found that instead of the third toe remaining
symmetrical in itself and gradually increasing in size at the expense of the others,
FORE-FOOT OF
A FOUR -TOED
HORSE-LIKE
ANIMAL.
LEFT FORE-FOOT OF
THE HIPPARION.
154
UNGULATES.
O
BONES OF FORE-
the third and fourth toes become symmetrical to a vertical line drawn between
them. When this takes place the first toe disappears, and the second and fifth
become diminished in size ; an instance of this stage of development being presented
by the pig, where the two large and medially - symmetrical toes
represent the third and fourth of the typical series, while the
two small lateral ones are the second and fifth. In the pigs 1
all the metacarpal bones remain distinct and relatively short ; but
in the water -chevrotain1 of Africa the third and fourth meta-
carpals become much elongated and closely applied to one another,
while the second and fifth are reduced to mere splints, and their
toes so diminished as to become practically functionless. Finally,
in the deer, oxen, and their allies, the third and fourth metacarpals
in the fore-limb, and the corresponding metatarsal bones in the
hind-limb, have become completely fused into a single rod-like bone,
FOOT OF HORSE, corresponding in function with the cannon-bone of the horse, and
generally known by the same name. The dual origin of this
cannon-bone is, however, proclaimed by the formation of its lower extremity,
which carries two pulley-like surfaces, with which the bones of the two functional
toes (the third and fourth) articulate.
Since all the Ungulates displaying this second modi-
fication of foot-structure agree in having the third and
fourth toes arranged symmetrically to a line drawn
between them, they are collectively termed the Even-
Toed Ungulates.
It is accordingly evident that although a few living
Ungulates, like the elephant and the hyrax, retain a
generalised type of foot, the greater number of the
living representatives of the order are characterised by
their more or less markedly specialised feet.
As regards their teeth, the Ungulates
are characterised by those of the cheek-
series having broad crowns, surmounted either by columns
or transverse ridges, and adapted for grinding and
masticating vegetable substances. In the more specialised
forms, like cattle and horses, these cheek-teeth have their
columns or ridges of great height and closely approxi-
mated to one another, in consequence of which the bases
of the hollows, or valleys by which these columns or
ridges are separated from one another, cannot be seen
when the tooth is unworn ; while the pattern produced
on the crown by the wearing down of these columns or
ridges is complex. On the other hand, in the more
primitive types, such as pigs and tapirs, the crowns of the
BONES OF THE FORE AND HIND- cheek-teeth have low columns, or ridges, so that the bases
FEET OF AN EXTINCT DEER. - ". .. ,, 11
—After Osborn. of the intervening valleys can be distinctly seen at all
1 Figures of the bones of the feet of these animals are given under their respective headings.
Teeth.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.
155
A LEFT UPPER MOLAR TOOTH OF THE NILGAI,
SEEN FROM THE INNER AND OUTER
SIDES.
stages of wear. This will be apparent from a comparison of the accompanying
figures, the first of which shows a tall-crowned tooth viewed from the inner and
outer sides, while the second shows a short-crowned tooth seen directly from above.
In the former the valleys between the four
crescent - shaped columns form deep pits,
penetrating the whole extent of the crown
of the tooth, while in the latter they are mere
shallow channels. It will be found that while
all the earlier Ungulates have short-crowned
cheek-teeth, the greater number of living
species have high-crowned ones ; and it will
also be observed later on that the develop-
ment of high-crowned teeth has taken place
independently in each of the four great groups
into which existing Ungulates are divided.
It should also be mentioned that whereas in
Carnivores the upper molar teeth are gener-
ally of the primitive triangular type, in all
existing Ungulates they have assumed the
quadrangular form. The food of the Ungulates consisting in most cases entirely
of vegetable substances requiring much mastication, is the inducing cause for the
complex structure of the cheek-teeth in the more specialised kinds ; and to the same
cause may be attributed the circumstance that Ungulates always retain the full
number of molar teeth, and, except in the camels, at least three out of the typical
four premolars. In this respect they are in marked contrast to the Carnivores, in
which, as we have seen, there is a great tendency to a reduction
in the number of the molar teeth, only one living member of
the order (the long-eared fox) having the typical three molar
teeth in the upper jaw. On the other hand, among the more
specialised representatives of the order, there is a decided tend-
ency to the reduction, either in size or number, of the front
teeth ; the tusks being very frequently small or absent, while
the whole of the incisor teeth, and sometimes the canines also,
in the upper jaw, and more rarely both incisors and canines
in the upper and lower jaws, may be wanting. All the earlier
Ungulates, as well as the modern pigs, have, however, well-
developed tusks, as well as the full number of front teeth;
and it is thus apparent that in this respect also the result of specialisation has
been the reverse of that in the Carnivores, where the tusks have obtained
extreme development, and the full typical number of incisor teeth is very
generally retained. In both cases these distinctions are due to the differ-
ence in the nature of the food and habits of the two groups of animals. In
addition to these characters of their feet and teeth, the Ungulates of
the present day are characterised by the total absence of collar-bones or
clavicles in the adult condition, although traces of these may occur in the foetal
state.
A RIGHT UPPER MOLAR
TOOTH OF THE EX-
TINCT MERYCOPO-
TAMUS, VIEWED
FROM ABOVE.
iS6 UNGULATES.
Definition of Having said thus much, it may be well to endeavour to briefly
Ungulates, summarise the chief characteristics by which the existing members
of the Ungulate order may be distinguished collectively from those of the other
groups of Mammals.
In the first place, all Ungulates are adapted for a life on land ; while, with the
exception of some species of hyrax, none of them are arboreal. Then, whereas
some of the more generalised forms are omnivorous, all the more specialised kinds
are strictly vegetable feeders. In all cases the cheek-teeth have broad crowns,
furnished with columns or ridges of greater or less complexity; and there are
never less than three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw. Collar-bones are in-
variably absent ; and the limbs are, as a rule, restricted entirely to a backward-
and-forward motion, there being in no case any power of rotating the fore -foot or
the fore-leg. The upper end of the radius, or smaller bone of the fore-limb, instead
of being rounded, is accordingly elongated transversely in the typical Ungulates.
The terminal joints of the toes are generally invested in solid horny hoofs, although
in some cases furnished with broad and blunt nails, but never with claws. More-
over, the number of toes is but very rarely five, and may be reduced to three, two, or
one ; while in a large number of instances, where four toes are present, only a
single pair are of any functional importance.
When, however, we have to take fossil species into consideration many of
these characteristic features will not hold good ; certain extinct Mammals, which it
is very difficult to separate satisfactorily from the Ungulates, having either collar-
bones, or claws, or perhaps both together. In others, again, the upper molar teeth,
instead of having square crowns, show the triangular shape found in many Carni-
vores. Indeed, strange though it may seem, the connection between the early
Carnivores and the early Ungulates is so close that it is frequently a matter of
some difficulty to determine to which group an extinct form should be referred ;
and it is highly probable that the Ungulates are really a side-branch, descended
from the same stock which gave rise to the Carnivores. This difficulty, or rather
impossibility, of defining groups of animals, when we have to take into con-
sideration their extinct relatives, is merely what must of necessity be the case if
the doctrine of evolution be the true explanation of their mutual relationship.
As a rule, existing Ungulates are characterised by their relatively
large size ; and among the order are included the most bulky of all
land mammals. There is, however, a great variation in point of size among the
order ; the smallest forms being the pigmy hog, the royal antelope, the chevrotains,
and the hyrax ; while the largest are the elephants, the hippopotamus, the rhino-
ceroses, and the giraffe.
A frequent, although by no means general peculiarity of the
Ungulates is the tendency to the development of horns of some kind
or other on the head ; the nature of these horns, as we shall show later on, varying
greatly in the different groups.
. . The order is well represented on all the continents of the globe,
Distribution. . „
with the exception of Australia, but at the present day it has a tar
larger number of species in the Old World than in the New ; many of those from
the former area belonging to groups quite unknown in the latter. Although repre-
HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS. 157
sented in the Arctic regions only by the reindeer and the musk-ox, Ungulates are
found alike in the coldest and the hottest regions of the globe. The maximum
number of peculiar forms, as well as those of greatest corporeal bulk, are, however,
inhabitants of the tropical and subtropical regions ; and it is also in the warmer
regions that the greatest number of species occur. As regards the number of
individuals of particular species, many Ungulates far exceed any other of the
larger mammals ; this being especially the case with the bisons, that but a few
years ago roamed in countless thousands over the prairies of North America, and
with the myriad hosts of springboks in the South African veldt. Through the
advance of civilisation and the incessant persecution of both the sportsman and
the trader, these wonderful instances of the profusion of animal life have, however,
been swept away for ever.
Not only are the Ungulates widely distributed in longitude and latitude, but
they are also found at all elevations suitable for the existence of animal life ; some
of the wild sheep of the Himalaya ranging to elevations of fully twenty thousand feet
above the level of the sea. In time the order is an ancient one, being represented
in the earliest stages of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period, although
the species were mostly small, and in all cases widely different from any now
living.
THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.
Family
Unfortunately we have no concise English term to designate collectively the
animals commonly known as oxen, sheep, goats, and antelopes, and we are hence
compelled to allude to them by the periphrasis of the hollow-horned Ruminants,
unless we prefer to call them by their scientific title, Bovidce. This is the more to
be regretted, since the term hollow-horned Ruminants will likewise include the
American prongbuck, which is the representative of a family by itself.
Taking, then, the term hollow-horned Ruminants, for want of a better, to
designate the animals mentioned above, we have in this family our first representa-
tive of the Ungulate order. But before entering into the consideration of the
especial characteristics of this family, it is necessary to point out those distinctive
of the great group of even-toed Ungulates, under which title are included not only
the hollow-horned Ruminants, but likewise deer, camels, swine, and many other
living and extinct types.
Even-Toed It has been already mentioned that the even-toed Ungulates (or
Ungulates. Artiodactyles, as they are technically termed), are distinguished by
the third and fourth toes being almost equally developed, and arranged symmetri-
cally on either side of a vertical line drawn between them ; this line being con-
tinued upwards to the wrist or ankle, and the metacarpal and metatarsal bones
similarly arranged in respect to it. As a consequence of this it results that in the
typical members of the group the hoofs are of the so-called " cloven " type. This
character is alone sufficient to distinguish all the members of the group ; but there
are a few others which it is advisable to mention. One of these characters is
afforded by the cheek-teeth, in which the molars are almost always more complex
'58
UNGULATES.
THE FIRST MOLAR AND THE THREE
PREMOLAR TEETH OF THE RIGHT
SIDE OF THE UPPER JAW OF THE
FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE.
than the premolars. This is shown in the accompanying figure, where the first of
the three upper molar teeth is shown on the left side, and is seen to consist of two
lobes, while the adjacent premolar has but a single lobe. Another feature connected
with the teeth is exhibited by the last molar in the
lower jaw, which almost invariably consists of three
lobes ; whereas in the living representative of the
odd-toed Ungulates it has only two lobes. In their
single - lobed upper premolar teeth the even-toed
Ungulates show a retention of the primitive triangular
type of tooth, which has been lost in the molar teeth.
Then again the thigh-bone, or femur, in all the
members of the present group is characterised by the absence of any projecting
process on the hinder surface of the shaft.
There are other less obvious distinctive features of the even-toed Ungulates,
but the above are sufficient for our present purpose. It must be added, however,
that both in this group and in the odd-toed Ungulates there are never more than
four toes to each foot ; and that all the members of both groups walk on their toes
alone.
We are now in a position to consider somewhat more closely the
characters of the hollow - horned Ruminants, but we have still to
notice that these, together with the giraffe, the prongbuck, and the deer, form a
Ruminants.
SKELETON OF THE EUROPEAN BISON.
group distinguished from all the other even-toed Ungulates by certain important
characters. In all the members of this assemblage of four families there are no
front (or incisor) teeth in the upper jaw; and the upper tusks or canines are
HOLL O W- HORNED R UMINANTS.
'59
generally small or absent. In the lower jaw, on the other hand, all the incisor
teeth are present, while the canine tooth on each side is in immediate contact with
the outermost incisor ; and since all the three pairs of incisors and the single pair
of canines have nearly similar spatulate crowns, they appear to form a single series
of four pairs of teeth. This may be easily verified by examining the lower jaw of
a sheep or an ox. The six cheek-teeth on either side of both jaws are placed close
together ; those of the lower jaw being separated by a long space from the four
pairs of spatulate teeth. In the fore-feet the third and fourth metacarpal bones,
and in the hind-feet
the metatarsal bones,
are respectively fused
into single "cannon-
bones," as shown in
the two figures given
on p. 154; while the
two lateral pairs of
toes are always small
and rudimentary, and
may be completely
absent ; the toes them-
selves being encased
in complete hoofs.
Another peculiarity of
this group is that the
stomach is divided into
four complete cavities,
into the first of which
the food is temporarily
received, until it is
regurgitated into the
mouth, when it is
completely masticated,
and afterwards con-
veyed to the true
digesting stomach.
This process is known as the function of " chewing-the-cud," or ruminating ; and
the Ungulates in which it occurs are consequently termed Ruminants. The rumin-
ating function is, however, developed in the camels and chevrotains, as well as in
the assemblage of four families constituting the present group ; but as the camels
and chevrotains differ in several important respects, it is convenient to designate
the group under consideration as the true Ruminants, or technically, the Pecora.
It has yet to be mentioned that all the ruminating even- toed Ungulates are
characterised by the peculiar structure of their cheek-teeth. It will be observed
from the figure of the upper molar tooth of the nilgai given on p. 155, and also
from that of the four-horned antelope on p. 158, that these teeth consist of four
distinct columns, of which the innermost pair are crescent-shaped, with the horns
SKULL OF SWAYNE'S HARTEBEEST, TO SHOW HORNS.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1892.)
160 UNGULATES.
of the crescents turned outwardly. In the lower jaw the molars are narrower, and
with a reverse structure ; that is to say, the crescents are on the outer side of the
tooth, with their horns turned inwardly. Accordingly the name of crescent-toothed
(selenodont) Ungulates is applied to all the ruminating members of the group.
It is important to observe that the true Ruminants are alone characterised
by the whole of the four under-mentioned features, viz. no front teeth in the
upper jaw, a four-chambered stomach, complete cannon-bones, and the feet encased
in hoofs. Moreover, it is only in the members of this group that horns are ever
met with ; these appendages being always arranged as a symmetrical pair (occasion-
ally two pairs) on either side of the middle line of the skull.
Hollow-Horned The hollow-horned Ruminants, or Bovidcu, are distinguished from
Ruminants, their allies by the presence of true horns ; that is to say, of hollow
and unbranched sheaths of horn growing upon bony protuberances, or cores, arising
from the frontal bones of the skull, as shown in the figure on p. 159 ; neither
the horny sheaths nor the bony cores being shed at any period of existence. In
all existing wild species these horns are present at least in the male sex ; but in
many domesticated races of cattle, sheep, and goats, they are absent in both sexes ;
and the same holds good for certain extinct members of the family. Usually the
molar teeth of the hollow-horned Ruminants are characterised by the great relative
height of their crowns, as shown in the figures of the molar teeth of the nilgai
given on p. 155 ; and in all cases there is no tusk or canine tooth in the upper jaw.
In some few instances the small lateral toes may be completely absent, but they are
generally represented merely by the small spurious hooflets alone, which may be
supported internally by minute and irregularly -shaped nodules of bone.
The hollow-horned Ruminants are chiefly Old World forms, although they are
represented in North America by the musk-ox, the American bison, the Rocky
Mountain goat, and the bighorn sheep. They are quite unknown in the southern
half of the New World.
THE OXEN.
Genus Bos.
The oxen include the largest and most massively-formed members of the
hollow-horned Ruminants, and comprise not only the animals thus commonly
designated, but likewise the bisons, yak, and buffaloes. As a rule, they are large
and heavily -built animals, with very short and thick necks, and the massive and
relatively short head carried nearly in the line of the back ; the males generally
being provided with a large dewlap, running along the throat from the chin to
between the fore-legs. The tail is always long, and is generally thinly haired
throughout the greater part of its length and tufted at the extremity, but in the
yak it is thickly haired throughout. The muzzle is broad, naked, and moist ; and
there are never any " tear-pits " or glands below the eye, which are so frequently
present in the antelopes; and in consequence of the absence of these tear-pits
there are no depressions in the skull immediately below the eyes for their recep-
tion. The horns, which are present in both sexes and of nearly equal dimensions
in both, may be either cylindrical or more or less markedly angulated ; and are
OXEN. 161
usually situated in the immediate neighbourhood of, or actually upon, the summit of
the skull, whence they generally sweep in a more or less outward direction, and then
curve upwards, and sometimes inwards, at their extremities. They are never
spirally twisted, or ornamented with prominent transverse knots or wrinkles. If
the horn-cores be cut through, they will be found to be completely honeycombed
by a number of irregular cavities of large size. The upper molar teeth are very
tall and broad, and are provided with an additional column on the inner side, as
shown in the figure of the tooth of the nilgai on p. 155.
With the exception of the American bison, the whole of the
existing species of oxen are confined to the Old World, where by far
the greater number of species are continental. There is, however, one species, of
smaller size than any of the rest, confined to the island of Celebes ; and another
which may, however, have been introduced, in the Philippines. Domesticated races
are spread over nearly all the globe. The wild species inhabit either open grassy
plains or dense forest, while one of them is confined to the higher regions of the
Himalaya and Tibet. All of them live in herds of larger or smaller size, which are
protected by the bulls ; the number of individuals in these herds being in some
cases reckoned by thousands, only the old bulls becoming solitary in their
habits.
All cattle can swim readily, and some species will cross rivers of
considerable breadth without the slightest hesitation. They are
remarkable for their strength and endurance ; and as beasts of draught oxen are
superior to horses for dragging heavy vehicles through soft and yielding ground.
The usual pace of these animals is a walk, but when excited they break into a
heavy and awkward gallop. Their senses of smell and hearing are acute, but their
sight does not appear to be particularly keen. Their food may consist either of
leaves and the tender shoots of trees, grass, mosses, or various kinds of marsh and
water-plants ; and all the species display a marked partiality for salt.
Usually but one calf is produced at a birth, but there may be occasionally two.
As is the case with other Ruminants, the calf is born in a highly-developed state,
and is soon able to run by the side of its parent.
In most of their structural peculiarities the oxen appear to be
Specialisation.
among the most highly specialised of all the hollow-horned Rumi-
nants ; and this is confirmed by the lateness of their appearance in the geological
series, the group being quite unknown before the Pliocene period, and attaining its
maximum development in the Pleistocene and present epochs. Probably the origin
of the group may be traced to Ruminants more or less closely allied to the antelopes ;
and it is noteworthy that in some of the extinct species horns were present only in
the male sex.
THE AUROCHS AND DOMESTIC OXEN (Bos taurus).
The aurochs, or ancient wild ox of Europe, although now quite extinct as a
wild species, is doubtless still represented by the half-wild cattle of some of the
British parks ; although the confined areas in which they live have caused them to
degenerate sadly in size from their wild ancestors. Moreover, although there may
VOL. II. — II
l62
UNGULATES.
have been a certain amount of crossing with other species, the origin of our
domestic cattle is certainly to be traced back to the same wild ancestor.
The aurochs and the half- wild and domesticated cattle of Europe are charac-
terised by their horns being circular in section and placed at the very summit of
the skull immediately over the occiput, as shown in the accompanying woodcut.
Where they first arise from the skull the horns have their upper border convex ;
and the forehead of the skull is flat or slightly concave, and much longer than
broad, so that the sockets
of the eyes are separated
by a long interval from
the bases of the horns.
The tail is of great length.
The spines of the verte-
brae of the withers are not
greatly elongated, and thus
do not form a distinct ridge
in this region of the body.
That the wild aurochs
was an animal of huge
bulk is proved by the
nat. size).— After Owen. skulls and bones found in
the turbaries, fens, and
brick-earths of England and the continent. In the skull figured in the woodcut
the bony cores of the horns have a span of upwards of 42 inches from tip to tip,
and when these were covered with their horny sheaths the whole could not have
fallen short of 50 inches. This specimen was obtained from a turbary — that is a
peat-bog — near Athol ; but some of the skulls found in the brick-earths at Ilford,
in Essex, are of considerably larger dimensions, although from the more forward
direction of their horns the span between their tips is somewhat less.
Distribution and The aurochs was pursued and killed by the prehistoric hunters
Extinction. of Europe, as we know from the circumstance that skulls have been
found with the forehead pierced by flint hatchets. The date from which it
disappeared from Britain is, however, uncertain, although it probably lingered
longer in a wild state in Scotland than in the southern districts of England. On
the continent there is evidence that in Julius Ca?sar's time the aurochs, or urus,
was abundant in the Hercynian, or Black, Forest of Germany. Old chronicles also
prove that in the middle of the sixth century these animals were found, although
rarely, in the province of Maine ; while there is evidence that some of them at
least were white in colour. In the ninth century Charlemagne hunted the aurochs
in the forests near Aix-la-Chapelle ; while at the close of the following century we
find the flesh of these animals alluded to in the rolls of an abbey in Switzerland.
The aurochs was met with during the route taken through Germany by the first
crusade, in the eleventh century ; and that it still lingered in the neighbourhood of
Worms during the twelfth century is indicated by the mention of the slaughter of
four individuals in the Nibelungen-Lied. The accounts of conflicts with gigantic
wild oxen, so rife in classic literature, doubtless refer to the aurochs ; and thus
SKULL OF THE AUROCHS (about
OXEN, 163
indicate that the range of the animal extended as far southwards as Greece. Bones
of the aurochs have been obtained from England and Scotland, but are unknown
in Ireland. On the continent they occur in France, Switzerland, Italy, Scandinavia,
Germany, and Austria ; while it may be taken as certain that the species roamed
over Russia, although its exact eastern and northern limits are not ascertained.
Southwards the aurochs ranged as far as Algeria.
The mention of a white aurochs, which may, however, have been a tamed
individual, in one of the chronicles referred to above, coupled with the coloration
of the Chillingham cattle, renders it probable that the colour of the aurochs was
white, more or less mingled with dun and red ; this inference being confirmed by
the prevalence of these colours in so many of our domestic breeds of cattle.
It is probable that the aurochs was the direct ancestor of our
largest breeds of domestic cattle. At a very early period (although
later than the epoch of the brick-earths, when the aurochs first existed) the in-
habitants of Europe had succeeded in domesticating a small variety of ox, known
as the long-fronted ox (Bos longifrons), from which it is considered probable that
the small Welsh and Highland breeds of cattle are descended. If, however, we are
right in our view that the whole of the cattle of Europe belong to one species, it is
evident that the long-fronted ox itself must likewise have been originally derived
from the aurochs.
Having said thus much as to the extinct wild cattle of Europe,
Park-Cattle.
we proceed to notice the half -wild races preserved in certain English
and Scottish parks, after which we shall pass on to the consideration of the chief
domestic breeds. It may be premised that while several of the former are probably
much closer to the aurochs than are any of the latter, there seems but little
doubt that in all cases these half-wild cattle are descended from more or less
completely domesticated early breeds, and are not directly derived from the wild
aurochs. The British park-cattle, when pure bred, are white in colour, with the
exception of the ears and muzzle, and sometimes the front of the legs, which may be
either red or black ; the horns being wThite with black tips. In size these cattle are
small ; but their proportions are well-nigh perfect, their heads being small, their
backs straight, and their legs short. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, herds of
these cattle were formerly kept at all of the following parks, viz., Auchencruive
(in Ayrshire), Barnard Castle (Durham), Bishop Auckland (Durham), Blair Athol
(Perthshire), Burton Constable (Yorkshire), Cadzow Castle (Lanarkshire), Chartley
Park (Staffordshire), Chillingham Castle (Northumberland), Ewelme Park (Oxford-
shire), Gisburne Park (Yorkshire), Hoghton Tower (Lancashire), Holdenby Park
(Northamptonshire), Kilmory House (Argyleshire), Leigh Court (Somersetshire),
Lyme Park (Cheshire), Middleton Park (Lancashire), Naworth Castle (Cumber-
land), Somerford Park (Cheshire), Whalley Abbey (Lancashire), and Wollaton
Park (Nottinghamshire). Of these numerous herds the only ones now remaining
are those at Cadzow, Chartley, Chillingham, Kilmory, Lyme, and Somerford.
Chillingham The best known of all is the famous Chillingham herd. There is
Cattle. some doubt as to the date of the enclosure of Chillingham Park,
which, however, very probably took place early in the thirteenth century; and
there is undoubted evidence of the existence of the herd rather more than two
1 64 UNGULATES.
hundred years ago. The Chillingham cattle are small, with moderately rough and
curly hair, and short upwardly-directed horns. At the present day the insides of
the ears and the muzzles are red; but it appears that in 1692 black ears were
more numerous than red, and that the present coloration has been produced by
selection. Mr. J. Hindmarsh, writing in the year 1838, states that the Chillingham
cattle "have pre-eminently all the characteristics of wild animals, with some
peculiarities which are very curious and amusing. They hide their young, feed in
the night, basking or sleeping during the day ; they are fierce when pressed, but
generally speaking very timorous, moving off on the appearance of anyone, even
at a great distance." The following statement of the numbers of the Chillingham
herd at different periods is compiled by Mr. Harting from numerous accounts which
have from time to time appeared. " In 1869, according to the steward's account,
the herd consisted of only 14 breeding animals, bulls, and cows, and calves of both
sexes, and 12 steers; in all 28. In 1838, according to Mr. Hindmarsh, there were
about 80, comprising 25 bulls, 40 cows, and 15 steers of various ages. In May
1861, Mr. Darwin was informed by the agent that they numbered about 50. This
was about the number we saw when visiting the park in May 1863. In August
1873 the herd consisted of 64 head, 17 bulls of all ages from calves upwards, 19
steers, and 28 cows, heifers, and female calves. In October 1874, according to Lord
Tankerville (the owner), the herd numbered 71. In March 1875 the number had
again decreased, amounting to 62 only, viz., 14 bulls and bull calves, 31 cows, and
cow-calves, and 17 steers. In July 1877 there were still fewer — 51 only — consist-
ing of 8 bulls, 27 cows and heifers, and 16 steers. Lord Tankerville says they
increase slowly, several dying each year by accidents or by overrunning their
calves when disturbed ; and the cows breed slowly, owing to having frequently the
calves still sucking in the second year."
The Cadzow cattle, belonging to the Duke of Hamilton, of which
Cadzow Cattle. . ? e m,-n- \,
a group is represented in our illustration, differ from the Chillingham
breed in having the ears and muzzles black, while there is also a greater or smaller
amount of black on the front of the fore-legs. Their heads are also more rounded,
and their limbs stouter ; and very generally the cows are devoid of horns. This
herd is a very ancient one, and in 1874 numbered forty-five head, which in 1877
had increased to fifty-six.
Very different in appearance to either of the above are the
Chartley cattle, the property of Earl Ferrers. It is known that these
cattle are the direct descendants of the wild cattle which roamed at large in the
forest of Need wood at the date of the enclosure of Chartley Park in 1248. In this
breed the ears are black, and the horns are longer and directed much more out-
wardly than in the Chillingham breed, resembling in these respects much more
closely those of our domestic "long horns." In 1877 this herd comprised only
twenty individuals.
The Kilmory breed is derived from the one which formerly existed
Other Herds.
at Blair Athol. The Lyme Park breed is interesting as being of
larger size than any of the others. The hair is remarkable for its length and
curliness, more especially on the shoulders ; the ears are generally red, although
occasionally black or bluish black ; and Mr. Harting describes the horns as inter-
OXEN.
167
mediate between those of the Chillingham and Chartley breeds. In 1875 this herd
was reduced to four individuals, but had increased in 1877 to six, although one of
the four cows was parti-coloured.
Of the breed at Somerford Park, situated in the heart of what was formerly
Maxwell Forest, Mr. Harting writes that " an ancient herd of white cattle, resembling
those at Chartley, but polled, still exists here ; and these animals are considered to
be the best surviving representatives of the hornless and tame variety of the
original wild white breed. The colour is pure white ; the ears, rims of the eyes,
muzzle, and hoofs being quite black. Like all other herds of the forest breed they
have a strong tendency to produce small black spots on the neck, sides, and legs."
^g^rS^^^^^i^^-^^Er
DURHAM SHORTHORN (^ nat. size).
It may be added that all these various herds of white cattle are doubtless
derived from the half-wild cattle which, as we learn from the writings of Fitz-
Stephen, dating from about the year 1174, were common in the forests around
London, and probably therefore in other parts of England. When the various
parks were enclosed a certain number of these cattle were driven in, and the herds
thus obtained have been preserved with more or less care by their subsequent
owners.
Our notice of the domestic breeds of European cattle will be brief, and chiefly
confined to those met with in the British Islands.
First of all wre have the small Shetland cattle, inhabiting the
islands from which they take their name, but also extending to the
Orkneys and Iceland. These cattle, although of small size, are esteemed on account
Shetland Cattle. .
!68 UNGULATES.
of their milk -yielding qualities, and the readiness with which they fatten. The}*
have short horns, and are generally parti-coloured, with lighter shades of colour
than the Highland breeds.
The well-known Highland cattle, of which there are several
Highland Breed. . & .
strains, are characterised by their small size, the presence or horns,
directed more or less upwardly, in both sexes, their short and sturdy limbs, and
their rough and generally uniformly-coloured coats, which are greatly developed in
the region of the neck. Generally the muzzle is black ; but the colour of the hair
may be either black or brown, or a mixture of these two, and sometimes of mouse-
dun. These cattle are remarkable for their hardy habits, and vary in size accord-
ing to the nature of the pasture of their native districts. Although far from good
milkers, when brought down to the rich pastures of England they fatten readily.
The West Highland breed is the finest, that of the Central Highlands the
smallest, and that of the eastern coasts near the Lowlands the largest.
The Welsh cattle are best known by the Pembroke breed, and
Welsh Breed
are generally of rather larger size than the Highland races, with
yellow or orange -coloured unctuous skins ; the hair being generally black. They
are quite as hardy as the Highland cattle, and will thrive on very scanty nutri-
ment, while they have the advantage of being much better milkers.
The Kerry breed is a well-known strain of hardy mountain
cattle, agreeing in the colour of their skins with the Pembroke breed.
The hair is generally black with a white streak down" the back, and sometimes
another along the belly ; but it may be pure black or brown, black and white, or
black and brown. The horns are long, tapering, and directed upwards. These
cattle are valued for the good milking qualities of the cows, even when nourished
upon inferior pasture.
The polled Angus breed, produced on the Devonian rocks of
Forfar and Kincardine, are larger than the Highland cattle, from
which they are readily distinguished by the absence of horns in both sexes. They
are mostly black with white markings, but may be brindled black and brown ; the
skin being dark-coloured. This breed has in all probability been derived from the
Highland cattle, and has attained its superior size and excellent milk-yielding
qualities from having been reared on the richer pastures of the Lowlands. The
polled Aberdeenshire breed is another strain of hornless cattle of mixed origin,
bred in the lower districts of the county from which it derives its name.
The Galloway breed is also a hornless one, and is of great
Galloways.
antiquity, having been in existence at least since the sixteenth
century. They inhabit a district underlain by Silurian and Cambrian rocks in
the south-west of Scotland ; and are essentially a mountain breed, being inferior in
size to the polled Angus, although superior to the Highland breed. The skin is
dark-coloured, and the hair generally black ; while the great depth of the body will
always suffice to distinguish this breed from all other polled strains. Mr. D. Low
states that "these cattle are hardy, exceedingly docile, sufficiently good feeders,
when carried to suitable pastures, and weigh well in proportion to their bulk."
J „ ^ „ The polled Suffolk is a less important hornless breed from the
Polled Suffolk.
eastern counties of England, which was originally of a mouse-dun, or
OXEN.
169
some nearly similar shade of colour, and is of small size, and somewhat defective
form. There is also a polled Irish breed, which includes animals of large size, but
frequently more or less crossed with other races.
Aiderneys and The three nearly-allied strains from the Channel Islands, respect-
jerseys, ively termed Alderney, Jersey, and Guernsey, are now so well known
in England, and are so easily distinguished from all others, that they require
but scant notice. They are characterised by the bulls being considerably larger
than the cows, by their small size, their short, thin, and often crumpled in-turning
horns, and their delicate and (from the butcher's point of view) somewhat " ragged "
build. The head is delicately formed, with very prominent eyes, and a narrow
THE FEIBURG BULL
muzzle, but may be either very short or somewhat elongated ; the bones of the
pelvis are very prominent ; and the limbs are slender and deer-like. The colour of
the short and glossy hair is generally some shade of rufous or fawn, mingled with
white ; but it may be black, mixed with white or dun, and is more rarely cream ;
the skin being thin and orange-coloured. Although of delicate constitution, the
Channel Island breeds are esteemed for their elegant appearance, and the richness
and yellow colour of their cream and butter.
The Ayrshire breed, whose proper home is the county of Ayr,
although it is now widely spread over Scotland and some parts of
Ireland, is another race bred exclusively for the purposes of the dairy. They are
of medium size, with short horns curving inwards in the Alderney manner ; and
the fore.-quarters are light, the loins broad and deep, the neck and head small, and
AyrsMre.
i7o UNGULATES.
the limbs slender. The colour of the skin is yellowish orange, and the prevailing
tint of the hair reddish-brown, more or less mixed with white.
The rich red soil of Devonshire is tenanted by a breed of cattle
readily distinguished by the deep red colour of their hair. They
have orange-yellow skins and fine tapering horns. Mr. Low describes them as
"of a light and graceful form, agile, and suited for active labour. They fatten
with sufficient facility in good pastures, and in a temperate climate; but
they are inferior in hardiness and the power of subsisting on scanty herb-
age to the mountain cattle of Scotland and Wales." The cows are relatively
small, and their yield of milk not great, although excellent in quality and rich
in cream.
Omitting mention of the Sussex and Glamorganshire breeds, as
being of minor importance, we pass on to the well-known Herefords,
easily recognised by their large size, white faces, and dark red or reddish brown
colour, marked more or less with white on the back and under-parts. Mr. Low
considers this breed remotely related to the Devon ; and it exhibits the same
inferiority in the size of the cows, and a similar deficiency in the yield of milk.
The breed is, however, an excellent one for fattening, and is hence in much favour
in the West of England.
The longhorned breed, which is likewise from the West of
England and is also largely reared in Ireland, is one which has of
late years steadily declined in favour in this country. The original breed of long-
horns was subject to considerable variation in size ; but the prevailing colour of
the hair was either black or brown, with a white stripe down the middle of the
back, and more or less white on the body. The hair was abundant and the skin
thick and dark. The long horns generally curved downwards at the tips ; but in
southern and eastern England they often turned up. Ultimately great improve-
ments were effected in the breed, and the knowledge thus acquired paved the way
for the gradual development of the shorthorns, by which the longhorns have been
so largely supplanted.
The shorthorn breed was originally an East Anglian race of
cattle, but was modified into its present perfection in Durham, whence
it is often known by the name of Durham shorthorn. The illustration on p. 167
represents an ox of the best strain of this breed. In these animals the height of
the body is comparatively low, but there is great depth, and the chest, back, and
loins are remarkable for their width. The skin is light-coloured, and the hair
either reddish brown or white, or a mixture of the two, or the well-known straw-
berry colour. The muzzle should be flesh-coloured; and the horns are short,
curving inwards, light in colour, and frequently somewhat compressed. The skin
is soft and yielding, and the general form of the body square and massive, with
upright shoulders and roomy hind-quarters. The great advantages of the short-
horns are that they are hardy and good-tempered animals, of large size and
eminently distinguished by the rapidity with which they reach maturity of flesh
and muscle. Although inferior in their yield of milk to the Suffolk and Ayrshire
breeds, shorthorns are now more widely spread over England, both as dairy and
fatting cattle, than any other kind.
OXEN.
171
Continental
Breeds.
On the continent there are likewise numerous breeds of cattle,
but only a few of these can be even mentioned. One of the most
esteemed is the Friburg breed, of which a bull is represented in the illustration
on p. 169. This breed seems to be allied to the English shorthorns, but has a
longer body and neck. The horns are short but sharp, and the colour is a mixture
of black or reddish brown with white. These cattle are largely bred in Switzer-
land, and are considered to be the parent stock from which several other breeds
have originated. The Dutch breed, as represented by the cow figured in the
accompanying woodcut, was originally a native of the lowlands of Holland, but
has now spread over a large part of Germany. Fitzinger regards the Dutch cattle
DUTCH cow (-fa nat. size).
as the direct descendants of the aurochs, and they seem to approximate to the
Ayrshire breed. They are of large size, with long necks and pointed muzzles, and
moderate-sized horns, directed forwards and inwards. The usual colour is black
upon a white or greyish white ground, but the dark markings may be brown or
reddish.
Very different from all others are the large Hungarian cattle, characterised by
their uniform pale fawn colour, their enormous, slender, outspreading horns, and
their free light step. The horns may measure as much as 5 feet from tip to tip,
and are black at the extremities, but greyish throughout the rest of their length.
This breed ranges through Hungary into Turkey and Western Asia. The Podolian
cattle constitute another well-marked breed characterised by the great relative
height of the fore-quarters.
1 72 UNGULATES.
In Northern India many of the breeds of domestic cattle appear
Indian Cattle. ^
to be a cross between the ordinary European cattle and the humped
Indian cattle, showing the general shape of the former but the white rings on the
fetlocks characteristic of the latter. In Africa there are several kinds of humpless
cattle, among which the Namaqualand breed most nearly resembles ordinary
European cattle. On the other hand, the Damara breed is distinguished by the
large size of the bones, the small feet, slender legs, the long tuft of bushy hair at
the end of the tail, and the extraordinary length of the horns. The horns are,
however, even still larger in the cattle of Bechuanaland, Mr. Darwin mentioning
a skull in which the span of the horns is 8 feet 8 inches in a straight line,
while the measurement from tip to tip along the curve is upwards of 13 feet
5 inches.
America and In certain parts of America, the Falkland Islands, Australia, New
Australia. Zealand, and other countries, the cattle introduced from Europe have
run wild, and form vast herds. Those found in Texas and on the Argentine
pampas have become of a nearly uniform dark brownish red colour ; while in the
Ladrone or Mariana Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, all the wild cattle are white
with black ears. When Lord Anson visited the Ladrones in the year 1742, the
number of these cattle was estimated at upwards of ten thousand. In the Falkland
Islands it is stated by Admiral Sullivan that those in the southern districts are
white, with the feet, ears, or the entire head black ; but in other parts they were
either brown or mouse-coloured. The wild cattle of New Zealand, according to
Herr von Lendenfeld, are white spotted with brown. In Australia the herds are of
great extent, and are difficult to approach within shooting distance, on account of
the wariness of the animals. In Argentina the cattle are very wild, but take little
notice of a mounted man. If, however, as is seldom the case in a country where
everybody rides, they are approached by a person on foot, they gallop around him
in circles, with threatening gestures, looking every moment as if about to make
a charge, although it does not appear that they ever do so. In company with
two ladies, the writer has often wandered among such herds, without any harm,
except some alarm on the part of one of his companions. In Colombia wild
cattle are found not only on the plains, but likewise high up in the Cordilleras,
and herds of considerable size have been met with in the highlands of Central
Asia. Here may be mentioned the curious monstrous cattle found in Argentina
and known as niatas or natas. This breed, which has existed for more than a
century, bears the same relation to other races as is presented by pug-dogs to
ordinary dogs. According to Mr. Darwin, " the forehead is very short and broad,
with the nasal end of the skull, together with the whole plane of the upper molar
teeth, curved upwards. The lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and has a cor-
responding upward curvature. The upper lip is much drawn back, the nostrils are
seated high up and are widely open, the eyes project outwards, and the horns are
large. The neck is short, and in walking the head is carried low. The hind-legs
appear to be longer, compared with the front-legs, than is usual. The exposed
incisor teeth, the short head and upturned nostrils, give these cattle the most
ludicrous, self-confident air of defiance." Niatas appear to be very rare ; but the
writer had the good fortune to see a pair of them kept in the grounds of the
OXEN. 173
museum at La Plata in 1893. These were black and white in colour ; and the
characteristic features of the breed were much more strongly displayed in the bull
than in the cow.
HIND VIEW OP SKULL OF GALLA OX, WITH THE HORN-SHEATHS
REMOVED (& nat. size). After Riitimeyer.
HUMPED CATTLE (Bos indicus).
The common domesticated cattle of India are distinguished from those of
Europe, not only by the presence of the hump on the withers, but likewise by other
structural features, as well as by their general coloration, their voice, and their
habits. Hence, although they are only known in the domestic state, there can be
no hesitation in regarding these humped cattle as constituting a perfectly distinct
species. In Europe these animals are generally called zebu, but it does not appear
that any such name is known in India.
In addition to the enormous hump on the withers, the Indian humped cattle
are characterised by a certain degree of convexity of the forehead, by the upper
border of the short horns being uniformly concave (as shown in the figure of the
skull of the African variety), by their large drooping ears, and also by the enormous
dewlap which hangs in folds along the whole length of the neck. In size and colour
these cattle are subject to a considerable amount of variation, but they are very
generally characterised by a distinct white ring round the fetlocks. While the
largest individuals stand as high as a buffalo, the smallest are but little taller than
a calf of a month old. The most common colour is a light ashy grey, which may
shade off into cream-colour, or even milk-white ; but various tints of red or brown
are often met with, and occasionally black individuals are seen. In disposition
these cattle are always gentle, and the larger varieties are employed in India for
drawing native carriages. The voice of the humped cattle is more of a grunt than
a low ; and these animals differ from European cattle in habits, insomuch as they
but seldom seek the shade, and never stand knee-deep in water. It need hardly
be mentioned that a certain number of privileged bulls are specially protected by
174
UNGULATES.
the Hindus, and are allowed to perambulate the bazaars of the Indian towns at
will. In certain parts of India humped cattle have run wild ; those found on the
sea-coast near Nellore, in the Carnatic, have been in this state for a long period, and
Jerdon describes them as being extremely shy and wild, their size being large and
their horns long.
Galla, Cattle.
INDIAN HUMPED BULL (^ nat. Size).
Humped cattle are also found in China, Africa, and Madagascar ;
and Blyth was of opinion that the group might have had an African
origin. In Central Africa the humped cattle are represented by the Galla ox
or sunga, characterised by the enormous size and thickness of the horns, as shown
in the figure of the back of the skull on p. 173. In this breed the forehead of
the skull lacks the convexity characteristic of the Indian humped cattle ; and
as the curvature of the horns is somewhat similar, Professor Rutimeyer believes
that the Galla ox is most nearly related to the Asiatic banting mentioned
later on.
^n concluding our notice of the typical oxen it may be mentioned
that several species occur fossil in India. Among these is the
magnificent Narbada ox (B. namadicus), of the gravels of the valley of the
Narbada, which was fully equal in size to the aurochs, and in the typical form
had horns with a cylindrical section. It is, however, noteworthy that in one race
of this species the horns were somewhat flattened, and thus approximate to those
of the living wild cattle of India. In the somewhat older deposits of the Siwalik
t s •
OXEN.
175
Hills there occurs the gigantic sharp-fronted ox (B. acutifrons), distinguished by
the sharp ridge running down the middle of the forehead, and the enormous length
of the horns, which swept upwards and outwards in a bold curve, and were probably
but little short of 10 feet in span.
GALLA BULL (A nat. size).
THE GAUR (Bos gaurus).
With the magnificent animal known as the gaur, but generally misnamed by
Indian sportsmen the bison, we come to the first of three species from South-Eastern
Asia, nearly allied to one another, and broadly distinguished from those already
noticed. These animals, which include tnv>;iiandsomest existing representatives of
the genus, are collectively characterised by the following features. The horns
are flattened to a greater or less degree from front to back, more especially
at their bases, where they present an elliptical cross-section ; this character being
more strongly marked in the bulls than in the cows. The tail is shorter than in
the typical oxen, and reaches but little if at all below the hocks. A third feature
is presented by the distinct ridge running from the shoulders to the middle of the
i76
UNGULATES.
back, where it ends in an abrupt drop, which may be as much as 5 inches in
height. This ridge is caused by the great height of the spines of the vertebrae of
the fore-part of the trunk as compared with those of the loins ; but it is a character
much less developed in the banting than in either of the other two species. The
three species have also a characteristic coloration, the adult males being dark
brown or nearly black, the females and young males being either paler or
reddish brown, while in both sexes the legs from above the knees and hocks to
BULL GAUR (A nat. size).
the hoofs are white or whitish. The hair is short, fine, and glossy, and the hoofs
are narrow and pointed.
The gaur is a strong and massively-built species, easily recognised by the high
convex ridge on the forehead between the horns, which bends forwards, and thus
causes a deep hollow in the profile of the upper part of the head. The ridge on
the back is very strongly marked, and there is no distinct dewlap on the throat
and chest. The flattening of the horns at the base is very decided, and the horns
are regularly curved throughout their length, and are bent inwards and slightly
backwards at their tips. The ears are very large, the tail only just reaches the
hocks, and in old bulls the hair becomes very thin on the back.
In colour the adult male gaur is dark brown, approaching black in very old
OXEN. 177
individuals ; the upper part of the head, from above the eyes to the nape of the
neck, is, however, ashy-grey, or occasionally dirty-white, the muzzle is pale-
coloured, and the lower part of the legs pure white. The cows and young bulls
are paler, and in some instances have a rufous tinge, which, according to
Mr. Blanford, is most marked in individuals inhabiting dry and open districts.
The colour of the horns is some shade of pale green or yellow throughout the
greater part of their length, but the tips are black.
The gaur appears to be the tallest of all the oxen, old bulls sometimes reaching
as much as 6 feet (18 hands) at the . shoulder, or even, it is said, exceeding these
dimensions by an inch or more. The more usual height is, however, from 5
feet 8 inches to 5 feet 10 inches ; while the cows do not exceed 5 feet. Mr. Blan-
ford gives the average size of the horns of bull gaur as from 20 to 24 inches along
the outer curve ; but specimens have been recorded with a length of 39 inches and
a basal girth of 19 inches. This girth has, however, been exceeded by horns of
which the length was less, a pair from the Malay Peninsula having a circumference
of 22 inches, with a length of 32 inches. The horns of the cows are smaller,
measuring in large examples from 23 to 24 inches above the curve, with a girth of
about 13 inches.
The geographical range of the gaur is extensive, comprising all
Distribution. , fo., 6 . f ,. £ ~ _, ,f . £ „
the larger rorest regions or India trom Cape Comorm to the toot or
the North-Eastern Himalaya, but excluding Ceylon. To the north-west its limits
in India are marked, according to Mr. Blanford, by the valley of the Narbada
River; while in the grass-jungles of the Ganges Valley the gaur is met with
only along the skirts of the Himalaya. Eastwards the range of the gaur
extends from Nipal through the hilly districts on the south of Assam into Burma,
and thence as far south as the Malay Peninsula, where it is known to the natives
as the sladong. It has been stated that the gaur occurs in Siam, but this
requires confirmation.
The gaur prefers hilly districts to the plains, and in India is
more generally found at elevations of from two thousand to five
thousand feet than in the low country. While aged bulls are generally or invari-
ably solitary in their habits, gaur, as a rule, collect together in small herds of about
a dozen individuals, although the number may be increased to twenty or thirty,
and one instance is recorded where the number in a herd was estimated at not less
than one hundred head. Such an unusual gathering was, however, probably but
temporary, and due to the scarcity of pasture. Each herd is governed by an old
bull ; the other members of that sex present being always younger animals. The
best account of the habits of the gaur is by G. P. Sanderson, from whose work
the following extracts are taken, with the substitution of the word gaur for bison.
The gaur living in herds " are shy and retiring in their habits, and retreat at
once if intruded upon by man. They avoid the vicinity of his dwellings, and
never visit patches of cultivation in the jungle. The gaur is thus an animal
which would soon become extinct before the advance of civilisation were the latter
rapid, or were the jungles in which he roams limited in extent ; but his exemption
from serious diminution, except in isolated positions, is secured by the existence of
the continuous jungles of the Western Ghats and other forest ranges. Gaur, though
VOL. II. 12
i78 UNGULATES.
found in the low- country jungles, are very partial to high and well- wooded tracts,
and their activity in hilly ground is astonishing. A herd scrambles up a steep
hillside almost with the facility of a troop of deer, or thunders down a slope into
the thicker cover of a valley, when alarmed, at a rapid trot or free gallop."
The food of the gaur, according to the same writer, consists mainly of grass,
but also comprises the leaves and young shoots of bamboo, as well as the bark of
certain trees. Gaur " feed till about nine in the morning, or later in cloudy and
rainy weather ; they then rest, lying down in bamboo-cover or light forest till the
afternoon, when they rise to graze and drink ; they also invariably lie down for
some hours during the night. Although certainly quick in detecting an intruder,
gaur can scarcely be considered naturally wary animals, as they seldom encounter
alarms in their native haunts. Unsophisticated herds will frequently allow several
shots to be fired at them before making oif, and even then probably will not go
far. But if subjected to frequent disturbance they quickly become as shy as deer,
and if alarmed by the approach of man they retreat without loss of time." Except
when wounded, and in such a position as to be unable to escape, Sanderson states
that he has never known gaur belonging to a herd attack human beings. Gaur
are very similar in their general habits to elephants, and herds of both may at
times be found feeding in proximity. " Both seek the deep and ever- verdant
valleys, watered by perennial streams, during the hot months, or from January
to May, where they are safe from the jungle-fires which sweep the drier localities.
With the early rains of April and May a plentiful crop of succulent young grass
springs from beneath the black ashes, and the gaur and elephants then roam forth
to feed and enjoy their emancipation from the thraldom of the season of scarcity.
About September the grass in the hill-ranges has become so coarse, and the annoy-
ance from insects during continued rain so great, that the herds move into more
open country, and especially into forest tracts at the foot of hill-ranges where
suitable cover exists." In such localities the grass is not more than a yard high
at the most, and insects are comparatively few. In contradistinction to elephants,
gaur never forsake the forest districts for the open plains; but when in the
lowland districts are in the habit of visiting the numerous salt-licks.
It must be remembered that the foregoing description applies solely to the
gaur of Southern India, and that in the more northern portions of their range,
where the seasons are different, there is a corresponding alteration in their habits.
When in the lowlands, gaur are apt to catch various diseases prevalent among
domestic cattle, and sometimes the herds are decimated from this cause. In
Peninsular India the calves are generally born during August and September,
although a few are produced from April to June.
The cries of the gaur are three in number. The first is a loud reverberating
bellow, used as a call ; the second a low mooing cry, uttered when in alarm, or when
the curiosity of the animals is excited ; while the third is a kind of whistling snort,
heard when the frightened creatures dash off into thicker cover. In India proper
the gaur has never been domesticated ; and it is but recently that a living example
— a young one — has been exhibited alive in England. The hill-tribes of the
north-eastern portion of India have, however, succeeded in taming these animals.
Solitary gaur are always very old bulls, which have been driven from the
OXEN. 179
herds by their younger rivals after deadly combats, the marks of which are to be
seen on their scored and seamed flanks, as well as in their slit and frayed ears and
their battered horns. Mr. Sanderson says that these solitary bulls always have
the finest heads and horns, and offer the most noble object of pursuit to the sports-
man. The morose and savage disposition commonly attributed to these outcasts is
regarded by the same writer as not altogether authenticated. It is true, indeed,
that men are sometimes killed by a sudden rush from one of these solitary bulls,
but that this is generally owing to the circumstance that the animal has been
suddenly surprised, and thereupon starts up and rushes forwards without consider-
ing what may be in its path.
Gaur-shooting, from the nature of the ground, is invariably
undertaken on foot, and, next to elephant-shooting, is considered to
be the finest sport with the rifle in India. Good trackers are essential to its
success ; but these are fortunately to be found among the non- Aryan hill-tribes
of Southern India, who are unsurpassed in the keenness and accuracy with
which they follow a trail. The emergence of an old solitary bull-gaur on an
open glade, among the tall bamboo forests of the hills of Southern India, is described
as being one of the finest sights with which the toils of the sportsman can be
rewarded. When killed, the gaur affords excellent meat, the great delicacy being
the marrow-bones roasted on the camp fire.
THE GAYAL (Bos frontalis).
Well known for many years as existing in a semi-domesticated condition
in the hilly districts of North-Eastern India, it is but recently that the gayal
has been determined to be a truly wild species, although we have yet no definite
information of its habits or the limits of its range in this condition.
The gayal, or, as it is frequently termed the mithan, is nearly allied to the
gaur, from which, however, it differs in several important particulars. In the first
place, it is a somewhat smaller animal, with proportionately shorter limbs, a minor
development of the ridge on the back, and a larger dewlap on the throat of the
bulls. The head is also shorter and broader, with a perfectly flat forehead and a
straight line between the bases of the horns. The horns, which are very thick and
massive, are less flattened and much less curved than in the gaur, extending almost
•directly outwards from the sides of the head, and curving somewhat upwards at the
tips, but without any inward inclination. Their extremities are thus much farther
Apart than in the gaur. The colour is very nearly the same as in the latter, the
head and body being blackish-brown in both sexes, and the lower portion of the
limbs white or yellowish. The horns are of uniform blackish tint from base to
tip. Some domesticated gayals are parti-coloured, while others are completely
white.
The gayal stands much lower at the withers than the gaur. In the skull of
an old wild bull measured by Mr. Blanford the horns reached 14 inches both in
length and basal girth; but these dimensions are exceeded by those of many
domesticated specimens. The cow gayal, as shown in our illustration, is a much
.smaller animal than the bull, and has scarcely any dewlap on the throat.
i8o
UNGULATES.
Distribution.
It has been ascertained by Mr. Blanford that the gayal occurs in
a wild condition in Tenasserim ; but in a more or less domesticated
condition large herds of these animals are kept by the Kuki tribes on the hill-
districts of Tipperah. It is, moreover, certain that some of the domesticated cattle
kept by the hill-tribes on both sides of the Assam Valley in the districts of
Manipur, Cachar, Chittagong, and the Lushai Hills, are gayal, although others are
cow GAYALS (-fa nat. size).
gaur. From indications afforded by certain skulls it is not improbable that these
tame gayal and gaur occasionally interbreed. Mr. Blanford observes that the tame
herds of gayal " are kept for food, and, according to some authorities, for their milk,
though this is doubtful, as most of the Indo-Chinese tribes who keep mithans never
drink milk. The animals appear to be never employed in agricultural labour, nor
as beasts of burden. They roam and feed unattended through the forest during
the day. and return to their owner's village at night."
OXEN. 181
Like the gaur, the gayal is essentially an inhabitant of hill-
forests, and the facility with which it will traverse rocky country is
little short of marvellous for an animal of such bulky proportions.
Gayal have been exhibited in England alive, but none of them were
fully-grown bulls, and consequently failed to give an adequate idea of the
magnificent proportions attained by that sex. Adult bulls have, however, been
shown from time to time in the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, and were most
splendid animals, with glossy coats of the deepest shade of brown. Gayal will
breed with the humped cattle of India, and the product of such a union born
in the London Zoological Gardens was again crossed with a bull American bison.
A pure-bred gayal calf produced in the same menagerie was of a light brownish
red colour, with the throat, chest, and the inner sides of the legs white.
THE BANTING (Bos sondaicus).
The banting, or Javan ox, differs very considerably from both the preceding
species, and serves to connect them with the typical oxen. The most distinctive
feature of this ox is the large white patch on the hind-quarters, which extends
upwards to the root of the tail, although not surrounding it. Another peculiarity
of the banting is that the cow has the head, body, and upper portions of the limbs
of the same reddish brown, almost chestnut colour as the calves. The general
build of the animal is slighter than that of the gaur, the ridge on the back is much
less developed, and the legs are proportionately longer. The head is also more
elongated and pointed ; while the horns, which are cylindrical in the young, are
relatively smaller. In the adult bull they are flattened at the base, and are much
curved, the direction being at first outwards and upwards, while towards the tips
they incline inwards and somewhat backwards. The tail descends below the hocks ;
and the dewlap is of moderate size. The old bulls are black, with the exception of
the white patch on the buttocks and the legs, from the knees and hocks downwards.
The young calves, like those of the gayal, have the whole length of the outer
surface of the limbs chestnut ; and they are also distinguished by a dark streak
down the back. A full-grown bull banting from Java measured 5 feet 9| inches
at the withers ; but Mr. Blanford states that the largest example recorded from
Burma was only 5 feet 4 inches in height.
. . The banting is exclusively confined to the regions lying to the
eastwards of the Bay of Bengal, occurring throughout Burma, and
probably extending as far north as the hills to the eastwards of Chittagong, while
it also inhabits the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Java, Bali, Borneo, and
probably Sumatra. That it also occurs in Siam is almost certain, but its exact range
in the Indo-Chinese countries has still to be determined. Large herds of domestic-
ated banting are kept by the Malays in Java, and also in the small island of Bali,
lying to the south-east. The herds in Bali are replenished by importation from
Java. The Malays speak of a wild ox under the name of the sapio, which
may prove to be a variety of the banting with ferruginous red instead of white
on the legs.
It has already been noticed that the original colour of the wild ox or aurochs
i8a
UNGULATES.
of Europe was probably white mixed with reddish brown ; and the fact that the
calves of all the three species of the present group are reddish brown points to the
conclusion that this was the ancestral coloration. Now the fact that the female
banting permanently retains this ancestral coloration, which is transient in the
gaur and gayal, indicates that the present species is a less specialised form than
either of the other two; the dark colour being acquired only in the male sex.
THE BANTING (-fa nat. size).
This is confirmed by the structure of the banting, which departs less widely from
that of the typical oxen than is the case with the other two species of this group.
Although the accounts of the habits of the banting are not very
full, yet it appears that in these respects this animal is very similar
to the gaur. Mr. Blanford suggests, however, that from its relatively longer legs
the banting is less addicted to climbing among rocky hills than are either of the
other members of the group, and that it is accordingly more restricted to the plains
of tall grass. The domesticated race breeds freely with the Indian humped cattle.
Habits.
OXEN. 185
It is stated by Blyth that in old bulls the skin between the bases of the horns
becomes enormously thickened, and assumes a horny and rugged condition ; this
development beginning to take place before the coat has commenced to change from
the light to the dark colour.
The extinct Etruscan ox (B. etruscus) from the Pliocene of the European
continent, appears to have been allied to the banting, but with the horns placed
low down on the skull near the eyes.
THE YAK (Bos grunniens).
The yak is one of the numerous mammals peculiar to the elevated plateau of
Tibet, and differs markedly from all the other members of the ox tribe, although to
a certain extent it forms a connecting link between the preceding group and the
bisons. The most distinctive peculiarity of the yak, so far as external features are
concerned, is the mass of long hair with which the flanks, limbs, and tail are
clothed, and which makes the general appearance of the animal so very different
from that of other oxen. On the head and upper-parts of the body the hair is
short and nearly smooth, and the long hair only commences on the lower part of
the sides where it forms a fringe of great depth, extending forwards across the
shoulders and backwards on to the thighs. On the tail the long hair is developed
on the lower half, where it expands into an enormous tuft which does not
generally reach below the hocks. There is also a tuft of long hair on the breast.
The colour of the hair is a uniform dark blackish brown, sometimes tending to a
rusty tint on the flanks and back, and with a grey grizzle on the upper part of the
head and neck in very old individuals. Around the muzzle there is a little
white. We frequently find the yak represented as a brown and white, or even a
pure white animal, but all such specimens are domesticated, and mostly hybrid
individuals.
In build the yak is massively formed, with short and stout legs. The
shoulders are high, but there is not the distinct ridge on the back characteristic of
the gaur, and the whole back is nearly straight throughout, without any falling
away at the hips. Both the ears and the muzzle are small ; and the dewlap is
totally wanting. The head is long and narrow, with a nearly flat forehead, and the
eyes are approximated to the horns. The horns, which are very large in the bull,
are smooth, and nearly or quite cylindrical, with the first curvature of their upper
border concave, as in the gaur and banting. They curve at first upwards and out-
wards, then sweep boldly forwards, after which they incline upwards and inwards,
and in some cases slightly backwards. The hoofs are relatively large and rounded.
In height, it is stated that old bulls occasionally stand nearly 6 feet at the
shoulder; but 5 feet 6 inches may be taken as the average. The weight of
bulls is said to be about 1200 Ibs. Average-sized horns vary in length from
25 to 30 inches measured along the curve ; but a pair has been recorded
measuring 40 inches in length, with a basal girth of nearly 19 inches. The horns
of the cows are always smaller and thinner than those of bulls.
Such are the leading external characteristics of the yak ; but there are also
certain features connected with the skeleton which are worthy of notice. In the
i86
UNGULATES.
first place, there are fourteen pairs of ribs, whereas, in all the oxen hitherto noticed,
the number is but thirteen ; and in this respect the yak resembles the bisons. In
the skull, the region between the eyes and the occiput is relatively shorter and
wider than in the typical oxen, and the horns are set on somewhat below the plane
of the extreme summit. In consequence of this, the front view of a yak's skull
exhibits a small prominence between the horns formed by a boss of bone at the top
of the occiput ; the crest or summit of the occiput itself being invisible from the
front, and the shape of the whole occiput forming an inverted V. The difference
in the shape of the occiput from that obtaining in the true oxen may be seen by
comparing the accompanying figure with that of the skull of the Galla ox given on
FRONT AND BACK VIEWS OF THE SKULL OF DOMESTICATED YAK. — After Kiitimeyer.
p. 173. In regard to the position of the horns and some other features of the skull,
the yak approximates to the bisons.
Yak, as we have said, inhabit the plateau of Tibet, probably
Distribution.
extending northwards as far as the Kuen-Luen range, while eastwards
they range into the Chinese province of Kansu, and westwards enter the
eastern portions of Ladak, especially the regions in the neighbourhood of the
Chang-Chenmo valley and the great Pangkong lake. The greater portion of the
country comprised within this extensive area is desolate and dreary in the extreme,
but yak confine themselves to the wildest and most inaccessible portions of these
regions, and are found only at great elevations, ranging in summer from about
fourteen thousand to upwards of twenty thousand feet, and perhaps even more,
above the level of the sea. They are at all times extremely impatient of heat, and
delight in cold.
Habits. Writing of the yak, General Kinloch observes that, " although
so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest pasturage, and its usual
food consists of a rough wiry grass, which grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet,
OXEN. 187
up to an elevation of nearly twenty thousand feet. On the banks of the streams
in many places a more luxuriant grass is met with, and it is particularly plentiful
in the valleys of Chang-Chenmo and Kyobrung, forming the attraction which
entices the yak from the still wilder and more barren country further north. Yak
seem to wander about a good deal. In summer the cows are generally to be found
in herds varying in numbers from ten to one hundred ; while the old bulls are for
the most part solitary or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night and
early in the morning, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren hill-
side during the day, lying sometimes for hours in the same spot. Old bulls in
particular seem to rejoice in choosing a commanding situation for their resting-
place, and their tracks may be found on the tops of the steepest hills, far above
the highest traces of vegetation. The yak is not apparently a very sharp-sighted
beast, but its sense of smell is extremely keen, and this is the chief danger
to guard against in stalking it. In the high valleys of Tibet, where so many
glens intersect one another, and where the temperature is continually changing,
the wind is equally variable. It will sometimes shift to every point of the
compass in the course of a few minutes, and the best-planned stalk may be utterly
spoiled."
The yak found in the Chang-Chenmo valley are chiefly or entirely stragglers
from Chinese territory, and, owing to incessant pursuit, very few are to be met with
at the present day in these regions. Native travellers report, however, that on the
upper Indus, to the eastward of Ladak, yak are to be found in vast numbers, and
that there they do not exhibit the extreme wariness characterising those which
wander into Ladak. In Northern Tibet yak have been also met with in great
numbers by the Russian explorer, Prejewalski. Here the old bulls were found
alone, and the cows and younger males generally in small herds ; although, where
the pasture was good, the herds were sometimes very large. These herds wandered
more or less regularly over wide tracts of country, and, according to native reports,
were found in summer in grassy plains, where they were quite unknown in winter.
As in Southern Tibet, they were especially partial to the tracts bordering the
streams, where grass was more abundant than elsewhere. On the other hand, the
solitary bulls were reported to inhabit the same districts throughout the year.
Where the herds were largest, their numbers are said to be reckoned by hundreds,
and even thousands. When alarmed or expecting danger, the cows and older bulls
place themselves in the van and on the flanks of the herds, with the calves in the
centre ; but on the near approach of a hunter, the whole herd will take to flight
at a gallop, with their heads down and their tails in the air. A wounded yak,
whether cow or bull, will, according to General Kinloch, not unfrequently
charge.
A peculiarity of the yak is its grunting voice, from which it
Domestication. * '
derives its Latin title. Domestic yak are kept by the inhabitants of
the higher regions of Tibet as beasts of burden, and for the sake of their flesh ; and
are absolutely essential for crossing many parts of that desolate region. Some of
the pure-bred animals kept by the Tartar tribes, living on the Rupsu plateau, to
the south of the Indus in Ladak, are magnificent beasts of large size and uniformly
dark colour. When they have not been used for a considerable period they are
1 88 UNGULATES.
very wild, and apt to break loose and throw their loads ; but after a few days'
march they sober down. In other parts the yak are smaller, and vary greatly in
colour, being sometimes entirely white, while the tail is very generally of that hue.
There are also many crosses between the yak and ordinary cattle, some of the
breeds being without horns. These half-breeds have the advantage of being able
to withstand much higher temperatures than the pure yak ; and they may be met
with carrying burdens in the hot valley of the Indus, between the town of Leh
and Kashmir.
Although yak are admirable beasts of burden on account of their endurance
and strength, and the facility with which they will traverse glaciers and swim icy
torrents, they have the great disadvantage that they will not eat corn. This
frequently necessitates the pushing on of the party by forced marches to prevent
their beasts from perishing of hunger. The following description of a march with
yak, for the truthfulness of which the present writer can vouch from his own
personal experience, is from the pen of General Macintyre. " For more than six
weary hours," writes the general, " did we toil up against the almost blinding snow
and piercing wind that chilled us to the very marrow, although the distance to the
summit was only six or seven miles. It was truly wonderful to see the way in
which the yaks struggled through the deep snow, and scrambled over places which
were often difficult and sometimes dangerous to traverse. Nothing could have
exceeded the powers of endurance evinced by these animals, which were game to
the backbone, and as sure-footed as goats. One of them, notwithstanding, lost
its footing on a steep slope of nfod, and went rolling and sliding down until it was
fortunately stopped by a friendly rock ; otherwise it must have disappeared for
ever under the glacier. On regaining its feet the creature merely shook itself, and
on being disentangled from its load soon clambered up again."
All who have visited a Tibetan monastery, or lamasery, must have been struck
with the number of yak-tails suspended as streamers from tall poles fixed in the
ground before the entrance. The more general use of these appendages throughout
the East is, however, in the form of chowris, or fly-whisks. For this purpose pure
white tails are preferred ; and they are frequently mounted with the twisted horn
of a black-buck as a handle. In China yak-tails dyed red are affixed to the roofs
of the summer residences as pendants.
THE EUROPEAN BISON (Bos bonassus).
The European bison, wisent, or zubr is one of two species representing a
distinct and peculiar group of the genus Bos. These animals resemble the yak in
their cylindrical horns and the relative shortness of the forehead of the skull, and
also in the large number of their ribs, of which there may be fourteen or fifteen
pairs. They differ, however, in having the horns placed more below the plane
of the occipital region of the skull, so that in a front view the crest of the occiput
itself is seen at the summit of the skull. A further distinctive feature is to be
found in the extreme convexity of the forehead of the skull ; while the sockets of
the eyes are very prominent, and assume a tubular form. Moreover, the pre-
m axillary bones, forming the extremity of the skull, are separated from the very
OXEN. 189
short nasal bones by a much longer interval than in the yak and the gaur ; and are
thus very widely different from those of the typical oxen, which are prolonged up-
wards to join the elongated nasals.
Bison are further characterised by the great excess in the height of the
withers over the hind-quarters, owing to the great length of the spines of the
vertebrae in the fore-part of the trunk, as displayed in the figure of the skeleton on
p. 158. This produces a distinct hump on the shoulders, which passes, however,
gradually into the line of the back without the sudden descent characterising the
gaur. The great development of the fore-quarters appears to be intensified by the
mass of dark brown hair with which the back of the head, neck, shoulders, and
chest are covered, and which extends far down on the fore-limbs. The long hair is
likewise continued as a kind of crest along the middle of the back nearly to the
root of the tail ; the tail itself being tufted at the end, and reaching some distance
below the hocks. The remainder of the body is covered with short curly hair of a
somewhat lighter tint than that clothing the fore-quarters. In summer the long
hair over all the body is shed in large patches, thus showing the nearly bare skin
clothed with short mouse-coloured hair, as exhibited in our coloured illustration.
Both the European and the American bison are very closely allied, and we shall
reserve our notice of their distinctive differences till we come to the second of the
two species. Owing to a confusion of terms, the name aurochs, which properly
belongs to the extinct wild ox of Europe, has been very generally applied to the
European or true bison, but it may be hoped that this misapplication will soon be
a thing of the past.
The European bison is a forest-dwelling animal, having been
Distribution. r » ' . f. , .
always absent trom the open plains of Southern Russia, which in
many respects resemble the habitat of its North American cousin. Formerly this
species, as attested both by historical documents and by its semi-fossilised remains,
was abundant over a large area of Europe, but it is now restricted to the forests of
Bialowitza in Lithuania, to the Caucasus, and, it is said, to portions of Moldavia and
Wallachia. Fossil remains of the bison are met with in the caverns and superficial
deposits of England, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy ; the earliest deposits
in which they occur being the brick - earths of the Thames valley, where they
are associated with those of the mammoth, and in the still older " forest-bed "
of the Norfolk coast. The fossil race was, indeed, of larger dimensions, and
had longer and rather straighter horns than its existing representative ; but
these differences cannot well be regarded as of specific importance. From
Britain the bison disappeared at a much earlier date than the aurochs, none of
its remains occurring in the fens and turbaries, where those of the latter are so-
common. Northwards the range of the bison formerly extended into Siberia ;
while its remains have also been obtained from the frozen soil of Eschcholtz
Bay in Alaska.
The bison now living in Lithuania are specially protected by the
Russian Government and are under the charge of a staff of keepers, but
those of the Caucasus are thoroughly wild. Although living at a greater altitude,
and thus exposed to a more intense cold, the bison of the Caucasus are less thickly
haired than are those of Lithuania. Bison were abundant in the Black Forest in the
1 9o UNGULATES.
time of Julius Caesar, and as late as the ninth and tenth centuries were sufficiently
numerous in parts of Switzerland and Germany to be used as food. In a recent
summary of the history of the species, Mr. F. A. Lucas states that " up to 1500 the
European bison seems to have been common in Poland, where it was looked upon
as royal game, and hunted in right royal manner by the king and nobility, as many
as two thousand or three thousand beaters being employed to drive the game. In
1534 the animal was still so numerous in the vicinity of Girgau, Transylvania,
that peasants passing through the woods were occasionally trampled to death by
startled bison, and hunts were undertaken by the nobles in order to reduce the
number of the animals. In spite of this local abundance, it is probable that about
this time the bison was in a great measure restricted to Lithuania ; and although
so late as 1555 one was killed in Prussia, it is almost certain that this was merely
a straggler from the main herd. In 1752 a grand hunt was organised by the
Polish king, Augustus III., and in one day 60 bison were killed. . . . For some
time after the above event little seems to have been recorded concerning the zubr,
so that Desmarest, writing in 1822, says that if any remain in Lithuania they must
be very few in number. There were, however, over 500 bison in Lithuania at
that time, for in 1820 there were that number, this being a considerable increase
since 1815, when there were estimated to be only 300. About this time active
measures must have been taken for the protection of the Lithuanian herd, for in
1830 it comprised over 700 individuals. In 1831 a local revolt occurred, the
game laws were set at naught, and the number of bison reduced to 637. Order
having been restored, the bison began to recuperate, and according to the official
enumeration at the end of each decade, there were in 1840, 780 ; in 1850, 1390 ;
and in 1860, 1700. Political troubles were, however, the bane of the bison, and
just as the prosperity of the Lithuanian herd seemed assured, the Polish uprising
of 1863 took place. Many bands of insurgents sought refuge in the forests ; the
bison were left to take care of themselves, and were so rapidly killed off that the
next official count showed only 847. For a short time after peace was restored the
herd increased to a slight extent, but later on it began to decrease, the enumeration
of 1880 showing but 600, a number that has since been lessened, the herd being
still on the wane." The herd is divided into about a dozen distinct bands,
inhabiting different regions of the forest. In the Caucasus the bison is protected
by the rugged nature of the country, as well as by special laws. Recently an
English sportsman — Mr. Littledale — has been bison - shooting in the Caucasus,
and a male and female which fell to his rifle are now exhibited in the British
Museum.
The European bison, so far as can now be ascertained, appears to have always
associated in small bands. In Lithuania these bands comprise from fifteen to
twenty individuals during the summer, but in winter two or more of them
unite to form a herd of from thirty to forty head. The very old bulls are solitary.
In spring and summer the bison seek the thickest and deepest portions of the
forest, but during winter frequent drier and more elevated cover. Whereas the
nutriment of the American species consists wholly of grass, the European bison
feeds largely upon the leaves, twigs, and bark of trees. Although active during
both day and night, bison feed chiefly during the morning and evening. Large
OXEN. 191
trees are stripped of their foliage and bark as high up as the animals can reach,
while smaller ones are broken down or uprooted.
In spite of their size and bulk, bison are active animals, and can both trot and
gallop with considerable speed. In galloping the head is carried close to the
ground and the tail high in the air. Generally they are shy and retiring in
disposition, more especially when young ; but in the Lithuanian forest an old bull
has been known to take possession of a road and challenge all comers. During the
breeding-season, which takes place in August or the early part of September, the
bison are in the best condition. At such seasons the bulls engage in terrific
conflicts, which occasionally end fatally, for the leadership of the herd. These
combats are at first entered upon somewhat playfully, but soon take place in
earnest, when scenes like the one depicted in our coloured illustration may be
witnessed. The old solitary bulls then return to the herds, and after having either
driven away or killed their younger rivals, once more resume the leadership. Not
only are the younger bulls sometimes killed in these conflicts, but the same fate
occasionally overtakes the cows. At the conclusion of the breeding-season the old
bulls revert to their solitary life. The calves are born in May or the early part of
June, and are dropped in the most secluded parts of the forest. The cows apparently
do not calve more frequently than once in three years, so that the rate of increase
is necessarily slow. In defending their offspring against the attacks of bears and
wolves, the females display great courage, and seldom allow them to be carried off
except at the sacrifice of their own lives. Occasionally when full-grown bulls get
half -buried in deep snow they are pulled down by wolves.
THE AMERICAN BISON (Bos americanus).
As the gaur in India has usurped the name of bison, while the European bison
has been frequently called the aurochs, so the American bison in its native country
is almost invariably misnamed the buffalo.
The American bison, which is now, unfortunately, practically exterminated,
differs from its European cousin not only in certain structural features, but likewise
in habits, being essentially an inhabitant of the open plains, where it formerly
congregated in vast herds, comprising thousands of individuals, and living entirely
on grass. According to Mr. Hornaday, to whom we are indebted for a full account
of the species, the American bison differs from the European kind in the following
features. Firstly, the mass of hair on the head, neck, and fore-quarters is much
longer and more luxuriant, and thus gives the animal the appearance of possessing
greater size than is really the case. As a matter of fact, the American species is
lower, and has a smaller pelvis and less powerful hind-quarters than its European
cousin, although its body is, on the whole, more massively built. Moreover, the
horns are shorter and more curved, while the front of the head is more convex,
and the sockets of the eyes less tubular. The tail is shorter and less bushy. An
unusually fine bull American bison measured 5 feet 8 inches at the withers, but
the average is considerably below this.
Mr. Hornaday regards this species as the finest and most striking in appearance
of all the oxen, and remarks that " the magnificent dark-brown frontlet and beard,
192
UNGULATES.
the shaggy coat of hair upon the neck, hump, and shoulders, terminating at the
knees in a thick mass of luxuriant black locks, to say nothing of the dense coat of
finer fur on the body and hind-quarters, give to our species not only an apparent
height equal to that of the gaur, but a grandeur and nobility of presence which are
beyond all comparison among ruminants." Good horns measure from 16 to 17
Distribution.
AMERICAN BISON (A nat. size).
inches, but a pair with a length of 20£ inches and a girth of 15 inches have been
recorded.
The range of the American bison originally extended over about
one-third of North America. " Starting almost at tide-water on the
Atlantic coast," writes Mr. Hornaday, " it extended westward through a vast tract
of dense forest, across the Alleghany Mountain system to the prairies along the
Mississippi, and southward to the delta of that great system. Although the great
plain country of the. West was the natural home of the species, where it nourished
most abundantly, it also wandered south across Texas to the burning plains of
OXEN. 193
North-Eastern Mexico, westward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico,
Utah, and Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the bleak and
inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake itself." Its maximum development
was probably reached about a century and a half ago, when the greater part of
North America was practically an unknown country so far as Europeans are
concerned. And Mr. Hornaday is of opinion that, if left to itself, the bison would
have crossed the Sierra Nevada and coast-ranges to reach the Pacific slopes ; while
it would ultimately have developed into several distinct races according to the
climate of the different regions it inhabited. An example of the formation of
such a race is afforded, indeed, by the variety known in the States as the mountain,
or wood, buffalo. The gradual opening up of the interior of North America,
with the advance of civilisation, soon, however, put an effectual stop to further
increase of the species, and eventually led to its practical extermination.
Numbers and In regard to its former numerical abundance, Mr. Hornaday 1
Extermination. okserves that " of all the quadrupeds that have ever lived upon the
earth, probably no other species has ever marshalled such innumerable hosts as
those of the American bison. It would have been as easy to count or to estimate
the number of leaves in a forest as to calculate the number of bison living at any
given time during the history of the species previous to 1870. Even in South
Central Africa, which has been exceedingly prolific in great herds of game, it is
probable that all its quadrupeds taken together on an equal area would never have
more than equalled the total number of buffalo in this country forty years ago."
As an instance of these enormous numbers, it appears that, in the early part of
the year 1871, Col. Dodge, when passing through the great herd on the Arkansas,
and reckoning that there were some fifteen or twenty individuals to the acre, states
from his own observation that it was not less than twenty-five miles wide and fifty
miles deep. This, however, was the last of the great herds ; and Mr. Hornaday
estimates that the number of individuals comprising it could not be reckoned at
less than four millions. Many writers at and about the date mentioned speak of
the plains being absolutely black with bison as far as the eye could reach ; and Mr.
W. Blackmore tells of passing through a herd for a distance of upwards of one
hundred and twenty miles right on end, in travelling on the Kansas Pacific Rail-
road. Frequently, indeed, trains on that line were derailed in attempting to pass
through herds of bison, until the drivers learned it was advisable to bring their
engines to a standstill when they found the line blocked in this manner.
Col. Dodge, writing of his experiences on the Arkansas alluded to above,
observes that " the whole country appeared one great mass of bison, moving slowly
to the northward ; and it was only when actually among them that it could be
ascertained that the apparently solid mass was an agglomeration of numerous small
herds, of from fifty to two hundred animals, separated from the surrounding herds
by greater or less space, but still separated. The bison on the hills, seeing an
unusual object in their rear, started at full speed directly towards me, stamped-
ing and bringing with them the numberless herds through which they passed,
and pouring down upon all the herds, no longer separated, but one immense
compact mass of plunging animals."
1 When quoting from Mr. Hornaday and other writers we have substituted the word bison for buffalo.
VOL. II. — 13
194
UNGULATES.
Many similar accounts attesting the vast swarms of bison which formerly
roamed the prairies might be quoted, but the foregoing are sufficient for our purpose.
Evidence of the numbers of these animals is still to be seen in the huge stacks of
skulls piled up at many of the railway stations in the States awaiting transport.
The main cause which led to the extirpation of the bison was the advance of
railways. With the progress of civilisation the bison was, indeed, foredoomed to
-__!,_— ,!y '/
HEAD OF AMERICAN BISON.
disappear ; but its end was hastened by the reckless way in which the unfortunate
animals were shot for the sake of their hides or tongues ; by the want of protective
legislation on the part of the Government ; by the preference for the flesh and
skin of cows, by the marvellous stupidity and indifference to man of the animals
themselves, and by the perfection of modern firearms.
It appears that although the bison had for more than a century been subject
to a merciless persecution, both by Indians and Whites, yet up to the year 1830,
beyond a certain restriction in its area of distribution, this desultory warfare had
not made any very serious inroads on the numbers of the animals ; and that as late
OXEN. 195
as 1870 there were certainly several million head still living. During the period
from 1730 to 1830 the desultory warfare had, however, completely driven away
the bison from the eastern portion of the United States, and also from the districts
to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, where they were never very numerous.
With the year 1830, Mr. Hornaday considers, began the era of the systematic
slaughter of the bison for the sake of its flesh and hides ; and the ever-increasing
demand for " buffalo-robes," as the dressed skins are termed, soon began to tell on
its numbers. Up to the year 1869 the bison occupied one large and continuous
aiva ; but the completion in that year of the Union Pacific Railway cut this area
in twain, and at the same time divided the great herd into a northern and southern
moiety. The headquarters of the southern herd were somewhere about the situation
where Garden City, Kansas, now stands. Although the area occupied by this herd
was greatly inferior in size to that of the northern herd, yet the number of bison on
it was vastly greater, being estimated in 1871 as at least three, and probably nearly
four, millions. That year saw the completion of the Kansas branch of the Union
Pacific, and the great slaughter which thereupon commenced attained its height in
1873. At the latter date the destruction of these animals was so wasteful and so
wanton that it is believed every hide which came into the market represented four
individuals killed. The destruction was of course greatest along the lines of
railways, and on one of the three railways penetrating the southern bison-country,
nearly a quarter of a million skins, more than a million and a half pounds of
meat, and fully two and a quarter millions of pounds of bones, were carried during
the year in question. At this time the whole country was poisoned with the
effluvia from the decaying carcases ; and it was a common practice to drive away
the animals when they came to drink till they became so maddened with thirst
that they would come within easy shooting distance. Mr. Hornaday states that it
is probably a safe estimate to say that not " fewer than fifty thousand bison have
been killed for their tongues alone, and the most of these are undoubtedly charge-
able against white men, who ought to have known better." Over three and a half
million individuals are estimated to have been slaughtered in the southern herd
between 1872 and 1874. In the latter year the hunters became alarmed at the
great diminution in the number of the bison, and by the end of 1875 the great
southern herd had ceased to exist as a body. The main body of the survivors,
some ten thousand strong, fled into the wilder parts of Texas, where they had
been gradually shot down, till a few years ago some two or three score remained
as the sole survivors of the three or four millions of the great southern herd ; and
in the year 1880 bison-shooting was finally abandoned, as being no longer a profit-
able trade.
With regard to the northern herd, of which the number in 1870 was approxi-
mately estimated at a million and a half, distributed over a very wide tract of
country, it appears that the portion living in British North America was the first
to be exterminated. Before the year 1880 the numbers of the herd had been
greatly reduced in Dakota and Wyoming by the Sioux Indians ; but the commence-
ment of the final destruction was heralded by the opening in that year of the
Northern Pacific Railway, which traversed the heart of the bison -country. The
IK -i-d was, indeed, hemmed in on three sides by Sioux armed with breech-loading
196 UNGULATES.
rifles; and the price of robes having risen greatly in 1881, a rush from all sides
was made on the devoted herd, and in the hunting-season, commencing in October
1882 and terminating in the following February, the annihilation of the great
northern herd was practically completed ; only some straggling bands, numbering
a few thousands, surviving. This event appears to have come like a thunder-clap
on the hunters, who actually fitted out expeditions in the autumn of 1884, only to
find that their quarry had disappeared for ever. Mr. Hornaday states that to the
south of the Northern Pacific Railway, a band of about three hundred settled
permanently in and around the Yellowstone National Park, but in a very short
time every animal outside of the protected limits of the park was killed; and
whenever any of the park buffaloes strayed beyond the boundary, they too were
promptly killed for their heads and hides. Those remaining in the Yellowstone
are now protected by Government, and there are a few scattered bands still linger-
ing in the more remote and inaccessible portions of the country, but otherwise the
American bison has ceased to exist as a wild animal.
Turning to the development and habits of the species, it appears
that the breeding-season is from the beginning of July to the end of
September, and that the calves are generally born from April to June, although
occasionally as late as August. The cow does not breed till three years old, and
sometimes produces two calves at a birth. For the first two months of its existence
the calf has the pelage of a brownish yellow colour ; and even at that period has
indications of the long hair covering the fore-quarters of the adult. Young calves
can be tamed with facility. In yearling bison the horns are in the form of a
straight conical spike, of from 4 to 6 inches in length ; and these spike-like horns,
with a curve at the base in older individuals, continue till the end of the fourth
year, during which period the young males are termed " spike-bulls." In these
young bulls the horns are jet-black ; but from scaling of the exterior, and the
accumulation of dirt, they tend to grey in the adult. With advancing age the
outer layers of the horn begin to break off near the summit, until the whole horn
becomes short, thick, and blunted, " with only the tip of what was once a neat and
shapely horn showing at the end. The bull is then known as a ' stub-horn/ and
his horns increase in roughness and unsightliness as he grows older."
Towards the end of winter the coat of the bison assumes a faded and bleached
appearance from the effects of the wear and tear of the elements ; and towards the
end of February, or somewhat later, the coat begins to change, but the whole
process occupies more than half the year. The shedding is accomplished both by
the new hair growing into and forcing off the old, and also by the latter falling oft
and leaving the skin bare in great patches, as shown in our coloured illustration of
the European species. During the shedding process the animal presents an un-
sightly appearance, but by the end of June the whole of the old hair has fallen off
and the body is bare, although the new dark hair is well grown on the head.
During the summer the naked skin is scorched by the sun and bitten by flies, and
the animal consequently protects itself by wallowing, and thus coating itself with
a plaster of dried mud. By the beginning of October the new coat of hair has,
however, attained a considerable length, and between the 20th of November and
the 20th of December the bison is in the full glory of his apparel ; and the contrast
OXEN. 197
presented by his condition at this time to that during the summer must be seen to
be fully appreciated. The height attained by the bull bison has been already
mentioned. In regard to weight, Mr. Hornaday states that an adult bull shot by his
party scaled 1727 Ibs., but as the animal was by no means fat it is probable that
this weight is in some cases exceeded.
It was during the breeding-season that the small bands which had been
previously distributed over a wide area of country collected in the huge herds
above alluded to ; and at such seasons the bulls were occupied either in chasing
the cows or in combats among themselves. The concerted roaring of the
bulls at these times is described as resembling thunder, and audible at distances
of from one to three miles, or even, exceptionally, at five miles. At the conclusion
of the breeding-season the herd again broke up into small bands. In these
periodical journeys across the country in search of water regular tracks were
formed by the bison, and as the water was approached several tracks united,
with the result that in some places tracks of about twelve inches in width, and
from six to seven in depth, may be seen following the level of the valleys ; the bison
in these journeys having always marched in single file. These old bison-tracks still
remain as a memento of a vanished race, and are now used by the domestic cattle
which have supplanted the monarchs of the prairie. After reaching the watering-
place, the herd, instead of returning to its original feeding-ground, would wander
right and left in search of fresh pastures. When undisturbed in good pasture,
bison were always in the habit of lying down for a few hours during the middle
of the day ; and they were at certain seasons fond of rolling either in dust or mud.
In districts where salt lakes occurred, the bison would resort to them in great
numbers. All the great herds were in the habit of moving southwards for a
distance of from two hundred to four hundred miles with the approach of winter ;
and during such journeys it frequently happened that numbers were lost in crossing
quicksands, alkali-bogs, muddy fords, or on treacherous ice. It is stated that in
18G7 upwards of two thousand bison out of a herd of four thousand were lost
in a quicksand; and that an entire herd of about one hundred head perished
when crossing the ice on a lake in Minnesota.
Bison would boldly face the cutting blizzards of the north-west, instead of
turning tail to them after the manner of domestic cattle ; although they would at
the same time seek such shelter as might be obtainable by retiring to the ravines
and valleys. In heavy falls of snow, which lay long on the ground, the bison were
often compelled to fast for days, or even weeks, together ; but they suffered most
when the surface of the snow was covered with a thin crust of ice after a slight
thaw, as their ponderous weight would drive their feet deep into the snow, and
leave them at the mercy of the Indians, by whom they were slain by hundreds
when thus helpless.
Space does not admit of anything more than bare mention of a
Hunting. J
few of the modes in which the bison was hunted. The method of
stalking, or " still-hunting," where the hunter creeps up to a herd and shoots one
after another of its members, appears to be one of the most deadly, owing to the
crass stupidity of the animals themselves. The plan adopted was first to shoot the
leader, when the remainder of the herd would come and stupidly smell round the
198 UNGULATES.
body, till another animal assumed the post of leader, and was shot down when it
was about to make a move ; the same process being repeated almost without end.
Riding down, surrounding, impounding, or hunting in snow-shoes were, however,
other equally effective methods of destruction.
In captivity the American bison breeds freely, not only with its
own kind, but also with other species of cattle. In the United States
a herd has been established by crossing bull bison with domestic cows ; the cow
bison not producing a hybrid offspring. This hybrid race is perfectly fertile, either
with itself or when again crossed with domestic cattle ; and it is considered that a
strain of bison-blood will lead to the cattle in the North-Western States being
better enabled to withstand the blizzards of those districts.
Subfossil remains of the American bison are found in various
£xtmct Bison.
parts of North America, while in Texas there occur those of the
extinct broad-fronted bison (B. latifrons), distinguished by its superior size, and its
stouter and less backwardly-inclined horns.
THE CAPE BUFFALO (Bos ca/er).
The Cape buffalo is our first representative of a group of oxen distinguished
by several well-marked characters. They are all heavily-built animals, with thick
and strong limbs, moderately long tails, tufted at the end, short necks, very broad
muzzles, and large ears. The hair covering the body is always thin, and in old
age leaves the skin almost entirely naked. The horns, which are generally large
and massive, are more or less distinctly flattened and angulated, at least at the
base, where their cross-section is triangular. They are placed on the skull a
considerable distance below the plane of the occiput; and their upper border is
concave, with the tips curved inwards, the curvature being generally at first
outwards and backwards, and then outwards and upwards. In the skull the
forehead is more or less markedly concave, and the premaxillary bones reach
upwards to join the nasals, as in the typical oxen. The number of ribs is thirteen
pairs.
The Cape, or black African buffalo is the largest and fiercest member of the
group found in the continent, from which it takes its name. This species is
characterised by its blackish colour, and the great massiveness of the relatively
short horns, which are much flattened at the base, where they are expanded, so as
to form in old bulls a kind of helmet-like mass, covering the whole of the upper
part of the head, and with only a narrow line between them. From this expanded
base the curvature of the horns is at first outwards, downwards, and backwards,
and then forwards, upwards, and inwards ; their smooth extremities being nearly
cylindrical. The skull is characterised by its shortness, and also by the deep
concavity of the profile below the horns ; the nasal bones being extremely short,
and the sockets of the eyes not particularly prominent. The head has a very large
and expanded muzzle, and a characteristic hollow below the inner angle of the eye.
The enormous flapping ears are thickly fringed on their lower border with hair ;
their upper border being sharply truncated before the descent to the pointed
extremity. With the exception of the ears and the tip of the tail, the hair is very
OXEN.
199
sparse, and it is only on the head and limbs that old bulls can properly be said to
be haired at all. In the cows and young bulls the hair is, however, thicker ; and
its colour in these is dark brown, with a more or less marked reddish tinge. A
well-grown bull buffalo will stand between 4 feet 7 inches and 4 feet 8 inches at
the shoulder. The horns vary in shape with the age of the animal. In regard to
their size, Mr. Selous states that the largest pair he obtained had an extreme span,
CAPE BUFFALO (^ nat. size).
from bend to bend, in a straight line, of 3 feet 8 inches, with a depth on the
forehead of 15 inches ; the total length of each horn along the curve being 3 feet.
In another example the same three dimensions were respectively 3 feet 6 inches,
17 inches, and 2 feet 11 inches.
The typical Cape buffalo is usually found in reedy swamps from
the Cape as far north as the Equator ; but some individuals distin-
guished, according to the Hon. W. H. Drummond, by their blacker hair and more
spreading horns inhabit forests. From the Equator northwards to Abyssinia the
200 UNGULATES.
species is represented by a variety of lighter build, and with horns less thickened
on the forehead, and separated in the middle line by a considerable interval. This
variety was formerly regarded as indicating a distinct species, under the names of
B. cequinoctialis and B. centralis ; but intermediate gradations connect it so closely
with the ordinary Cape form that this view has been abandoned.
In regions where their numbers have not been thinned by the sportsman's
rifle, the Cape buffalo, according to Mr. Selous, is usually found in herds of from
fifty to two hundred, or even three hundred, individuals. Old bulls are frequently
met with alone, although they more usually associate in parties of two, three, or
four, while occasionally from eight to ten may be seen together. These small
parties of bulls are said to be much less wary, and, consequently, much more" easy
to approach than large herds of cows; and solitary bulls are not regarded by
Mr. Selous as more dangerous than other members of the species. The same
writer observes that for animals of such heavy build and bulk these buffaloes are
remarkably swift ; and it requires a good horse to keep ahead of a charging buffalo
even in the open ; while in cover, unless very fleet, the horse stands a good chance
of being overtaken. Cape buffaloes are commonly represented in pictures as
charging with their heads lowered to the ground and their tails raised high in the
air. This, however, according to Mr. Selous, is wholly incorrect, since, when
charging, they " invariably hold their noses straight out, and lay their horns back
over their shoulder.?. They lower their heads just as they strike."
Mr. Drummond writes of the habits of this species as follows : — " About
sunrise they drink a sufficient quantity of water to last during the long, hot day,
and then make their way to wherever they may have determined to sleep. This
in summer is generally on the highest and most breezy spot to be found, under
the shelter of two or three trees ; in winter, in the thick jungle. They do not live
farther from water than possible, as the moment the sun goes down, often before,
they go straight to refresh themselves with a bath and drink before feeding, which
they continue to do till soon after midnight, making ' the most horrible maze of
track imaginable. They then rest and chew the cud for some time, getting up and
continuing grazing until it is time to revisit the river or hole, and so onward to
their lair."
The Cape buffalo breeds during the African summer, the young being born
from January to March, and there being apparently never more than one at a
birth. The calf is hidden in long grass ; and for about ten days after its birth
the cow separates from the herd, and remains within a short distance of her
offspring, which she visits at intervals. In regard to the age to which the animal
lives, Mr. Drummond states that old, solitary bulls have been known as such for
twelve years, and he considers it probable that the full age may be about thirty
years.
The buffalo has but two enemies — the lion and man; and the combined
assaults of these two have in some districts so reduced its numbers that, according
to Mr. Drummond, writing as far back as 1875, where there were formerly herds
of from ten to one hundred in number, not ten head are to be found. A combat
between three lions and a bull buffalo has been mentioned in our notice of the
lion. The bulls frequently engage in fights between themselves ; and Mr.
OXEN.
201
Drummond gives the following account of one such combat which he had the
good fortune to witness : — <: On looking through the edge of the last thicket which
concealed them I saw two buft'alo bulls standing facing each other with lowered
heads, and, as I sat down to watch, they rushed together with all their force,
producing the loud crash I had before heard. Once their horns were interlocked,
they kept them so, their straining quarters telling that each was doing his best to
force the other backwards. Several long white marks on their necks showed
SHORT-HORNED BUFFALO, SIERRA LEONE VARIETY (fa Uat. SIZt)
where they had received scratches, and blood dripping down the withers of the
one next me proved that he had received a more severe wound. It was a
magnificent sight to see the enormous animals, every muscle at its fullest tension,
striving for the mastery. Soon one, a very large and old bull, began to yield a
little, going backwards step by step, but at last, as if determined to conquer or die,
it dropped on its knees. The other, disengaging his horns for a second, so as to
gain an impetus, again rushed at him, but did not strike him on the forehead, but
on the neck, under the hump, and I could see that with a twist of his horns he
inflicted a severe wound." Instead, however, of following up his advantage, this
202 UNGULATES.
bull recoiled and hesitated, and was eventually charged by his adversary full in the
shoulder, after which he declined to continue the contest.
The Cape buffalo has been described as the most dangerous of all South
African animals, but both Mr. Drummond and Mr. Selous deny that this is really
the case. It is true that more fatal accidents occur in buffalo-shooting than in
any other sport, but this is discounted by the circumstance that more of these
animals are killed than any other large game. Although there are exceptions,
buffalo do not generally charge unless wounded; but cows with calves, or
individuals wounded by lions are more irritable, and more prone to charge than
ordinary. At the same time, the pursuit is far from being unaccompanied by
danger ; and Sir J. Willoughby states that of all the animals met with by him in
Eastern Africa " the buffalo is probably the most cunning and dangerous to attack ;
they become very savage when wounded, and usually take to the thick bush,
where they lie in wait for their foe. The greatest care should be taken in
following them up, as, on account of the denseness of the bush, it is next to
impossible for the hunter to avoid the sudden charge that is almost sure to ensue
if the buffalo sights him first. A cow can be killed by a bullet anywhere on the
forehead or behind the ear; but a bull is practically invulnerable in the head,
although it may be dropped by a lucky shot striking above the eyes in the narrow
line of division between the horns."
THE SHORT-HORNED BUFFALO (Bos pumilus).
The short-horned, or red buffalo, of which one variety is represented in the
figure on p. 201, and a second in the accompanying illustration, is a smaller animal
than the Cape species, from which it is further distinguished by its smaller and
much less massive horns, as well as by its more abundant and lighter-coloured hair.
This buffalo is a West African species, and is known to the natives as the niari,
and to the Europeans of the west coast as the bush-cow. It is found in most of
the tropical regions where the Cape buffalo is unknown, and is essentially a forest-
dwelling animal. The height of the animal is, as a rule, inferior to that of the
Cape buffalo. The colour of the hair is generally some shade of yellow or red, but
more rarely brown, although some individuals are much darker and nearly black.
The specimen figured in the illustration on p. 201, which came from Sierra Leone,
and was exhibited in the Zoological Gardens at Antwerp, in 1875, was light yellow
above but reddish on the under-parts, with a sharp line of demarcation between
the two areas. It will be observed from the figure that the horns are but little
flattened, and are separated from one another by a wide interval on the forehead,
and have a simple curvature ; these features being apparently distinctive of all the
specimens from the north-western portion of the creature's range. On the other
hand, when we pass southwards into the Congo district, we find that these buffaloes,
as shown in our second illustration, have the horns much more flattened and
expanded at their bases, where they are closely approximated in the middle line.
Their tips are also curved sharply upwards and inwards, terminating in a point.
This variety, which is also of rather larger size than the other, was described as
B. centralis, and approximates to the northern variety of the Cape buffalo.
OXEN.
203
Indeed with some of the specimens from Central Equatorial Africa it is difficult to
find constant characters by which they can be distinguished on the one hand from
the typical niari, with widely-separated and slightly-flattened horns, and on the
other from the northern variety of the Cape buffalo. Hence it is probable that
the present species is in reality nothing more than a geographical race of the
latter, reduced in size and otherwise modified by the difference in its habitat. We
have indications of the commencement of such a modification in the case of the
" wood-bison " of North America, and there is no reason why such modifications
SHORT-HORNED BUFFALO, CONGO VARIETY (^\ liat. size).
should not have been carried still further in the present instance. Horns of the
typical short-horned buffalo range from 11 to 21 inches in length, with a basal
girth of from 10 to 13 inches. The short-horned buffalo is found both in the plains
and in the mountains of Western Africa, and appears to be far from uncommon. It
possesses a speed almost equal to that of the larger antelopes ; and when in thick
cover is very difficult to drive out, except with the aid of dogs. Otherwise there
does not appear to be anything specially noteworthy in its habits.
It may be mentioned here that both in Algeria and at the Cape
Extinct Forms. e r
there are found in the superficial deposits skulls of buffaloes allied to
204
UNGULATES.
the Cape species, but with far longer horns, which did not, however, meet in a
helmet-like mass on the forehead. In an Algerian specimen the length of the bony
horn-cores measured along the curve is fully 11 feet, while in one from the Cap
the length is estimated at upwards of 14 feet. When covered with their horn
sheaths, the horns would of course be still longer.
THE INDIAN BUFFALO (Bos bubalus).
The Indian buffalo, or arna, as the male is called in India, is a very different
animal in appearance from either of the African species. It is characterised by the
THE INDIAN BUFFALO, FERAL RACE (j$ liat. size).
much greater proportionate length of the head, of which the profile is nearly
straight and the centre of the forehead markedly convex. In the skull the sockets
oi' the eyes are very prominent, and the nasal bones are of much greater length
than in the African species. The ears are also much smaller and less open,
with only a very slight fringe of hair on their edges. Still more distinctive
are the horns, which are very long, much flattened, and angulated throughout the
greater part of their length, with strongly-marked transverse wrinkles, and a
OXEN. 205
distinctly triangular section. They taper gradually from root to tip, and generally
curve regularly upwards, outwards, and a little backwards from the line of the face
in nearly a single plane ; the tips bending inwards and slightly forwards. This is
the type represented in our illustration ; but in a variety, which is mainly or
entirely from Assam, the horns are directed straight outwards for the greater part
of their length, and then suddenly curve upwards. In the cow the horns are
considerably longer and thinner, with a much less marked angulation in front, than
in the bulls ; and it is in this sex, so far as our experience goes, that the horns with
the straightest direction outwards are met with. The body becomes almost bare
in old animals, and the general colour is ashy-black, although the legs may be
whitish, or even, in domestic races, quite white below the knees and hocks. There
is, however, a dun-coloured variety of this species, described by Mr. Blanford from
upper Assam, in which the forehead is more convex than ordinary, and the nasal
bones of the skull are much shorter.
According to General Kinloch, it is doubtful if the bull of this species ever
exceeds 5 feet 4 inches (16 hands) at the withers; and in one specimen, of which
he gives the dimensions, the height was 5 feet, the length from the nose to the root
of the tail 9 feet 7 inches, that of the tail 3 feet 11 inches, and the girth 8 feet
3 inches. In the same specimen the length of the horns, measured from tip to tip
along the greater curve, was 8 feet 3 inches. A skull in the British Museum has
horns measuring 12 feet 2 inches from tip to tip along the curve ; wrhile a detached
horn in the same collection has a length of 6 feet 6£ inches, which indicates a
span of about 14 feet from tip to tip in the pair.
In a truly wrild state the Indian buffalo is only known definitely
in the country from which it takes its name, the herds which are
found in a wild state in Burma and the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands,
being not improbably descended from animals escaped from captivity. Our
illustration is taken from an individual of one of these feral races in Java, where
they are known by the name of karbu.
In India wild buffaloes are found on the plains of the Bramaputra and Ganges,
from the eastern end of Assam to Tirhut ; they also occur in the " terai " land at
the foot of the Himalaya, as far as Rohilcund, as well as on the plains near the
coast in Midnapur and Orissa, and in the eastern portions of the Central
Provinces, as well as in the north of Ceylon. Domesticated buffaloes are found
not only over the whole of India and Burma, and the greater part of the Malayan
region, but have likewise been introduced into Asia Minor, Egypt,, and Italy.
The haunts of the wild Indian buffalo are the tall efrass-iunsrles
Habits. . s J
found in many parts of the plains of India, and generally in the
neighbourhood of swamps ; but it may be also found more rarely in the open plains
of short grass, or among low jungle, and occasionally even in forest. Those who
have never had the opportunity of seeing an Indian grass-jungle can have but
little conception of its height and density, but some idea may be formed of it from
the following statement of General Kinloch, who writes that in such cover " fre-
quently, although a herd of buffaloes may be roused within a score of yards, the
waving of the grass, and perhaps the glint of a polished horn-tip, is the only
ocular evidence of the presence of the animals ; the probably nearly noiseless rush
206 UNGULATES.
might be caused by other animals ; and where the horns have not been seen it is
only by the strong, sweet bovine scent — similar to, but much more powerful than,
that of cows — that one can be absolutely certain of what is in front of one." In
such jungles, needless to say, shooting (or indeed advancing at all) on foot is out
of the question, and the only method of procedure is by beating with a line of
elephants.
In their wild state these buffaloes are always found in herds, which may
comprise fifty or more individuals. Mr. Blanford states that " they feed chiefly on
grass, in the evening, at night, and in the morning ; and lie down, generally in
high grass, not unf requently in a marsh, during the day ; they are by no means
shy, nor do they appear to shun the neighbourhood of man, and they commit great
havoc amongst growing crops. Sometimes a herd or a solitary bull will take
possession of a field and keep off the men who own it. In fact buffaloes are by
far the boldest and most savage of the Indian Bovidce, and a bull not unfrequently
attacks without provocation, though (probably on the principle that a council of
war never fights) a herd, although all will gallop to within a short distance of an
intruder and make most formidable demonstrations, never, I believe, attacks any-
one who does not run away from them. A wounded animal of either sex often
charges, and has occasionally been known to knock an elephant down. Buffaloes
retain their courage in captivity, and a herd will attack a tiger or other dangerous
animal without hesitation, and, although gentle with those they know and greatly
attached to them, they are inclined to be hostile to strange men and strange
animals. Whether wild or tame they delight in water, and often during the heat
of the day lie down in shallow places with only parts of their heads above the
surface." The same author remarks that few animals have changed less in
captivity than tame buffaloes, which never interbreed with the humped Indian
cattle. The calves are born in summer, and there are not unfrequently two at
a birth. In walking, the Indian buffalo always carries its head low down.
Fossil Indian Remains of the Indian buffalo occur fossil in the gravels of the
Buffaloes. Narbada valley, and likewise in parts of the Punjab. The broad-
horned buffalo (B. platyceros) of the Siwalik Hills of Northern India, was, how-
ever, a perfectly distinct extinct species, characterised by the broad triangular horns
being placed closer together on the forehead, and directed rather forwards than
backwards, so that the forehead is nearly flat ; they are also placed more below
the plane of the occiput. Other extinct Siwalik buffaloes (B. occipitalis and
B. acuticornis) were of smaller size, and their skulls like those of the tamarao
and anoa; the horns rising upwards in the plane of the face, with but slight
divergence or curvature, and their cross-section either triangular or pear-shaped.
The tamarao of the Philippines (B. mindorensis] is a sturdily-
The Tamarao.
built dwarf buffalo, connecting the preceding with the following
species. It stands about 3^ feet in height, and has coarse thick blackish brown hair.
The horns, although massive, are comparatively short, and rise upwards in the plane
of the face with a lyrate curvature ; they are distinctly triangular, with the largest
face in front, and are somewhat roughened. In its massive hoi-ns, thick legs, and
uniform coloration, this species comes nearer to the Indian buffalo than to the
.anoa.
OXEN.
207
The Anoa.
The anoa of Celebes (B. depressicornis) is the smallest and most
slenderly built of the oxen, and, although allied to the buffaloes,
comes nearest in structure to the antelopes. In size it is inferior to a Highland
cow, its height being about 3 feet 3 inches, with the hind-quarters rather higher than
the withers. The horns are ringed and triangular at the base, of considerable
length, sharply pointed, and rising upwards in the plane of the face, with but a
small divergence and curvature. They are situated far below the plane of the
occiput, and consequently rise near the eyes ; in old males they may be as much as
THE ANOA (^ uat. size).
24 inches in length, but in cows they are always small. The hinder part of the
skull is more like that of an antelope than a buffalo, having no distinct crest on
the occiput. The ears are small, haired at the base, but naked at the tips, with a
bunch of white hairs internally ; and the skull narrows towards the muzzle. The
tail about reaches to the hocks. The general colour of the hair is dark brown,
lighter below, but there are two small spots of white on the sides of the head below
the eyes, while the lower part of the legs, and often the back, have also white
markings. In the young animal the hair is of considerable length and thickness,
but it tends to become thin with age, and in very old individuals the skin is nearly
bare. In young animals the hair is reddish yellow. The largest known horns
have a length of nsarly 12| inches. The anoa has a considerable resemblance to a
208 UNGULATES.
young Indian buffalo, and it agrees with the members of that group in its triangular
horns, in the short and sparse hair of the adult, in the large and naked muzzle,
and the barrel-like form of its body. It likewise resembles those animals in its
bovine smell, its fondness for water and shade, and its habit of drinking by long
draughts instead of by short gulps. On the other hand, the anoa approximates to
the antelopes in its slender build, the structure of the hinder part of its skull, the
upright direction and straightness of its horns, the spots on the head, body, and
limbs, and its small size. In connection with the aforesaid fossil species from the
Siwalik Hills, the anoa clearly indicates a close connection between the antelopes
and the buffaloes ; and from these primitive antelope-like buffaloes the other more
specialised groups of oxen may have been developed.
THE MusK-Ox.
Genus Ovibos.
In the desolate regions of the far north of the Western Hemisphere, where
even in summer the surface of the ground scarcely thaws, is found the curious
musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), which although presenting a certain superficial
resemblance to the oxen, is in reality far more nearly allied to the sheep. It
derives its name from the peculiar musky flavour with which the flesh is tainted,
and it forms the single living representative of a distinct genus.
The musk-ox is about two-thirds the size of the American bison, but from its
long coat of hair looks larger than it really is. In appearance the animal has been
compared to a large hairy ram ; and it resembles the sheep in the marked convexity
of the profile of the face and the hairy muzzle. The head is broad, with the small
and pointed ears almost concealed by the hair ; the latter being long and thick, and
generally of a dark brown colour, although paler in the spring. Though matted
and curling on the back, the hair on the throat and flanks is straight and reaches
down to the middle of the legs ; it also entirely hides the very short tail. Beneath
the hair is a coat of fine soft wool, of a light brown colour. The most striking
peculiarity of the animal is, however, to be found in its horns. In the bulls the horns
have very wide and flattened bases, covering a large portion of the forehead, and
meeting one another in the middle line ; at first they curve sharply downwards,
becoming at the same time gradually narrower and less expanded, and then curving
sharply upwards and forwards, terminating in front of the eyes. The bases of the
horns are very rough, and of a yellowish- white colour, but they gradually become
less rough, and at the same time darker, till at the tips, where their section is
cylindrical, they are smooth and black. In the young rams and the cows the horns
are much smaller, and separated from one another by a considerable interval in the
middle line. The limbs are short and massive ; and the feet are peculiar in that
while the outer hoof of each is rounded the inner one is pointed ; there is a con-
siderable growth of hair between the hoofs, which aids the animal in obtaining a
sure foothold on the ice. The molar teeth of the musk-ox are like those of the
sheep, and thus quite different from those of the oxen. Average-sized horns are
about 24 or 25 inches in length, but they may reach 27£ inches.
MUSK-OX.
209
Distribution.
The range of the musk-ox in Arctic America is limited to the
southward by the 60th degree of latitude, but extends northwards to
the 83rd degree in Grinnell Land. It abounds on both the east and west coasts of
Greenland, and in Arctic America its range is bounded to the eastward by the
Mackenzie River, flowing from the Great Slave lake in about longitude 67° 30',
while westwards it extends nearly to the Pacific. In former years the range of
the animal reached considerably farther south, it having been found, in the year
1770, near Fort Churchill, on the west coast of Hudson Bay, in latitude 58° 44'.
THE MUSK-OX (^ nat. size).
In prehistoric or Pleistocene time the musk-ox also ranged to the north-west into
Alaska, its fossilised remains having been found in the frozen soil of Kotzebue
Sound in Behring Strait, and also in the upper part of the Porcupine River in
Canada. At a still earlier period — probably when the whole of North America
was far colder than at present — the musk-ox ranged as far south as Kansas and
Kentucky, where its remains have been found between the 35th and 40th
parallels of latitude. The remains from these localities have, however, been regarded
as indicating an extinct species. Passing eastwards from Alaska across Behring
Strait into Asia, musk-ox bones are found in the frozen soil of Siberia, as far east-
wards as the Obi River. The animal doubtless once ranged right across Russia,
since there is evidence of its former existence in Germany as far south as Wtirtem-
VOL. ii. — 14
2IO
UNGULATES.
berg. Thence it extended into France, but the Pyrenees and Alps seem to have
marked the southern limits of its range. In England remains of the musk-ox
have been found in superficial deposits, and its skulls have been dredged from the
Dogger Bank. Although the alteration in climatic conditions affords a sufficient
reason for the northward retreat of the musk-ox, we are at present quite in the
HEAD OF BULL MUSK-OX.
dark why it has disappeared from the Eastern Hemisphere, while the reindeer still
has a circumpolar distribution.
The regions inhabited by the musk-ox are of the most barren
Habits. »
and inhospitable nature. It has been considered that the animal
migrated southwards during the coldest part of the year, but this is denied by Mr.
H. Biederbeck, who is one of the few explorers who have seen it in its wild state.
It was met with by his party in Grinnell Land in March, when the snow is deepest
MUSK-OX.
211
and the temperature lowest, and it inhabits that country and North Greenland
throughout the year. " The musk-oxen travel in herds, and it is but an exception
when one of them is found alone. This herding gives them a better chance to
defend themselves against their one enemy, the Arctic wolf, and also gives them
through close contact, additional warmth and protection against cold and winds. "
Occasionally, we are also informed by Mr. Biederbeck, the Eskimo
undertake an expedition into the interior for the purpose of hunting
the musk-ox for the sake of its warm pelage, which is used either for their own
bedding, or as an article of barter. The animals are hunted by means of dogs, each
hunter taking two or three of these animals with their sledge-traces attached, and
thus allowing himself to be pulled along till within a short distance of the quarry.
Hunting.
The difficulty is then to slip the dogs at the right moment without allowing their
traces to drag behind them, and thus be liable to be trodden on by the bayed musk-
oxen ; but clever hunters obviate this by tying the traces in a bundle on the backs
of the dogs just before they are slipped. When bayed and surrounded, the members
of the herd are shot down by the score, the great object being to kill each animal
outright, as otherwise there is great danger of its struggles inducing a stampede
among the herd, which would involve another hunt. Sometimes, however, the
herd, even after having made a bolt, will return to the spot where their comrades
have fallen. When scenting danger, the musk-oxen, says Mr. Biederbeck, " always
retreat to some elevation near by, and upon the approach of the enemy they form
in a perfect line, their heads toward their foe ; or, if attacked at more than one
point, they form a circle, their glaring, blood-shot eyes restlessly watching the
212
UNGULATES.
attack ; and I think it would go hard with the man or beast who, under such
circumstances, might come within reach of their broad horns or hard hoofs."
In spite of its coarse grain, the meat of the musk-ox is described as being juicy
and tender, that of the young animals being especially so, but in order to obviate
the musky flavour it is essential that the carcase should be dressed as soon as killed.
SHEEP.
Genus Ovis.
Although nearly allied to the musk-ox, the sheep form a group distinguished
by several important characters from the oxen, but passing almost imperceptibly
SKELETON OF MOUFLON.
into the goats. They are of smaller size than the majority of the oxen, and
although comparatively short-necked, carry their heads higher above the level of
the back. Both males and females are furnished with horns ; but whereas those of
the former are large, and frequently extremely massive at the base, those of the
latter are small and narrow. In the males the horns are generally more or less
SHEEP.
213
triangular in section, and marked by parallel transverse wrinkles, while their colour
is greenish or brownish ; they are directed outwardly from the sides of the head,
their upper border being at first always convex, and the curvature generally
taking the form of an open spiral, with the tips turned outwards. The face has
generally, but not always, a small gland below the eye, and there is a corresponding
depression in the skull for its reception ; and the muzzle differs
from that of the oxen in being pointed and covered with short
hair. Another distinctive feature of the group is the presence of
a small gland in each foot between the hoofs; and the females
have but two teats in place of the four of the oxen. The males
of all sheep are devoid of any strong odour ; neither have they
any beard on the chin. As a rule, in wild species, the tail is
very short ; but in one case it reaches just below the hocks. The
ears are of moderate length ; and the hair, in wild species, is short
and stiff, although it may be elongated on the throat and fore-
quarters. The upper molar teeth differ from those of the oxen
in having narrow crowns without any additional column on the
inner side. The feet have only the upper ends of the lateral
metacarpal and metatarsal bones remaining.
As regards the characters of their molar teeth, the sheep BONES OP THE LEFT
resemble the gazelles, and it is accordingly not improbable that FORE-FOOT OF THE
they may trace their descent to extinct antelopes more or less Dawkins.
nearly allied to that group. Oxen, on the other hand, having
molar teeth nearly similar to those of the sable antelope and oryx, may be more
nearly allied to the ancestors of that group.
Sheep are represented at the present day by eleven wild species,
which are mostly inhabitants of Europe and Asia northwards of the
outer range of the Himalaya ; although one species occurs in the Punjab and Sind,
a second in Northern Africa, and a third in North America. They associate
either in parties of two or three individuals, or in flocks of considerable size ; and
are essentially mountain animals. Very generally, however, sheep inhabit the more
open mountain districts, rather than the craggy and steeply-scarped regions selected
by the goats.
Most of the species are very nearly related to one another, and in several
instances it is difficult to determine whether certain forms ought to be regarded as
distinct species or merely as local races. Geologically, the sheep are even a more
modern group than the oxen, none of them being definitely known to occur before
the epoch of the so-called forest-bed of the Norfolk coast, which belongs to the upper
part of the Pliocene or the lower part of the Pleistocene period.
THE AMERICAN AND KAMSCHATKAN WILD SHEEP (Ovis canadensis
and 0. nivicola).
The American wild sheep or " bighorn " (0. canadensis) and the Kamschatkan
wild sheep (0. nivicola) are two very closely-allied species, differing in several
important respects from the other members of the genus. The most distinctive
Distribution.
2I4 UNGULATES.
characteristic of these species is to be found in their horns, which, while very large
and massive, are distinguished by the slight development of the wrinkles on their
anterior surface, and the great prominence of the outer anterior angle, and the
rounding-off of the inner one. In the skull the depression for the gland below the
eye is extremely shallow ; and both in this respect and in the smoothness of their
horns, these species show an approximation to the goats.
American The American wild sheep is a large animal, with the summer
wild Sheep. coat of a light brown colour, often showing a reddish tinge, while in
winter it is bluish grey on the upper-parts. The under-parts, as well as portions
of the legs, are white ; and there is a large and conspicuous white patch on the
rump, which extends upwards on either side of the tail. The back has a more or
less distinct dark stripe, reaching to the tail; the latter being very short, and
SKULL OF KAMSCHATKAN WILD SHEEP. (From Guillemard's Cruise of the Marchesa.)1
black in colour. The end of the muzzle is light-coloured. Beneath the hair there
is a shining white under-wool. Very old males may become very light coloured
throughout. The rams attain a height of about 3| feet at the withers ; and their
average weight is about 350 Ibs., or rather less. The ewes stand about 3 feet in
height, and weigh about a third less than the rams. The length of horns in good
specimens, measured along the curve, varies from 33 to 36, or even 40 and 41
inches ; the broken tips frequently rendering them shorter than they would be, if
perfect. A horn measuring 33 inches in length had a basal girth of 16 inches ;
while in one belonging to Mr. Otho Shaw, of which the length is 40 inches, the
basal girth is only 15| inches.
According to Mr. G. O. Shields, the geographical range of the
American wild sheep extends from Mexico to Alaska, and from the
eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast ; although there are
some mountain ranges within this area upon which it has never been observed.
Along the valleys of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers it extends, however, some
1 We are indebted to Dr. Guillemard and Mr. Murray for this figiire, and also for the one of the head of the
same species.
SHEEP.
215
Varieties.
four hundred miles to the eastwards of the Rocky Mountains, inhabiting the so-
called " Bad Lands " of these districts.
According to the observations of Col. J. Biddulph there are two
distinct varieties of this sheep, the one inhabiting the northern, and
the other the southern portion of its distributional area. The southern variety is
characterised by its large skull and very massive horns ; the tips of the latter being
generally broken and directed forwards. The ears are large, broad, pointed, and
deer-like, with hair of only very moderate length. In the northern race, on the
other hand, the skull is smaller, and the horns less massive, with their tips generally
THE AMERICAN WILD SHEEP OR BIGHORN (3^ nat. si/e).
entire, and directed outwards, as in the skull of the Kamschatkan species repre-
sented in the figure on p. 214. The ears are small and thickly furred, with blunted
extremities ; and there is a tuft of long hair between the ears at the back of the
horns. There are, moreover, certain differences in the coloration of the legs in the
two races ; and it does not appear that the southern one ever assumes the dark
winter coat frequently found in the northern variety.
The American wild sheep is described as one of the wildest and
most wary of all the large mammals of North America ; and since it
appears to inhabit more difficult and rugged ground than many of the other species,
its successful pursuit is proportionately difficult. Mr. J. Muir writes that " in
spring and summer the full-grown rams form separate bands of from three to
Habits.
2l6
UNGULATES.
twenty, and are usually found feeding along the edges of glacier-meadows, or rest-
ing among castle-like crags of the high summits ; and whether quietly feeding, or
scaling the wild cliffs for pleasure, their noble forms, and the power and beauty of
their movements, never fail to strike the beholder with lively admiration. Their
resting-place seems to be chosen with reference to sunshine and a wide outlook,
and most of all to safety from the attacks of wolves." It is stated that flocks of
these sheep have, on more than one occasion, been known to leap down a precipice
of one hundred and fifty feet in height.
This species was formerly found in large flocks, but is now rapidly diminishing
in numbers ; so that, according to Mr. Shields, where it was at one time found in
bands of several hundred individuals it is now rarely that more than fifty are seen
together. Sentinels are posted in prominent positions to give notice to the herd of
the approach of danger ; and the agility of these animals in making their way over
glaciers and crags is said to be unsurpassed. In summer these sheep will occasion-
ally ascend as high as twelve thousand feet ; but in the spring they wander into
the valleys in search of fresh pasture or salt lakes. The lambs, which are occa-
sionally two at a birth, but usually one, are produced in May and the beginning of
June, and when but a few days old will follow their mothers up apparently
inaccessible cliffs. The flesh of this sheep is said to be equal in flavour to the best
venison. The Indians hunt the bighorn by tying a pair of horns on their heads,
when they are able to creep within range.
Kamschatkan The Kamschatkan wild sheep, of which the head is represented
Wild Sheep. jn t,ne accompanying woodcut and the skull in the figure on p. 214,
is so very closely related to
the northern variety of the
American species, that it may
be a question whether it is
really anything more than a
geographical race of the latter.
Thus both have the compara-
tively small skull, and rela-
tively slender horns with
entire and outwardly directed
tips; while in both there is
the same tuft between the
small hairy ears. The ears
of the Kamschatkan sheep
are, however, rounded instead
of blunt ; and the white patch
on the rump is smaller, and
does not extend above the
tail, while there is no trace
of a dark stripe down the
back.
The Kamschatkan sheep is found in the Stanovoi Mountains to
the north of the Sea of Okhotsk, as well as in the peninsula of
1
HEAD OF THE KAMSCHATKAN WILD SHEEP.
(From Guillemard's Cruise of the Marchesa.)
Distribution.
SHEEP. 217
Kamschatka, and since it may also extend somewhat to the eastward, it is obvious
that its range is separated by little more than Behring Strait from its American
cousin in Alaska. Hence it is evident that such difference as there is between the
two is merely due to their isolation from one another since the period when there
was a free communication between North-Eastern Asia and Alaska. Dr. Guillemard
found these sheep abundant on the eastern coast of Kamschatka, about fifty miles
to the north-east of Petropaulovsky ; his party having shot fourteen adult rams in
two days. He describes them as standing about 3 feet 4 inches at the shoulder on
the average; and the largest horns he obtained measured 38 inches along the
curve, with a basal girth of 14 inches. " The general colour," writes Dr. Guille-
mard, " is a brown-grey, the head and neck rather greyer than the rest of the body.
Both tail and ears are remarkably short. The coat in those that we shot was very
long and thick, almost like that of a reindeer ; but autumn was well advanced,
and I have no doubt that in summer it is much thinner. It was curious that we
should not only never have shot, but never even have seen, the females. All those
that fell to our rifles were rams of (as far as we could judge) from three to six
years old. Whether the females always herd together or only at certain seasons it
is difficult to say, and we were unable to get any information from the natives
upon this point. The taste of the meat when quite fresh was slightly rank, but
upon the second day the unpleasant flavour had entirely disappeared."
THE MONGOLIAN AND TIBETAN ARGALIS (Ovis ammon and 0. hodgsoni).
The magnificent wild sheep of Mongolia known as the argali (0. ammon), and
a very closely-allied species (0. hodgsoni) found in Tibet, are readily distinguished
from the American and Kamschatkan members of the genus by the characters of
their skull and horns. The skull has a much deeper pit for the gland below the
eye; and the enormous horns have the wrinkles on the anterior surface very
strongly marked, and their outer anterior angle much less prominent, the inner
one being more distinct.
The two species, or perhaps varieties, are so closely related that one description
will do for both ; but the true argali appears to be distinguished by the absence of
a ruff on the throat, while in one specimen in the British Museum there is no
distinct light-coloured patch on the rump. The argalis may be compared in size
to a large donkey ; and have short, coarse, and close hair, small ears, and a very
short tail. In the males of the Tibetan species the hair on the sides and under-part
of the throat is lengthened so far as to form a white ruff, and there is also a shorter
crest of dark hair running along the back of the neck to the shoulders. The colour
is greyish brown above, but whitish beneath ; and in the males there is, as a rule,
a large white patch surrounding the tail and embracing a considerable portion of
the rump, while the throat, chest, and under-parts, as well as the inner sides of the
legs, are likewise white. The crest of hair on the neck and a stripe down the
outer side of the legs are dark, and there is also a dark mark above the tail. In
very old rams the fur of the back becomes greyish by the admixture of wh^^e
hairs ; and Mr. Blanford considers it probable that in winter the whole colour is
paler than in summer. In the ewes the long hair on the back and throat character-
2i8 UNGULATES.
istic of the Tibetan argali is but little developed, or absent ; and the light patch on
the rump is indistinct. The massive and closely- wrinkled horns of the rams are
light brown in colour, with their edges much rounded, and their lateral surfaces
considerably deeper than the one in front ; they form a spiral curve, with the tips
diverging but slightly outwards, and the whole twist falling somewhat short of a
complete circle. As in the American wild sheep, the horns of the ewes are small,
thin, widely separated, and nearly erect, with a slight outward and backward
curvatura The adult ram of the Tibetan argali stands from 3£ to 4 feet at the
shoulder ; but the weight does not appear to have been ascertained. The horns of
fine specimens generally measure from 36 to 40 inches along the curve, with a basal
girth of 16 or 17 inches ; but these dimensions are sometimes exceeded. The horns
of a specimen in the collection of Mr. Otho Shaw have a length of 47 i and a girth
of 17 inches ; and in another pair the length has been stated to be 48 inches, with
a girth of 20 inches. Some degree of doubt attaches, however, to an alleged length
of 53 inches, and a girth of 24 or 25 inches, which have been given as the dimensions
FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS OF SKULL AND HOENS OF TIBETAN AEGALI. (From Sir V. Brooke,
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875.)
of one example. In ewes the horns are seldom more than 18 inches, but it is stated
that they may occasionally reach 24 inches.
_. . The ran^e of the true argali appears to have been much restricted
Distribution. .
at the present day, owing to the animal having been driven from
many parts of Northern Siberia by the Cossack hunters. Formerly occurring in
the Altai, it is now found over Northern Mongolia, and, according to Brehm, some
portions of Southern Siberia. The sheep from Mongolia to the north of Pekin,
described as 0. jubata, is probably not specifically distinct from this species ; and
the same remark will apply to the 0. nigrimontana of Turkestan. The term argali
is the Mongolian name of this sheep, but it is known to the Kirghiz as the arkal.
The Tibetan argali — the nyan (female nyanmo) of the Ladakis — inhabits the
Tibetan plateau from Northern Ladak to the districts northwards of Sikhim, and
probably still farther to the east. It is unknown to the southward of the main
axis of the Himalaya, and in summer does not descend below an elevation of fifteen
thousand feet, but in winter may occasionally come as low as twelve thousand feet.
^rue arali is stated to inhabit mountains at an elevation of
Habits
from three thousand to four thousand feet above the sea, which have an
abundance of naked rocks, but have their slopes thinly covered with forest, and
SHEEP. 219
their valleys wide and open. Here these sheep dwell throughout the year,
rarely travelling from one mountain range to another ; a single flock, when undis-
turbed, frequently inhabiting one and the same mountain for many successive years.
Up to the breeding-season the rams and ewes keep separate from one another, the
former generally going in parties of from three to five individuals, while the latter
are found singly ; but shortly before that time the two sexes assemble together in
flocks of from ten to fifteen in number. They appear to be essentially diurnal in
their habits, feeding in the morning and evening on the mountain slopes and
valleys, and retiring to rest about midday. Both when feeding and sleeping,
sentinels are placed to warn the flock of danger. In summer the argalis feed on
grass and various herbs, but in winter they are compelled to subsist on moss, lichen,
and dry grass. At such seasons they resort to the more exposed portions of the
mountains, as it is there only that the wind has blown away the snow from the
lichens and other herbage. According to Prejewalski, the pairing-season of the
argalis in Mongolia is in the month of August ; but Brehm was informed by the
Kirghis that in Southern Siberia it does not take place till October. The younger
ewes almost invariably give birth to only a single lamb at a time, but the older
ones frequently have two.
As with the American wild sheep, it has been frequently asserted that the
argali when taking a long leap will break its fall by alighting on its horns. In
both instances this statement has however been contradicted by the most reliable
authorities. Prejewalski states he has seen these sheep leap down from a height
of from eighteen to thirty feet and alight on their feet without harm.
The country inhabited by the Tibetan argali is of the most barren and desolate
nature, scorched in summer during the day by the untempered rays of the sun, and
swept during the night and throughout the winter by blasts of icy coldness. For
days the traveller may journey through these arid regions without seeing a trace
of a bush, although he may here and there come across some low bush-jungle in
the more sheltered valleys. As a rule, the elevations are undulating and shelving,
and the valleys wide and open. In such exposed situations animals naturally
become extremely wary, but this wariness is carried to the highest degree in the
rams of the present species, which are considered by General Kinloch to be more
difficult to stalk than any other kind of Indian or Tibetan game. The females and
young rams, on the other hand, are not difficult to approach, and in Ladak may not
unfrequently be met with in considerable numbers. In spite, however, of their
general wariness, adult rams will occasionally approach within rifle-shot; the
present writer on one occasion having seen a ram accompanied by two ewes cross
a pass and deliberately descend the valley to within a short distance of the spot
where he himself was lying concealed. During the summer the old rams are
generally found in small parties of from three to four to upwards of some fifteen
individuals of their own sex, and quite apart from the ewes; but the above-
mentioned instance shows that they may occasionally be accompanied by them.
The breeding-season is in the winter, when these sheep collect in the lower and
more sheltered valleys ; and the young are born in May or June. The flesh of the
nyan, as the author can testify from personal experience, is most excellent, being
dark-coloured, fine-grained, and well-flavoured. In Ladak the chief haunts of this
220 UNGULATES.
splendid sheep are the Chang-Chenmo valley and the neighbourhood of the Pang-
kong lake, and thence into Chinese Tibet. A wild hybrid between a male of this
sheep and a female of the under-mentioned urial, was shot in Zanskar, and described
as a distinct species under the name of 0. brookei ; while there is also a record of
a hybrid between the male urial and the female nyan.
A fossil argali occurs in the forest-bed of the Norfolk coast, and
remains of other species have been obtained from the superficial
deposit of the continent.
THE PAMIR WILD SHEEP (Ovis poli).
Although discovered by the great Venetian traveller as long ago as the latter
part of the thirteenth century, it is only since the year 1873 that the great Pamir
wild sheep has been fully known to science. In that year it was described by the
Eussian naturalist Severtzoff, under the name of Karelin's sheep (0. karelini);
while specimens of the skin and horns obtained during the second expedition to
Yarkand, under the late Sir Douglas Forsyth in 1873-74, were soon afterwards
received in England. It is true, indeed, that the species was named by Mr. E.
Blyth in 1840, but it was then only very imperfectly known. Since 1873 our
knowledge has advanced rapidly; and this magnificent sheep has been shot by
two Englishmen — Mr. St. George Littledale and Major C. S. Cumberland — who
travelled to the Pamir for the express purpose of securing skins and horns.
The Pamir sheep, although furnished with longer horns, does not appear to
attain quite such large dimensions as the Tibetan argali, from which it is mainly
distinguished by the form of the horns, and also by coloration. In the male the
horns, when viewed from the side, are seen to form a spiral of about a circle and
a quarter ; and when adult they are much longer than those of the argali, but are
less massive at the base. In fine specimens the horns may measure from 50 to 60
inches in length along the curve, with a basal girth of about 15 inches ; a specimen
has, however, been recorded measuring 63 inches in length, while one pair attained
the enormous length of 73 inches, with a basal girth of 16f inches ; and another
75 inches, with a girth of 1J inches. Females, as shown in our illustration, have
small upright horns like those of the female argali. The colour of the fur on the
upper-parts of the rams is light brown, with a more or less marked reddish tinge ;
but there is a dark line of longer hair extending from the nape of the neck to the
withers, which in the female is sometimes continued as a stripe down the back.
The muzzle, together with the fore-part of the neck, the chest, the under-parts, the
rump inclusive of the tail, and the legs, are white. The patch of white on the
rump is of irregular contour ; and sometimes, as in our figure, there may be a small
black mark on the upper surface of the tail. In summer it is probable, according
to Mr. Blanford, that the colour is darker and browner. The ewes differ by the
absence of any white on the throat. In addition to the long hairs on the nape of
the neck, the old males have a more or less marked ruff' on the throat. In an adult
male measured by Mr. Blanford, in which the horns had a length of 48 inches, the
height at the withers was 3 feet 8 inches, and the length from the horns to the tip
of the tail 5 feet 2 inches, of which 5| inches was taken up by the tail itself. As
SHEEP.
221
is the case with the argali, the ewes are but little inferior in size to the rams.
Dr. Severtzow estimates that an adult ram would weigh about 500 Ibs.
To support the enormous weight of the horns great strength in the neck and
fore-parts of the rams is essential ; and this is afforded by the great depth of the
neck and chest, as is well shown in our illustration.
The Pamir sheep takes its name from inhabiting the elevated
district in Central Asia known as the Pamirs, or " Roof of the World."
It is also found on the table-lands to the westward and northward of Eastern
Distribution.
THE PAMIR WILD SHEEP (fa nat. size).
Turkestan ; while its range extends northwards across the Thian Shan range to
the Semiretchinsk Altai. It has been obtained from the head-waters of the Amu
Darya, and to the north and south of the Gobi desert ; while to the westward it
extends as far south as the Shimshal Pamir just north of Gilgit, and thus comes
within the limits of the territory under the influence of the Government of India.
On the average, this sheep may be said to live at an elevation of about twelve
222 UNGULATES.
thousand feet, but in some districts it ascends higher, while in others it is found
at much lower levels.
The typical and larger form of this sheep is the one inhabiting the Pamirs,
while the rather smaller variety described as 0. karelini is from the Thian Shan ;
it has been shown, however, that the one form passes imperceptibly into the other.
A sheep described by Dr. Severtzow, under the name of 0. heinsi, is probably also
not specifically separable.
In the neighbourhood of Wakhan the rams of the Pamir sheep are known by
the name of kuchkar, while the ewes are termed mesh ; but in the Turki language,
as spoken in Eastern Turkestan, the males are called kulja or gulja, and the
females arkar.
The habits of this sheep appear to be almost or exactly similar
to those of the Tibetan argali. It inhabits, however, a far less barren
country than the latter; the undulating slopes of the Pamirs being covered in
summer with a continuous carpet of rich grass. The breeding-season of this species
SKULL AND HORNS OF PAMIR SHEEP. (From Sir V. Brooke, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875.)
occurs in the winter, during the months of December and January ; and at that
period some of the herds may be very large.
Describing the nature of the country inhabited by the Pamir sheep, Col. H.
Trotter, who was attached to the expedition under Sir D. Forsyth, observes that
after passing a place called Chakmak, on the southern slopes of the Thian Shan
range, the road for twenty-five miles " continues gently ascending along the course
of the frozen stream, passing through volcanic rocks to Turgat Bela, a little short
of which the country alters, and the precipitous hills are replaced by gently un-
dulating grassy slopes, abounding with the 0. poli. These extensive grassy slopes,
somewhat resembling the English downs, are a very curious feature of the country,
and not only attract the Kirghiz as grazing-grounds for their cattle, but are equally
sought after by the large herds of gulja, in one of which Dr. Stoliczka counted no
less than eighty-five."
In the Semiretchinsk Altai, according to Dr. Severtzow, these sheep are found
wherever there are good meadows and rocky places, at elevations of two thousand,
or three thousand feet ; and the same writer states that owing to the open nature of
the country, and the good grazing-grounds which they frequent, they are more
easily driven from their haunts by the Kirghiz than are the ibex, which inhabit
rocky and less accessible regions. In other parts of the Thian Shan, as the upper
SHEEP. 223
Naria valley, these sheep are found in summer at elevations of ten thousand or
even twelve thousand feet above the sea.
THE URIAL OR SHA (Ovis vignei).
The Asiatic wild sheep known in the Punjab as the urial, but in Ladak as the
sha, belongs to a group distinguished from all the preceding species by their
smaller size and less massive horns. It was long considered that the urial of the
Punjab and other districts of North- Western India was specifically distinct from
the sha of Ladak, but the investigations of Mr. Blanford have shown that the two
forms pass into one another, and must consequently be regarded merely as varieties
of a single species.
The typical urial of the Punjab stands about 2 feet 8 inches in height at the
shoulder, but the Ladak variety is rather taller, its height being as much as 3 feet,
or even, it is said, rather more. The horns are strongly wrinkled, and have their
lateral surfaces not much broader than the front one ; while their outer front angle
is much more rounded off than in the argali. The two horns rise very close
together, and curve round in a regular circular sweep, sometimes keeping
almost entirely in the same plane, but at others forming a spiral ; their curve
very seldom exceeding one complete circle. In the ewes the horns are
very short, and nearly straight. The average length of the horns of the
rams varies from 24 to 30 inches along the curve, with a basal girth of about
10 inches ; but Mr. Blanford states that a specimen has been obtained in which the
length of the horns was upwards of 37| inches, and their basal girth 11£ inches.
In the sha or Ladak variety the horns are generally thicker at the base than in the
true urial, their basal girth in some instances varying between 11 and 12 inches,
whereas in the latter it does not exceed 10 inches ; the horns frequently, moreover,
form a wider circle, and their outer front edge is still more rounded oft!
The adult ram of the urial is characterised by having a large ruff of long hair
on the throat, commencing on either side of the chin in two distinct moieties,
which soon unite and extend down the throat to the chest. In the Ladak variety
the ruff is generally much less developed. In colour the fur of the urial is rufous
grey or fawn on the upper-parts in the summer dress, but in winter becomes
greyish brown ; the under-parts, together with the rump, tail, and legs, are whitish ;
while in old rams the ruff is generally white in front, passing behind into black,
although in some cases it may be entirely black. There is a dark brown or black
patch behind the shoulder ; and sometimes a blackish line dividing the white of
the under-parts from the darker area, as well as blackish markings on the limbs.
The ewes and young rams are of a uniform greyish brown colour.
Distrib f ^^ geographical range of the urial is more extensive than that
of any other Old World sheep, and includes districts with exceed-
ingly different climatic conditions. The large variety known as the sha extends
from Northern Tibet through Ladak and Zanskar, where it is generally found at
elevations of from twelve thousand to fourteen thousand feet, through Astor and
Gilgit (where it is locally known as the uria) to Afghanistan. The true urial
inhabits the Salt range of the Punjab, the Suliman range, the Hazara hills, and
224 UNGULATES.
the neighbourhood of Peshawur, whence it ranges all through Sind, Baluchistan,
and Afghanistan into Eastern Persia. The variety found in Baluchistan and
Kelat is characterised by the very open spiral formed by the horns, so that the
tips diverge much more than usual ; this variety was at one time regarded as a
distinct species under the name of 0. blanfordi.
Regarding the different habitats of the urial, Mr. Blanford
observes that in Ladak this sheep inhabits open valleys; in Astor
and Gilgit it keeps to grassy ground at moderate elevations below the forest ; in
the Salt range of the Punjab, and in Sind, Baluchistan, and Persia, it is found on
undulating or hilly ground cut up by ravines, and is more often seen on stony and
rocky hillsides than amongst bushes and scrub. The herds vary usually from
three or four to twenty or thirty in number ; the sexes are generally together, but
the males often keep apart in summer. These sheep are wary and active ; although
not such masters of the art of climbing amongst precipices as the goats, tahr, or
bharal, they get over steep places with wonderful ease. Their alarm-cry is a shrill
whistle, their usual call a kind of bleat. In the Punjab the breeding-season is in
September, but it must be considerably later in Astor, where the lambs are born
early in June. There are either one or two young at a birth ; and the species will
freely interbreed with domestic sheep. The Punjab and Sind urial inhabits a
hotter area than any other species of wild sheep ; and it is remarkable that a
single species should have been able to adapt itself to climates so different from one
another as are those of the Punjab and Ladak.
In the Salt range of the Punjab the urial may occasionally be seen grazing
with domestic sheep ; but they are soon disturbed by the sight of a European. The
broken nature of the ground, with numerous sharp ridges, separated by deep and
narrow ravines, renders, however, urial-stalking a comparatively easy sport.
THE ARMENIAN AND CYPRIAN SHEEP (Ovis gmelini and 0. ophiori).
The Armenian sheep brings us to the first of a group of three comparatively
small species distinguished from the urial by the total absence of horns in the
ewes, the want of a distinct ruff on the chin of the rams, and the much finer
wrinkles on the front of their horns, as well as by the tail being always dark-
coloured. The Armenian sheep, which inhabits Eastern Persia and Asia Minor, and
is especially common in the Cilician Taurus, is the largest of these three species,
the rams generally standing about 2 feet 9 inches at the shoulder. The colour of
the upper parts of the body in the rams is russet-yellow, the fore portion of the
head being whitish, and the under-parts, insides of the limbs, and the whole of the
lower portions of the legs, as well as a streak on the buttocks, white. There is a
dark mark on the front of the fore-legs above the knee, and the fringe of long hair
on the lower part of the throat is also dark, as is the end of the tail. The horns
have a peculiar backward and inward curvature, so as nearly to meet behind the
neck, and as a rule they do not exceed 26 inches in length, but a single pair has
been recorded measuring upwards of 40 inches. The females have a characteristic
white saddle-mark on the back.
In the Troodos mountains of Cyprus this species is represented by the
SHEEP.
225
smaller but closely -allied Cyprian sheep, which may indeed be nothing more
than a geographical race of the other, diminished in size and modified by the
small area of its habitat and
its long isolation. This elegant
species is, indeed, the smallest
of all the wild sheep, the rams
standing only just over 26
inches at the shoulder, and
their horns not exceeding 23
inches in length. According
to Col. J. Biddulph, it is dis-
tinguished from the typical
form of the Armenian sheep
by the horns being more
slender, with their outer front
angle almost completely
obliterated, and their tips
directed upwards instead of
downwards. The fringe on the
throat is also less developed
and there is a much more distinct dark line dividing the white of the belly from
the rufous of the flanks. There is, however, a variety of the Armenian sheep in
which the horns approximate in form to those of this species.
HEAD OF CYPRIAN SHEEP.
(From Biddulph, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1884.)
THE MOUFLON (Ovis musimon).
The European mouflon, now confined to the islands of Sardinia and Corsica,
is the last member of the typical group of wild sheep. In height the rams stand
about 27| inches at the withers; the build of the animal being very compact and
neat. The hair is short and close on the body, with an abundant under- wool, but
in the rams is elongated into a short mane on the neck and a fringe on the lower
part of the throat. With the exception of a dark brown line down the back, and
a conspicuous light grey saddle-like patch on the sides of the rams, the general
colour of the upper-parts is foxy red, passing into ashy grey on the head, while the
muzzle, a streak on the rump, the sides of the tail, the feet, and portions of the
lower parts of the legs, and the under-part of the body are white. The horns curve
forwards by the side of the face, and vary in length from 20 to 28 and 29 inches.
Although reported to have occurred formerly in parts of Greece
and the Balearic Isles, it does not seem certain that the mouflon
was ever an inhabitant of these countries ; while Brehm is doubtful if its alleged
former occurrence in Spain is a fact. At one time the mouflon was extremely
numerous in Corsica and Sardinia, accounts being extant of the slaughter of four
hundred or five hundred head during a single hunt. At the present day it is,
however, far less numerous, so that instead of being met with in large flocks, it is
now only seen in companies of from four to five up to seven individuals ; while in
the largest " drives " not more than forty or fifty head are ever killed at one time.
VOL. IE. — 15
Distribution.
226
UNGULATES.
Habits.
In Sardinia the mouflon, instead of being found on all the
mountain ranges, are restricted to certain chains, and there they
frequent only the highest ridges, generally confining themselves to such peaks as
command a view of the whole of the surrounding country. The flocks of mouflon
are led by an old and powerful ram ; but at the pairing-season the large flocks
used to split up into small parties, consisting of one ram and several ewes. The
rams engage in fierce conflicts among themselves for the supremacy; and
during the months of December and January the mountains re-echo with the
THE MOUFLON (^ nat. size).
sound of the blows as one ram rushes against the head of another. The lambs —
either one or two at a birth — are produced during April or May ; and are able in a
few days to follow their dams everywhere. Mr. E. N. Buxton states that the
Sardinian mouflon is one of the most difficult animals to approach with which he
is acquainted. He observes that " when they are alarmed, or at ' gaze,' they have
a habit, or at least the rams have, of placing themselves in the middle of a bush of
macquia, or in the shadow which it casts. The ewes, who are naturally less con-
spicuous, do this in a less degree. The mouflon are assisted by ths wonderful
alertness of their eyes." Later on Mr. Buxton writes that " one of their favourite
SHEEP. 227
devices is to seek for spots on the lee-side of a ridge where the currents of air meet.
Here, in otherwise favourable positions, they are quite unapproachable." Occa-
sionally wild mouflon will desert their own kin to live among tame sheep ; while
sometimes also a motherless domestic lamb has been known to seek companionship
among a flock of mouflon. Evidently, therefore, the wild sheep are very closely
related to our domesticated breeds.
DOMESTIC SHEEP (Ovis aries).
Although from the similarity in the form and structure of their horns there
can be no doubt that the domestic races of sheep are more nearly allied to the
mouflon, Armenian wild sheep, and urial, than to those mentioned hereafter, yet
we are at present quite in the dark as to their origin ; and it is an open question
whether we ought to regard the various domesticated breeds as derived from a
single, or from several, original wild stocks. The most important features by which
most domestic races of sheep differ from their wild cousins are the length of the
tail, and the substitution of a coat of wool for one of hair. No wild sheep except
the under-mentioned Barbary sheep, which has horns of a totally different type, is
furnished with a long tail ; but it has been suggested that the long tails of the
domestic breeds are due to a kind of degeneracy, although, it must be confessed
that this does not much advance matters. Unfortunately, geology does not help
us much in this investigation ; although it is ascertained that the inhabitants of
the ancient Swiss lake-villages were possessed of a breed of sheep characterised by
their small size, long thin legs, and goat-like horns.
Domestic sheep vary greatly in the character of their horns. Thus while in
the Dorset breed these appendages are present in both sexes, and of nearly equal
size in each, in some forms only the males are provided with horns, while in other
breeds, like the Southdown, they are absent in both sexes. On the other hand,
there is a tendency among some breeds to produce additional pairs of horns, so
that we may have four-horned, and even eight-horned, sheep. When there is more
than one pair of horns, they arise from a peculiar elevated crest on the frontal
bones. In the Wallachian breed the horns of the rams, as Mr. Youatt remarks,
spring almost perpendicularly from the frontal bone, and then take a beautiful
spiral form ; in the ewes they protrude nearly at right angles from the head, and
then become twisted in a singular manner.
One of the most remarkable types of domestic sheep is character-
Flat-tailed Sheep. . *• *•
ised by the tail being flattened, and either of great length or
abnormally shortened. It has been considered that these sheep indicated a distinct
aboriginal form, but against this view may be quoted Mr. Darwin's observation
that their drooping ears are indicative of long domestication. On the other hand,
the nature of the pelage in the Eastern and Ethiopian varieties of these breeds, is
suggestive of a more intimate relationship with a wild ancestral stock.
In Asia Minor, Syria, and parts of Arabia, the flat-tailed sheep have their
tails of enormous size, sometimes reaching a weight of from 40 to 50 Ibs. So
long, indeed, is the tail, that it actually trails upon the ground, and is frequently
supported by little sledges in order to prevent it from incommoding its owner.
228
UNGULATES.
On the other hand, in the countries to the eastward of the Caspian Sea, such
as Persia and many parts of Central Asia, as well as in North-Eastern Central
Africa, we find that the flat tail becomes short or rudimentary, and the fat
accumulates on either side of the haunches in two great protuberances. Hence this
breed is designated 0. aries steatopyga. This breed, as shown in our illustration, is
of large size, and differs from most domesticated sheep in its completely hairy
THE BLACK-HEADED SHEEl' (^ liat. size).
pelage. The coat of the adult resembles, indeed, very closely that of many wild
sheep, generally consisting of short and close hair, and yielding no wool capable of
being spun or woven. The lambs have, however, a perfectly woolly coat. In
Abyssinia Mr. Blanford states that the fat-tailed sheep kept in the highlands differ
from the ordinary breed in being covered with wool. They have also frequently
well-developed and handsomely-curled horns. In our figured example of the hairy
breed of these sheep, the hair is white on the body but black on the head and front
part of the neck. The horns are small and curved. These sheep are kept in great
SHEEP. 229
numbers by the nomad tribes of the Asiatic steppes; some preferring those
which are entirely black, while others cultivate a pure white breed. A large
number of lambs of the black breed are killed at a very early age for the sake of
their skins, which are covered with fine curly wool, and constitute the astrachan of
commerce.
The Fezzan sheep, which is brown and white in colour and has a long and
round tail, has the pelage entirely in the form of hair.
It would be impossible within the limits at our disposal to mention the various
breeds of round-tailed domestic sheep met with in various parts of the world ; and
we must, therefore, content ourselves with a brief mention of those cultivated in
the British Islands.
The Shetland and Orkney breeds are characterised by their fleece
' being composed of fine soft wool largely intermixed with hair. They
are of small size and hardy disposition, with horns frequently present in both
sexes, although often wanting in the ewes ; and their colour may be either black,
brown, grey, or white.
The older soft-woolled sheep of Scotland are a small-horned
breed, with lank bodies and short wool, which is deficient in the
property of felting. They are nearly extinct.
Of the Welsh sheep there are two races, both of small size. The
first is the higher mountain-breed, characterised by the presence of
horns in both sexes, their generally dark colour, and the intermixture of a large
proportion of hair among their soft wool. The second breed is hornless, with soft
wool, which is deficient in the property of felting. These sheep are hardy, and
noted for the excellence of their flesh ; when removed from their native pastures
they are impatient of restraint.
The Irish Wicklow sheep were almost identical with the Welsh
Irish Breeds.
mountain sheep, but have been much altered by crossing. There are,
however, several other Irish breeds, among which the Kerry is the best known.
These are larger than the Welsh sheep, with the horns frequently absent in the
ewes, and the fleece moderately soft, but irregular, and mixed with hair. They are
late in reaching maturity, and wild in disposition.
The black-faced Heath breed, which are natives of the chain of
Heath Breed.
mountains and moors extending northwards from Derbyshire, are the
hardiest and boldest of all the British races. Both sexes are horned, and their
faces and limbs are dark-coloured, and their fleeces coarse and shaggy. When
taken to lower grounds, their wool becomes finer.
. The Cheviot breed, originally confined to a small tract of grassy
hills in the north of England, are rather heavier, although less robust
than the last. Both sexes are hornless, their faces and limbs are white, and they
produce wool of moderate fineness.
The old Norfolk breed, of the eastern counties of England,
are strong and active sheep, with horns in both sexes, which are
thick and spiral in the rams. The body and limbs are long, the head carried is
high, and the face and legs are black; while the wool is silky and of medium
length.
23o UNGULATES.
The Dartmoor and Exmoor sheep may be taken as samples of
the breeds of the older forests, commons, and chases. They frequently
have dark or grey faces and limbs, and may be with or without horns ; while their
size is small. The two races mentioned differ from the others in having wool of
medium length, instead of extreme shortness.
The well-known Southdown breed, derived from the chalk hills
of Sussex, are characterised by the absence of horns, their dark brown
faces, ears, and limbs, and their short felting wool. Their size and weight are
HEAD OF MERINO RAM.
subject to local variation ; but their heads are always comparatively small, their
lower jaws thin and fine, and the space between their ears well covered with wool.
A good Southdown carries more meat in proportion to offal than does any other of
the short-woolled varieties.
The Dorset and pink-nosed Somerset breed, are indigenous to
Dorsets. '
the south-west of England, and are easily recognised by their long
limbs, the presence of horns in both sexes, and their white limbs and faces, the
muzzle being often flesh-coloured. The wool is of medium length, and the lambs
are produced unusually early. There is a variety of the Dorset breed in Dean
Forest and on the Mendip Hills, small, compact animals that thrive on the poorest
soil. The Portland sheep are an allied but smaller breed.
Merino ^ne sma^ merino sheep, in which the males have long spiral
horns while the females are usually hornless, may have either
white or grey faces and limbs, and are distinguished from all other breeds by the
great length and fineness of their wool. Originally a native of Spain, the breed has
SHEEP. 231
spread over many parts of Europe, and has been introduced into South Africa,
America, and Australia; but, for several reasons, has not found much favour
with English farmers.
Long-woolled Finally, we have the various strains of long-woolled sheep,
Breeds. under which heading are comprised the new Leicester, and the
varieties more or less intermixed with it in blood, such as the Lincolnshire, the
Romney Marsh, the Cotswold, the Devonshire, the Notts, and the long-woolled Irish
breeds. They are all of large size, destitute of horns in both sexes, and bear long
wool, which, while unsuitable for felting, is eminently adapted for the manufacture
of worsted yarn. These sheep are stated by Mr. Low to be "more especially
adapted to the plains and the districts where artificial food can be reared in the
necessary quantity. They have been continually increasing in number with the
extension of tillage and the general improvement of agriculture. Of the several
varieties, the new Leicester breed occupies the first class with respect to form, and
the aptitude to fatten readily."
THE BHARAL (Ovis nahura).
With the bharal, or blue sheep of Tibet, we come to the first of two wild
species differing markedly from all the others in the characters of their horns and
skulls, and approximating in these respects to the goats. As regards the horns, the
male bharal has these appendages nearly smooth, and rounded or subquadrangular
at the base, while their curvature assimilates more to a letter S than to the spiral
characteristic of the typical sheep. They are marked with fine transverse strise,
and rise very close together on the head; their direction is outwards, at first
upwards, then downwards, and at the extremities backwards. The females have
short horns, curving upwards and outwards. There is no gland on the face, and
consequently no pit in the skull below the eye. The tail is relatively longer than
in any of the wild species yet noticed. The fur is of uniform length throughout,
without any trace of a mane on the neck or fringe on the throat, and is remarkable
for its smoothness and compactness. As regards coloration, the adult male bharal
is a decidedly striking animal. Thus, whereas the general colour of the upper-
parts is brownish grey, becoming more distinctly brown in summer, and tending to
slaty grey in winter, the under-parts, the inside and back of the limbs, as well as
the rump so far as the root of the tail, are white. The front of the face, the
chest, a stripe down the front of the limbs, interrupted by white at the knees, and
a stripe along the side dividing the white of the belly from the dark of the upper-
parts, as well as the last two-thirds of the tail, are black. The black markings
on the face, chest, and flanks, are wanting in the females.
The male bharal stands about 3 feet in height at the withers, and good-sized
horns have a length of 24 or 26 inches along the curve, with a basal girth of some
11 inches. Specimens have, however, been recorded measuring 30| and 32 inches in
length, and 13 inches in girth. The female bharal is altogether a smaller animal.
The bharal is essentially -a Tibetan species, ranging, according to
Mr. Blanford, from near Shigar in Baltistan and the neighbourhood
of Sangu, south-east of Yarkand, as far eastwards as Moupin in Eastern Tibet ;
232 UNGULATES.
while in a north and south direction it embraces the area lying between the main
axis of the Himalaya (or a few of the higher ranges to the south) and the Kuen-
Lun and Altyn Tagh ranges.
Structurally the bharal is as much a goat as a sheep, but in the
absence of a beard and of a strong odour in the rams, as well as in
general appearance, it is more like a sheep, and is consequently placed in the same
genus. It exhibits, however, a marked difference from other species of the same
general size in refusing to breed with domestic sheep ; and its relationship to the
goats is so strong that, were it not for convenience, there are considerable grounds
for including both sheep and goats in a single genus.
In conformity with its structure, the bharal, as Mr. Blanford
remarks, is intermediate in its habits between the sheep and the
goats. Like the former it is found on undulating ground, and frequently lies down
during the day on its feeding-ground, though generally amongst stones ; but, like
the latter, it is a splendid climber, perfectly at home on precipitous cliffs, and wont,
when alarmed, to take refuge in ground inaccessible to man. It is found in herds
of from eight or ten to fifty or even a hundred ; the males and females being
generally found apart in the summer, but frequently associating together at all
seasons. The herds keep to high open ground above forest and never even enter
bush. They feed and rest alternately during the day. Owing to their colour it is
peculiarly difficult to make them out when they are lying down amongst stones."
It appears that these animals are never found below an elevation of ten thousand
feet above the sea-level, while in summer they range up to fourteen thousand and
sixteen thousand feet. Bharal are by no means difficult of approach in districts
where they have not been much disturbed, and on one occasion in Ladak the
present writer came suddenly upon a flock of five rams lying asleep in an un-
frequented path. They are generally well represented in the Gardens of the
London Zoological Society, where they have bred freely.
THE BARBARY SHEEP (Ovis tragelaphus).
The Barbary, or maned sheep, which is the only wild representative of the
group met with in Africa, while agreeing with the bharal in the general character
of its horns and skull, is distinguished by the great mass of long hair clothing the
throat, chest, and fore-limbs, and likewise by the great length of the thickly-
haired tail, which reaches slightly below the hocks. Although commonly referred
to in works of natural history under the name of aoudad, it does not appear that
this title is recognised by the inhabitants of its native country, to whom this sheep
is known as the arui.
The Barbary sheep attains a height of rather over 3 feet, and is of a nearly
uniform pale rufous yellow colour, with the individual hairs differently coloured in
different parts of their lengths. The females are distinguished from the males by
the much shorter hair on the fore-quarters, but have horns nearly or quite
so long. The horns do not generally exceed 25 inches in length, but may reach
26 or a little more, and although finely wrinkled in the young are nearly
smooth in the adult.
ifl
m
L. ^
SHEEP.
233
Distribution.
These sheep are generally found alone or in parties of two or
three, and are sparsely distributed over the more precipitous regions
of the arid southern slopes of the Atlas range, from the Atlantic to Tunis. They
are unknown in the interior of the range near the coast, always keeping within
sight of the desert, and capable, according to Arab reports, of going several days
without water. Their colour harmonises admirably with the limestone rocks of
their native mountains.
Mr. E. N. Buxton observes that the Arabs are in the habit of
pitching their tents near the scanty springs frequented by these
sheep, and daily lead their goats high up the mountains. Consequently, the arui
Habits.
THE BARBARY SHEEP (fr na,k size).
have " no means of escaping from them, as every mountain within reach of water
is similarly infested. They are constantly within sight and hearing of the Arabs
and their goats, and as they cannot get away they have developed the art of hiding
themselves to an extraordinary extent, and they have unlimited confidence in their
own invisibility. This was demonstrated by me one evening when I sat for twenty
minutes carefully spying the surrounding country. The knoll on which I sat
commanded a small shallow hollow. In this there was not a vestige of cover
except a few thin thuya bushes which looked as if they could not hide a rat. It
was not till I rose to shift my position that a female arui and two yearlings started
234 UNGULATES.
from these bushes. They had been lying within sixty yards of me, and must have
been fully conscious of my presence all the time. The arui, in this habit of hiding,
is very like the Pyrenean ibex, which lives in rather similar ground, and also
trusts to concealment in preference to flight."
In Algeria the rams of this species are distinguished as fechtal, the ewes as
massa, and the lambs as charuf.
THE GOATS.
Genus Capra.
The two preceding species of sheep connect the more typical representatives
of that group so intimately with the goats that there is some difficulty in drawing
up a list of characters which will satisfactorily distinguish between the two. The
males of all the goats are, however, characterised by the possession of a peculiar
strong odour, while they very generally have a beard on the chin. None of them
have any gland on the face below the eye (in which respect they resemble the
bharal and Barbary sheep) ; and they differ from all the sheep in the absence of
any glands between the hoofs of the hind-feet, while in some cases these glands
are likewise wanting in the fore-feet. In all cases the tail is short, and there are
peculiar hard patches, or callosities, on the knees, and in some instances also on
the chest. The skull of a goat differs from that of a sheep in that the plane of the
portion behind the horns meets that of the part in front of the same in an obtuse
instead of a right angle, while the profile of the face is very concave, and the
occipital region rounded instead of nearly flat. The true goats, or those constitut-
ing the genus Capra, are further distinguished by the great length of the horns
of the males. These are situated close together immediately above the eyes, and
are continued upwards at first in the plane of the forehead ; they may be either
scimitar-shaped, with a backward sweep, or spiral, and are generally more or less
compressed and angulated, while they are frequently ornamented with knobs or
knots in front. In the females the horns are much smaller, and set farther apart
at their bases.
Although the term goat is applied to one American ruminant, yet goats in the
proper sense of the word are exclusively restricted to the Old World. Moreover,
these animals are mainly confined to Europe and Asia north of the southern flanks
of the Himalaya. It is true, indeed, that one species occurs in Egypt and another
in Abyssinia, but the group is quite unknown in the whole of the remainder of
Africa, while the species inhabiting the mountains of Southern India is classed
in a genus apart from that containing the true goats. There are about ten species
of true wild goats, all of which live in herds, although the males sometimes keep
apart from the females, and are occasionally solitary. Like the sheep, the goats
are essentially mountain animals, but they generally inhabit more rugged and
precipitous ground than do the majority of the former; this is, however, not
invariably the case, as the Himalayan ibex ranges on to the open country of the
Pamirs. All the members of the group are very active and wary animals, and
they are characterised by their tendency to browse on the young shoots and leaves
GOATS.
235
of such trees and shrubs as they can reach, whereas sheep mainly confine them-
selves to grazing. On account of these browsing habits goats are extremely
destructive to forests, eating off the tops of the young trees and thus preventing
all new growth.
Geologically, goats appear to be somewhat older than the sheep, remains of
certain species having been obtained from the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills
in Northern India, while those of others occur in the superficial deposits of the
plains of Central Europe. The latter belong to a species of ibex, which is a matter
of some interest as showing that during a colder epoch these animals could exist
SKELETON OF THE IBEX.
in the lowlands, from whence, with an increase of the temperature, they migrated
to the various mountain-chains, where they have differentiated into distinct species
from isolation. This explains the occurrence of allied species of wild goats in the
Caucasus and the Pyrenees, and in the Alps and the Sinaitic Peninsula.
THE CAUCASIAN WILD GOATS, OR TUR (Capra cylindricornis, etc.).
There occur in the Caucasus range three different kinds of wild goats, locally
known as tur, which, as being those approaching most nearly to the sheep,
naturally come first. These three kinds are commonly ranked as distinct species,
but it may be a question whether they are not really only races of one species
236
UNGULATES.
exhibiting variations in the structure of its horns analogous to those existing in
the Himalayan markhor noticed subsequently.
The goat inhabiting the Eastern Caucasus is known as Pallas's
' tur (C. cylindricomis), and is found to the westward of Kasbeg
and throughout Daghestan. It may be described as a goat with horns like those
of the bharal. The
horns are black, smooth,
and nearly cylindrical,
directed outwards and
backwards in a some-
what spiral manner,
with their tips directed
inwards, and sometimes
not separated from one
another by an interval
of more than a foot.
The general colour of
the animal is light
HORNS OF PALLAS'S TUR. brown, and the height
at the shoulder about
3 feet. The reddish brown beard is short and stiff, and curved inwards towards
the middle of the chin. Another distinctive feature is to be found in the lower
incisor teeth, which have very narrow crowns. Good specimens of the horns may
measure some 31 inches along the curve, and occasionally reach 34| and 36
inches.
In the Central Caucasus, between Elburz and Daghestan, the
preceding form is replaced by the true Caucasian tur (C. caucasica),
which is intermediate between it and Severtzow's. This tur is very similar
in appearance to Pallas's, having horns with a spiral curvature, and approach-
ing each other at the tips, but with a nearly square cross-section at the base,
and with knobs on the front surface. The colour is very like that of Sever-
tzow's tur, but the head is more reddish, the beard like that of Pallas's, and
the under-part of the body darker, while the tail has longer hairs. The incisors
are like those of C. cylindricornis and the horns vary from 30 to 40 inches in
length.
_ _, , „ Severtzow's tur (C. severtzowi), inhabits the whole of the
Severtzow's Tur. ...
Western Caucasus, and presents considerable local variation in
colour. It is a very strongly - built animal, standing about 3 feet at the
withers. Its general colour is brownish grey with a yellowish tinge, the head
and spine being darker, the under-parts a lighter shade of brown, and the limbs
dark with a pale stripe on their hinder surface. The brown beard is long and
narrow, and the tail very short. The most distinctive feature of this goat is,
however, found in its horns. These are very large, black in colour, and directed
upwards and backwards in a scimitar-like form, curving almost entirely in a single
plane, with their tips widely separated, and generally directed downwards, although
occasionally outwards. The section of these horns at the base is triangular, and
GOATS. 237
they are ornamented in front with more or less distinct knobs, so that they are
very like those of ibex, although shorter and thicker. They vary somewhat in
their degree of outward inclination — being sometimes separated by as much as
3 feet at the tips — and those in which the outward inclination is most marked and
the knobs most developed approach nearest to Pallas's tur. This form is further
distinguished by the crowns of the lower incisor teeth being wide and rounded.
If we had only Pallas's tur and Severtzow's tur to deal with there would be
no hesitation in regarding them as distinct species, but the Caucasian tur,
inhabiting the intermediate area, suggests a passage from the one to the other.
The habits of these goats are probably very similar to those of the next species.
THE SPANISH WILD GOAT (Capra pyrenaica).
Although often termed an ibex, the Spanish wild goat — the cabramontes of
the Spaniards — is much more nearly allied to the turs. It is characterised by the
horns of the males having an upward and outward direction, and forming a slight
and very open spiral. They are flattened on the inner side and keeled behind, so
as to present a pyriform cross-section. When seen from the front, as in the right-
hand figure of woodcut on next page, their form is somewhat lyrate, and on their
outer side they carry more or less well-marked bosses or knobs, resembling those
on the front of the horns of the ibex. There is a small but thick black beard,
which may be of considerable length. The general colour of the hair is light
brown, but it is much darker around the nose and on the forehead and the back
of the head ; a triangular patch on the back, a streak on the flanks, and the front
of the limbs are black ; the upper lips, the cheeks, the sides of the throat, and the
hinder surfaces of the legs are greyish, and the remainder of the under-parts are
white. There is, however, considerable variation in colour according to the season
of the year, and also a certain amount of local variation in this respect. The hair
is much longer in winter than in summer, and there is a thick woolly under-fur.
The height of the animal is about 26 inches at the shoulder. Horns of old rams
average 24 or 25 inches, but may reach 27 or 28 inches in length.
The Spanish wild goat inhabits the Pyrenees, some of the
Distribution. & . . , . A , , .
mountains of Central Spam, and the higher ranges ot Andalusia
and Portugal. That the species has existed in the southern portion of its habitat
since the Pleistocene epoch is proved by the occurrence of its bones in the caves of
Gibraltar, in company with those of an extinct rhinoceros.
It was at one time considered that the wild goat of Andalusia was specifically
distinct from the Pyrenean form, but it is now known that the two are only
varieties of a single species. It appears from the observations of Mr. A. Chapman
that the variety from the Pyrenees is the largest, and is characterised by the horns
of very old males tending to assume a smooth form, without distinct knobs, and
thus approximating to those of the Caucasian tur. In specimens obtained from the
Sierra Nevada, in Andalusia, at elevations of about eleven thousand feet, the horns
are frequently as long as those of the Pyrenean variety, but they are generally
more flattened, while the size of the animals themselves is considerably less. The
wild goats of the Central Spanish Cordilleras are those with the heaviest and most
238 UNGULATES.
distinctly knobbed horns, but there is a complete transition from this type to the
Pyrenean form.
During the greater portion of the year the males of the Spanish
wild goat live apart from the females, and it is only during the
breeding-season that the two sexes come together. Both sexes associate in flocks,
THE SPANISH WILD GOAT (^ nat. size).
which may be very large, comprising at times from a hundred to a hundred and
fifty head. As a rule, the old bucks, heedless of snow and cold, reside on the most
exposed and highest peaks of the mountains ; but the does, especially in the late
spring, frequent the southern slopes, and in the depth of the winter will descend
even to the neighbourhood of the villages. When feeding or reposing, sentinels are
placed in commanding positions to apprise the flock of approaching danger, which
they do by means of a loud snort, upon which the whole company at once takes
GOATS. 239
to flight. Mr. E. N. Buxton states that these goats are generally found among
thick scrub, and he considers that the incurving tips of their horns are thus
formed on purpose to admit of easy passage among bushes. The pairing-season
takes place in November, when the flocks of opposite sexes come together, and the
males engage in combats for the possession of the females. In December the sexes
again split up into separate flocks, the males from one to three years of age
consorting, however, with the females. The kids are born in April or the beginning
of May, from twenty to twenty-four weeks after the pairing-season, and in a few
hours after birth are able to follow their mothers over the roughest ground. While
the kids are young the mothers confine themselves to the southern slopes and
warmer parts of the mountains, and carefully avoid such situations as are exposed
to cold and cutting winds. These goats are hunted either by stalking or driving,
and in either case display the extreme wariness characteristic of the group.
That the Spanish wild goat is allied to the Caucasian tur is quite evident.
The form and curvature of its horns, together with the presence of a keel on their
posterior border, is, however, suggestive of a transition from the type of horn
obtaining in the ibex to that found in the markhor, and it is thus easy to see how
all the varieties of horns found among the goats may have been derived from a
single common form.
THE PERSIAN WILD GOAT (Capra cegagrus).
The Persian wild goat — the pasang (rock-footed) of the Persians — is a species
of especial interest as being the chief ancestral stock from which the various breeds
of domestic goats are derived. This species is characterised by the long scimitar-
like horns of the males, which are much compressed, with the front edge forming a
sharp keel, marked by irregular prominences and notches, while the hinder edge is
rounded, and the outer side more convex than the inner. Generally the tips of the
horns are inclined inwards, although they are occasionally divergent. The horns of
the does are much smaller, with an even front edge. The male pasang has a small
beard on the chin ; and in the winter coat the hair on the neck and shoulders is
rather longer than elsewhere ; and at the same season in the colder portions of the
animals' habitat a coat of woolly under-fur is developed beneath the hair. In
winter the general colour of the upper-parts is brownish grey, tending in summer
to yellowish or rufous brown ; the under-parts and the inner sides of the buttocks
being whitish or white. In the older bucks, as in the central figure of our illustra-
tion on the following page, the general colour is, however, paler ; a stripe down the
back, the tail, the chin, throat, and beard, the front of the legs, with the exception
of the knees, and a stripe along the flanks are dark brown. There is also a certain
amount of white on the lower part of the legs.
An adult male, measured by Captain Hutton, stood 37 inches at the withers.
Good horns of the pasang measure 40 inches along the curve ; but in one specimen
killed near Karachi, the length was upwards of 52£ inches, with a basal girth
of 7 inches.
^ x .,_ A. The range of this species is extensive, and was formerly even
Distribution. f
more so than it is at the present day. There is evidence that m
24o UNGULATES.
classic times this goat was widely distributed over the Grecian Archipelago ;
although in Europe it is now found only in Crete, the island of Antimelo in the
Cyclades, and perhaps also in Giura, to the north-east of Euboea. Eastwards it is
found in the hills and mountains of Asia Minor, being especially common in the
Taurus range ; and it extends thence through Persia into Baluchistan, Sind, and
Afghanistan. In India its range does not extend beyond the western side of Sind,
THE PERSIAN WILD GOAT (^ nat. size).
as eastwards and north-east of the Bolan Pass and Quetta its place is taken by the
markhor. Found in Sind and Baluchistan in hills little above the sea-level, in
the mountains of Persia it ascends to elevations of eleven or twelve thousand
feet.
The pasang is an extremely active animal, chiefly frequenting
craggy and rocky districts, and taking leaps of great length with
unerring precision. Although such a feat has been expressly denied by all
competent authorities as occurring among the sheep, it is recorded by a trustworthy
GOATS. 241
observer, that one of these goats, which had missed its footing, saved itself by
alighting on its horns. Writing of this species in Persia, St. John observes that "in
spite of the constant persecution to which it is subjected, it exists in vast numbers.
On the Kuh-i-barf, a not very lofty or extensive hill, constantly shot over, near
Shiraz, I once counted over a hundred in a herd, which had been driven together
by two days' consecutive fusilade from half a dozen shikaris. . . . The ibex," as Sir
Oliver calls the animal, " is marvellously shy and wary. In my earlier residence in
Persia I spent many a weary day after them, but never managed to bag a buck.
Even native sportsmen, though admirable shots, and thoroughly familiar with every
nook and cranny of the hills, rarely get one by fair stalking ; most of those killed
being obtained by building a wall of loose stones near water, and shooting the goats
when drinking. The males drink in the morning and evening only, but the
females, in hot weather, at least, drink also at midday. While putting up the
telegraph about sixty miles north of Shiraz, in 1864, I came suddenly upon a herd
of twenty or more does and kids, drinking by the roadside, a couple of hundred
yards from the foot of the hills. Except when alarmed, bucks and does seem to
keep apart."
In Sind and Baluchistan these goats inhabit barren rocky hills, but in parts of
Asia Minor they are found on forest-clad uplands. In such localities, according to
Mr. E. N. Buxton, they may often be found within hearing of the drovers on the
roads, or even of the railways ; but this confidence is accompanied by exceeding
watchfulness. The number in a flock in these districts is generally from four to ten,
and at the time of Mr. Buxton's observations bucks and does were found together.
Sentinels are almost always posted to warn the flock, these being relieved at short
intervals ; and it appears that this sentry-duty is undertaken according to seniority,
the youngest animals commencing first, and the oldest buck taking his turn last.
In Asia Minor pasang are hunted both by driving and by stalking ; but they are so
cunning that the former method is not generally very successful. The Cabulis
hunt them on the lower grounds of Afghanistan with greyhounds.
In the Caucasus the kids are born in May, but Mr. Blanford believes that in
Sind they are produced somewhat earlier. There may be either one or two, and,
it is said, occasionally three at a birth.
The bezoar-stone, so highly esteemed in Persia as an antidote to poison and a
remedy for several diseases, is a concretion found in the stomach of the pasang,
from whence it derives its old European name of Pazen, or Pasen.
In the island of Giura, near Euboea, there occurs a wild goat
Giura Goat.
which has been regarded as a distinct species, under the name of
C. dorcas. There is, however, little doubt but that it is the descendant of tamed
goats which have run wild, or of such animals crossed with the pasang.
DOMESTIC GOATS (Capra hircus).
It has been already mentioned that the various breeds of domesticated goat
have been mainly if not exclusively derived from the Persian wild goat, and they
may accordingly be most conveniently considered in this place. In saying that
domestic goats are mainly derived from that species, it should, however, be men-
VOL. II. 1 6
242
UNGULATES.
tioned that it is probable that many races may have been crossed with other wild
kinds. Domestic goats exhibit great variety in the form of their horns ; some
retaining the backward scimitar-like sweep of the ancestral pasang, while others
assume a spiral form recalling these of the markhor. When, however, such spiral-
horned specimens are carefully examined, it will be found that the direction of the
twist is precisely the opposite of that which occurs in the markhor.
ANGORA GOAT (^ nat. size).
The varieties of domestic goats are almost innumerable, and there is such an
amount of difference between the more extreme types that it is at first sight
difficult to believe that they all belong to a single species. In certain instances the
horns may disappear from one or from both sexes, while in other cases those of the
female are quite different from those of the male, and occasionally a second pair
may be developed. Equal diversity obtains in regard to the length of the hair,
which in the long-legged and pendulous-eared Indian breed is no longer than in a
deer ; while in the Kashmir and Angora goats it reaches nearly to the ground.
GOATS. 243
The colour, again, may vary from pure white to brownish black ; and there are
great differences as regards the size and shape of the body. The ears may be
either upright or pendent, and when in the latter state sometimes attain an
enormous length.
Goats were domesticated by the prehistoric inhabitants of the
Swiss lake -cities, and were likewise well known to the ancient
Egyptians. Noticing only a few of the more remarkable modern races, one of the
most valued is the Angora goat, a native of a district of Asia Minor, but which has
been imported into several parts of Europe. It is a large species, with long, flattened,
and spirally-twisted horns in the males ; and has been regarded by some writers as
a direct descendant of the markhor. The body is low, the legs are stout, the head
and neck short, and the ears pendent. The white hair is long, wavy, and silky,
and it. is used in the manufacture of a peculiar kind of cloth. During the cold
weather these goats are kept in stables, but throughout the rest of the year are
suffered to roam at large ; the flocks are very large, each buck being accompanied
by about a hundred does. They are shorn in April ; and during the heats of
summer their hair is carefully washed and combed in order to prevent its deteriora-
tion. Some few are born without horns, and it is stated that in such cases the
hair is short and close.
Of equal celebrity with the last is the Kashmir eroat, which is a
Kashmir Goat.
rather small but strongly-built variety, characterised by the presence
of a thick under-coat of wool beneath the long hair. The neck is short, the head
somewhat thick, the eyes small, and the pendent ears longer than half the length
of the head. The horns are long and flattened, with a sharp edge in front, and
curved outwards and backwards; their tips being inclined inwards. There is
considerable variation in colour ; but generally the sides of the head, the upper
parts of the body, and the tail are silvery or yellowish white. Some individuals
are uniformly coloured throughout, and may be either pure white, yellow, light or
dark brown, or even black. Although most abundant in Tibet, the Kashmir goat
extends to Bokhara, and the country of the Kirghiz ; while of late years it has
been introduced into France, Wiirtemberg, and Austria. These goats are valued
for their under-wool, which is combed out during the summer, and is known in
Kashmir as pashm. From this pashm are manufactured the Kashmir shawls, and
also a very fine and soft dove-coloured cloth, pashmina. A certain quality of
pashm is also obtained from the Himalayan ibex. Enormous flocks of these goats
are kept in many parts of Tibet.
The Syrian or mamber goat of Eastern Europe and South-
western Asia resembles the preceding in the length of the hair, but
is distinguished from all other breeds by the extraordinary length of its pendent
ears, which are half as long again as the head. These goats are of large size and
very tall ; the horns are usually present in both sexes, and curve in a semicircle ;
the profile of the face is convex; and both sexes have a small beard. The long
black hair is shaggy and silky.
Ejnrof GO t ^^e Nile or Egyptian goat is another allied breed, agreeing in
size with the ordinary domestic goat, but with longer legs and shorter
horns, and especially distinguished by the small size of the head and the extreme
244 UNGULATES.
convexity of the profile. The horns are frequently absent in both sexes, and when
present are short, thick, and crumpled ; while there is generally no beard. The
pendent ears are about as long as the head, and are rounded at the tips, and flat.
The hair is short, and generally of a reddish brown colour, but inclining to yellow
on the legs. Sometimes, however, the colour is slaty grey, or spotted. These
goats extend from the countries along the Lower Nile to Central Nubia. The
Theban race of this breed has the most marked convexity of profile.
Perhaps, however, the most remarkable of all the breeds is the
Sudan goat, characterised by the short horns of 3 or 4 inches in
length, curving at first backwards and outwards, and then bending forwards at
their tips. The legs are short and strong ; and the short but thick hair is generally
dark coloured, frequently showing a mixture of black and reddish. Sometimes the
general dark colour is relieved by white spots ; but red, yellowish brown, and
perfectly black specimens are not uncommon. From the chin depends a black
beard reaching to the chest, where it divides to spread over the shoulders and
upper-parts of the fore-limbs. These goats are found over all the country lying
between the White Nile and the Niger, and doubtless extend over the greater
part of Central Africa to the West Coast. They are kept by the natives in
enormous flocks.
Mention has already been made of the wild goats of the Isle of
Giura, which are probably derived from a domestic race perhaps
crossed with the pasang. Goats have also run wild in many other places, more
especially mountainous islands like St. Helena, Tavolara near Sardinia, and Juan
Fernandez. In St. Helena these wild goats have completely destroyed a large
portion of the native flora, and this has resulted in the disappearance of much
of the fauna. Goats were introduced by the Spaniards into Juan Fernandez
in the year 1563. These soon increased enormously, and in order to diminish their
numbers dogs were subsequently let loose, and likewise ran wild. At the time of
Lord Anson's visit, in the summer of 1741, the goats had been greatly reduced in
numbers by the dogs, and they were further so much thinned by his party that
it was estimated only about two hundred remained. About thirty years ago
Pechuel-Loesche visited the island, and found that while the dogs had disappeared,
the goats had once more become exceedingly numerous. In 1885 the goats were
being vigorously hunted by the settlers with guns and dogs. The general colour of
these goats is reddish brown, in some districts spotted with dirty white.
IBEX (Capra ibex, etc.).
Although the Spanish and Persian wild goats are frequently spoken of as
ibex, it seems preferable to restrict this term to four nearly-allied species, namely,
the true or Alpine ibex, the Himalayan ibex, the Arabian ibex, and the Abyssinian
ibex. All these species are characterised by their nearly uniform coloration, and
by the front surface of their long scimitar - shaped horns being flattened and
ornamented by a number of bold transverse knots or ridges. These horns curve
backwards, and diverge regularly, although in some cases their tips have an
inward inclination ; they are nearly triangular in cross-section, the base of the
ALPINE IBEX.
GOATS. 247
triangle being formed by the broad front surface, and the apex by the sharp
hinder edge. In the females the horns are small and placed wider apart at
the base, with a nearly oval section, and they are marked by parallel wrinkles.
The Alpine ibex, steinbok, or bouquetin (C. ibex), is now
exterminated as a wild animal, although preserved by the Italian
Government in one or two valleys on the Piedmont side of Monte Rosa. It is
readily distinguished from the Himalayan ibex by the extremely small size of the
beard of the males, which is so short as to be scarcely noticeable. The animal is
also of smaller size, and at the present day, at least, its horns are far shorter, and
have less prominent knobs than those of the Himalayan species. Doubtless, how-
ever, the general size of the animal, as well as the length of its horns, have
been considerably reduced by the circumscribed area to which it is now confined.
Formerly, indeed, the ibex roamed over the Alps of Savoy, Switzerland, and the
Tyrol ; but it is unfortunate that there do not appear to be records of the length
to which the horns formerly attained. Horns of 26f and 31f inches in length have,
however, been recorded of late years.
The pairing-season is in January, and the kids are born at the end of June or
beginning of July. The habits of this species are practically identical with those
of the Himalayan ibex.
The Himalayan ibex (C. sibirica) differs from the Alpine species
Himalayan Ibex. " m f -, i ,1 i • P ,-, i i j
by the presence of a profuse beard on the chin or the bucks, ana a
ridge of coarse dark hair along the back, as well as by its superior size and
longer horns. The hair is coarse and brittle ; and in winter is underlain by a
thick coat of wool, or pashm, which enables the animal to withstand the intense
cold of its native mountains. The horns of the bucks have very large knobs,
placed at fairly regular intervals ; and it may be observed here that these knobs
do not indicate the annual stages of growth, which are marked by fine lines on
the sides of the horns. In colour the Himalayan ibex is subject to a considerable
amount of seasonal and local variation. Generally, however, in summer the colour
is brown, only slightly paler above than below ; but old males have some dirty
white patches on the back. On the other hand, in winter the coat assumes a
yellowish white hue, more or less tinged with brown or grey. The dark line on
the back has been already mentioned, and in addition to this the beard, tail, and
legs are also dark brown. In Baltistan very dark-coloured ibex are met with ;
and specimens from Siberia and the Thian Shan range are distinguished by
having the under surface of the hinder-part of the body and portions of the legs
entirely white.
A well-grown buck of the Himalayan ibex will stand about 40 inches at the
shoulder ; while does are about a third smaller. Fine specimens of . the horns
measure from 40 to 45 inches along the curve ; but a pair have been recorded
measuring upwards of 54 inches in length, with a girth of 11| inches just above
the first knob ; and there are several of 51 inches, or a little over, in existence.
Assuming: the ibex of the Himalaya to be identical with the one
Distribution. *
inhabiting the Thian Shan range and Siberia, the species has a very
extensive geographical range. Thus, it is found in all the mountain ranges of
Central Asia, from the Himalaya to the Altai, and from the neighbourhood of
248
UNGULATES.
Habits.
Herat, on the Persian frontier, in the north-west, to Kumaon in the south-east.
It is found not only on the crags but likewise on the open Pamir country.
To the south of the Valley of Kashmir the ibex is unknown in the Pir Panjal
range, and its continuation to the north-west of the Jhelam river, the Kajnag;
but it is not known to occur in the Himalaya to the eastward of the sources of the
Ganges, neither is it recorded from Eastern Tibet. Messrs. Blanford and Hodgson
have, however, reason to believe that it occurs in Tibet to the northwards of
Shikatse, on the Sanpo river, and also near Lhasa.
Like its Alpine cousin, the Himalayan ibex inhabits the crags
and upland meadows at or near the snow-level, rising or descending
according to the season of the year. General Macintyre writes of the habits of
this species, in the following
words : — " From what I have
seen and heard of ibex, their
sense of smell is not nearly so
acute as their sight. But
they seldom apprehend danger
from above, so it is best to
approach them, if possible,
from that direction. During
the spring and early summer
they may be seen feeding at
almost any time of the day
on the green patches of herb-
age among the higher crags
and snow-fields, only taking
a siesta for a few hours at a
time. In the dead of winter
they are found much lower
on the mountain-sides. Pro-
vided they do not see the
hunter, they are not always
scared away by firing, prob-
ably owing to their being so
accustomed to hearing the
noise of falling rocks and
avalanches. And sometimes they get so bewildered by the echoes of a shot, that
they give time for several easy chances before making up their minds to be off.
If one of them, however, catches only a glimpse of anything suspicious, a warning
whistle at once sends off the whole herd, although they often depart very leisurely,
even after being shot at. Ibex sometimes congregate in large numbers, but they
are usually found in flocks of from six or seven to twenty or so, the older bucks
often herding separately, except during the rutting-season. Despite the quantities
that are shot, killed by avalanches, and by those terrible foes to all Himalayan
game, the wild dogs, there appears to be little decrease in their numbers on the
more sequestered hunting-grounds ; for they are very prolific, each doe having as
HEAD OP HIMALAYAN IBEX.
. GOATS.
249
a rule a pair of kids every summer. The villagers train their dogs to hunt
them down, when the ibex become so stupefied with terror that they are easily
approached and shot."
The foregoing account refers to the habits of this ibex in the Kashmir district,
and it accords in the main with an earlier one from the pen of General Kinloch.
The latter writer states that
ibex but seldom come as low
as the upper limits of forest ;
and even during the winter
"do not, as a rule, descend
very low, but resort to places
where, from the steepness of
the hillside, the snow does
not lie in any quantity. Here
they may be detained for
weeks by a heavy fall, pick-
ing a scanty subsistence
from the scattered tufts of
withered herbage that here
and there crop out of the
crevices of the rocks. At
this season males and females
herd together; but as the
snow melts and the time for
the birth of the young
approaches, the old males
forsake the females alto-
gether, and, as the summer
advances, retire to the most
inaccessible mountains, fre-
quently sleeping during the
day above the limits of vege-
tation, and descending great
distances to feed in the
mornings and evenings. The
best time to shoot ibex is
when the young grass is just
beginning to sprout along the
margin of the snow in May
and June ; after the hardships and frequent long fasts of winter they feed greedily
on the fresh young shoots, and in secluded spots may be found lying down on
the grassy slopes during the day."
The same writer proceeds to observe that, although excessively wary, the
Himalayan ibex, on account of the broken nature of the ground it frequents, is not
very difficult to approach within shooting distance. From our own personal
observation and the accounts of the natives of the secluded valleys around
ARABIAN IBEX.
25o UNGULATES.
Kashmir, we are inclined to believe that the Himalayan ibex is in the habit of
descending to lower levels than is admitted by General Kinloch ; and we have
been told that in the valleys of Wardwan and Tibet numbers are killed at this
season in the snow quite close to the villages. On one occasion, during the
summer, we observed a small flock of ibex driven down from the heights by a
sudden snowstorm to the level of the high-road between Kashmir and Ladak, in
the valley of the Indus. In 1854 Colonel Markham wrote that in Kashmir ibex
might be seen in flocks of a hundred or more, but nothing like these numbers are
found at the present day ; and, in spite of the statement of General Macintyre, it
appears to us that in the immediate neighbourhood of Kashmir this magnificent
animal is becoming rapidly scarcer.
The bucks descend from the higher crags to join the does about October, the
pairing-season taking place during the winter; and the young are born in May
and June, or about a month earlier than is the case with the Alpine species. To
the natives of Kashmir the ibex is know as the kel, while in Baltistan and Ladak
it is termed skin, or iskin.
The third representative of the group is the Arabian or Sinaitic
ibex (C. sinaitica), locally known as the beden. This goat is found
in the Sinaitic Peninsula, in portions of Palestine, and in Upper Egypt ; it is common
in Arabia Petrsea, but more rare in Palestine proper, and never appears to have
extended northwards of the Lebanon, where a few still remain. In Egypt its
southern limit is approximately marked by the tropic of Capricorn. This species
is distinguished from the Himalayan ibex by the horns being more compressed,
and having the knobs on the front surface arranged at less regular intervals. The
general colour of the fur is yellowish brown, with dark markings on the back,
chest, and front of the legs ; the under-parts and the hinder-surface of the limbs
being whitish. In well -grown adult males the horns may attain a length
of 36 inches along the curve, and Sir E. G. Loder has a pair almost 39 inches in
length. The habits of the animal appear to be similar to those of the others.
Abyssinian Lastly, there is the little-known Abyssinian ibex (C. walie)y
ibex. from Abyssinia, distinguished from the others by the curvature
of its horns, and the presence of a protuberance in the middle of the forehead.
THE MARKHOR (C. falconeri).
The Himalayan markhor (literally snake-eater), or spiral-horned goat, brings
us to the last representative of the genus Capra, and one distinguished from all
the others by its upwardly-directed and spirally-twisted horns, and also by the
extension of the beard on to the chest and shoulders. In the latter respect this
species reminds us of the arui among the sheep, although the markhor agrees with
other goats in the shortness of its tail. The markhor is further remarkable for
the enormous amount of variation in the form and size of the horns ; one variety
having them twisted in the form of a corkscrew, with not more than one and a half
complete turns, while in another they are twisted on their own axis in the form of
a screw, which may have as many as three complete turns. These varieties were
formerly regarded as constituting distinct species, but since they are more or
GOATS. 251
less completely connected by intermediate forms like those represented in our
illustrations, they are now generally regarded as the extreme developments of one
very variable species. The horns of the varieties with a corkscrew-like twist are
the finest trophies yielded by any of the goats.
According to General Kinloch, the male markhor may stand nearly 3 feet
8 inches at the withers, although an adult Gilgit specimen, measured by Col. J.
THE MARKHOR, CABUL VARIETY (f, nat. size).
Biddulph, measured only 3 feet 2£ inches. The magnificent beard, extending in
the adult males on to the chest and shoulders, and sometimes reaching nearly to
the knees, is black in front and grey behind ; in the young bucks and the does
at all ages it is confined to the chin. The fur has but little or no pashm, and in
summer is of a reddish brown colour, but becomes grey in winter ; it is paler on
the under-parts, and the lower portions of the front of the legs have a dark stripe.
In summer the very old males become whitish all over; while the young are
uniformly greyish brown, except for a dark stripe along the back. Owing to the
252
UNGULATES.
variation of the horns in the different races, it is somewhat difficult to give a
description which will hold good for them all. They are, however, much com-
pressed, placed close together at the base, and spirally twisted, with a keel both in
front and behind. The front keel, which tends to become rounded in old animals,
at first turns outwards in each horn ; and the sharp back keel twists forwards to
form the prominent front ridge of the first turn of the spiral. The length varies
greatly in the different races. The females have small horns with a slight twist.
The markhor is first met with in the Pir Panjal range, forming
the outer boundary of the valley of Kashmir, but does not extend to
the eastwards of the valley of the Chinab river. To the north and north-west of
the valley of Kashmir it extends into the districts of Baltistan, Astor, and Gilgit ;
and it is also found in many of the ranges of Hazara and Afghanistan, and likewise
in the neighbourhood of Quetta.
Four distinct varieties of the markhor are recognised by Mr.
Varieties
Blanford, and are characterised as follows : — First of all, we have the
typical Astor and Baltistan markhor, in which the horns form a very open spiral,
never forming more than one and a half turns. The horns are extremely massive,
arid attain a great length. Mr. Otho Shaw has specimens measuring 49 and 55
inches in length along the posterior keel ; and it is probable that an example with
a length of 63 inches belonged to this variety. Next we have the Pir Panjal
markhor, of which the horns are represented in the woodcut on the next page. Here
the spiral is less open, and may form from one to two complete turns. This race
extends across the Jhelam river into the Kajnag range, and from thence probably
into Hazara and Gilgit, where it passes into the third variety. Mr. Shaw has a
pair of horns measuring 45 inches along the curve, and others have been recorded
of 50 inches and rather over. In the third or Cabul variety, which is the one
represented in our first illustration, the horns are almost straight, but still have
a slight spiral, with two complete twists. Specimens have been measured with
a length of 44 inches, but it is said that as much as 60 inches have been recorded,
measured along the curve. Lastly, we have the markhor of the Suliman range,
on the eastern frontier of Afghanistan, in which the horns are generally perfectly
straight, with the front and back keels wound round in a sharp spiral, which may
form from two to three and a half complete turns. In the largest recorded head
the length along the hind keel was 49 inches. This variety is considerably inferior
in size to the other, and has a smaller beard.
The different varieties of the markhor exhibit some diversity in
Habits.
their habits, owing to the varying nature of their native districts ;
General Kinloch remarking that while the open-horned varieties inhabit lofty
pine-clad ranges, whose summits are generally wreathed in snow, the straight-
horned Suliman race has its home among barren and rocky hills of trifling
elevation, where the heat during the summer months is frequently intense.
Like other goats, markhor go in small flocks, the males generally keeping
apart from the females. General Kinloch remarks of the male that " his flowing
black beard, and long shaggy mane, falling from his neck and shoulders to his
knees, give him a most imposing appearance ; and as he stands to gaze on some
jutting rock on the face of a rugged precipice, overhung by dark pine trees, no
GOATS.
253
sportsman nor lover of nature can fail to be struck with admiration at his noble
bearing. He is powerfully and compactly made, and, in spite of his weight,
he has perhaps no equal in traversing difficult and dangerous ground. I know of
no animal whose pursuit habitually entails so much difficult climbing, and to be
successful one must occasionally venture into places where no less inducement
would tempt one to run the risk. Old male markhor are extremely difficult to
find, especially where they have been frequently disturbed. Unlike the ibex, which
keeps to the rugged crags and steep
ravines above the limits of the forest,
the markhor delights in rocky forests,
and although it occasionally comes out
into the open glades, it seeks conceal-
ment as much as possible."
This description applies to the
markhor of Kashmir and Astor; but
in Afghanistan the animal inhabits bare
and rugged hillsides, owing to the
general absence of forest in that country.
The ground haunted by markhor in
many parts of Kashmir territory is of
the most loose and rotten description,
which renders stalking decidedly danger-
ous. Not unfrequently markhor are
found with one or both horns much
broken, but whether this is due to
accidents from landslips and avalanches,
or to combats between one another, does
not appear to be ascertained. As
already mentioned, the Suliman markhor
is frequently found at a comparatively
low elevation ; and it appears that in all
localities this goat does not bear extreme
cold so bravely as its cousin the ibex,
and that in winter it always descends
to the more protected valleys. This
sensitiveness to cold is doubtless correctly attributed by Colonel Biddulph to the
absence of under-fur, or pashm, in the markhor.
The agile habits of this goat were well exhibited by a buck formerly kept in
the London Zoological Gardens, which, in spite of the weight of a heavy chain, was
found nearly every morning mounted on the top of the high wall surrounding
his enclosure. In captivity markhor breed freely, the number of young at a
birth being either one or two. It does not appear to be ascertained when the
young are born in the Pir Panjal range, but in the districts of Astor and Gilgit
they are produced in May and June. Markhor have frequently interbred with
domestic goats ; and it was formerly considered that the spiral-horned varieties of
the latter traced their parentage directly to this species. In domestic goats, as
HEAD OF MARKHOR; PIR PANJAL VARIETY.
254
UNGULATES.
already mentioned, the horns are almost invariably twisted in the opposite
direction to those of the markhor, although Mr. Blanford states that there are
occasionally exceptions. It is, however, not improbable that some races of domestic
goats may have a larger or smaller proportion of markhor blood.
The markhor appears to be one of the oldest types of wild goat, since a fossil
species, which cannot at present be satisfactorily distinguished from the living
one, occurs in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik hills at the foot of the Himalaya.
THE TAHR AND THE NILGIRI GOAT.
Genus Hemitragus.
The Himalayan goat, known as the tahr (H. jemlaicus), together with an allied
species from Arabia, and a third from the Nilgiri hills of Southern India, differ so
markedly from the true goats that Mr. Blanford considers they should be placed
in a genus by themselves. All these goats are utterly devoid of a beard, and also
distinguished by having the extremity of the muzzle naked. Their skulls are
longer and narrower than in the true goats, with the sockets of the eyes less pro-
minent ; and the horns are relatively short, and but little smaller in the does than
in the bucks. In form the horns are compressed and angulated in front, with
their bases quite close together ; and they curve backwards from the plane of the
forehead. Neither of the species have glands in the fore-feet.
The Himalayan tahr, which is represented in our illustration, is
readily distinguished by the form of the black horns, which have
their lateral surfaces flattened and shelving regularly up to the sharp and beaded
keel on the inner front border ; they diverge regularly from their bases, at the same
time curving sharply backwards, with a slight inward inclination at the tips. On
the head the hair is short, but it becomes longer on the body, and in old bucks is
so lengthened on the neck, chest, and shoulders as to form a long shaggy mane
reaching below the knees. There is considerable individual variation in colour,
but the general tint of the hair is dark or reddish brown ; old males being gener-
ally very dark, although pale-coloured individuals of both sexes are not unfre-
quently met with. The face and the front of the limbs are very dark, in some
instances almost black; and old males have an indistinct dark line down the
middle of the back. In young animals the colour is a uniform greyish brown ;
and the kids are reported to be very pale coloured. The female tahr differs from
all other goats, as well as from sheep, in having four teats.
In height the male tahr varies from 3 feet to 3 feet 4 inches at the shoulder ;
the does being much smaller. Good specimens of the horns vary from 12 to 15
inches in length, measured along the curve ; but a pair has been recorded with a
length of 16| and a basal girth of 10 J inches. In the does the length of the horns
is seldom more than 10 inches.
. This goat is found throughout the higher forest-regions of the
Himalaya, from the Pir Panjal range on the outer side of the valley
of Kashmir in the north-west to Sikhim in the south-east, but is unknown in the
arid Tibetan districts of the interior. Tahr is the native name by which it is
GOATS.
255
known in the Western Himalaya, but in Kashmir it is termed kras, while in Nipal
it goes by the name of jharal. Quite recently a second smaller species, with only
two teats, has been discovered in Arabia ; while a fossil tahr occurs in the rocks
of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya.
In spite of the small size of its horns, the tahr is decidedly a fine-
looking animal ; and it is plentifully distributed over many parts of
the Himalaya. Although in the Pir Panjal range tahr are often found on the same
ground as markhor, in other districts they frequent almost worse ground, and we
Habits.
THE HIMALAYAN TAHR (£ Hat. size).
have known many instances where specimens have been completely smashed by
falling down precipices after they were killed. After mentioning that the tahr
resembles the markhor in its forest-loving habits, General Kinloch observes that
"although it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally
prefers the steep slopes which are more or less clothed with trees. Female tahr
may frequently be found on open ground, but old males hide a great deal in the
thickest jungle, lying during the heat of the day under the shade of trees or over-
hanging rocks. Nearly perpendicular hills with dangerous precipices, where the
forest consists of oak and ringal-cane, are the favourite haunts of the old tahr, who
256
UNGULATES.
climb with ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal
could find a footing."
The old male tahr generally herd separately from the females during the
summer, but about October the two sexes come together; and it is believed that
the kids are born in June and July, only a single one being produced at a birth.
The Nilgiri wild goat (H. hylocrius) — the warri-atu of the
Tamils, and the Nilgiri ibex of English sportsmen — is a southern
species inhabiting the Nilgiri and Anamalai Hills, and the so-called Western Ghats
as far south as Cape Comorin. It is generally found at elevations of from four
thousand to six thousand feet above the sea, but occasionally somewhat lower
down. This species may be distinguished at a glance from the tahr by the form
of the horns, and the absence of the shaggy mane which forms such a conspicuous
feature on the fore-quarters of the males of the latter. Instead of being flattened
externally, the horns of this goat have their outer side highly convex, and thus
have a distinct anterior surface, internally to which there is a slight ridge ; more-
over, for some distance the two horns run parallel to one another, after which they
diverge gradually. The hair is short, thick, and coarse ; the males having a short,
stiff mane on the back of the neck and withers. The general colour is dark
yellowish brown above, with a darker stripe down the back; while the under-
parts are paler. The females and young show a more or less decided grey tinge.
In height old males of the Nilgiri goat stand from 3| feet to 3£ feet at the
shoulder; the horns measuring from 12 to 16 inches in length along the curve,
although in one instance a length of 17 inches has been recorded.
Writing of the habits of this species, Mr. Blanford observes that " the Nilgiri
goat is found usually in herds of from five or six to fifty or sixty amongst the
crags and rocky precipices that border the Nilgiris and other high ranges in the
extreme south of India. It keeps above the forest, and but rarely enters woods.
I have more than once seen these animals feeding on the grassy hills at the top of
the Kundahs west of the Nilgiris, but their usual haunts are the grassy slopes and
precipitous crags on the edges of the plateau; they feed on the former in the
mornings and evenings, and rest on ledges amongst the cliffs during the day.
They are quite as wary and sharp-sighted as tahr or markhor, and just as nimble
and alert on precipitous ground. An old doe, as with other goats, usually acts as
sentinel to the herd, and they always appear to suspect danger from below and
not from above." The young appear to be born almost at any season of the year ;
and it is stated that there are generally two at a birth.
How this species originally reached its present habitat, so remote from that of
its allies, is not very easy to understand ; but the occurrence of a fossil goat appar-
ently allied to this group in Perim Island, in the Gulf of Cambay, may eventually
aid in solving the problem.
In regard to the present distribution of this goat, a recent writer observes that
it is still fairly abundant on the Anamalai and Travancore Hills ; but has sadly
decreased elsewhere owing to the war of extermination waged against it by the
native pot-hunter and European shooter, who have alike been indefatigable in
slaying the does and young all seasons of the year. The ibex, as it has been
locally misnamed, has become so scarce on the Nilgiris that its destruction has
G ORALS.
257
been wholly prohibited since last year, but it is feared that this prohibition has
been effected too late to prevent the extinction of the few now left, for the leopards
are most deadly and persistent enemies, and it is a very difficult matter for a small
herd to hold its own and increase in spite of their depredations.
THE GORALS.
Genus Cemas.
The goral (Cemas goral) of the Himalaya is our first representative of an
assemblage of mountain-haunting Ruminants which to a great extent connect the
goats with the antelopes. Most of these animals have a more or less goat-like build,
THE GORAL (A liat. size).
goat-like teeth, short tails, relatively small cylindrical horns, and no beards. The
goral is a relatively small creature, standing only 27 inches at the shoulder, and
having somewhat stout limbs, and rather coarse short hair, which becomes elon-
gated into a slight crest along the back of the neck. Its general colour is brown,
with a more or less rufous or grey tinge ; but there is a dark stripe from the nape
of the neck to the black tail, and another down the front of each leg, while the
throat is white. The muzzle is naked ; and the face, as in the goats, has no gland
below the eye, while the skull lacks any depression in the same region. The
short, black, and conical horns curve regularly backwards, and are marked, except
at the tip, by a number of small and irregular rings. In the bucks they may vary
VOL. ii. — 17
258
UNGULATES.
from 6 to 8 inches in length, but a pair has been recorded of upwards of 9f inches.
The horns of the does are only slightly smaller than those of the bucks.
The goral is found throughout the outer ridges of the Himalaya,
on> from Kashmir to Bhutan, at elevations of from three thousand tc
eight thousand feet. In Eastern Tibet its place is taken by the ashy goral (C.
cinerea) and the grey goral (C. grisea) ; while in Northern China and Amurland it
is represented by the long-tailed goral, distinguished by its longer tail.
The Himalayan goral is generally found in small parties
of from four to eight individuals ; but sometimes these animals
associate only in pairs, and old bucks appear to be generally solitary. They
frequent rugged grassy hills or rocky forest-clad ground; and during cloudy
weather feed throughout the day, but when fine, only in the morning and
evening. Where one goral is seen, there others will almost certainly be found
in the neighbourhood ; and these animals but rarely forsake their feeding-grounds.
When alarmed, they utter a kind of hissing snort. General Macintyre writes
that " goral-stalking in the precipitous and broken ground on the middle ranges
[of the Himalaya], is perhaps the pleasantest though not the grandest kind of
mountain sport. The amount of stiff climbing it entails is quite enough to give
it zest, without making it excessively laborious. The sportsman can generally
return to his tent to rest during the heat of the day, whilst the goral are doing
likewise, hidden away among the shady recesses of the rocks, and he can always
get back at night to a comfortable bed."
THE SEROWS.
Genus Nemorhcedus.
Nearly allied to the gorals are the more shaggy animals known as serows, or
goat-antelopes, which are likewise peculiar to South-Eastern and Eastern Asia.
Although resembling the gorals in their general build, their naked muzzles, short
tails, and the presence of four teats in the females, the serows are distinguished by
having a gland beneath the eye, and a corresponding shallow depression in the
skull for its reception. Moreover, the plane of the forehead passes imperceptibly
into that of the region behind the horns, whereas in the gorals the two are
separated by a distinct angle.
The common serow (Nemorhcedus bubalinus) is a Himalayan species extending
from Kashmir to the Mishmi Hills, where it is found at elevations of from six
to twelve thousand feet. It is much larger than the goral, standing about 37
inches at the shoulders, and the horns of bucks generally measuring from 9
to 10 inches in length, although they may reach as much as 13£ inches. The
serow is rather an ugly-looking animal, with large ears, and coarse and some-
what thin hair of moderate length, which forms a kind of crest along the neck.
The head and neck are black, and the rest of the hair of the upper-parts black or
dark grey, with a more or less distinct grizzle ; the muzzle, chin, and inside of the
ears are white, and the under-parts are also whitish, while the flanks, chest, etc.,
are rusty red. The black horns curve regularly backwards, and, in addition to
TAKIN.
259
Habits.
numerous rings, are marked by a number of longitudinal striae. The two sexes
are very similar.
The Burmese serow (N. sumatrensis), which inhabits hilly districts from the
Eastern Himalaya to Yunnan and Eastern Tibet, and thence to Siam, Burma, the
Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, is only distinguished by its redder colour, and
perhaps rather smaller size. The other two species are the Japanese serow (N.
Crispins) from Japan, and Swinhoe's serow (N. swinhoei) from the island of
Formosa; both of which are distinguished by their smaller size, which is about
equal to that of the goral.
The habits of all the serows are probably very similar. Writing
of the Himalayan species, General Kinloch observes that it " has an
awkward gait, but, in spite of this, it can go over the worst ground ; and it has,
perhaps, no superior in going down steep
hills. It is a solitary animal, and is nowhere
numerous; two or three may be found on
one hill, four or five on another, and so on.
It delights in the steepest and most rocky
hillsides, and its favourite resting-places are
in caves, under the shelter of overhanging
rocks, or at the foot of shady trees. Although
very shy and difficult to find, the serow is a
fierce and dangerous animal when brought to
bay. I have even heard of an unwounded
male charging when his mate had been shot.
It is said that a serow will sometimes beat
off a pack of wild dogs, and I believe that
serow and dogs have been found lying dead
together. When disturbed, the serow utters a
most singular sound, something between a
snort and a screaming whistle, and I have
heard them screaming loudly when they had
apparently not been alarmed." General Mac-
intyre relates that on one occasion " a female
serow had been shot by a sportsman, when, on his native follower approaching
to secure it, a male companion rushed out from the dense cover hard by, and,
going for the man, sent him rolling downhill with a butt from its horns."
HORNS OF HIMALAYAN SEROW.
THE TAKIN.
Genus Budorcas.
One of the most remarkable members of this group is the little-known takin
(Budorcas taxicolor), from Eastern Tibet and the Mishmi Hills, which is evidently
allied to the serow, although with very differently shaped horns. The takin is a
heavily-built and comparatively large animal, standing 3| feet at the shoulder,
with stout limbs, large lateral hoofs, and a small goat-like tail. The muzzle is
260
UNGULATES.
is convex.
covered with hair, except a small spot at the extremity ; and the profile of the face
The horns are black and thick in both sexes ; in the males they rise
(as in our figure) close together,
and at first curve outwards,
after which they make a sharp
turn and are directed straight
backwards. According to Mr.
A. O. Hume, the horns of the
female are placed further apart
at the base, and curve outwards
and then backwards without
any marked angulation; but
other writers state that they are
similar in shape to those of the
males, but smaller and thinner.
Male horns vary in length from
20 to 24 inches, with a basal
girth of 9 or 10 inches. The
head of the takin is black, but
the colour of the coarse hair
of the body varies from yellowish to reddish brown mingled with black. Very
little is known of the habits of this Tibetan ruminant, but it appears to be found
either singly or in herds.
UPPER PART OF SKULL AND HORNS OF MALE TAKIN.
(From Hume, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1887.)
THE KOCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT.
Genus Haploceros.
The so-called goat of the Rocky Mountains (Haploceros montanus), which is
the third and last representative of the Bovidce inhabiting America, is another
animal nearly allied to the serow. This creature is about the size of a large sheep,
and averages 100 Ibs. in weight. It has very short and stout legs, terminating in
broad and blunted hoofs, pointed ears, and jet black horns, curving backwards, and
ringed for about half their length, but smooth above this. The body is covered
with a long coat of white hair, which is nearly straight, and falls on the sides of
the body and limbs, but is erect along the middle of the back, and as it becomes
longer over the withers and haunches the animal looks as though it had two humps.
Beneath the hair there is a thick coat of wool. There are no glands below the
eyes. In length the horns vary from 6 to 10| inches ; and the skeleton is remark-
able for the extreme shortness of the cannon-bones.
^. . . The range of this animal extends through the Rocky Mountains.
Distribution.
from about lat. 36° in California at least as far north as lat. 62°,
but Mr. J. Fannin believes that it will be found as far north as the mountains
reach. The same writer observes that it "is extremely abundant in British
Columbia, ranging from its southern boundary to the watershed of the Arctic
Ocean, and from the coast-line to the Rockies. Here, amid nature's wildest scenes,
CHAMOIS. 261
amid storm-swept canons and beetling crags, amid steel-blue glaciers and snowy
peaks, where the silence is seldom broken save by the rush of mountain torrent,
the howling of the storm, or the crashing of the treacherous avalanche, — here, far
removed from the trail of the ordinary hunter, the mountain-goat, solitary in its
habits, and contented with its chaotic and gloomy surroundings, increases and
multiplies."
Although chiefly a mountain animal, this species is occasionally
observed close to the sea-level, and has even been seen swimming salt-
water estuaries or rivers. Such occurrences are, however, rare ; and, as a rule, the
Rocky Mountain goat lives above or close to the upper limits of forests. But when
driven by hunger, these animals sometimes descend to lower levels in the forest,
while they will not unfrequently traverse the lowlands separating one mountain or
range from another. During the pairing-season in November and in the middle
of winter they are gregarious, although not markedly so at other seasons of the
year. As might be inferred, from their short and clumsy limbs, these animals have
but little speed ; and when disturbed they move leisurely off, trusting rather to
concealment behind sheltering rocks than in rapidity of pace. Formerly the Rocky
Mountain goat was much hunted by the Indians for the sake of its fleece, but now
that the demand for blankets made from its wool has well-nigh ceased, the pursuit
itself has been abandoned in many districts.
Although extremely agile among its native mountains, the Rocky Mountain
goat, in spite of many statements to the contrary, does not appear to be a very
wary animal. Indeed, Mr. Fannin states that it is, perhaps, the most stupid
animal in the mountains, and little or no skill is required in hunting it. The great
difficulty is in reaching the almost inaccessible places which it usually inhabits.
The best time for hunting is in September and October, before the rainy season
sets in, although the skins are not in their best condition till later on. In colora-
tion this animal is unique among Ruminants ; and is, indeed, one of the few
mammals that are white at all seasons. Its white coat is admirably adapted to
harmonise with the snows of its highest haunts, but would seem to be conspicuous
when the animal is among dark rocks or on its grazing-grounds.
THE CHAMOIS.
Genus Rupicapra.
The last representative of the goat-like antelopes is the well-known chamois or
gemse (Rupicapra tragus), of the mountains of Europe, readily distinguished from
all the others by the short and cylindrical black horns rising for a considerable
distance vertically from the forehead, and then bending sharply backwards and
downwards in a hook -like manner. The chamois is a strongly -built animal, with
relatively long and stout limbs, and a very short stumpy tail ; in height it stands
about 2 feet at the withers. The hair is close and rather long, with a thick
woolly under-fur. During the winter the general colour is a chestnut-brown, paler
on the face and under-parts, and there is a well-marked brown streak extending
from below the eye nearly to the corner of the mouth ; the tail being black. In
262
UNGULATES.
the summer the coat is lighter coloured, having in spring a more or less marked
grey hue. The erect ears are sharply pointed ; and the horns, except at their tips,
are marked both by slight transverse rings and by longitudinal striae. Fair-sized
horns are about 7 inches in length, but some specimens measure as much as 9
inches, or rather more, while a few reach 10£ inches. The weight of a buck
chamois may vary from 50 to 70 Ibs. Light-coloured, or even white varieties, are
THE CHAMOIS (•?•, iiat. size).
occasionally met with. The face has a small gland below the eye, and there
is a corresponding shallow depression in the skull for its reception; while the
muzzle is completely covered with hair. The hoofs have their outer edges higher
than the central portion, and are thus adapted for securing a firm foothold on
rocks.
The chamois has a wide distribution in the mountains of Europe,
occurring in the Pyrenees (where it is known as the izard), the
mountains of the coast of Spain, in Dalmatia and Greece, in the Carpathians, the
Distribution.
CHAMOIS AT BAY.
CHAMOIS. 265
Swiss and Transylvanian Alps, the Caucasus, the Taurus Range, and in the
mountains of Georgia. The Pyrenean izard is a smaller form, with shorter horns
and a more foxy-red colour than the typical Alpine gemse ; and the variety found
in the Caucasus, where it is known as atchi, has also certain distinctive differences.
Neither of these can, however, be regarded as more than local races. At the
present day the chamois has become rare in the Swiss Alps, but in the Eastern
Alps, in the districts of Bavaria, Salzburg, Styria, and Carinthia, it is far more
common; while it is abundant on the precipitous summits of the central Car-
pathians. Fossil remains of the chamois are found in caverns at low elevations in
several parts of the European continent, thus indicating very different climatic
conditions from those now prevailing.
As regards its habits, the general notion is that the chamois is
Habits
an essentially Alpine animal ; that is, one frequenting the glaciers
and snowy peaks above the forest-level. This, however, according to Brehm, is a
mistaken idea ; the truth being that the chamois is really a forest-dwelling animal,
and that most individuals of the species live from year's end to year's end within
the limits of the forest. A certain number during the summer always leave,
however, the main flock, to take up their abode for a period of weeks or months
among the glaciers and snow-fields above the upper limits of forests. These
adventurous individuals are known to the hunters as glacier - chamois, in
contradistinction to wood-chamois; but a short spell of severe weather is
sufficient to drive even these back to the shelter of the forests. The favourite
haunts of the chamois are the western and north-western slopes of the Alps in
summer ; while in the winter they prefer the spots with an easterly or southerly
aspect.
Chamois are essentially gregarious animals, usually associating together in
herds of fifteen or twenty individuals. They repose during the night, but with
the first glimmer of dawn commence feeding; towards the middle of the day
they again seek the shelter of rocks or trees, where they lie in the shade till
evening, when they once more issue forth to feed.
Their chief nutriment consists of lichens and the scanty mountain herbage.
During the greater part of the year the old males live a solitary life apart
from the flocks; but during the pairing-season in October and November they
join the flocks of females, from which they drive away the young bucks. During
this period the old bucks engage in fierce contests among themselves, which occa-
sionally terminate fatally.
The young, generally one but occasionally two in number, are born in May
or June, after a gestation of about twenty-eight weeks, and are clothed with a
thick woolly coat of a reddish colour. When but a day old they are able to follow
their dams almost anywhere ; and in three months first show their horns. In
three years they attain their full size ; and it is stated that the span of life of
a chamois will extend from twenty to twenty-five years, although this requires
confirmation.
All who have seen chamois in their native haunts are agreed as to their extreme
agility and wariness ; and their sure-footedness has become proverbial. When
alarmed, they utter a shrill whistling sound, which at once sets the whole flock in
266
UNGULATES.
rapid motion. A chamois is able to stand on the summit of a pinnacle of rock
with all its four feet gathered into a space of the size of a crown piece ; and as its
THE LEAP OP THE CHAMOIS.
sense of sight, smell, and hearing, are of the acutest, its pursuit taxes the utmost
powers of the hunter.
ANTELOPES.
267
ELAND.
Genus Orias.
With the large and handsome African animals known as eland, or impofo, we
come to the first representatives of the extensive group of antelopes, which
includes the whole of the remain-
ing members of the bovine
family. Although the term
antelope is one in common use,
and most of the members of
the group are easily recognised,
yet, owing to the number of
generic types and the diversity
of their structure, it is exceed-
ingly difficult to distinguish
antelopes as a whole from the
oxen on the one hand and from
the goats on the other; the
transition to the former group
being effected by means of the
anoa, and to the latter by the
goat-like antelopes just described.
Antelopes are, indeed, the most
generalised members of the pre-
sent family now existing, and
since they are also its oldest
known representatives, it is prob-
able that from them have been
derived the more specialised
types already treated of, so that HEAD op BULL ELAND._After Nicoiis and Eglington.
the above-mentioned transitions
are precisely what we might naturally expect to occur.
Characters of As a whole, antelopes are characterised by their graceful build,
Antelopes. an(j by the head being carried considerably above the level of the
back. The horns, which may or may not be present in the females, are generally
long, more or less cylindrical, and often lyrate in shape ; while they are frequently
marked with prominent rings, and have an upright direction. Their bony internal
cores, instead of being honeycombed, as in the oxen, sheep, and goats, are nearly
solid throughout. These animals very generally have a gland beneath the eye, by
which they are distinguished from the oxen and goats ; but, as regards their teeth,
some of them resemble the oxen, while others -approximate to the sheep and goats.
Antelopes (in the proper sense of the word) are strictly confined
Distribution. £ \. / r . '. „ ,
to the Old World ; and by far the greater majority ot them are now
restricted to Africa, with the adjacent regions of Syria and Arabia. Indeed, if we
except the widely-spread group of gazelles, the only antelopes found beyond those
268
UNGULATES.
regions are the black-buck, four-horned antelope, and nilgai of India, the saiga of
Tartary, and the chiru of Tibet. It was not, however, always so, since in early
times antelopes of African types were distributed over a large portion of India and
Southern Europe ; and it is still one of the problems of zoology to account satis-
factorily for the disappearance of these animals from the latter regions. The
introduction of antelopes into Africa appears to have been comparatively recent ;
but having once made good their footing on that continent they multiplied, both
as regards individuals and species, in a manner quite unparalleled in any other
region, the total number of African antelopes exceeding ninety. Unfortunately,
SKELETON OF THE ADDAX.
Eland.
this profusion and exuberance of ruminant life, which, but a few decades back,
characterised the dark continent, is rapidly disappearing before the advance of
civilisation.
The eland belongs to a group of large and almost exclusively
African antelopes, characterised by the general absence of horns in
the females, and by those of the male being devoid of rings, angulated in front,
and usually spirally twisted. There is a small gland below the eye, the muzzle is
naked, the tail long, and the upper molar teeth generally have short crowns.
Eland are the largest of all antelopes, and differ from the other members of
the group in having horns in both sexes ; these being spirally twisted on their own
axis and directed upwards and outwards. The horns have a sharp ridge both in
ANTELOPES.
269
front and behind, and are directed upwards and outwards in the plane of the face.
The naked muzzle is broad, the gland below the eye small, and the tufted tail
reaches below the hocks. Both sexes have a large dewlap ; and the crowns of the
upper molar teeth are low and broad. The common eland (Orias canna), which
formerly ranged over the greater part of South, East, and Central Africa, is char-
THE ELAND
acterised by the horns of the cows being longer and thinner than those of the
bulls. The bulls have a tuft of long dark brown hair covering the forehead ; but
the colour of the rest of the head and body varies from pale fawn to bluish grey ;
the blue tint being most marked in old individuals — more especially bulls, in
which, owing to the scantiness of the hair, the colour of the skin shows through.
In the southern part of its range the eland is uniformly coloured, but further north
there occurs a variety in which the body is marked with vertical white stripes,
270 UNGULATES.
descending from a dark stripe on the back. The degree of distinctness of these
stripes varies greatly in different individuals ; and frequently in this variety there
is a white stripe across the nose, while there is always a dark patch on the inner
side of the knee. Mr. Crawshay states that in Nyasaland, among a single troop,
individuals may be seen varying from a light tawny yellow to a slaty blue in very
old age, while in some the stripes are clearly defined, in others faintly, and in
others again they are not distinguishable at all. An average-sized bull eland shot
by Mr. Selous stood 5 feet 9 inches at the withers, but some specimens are doubt-
less taller. Mr. Drummond states that the average weight varies from 800 to
1100 Ibs., but that in old bulls it may reach 1400 or even 1500 Ibs. The average
length of the horns may be set down at 25 inches for bulls and 26 inches for cows ;
but Mr. Selous has recorded a length of 30 inches in the former and 34 inches in
the latter. In old bulls the horns may be worn down to less than a foot in
length.
The eland was formerly distributed over all Southern and
Eastern Africa, but has now disappeared from the Cape Colony,
Natal, the Orange Free State, Griqualand West, and the Transvaal. A few years
ago these antelopes were, however, abundant in the districts between the Chobi
and Zambesi Rivers, as well as in the country to the north of the latter ; while
they are still plentiful in parts of Nyasaland, and are not uncommon in the
Kilima-Njaro district. Their complete extirpation is, however, probably merely a
matter of time ; the animal being slaughtered on account of its hide.
Eland are found both in the desert -country, and in wooded
Hcibits
districts, both hilly and flat. In Nyasaland Mr. Crawshay says
that their favourite haunts are undulating, well-timbered country, where the
grass is not too long, and where there are intervening open plains ; as a rule, they
visit the plains at night or in the early mornings to drink, and then wander back
long distances to the forest, where they spend the hot hours of the day. In the
great Kalahari Desert, where they are still common, Mr. Selous states, however,
that eland go a long period without drinking any water, except that which they
may obtain by eating water-melons and other plants. Eland are generally found
in large herds, numbering from fifty to upwards of a hundred head, but solitary
bulls or small parties of bulls are not unfrequently observed.
Elands are generally accompanied by " rhinoceros birds," which, in addition
to their natural timidity, make them difficult to approach on foot. Consequently
they are generally hunted on horseback. The bulls, when fat, can be easily ridden
down by a good horse; but the cows have greater speed and staying power.
When pursued, eland frequently leap high in the air. The calves are born in July
and August ; and it appears that the females do not breed oftener than once in
every two years, so that the rate of increase is slow. When they have their calves
with them, the cows will attack and impale dogs on their horns ; but at other
seasons both sexes are quite harmless. Mr. Selous states that the flesh of the
eland has been very generally over-estimated ; and during the dry season, when
these animals often subsist entirely upon leaves, it is quite uneatable. In captivity
the eland breeds freely; and it was at one time considered that it might be
profitably acclimatised in England.
MALE AND FEMALE KUDU.
ANTELOPES.
273
Abnormal Horns.
Occasionally, cow eland are found with one or both horns
abnormally formed ; such abnormal horns being long and nearly
straight, with a triangular cross-section. Such a pair, measuring 30 inches in a
straight line, were described a few years ago under the name of Antilope triangul-
aris, and were supposed to indicate an extinct species of aiitelope, which was
subsequently referred to a new genus.
The magnificent animal known as the Derbian eland (0.
derbiamis), replaces the common species on the West Coast in the
districts of Angola and Senegambia. It is considerably larger than the southern
and eastern form ; and the bulls have a large dark brown mane and much finer
horns. The horns of the cows are, however, relatively small. Male horns have
been measured of 34 i inches in length.
Derbian Eland.
KUDU.
Genus Strepsiceros.
The graceful and beautifully marked antelopes known as kudu, of which
there are likewise two species,
are distinguished from eland
by the absence of horns in
the female, and by the cork-
screw - like spiral formed by
those of the male, as well as
by the much shorter tail,
which does not reach the
hocks. The horns are char-
acterised by the great develop-
ment of the front ridge, and
rise from the skull at an
obtuse angle to the plane of
the face. The neck is maned,
and the throat may be fur-
nished with a fringe of long
hair. The body is marked
with narrow vertical white
stripes descending from a white
line on the back ; and there
is also a white chevron on the
face, together with white spots
on the cheek, and splashes of
the same colour on the throat
and limbs. The hoofs are
short.
The common kudu (Strepsiceros kudu}, which is the species
represented in our illustration, is distinguished by its large size, the
VOL. ii. — 18
HEAD OF KUDU.— After Nicolls and Eglington.
Common Kudu.
274 UNGULATES.
open spiral formed by the enormous horns of the male, and the presence of a
thick fringe of hair on the throat. The ground-colour of females and young males
is reddish or greyish brown, marked with eight or nine white stripes ; but in old
males it becomes bluish grey, apparently owing to the skin showing through the
scanty hair. The kudu is only inferior in size to the eland ; a full-grown bull
standing about 4 feet 4 inches at the shoulder. The horns may attain a length of 3
feet 5 or 6 inches in a straight line, while one instance is recorded where the one
horn measured 3 feet 9 inches, and the other 3 feet 9£ inches. In a pair measuring
3 feet 5 inches in a straight line, the length along the curve was 5 feet 4 inches.
The geographical range of the kudu extends from the Cape to
Distribution. ..,.., , , . ,, ^ . p . -. -,.
the Abyssinian highlands, embracing all Eastern Africa and extending
westwards to Angola. Some years ago Mr. Selous stated that a few kudu still
lingered in the Cape Colony, while in Griqualand West they were not uncommon.
From the Limpopo to the Zambesi they were at that time abundant; and Mr.
Crawshay records them as distributed all over Nyasaland. In the Kilima-Njaro
district they appear to be rare. Mr. Selous states that the kudu is usually partial
to hilly country covered with dense thickets ; but hills are by no means necessary
to its existence, as it is common in the thick bush along both banks of the river
Chobi, where there are no hills whatever, and it is also plentiful in the wait-a-bit
thorn-jungles on the Lower Molapo, just on the edge of the flat and sandy Kalahari
Desert. In Nyasaland they are never found far away from the hills. Mr.
Crawshay states that kudu are fond of browsing on the young and tender shoots
of trees and shrubs, especially in the dry season, when the grass has been burnt off,
and has not had time to grow. When alarmed, kudu sometimes give vent to a low
bark, but this is only audible at close quarters.
Kudu are generally found in pairs or in small parties. Their
speed is not great ; but owing to the circumstance that when dis-
turbed they invariably make for the roughest ground, while the districts they
haunt are frequently infested with the tsetse fly, it is but seldom that they
can be hunted on horseback. With dogs, however, they afford excellent sport ;
and Mr. Drummond gives the following graphic account of two bull kudu
brought to bay by a pack of Kaffir dogs. "My eyes," writes Mr. Drummond,
" were fixed upon the river, for there, on a small sandbank, stood the two noble
kudu bulls at bay. Two or three dogs had also gained a footing, and made the air
ring with their sharp barking, re-echoed back again and again by the precipice on
which I stood ; while several more swam about trying to stem the current and
regain the ground which they had lost. One of the antelopes stood with lowered
head, and his long circling horns pointed towards the dogs, and in his side I now
saw that a spear was half buried ; the other, evidently unwounded but unwilling
to leave its companion, remained motionless, his nostrils thrown forward, as if to
catch the first taint of the human pursuers sure to follow in their dogs' wake, and
his equally magnificent horns resting almost on his haunches."
The lesser kudu (8. imberbis) is a much smaller animal, apparently
restricted to Somaliland and the Kilima-Njaro district. In addition
to its inferior dimensions, this species is distinguished by the absence of a fringe
of long hair down the throat, and by the more compressed spiral of its horns.
ANTELOPES. 275
Measured in a straight line, the horns vary from about 17 to 25 inches in length.
The lesser kudu, although very common about Kilima-Njaro, is but seldom seen, as
it rarely leaves the bush. In Somaliland Captain Swayne states that while the
large kudu frequents the mountain ranges, the present species inhabits the thicket-
clad slopes at their feet.
An imperfect skull appears to indicate the occurrence of a kudu in India
during the Pliocene period.
THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES.
Genus Tragelaphus.
The harnessed antelopes, or bush-bucks, of which five species are now
recognised, come so close to the kudus that it may be a question whether they
ought not to be included in the same genus. They are, perhaps, the handsomest
of all the antelopes, being generally ornamented with vertical stripes like the
kudus, while in some cases the ground-colour is of a most brilliant hue. The
harnessed antelopes resemble kudus in the females being hornless ; but they differ
in that the horns, which are placed behind the eyes, have but one or two turns to
the spiral, while the ridge on their front surface is less strongly marked. More-
over, the skull generally lacks the deep depression in the middle of the forehead
characteristic of the kudus, and the vacuity below the eye is of smaller size. The
throat may be either fringed or smooth ; and in some species the hoofs are extra-
ordinarily elongated. The coloration of the two sexes is usually very different.
The group is confined to Africa ; and whereas four of the species are of large size,
the fifth does not exceed the dimensions of an ordinary goat.
The largest of all is the West African bongo (Tragelaphus
euryceros), from Liberia, Fanti, the Ashkankolu mountains, and the
Gabun. It has short hoofs, and is distinguished by its short hair, the deep chestnut
colour of the males, the numerous and distinct narrow white stripes, the want of a
fringe on the throat, and the smooth and massive horns, forming rather more than
a single turn, and wearing yellow at their tips. The chest is marked by a white
crescent, and there are two white spots on the face below the eye. The males
attain a height of 3 feet 7 inches at the shoulder ; and the horns may reach a
length of 30 or 31 \ inches in a straight line. We have practically no knowledge
of the habits of this species, except that, like the rest, it is a forest -dwelling
one.
In East Africa, in Zululand, and St. Lucia Bay, the bongo is
replaced by the nyala (T. angasi). The males stand about 3 feet
4 inches at the withers, and have horns varying from 22 to 28 inches in length.
The hair is long, and the general colour of the males dark bluish grey, with the
white stripes faintly marked and few in number, and a fringe of long hair on the
neck and under-parts of the body. The horns are characterised by their rough
surface. Mr. Drummond states that these antelopes are only to be found in low-
lying, fever-stricken swamps, where they frequent the densest jungle they can find.
They are shy and difficult to stalk ; and from this circumstance, coupled with the
276
UNGULATES.
Antelope.
feverish nature of their haunts, comparatively few are killed by Europeans. The
ground-colour of the female's fur is reddish.
west African '^^ie third species is the West African harnessed antelope
Harnessed (T. gratus), from the Carnerun mountains and the Gabun district, of
which the head is figured in the accompanying woodcut. This
antelope agrees with the last in
having white spots on the head and
stripes on the body, but differs
from all those yet noticed in the
extreme elongation of the main
hoofs, which are evidently specially
adapted for walking on swampy
ground. The lateral hoofs, more-
over, which in most of the fore-
going species are extremely small,
are in this antelope large and
elongated. The male stands about
3 1 feet at the shoulder; and is
characterised by the absence of a
fringe of long hair on the throat,
and the dark olive tint of the coat.
In the female the ground-colour
of the fur is bright rufous, orna-
mented, as in the male, with white
spots on the face and stripes on
the body. The horns of the male
are generally about 18 or 19 inches
in length, measured in a straight
line. Little or nothing appears to
be known as to the habits of this
species in its wild state, but several
examples have been exhibited in
the Zoological Gardens at Amster-
dam, where they have bred.
The last of the four large species of harnessed antelopes is the
nakong or sititunga (T. spekei), of the swamps of Central and South-
Central, and East Africa. This species, while agreeing with the last in its elongated
hoofs, differs from all those yet noticed in its perfectly uniform greyish brown
colour. The young are, however, faintly striped and spotted. The hair is longer
and more silky than that of the others ; and the smooth, slender, and strongly-
ridged horns form nearly two complete turns, and thus approximate to those of the
kudu. The height of the male is 3 feet 7 inches. Mr. Selous states that the
longest horns he met with measured 25 inches in a straight line, but a pair of 27
inches has been subsequently recorded. Like the other members of the genus, the
nakong goes in pairs, and is never found in herds. Mr. Selous observes that he
once saw a female nakong " standing breast-deep in the water, in the midst of a
HEAD OF WEST AFRICAN HARNESSED ANTELOPE.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. SOc., 1883.)
Nakong.
ANTELOPES.
277
bed of reeds, feeding on the young shoots that just appeared above the water.
When she saw us, she at once made off, making a tremendous splashing as she
plunged through the water. The natives told me that very often when these
antelopes are met with under similar circumstances they do not attempt to run, but,
sinking down in the water, submerge their whole bodies, leaving only their nostrils
above the surface, and trusting that their enemies will pass them unobserved.
They (the Kaffirs) then paddle alongside, and assegai them from the canoe.
Another way the natives have of killing them is by setting fire to the reeds when
they become quite dry, and then waiting for the sititunga in their canoes in one
of the channels of open water by which the marsh is intersected." Further up the
Chobi River it is stated that these antelopes are in the habit of diving, and even
sleeping beneath the water with only their nostrils exposed.
Guib.
MALE AND FEMALE GUIB (A nat. Size).
The guib (T. scriptus) is the last representative of the harnessed
antelopes, and differs from all the others by its inferior size, being
about equal in dimensions to an ordinary goat. The average length of the horns
is about 12 inches, but specimens of 14 inches and one of 16£ inches have been
recorded. This species has a wide distribution, ranging from Abyssinia to the
Cape ; and it exhibits such variations in colour that it was originally split up into
four distinct species, now regarded as varieties. In the Abyssinian variety, which
is shorter and stouter than the others, the general colour is yellowish, and the
278 UNGULATES.
stripes are nearly obsolete ; but there is one distinct longitudinal band, sometimes
broken into spots, and the haunches are spotted, while the back has a dark line.
In the typical variety, from West, Central, and South-Central Africa (which is the
one represented in the illustration on p. 277), the colour is bright rufous, brilliantly
marked all over the body with white spots and longitudinal and vertical stripes.
In the males the line down the middle of the back is white ; and the chest has a
fringe of blackish hair. In East Africa we come across a third variety in which
the general colour of the bucks is dark brown, with two or three obscure vertical
stripes on the hind-quarters, and even these occasionally absent. The spots are
variable, although less numerous than in the preceding variety. Lastly, we have
the true bush-buck of the Cape, in which the coloration is of a uniform dark brown
at all ages, with no trace of stripes, and the spots reduced to a few indistinct ones
on the haunches.
Guib, or bush-buck, are very common in most parts of Africa. Writing of this
species, Mr. Selous says that it is " never met with except in places where dense
bush conies right down to the water's edge ; and on the Chobi, where I have seen
most of these antelopes, I have never found one at a distance of more than a
hundred yards from the river."
Remains of antelopes more or less nearly allied to Traqela.phus
Extinct Species. . A . / * f
are common in the Tertiaries or Europe, as far down as the Middle
Miocene, so that the group is evidently a very old one.
THE NILGAI.
Genus Boselaphus.
The nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), which is the largest of the Indian
antelopes, appears to be the oriental representative of the group of African species
described above, although it differs from them in several important structural
features. The males only are horned, and the horns themselves are short, smooth,
nearly straight, and directed upwards and backwards, with a triangular section at
the base, but becoming cylindrical at the tip. In front the horns have a distinct
ridge, comparable to that found in those of the eland, and in very old individuals
this ridge extends forwards and inwards, till the horns almost touch at their bases.
The nilgai is peculiar in having the fore-limbs longer than the hinder, and the
withers very high, in consequence of which its whole appearance is somewhat
ungainly. The tail is tufted, and reaches the hocks ; and in both sexes the neck is
maned, while the throat of the male has a small tuft of hair. The gland below the
eye is very small and the muzzle naked. The upper molar teeth (one of which is
figured on p. 155) differ from those of the foregoing species by their tall crowns,
with a large additional column on the inner side. In general colour the adult bull
nilgai is dark grey, with either a brownish or bluish tinge. The long hairs on the
neck, throat, and tail, and some portions of the ear, are however black ; and there
are white markings on the face, ears, and throat, while the under surface of the
tail, the under-parts of the body, and a ring above and below each fetlock are
likewise white. In young males and females the colour is brown. A bull nilgai
ANTELOPES,
279
usually stands from 4 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 8 inches at the withers, but it is stated
that 4 feet 10 inches has been measured. The cows are much smaller. The black
horns average 8 or 9 inches in length, with a basal girth of 8 inches ; but one pair
lias been recorded with a length of llf and a girth of 9| inches.
The nilgai is exclusively an Indian animal, being quite unknown
in Ceylon. Even in India its distribution is restricted, as it does not
occur in Eastern Bengal or Assam nor, apparently, near the Malabar coast. Fossil
Distribution.
Habits.
THE NILGAI (,V nat. size).
species occur in the river-gravels of Central India, and also in the Pliocene sandstones
of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya.
Nilgai may be found either on the plains or in low hills, generally
preferring ground covered with thin bush, among which are scattered
low trees, or alternations of scrub-jungle with open grassy plains. They are but
seldom met with in thick forest, although far from unfrequent on cultivated
grounds. The bulls are generally solitary, but occasionally assemble in small
parties, which, according to Mr. Blanford, may include as many as a dozen head.
The females and calves are generally found in parties of from four to ten, but
sometimes in herds of from fifteen to twenty or more, and they are on some
280
UNGULATES.
occasions accompanied by one or more full-grown bulls. Nilgai both graze and
browse, and will feed at any time of the day, although they resort sometimes to the
shade for repose. Mr. Blanford believes that, in the cold season, at least, they drink
but once in two or three days. General Kinloch writes that " in places where they
are not disturbed, especially in some of the native states, nilgai are absurdly tame,
but in districts where they are much molested they become extremely shy and
wary. It must not, therefore, be supposed that they can always be easily shot, but
they afford such a poor trophy that they are not much sought after. When they
can be found sufficiently far from thick cover they may be speared, and they then
show capital sport, as they will probably lead a well-mounted horseman a chase of
several miles. On hard ground I doubt if a cow nilgai could be speared by a
solitary hunter ; the bull, being much heavier, is more easily ridden down." They
can be readily tamed, but the bulls are apt to be savage. Either one or two young
are produced at a birth.
THE ADDAX.
Genus Addax.
With the addax (Addax nasortiaculatus) we come to a group of African and
Arabian antelopes of large size, including the genera Addax, Oryx, and Hippotragus,
THE ADDAX (i1* nat. size).
which present the following distinctive characteristics. They have long cylindrical
horns in both sexes, which are placed over or above the eyes, and are either sub-
ANTELOPES. 281
spiral, straight, or recurved. The muzzle is covered with hair, and there is no
gland below the eye ; while the skull has no depression below the socket of the
eye, and but a very narrow unossified space in the same region. The tail is long
and tufted, and the upper molar teeth resemble those of the oxen, having very tall
and broad crowns, with a large additional column on the inner side. It is probable
that this group is very closely related to the oxen ; and all the members are desert -
haunting animals.
The addax, which is an inhabitant of North Africa and Arabia, has the horns
ringed for the greater part of their length, and ascending in an open spiral nearly
in the plane of the face. In height this antelope stands a little over 3 feet, and
the greater part of the body is covered with short and thick hair. There is,
however, a tuft of long hair on the forehead and a mane extending down the neck
to the shoulders, and also a fringe of long hair on the throat. The general colour
is yellowish white, in marked contrast to which is the brown of the head, neck, and
mane. There is a transverse white band below the eyes, while the lips and a spot
on the outer surface of the ears are also white. In the males the long hair is more
abundant and darker in colour than in the other sex, and during the winter the
yellowish white of the body tends to grey. The horns attain a length of from 20
to 28 inches in a straight line, and from 26 to 35f along the spiral.
Distribution and The range of the addax in Africa lies to the northward of the
Habits. 18th parallel of north latitude, and, like the gemsbok, the animal
inhabits barren, sandy deserts, where water is scarce. It is a shy and wary creature,
and is doubtless able to go for long periods without slaking its thirst. Our accounts
of its habits are far from full, but its general mode of life is probably very similar
to that of the gemsbok. The addax is hunted by the Bedouins, partly for the sake
of its flesh, partly in order to capture the young, and also to test the speed of their
horses and greyhounds. Large hunting-parties are assembled for this jpurpose, and
the expeditions may last for several weeks. The skeleton of the addax is figured
on p. 268.
ORYX.
Genus Oryx.
Under the title of oryx may be included five species of antelope, distinguished
from the addax by their straight or recurved horns, their longer and more bushy
tails, the small size of the mane on the neck, and by the throat being either short-
haired or furnished with a single tuft of long hair. The horns, which are of great
length, slope backwards more or less nearly in the plane of the face. Oryx are
found throughout the desert regions of Africa, and also range into Arabia and
Syria.
Commencing with South Africa, we find the group represented
by the gemsbok (Oryx gazella), characterised by its long straight
horns, ringed for about half their length, the tuft of hair on the throat, and the
black markings on the head, body, and limbs. The gemsbok stands about 4 feet
in height, and its general colour is greyish, becoming white beneath. A black stripe
011 the flanks divides the grey of the sides from the white below, and there is also a
2g2 UNGULATES.
black area on the haunches extending as a line on the back, and continued over
the whole of the tail. In addition to this, there is also black on the upper-parts
of the limbs, on the front of the legs above the fetlocks, and along the throat ; the
throat-stripe dividing and run-
ning up the sides of the head
nearly to the ears. On the face
a black stripe runs from each
horn through the eye nearly to
the muzzle, which is connected
by a narrow stripe with a broad
black patch on the centre of the
forehead, thus completely isolat-
HEAD OF GEMSBOK.— After Nicolis and Eglington. ing the white of the muzzle
from that of the upper part of
the face. Mr. Selous states that the longest male horns of this species which he
saw measured 42 inches in length, while those of the female may reach 46 \ inches.
Horns have, however, been recorded measuring 47 \ inches.
Distribution and Gemsbok inhabit the desert regions of South- Western Africa,
Habits. an(j are gtill fairly common in the Kalahari Desert, while in
Damaraland they are reported to occur in large herds: north of the Chobi
River they appear to be unknown. On the west coast they occur in Senegambia,
Timbuctu, and the Niger district. Mr. Selous says that they are generally met
with where the country is either completely open or covered with stunted scrub.
Gordon Gumming writes that the gemsbok "thrives and attains high condition
in barren regions where it might be imagined that a locust would not find
subsistence ; and, burning as is the climate, it is perfectly independent of water,
which, from my own observation and the repeated reports both of the Boers and
aborigines, I am convinced it never by any chance tastes. Its flesh is deservedly
esteemed, and ranks next to the eland." Mr. Selous states that the gemsbok is by
no means fleet, and that it can be run to a standstill by a hunter on foot. According
to Boer reports, the gemsbok is enabled to beat off the lion with its spear-like
horns ; and several instances are recorded where the skeletons of the two animals
have been found together, the body of the lion having been transfixed by the horns
of the antelope, which remained too firmly fixed in the flesh to admit of their
withdrawal during life.
In Abyssinia and Somaliland as well as on the Red Sea littoral
Beisa.
near Suakin, the gemsbok is replaced by the beisa (0. beisa),
readily distinguished by the absence of the tuft of hair on the throat, and
by the black patch on the front of the face being completely separated from
the stripe running through the eye. There is no black on the haunches and
thighs, and the horns also are shorter and less divergent, their maximum
recorded length being 36 inches in the male and 37 inches in the female. The
beisa is probably the true oryx of the ancients, and may be the animal which
gave rise to the legend of the unicorn. Mr. Blanford says that in Abyssinia these
animals are found in herds of considerable size, when they present an imposing
appearance. Their favourite pace is a quick walk or trot, and they only break
ANTELOPES.
283
into a gallop when frightened. At such times they dash off with lowered heads
and upraised tails, at the same time puffing and snorting. In Somaliland the beisa,
according to Captain Swayne, chiefly frequents open stony grounds or grassy plains,
but it may be found in any kind of country except thick jungle or the cedar forests.
The herds are chiefly composed of cows, the bulls wandering about by themselves.
The Midgans of Somaliland hunt the beisa with packs of yellow pariah dogs. One
of the largest pair of horns measured 34i inches in length.
Fringe-Eared In the Kilima-Njaro district the genus is represented by the
oryx. fringe-eared oryx (0. callotis), distinguished from the beisa by the
ground-colour of the upper part of the face being of a rich fawn, and by the sharply-
)inted ears terminating in a tuft of long black hair, as shown in the illustration
m p. 287. This species is common in the plains and the tracts of thin thorny
msh. In examples killed by Sir J. Willoughby the horns in the females measured
>m 30 to 32 inches in length, while those of the males were shorter, but thicker.
284
UNGULATES.
Beatrix Antelope.
The beatrix antelope (0. beatrix) of Western Arabia, and, it is.
'said, of the Bushire district, is a much smaller animal than either of
the above, standing about 2 feet 8 inches in height, and is of a whitish colour,
with a dark spot on the face, and a large dark patch on each cheek meeting
beneath the throat ; the knees and the front of the lower part of both legs are
also blackish brown, and the end of the tail is black. The horns are only about 15
inches in length.
sabre-Horned The last representative of the genus is the sabre-horned antelope,
Antelope. or leucoryx (0. leucoryx), which, while agreeing nearly in size with
the beisa, differs from the other four species in its recurved scimitar-like horns,
THE SABRE-HORNED ANTELOPE (A nat. size).
and uniform whitish coloration, which frequently shows a reddish tinge. The
reddish tinge is more marked in the under-parts and the inner surfaces of the
limbs than elsewhere ; and the neck is darker than the body. The head is marked
by six brown patches, of which there are one between the horns, two between the ears,
and two between the horns and eyes, while the sixth forms a streak on the nose.
The horns vary from 34 to 39J inches in length. The leucoryx is confined
to the north-eastern portion of Central Africa, being abundant in Senaar and
ANTELOPES. 285
Kordofan, less common in the Central- Western Sudan, and also occurring in parts
of Nubia.
In the Pliocene deposits of various parts of Europe, there occur
remains of antelopes closely allied to the oryx, some of which have
been generically separated under the name of Palceoreas, and are said to show
signs of affinity with the sable antelope and its kindred.
Genus Hippotragus.
The sable and roan antelopes, together with some allied species, constitute an
exclusively African genus nearly allied to the oryx. They are distinguished by
the stout horns, which are ringed nearly to their tips, rising vertically from
a ridge on the skull immediately over the eyes at an obtuse angle to the plane
of the lower part of the face, and then curving in a bold sweep backwards. The
neck is clothed with a distinct, erect, and often-recurving mane ; the tail is rather
short and distinctly tufted ; and the ears are enormous. The horns of the females
are shorter than those of the males.
The roan or equine antelope (Hijjpotraqus equinus) — the bastard
Roan Antelope. . J , . * . , , , , £ ,.
gemsbok of the rsoers — is represented in the right-hand figure or
our illustration on next page, and is the largest and one of the best-known repre-
sentatives of the genus, standing rather over 4| feet at the withers. There is
considerable individual variation in colour, some specimens, according to Mr. Selous,
being of a strawberry roan, others of a deep dark grey or brown, and others again
so light in colour as to appear almost white at a distance. The under-parts are
but little lighter than the body, while the head and jaw have dark brown markings.
The latter markings are characterised by the white streak in front of the eye
being separated by a dark band from the white of the muzzle. The ears are very
large, and the mane small and erect. The horns of the bull seldom exceed
36 inches in length, measured along the curve, but specimens measuring 33 and
42 inches have been recorded. This species has a large range in central South
Africa, and has also been recorded from Senegal. Mr. Selous states that it is
nowhere numerous, and it is seldom that as many as twenty are seen together.
The blaubok (H. leucophceus) was a smaller but nearly-allied
species from the Cape, which now appears to be extinct. It derived its
Dutch name from the bluish hue of the hairs, and its head was uniformly coloured.
Perhaps the handsomest member of the genus is the sable
Sable Antelope. * . . i.'j.tiii.i.j/s £
antelope (H. mger), represented in the left-hand ngure or our
illustration. This species is rather smaller than the roan antelope, but has much
longer horns, smaller ears, and a longer and more abundant mane, which is partly
pendent. With the exception of portions of the face, buttocks, and the under-
parts, the fur is entirely of a deep glossy black ; the contrast formed by the white
of the under-parts being very striking ; the markings on the face differ from those
of the roan antelope in that the white streak in front of the eyes is continued
to join the white of the muzzle, and is separated by a dark streak from that of
286
UNGULATES.
the throat. The horns of the males not unfrequently attain a length of 42 or
inches, but they may reach as much as 44| or even 46 inches along the curve.
In the females 36 inches seems to be the maximum.
Distribution and The sable antelope is a southern species, ranging some distance
Habits. £o t}ie north of the Zambesi, and being now most abundant in
Mashonaland. This antelope, unlike the various species of oryx, generally
THE SABLE ANTELOPE AND THE ROAN ANTELOPE (j^ nat. size).
frequents forest-clad highlands. In Mashonaland, according to Mr. Selous, it
is commonly met with in herds of from ten to twenty individuals, although
occasionally as many as fifty may be seen together. The same writer observes
that, " as a rule, the sable antelope runs very swiftly and has good bottom ; but
in this respect different individuals differ considerably, as is the case with all
animals, and I have run down without much difficulty individual sable antelopes
ANTELOPES.
287
and roan antelopes, and one gemsbok, whilst others have gone clean away from
inc. The sable antelope is often very savage when wounded, and, like the roan
antelope and gemsbok, will commit terrible havoc amongst a pack of dogs.
Indeed, I have known one to kill three dogs with three consecutive sweeps
FRINGE-EARED ORYX.
SABLE ANTELOPE.
ROAN ANTELOPE.
of its long scimitar-shaped horns." As mentioned on p. 573 of the first volume,
the sable antelope is sometimes successfully chased, by the Cape hunting-dog.
From having been discovered by Sir C. Harris, it is frequently termed the Harris-
buck by the inhabitants of the Cape.
All who have seen this antelope in its native wilds seem to be impressed with
its beauty and majestic appearance. Gordon Gumming, writing of his first sight of
the sable antelope, says that " I shall never forget the sensation I experienced on
288
UNGULATES.
beholding a sight so thrilling to the sportsman's eye ; he stood with a small troop
of palas right in our path, and had, unfortunately, detected us before we saw him.
Shouting to my pack, I galloped after him ; but the day was close and warm, and
the dogs had lost their spirit. My horse being an indifferent one soon lost ground,
and the beautiful creature, gaining a rocky ridge, was quickly beyond my reach,
and vanished for ever from my view. I sought in vain to close my eyelids that
night, for the image of the sable antelope was still before me."
In the Sudan the genus is represented by Baker's antelope
\H. lakeri), standing upwards of 4 feet 8 inches at the withers, and
distinguished by its pale liver-colour, pencilled ears, and some black stripes across
the shoulders. Its horns are of a massive type.
Fossil antelopes from the Pliocene deposits at the foot of the
Himalaya indicate the existence of the genus Hippotragus at a former
period of the earth's history in India, and it is not improbable that it was also
represented in Europe during the same epoch.
Baker's Antelope.
Extinct Species.
HEAD OK SABLE ANTELOPE. —After Nicolls and Eglington.
CHAPTER XXL
THE UNGULATES, — continued.
THE HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS, — continued.
THE GAZELLES. Genus Gazella.
A <ITREK" OP SPRINGBOK.
THE large and extensive group of
antelopes known as gazelles brings
us to the first of an assemblage of
several widely-spread genera, differ- ;
ing considerably from those yet
noticed. Most of these antelopes
are of small or moderate size, and the majority of them are inhabitants of the
deserts of the Old World. The whole of them have narrow upper molar teeth
like sheep, and their muzzles are similarly covered with hair. There is very
frequently a gland below the eye, and the tail is either short or of moderate
length. As a rule, the horns are compressed and lyrate or recurved, or
cylindrical and spiral, with distinct rings for a considerable portion of their
length. The skull has large pits in the forehead.
The gazelles are among the most elegant of all antelopes, and are characterised
by their sandy colour and the presence of a white streak on the side of the face
from the base of the horn nearly to the nose, thus cutting off a dark triangular
patch in the middle of the forehead, while the streak itself is bordered externally
VOL. ii. — 19
UNGULATES.
by a diffused dark line.1 The horns, which are generally present in both sexes,
are lyrate or recurved and are compressed, oval in section, and completely ringed
throughout the greater part of their
length. The knees are generally
furnished with tufts of hair. Glands
are present in the feet, and the gland
below the eye, if present, is small
and covered with hair. Most of the
gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in
height, although the mohr reaches
36 inches. There are about twenty-
one living species belonging to the
genus Gazella, which are mainly
found in the deserts of Asia and
North Africa, although the group
is represented in South Africa by
the springbok. Two of the Asiatic
species are found at great eleva-
tions. Several species of fossil
gazelles occur in the Pleistocene and
Pliocene deposits of both Europe
and India.
The existing gazelles may be
divided into several groups, accord-
ing to coloration and the presence
or absence of horns in the females ;
and, since the species are so
numerous, we shall content our-
selves with selecting one from each
group for special notice.
Our first representative of the genus is the South African
springbok (Gazella euchore), which differs from all the other species
by the presence of a stripe of long white erectile hairs running down the middle
of the back, and also by having only two premolar teeth in the lower jaw. Both
sexes are horned. In height the springbok stands about 30 inches, and the black
horns are lyrate, with about twenty complete rings, and in the males attain a
length of from 10 to 15 inches. The general colour is dark cinnamon-yellow, but
there is a dark brown stripe on the flanks dividing the cinnamon colour of the
sides from the white of the under-parts, and a dark streak running through the
eye. The general distribution of the white is shown in our figure, but it may be
remarked that there is more white on the face than in any other species, the dark
central area of the forehead being reduced to a small patch below the horns. The
snow-white hairs on the back have a length of 3 or 4 inches.
In eastern South Africa the northern range of the springbok extends to about
latitude 20°, its limits being marked by the forests south of the Mababi River ;
1 These markings are absent in the Tibetan gazelle.
HEAD OF GRANT'S GAZELLE.
(From Sir V. Brooke, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.)
Springbok.
ANTELOPES.
291
westward of Lake Ngami it extends, however further north, reaching Benguela and
Angola on the west coast. According to Mr. Selous, this antelope is still found in
the north-west of the Cape Colony, and throughout the Transvaal and Griqualand
West ; while it is abundant on the borders of the Kalahari desert. The springbok
derives its name from its habit of suddenly leaping in the air ; and is remarkable
both for the vast numbers in which it formerly occurred, and for its periodical
migrations. Writing of one of these migrations, Gordon Gumming states that " for
about two hours before dawn I had been lying awake in my waggon, listening to
the grunting of the buck within 200 yards of me; imagining that some large
THE SPRINGBOK (& nat. size).
herd of springboks was feeding beside my camp, but, rising when it was light and
looking about me, I beheld the ground to the northward of my camp actually
covered with a dense living mass of springboks, marching slowly and steadily along.
They extended from an opening in a long range of hills on the west, through which
they continued pouring like the flood of some great river, to a ridge about a mile
to the north-east, over which they disappeared — the breadth they covered might
have been somewhere about half a mile. I stood upon the fore-chest of my waggon
for nearly two hours, lost in astonishment at the novel and wonderful scene before
me, and had some difficulty in convincing myself that it was a reality which I
beheld, and not the wild and exaggerated picture of a hunter's dream. During this
292
UNGULATES.
time, these vast legions continued streaming through the neck of the hills in one
unbroken phalanx." Later on the same writer continues that, " on our climbing the
low range of hills through which the springboks had been pouring, I beheld the
plains and even the hillsides which stretched away on every side of me thickly
covered, not with herds, but with one vast mass of springboks ; as far as the eye
could strain, the landscape was alive with them, until they softened down into a
dim red mass of living creatures. To endeavour to form any idea of the amount
of antelopes which I had that day beheld were vain ; but I have no hesitation in
saying that some hundreds of thousands were within the compass of my vision."
Vast, however, as must have been the numbers on this occasion, the Boers informed
the narrator that they were nothing to those that had been witnessed in some
DORCAS GAZELLE.
trekbokken, when the animals extended over a succession of flats, instead of being
confined to one alone, and were crowded together like sheep in a fold throughout a
long day's journey, as far as the eye can reach. So dense are the moving masses
that if a flock of sheep becomes intermingled with the herd they are swept along
without hope of escape ; and it is said that even the lion may be thus entrapped.
Livingstone suggests that these migrations are due to the grass in the Kalahari
desert becoming so tall as to impede the springbok from obtaining a clear view of
the surrounding country.
The Dorcas gazelle (G. dorcas), which is figured in our coloured
Plate, may be taken as the representative of a group in which the
white of the rump does not encroach on the fawn-colour of the haunches, while
both sexes have lyrate or sublyrate horns. This well-known species inhabits the
deserts of Egypt, Algeria, Syria, Palestine, and parts of Asia Minor. It stands barely
Dorcas Gazelle.
ANTELOPES.
293
Indian Gazelle.
24 inches at the shoulder ; and the horns are relatively long and slender, with their
tips incurved, their length being sometimes a little over 13 inches. Like most
other gazelles, this beautiful little animal is of extremely delicate build, and is re-
markable for its great speed. When running, it appears to skim the ground like a
bird, and often takes leaps of a yard or more in height. Closely allied to this
species is the isabelline gazelle (G. isabellina) of Kordofan and Senaar, distinguished
by the tail being rufous, instead of black, above. Other species are the korin (G.
rufifrons) of Senegal ; Sundevall's gazelle (G. Icevipes) of Senaar ; and the black-
tailed gazelle (G. tilonura) of Bogosland; the latter being characterised by its
superior size, reaching 29 inches at the shoulder, and the horns varying from 7
to 10| inches in length.
The Indian gazelle (G. bennetti), brings us to a subgroup dis-
tinguished from the preceding by the horns not being distinctly
lyrate, but generally having a slight S-shaped curvature when seen from the side.
The general colour of this well-known species — the ravine-deer of Indian sports-
men— is light chestnut above, while the tail is blackish.
In height the buck stands 26 inches at the withers ; and
the horns, which usually have fifteen or sixteen rings,
average 10 to 12 inches in length along the curve. This
species inhabits the plains of Central and North- Western
India, whence it extends through Baluchistan to Persia.
It is commonly found in parties of from two to six,
although occasionally from ten to twenty may be found
together. Its swiftness is such that it can but seldom
be taken with dogs ; but it does not leap in the air like
the dorcas. Mr. Blanford writes that this gazelle
" keeps much to waste ground, especially where that is
broken up by ravines, but it is seldom seen on alluvial
plains, and it haunts cultivation less than the [Indian]
antelope. It is frequently found amongst scattered
bushes or thin tree-jungle, and may be met with on
undulating ground even on the top of hills ; it is com-
monly found amongst sand-hills, and is nowhere so
abundant as in parts of the Indian desert. It lives on
grass and the leaves of bushes, and I believe never drinks, for it is common in
tracts where there is ho water except from deep wells." Other members of this
group are the mountain-gazelle (G. cuvieri) of Morocco and Algeria, which reaches
a height of 27 J inches; the small-horned gazelle (G, leptoceros) of the Sudan;
the well-known Arabian gazelle (G. arabica); and Speke's gazelle (G. spekei) of
the plateau of Somaliland. The latter species is of very small size, and remark-
able for the loose flabby skin of the nose, and is further distinguished by the
length of its hair and dull coloration. The length of the horns ranges from 9| to
11£ inches.
Another group is formed by three Asiatic gazelles, which differ from all other
Persian Gazelle mem^ers °* tne genus by the females being hornless. Of these, the
' Persian gazelle (G. subgutturosa) inhabits the highlands of Persia and
SKULL OF INDIAN GAZELLE.
294 UNGULATES.
a large area in Central Asia, extending as far the Gobi Desert. This species has
lyrate horns, with incurved tips, which may have from sixteen to twenty-five rings ;
and the tail is not surrounded by a white disc. The longest pair of horns known
measure 14£ inches. In Mongolia, this species is replaced by the larger Mongolian
gazelle (G. gutturosa), characterised by its extremely pale-coloured horns. The
third member of the group is the goa or Tibetan gazelle (G. picticaudata), dis-
tinguished by the white disc round the tail, the long winter-coat, short ears and
tail, the greatly curved horns, and the uniform colour of the face. The height
of the animal is 24 inches ; and the largest recorded horns measured 15f inches
in length; the number of rings varying from twenty to thirty. This gazelle
inhabits the Tibetan plateau at elevations of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet, and goes
in small parties of from two or three to a dozen. It is less shy than other species.
The last group of the true gazelles is characterised by the white
Grant's Gazelle. r fe. J
ot the rump extending forwards in an angle into the lawn-colour or
the haunches ; both sexes having horns, which are frequently longer than in the
other groups; the animals themselves being also relatively large. Perhaps the
handsomest member of the whole genus is the East African Grant's gazelle (G.
granti), from the Kilima-Njaro district and the neighbourhood of Zanzibar, of which
the head is figured in the woodcut on p. 290.
Grant's gazelle has longer and finer horns than any other species of the genus ;
their length being frequently as much as 26 inches, while in one instance a length
of 30 inches has been recorded. The general colour of the upper part of the body
is fawn, and there is no dark band on the flanks dividing the
fawn-colour from the white of the under-parts. On the neck
and back the hair has a kind of wavy appearance, somewhat
like the pattern on watered silk. This gazelle is common on the
open plains of East Africa, and is generally found in small
parties comprising from ten to fifteen does and fawns, accom-
panied by a single adult buck. Sir J. Willoughby states that in
the Kilima-Njaro district these gazelles " were in extraordinary
profusion, though extremely wild, and among the herds we
noticed many fine bucks. It may be worthy of record that they
would often allow us to crawl towards them without showing
any sign of alarm, until we were within a fair rifle range ;
whereas, if we attempted to walk towards them, even in a stooping
position, they would invariably start off before we had approached
within 400 yards."
Thomson's In Masailand, on the east coast to the north of
HORNS OF THOMSON'S Gazelle. Zanzibar, Grant's gazelle is replaced by the allied
Gunther!) * but smaller Thomson's gazelle (G. thomsoni), of which the horns
are figured in the woodcut. In this species the horns are relatively
smaller and thinner than in the last, not exceeding 15 inches in length. This gazelle
is also distinguished from the preceding by the broad dark brown band on the
flanks, dividing the fawn-colour of the body from the white of the belly.
Other species ^e largest of all the group is the swift gazelle (G. mohr), which
is a West African species from Senegal, standing upwards of 32
ANTELOPES.
295
inches at the withers, and still higher at the rump. Allied to this is the dama
gazelle (G. dama), from the Sudan, with relatively short lyrate horns, and no dark
band on the flanks. Another fine species is the aoul (G. soemmerringi), inhabiting
the lowlands of Somaliland, and also found in Abyssinia and the Sudan. In the
swift gazelle the length of the horns may be 12 inches ; while in the aoul or
Soemmerring's gazelle this varies from about 12 to upwards of 19 £ inches. The
height of the latter species at the shoulder is about 30 inches. It is characterised
by its very massive lyrate horns, marked with about eighteen rings, and may be
distinguished from the dama by its longer ears, bordered with black externally,
and the more strongly-defined and nearly black markings on the face. This is
the finest of the Somaliland gazelles ; and was formerly found in small herds close
to the shore.
CLARKE'S ANTELOPE.
Genus Ammodorcas.
Nearly allied to the true gazelles is a remarkable antelope (Ammodorcas
clarkei), recently discovered in Somaliland,
which serves to connect the preceding with the
following species. Clarke's antelope, while
having the facial markings of the gazelles, is
distinguished by the regular upward and for-
ward curvature of the rather short horns, which
are ringed in front at the base. The females
are hornless ; and the skull is intermediate
between that of the gazelles and the under-
mentioned gerenuk. The neck is very long,
and the tail thin and long. The number of
rings on the horn varies from five to ten.
The general colour is a deep cinnamon, darker
than in any of the true gazelles. These ante-
lopes appear to be local in Somaliland, but are
said to be common in parts of the interior. Mr.
Clarke states that when running they throw
the tail upwards and forwards, and at the
same time incline the long neck backwards, so
that the two look as if they would touch each
other. It is locally known as the dibatag. HEAD OF CLARKE'S ANTELOPE.— After Thomas.
THE GERENUK.
Genus Lithocranius.
Still more remarkable than the preceding is the gerenuk, or Waller's gazelle
(Lithocranius walleri), which is also an East African species, ranging from
Somaliland to the Kilima-Njaro district. The most peculiar external feature about
296
UNGULATES.
Habits.
this animal is the excessively long neck (as shown in the accompanying figure),
which has led to its being likened to a miniature giraffe. The horns of the bucks
curve forwards at the tips in a peculiar hook-like manner, and are usually about
13 inches in length, although they may reach 14
inches. The skin of this antelope is distinguished
by the presence of a very broad dark-brown band
running down the middle of the back, which in its
widest part measures some 7 or 8 inches across, and
stands out in striking contrast to the rufous fawn of
the flanks and limbs.
The skull differs from those of the true gazelles
by its extremely dense and solid structure, as well
by the relative shortness of its facial portion, its
remarkable straightness, and the unusually small
size of the cheek-teeth.
Captain Swayne says that "the
gerenuk is found all over the Somali
country in small families, never in large herds, and
generally in scattered bush, ravines, and rocky
ground. I have never seen it in the cedar-forests,
nor in the treeless plains. Gerenuk are not neces-
sarily found near water; in fact/generally in stony
ground with a sprinkling of thorn-jungle. The gait
of this antelope is peculiar. When .first seen, a buck
gerenuk will generally be standing motionless, head
well up, looking at the intruder, and trusting to its
invisibility. Then the head dives under- the bushes,
and the animal goes off at a long, crouching trot,
stopping now and again behind some bush to gaze.
The trot is awkward-looking, a»d very like that of
a camel ; the gerenuk seldom gallops, and its pace is
never very fast. In the whole shape of the head
and neck, and in the slender lower jaw, there is a marked resemblance between the
gerenuk and the dibatag." This antelope subsists more by browsing than by
grazing, and it may not unfrequently be observed standing up on its hind-legs,
with outstretched neck, and its fore-feet resting against the trunk of a tree, in
order to pluck the foliage.
HEAD AND NECK OF THE GERENUK.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1892.)
THE CHIRU, OR TIBETAN ANTELOPE.
Genus Pantholops.
In addition to possessing a peculiar species of gazelle, to which reference has
already been made, the elevated and barren plateau of Tibet is further characterised
by an antelope remarkable for the swollen nose and long elegant horns of the bucks.
This antelope is the chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), the sole representative of the
ANTELOPES.
297
genus to which it belongs. In many respects the chiru is allied to the saiga,
mentioned next, but the nose is less convex, and the nostrils open anteriorly instead
of downwards. The horns (which, as in
all the following members of this group
are present only in the bucks) are black,
long, erect, laterally compressed, and sub-
lyrate, with rings in front for the lower
two-thirds of their length. There is no
gland below the eye ; and the skull lacks
the pits between the eyes found in the
other members of the group. In height
the male chiru stands 32 inches at the
shoulder; and it is covered with very
thick, close fur, becoming woolly near the
skinj^ The colour is pale fawn above and
white below ; the whole face and a stripe
down the front of each leg being black
or dark brown in the bucks. The horns
frequently reach 24 and 26 inches in
length, and one pair has been recorded of
27£ inches. The chiru probably inhabits
the whole of the Tibetan plateau, at the
same elevations as the Tibetan gazelle.
In summer the sexes
live apart; and these ante-
lopes are often found in parties of from
three to four individuals, but sometimes
in large herds. They frequent the open
rolling plains, or broad river- valleys, and
generally feed at morning and evening.
Although usually difficult to approach, a
solitary buck will sometimes start up
from a ravine close to the traveller's feet,
as once happened to the present writer. General Kinloch states that the chiru is in
the habit of excavating hollows in the sand, in which it will lie concealed during
the day. The young are born in summer ; one only being produced at a birth.
Habits.
HEAD OP CHIRU.
THE SAIGA.
Genus Saiga.
From the peculiarly bloated appearance of the nose of the male, the saiga
(Saiga tartarica) of the steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia is one of the
most ungainly of the antelopes, and thereby presents a marked contrast to the
gazelles. In size this animal may be compared to a sheep, and its whole build is
clumsy. The nose is very large, convex, and inflated, with the nostrils opening
298
UNGULATES.
downwards ; and the face has a small gland below the eye. The ears are small
and rounded ; and the tail is of moderate length. The lyrate horns are rather short,
completely ringed, and of an amber-yellow colour. In summer the general colour
of the upper-parts is tawny yellow ; but in winter, when the hair increases in
length, the tint is greyish, and, in fact, externally nearly white ; the face, under-
parts, and the lower surface of the tail are always white. The horns usually attain
a length of from 10 to 12 inches along the curve, but may be over 14 inches.
The saiga is found in large herds, sometimes comprising several
hundred individuals during the summer, but these split up into small
parties in the winter ; the old males always remaining with the herds. According to
Habits.
THE SAIGA (-fa nat. size).
Pallas, some members of the herd keep watch while the others sleep. Although the
saiga, when first started, can run swiftly for a short distance, it soon becomes
blown. When caught young, these animals can be easily tamed, and will follow
their owners about like a dog.
At the present day the range of the saiga embraces Southern
Russia and South - Western Siberia ; its headquarters being the
Kirghiz Steppes. A century ago the saiga extended, however, as far as the confines
of Poland ; and it is now gradually retreating towards the east of the Volga. In
summer the saiga wanders as far north as the districts inhabited by the reindeer ;
while in winter it migrates south, and thus comes in contact with the Persian
Distribution.
ANTELOPES.
299
gazelle. When we pass back to the Pleistocene period, the saiga had a much more
extensive range to the westward, its fossilised remains having been obtained from
the caverns and superficial deposits of Hungary, Belgium, and the south of France.
Moreover, from the frontlet of a male having been discovered in the gravels of
Twickenham, it is evident that the animal occasionally wandered as far as Britain.
In Moravia there have been found the remains of a saiga differing from the living
species by having six, in place of five, lower cheek-teeth. From the occurrence of
saiga remains, together with those of other mammals now characteristic of the
steppes, in Western Europe, it has been inferred that steppe-like conditions and
climate must formerly have prevailed over portions of that area.
PALAS.
Genus ^Epyceros.
The South African antelope, known by the name of pala or impala (^Epyceros
melampus), is a rather large animal, standing a little over 3 feet in height, and
of a dark-red colour above, gradually shading into white below. There is no gland
on the face below the eye ; and the feet are distinguished
by the total absence of the lateral hoofs. The horns of
the males are lyrate, widely divergent, and somewhat
spiral, with about a dozen complete and widely-separated
rings. The ordinary length of pala horns does not
exceed 16 inches; but Mr. Selous records specimens of
20 and 21 inches, measured in a straight line. The pala
is found throughout Southern and South-Eastern Africa.
Mr. Selous states that these antelopes are nowhere more
plentiful than along the Chobi, and may often be seen
in herds of from twenty to one hundred together. " There
are very few males in comparison with the number of
females, though I have sometimes seen a herd composed
entirely of rams, ten or fifteen in number. They are HEAD op PALA._After Selous.
like thick corn along the river's bank, and are seldom
seen at a distance of more than a mile from water ; and there is no more certain
sign of the proximity of water than the presence of impala antelopes." In
Nyasaland, Mr. Crawshay states that they frequent sandy plains covered with
mimosas and low scrub near the rivers. The same writer observes that " no
antelope I have seen can compare with the impala in fleetness of foot, and cer-
tainly no other can display such wonderful leaping power ; they go off like the
proverbial arrow from the bow, and, with most beautiful gliding bounds, cover
the ground, without apparently the least effort. When alarmed they often give
utterance to a sharp bark." From its red colour, the pala is known to the Dutch
Boers as the roybok.
Gordon Gumming relates that on one occasion near his camp " a loud rushing
noise was heard coming on like a hurricane ; this was a large troop of pala pursued
by a pack of about twenty wild dogs. They passed our camp in fine style within
300
UNGULATES.
a hundred yards of us, and in a few minutes the dogs had fastened upon two of
the palas, which my Bechuanas ran up and secured. One of these animals cleared
a distance of fifty feet in two successive bounds, and this on unfavourable ground,
it being very soft and slippery."
The lesser pala is a smaller variety inhabiting part of Nyasaland,
in the very heart of the distributional area of the typical form from
which it is distinguished by its more slender skull and smaller horns.
On the west coast, in Angola and Hasholand, the genus is
represented by the Angola pala (JE. petersi). This pala is dis-
tinguished by the presence of a black streak down the middle of the face, from the
eyes to the upper part of the nose, and also by a black patch below each eye.
Lesser Pala.
Angola Pala.
THE BLACK-BUCK.
Genus Antilope.
The handsomely-coloured black-buck or Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra)
is the sole representative of its genus, and at the same time the last member of the
MALE AND FEMALE OF THE BLACK-BUCK (^ nat. size).
present group. The black-buck stands about 32 inches at the shoulder, and has a
short and compressed tail, large glands, with a linear aperture below the eyes, tufts
ANTELOPES.
301
Habits.
of hair on the knees, and small but distinct lateral hoofs. The horns of the bucks
rise close together, and are cylindrical, divergent, and spiral, with complete blunt
rings throughout their length. The number of turns in the spiral of the horns
varies from less than three to as many as five; and there is great individual
variation in regard to the degree of divergence of the horns. The usual length of
horns varies from 16 to 20 inches in a straight line, and in Peninsular India the
length seldom exceeds 22 inches ; but in Rajputana and Harriana the horns are
longer, and have been known to attain a length of 28f inches. Does and young
bucks are yellowish fawn-colour above and
on the outer sides of the limbs, and white on
the under-parts ; the two colours are sharply
defined, and just above the line of division
there is a distinct pale streak. Save for a
rufous patch on the nape of the neck, the old
bucks are blackish brown above, and also on
the sides of the neck and the whole of the
face, with the exception of a white ring round
each eye. In very old individuals the black-
ish brown becomes almost completely black.
Occasionally does are met with having small
recurved horns.
The black-buck is an in-
habitant of open plains from the
foot of the Himalaya nearly to Cape Comorin,
and from the Punjab to Lower Assam ; and is
most abundant in the North- West Provinces,
Rajputana, and portions of the Deccan. It
frequents either grassy districts or cultivated
lands, and is generally found in herds, which
may comprise hundreds or even thousands of
individuals, but more usually number from
ten to thirty, or even fifty does, accompanied
by a single old buck. Mr. Blanford states
that frequently " two or three younger bucks,
coloured like the does, remain with the latter,
but these young males are sometimes driven away by older bucks, and form
separate herds. This antelope never enters forest nor high grass, and is but
rarely seen amongst bushes. When not much pursued or fired at, it will often
allow men to come in the open within about one hundred and fifty yards, some-
times nearer." Carts and natives can approach still closer. The black-buck feeds
at all hours, although it generally rests during the middle of the day. In certain
districts, where there is no fresh water except in deep wells, it is certain that these
animals never drink ; but several observers have proved that in other places they,
at least occasionally, drink freely. Like the springbok, the black-buck frequently
leaps high in the air when running. The speed and endurance of these animals
are well known ; and it is but very seldom that they are pulled down on good
SKULL OF BLACK-BUCK.
302
UNGULATES.
ground by greyhounds. In heavy sand, or on soft ground during the rains, they
are, however, easily overtaken by good dogs ; and wounded buck may be ridden
down. An account of black-buck coursing with the hunting-leopard will be found
on p. 445 of the first volume ; and antelope-stalking is a favourite Indian sport.
Young fawns are generally concealed by the does in long grass. The bucks
utter a short grunt, and the does a kind of hissing sound when alarmed. During
the pairing-season the bucks engage in frequent combats among themselves.
When taken young, the black-buck can be easily tamed, but the males are apt to
be dangerous at certain seasons.
THE EEITBOK.
Genus Cervicapra.
The reitbok, or reedbuck (Cervicapra arundineum), introduces us to a totally
different group of large or small antelopes confined to Africa. These animals have
horns only in the males ; narrow, goat-like, upper molar teeth ; and either a hairy
or a naked muzzle. There is generally a gland below the eye, which may,
however, be very small ; and the skull usually has a large unossified space below
the eye, and distinct pits in the forehead. The horns may be either large, lyrate,
widely spreading, and thickly ringed, or small and upright. The tail is either of
medium length, or very short.
The reitbok is characterised by its comparatively small horns, which bend
forwards somewhat after the manner of those of Clarke's antelope. The tail is
bushy and comparatively short, not reaching to within some distance of the hocks,
and the lateral hoofs are very small. In height this antelope stands nearly 3 feet ;
and the short, smooth, and almost woolly fur is of a pale brownish fawn on
the upper-parts, with a tinge of orange on the head ; the under-parts and inner
sides of the limbs being dirty white. Very old does become much paler, in fact
almost white. The ordinary length of the horns is from 12 to 13 inches along the
curves, although they occasionally reach 15 and 16 inches.
Distribution and Formerly reitbok were to be met with throughout Central South
Habits. Africa, wherever there are open grassy or reedy valleys traversed by
streams, but they are now practically exterminated in Bechuanaland, and rare in
the Transvaal, although still common in many districts, such as the Chobi region,
They generally associate in pairs, and it is seldom that more than three or four
individuals (of which one or two will be young) are seen together, although some-
times as many as eigh^ may be observed feeding within a short distance of one
another. Mr. Selous mentions that "although the reedbuck is never found far
from water, it always keeps on dry ground, and when chased I have never seen
one take to boggy ground, but have noticed that rather than cross a narrow
stream of water they will make a long detour." Indeed, when hunted these
antelope will invariably seek refuge in bush, or by flight into the open dry
country. The males, if suddenly frightened, sometimes utter a whistling sound.
In pace this species is slow, and it is one of the easiest of African antelopes
to stalk.
ANTELOPES.
303
The South African antelope known as the roi rhebok (C. lalandi),
which, by the way, must not be confounded with the true or vaal
rhebok, is a smaller but nearly-allied species, standing only about 28 inches at the
shoulder. It has long and coarse reddish-brown hair on the upper-parts, while
beneath it is white. The horns are seldom more than 8 or 9 inches in length, and
bend forwards in a sharp sweep, without any outward inclination. The West
African nagor (C. redunca) is closely allied to, if not identical with, this species ;
the coloration being similar, and the small horns not usually exceeding 6 inches in
length. The other representative of the genus is the bohor (C. bohor), extending
in East Africa from Abyssinia to Masailand ; it is a larger and brighter-coloured
animal than the last, from which it is also distinguished by certain characters of
the skull.
WATER-BUCK, LICHI, ETC.
Genus Cobus.
The antelopes included in the genus Cobus are water-loving animals, generally
of larger size than the reitbok, and associating in herds. Their horns are long,
sublyrate, and ringed nearly throughout ; the tail is longer than the reitbok, and
tufted at the end. As in the latter, the gland below
the eye is rudimentary ; and the colour, with the excep-
tion of some patches on the rump and the head is uniform.
The muzzle is naked. The skull may be distinguished
from that of Cervicapra by the premaxillary bones
reaching upwards to join the nasals.
The water -buck (C. ellipsiprymnus)
stands upwards of 4 feet or more at the
withers, and is characterised by its long and very coarse
hair, which varies in colour from reddish brown to dark
grey, with an oval ring of white on the buttocks, extend-
ing above the tail, a white gorget on the throat, a streak
of the same colour on part of each eye, and some white
near the muzzle. Good horns average about 28 inches
along the curve, but they may measure 30, 31, or even
33 J inches; their colour is pale. Water-buck inhabit
Southern and Eastern Africa to some distance north of
the Zambesi ; and they are never found in herds of more
than twenty individuals. Mr. Selous states that the
water-buck is most partial to steep stony hills, and is
often found at a distance of more than a mile from the
nearest river, for which, however, it always makes when
pursued. Though a heavy-looking beast, it can clamber with wonderful speed and
sureness of foot up and down the steepest hillsides. In Nyasaland Mr. Crawshay
writes, that water-buck are always found in greatest numbers on large swampy
plains overgrown with coarse grass, tall reeds, and papyrus, where in the wet
season it is almost impossible to get at them ; unlike other antelopes, except the
Water-Buck.
HEAD OF WATER-BUCK.— After
Selous.
3°4
UNGULATES.
sin -sin
Other Species.
reedbuck, they do not appear to leave the lowlands in the rains, but keep to the
plains all the year round. The water-buck is less difficult to stalk than the
reitbok, but its flesh is so coarse and stringy as to be almost uneatable.
Tne sinS'sing (^ defassa), from Western and Central Africa,
which stands 3 feet 10 inches at the shoulder, differs from the
water-buck by its fine and soft hair, and the presence of a continuous whitish
patch on the buttocks, which does not rise above the level of the rest of the tail ;
while there is no white gorget. The horns do not exceed 2 7 3- inches in length, or
a fraction over. The sunu (C. leucotis), from Uganda, is another large species,
distinguished by the blackish colour of its fur, and the white ears, rings round the
eyes, and under-parts. The horns are relatively long and thin, reaching from 17
to nearly 20 inches in length.
The remaining species are of smaller size, and distinguished by
their more reddish or foxy-coloured hair. It is probably to one of
these smaller species that the species of Cdbus found in the Pliocene rocks of
Northern India is allied. The West
and East African sequitun (C. cob)
is a much smaller animal than the
under - mentioned lichi, and has
shorter horns, coming more for-
wards. It has a relatively shorter
tail than the water-buck, and is of
a general pale reddish-brown colour,
with white on the inner sides of
the ears, the under-parts, the inner
surfaces of the limbs, the tip of the
tail, and a ring round each fetlock.
Good horns vary in length from 17
to 18 inches. This is one of the few
antelopes that range across Africa,
occurring both in Uganda and in
Gambia.
The lichi (C. leche) and the
puku (C. vardoni), are two a^'r i
species from South Central Africa,
both of which were discovered by
Livingstone. The puku is about
the size of the pala, standing some
3 feet 3 inches at the shoulder ; its hair is of a uniform foxy-red colour, with
the tips of the ears black, and black markings down the front of the fore-legs.
The horns are rather small, without much forward curvature, and with the rings
not extending so high up as in the lichi ; their length varying from 13 to 16, and
in one instance reaching 19 inches. The puku is a plumply-built animal, with
a very erect carriage; and its horns may attain a length of 16 inches along the
curve. The lichi is distinguished by its superior size, less erect carriage, and the
completely fawn-coloured ears of the adult ; the general colour being pale brown,
THE PUKU. — After Livingstone.
ANTELOPES. 305
with the under-parts and rings round the eyes whitish. The horns seldom
exceed 24 inches in length, although they have been recorded of 27^ inches. The
lichi is strictly a swamp-dwelling animal ; and, when undisturbed, can be approached
very easily. Mr. Selous states that when these antelopes " first make up their
minds to run, they stretch out their noses, the males laying their horns flat along
their sides, and trot ; but on being pressed they break into a springing gallop, now
and then bounding high into the air. Even when in water up to their necks they
do not swim, but get along by a succession of bounds, making a tremendous
splashing. Of course, when the water becomes too deep for them to bottom they
are forced to swim, which they do well and strongly, though not so fast as the
natives can paddle ; and when the country is flooded, great numbers are driven
into deep water and speared." Generally these animals are to be seen standing
knee or belly-deep in the water, lazily cropping the aquatic plants ; or reposing
close to the water's edge. Puku are usually met with in herds of from three to
twelve in number, although occasionally as many as fifty may be seen together.
They are generally found on dry ground close to the edges of the rivers, but when
pursued will take readily to the water. Mr. Selous states that puku and lichi are
never found together, although the latter may associate with pala.
THE RHEBOK.
Genus Pelea.
The rhebok, or vaal rhebok (Pelea capreola), is the first representative of the
second division of the Cervicaprine group, in which the species are mostly of small
size, and characterised by their short and nearly upright horns. Of this subgroup
the rhebok, which stands about 30 inches at the withers, is the largest species.
The horns are placed wide apart over the eyes, and are sharp, slender, and well
ringed, rising nearly vertically with a slight forward bend, but with little
divergence. Their cross-section is elliptical ; and their length from 5| to 8£
inches. The gland below the eye and the corresponding depression in the skull
are wanting. The muzzle is naked ; the tail short, broad, fan-like, and bushy ;
and the hair thick and rather woolly. The colour is a light greyish brown, passing
in ' -"rhite beneath.
This antelope is an inhabitant of hilly and mountainous districts
Habits. .
in Southern and Eastern Africa ; and its habits much resemble those
of the chamois. Mr. Drummond states that rhebok " are never found but on the
bare hills among rocks and stones, and their habits of springing are wonderful.
It seems extraordinary how their delicate limbs escape injury, when they take
bound after bound, like an india-rubber ball, in places that a cat would shudder at.
T do not suppose that they are really more shy than some of the other antelopes ;
but the nature of the ground which they inhabit makes it appear so. That it is
hard to get at them no one will deny, and it is equally difficult to drive them,
unless, indeed, you happen to know the particular troop, have often seen it, and
been accustomed to notice the direction they usually take when disturbed."
Rhebok only descend from the mountain-tops and ridges at night for the purpose
VOL. II. — 2O
306
UNGULATES.
of drinking. They are usually found in parties of from six or seven to as many
as a dozen. From their wary nature, the best way of shooting rhebok is by
driving. At the present time, although widely distributed, these antelopes are
nowhere abundant.
THE KLIPSPRINGER.
Genus Oreotragus.
Even more active than the rhebok is the diminutive klipspringer (Oreotragus
saltator), which derives its name — meaning " rock -jumper " — from its unrivalled
MALE AKD FEMALE KL1PSPBINGER (^ Bat. size).
power of leaping from crag to crag. This little antelope stands about 22 inches in
height, and is characterised by its peculiarly thick and brittle hairs, which are
ANTELOPES. 307
hollow internally. The colour of the upper-parts is uniform olive. The small
straight horns of the male rise vertically from the head and incline slightly
forwards at their tips ; their length averaging only about 4 inches, so that they
are overtopped by the large ears. The hoofs, although somewhat clumsily
shaped, are so small that all the four feet could easily stand upon a penny-piece.
The range of the klipspringer extends from the Cape through
Eastern Africa as far north as Abyssinia ; and in the latter country
these pretty little animals are found as high up as eight or nine thousand feet above
the sea. The small size of their hoofs enables the klipspringers to obtain foothold on
the smallest projections, and they are consequently enabled to bound up the sides of
the steepest cliffs ; needless to say, these antelopes are exclusively confined to hilly
districts. They were formerly abundant at the Cape, but have now become com-
paratively scarce. Mr. Crawshay writes that " I have never seen more than a pair
together, though in places where they are numerous, one occasionally sees as many
as three or four on the move at the same time." The flesh is tender and well-
flavoured.
THE STEINBOKS.
Genus Nanotragus.
Although the name steinbok is properly restricted to a single species of ante-
lope, it will be found convenient in zoology to apply it to all the members of a
small group of these animals forming the genus Nanotragus. These pretty
antelopes are all of small size, with short horns in the males, no tuft of hair on the
crown of the head, a naked muzzle, and a distinct gland below the eye, of which
the aperture is circular. The steinboks may be divided into three sections,
of which the first is represented by the true steinbok (N. campestris). This
antelope stands about 23 inches at the shoulder, and is usually of a reddish brown
colour, white below ; but while in one variety the hue of the fur tends to rufous,
in another it is more or less silvery. Together with the other members of the
section to which it belongs, the steinbok has neither lateral hoofs nor tufts of hair
at the knees. The horns usually attain a length of about 4 inches, but rarely
may be 5 ; and the tail is of moderate length, and of the same colour as the back.
This little antelope frequents either open country or thin forest, but avoids
mountainous districts, and is common throughout South and East Africa as far
north as the Zambesi. Although abundant, these animals are difficult to find, owing
to the careful manner in which they conceal themselves. On the east coast this
species is replaced by the larger Zanzibar steinbok (N. moschatus). The third
member of the section is the royal antelope (N. pygmmus) of the Guinea coast,
which is the smallest of all the Ruminants, standing' only 12 inches at the shoulder.
It is of a bright chestnut colour, darker on the back than the flanks, with the under-
parts glistening white.
The oribi (N. scoparia), which is the species represented in our
figure, differs from the preceding forms by the presence of lateral
hoofs, and tufts of hair on the knees. It stands 24 inches in height, and is of a
tawny -yellow above and white beneath, the horns being about 5 inches in length.
3o8
UNGULATES.
These antelopes range in South Africa to some distance north of the Zambesi, and
are found in parties of two or three on open ground, but are very local. Their
colour harmonises closely with the ground, and their speed is very great. The flesh
forms excellent venison. There are three other species of this section, among which
is the Abyssinian steinbok (N. montanus).
THE OEIBI (T's nat. size).
The grysbok (N. melanotis), which is met with only to the north
of the Limpopo, differs from the oribi by the absence of the tufts of
hair on the knees. It is of about the same size as the steinbok, and of a chocolate-
red colour. It is fairly numerous in hilly districts and extends far into the interior.
Grysbok.
SALT'S ANTELOPE.
Genus Neotragus.
The Beni-Israel or Salt's antelope (Neotragus saltianus) of the Red Sea littoral
and Abyssinia, which is only slightly larger than the royal antelope, is the best-
known representative of a genus distinguished from the preceding by the presence
of a tuft of hair on the crown of the head, and by the hairy muzzle, as well as by the
horns of the males sloping backwards in the plane of the face. Moreover, the
skull is distinguished by the great size of the aperture for the nose and the short-
ness of the nasal bones, while the last molar tooth in the lower jaw, instead of being
composed, as in other Ruminants, of three distinct lobes, has either only two such
ANTELOPES.
3°9
lobes, or two with a mere rudiment of the third. The female of the Beni-Israel is
only 16 inches in height. In central Somaliland, Kilima-Njaro, and Damaraland
this species is replaced by Kirk's antelope (N. kirki), differing from the first by
having a rudiment of the third lobe in the last lower molar. Kirk's antelope
also has a more puffy nose than the Beni-Israel, while its horns are cylindrical
instead of being flattened on the inner side. So common is Kirk's antelope in parts
of Somaliland, that two or three may be killed at a shot. When disturbed, they
start up with great bounds, uttering a shrill cry; the flesh has an unpleasant
musky flavour.
DUIKERBOK.
Genus Cephalophus.
The elegant little South African duikerbok brings us to an assemblage of small
or medium-sized antelopes, differing in many important respects from the preceding,
or Cervicaprine group, which includes all the species from the reitbok to the Beni-
THE DUIKERBOK (-fa nat. size).
Israel. The name duikerbok properly applies, of course, only to the typical species,
but it may be conveniently extended to include the whole group. These antelopes,
which are exclusively African, are mainly inhabitants of thick forest, although the
typical form frequents brush-covered or open country. They are characterised by
their small straight horns, which are generally present in both sexes, being placed
far back on the skull and separated by a long tuft of hair. The gland below the
3io
UNGULATES.
eye is small, and is peculiar in opening either in the form of a slit (as in the species
figured) or as a row of small pores. The muzzle has a large naked portion, and the
tail is very short. The upper molar teeth have broad and square crowns (as in the
figure on p. 158), and thereby differ markedly from those of the preceding group.
The majority of the duikers are light and elegantly-built animals, of a more or less,
uniform colour, and are all very similar in structure. From their generally inhabit-
ing jungly or forest country, they are frequently spoken of as bush-bucks, but since
that name is also employed for the guib (p. 277), its use is best avoided.
The common or true duiker (Cephalophus grimmi) is found in bush-covered
districts from the Cape to the Zambesi and Nyasaland, and on the west coast
ranges as far north as Angola. It stands about 26 inches in height, and belongs
to a group of three species characterised by the general absence of horns in the
female, and by those of the male rising upwards at a sharp angle to the plane of
the nose. The ears are very long and narrow, and the colour typically yellowish
brown, with a more or less marked grey tinge ; but there is great variation in this
respect, some skins tending to reddish and others to greenish, while the amount of
white on the under-parts is also variable. The length of the horns is usually from
3 to 4 inches, although they may reach 5 inches. The name duiker, it may be
mentioned, signifies diver or ducker, in allusion to the rapidity of the creature's
movements when in cover. The madoqua (C. abyssinicus) is a smaller but allied
species from Abyssinia, distinguished by its grizzled greyish brown colour.
The red buck or Natal duiker (C. natalensis), which stands about
24 inches at the shoulder, differs by its horns (present in both sexes)
inclining backwards in the plane of the nose, as in the majority of the genus. It
is also distinguished by its bright reddish-bay colour, shorter and broader ears,
smaller horns, and larger head-tuft. Owing to the sudden rushes they make when
disturbed, these antelopes are difficult to shoot, and their flesh is unpalatable.
There are many other more or less nearly -allied species, such as the philantomba
(C. maxwelli) of Sierra Leone, to which it will be unnecessary to refer.
The little South African blue buck or pigmy antelope (C. monti-
cola) must, however, claim attention as being the smallest member of
the genus. These tiny creatures, which swarm in the Natal jungles, and stand only
13 inches at the shoulder, are smaller and lighter in build than a hare, and are of a
bluish mouse-colour, with the tiny straight horns scarcely showing above the tuft
of hair. Mr. Drummond states that these antelopes feed principally on certain
berries and shrubs found growing in the jungles, and seem to be on the move, more
or less, the whole day, though they are most often to be seen at early morning and
evening. " Perhaps the most enjoyable way of shooting them is to steal about
in the dense jungle, and shoot them as they patter about among the dead leaves
which strew the game-paths, or catch them while feeding on some favourite
bush."
Another member of the group is the much larger zebra-antelope
(C. dorice) of West Africa, which takes its name from the eight or nine
black transverse bands crossing the back and loins, and gradually narrowing to a
point on the flanks ; the ground-colour being a golden-brown. This coloration is
quite unique among Ruminants, and rivals that of the marsupial thylacine.
Wood-Antelope.
ANTELOPES. 311
Two species of this genus from West Africa also call for mention
on account of their great superiority in size over its other representa-
tives. One of these is the wood-antelope (G. sylvicultor) of Sierra Leone and the
Gabun, and the other the black wood-antelope (C. jentinki) from Liberia. The
former stands about 2 feet 10 J inches in height, and is of a blackish colour, with
the hinder part of the middle of the back marked by a yellowish white line. The
second species is rather smaller, and is of a greyish colour on the body, with the
head and neck black, and the legs, lips, and inner sides of the ears whitish. The
tuft of hair on the head is small and inconspicuous. Altogether nineteen species of
these antelopes are recognised by Mr. O. Thomas.
FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE.
Genus Tetraceros.
The chousingha, or four -horned antelope (T. quadricornis} is the Indian
representative of the duikerboks, and differs from all other living Ruminants in
r
MALE AND FEMALE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES (A nat. size).
that the male generally has two pairs of horns, of which the larger are placed as in
the duikers, while the smaller pair are situated immediately over the eyes. The
gland below the eye has nearly the same elongated aperture as in the duikers ;
but there is no tuft of hair on the crown of the head, and the upper molar teeth
3I2 UNGULATES.
have no additional column on the inner side. All the horns of the male are short,
conical, and smooth ; the front pair being often reduced to mere knobs, and not
unfrequently absent. In height the male chousingha
stands 25 \ inches at the withers, but an inch and a half
higher over the haunches. The fur is thin, harsh, and
short, and longer on the upper surface of the tail than
elsewhere. The general colour is dull pale brown, with a
more or less marked rufous tinge above, passing gradually
into white on the under-parts and inner sides and lower
portions of the limbs. There is a dark streak down the
front of each leg, which is larger in the fore than in the
hind pair. The second pair of horns usually vary from
3i to 4 inches in length, and do not appear to exceed 4|
SKULL OF FOUR-HORNED fo^es. The front pair are generally not more than H
ANTELOPE
inches in length, but may reach 2£ inches ; they are fre-
quently absent in specimens from Madras.
The chousinp;ha is found along the foot of the Himalaya from the
Distribution. -.,_.. XT. ,, £ r> • i T v •
Punjab to ISipal, and over the greater part or Peninsular India in
wooded and hilly country, although it avoids dense jungle. It is unknown in the
plain of the Ganges, on the Malabar coast in Madras, and likewise in Ceylon.
Mr. Blanforcl writes that the chousingha " differs from all other
Indian antelopes in habits as much as in structure. It is not gregari-
ous, very rarely are more than two seen together ; it haunts thin forest and bush,
and keeps chiefly to undulating or hilly ground. It drinks daily, and is never seen
far from water. It is a shy animal, and moves with a peculiar jerky action whether
walking or running The rutting season is in the rains, and the young, one or two
in number, are born about January or February." General Kinloch writes that
these animals " conceal themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and some-
what resemble hares in their habits. They are seldom to be seen out feeding, but
usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away at a great pace." Fossil
remains of the existing species have been discovered in a cave in Madras ; and it is
believed that the genus is represented in the Pliocene deposits of the Siwalik Hills
at the foot of the Himalaya.
WILDEBEESTS.
Genus Connochcetes.
The last group of the antelopes is represented by the wildebeests and their
allies the hartebeests and blessbok ; and is mainly confined to Africa, although one
species of hartebeest ranges into Syria. All these antelopes are of large size, and
are characterised by the presence of horns in both sexes, as well as by the circum-
stance that the withers are more or less elevated above the level of the haunches.
The muzzle is naked ; and there is a small gland below the eye, marked by a tuft
of hairs. The tail is long, and the general colour mostly uniform. The horns are
more or less lyrate or recurved, and at their origin are placed more or less closely
together. Unlike those of other antelopes, the bony cores of the horns are honey-
ANTELOPES.
combed with cavities, as in the oxen ; but the upper molar teeth differ entirely
from those of the latter animals, having very narrow crowns, without any additional
column on the inner side.
The wildebeests, or, as they are often called, gnus, are ungainly-looking
creatures, distinguished by their broad and short heads, in which the muzzle is of
great width, and fringed with long bristles, so that the nostrils are separated from
one another by a considerable interval. The neck is furnished with an erect mane
of stiff' hairs ; and the long tail is thickly haired throughout its length. The nearly
smooth, cylindrical horns are situated on the highest point of the skull, and curve
THE WHITE-TAILED WILDEBEEST (J Hat. size).
outwards, or outwards and downwards, and then bend upwards near the tips. In
the young wildebeest the horns are, however, straight and diverging, placed at
some distance below the highest point of the skull, and separated from one another
by a wide space at the base covered with hair. These straight horns persist as the
tips of those of the adult, the curved basal portion of the latter being a subsequent
development. In very aged bulls the two horns approximate at their bases, so as
to form a helmet-shaped mass completely covering the part of the skull, as in
the Cape buffalo.
There are two well-marked species of wildebeest, confined to South and East
Africa, both of which are represented in our illustrations. Of these the common,
UNGULATES.
or white-tailed wildebeest (Connochoetes gnu), is strictly South African ; while the
blue, or brindled wildebeest (C. taurina), is not found to the south of the Orange
River, and on the east side of the continent extends in the Uganda district some
distance to the north of the Victoria Nyanza. The former species, which stands
about 4£ feet at the shoulder, is distinguished by the long hair fringing the chest,
the long white tail, and the uniform coloration of the body. On the other hand,
the blue wildebeest has no long hair on the chest, the tail is black and shorter, the
sides of the withers are marked with dark transverse stripes, and the hair on the
face lies more smoothly. In the ordinary form of this species, the fringe of long
THE BLUE WILDEBEEST (^ Iiat. Size).
hair on the throat is black ; but it is white in a variety from Uganda. The horns
of the males of this species have a spread of from 2 feet to 2 feet 2 inches ; and in
a specimen in which the spread was 2 feet If inches, the greatest length of each
horn along the hinder curve was 19£ inches, and the basal girth 18£ inches. Mr.
Selous states that the blue wildebeest is met with on the western borders of
Griqualand West and the eastern edge of the Kalahari Desert, and from Mashona-
land to Lake Ngami in suitable districts. Near Kilima-Njaro it is found in large
herds, as is likewise the case in some other districts.
Wildebeest are found in open country, and never, according to
Livingstone, wander far away from the neighbourhood of water.
When quagga were abundant, both these animals were frequently found together ;
Habits.
ANTELOPES.
3*5
and Mr. Selous states that at the present day a solitary wildebeest may frequently
be observed feeding among a herd of sassabi or zebra. Both species of wildebeest
are characterised by their speed and endurance. Describing the habits and appear-
ance of the white-tailed species, Gordon Gumming writes as follows : — " The black
wildebeests, which also cover the entire length and breadth of the blessbok country,
in herds averaging from twenty to fifty, have no regular course, like the blessboks.
Unless driven by a large field of hunters, they do not leave their ground, although
disturbed. Wheeling about in endless circles, and performing the most extraordinary
varieties of intricate evolutions, the shaggy herds of these eccentric and fierce-
WHITE-TAILED WILDEBEESTS CURVETING ROUND A WAGGON.
looking animals caper and gambol round the hunter on every side. While he is
riding hard to obtain a shot at a herd in front of him, other herds are charging
down wind on his right and left, and, having described a number of circular move-
ments, they take up positions upon the very ground across which he rode only a
few minutes before. Singly, and in small troops of four or five individuals, the
old bull wildebeests may be seen stationed at intervals throughout the plains,
standing motionless during a whole forenoon, coolly watching with a philosophic
eye the movements of the other game, uttering a loud snorting noise, and also a
short sharp cry which is peculiar to them. When the hunter approaches these
old bulls, they commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric
manner ; then, springing into the air, begin prancing and capering, and pursue each
other in circles at their utmost speed. Suddenly they all pull up together to over-
3I6 UNGULATES.
haul the intruder, when the bulls will often commence fighting in the most violent
manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ; then, quickly wheeling about,
they kick up their heels, whirl their tails with a fantastic flourish, and scour across
the plain enveloped in a cloud of dust." In addition to their speed, wildebeest are
remarkable for their extreme tenacity of life ; and, owing to the vigorous use they
make of their horns, are awkward creatures to hunt with dogs. Mr. Drummond
states wildebeest are " so extremely wary that fewer are killed by native hunters
than of any other species. Europeans, however, find them good practice in rifle-
shooting, as they will stand in herds at a distance which they think secure, say
three hundred or four hundred yards, and watch the passer-by." Only occasionally
can they be approached within easy range by fair stalking ; although they may be
killed by watching at their drinking-holes at night. Mr. Drummond writes that,
during a thunderstorm of unusual intensity, " I walked, hardly knowing where I was
going, right into a herd of gnu. I did not see them until I was almost among them ;
but even had my gun not been hopelessly soaked, the fearful storm made self-preser-
vation, and not destruction, one's chief thought. They were standing huddled in a
mass, their heads together, and their sterns outwards, and they positively only just
moved out of my way, much the same as a herd of cattle might have done "
HARTEBEESTS, BLESSBOK, AND BONTEBOK.
Genus Bubalis.
The well-known hartebeest of South Africa (so called on account of a fancied
resemblance to a stag) is the type of a genus which may be taken to include several
nearly-allied species, and likewise the aberrant blessbok and bontebok.
All these animals differ from wildebeests by their long and pointed heads,
terminating in a narrow muzzle ; their ringed and often lyrate horns, the absence
of a mane on the neck or throat, and their shorter and less thickly-haired tail. In
consequence of the narrowness of the muzzle, the nostrils are closely approximated.
The horns are compressed, and ringed for a considerable portion of their length;
and in form are more or less lyrate, with their tips frequently bent suddenly back-
wards. In the typical forms the withers are much higher than the haunches, and
this feature, together with the great length of the face, communicates an ugly and
ungainly appearance to the whole animal. These characters are, however, far less
strongly marked in the blessbok and bontebok, and some of the intermediate
species. The cows of this genus differ from those of the wildebeests in the presence
of only two, in place of four, teats.
The titel, or bubaline antelope (Bubalis mauritanica), of North
Africa, Syria, and Arabia, is the only member of the genus not
confined to the African continent. It is the smallest representative of the group,
standing only 3 feet 7 inches at the shoulder ; and is of a uniform bright bay
colour throughout. The face is extremely elongated, and the horns are perched on
a crest situated on the very summit of the skull. The horns are comparatively
short and thick, of a deep black colour, with the rings extending nearly to their
tips. They diverge from one another in a U-shaped form ; and have their tips
ANTELOPES.
Their length
mt suddenly backwards, nearly, but not quite, at a right angle,
varies from 13 to 14£ inches.
The Tunisian hartebeest (B. major), of west North Africa, is a much larger
but closely-allied species, with enormously massive horns, which may be just over
20 inches in length, with a girth of 10£ inches.
The true hartebeest (B. cama) is a South African species, not
ranging as far north as Matabililand and Mashonaland. This fine
Hartebeest.
animal stands about 4 feet at the withers ; its general colour being greyish brown,
with a pale yellowish patch on each side of the haunches, and black markings on
the forehead and nose. The hair of the face is reversed as high up as the eyes, or
even to the horns; whereas in the preceding species it is reversed only for a
distance of one or two inches above the muzzle. The horns are long, and boldly
ringed, diverging from one another in the form of a V, with their tips directed
backwards at a right angle, and the bases curved away behind the plane of the
forehead. Their length varies in good specimens from 20 to 24 inches.
In the neighbourhood of the Victoria Nyanza the preceding species is re-
320
UNGULATES.
Habits.
placed by Jackson's hartebeest (B. jacksoni), distinguished by the uniform pale
colour of the face ; the hair being reversed for a distance of only about 4 inches
above the muzzle. The horns are of about the same dimensions as those of the
hartebeest ; in the typical specimen their length being 20f inches along the front
curves, with a basal girth of 12 inches; but in a second example the length was
inches.
Writing of the common hartebeest, Mr. Drummond states that it
is one of the fastest antelopes in Africa, and possesses such strength
as to render it almost impossible for
anything under a whole pack of
strong and swift hounds to bring it
to bay. " It is common in the great
level grass-plains to the north-west
of Zululand, and on several occasions
I tried coursing them there with two
very fast crossed Amaponda grey-
hounds ; but although the latter
could run up to them when they had
a fair start, they never once suc-
ceeded in bringing one to bay, or
even in causing one to separate from
the herd." In such districts it appears
that the only way to obtain a suc-
cessful shot is for the hunter to
conceal himself in a ravine, and
have the antelope driven in his
direction.
Cooke's Cooke's hartebeest (B. cookei), of British and German East Africa,
Hartebeest. brings us to a group of three species, readily distinguished from all
the preceding forms by the wide expansion of their horns, as shown in the figure
of the skull. The other two members of this group are the tora antelope (B. tora),
of Upper Nubia and Abyssinia, which is represented on the left side of our illustra-
tion on p. 317; and Swayne's hartebeest (B. swaynei), of Somaliland, of which the
head is shown in the accompanying woodcut and the skull on p. 159. In all these
species the hair of the face is reversed only for a distance of 2 inches or less above
the muzzle. In Swayne's hartebeest — the sig of the Sornalis — the general colour is
reddish chestnut, the face being marked by a broad purplish streak extending from a
little distance below the eyes. The horns expand very widely, rising at first nearly
in the plane of the face, and then forming a right angle with the middle line of the
forehead; their smooth 'tips being bent at right angles to the base, and directed
immediately backwards. Their length varies from 15 to 18£ inches. In regard to
the habitat of this species, Captain Swayne writes, that to the " south of the
highest ranges of Somaliland, and at a distance of about one hundred miles from
the coast, are open plains, some four thousand or five thousand feet above sea-level,
alternating with broken ground covered with thorn -jungle, with an undergrowth
of aloes growing sometimes to a height of six feet. This elevated country, called
UPPER PART OF SKULL AND HORNS OF COOKE'S
HARTEBEEST. (From Giinther.)
ANTELOPES.
321
the Hand, is waterless for three months, from January to March. Much of it is
bush-covered wilderness, or open semi-desert, but some of the higher plains are, at
the proper season, in early season, covered as far as the eye can reach with a
beautiful carpet of green grass,
like English pasture - land. At
this time of the year pools of
water may be found, as the
rainfall is abundant. This kind
of open grass - country is called
the Ban. Not a bush is to be
seen, and some of these plains
are thirty or forty miles in extent
each way. There is not always
much game to be got in the Hand,
but a year ago, coming on to
ground which Jiad not been
visited by Europeans, I found one
of these plains covered with herds
of hartebeests, there being perhaps
a dozen herds in sight at one time,
each herd containing three or four
hundred individuals. Hundreds
of bulls were scattered singly on
the outskirts, and in the spaces
between the herds, grazing, fight-
ing, or lying down. The scene I
describe was at a distance of over a hundred miles from Berbera, and the game
has probably been driven far beyond that point by now."
Cooke's hartebeest is of a reddish brown colour on the upper-parts and greyish
brown beneath, the head being dark rufous in front and fulvous on the sides, and
thus very different from that of the sig. The horns are also shorter and less widely
expanded than in the latter. On the other hand, the tora antelope has the whole
face of a uniform pale isabelline tint, like that of the body ; the horns being fully
as long as in the sig, but rising much more rapidly from the base, then coming
farther forwards, and projecting much more in the backward direction. Tora horns
vary from 12 to 19i inches in length.
The konzi (B. lichtensteini) is a very distinct species, inhabiting
all the Zambesi region and Nyasaland, characterised by its small
horns, which are much expanded and flattened at their bases. These horns incline
at first upwards and outwards, and then inwards, with their tips directed backwards
and upwards, so as to enclose a kind of vase-shaped space, their length ranging
from 14 to 20 inches. The skull is also shorter than in any of the foregoing species.
The general colour is a little lighter than that of the hartebeest ; the tail, knees, and
the front of the legs being black, while the face is without any dark markings, but
the buttocks usually have a pale yellow patch, and the under-parts are likewise
yellowish. In Nyasaland this species, according to Mr. Crawshay, is very generally
VOL. II. 21
HEAD OF SWAYNE'S HARTEBEEST. — After Rowland Ward.
Konzi.
322
UNGULATES.
Herota.
met with in the hills, if not too steep and rocky, and in the plains, but it appears to
prefer a flat or undulating country, well- wooded and with intervening open glades.
It is frequently found feeding with water-buck or zebras, and generally goes in
small herds of from five or six to fifteen or twenty. Its vitality appears to be
nearly equal to that of the water-buck.
Perhaps the handsomest representative of the genus is the herota,
or Hunter's hartebeest (B. hunteri) — from the southern borders of
Somaliland, on the great river Tana — which is readily distinguished by the white
chevron on the forehead, and the peculiar
form of the long horns. This fine antelope
stands about 4 feet at the withers, and is of
a uniform chestnut - brown colour, with a
rather long white tail, and white under-parts.
The chevron on the forehead has its angle
directed upwards, and terminates in rings
surrounding the eyes. The horns, after in-
clining upwards and outwards for a short
distance, run vertically upwards for a much
greater length, with long smooth tips. Their
length is about 22 inches in the males. The
face is still of considerable length, but the
hind-quarters do not slope away in the same
manner as in the true hartebeest. This
antelope is found on the plains and in thick
bush on the Tana River. Mr. Hunter says
that his party first met with this antelope
about one hundred and fifty miles up the
Tana Kiver. "It is only found for certain
on the north bank of the river. It frequents
the grassy plains principally, but is also
found in thick bush. It is generally met
with in herds of from fifteen to twenty-five
individuals. At the time of year when I
came across them (October and November)
I saw several young ones in the herds. The
banks of the Tana River are fringed with a
thin belt of forest; then the ground rises
slightly, and one sees extensive plains, dotted
here and there with large patches of bush,
composed principally of euphorbias and aloes.
The lesser kudu (see p. 274) lives principally
in these patches, and feeds outside of them
in the early mornings and evenings. When I first saw the new antelope I was
stalking two examples of Waller's gazelle, and though I saw the Hunter's antelope
in the distance I mistook them for impalas, which, however, are not found on the
Tana on either bank. It was only when I fired at the gazelles and the Hunter's
HEAD OF HUNTER'S HARTEBEEST.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1890.)
ANTELOPES.
323
Korigum.
antelope ran away, that I noticed they were new to me. They ran with rather
a heavy gallop, like a hartebeest. We did not come across these antelopes again
for some days, but then met with them in large numbers and got several specimens.
They seemed to me to have more vitality than any other antelope I ever killed.
This species certainly does not extend down to the coast, but we saw them as far
as the farthest point we reached (about
two hundred and fifty miles) up the river,
at a place called Mussa."
Ranging across Central
Africa, from Senegal on the
west to Southern Somaliland on the east,
is the korigum or Senegal antelope (B.
senegalensis), in which the comparatively
short horns are regularly lyrate, ringed
nearly to their tips, and curving back-
wards without any distinct angulation.
This species is represented in the right
upper corner of the illustration on p. 317.
The face is only of moderate length, and
the withers (as in the sassabi) are not
greatly higher than the rump. The face
has a broad black band, extending from
the root of the horns to the nose.
Better known than the
last is the nearly - allied
sassabi or bastard hartebeest (B. lunata),
widely distributed in South Africa as far
north as the Zambesi. The horns, which
seldom exceed 12 inches in length, diverge
widely from their bases, arid are then
inclined inwards and upwards, without
any angulation. The general colour of
the coarse fur is dark purplish red, becom-
ing almost black along the back, and with
a broad blackish mark down the face. In height the animal stands about 3 feet
10 inches, and has horns ranging from 13 to 15| inches in length. Mr. Selous
states that the sassabi " is never found in hilly country or in thick jungle, but
frequents the open downs that are quite free from bush, or else open forest-country
in which treeless glades are to be met with. On the Mababi flat at the end of the
dry season large herds of these animals congregate together, and I have often seen,
I am sure, several hundreds of them at once. They are without exception the
fleetest and most enduring antelope in South Africa." In regard to sassabi-hunting,
Mr. Drummond observes that " I do not consider them a difficult animal to shoot
for a good rifle-shot, as standing chances at from one hundred and fifty to two
hundred yards are easy to obtain, and they will often allow one to walk up to
within that distance in full view before even attempting to take to flight, while,
Sassabi.
HEAD OP THE KORIGUM OB SENEGAL ANTELOPE.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1890.)
324- UNGULATES,
when wounded, I have found; them unable to go far, and easy to finish,; and their
flesh may be classed with that of the best of the choicer antelopes."
The blessbok (B. albifrons) and the closely -allied bontebok
(B. pygargus), which are represented in the right lower corner of
the. illustration on p. 317, are smaller South African antelopes, which are ^the last
representatives of the genus. In both species the horns are compressed and
regularly lyrate, with the rings strongly marked, and extending nearly to the tips;
for a short distance they run almost parallel, and then curve backwards. Their
usual length is about 15 inches, but a pair of 18£ inches is on record. Both species
are characterised by their brilliant purple-red colour, and the broad white "blaze"
down the face, from which the blessbok takes its name. The bontebok (the
animal standing in front of the two on the right side of the illustration) is distin-
guished by the white blaze on the face continuing without interruption right up to
the root of the horns, the white patch on the buttocks surrounding the -tail, and
the white legs. On the other hand, in the blessbok (shown in the hinder of the
two animals standing on the right side of the plate) the blaze on the face is divided
by a transverse dark line just above the eyes; there is no white on the rump above
the tail, but a dark stripe runs down the outer side of the legs. In height the
blessbok stands about 3 feet 2 inches or rather more at the withers, but th6 bontebok
may reach from 3 feet 2 inches to 3 feet 11 inches.
After mentioning; that blessboks resemble the smaller springbok
Habits
in manners and habits, Gordon Gumming goes on to observe that they
differ from the latter " in the determined and invariable way in which they scour
the plains, right in the wind's eye, and also in the manner in which they carry
their noses close to the ground. Throughout the greater part of the year they are
very wary and difficult of approach, but more especially when the does have young
ones. At that season, when a herd is disturbed and takes away up the wind, every
other herd in view follows it, and the alarm extending for miles and miles down
the wind, to endless herds beyond the vision of the hunter, a continued stream of
blessboks may often be seen scouring up wind for upwards of an hour, and covering
the landscape as far as the eye can see." On one occasion when on the Vet River
the same writer states : " On my right and left the plain exhibited one purple mass
of graceful blessboks, which extended without a break as far as my eye could
strain. The depth of their vast legions covered a breadth of about six hundred
yards."
We may conclude this notice of the hartebeests and their allies
by mentioning that a member of the group occurs fossil in the Pliocene
strata at the foot of the Himalaya ; and it may be inferred from this and the facts
above mentioned that the essentially African groups of sable antelope, water-buck,
and hartebeests, and probably also kudus, were once represented on the plains of
India.
CHAPTER XXII.
UNGULATES, — continued.
THE PRONGBUCK, Family ANTILOCAPRID^E ; and
THE GIRAFFE, Family GIRAFFID^E.
THE prongbuck of North America and the giraffe of Africa differ so much from all
other living Ruminants, and likewise from one another, that they are referred by
common consent to two distinct families, namely, the Antilocapridce and the
Giraffidce. Whereas, however, the former is closely allied to the preceding family
of the Oxen, the affinities of the latter are rather with the Deer family, to be
described in the next chapter.
THE PRONGBUCK.
Family ANTILOCAPRID&
The prongbuck or prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra americand) much
resembles an antelope in general appearance, but differs from all members of the
family Bovidce in that the sheaths of the horns give off a short branch about the
middle of their length from their front edge, while the sheaths themselves are
periodically shed and afterwards replaced by a new growth.
The prongbuck stands about 2 feet 10 inches in height at the shoulder, and
some 3 inches more at the rump, and is of a light and graceful build, with the head
carried very high. The head is of moderate length, with the muzzle hairy except
for a narrow line in the middle of the upper lip, and large and pointed ears. The
horns, which are present in both sexes, rise vertically above the eyes ; they are
much compressed from side to side, and curved slightly backwards at the tips,
while the anterior process is inclined upwards and forwards at an angle of about
45 degrees with the main axis. The bony cores of the horns are dagger-shaped,
without any branching. The tail is extremely short, not exceeding 3 inches in
length, and the feet have small hoofs and no traces of the lateral hoofs so commonly
present in the Bovidce. There is no gland on the face below the eye, neither are
there any tufts of hair on the knees.
The coloration of the prongbuck is decidedly handsome and striking; the
general hair of the upper-parts and outer surfaces of the limbs being chestnut. The
hair on the back of the neck, which is of the general chestnut tint, is lengthened
into a kind of mane. The face is brownish black ; but the summit of the head
above the eyes, and likewise the ears, cheeks, and chin are white. White also
326
UNGULATES.
prevails on the lower portion of the throat, the under-parts, and the inferior half
of the flanks, and extends upwards to form a large patch on the rump which
includes the tail. Usually the throat is crossed by three russet-yellow transverse
bars, of which the uppermost is continuous with the dark area of the lower jaw.
The lower portion of the limbs is white. The horns are black, save at the tips,
where they become yellowish; and their usual length is about 12 inches, but Mr.
Otho Shaw has a pair measuring 17 inches, with a span of 20 inches.
Distribution.
GROUP OF PRONGBUCK (& liat. size).
The habitat of the prongbuck appears to be restricted to the
temperate regions of the western portion of North America, and
there is no evidence that it ever occurred to the eastward of the Mississippi, while
it only impinges on that river in its upper reaches. According to Mr. Caton, these
animals originally inhabited all the regions, except wooded districts and high
mountain ranges, lying to the westward of the Mississippi within the limits of the
United States. Up to the year 1855 they were abundant in California, and were
not uncommon in the open parts of Oregon ; but they have now almost if not com-
PRONGBUCK, 327
pletely disappeared from both these states. In latitude their range extended from
the tropics to the 54th parallel ; and within these limits they frequent by choice the
open prairie country, avoiding thickly-timbered districts or high naked mountains.
That the horns of the prongbuck were shed annually was long
and persistently urged by the hunters of Fort Union; but these
statements were received with incredulity by naturalists, who scouted the idea.
Eventually, however, it was proved to their satisfaction that the hunters were right
and they themselves in error. In fully adult individuals, the annual shedding of
the horns usually takes place during October, but in the young the horns are
retained till January. In the males the horns can be felt as prominences beneath
the skin even at birth, and at about four months old they burst through the
skin. They are later in making their appearance in the females, and cannot be
detected at birth. One of the best accounts of the shedding and replacement
of the horns is given by Mr. Caton, from which the following summary is taken.
On looking into the hollow of a shed horn, it will be found that the cavity does
not extend much above the point of bifurcation ; while it will be also noticed that
the interior of the horn contains a number of coarse light-coloured hairs, all of
which are firmly attached to its substance, while in the lower part many pass
completely through it. The core from which the sheath was cast will also be
found to be covered with similar hairs growing from an investing skin ; and it
will thus be evident that the sheath was more or less completely penetrated by a
number of the subjacent hairs, which were of course torn asunder at the time of
shedding. Indeed the horn of the prongbuck is in reality nothing more than
a mass of agglomerated hairs, and thereby differs markedly from the bovine horn.
On examining the head of a prongbuck from which the horns have been freshly
shed, it will be observed that the summits of the cores are already capped with
small new horns, which have evidently commenced their growth considerably before
the period of casting, as they reach for several inches above the tips of the cores.
The summits of these new horns are perfectly hardened, but lower down they
gradually become softer and softer, until they pass into the skin investing the
greater part of the core. The condition presented by an animal with newly-growing
horns is shown in the woodcut on the following page.
It is thus clear that as the new horn gradually increased in length above the
summit of the core, it must have loosened and carried with it the old sheath, which
eventually became completely detached from the core by the breaking and tearing
away of the hairs passing from the skin into its substance. When nearly the whole
of the hairs were detached or broken, any sudden motion of the animal would
doubtless lead to the loss of the horns ; but it does not appear that, at least as a
rule, the process is assisted by the animal rubbing its horns against neighbouring
objects. In regard to the renovating process, Mr. Caton writes that " when the old
horn was cast off, the new one, as we have already seen, had made a considerable
growth above the core, which was already tipped with perfected horn, while a section
below it was more or less hardened, or partially converted into horn. This inter-
vening section gradually moved down the horn, constantly invading the soft skin
below, and followed above with perfected horn. All this time the horn was growing
in length above the core, and assuming that posterior curvature near its upper part
328
UNGULATES.
which so much resembles the curvature of the horns of the chamois. After the
horn is perfected clown to the top of the cores, it ceases to increase in length, while
the apparently converting process steadily progresses downward along or around
the core. The cores being laterally compressed, the horn assumes the same form ;
not, however, conform-
ing precisely to the
shape of the core, but
extending considerably
in front of it, where it
is thinner than the
posterior part. At the
upper extremity of the
wide flattened part the
snag or prong is thrown
out, which consists of
little more than an
abrupt termination of
the wide part, with an
elevated exterior point.
By the latter part of
winter, in the adult, the
horn has attained about
this stage of growth.
From this it presses on,
hardening in its down-
ward growth till the
latter part of summer,
by which time ' the
growth is perfected
down to the base, and is a complete weapon for warfare. In this state it con-
tinues until the new horn has commenced its growth and begun to displace the old
one from its position, in the manner described above."
As regards habits, the prongbuck is a shy and timid creature,
avoiding its enemies with great intelligence, although sometimes
betrayed into danger by its extreme curiosity. It is swifter than any other native
North American Ungulate ; but is somewhat short-winded and cannot maintain its
speed for any length of time. Prongbucks are essentially gregarious ; and, accord-
ing to Dr. Canfield, individuals of both sexes and of all ages congregate in herds
from the beginning of September to the end of February. By the beginning of
March, the same writer states, " the does separate themselves from the band one by
one to drop their kids. They produce two at a birth. After a little time the does
collect together with their young, probably for mutual protection against coyotes ;
the old bucks in the meantime go off alone, each by himself or at most two together,
leaving the young bucks and young does together in small bands. The old bucks
now for a month or two wander a great deal, and are seen in the timber-lands, and
in other places where they never go at any other season of the year, evidently ' tired
HEAD OF PRONGBUCK, WITH NEWLY-GROWING HORNS.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool Soc*, 1880, p. 540.)
Habits.
PRONGBUCK. 329
of the world ' and fleeing from society. After two or three months, the young bucks
ami does join the old does and their kids, and finally, by the first of September, all
are together once more in bands of hundreds or thousands. Any particular band
of antelopes does not leave the locality where they grow up, and never ranges more
than a few miles in different directions."
At the present day prongbuck are seldom, however, met with in numbers any-
thing like those just mentioned. During the pairing-season the bucks are comba-
tive and frequently engage in fierce contests among themselves. In defence of her
young the female prongbuck is said to exhibit great boldness, sometimes even
beating off the attacks of the coyote by the vigorous use of both horns and hoofs.
Audubon and Backman, in describing the contests between the bucks, state that,
" when a male sees another approaching, or accidentally comes upon one of his rivals,
both parties run at each other with their heads lowered and their eyes flashing
angrily, and while they strike with their horns they wheel and bound with prodigious
rapidity, giving and receiving severe wounds ; sometimes, like fencers, getting within
each others' ' points,' and each hooking his antagonist with the recurved branches of
his horns."
In spite of their extreme speed, prongbuck are but poor jumpers, and appear
unable to leap over any large object that may be in their path ; this incapacity
being attributed to the open nature of the country which these animals generally
frequent. Mr. Caton states that " this inability to leap over high objects may no
doubt be attributable to the fact that they live upon the plains, where they rarely
meet with such obstructions, and so they and their ancestors for untold generations
have had no occasion to overleap high obstructions, and thus from disuse they do
not know how to do it, and never attempt it when they do meet them." The same
writer also states that if a prongbuck on the plains desires to cross the railroad
track, when alarmed by the cars, as is sometimes the case, he will strain every muscle
to outrun the train and cross ahead of it, as if he suspected a purpose to cut him off
from crossing ; and thus many an exciting race has been witnessed between muscle
and steam. When excited during its gambols with its fellows, or by the emotions
of rage or fear, the appearance of the prongbuck alters considerably. On such
occasions, writes Mr. Caton, " the hair of the white patch on the rump rises up, and
assumes a more or less curved radial position from a central point on each side of
the vertebrae. From these points the hairs radiate in every direction, only they are
as nearly erect as their curved radial position will permit. It is impossible to give
a just idea of this appearance by words."
The prongbuck is readily tamed when in captivity; and all who have eaten it bear
testimony as to the excellence of its flesh. The brittle nature of the hairs renders
the fur of but little value ; and it does not appear that the skins are much used as
leather. As might be inferred from the nature of its habit, the prongbuck is
exclusively a grazing animal ; and in captivity avoids browsing on leaves, except
when no other food is available.
There are two chief methods of hunting the prongbuck ; one by
stalking or "still-hunting," and the other by coursing with grey-
hounds. In the north-western portion of its habitat, the proper season for hunting
embraces the months of September, October, and November ; but in the south-west
33°
UNGULATES,
the period may be extended to the end of the year. In localities where they have
not been much disturbed, prongbuck are comparatively tame and not very
difficult to approach within range. The case is, however, very different in districts
where they are frequently hunted. Thus Mr. Du Bray writes, that " the ostrich,
with his vaunted power of vision, is comparatively near-sighted when compared
with the antelope.1 The giraffe may excel him, not from having superior eyes, but
from their greater elevation, and therefore greater scope. The deer is simply
nowhere in this respect. Even when in the habit of roaming on the prairie, he
has not the knack of detecting an intruder as an antelope has. I never had any
trouble in getting within 200 yards of an ostrich, in any decent place ; yet, with
years of experience on these, and a great deal of other prairie-shooting, I at first
found it difficult to get within 600 yards of an antelope, and then it was invariably
a wide-awake one, fully able to take care of himself."
For coursing the prongbuck, only the very best bred and toughest greyhounds
are of any use, while it is equally essential that the horse on which the hunter is
mounted should be of the swiftest. With such dogs it appears, however, that the
prongbuck is by no means difficult to pull down, and it may accordingly be
inferred that the speed of the animal is considerably inferior to that of the Indian
black-buck, which, as we have seen, cannot be captured by greyhounds on
good ground.
Fossilised remains of the prongbuck occur in some of the
superficial Pleistocene deposits of North America, but palaeontology
has not hitherto revealed to us the existence of any nearly-allied extinct forms.
It is suggested, however, that a small deer-like animal (Cosoryx), with short
antlers, may have given rise to the prongbuck by the loss of the fork in the
antlers, and the development of a superficial horny sheath.
THE GIRAFFE.
Family
As we have already had occasion to mention, the giraffe (Giraffa camelo-
pardalis), like the prongbuck, is the sole existing representative of the family to
which it belongs. Whereas, however, the latter animal stands apparently alone
among Ruminants, species of giraffes were widely distributed in former epochs,
while there were also several more or less closely-allied types now extinct.
Owing to the great length of its neck and limbs, coupled with its large bodily
size, the giraffe is by far the tallest of all Mammals. In addition to its elongated
neck and limbs, it is characterised by the depth and shortness of the body, the
great elevation of the withers as compared with the hind-quarters, and the long
and delicately-formed head, with its large, full, and clear eyes, and the pair of
horn-like appendages covered with skin which surmount the occiput.
As it is largely owing to the peculiar nature of these horn-like appendages
that the giraffe is referred to a distinct family, they require somewhat fuller notice.
These horns, as they may be conveniently called, are only a few inches in length, and
1 In America the prongbuck is often termed the antelope, pure and simple.
GIRAFFE.
are present in both sexes, making their appearance even before birth. They are
erect, subconical processes of bone, which at first are entirely separate from the
bones of the skull, although in later life completely uniting with them. They are
thus essentially different from the horn-cores of the oxen and their allies, from
which they are likewise distinguished by being invested with skin instead of
horn ; while, as we shall see in the next chapter, they are equally distinct from
the antlers of the deer. With
the exception that they are
at first separate bones, in-
stead of part and parcel of
the skull, they appear on the
whole to come nearest to
the horn-cores of the prong-
buck, which, as already
mentioned, are coated with
a hairy skin beneath the
deciduous horny sheath. In
addition to these paired
horns, there is a dome-like
bony protuberance occupy-
ing the middle line of the
skull between the eyes,
which is frequently referred
to as the third horn. The
position and relations of
these three appendages of
the skull are well indicated
in our figure of the giraffe's
skeleton.
The skull of the giraffe
is further characterised by
the great elevation of the
forehead and face above the
level of the eyes, this being
due to the development of a
number of air-cells in the
bones. There is also a large
unossified space immediately
below the eye. As regards
the teeth, those of the upper
cheek-series are remarkable
for the lowness and breadth of their crowns, and the roughness of the enamel with
which they are invested ; while there are no canines in the upper jaw.
Reverting to the consideration of the external characteristics of the giraffe, we
note that the ears are large and pointed, and that the large and slit-like nostrils
can be completely closed at the will of their owner. Moreover, the tongue is
GIRAFFES AT A POOL.
UNGULATES.
remarkable for its great length, and the distance it can be protruded beyond the
lips;; i thus acting as a grasping organ of considerable power. From the nape of
the neck to the withers runs a relatively short and erect mane; and the tail is of
considerable length, and terminates in a large tuft of long hair. The feet of the
giraffe are large and heavy, and have no trace of lateral hoofs.
The coloration of the South-
African giraffe takes the form of a
number of large blotches or patches
of some shade of chestnut or brown,
irregularly distributed over a paler
tawny ground-colour ; the face being
uniformly brownish, while the under-
parts, the inner surfaces of the limbs,
and the lower portion of the limbs, are
whitish and devoid of darker blotches.
The mane is chestnut-coloured, but
the tuft at the end of the tail is
blackish. It is this variety which is
represented in our coloured Plate, and
in the woodcut on p. 334. On the
other hand, the North- African giraffe
may be described as a chestnut-
coloured animal, marked by a net-
work of fine tawny lines. A
full-grown bull giraffe may measure
as much as 18 or even 19 feet from
the soles of the feet to the summit
of the head, while females are a foot
or two lower. We must not omit
to mention that, as a general rule, the
liver of the giraffe is unprovided with
a gall-bladder; the animal agreeing
in this respect with the deer, and
differing from the prongbuck and
the hollow-horned Ruminants.
The giraffe is con-
Distribution. ° . £
fined to Africa south or
the Sahara, and was formerly dis-
tributed in open districts throughout
the greater portion of that continent,
although absent from the thickly-wooded regions of the West Coast, its range
extending from the Cape in the south to Abyssinia and Nubia in the north. Like
the gemsbok and eland, the giraffe frequents more or less desert-like regions;
but of late years its range has been greatly restricted, more especially in South
and Central Africa, where Mr. Bryden considers that it will be almost exterminated
within the next twenty years.
SKELETON OF GIRAFFE.
SOUTH AFRICAN GIRAFFES.
GIRAFFE. 333
Writing in the year 1881, Mr. Selous states that the giraffe was at that time
"still to be found in considerable numbers, over a vast extent of country to the
sc h of the Zambesi River. In parts of the Kalahari Desert it is said to abound,
and in all the dry sandy district between Bawangwalo and Lake Ngami, and
thence to the Mabebi, Chobi, and Zambesi Rivers, it is also very numerous. Along
portions of the Botlebi River, and in the waterless but forest-clad sand-belts on the
southern bank of the Chobi, it is particularly plentiful. In the country between
the Chobi and the Zambesi, the giraffe is also found in the neighbourhood of
Linyanti ; but is not nearly so numerous there as on the other side of the former
river. Immediately north of the Zambesi it is unknown, although it appears to
be plentiful in parts of Central and Eastern Africa. In some parts of the Matabili
country it is also common, but till within the last few years was never found
eastwards of the river Gwelo (a tributary of the Zambesi north of Matabililand),
though it was always very plentiful in the sand-belts to the westward of that
river. This fact is the more curious since the soil, vegetation, and general appear-
ance of the country are precisely similar on both sides of the river, which, during
a great portion of the year, is only a succession of pools, and therefore does not
offer the slightest obstacle to any animal desirous of crossing it. During the last
three or four years a few giraffes have extended their range further eastwards."
Since the above was written, Mr. Bryden states that giraffes have practically
disappeared from large areas to the south of the Zambesi ; and their headquarters
are now the parched desert country forming the North Kalahari. Probably
giraffes are most abundant in the districts lying immediately south of the Botlebi
River, on the northern border of the Kalahari Desert. Most of this district is quite
waterless for a great portion of the year, and cannot be hunted without water-carts
accompanying the party. Here giraffes may frequently be seen in parties of
fifteen or twenty, while it is stated that as many as seventy or eighty have been
observed together. To the east of the Kalahari, in Khama's country, giraffe are
not uncommon ; as is also the case in parts of the Chobi Valley ; while in Matabili-
land and Mashonaland they are scarce. Southward of the Limpopo, these animals
have been completely exterminated.
The circumstance that the hide of a bull-giraffe now fetches from four to five
pounds in the market has been the main cause of the incessant persecution to which
these splendid animals have been subjected. It is probable that in Southern Africa
they will linger longest in the more inaccessible portions of the Kalahari ; while
they are likewise likely to persist in the deserts of Kordofan and the Sudan.
The giraffes inhabiting the North Kalahari Desert cannot, accord-
ing to Mr. Bryden, touch water for some seven or eight months of the
year ; and the same is true with regard to those found in other waterless districts.
Hence the bushmen state that these animals never drink at all. This, however, is
disproved by the following quotation from Mr. Selous, who writes that on a certain
occasion he reached camp " a little before sundown, just in time to see three tall,
graceful giraffes issue from the forest a little distance beyond, and stalk across the
intervening flat, swishing their long tails to and fro, on their way down to the
water. It is a curious sight to watch these long-legged animals drinking, and one
that I have had several opportunities of enjoying. Though their necks are long,
334
UNGULATES.
they are not sufficiently so to enable them to reach the water without straddling
their legs wide apart. In doing this, they sometimes place one foot in front,
and the other as far back as possible, and then by a series of little jerks widen the
distance between the two, until they succeed in getting their mouths down to the
water ; sometimes they sprawl their legs out sideways in a similar manner." A
giraffe in the latter posture is depicted on the right side of the Plate ; this position
having to be assumed, not only when drinking, but likewise when the animal desires
to pick up a leaf from the ground, or on the rare occasions when it grazes.
Writing at a time when giraffes were still abundant in South Africa, Gordon
Gumming gives the following
graphic account of their habits and
appearance. He says that, "in
countries unmolested by the in-
trusive foot of man, the giraffe is
found generally in herds varying
from twelve to sixteen ; but I
have not unfrequently met with
thirty, and on one occasion I
counted forty individuals together ;
this, however, was a chance, and
sixteen may be reckoned as the
average number of a herd. These
herds are composed of giraffes of
various sizes, from the young one of
9 or 10 feet in height to the dark
chestnut-coloured old bull of the
herd, whose exalted head towers
above his companions, generally
attaining a height of upwards of
18 feet. The females are of lower
stature, and more delicately formed
than the males, their height av-
eraging from 16 to 17 feet.
Some writers have discovered
ugliness and a want of grace in
the giraffe, but I consider that
he is one of the most strikingly
beautiful animals in the creation ;
and when a herd is seen scattered
through a grove of the picturesque
parasol-topped acacias which adorn
their native plains, and on whose uppermost shoots they are enabled to browse
through the colossal height with which nature has so admirably endowed them, he
must indeed be slow of conception who fails to discover both grace and dignity in
all their movements." Referring to the admirable protective resemblance of many
animals to their natural surroundings, the same author goes on to observe that " in
SOUTH AFRICAN GIRAFFE.
GIRAFFE. 335
the case of the giraffe, which is invariably met with among venerable forests, where
innumerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks and stems occur, I have repeatedly
been in doubt as to the presence of a troop, until I had recourse to my telescope,
and on referring to my savage attendants I have known even their practised eyes
deceived, at one time mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and
again confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the forest." It
may be added that the dappled hide of the giraffe blends harmoniously with the
splashes of light and shade formed by the sun glinting through the foliage of the
trees beneath which the animals are wont to take their stand, and thus intensifies
the illusion. It will be observed that in the foregoing account the maximum number
of individuals observed in a single herd was forty. Larger numbers have, however,
been seen together by other observers in Southern Africa, while in the Sudan Sir
S. Baker states that on one occasion he counted seventy-three, on another one
hundred and three, and on a third upwards of one hundred and fifty-four individuals
in a herd.
The food of the giraffe consists almost exclusively of leaves, carefully plucked
one by one from the trees by the aid of the long flexible tongue. The senses of
both sight and hearing are highly developed ; and the lofty position of the head
gives to the soft and liquid eyes a wide field of view. The animal's only means
of defence is by kicking out with its legs ; and the blows thus delivered are of
terrific force and power. This mode of attack is employed by the cow in defending
her young against Carnivores, and likewise in the contests which take place among
the males during the pairing-season.
From observations made on individuals in menageries, it appears that the
pairing-time is either during March or in the early part of April, and that the
young are born in May or June of the following year ; the duration of the period
of gestation thus being as much as from four hundred and thirty-one to four hundred
and forty-four days, or fourteen and a half months, or a little less. But a single
young is produced at a birth, and the little creature in three days after its
appearance in the world is able to trot by the side of its dam.
The speed and endurance of giraffes are alike considerable. When running,
the tail is carried twisted in a corkscrew-like manner over the back, and the neck
inclined somewhat forwards. Their gait is peculiar, and takes the form of a kind
of awkward gallop, " their hind-legs," writes Mr. Selous, " being straddled out at
each step and coming (one on each side) in front of the fore-legs. If you only look
at their bodies and necks from behind, they appear to be sailing or gliding along
without making any movement at all. They get over the ground, however, at a
great rate, and it requires a good horse to run one down. The great thing is to
press them to their utmost speed at first, when, if fat, they soon get blown and
can be ridden into, and, if the wind is favourable, driven for miles right up to one's
waggons, just like an ox or an eland. At a hard gallop they can, however, spin
along for miles."
Giraffe-hunting seems to be generally undertaken on horseback,
and all who have partaken of it speak of the excitement of galloping
behind a line of these magnificent animals scouring across the plains. There are,
however, but few who fail to be struck with the pathetic and half-reproachful
336 UNGULATES.
expression of a fallen giraffe, and whose hearts are so hardened as not feel some
compunction at thus ruthlessly destroying one of the noblest specimens of
nature's handiwork.
Mr. Selous expresses his admiration at the sight of a herd of giraffes galloping
before the hunter in the following words. On the occasion to which he refers, his
horse was not a particularly good one, and the pace consequently not very great.
Eventually he got, however, within one hundred yards of his quarry, and he then
writes that " even in the ardour of the chase it struck me as a glorious sight to see
these huge beasts dashing along in front, clattering over the stones, or bursting a
passage through opposing bushes, their long, graceful necks stretched forwards,
sometimes bent almost to the earth to avoid horizontal branches, and their bushy
black tails twisted up over their backs. And how easily and with what little
exertion they seemed to get over the ground, with that long, sweeping stride of
theirs ! Yet they were going at a great rate, for I felt that my old nag was doing
his best, and I could not lessen the distance between us by an inch."
All who have eaten of it, testify to the excellence of the flesh of the giraffe ;
and we have already made mention of the value attached to its hide.
The giraffe thrives well in captivity, where it breeds readily.
On the morning of May 24th, 1836, those Londoners who happened to
be passing along what was then called the New Road, were startled by the appear-
ance of four giraffes, with their Nubian attendants, on their way from the docks to
the Zoological Society's Gardens in the Regent's Park. Of these four individuals
three were males and one a female ; and they respectively lived till the years 1837,
1846, 1849, and 1852. Between 1836 and 1892 the Zoological Society had upwards
of thirty giraffes in their menagerie, no less than seventeen of which were bred and
born there. One of the latter which was born in the spring of 1846 lived till
January 1867, or close upon twenty-one years. The last of this series of giraffes
died in March 1892, and owing to the inaccessible condition of the Sudan at the
present time, it has hitherto been found impossible to replace its loss.
tj Fossil giraffes are found in the Pliocene rocks of Greece, Persia,
Extinct Giraffes. to
the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya, and China. All these
extinct forms appear to have been closely allied to the living African species,
although in some instances the length of the limbs seems to have been proportion-
ately somewhat less.
EXTINCT MAMMALS ALLIED TO THE GIRAFFE.
In addition to the fossil giraffes just mentioned, there are other extinct
Mammals from the Pliocene formations of Europe and Asia which, while evi-
dently referable to the same group of Ruminants, must be assigned to distinct
genera.
One of the most giraffe-like of these creatures is the helladothere of Greece, a
hornless animal, of larger dimensions than the giraffe, but with a shorter neck and
limbs. The limbs agree, however, with those of the latter in the great proportionate
length of the front pair, and the skull has a considerable general resemblance,
although with a smaller development of cells in the bones of the forehead, and
ALLIES OF THE GIRAFFE,
337
SKULL OF THE SAMOTHERE (about \ nat. size).
without an unossified space in front of the eye. An allied animal, known as the
libythere, has left its remains in the Pliocene strata of Algeria.
In the samothere
of the Isle of Samos
and Persia, of which
the skull is shown in
the accompanying
woodcut, the fore and
hind-limbs are of nearly
equal length, and the
forehead, owing to the
absence of cells, is
nearly flat, while there
is no unossified space
in front of the eye.
The eyes were sur-
mounted by a pair of flattened bony processes, which there is some reason to believe
were detached from the bones of the forehead in the young state, and which may
have been clothed either with skin or with horny sheaths in the living condition.
In many respects the skull of this animal approximates to that of the elk.
By far the largest of all Ruminants was the gigantic Indian sivathere, whose
skull and limb-bones rival
in magnitude those of
the biggest rhinoceroses.
The skull of this
enormous creature was
very short and wide, and,
in the male at any rate,
carried a pair of large
antler - like appendages,
situated immediately over
the occiput, in addition
to which there was a
pair of simple spike-like
horns above the eyes.
Although the branched
appendages of the skull
recall the antlers of the
elk, it is evident that they were never shed ; and it is, therefore, probable that
they were covered during life either with hairy skin or with horn. In any case,
they were to a considerable extent intermediate in their nature between the horns
of the oxen and the antlers of the deer. Other kindred types were the hydaspi-
there and the bramathere of India, in both of which the appendages of the skull
take origin from an elevated common base rising above the forehead. In the
former of these animals there was a large unossified space in front of the eye,
.similar to that occurring in the giraffe and the deer.
VOL. II. 22
SKULL OP THE SIVATHERE (about \ nat. size).
CHAPTER XXIII.
UNGULATES, — continued.
THE DEER-TRIBE.
Family GERVID^.
THE last representatives of the true Ruminants, or, as they are technically called,
Pecora, include the typical deer, the elk, the reindeer, the musk-deer, etc. The
SKELETON OF MALE RED DEER.
great and distinctive feature of this group is the general presence in the male sex
of the peculiar branched appendages on the skull, which are now generally known
DEER.
339
Antlers.
by the name of antlers. Unfortunately, so far as simplicity of classification is con-
cerned, these appendages are not present in all the members of the family, and the
zoologist has, therefore, to rely partly on other characters in defining the group.
Still, however, as these antlers are the most characteristic features of the deer-tribe
as a whole, their importance cannot be overrated, and we accordingly take them
first into consideration.
With regard to the meaning of the term antler, it appears that
the word is derived from the old French antoiller, — a corruption of
the late Latin antoculorum (before the eyes), — which was originally applied to that
branch of the antler which descends over the forehead, and is now designated the
brow-tine. At a subsequent period the word antler seems to have been employed
indifferently for all the branches of these appendages, while still later it was used
to designate the entire appendages themselves. It is in the latter sense that it is
now employed, the various branches of the antlers being termed tines.
In addition to being generally more or less branched, the most characteristic
feature of an antler when fully developed is that its outer surface is rugged and
devoid of any covering of skin or horn. In fact, for all practical purposes, an
antler may be regarded as a mass of dead bone borne for a certain period by a
living animal. Except occasionally, as an individual peculiarity, antlers are shed
once every year, and, save in
the reindeer, are present only
in the male sex. They arise
from a pair of longer or
shorter bony pedicles situated
on the skull above and behind
the eyes, and forming part of
the skull itself.
When the antlers of a
stag have been recently shed
the above - mentioned bony
pedicles are completely
covered with skin, and merely
form small prominences upon
the upper part of the fore-
head. In a short time, how-
ever, there appear on the
summits of these pedicles
small velvety knobs, which
are highly sensitive and
tender, and are supplied by
an unusual number of blood-
vessels. These knobs are formed by a deposition of bony matter, and increase very
rapidly in size. In young deer and a few of the smaller forms their growth is
limited to the formation of a simple spike, or a spike with one fork, but in the
adults of the more typical kinds of deer they branch into a smaller or larger
number of tines, until they finally assume the form of the complete antler. The
HEAD OF RED DEER WITH NEW ANTLERS IN THE "VELVET."
34°
UNGULATES.
whole antler is then completely invested with a soft and vascular skin clothed
with exceedingly fine hair, hence termed the " velvet." When, however, the growth
of the antler is completed in its upper part, a deposition of bony matter takes place
at its base, just above the point of union with the pedicle of the skull, in the form
of a prominent ring. This ring, of course, constricts the blood-vessels supplying
the velvet, and ultimately causes them to dry up. In consequence of this cutting
off of the supply of blood by the ring or " burr," the velvet itself likewise dries
up, and is eventually removed by the animal rubbing its newly-formed antlers
against the stems of trees or other convenient objects. The antlers are then com-
plete. They attain their full development shortly before the commencement of
the pairing-season, and during that period they are employed as most efficient
weapons in the contests which then take place between the males of all the species
of the deer-tribe. Subsequently the living bone beneath the skin below the burr
of the antlers is absorbed, when the antler itself is shed, to be renewed in the
following season in the same manner as before.
In the fawns the antler takes the form merely of a simple conical spike, and
this type is retained in certain South American species throughout life. In the
following year the antler gives off a branch near the base, and this form also
constitutes the highest development attained by some of the smaller species. In
the more typical deer the antlers, however, become more and more branched with
each succeeding year, till in the red deer they may occasionally have as many as
forty points. The amount of bony matter annually secreted to form the antlers of
the larger deer is enormous, antlers of the red deer having been obtained which
weighed upwards of 74 Ibs., while those of the extinct Irish deer must have
probably scaled 100 Ibs. during life.
The different tines borne by the antlers of the red deer and other allied species
have received distinct
~"^ J names, and, as it is of
the highest import-
ance that these should
be clearly understood,
they may be referred
to at once. In the red
deer group (A of the
accompanying figure)
the shaft or beam of
each antler carries
three tines on its
lower front edge, of
which the lowest (a)
is termed the brow-
tine, the second (6) the
bez-tine, and the third
(c) the trez-tine, or
A. Hangul, or Kashmir deer; B. sambar ; C. spotted deer; D. swamp-deer; E. SOTnp+impq tliP rnval
Eld's deer ; a, brow-tine ; b, bez-tine ; c, trez-tine ; d, e, anterior and posterior
surroyals.— After Blanford and Forsyth. tine. The summit of
LEFT ANTLERS OF ASIATIC DEER.
A FAMILY OP RED DEER.
DEER. 343
the beam may either be divided into two or three tines (as in the figure on p.
340), or may be split up into an almost indefinite number of snags, radiating out-
wards from a kind of cup ; but in any case these terminal snags, irrespective of
their number, are collectively spoken of as the surroyals, or the crown of the antler.
It will be seen from the figure that in many deer the bez-tine of the antler is
wanting ; but of this and other variations in form more will be said later on.
Having thus noticed that the deer are more satisfactorily dis-
Ottier Characters. „ , , . , , , ,
tinguished by the presence or antlers in the males, we have now to
mention certain characters which will aid in distinguishing from other Ruminants
those members of the family in which the antlers are wanting. In the first place,
all deer have a very large unossified space in the skull in advance of the orbit,
this space being so extensive as to prevent the lachrymal bone from coming in
contact with the nasal bone, as it does in the Ox family. Of less importance is the
circumstance that the first molar tooth in each jaw has a short crown. As a rule,
tusks or canine teeth are usually present in the upper jaw ; and since these are
always developed in those forms unprovided with antlers we have a ready means
of distinction from the Ox family, in which there are never upper tusks. Moreover,
with the single exception of the musk-deer, no member of the family has the gall-
bladder, so constantly present in the Bovidce. From both the prongbuck and the
giraffe the deer are distinguished by the presence of well-developed lateral hoofs
in both feet. It may also be mentioned that whereas in the Bovidce these lateral
toes are represented merely by the bones of the toes themselves and the terminal
hoofs, a large number of deer have remnants of the lower extremities of their
supporting metacarpal and metatarsal bones lying alongside of the cannon-bone.
In all deer the end of the muzzle is naked, and there is a gland in front of the eye.
Although numerically far inferior to the Bovidce, the deer-tribe
Distribution. . J .
includes a large assemblage or species, which may be grouped under
several generic headings, and have a wide geographical distribution. In the Old
World deer are found over the greater part of Europe and Asia, but are quite
unknown in Africa south of the Sahara — the Ethiopian region of zoologists. Three
of the Old World species, representing as many genera, extend into North America ;
but the other New World forms, which range as far south as Chili, belong to quite
a different type from any of those inhabiting the Eastern Hemisphere.
Deer are for the most part inhabitants of forests or grass-jungles,
and are never found in desert districts. They are an older group than
any of the other typical Ruminants, making their appearance in the lower portion
of the Miocene period, where the species were of small size, and for the most part
unprovided with antlers.
THE RED DEER GROUP (Cervus elaphus, etc.).
The well-known red deer of Europe is the typical representative of the genus
Cervus, and belongs to a group containing several species or varieties, which is
distributed over Europe, Asia (north of the Himalaya), Northern Africa, and North
America, and is mainly characterised by the conformation of the antlers. These
(as shown in the illustration and in A of the figure on p. 340) have both a brow and
344
UNGULATES.
Red Deer.
a bez-tine, and a nearly cylindrical beam, splitting up into two or more points at the
summit. The tail is short, and the buttocks are marked by a light-coloured disc-
like patch, which includes the tail, while the rest of the hair is uniformly coloured.
All the members of the group are of large size, and their young are spotted.
The red deer is characterised by the surroyals of the antlers of
the adult having at least three points, and thus forming a cup in the
middle of the crown ; the total number of points being not less than twelve. Such
a stag is called in Scotland a Royal Hart. The number of points in the crown may,
however, be greatly increased, as shown in the
accompanying figure of an antler dug up many
years ago in an Irish bog. In the stag to which
this antler belonged, the total number of points, if
the two antlers were symmetrical, would have been
thirty ; but instances are recorded where there are
as many as forty-five and even sixty-six points.
The latter number must, however, be regarded as
abnormal. At the present day no Scotch stag ever
has antlers of the complexity of the one shown in
the woodcut, and it would indeed be very doubtful
if that specimen could even be matched among the
living deer of Eastern Europe, where the heads
are considerably finer than in Scotland. Such
antlers, and even larger ones, were, however, not
uncommon on the Continent a few centuries ago ;
many magnificent examples are preserved in some
of the old German castles, the collection at Moritz-
burg being especially rich.
A fine specimen of the red deer will stand fully
4 feet at the shoulder. The hair on the throat forms a long fringe, most developed
in the pairing -season. During summer the general colour of the pelage is a
bright reddish brown, the head and legs being somewhat greyer, the throat pale
grey, and the patch on the buttocks yellowish white. In winter, when the fur
becomes longer and softer, the colour tends to a brownish grey. Wild stags are
occasionally found white ; the tendency to albinism increasing in the domesticated
state. A fine Scotch stag will weigh some 280 Ibs. (20 stone), but they range up
to 420 Ibs. (30 stone), and a stag was killed at Woburn, in 1836, which weighed
476 Ibs. (34 stone) as it stood. These weights are, however, exceeded by the stags
of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The large pair of antlers mentioned above
have a total length of 68 inches, and examples have been obtained from Eastern
Europe and Asia Minor, varying from 46 to 48| inches in length. The antlers of
Scotch and Irish stags rarely, however, exceed 33 inches, although some of the
latter may reach 35 inches. A Devonshire stag with antlers of over 38 inches
is on record.
The red deer has a wide distribution in the temperate regions of
Europe and Asia, but its eastward extension in the latter continent is
not yet fully ascertained. Formerly it was probably found throughout the forest-
THE RIGHT ANTLER OF A RED DEER,
FROM AN IRISH BOG.
Distribution.
DEER. 345
regions of Central Europe, but it has now been exterminated in many districts.
In Scandinavia, it is found only in a few forests in Sweden, and in some of the
Norwegian islands. It also remains in the larger forests of France and Germany,
while it is more abundant in Hungary, Servia, Transylvania, Poland, and the
Danubian States. In parts of Greece, Italy, and Spain, as well as the islands of
Corsica and Sardinia, it is less plentifully represented. In the British Islands it
is only in the Scottish Highlands to the north of the Clyde and the Forth that
wild red deer are met with abundantly, and then only by the aid of protection.
They are, however, also found on the moors of Devon and Somerset, in certain
districts of Ireland, such as Killarney and Connemara, as well as in the Hebrides.
As late as the reign of Queen Anne, wild deer were, however, common in Wolmer
Forest, Hampshire, while a few lingered on in Epping Forest till the early part of
the present century.
In European Russia the red deer is reported to be restricted to the Caucasus.
Eastwards a large deer ranges through Siberia to Amurland and Northern China,
which is probably only a variety of this species, although on account of the larger
size of the light-coloured patch on the buttocks, it has been regarded as a distinct
form under the name of C. xanthopygus. The red deer is again met with in Asia
Minor, where it attains large dimensions, but it does not appear to enter Persia, or
at least only infringes on the western borders of that country. The so-called
Barbary deer of Morocco and Algiers, now regarded merely as a variety of the
present species, is distinguished by the frequent absence of the bez-tine of the antlers.
Fossil remains of the red deer are found abundantly in the caverns and super-
ficial deposits of the greater part of Europe ; these fossil antlers being far larger
than those of any modern representatives of the species, some of them measuring
upwards of 40 inches in length.
Like most of the tribe, the red deer is gregarious ; but, except
during the pairing -season, the full-grown stags remain apart from
the other members of the herd, and generally frequent higher ground. On the
Continent this species is almost exclusively a forest-dweller, remaining concealed
during the day in the thickest cover, and only venturing out to feed in the open
glades or adjacent cultivated lands with the falling shades of evening. On the
other hand, the Scottish red deer inhabits the open hills, and has for its only con-
cealment the intervening glens and valleys.
The pairing-season commences in the later part of September or beginning of
October, and lasts for about three weeks ; during which period the venison is rank
and unfit for table. At this season, writes Mr. Scrope, " the harts swell in their
necks, have a ruff of long wiry hair about them, and are drawn up in their bodies
like greyhounds. They now roll restlessly in the peat-pools till they become almost
black with mire, and feed chiefly on a light-coloured moss that grows on the round
tops of the hills, so that they do not differ so entirely from the reindeer in their
food as some naturalists have imagined. . . . This is a very wild and picturesque
season. The harts are heard roaring all over the forest, and are engaged in savage
conflicts with each other, which sometimes terminate fatally. When a master hart
has collected a number of hinds, another will endeavour to take them from him.
They will fight till one of them, feeling himself worsted, will run in circles round
346
UNGULATES.
the hinds, being unwilling to leave them ; the other pursues, and when he touches
the fugitive with the points of his horns, the animal thus gored either bounds
suddenly on one side, and then turns and faces him, or will dash off to the right or
the left, and at once give up the contest. The conflict, however, generally continues
for a considerable time, and nothing can be more entertaining than to witness, as I
have often done, the varied success and address of the combatants. It is a sort
of wild joust, in the presence of the dames who, as of old, bestow their favours
on the most valiant. ... In solitary encounters, there being no hinds to take the
alarm, the harts are so occupied and possessed with such fury that they may be
occasionally ap-
proached in a manner
that it would be vain
to attempt at any
other time." One
instance has been
recorded where the
antlers of two stags
fighting in this
manner became so
firmly interlocked
that the victor was
unable to disengage
himself from his
dead antagonist, and
was thus held cap-
tive until killed by
a forester. After an
interval of eight
months and a few
days from the pair-
ing-season— that is
to say, generally in
the early part of
June — the fawns are
produced; there
being but rarely more than one at a birth. The fawn is dropped in high heather,
and is left concealed there during the day by the hind, who returns to visit it in
the evening. Mr. Scrope states that the dam makes her offspring " lie down by a
pressure of her nose ; and it will never stir or lift up its head the whole of the day,
unless you come right upon it, as I have often done. It lies like a dog, with its
nose to its tail. The hind, however, although she separates herself from the young
fawn, does not lose sight of its welfare, but remains at a distance to windward,
and goes to its succour in case of an attack of the wild cat or fox, or any other
powerful vermin."
The old stags shed their antlers about February or March, according to the
nature of the season, but those of the young bucks are retained for some time
EED DEEB AT A POOL.
DEER. 347
longer. In spite of traditions as to the great age attained by stags, it appears
that the ordinary limit of life is about twelve years, although a few individuals
may survive to twenty years. Red deer are essentially shy and wary animals ; and,
in the open districts which they frequent in Scotland, can detect an enemy at an
immense distance. When all the members of a herd are together, the chief duty of
watching appears to fall on the hinds, but at other times the stags have to depend
on their own alertness. When their foes are in sight, deer will watch them with the
greatest coolness and circumspection, but they become anxious and restless when
they have reason to suspect the near presence of a concealed enemy.
In Scotland, deer are now killed only by driving or stalking ;
although wild red deer are still hunted with hounds in Devonshire,
no less than 276 having been killed there in the five years ending 1892. Formerly
it was the custom in Scotland to surround a large tract of country with a circle of
beaters ; and deer-driving on a large scale is now practised in Austria and some
other parts of the continent. When hunted, as indeed at other times, red deer will
take freely to the water ; and when a wounded stag is hotly pursued by deer-
hounds, he generally seeks refuge in the mountain streams, where his length of leg
gives him a great advantage over his pursuers. Sometimes, writes Mr. Scrope, a
stag " will stand upon a rock in the midst of the river, making a most majestic
appearance ; and in this case it will always be found that the spot on which he
stands is not approachable on his rear. In this situation he takes such a sweep
with his antlers, that he could exterminate a whole pack of the most powerful
lurchers that were pressing too close upon him in front. He is secure from all but
man ; and the rifle-shot must end him. Superior dogs may pull him down when
running, but not when he stands at bay." It may be added that, when disturbed,
deer invariably run up wind.
In addition to the red deer, Asia possesses several closely allied
Allied Species.
forms, which are generally regarded as distinct species, although
it may be a question whether it would not be better to consider them all as
local races. One of the best known of these Asiatic deer is the hangul or
Kashmir stag (C. kashmirianus). This species stands about 4 feet 4 inches at the
shoulder, and differs from the red deer in that each antler (as shown in A of the
figure on p. 340), usually has but five tines, so that no cup is formed at the
crown, which is simply forked. Moreover, the whole beam of the antler is much
curved, with the main tine of the surroyals (e) greatly inclined inwards ; while
the bez-tine is generally longer than the brow-tine, or just the reverse of the
condition obtaining in the red deer. Occasionally, six or even seven points may
be counted in the antlers of the hangul. In colour, this deer closely resembles the
European species. Whereas, however, the call of the red deer during the pairing
season is a loud squeal, ending in a more guttural tone, in the hangul it is
distinctly a roar, which may be compared to that of a leopard. The antlers of
the Kashmir stag average about 40 inches in length, but specimens have been
obtained of which the measurements were respectively 52, 53, and 55 inches.
The true hangul is confined to the mountains surrounding the valley of
Kashmir and some of the adjacent districts. There is, however, a deer from
Eastern Turkestan known as the Yarkand stag, which appears to be merely a
348
UNGULATES.
variety of this species, distinguished by its straighter antlers and the paler colour
of the fur. In Kashmir the hangul, which is essentially a forest animal, is found
in summer at elevations of from 9000 to 12,000 feet. In winter, however, it
descends to the valleys during heavy falls of snow ; and at such times it is ruthlessly
attacked by the villagers, as many as five hundred head, it is reported, having
been thus slaughtered upon a single occasion. These indiscriminate slaughters,
together with the more orthodox pursuit by English sportsmen, have so thinned
the ranks of this fine deer, that it is now becoming comparatively rare, and unless
proper means are taken for its preservation, it stands a good chance of being
exterminated at no distant date.
In summer, hangul are generally found singly or in small parties, the old
stags being usually solitary ; but in winter they collect in herds. The antlers of
the stags are usually shed about March, and the new ones do not attain their full
development till October. In that month and through November the males are
continually calling, and it is this time that is the proper shooting -season. The
fawns are born in April, so that the period of gestation appears to be only
about six months, or considerably less than in the red deer. Leith Adams
states, that hangul "are seldom confined to one region, but roam from
forest to forest, preferring grassy glades alternating with dense forest, where
there is a copious supply of water." I have on one occasion seen a small party
of these deer on the Ladak side of the mountains bounding Kashmir where there
is no forest.
Far to the south-east of Kashmir, probably in the districts lying between
Darjiling and Lhasa, there occurs a much larger deer, known as the shou
(C. affinis). In addition to its superior dimensions, this deer is distinguished from
the hangul by the beam of the antlers being strongly bent forwards just above the
trez-tine ; while the bez-tine is less constantly longer than the brow-tine. Each
antler seems to have constantly but five points. Antlers have been measured of
54, 55, and 55| inches in length ; anything like such dimensions being only very
exceptionally attained by those of the Kashmir stag. The height of the animal
is from 4£ to 5 feet at the shoulder.
In the Caspian provinces of Persia, and probably also in Circassia, the red
deer group is represented by the maral (C. maral). This is a large species allied
to the last, but distinguished by the much greater length of the face, and by the
crown of the antler having apparently always more than two tines. Specimens of
this species in confinement kept entirely apart from some red deer inhabiting the
same enclosure. These deer are said to be abundant in the thick forests of the
Caspian provinces of Persia ; but we know very little about their habits.
Another Old World deer of the present group, is the great Thian Shan
stag (C. eustephanus), from the forest-regions of the mountain-barrier on the
north-west frontier of Eastern Turkestan ; the so-called Leudorf's stag (C. leudorfi),
of Amurland, being in all probability not specifically distinct. The great
peculiarity of this deer is, that it is so closely allied to the American wapiti, that
it is very doubtful if it can be regarded as anything more than a variety of that
species. The antlers have the peculiar characteristics (to be noticed immediately)
of the latter ; one pair having a length of 51 inches along the curve, with a basal
DEER.
349
diameter of 10| inches on one side, and of 11 on the other. The Thian Shan stag
is said to stand 6 feet at the shoulder, but this requires confirmation.
The New World representative of the present group is the well-
known North American wapiti (C. canadensis), persistently misnamed
Wapiti.
WAPITI CHASED BY WOLVES.
elk in its native country. The wapiti is distinguished from the hangul and the
shou (to which it is more closely related than it is to the red deer) by the form
and proportions of its antlers, which are characterised by their general smoothness,
and the tendency to a flattening and expansion of the surroyal tines, which, in
35o UNGULATES.
fully adult stags, are usually three or more in number; and also by the well-
marked backward curvature and want of convergence in the upper-part of the
beam. In colour the wapiti is dark brown on the head and neck, while the back,
flanks, and thighs are creamy grey, with the under-part of the body blackish.
The legs are brown, and the lower portion of the light patch on the buttocks is
bordered with black. Mr. Caton gives the height of a full-grown stag as rather
more than 5 feet 4 inches (16 hands), but other writers estimate the height
of the largest individuals at 5 feet 8 inches (17 hands) at the shoulder. The
usual weight is about 700 Ibs., but it is said that large males will exceed
1000 Ibs. in weight, although some full-grown females do not scale more than
400 Ibs.
In the fifth year the antlers develop five points; but after that period the
number increases irregularly, and there are frequently more snags on the one
antler than on the other. Very rarely is there any approach to the cup in
the crown of the antler distinctive of the red deer. Antlers of the wapiti attain
very large dimensions. Of two fine pairs in the collection of Mr. Otho Shaw, the
dimensions are as follows, in inches, — No. 1, length 49 1, span 54, basal girth 8 ;
No. 2, length 55|, span 48 f , basal girth 7|. In two examples belonging to Mr. E.
S. Cameron, the total lengths are respectively 53J and 55| inches, the spans 47|
'and 44^ inches, and the basal girths just above the burr 9J and 10 inches. The
maximum recorded lengths are, however, 60f, 61|, 62, and 62^ inches.
The range of the wapiti has of late years been greatly restricted by the
advance of civilisation, while the same cause, coupled with constant persecution on
the part of sportsmen, has likewise reduced its numbers in a corresponding degree.
Mr. W. A. Perry states, that the wapiti was formerly found in nearly all parts of
the United States, in Mexico, and in British America as far north as the 60th
parallel of north latitude ; but it has vanished before the approach of civilisation,
and is now found only in the remotest mountain fastnesses west of the Missouri
River, or in the great forests of British America. The largest herds now remaining
outside of the National Yellowstone Park are found in the Olympic Mountains of
Washington, and among the mountains of Vancouver Island. There are still
many remaining in the Cascade and Rocky ranges, but they do not congregate there
in large herds as they do in the Coast ranges. Another recent writer states, that
less than ten years ago there were many secluded districts in Colorado, Wyoming,
and Montana, where, during the late autumn and winter, wapiti might be seen
banded together in herds numbering many thousands of individuals; whereas
now, it is seldom that a hundred can be found together.
The general habits of the wapiti seem to be very similar to those of the red
deer, the old stags living apart from the main herd during the greater part of the
year ; and in the pairing-season taking exclusive possession of a party of hinds,
after having vanquished their rivals in fight. The shedding of the antlers is late,
generally taking place in the full-grown stags during the latter part of December
or the first half of January. The new antlers begin to sprout in March or April,
and are fully complete by the middle of August. At this time the old stags begins
to call, the note being a roar very like that of the hangul. It has, however, been
compared to the bray of a donkey ; and it is suggested that it is partly from this
DEER. 351
that the wapiti has received the nickname of "jackass deer," bestowed upon it by
the traders in the Rocky Mountains.
During May Mr. Perry states that the wapiti desert the lower hills to take
refuge in the higher ranges, getting as near as possible to the snow-line without
leaving the upper belt of forest. The hinds then leave the herds to give birth to
their fawns in the most secluded thickets. Usually there is but a single fawn pro-
duced at a birth, although two do not appear to be very unfrequent. The hind
will fight to the death in the defence of her helpless offspring against the onslaught
of puma, bear, or coyote. At such times she gives utterance to a loud cry, which at
once brings to her aid all the members of the herd which may be in the vicinity,
and all of which unite in driving off the foe.
The wapiti is a promiscuous, not to say a coarse, feeder. Mr. Caton says that
" all the grasses and most of the weeds within his reach are taken freely, and the
leaves and trees of all the deciduous trees are alike enjoyed. A considerable pro-
portion of his daily food he desires to be arboreous, yet if deprived of it he will
keep in good condition on herbaceous food alone. In winter he will take the
coarsest food ; even that which the ox and the horse reject, he will eat freely." The
venison, although unlike that of other deer, is of fine flavour, and is said to be more
nutritious than any other meat.
A combat between two male wapiti during the pairing-season is described by
Mr. Perry as follows : " The challenger, when approaching a band, or harem, blows
a loud whistle of defiance. (Take a half -pint bottle and blow strongly into it, and
the sound so produced will be similar to the call of the male wapiti during the
rutting-season.) This whistle is at once answered by the ruler of the herd, who
steps boldly forth to do battle with the intruder. With heads lowered between
their fore-feet, the two adversaries walk around waiting for an opening, and when
one is thrown off his guard the other makes a savage rush; but his opponent
instantly recovers, counters the charge, and as they rush together the antlers strike
each other with such terrific force that the report can be heard for a long distance.
Slowly retreating, bellowing, grumbling, and grinding their teeth in a paroxysm of
rage, they again circle around, and when an opportunity is afforded, make another
charge, which is countered as before, The challenging wapiti usually does most of
the offensive fighting until he finds (if such be the case) that he is the weaker ; then
he sullenly retires, bellowing as he goes. These battles are seldom fatal, and during
the rutting-season are an everyday occurrence. Ugly wounds often result from
them, and sometimes a prong of an antler is broken in the affray."
Wapiti differ from the majority of the deer tribe in that they do not feed
during the night, although they are on the move with the first streak of dawn.
From that time till about eight in the morning they continue feeding almost
without interruption, after which they indulge in a midday siesta. During this
midday rest they can be easily approached. About four o'clock in the evening
they once more commence feeding, in which occupation they continue till dusk.
In winter they are often pressed for food ; and when the snow lies deep on the
ground each party occupies a small area, over which the snow is trampled down as
hard as ice, while all the trees are gnawed bare both of bark and leaves as high as
the animals can reach.
352
UNGULATES.
When wapiti were found on the great prairies, the Indians were accustomed
to hunt them on horseback by forming a wide circle of mounted men, from whom
a certain number were detached to harass the unfortunate animals until they were
brought to a standstill. Another favourite method was by forming a cordon of
horsemen and driving a whole herd over a precipice. At the present day the more
sportsman-like method of hunting is, however, almost exclusively employed ; and
it appears that the wapiti is an animal far less difficult to approach than the red
deer, while it is killed by a comparatively slight wound.
THE JAPANESE DEER GROUP (Cervus sika, etc.).
The prettily -marked Japanese deer represents a group differing from the last
by the antlers having no bez-tine, so that each has usually but four points ; and
also by the coat being spotted with white in summer, although uniformly brown
during winter. Moreover, the proportionate length of the tail is much greater than
in the red deer group ; and the large white patch on the buttocks is completely
bordered with black. All the deer of this group are of medium dimensions, and
for the most part inhabitants of Eastern Asia.
The Japanese deer, from Japan and North China, stands somewhat lower at
the shoulder than a fallow deer, and has the ground-colour of the fur dark or
yellowish brown, with the greater part of the tail white. These deer are very
abundant in North Japan and parts of China, where they frequent dense forest,
generally in hilly regions. The only way of shooting them is by beating the country
with a large number of men. The Japanese deer has been introduced into several
parks in Ireland and England, where it thrives well, sometimes interbreeding with
the red deer.
Mantchurian The Mantchurian deer (C. mantchuricus), of Northern China,
Deer. may probably be regarded merely as a larger variety of the last, in
which the coat is generally darker coloured, with a larger dark area on the upper
surface of the tail.
Dybowski's deer (C. dybowsldi), from Mantchuria, appears, how-
' ever, to be a distinct species of relatively large size, easily recognised
by its pure white muzzle. The ordinary length of the antlers is about 22 inches,
but a pair, having five tines each, which have been referred to this species, measure
upwards of 35 J inches.
Better known than the last is the Formosan deer (C. taevanus)
Formosan Deer.
from the mountains of the island from which it takes its name. The
body-colour is lighter than in the other species, while the spots have a tendency to
persist during the winter ; the tail being white with a black streak down the middle
of the upper surface. These deer are caught in traps by the inhabitants of Formosa,
by whom, as well as by the dwellers on the island of Samasana, they are kept as pets.
Lastly, we have the imperfectly-known Caspian deer (C. caspicus)
from the Talish Mountains, near the south-western extremity of the
Caspian Sea in Northern Persia, which has been provisionally assigned to the
present group. If rightly thus placed, this species is of interest as showing that
the group is represented in Western, as well as in Eastern Asia. The one skull, on
DEER.
353
the evidence of which the Caspian deer was considered to represent a distinct
species, differs from that of the other members of the group in that the antlers have
only three points when fully adult, namely, a brow-tine and a fork at the extremity.
THE INDIAN SPOTTED DEER, OR CHITAL (Cervus axis).
The spotted, or axis deer, of India and Ceylon, is our first representative of
two very closely allied
groups of Indian deer,
in which the cylin-
drical antlers have but
three tines on each side ;
the bez-tine being
absent, and the beam
terminating in a simple
fork. In the spotted
deer, of which a single
antler is shown in C of
the figure on p. 340 and
a pair in the upper
figure of the accom-
panying woodcut, the
bez-tine of the antlers
is given off nearly at
a right angle with the
beam. The whole
length of the antlers is
about three times that
of the skull in average
specimens ; and the
hinder tine of the
terminal fork is con-
siderably longer than
the one in front.
The spotted deer
or, as it is called in
India, the chital or
chitra, varies consider-
ably in height in differ-
ent localities, buck from
Northern and Central
India standing, accord-
ing to Blanford, from
3 feet to 3 feet 2 inches
at the withers, whereas in Southern India the height seldom exceeds from 2 feet 6
inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The neck and throat of this deer are devoid of any
VOL. ii. — 23
AXTLERS OF INDIAN SPOTTED DEER (1), SWAMP-DEER (2), AND SAMBAR (3).
354 UNGULATES.
mane ; the tail is relatively long, pointed, and thin ; and the cheek - teeth are
characterised by the great height of their crowns. The ground-colour of the fur
is a rufous fawn ; the whole of the body being marked by a number of large white
spots, which are present at all ages of the animal throughout the year, and tend to
arrange themselves in longitudinal lines. The head and neck are of a uniform
brownish colour, and there is a black line running from the nape of the neck to
the end of the tail. White prevails on the inside of the ears, the chin, the upper
part of the throat, the under-parts of the body, and the insides of the limbs, as well
as on the under surface of the tail. As in the case of the fallow deer, a blackish
variety is occasionally met with, in which the spots are only very faintly indicated.
An individual standing close upon 3 feet in hejght weighed 145 Ibs.
Although the antlers of the spotted deer are typically but three-tined, there
are not unfrequently a number of small points or " sports " at the junction of the
brow-tine with the beam ; but such sports are rare higher up. The average length
of the antlers of the larger race of this species may be given as about 30 inches ;
but examples reaching 38 and 38f inches in length, with a girth of 5f inches above
the burr, have been recorded. Great difference exists in regard to the degree of
divergence or span of the antlers ; thus, in two examples of which the respective
lengths were 34 and 34^ inches, the span in the former case was only 24 inches,
against 30J inches in the other.
This deer is found nearly throughout India and Ceylon, but in
Distribution. *
the Himalaya it only occurs on the outermost spurs, and it is unknown
on the plains of the Punjab, Sind, a large part of Rajputana, Assam, and the whole
of the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. On the hills of Southern
India it is found at elevations of from three to four thousand feet above the sea.
It has been introduced by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horsham.
The native name chital refers to the dappled hide of this deer,
Habits. . .
which is, perhaps, the handsomest member of its tribe as regards
colour and form, and is certainly one of the most characteristic of the mammals of
India. Mr. Blanford states that it is most generally found among bushes or trees
in the neighbourhood of water, and in bamboo-jungles, while it frequents both hilly
tracts and plains, and never wanders far from its drinking places. " So long,"
writes the author named, " as it has a wild tract of bush or ravines for shelter, it
appears to care little for the neighbourhood of man. Many of its favourite haunts
are in some of the most beautiful wild scenery of the Indian plains, and lower hills,
on the margins of rippling streams with their banks overgrown by lofty trees, or in
the grassy glades that open out amidst the exquisite foliage of bamboo clumps.
Spotted deer are thoroughly gregarious and associate at all times of the year in
herds, sometimes of several hundreds. They are less nocturnal than sambar, and
may be found feeding for three or four hours after sunrise, and again in the after-
noon for an hour or two before sunset. They generally drink between eight and
ten o'clock in the morning, the time varying with the season of year, and repose
during the day in deep shade. They swim well, and take readily to water. They
both graze and browse."
It appears that there is a great range of individual variation as regards the
date of the pairing -season and the shedding of the antlers; bucks with fully-
DEER.
355
developed antlers being met with at all times of the year. In Northern India the
pairing-season seems, however, to be generally during the winter ; although young
fawns may apparently be met with at any season.
As regards its usual habits, General Kinloch writes that " the chital is a shy
and retiring animal, lying quiet in the densest thickets during the heat of the day,
and if disturbed generally attempting to elude observation by concealment, or by
trying to sneak quietly away. I have often, when beating for tigers, seen a
cunning old stag with his head down silently creeping away through the jungle,
sometimes passing almost under the elephants. When on foot, I have known a
THE INDIAN SPOTTED DEER (^ nat. Size).
herd come quietly past within two or three yards of me in thick cover, and even
at that short distance have had difficulty in getting a shot. It might be supposed
that such a brightly-coloured animal would be very conspicuous in the forest, but
this is far from being the case ; unless it moves, few beasts are more difficult to
see ; the colour of the skin harmonises with the dead leaves and grass, while the
white spots are indistinguishable from the little flecks of light caused by the sunshine
passing through the leafy branches. Chital generally assemble in herds of from ten
to thirty, among which are probably two or three stags, but occasionally herds of
hundreds are met with. On being disturbed, and especially on detecting the
presence of a beast of prey, the chital utters a sort of shrill bark, and many a time
356 UNGULATES.
has this cry betrayed a tiger to the sportsmen. The stag's cry is a peculiar moan-
ing sort of bellow, and is generally to be heard at night. Immense numbers of
spotted deer are frequently met .with when beating for tigers, and many are shot
off elephants in this way. In long grass it is of course only possible to shoot them
from elephants, but however satisfactory it may be to bowl over a stag in full
career by a clever snap-shot from the howda, it cannot, in my opinion, compare
with the pleasure of stalking and shooting the same animal on foot, where the
nature of the country renders it possible." The months of March, April, and May
are the best for chital-shooting on foot in the valleys and low hills on the flanks of
the Himalaya. Remains of deer apparently nearly allied to the chital are found
in the Pliocene formations of the south of France.
THE SAMBAR GROUP (Cervus unicolor, etc.).
Nearly allied to the chital is a group of deer from South-Eastern Asia, dis-
tinguished by the brow-tine of the three-pronged antlers forming an acute angle,
instead of nearly a right angle, with the beam, as shown in the figures on pp. 340, 353.
The majority of this group are peculiar in that they are uniformly coloured at all
ages, although in two forms the young are spotted, while in one case this type of
coloration persists in the adult.
The well-known Indian sambar is the largest member of this group, as it is
the largest of all the true deer, next to the representatives of the red deer group.
Externally the sambar is characterised by its coarse wiry hair, which on the neck
and throat of the adult male is elongated to form an erectile mane. The ears are
large and broad, and the tail thick and of moderate length. In colour the fur is a
nearly uniform dark brown throughout, tending, however, in some individuals to a
more or less well-marked yellowish, and in others to a greyish tinge. The chin,
under-parts, and inner surfaces of the limbs, are always yellower, and may be
yellowish white. In the ordinary form the young are likewise uniformly coloured,
but there is said to be a variety in Cachar of which the fawns are spotted. The
height of the buck varies from 4 to 5 feet, and possibly rather more at the withers ;
and large specimens have been killed weighing 560 Ibs. (40 stone) and 700 Ibs.
(51 stone).
The antlers are generally characterised by their rough external surface, and
their freedom from sports ; while in Indian examples the two tines of the terminal
fork are nearly equal in length, although in other districts there is great variability
in this respect. In India fine horns attain a length of about 36 inches, but these
dimensions are seldom reached in the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal.
As regards shape and girth, there is a great amount of variation in sambar horns.
In a fine pair, of which the extreme length was 38 £ inches, the span was 37| inches,
and the basal girth 8| inches ; whereas in another pair, while the length was only
32J inches the span was 38 inches and the girth 9 inches. The longest recorded
pair measured 48 inches in length, but their girth at the middle of the beam
was only 6 inches, against 8| inches in a pair measuring 38 inches in length.
Perhaps, however, the finest known pair is one in which the length is 44 inches,
the span 45f inches, and the girth just above the brow-tine 7f inches. There is
DEER.
357
Distribution.
likewise an equally-marked difference in regard to the degree of development of the
ridges and furrows on the antlers.
The sambar occurs typically in the wooded undulating or hilly
districts of India and Ceylon ; but Mr. Blanford concludes that the
smaller Malayan and Burmese forms, which have been described under the names of
C. hippelaphus and C. equinus, are not specifically separate ; although the front-tine
of the terminal fork of the antlers is much shorter than the back one, instead of
THE SAMBAR (A nat. size).
the two being subequal. The range of the sambar accordingly extends from India
to the Malayan Islands, and thus covers nearly the entire Oriental region. In the
Himalaya it may range to elevations of nine thousand or ten thousand feet ; and it
is commonly found on the highest mountains of Southern India and Ceylon. It is
but seldom seen on the alluvial plains frequented by the chital, and is absent from
the sandy plains of Sind, the Punjab, and Rajputana.
Mr. Blanford observes that the sambar " is the woodland deer of
South-Eastern Asia generally, and is more widely and generally dis-
tributed than any other species. Although it does not shun the neighbourhood of
Habits.
358
UNGULATES.
man to the same degree as Bos gaurus does, it is only common in wild tracts of
country. It comes out on the grass slopes, where such exist, as in the Nilgiris and
other hill-ranges, to graze, but always takes refuge in the woods. It is but rarely
found associating in any numbers ; both stags and hinds are often found singly,
but small herds from four or five to a dozen in number are commonly met with.
Its habits are nocturnal ; it may be seen feeding in the morning and evening, but
it grazes chiefly at night, and at that time often visits small patches of cultivation
in the half-cleared tracts, returning for the day to wilder parts, and often ascending
hills to make a lair in grass amongst trees, where it generally selects a spot well
shaded from the sun's rays. It feeds on grass, especially the green grass near
water, and various wild fruits of which it is very fond, but it also browses greatly
on shoots and leaves of trees. It drinks, I believe, daily, though Mr. Sterndale
doubts this; it certainly travels long distances to its drinking-places at times."
As regards the date of the pairing-season and the time of shedding the antlers,
there appears to be even a still greater amount of variation than is the case with
the chital ; and it is stated on good authority that stags have been known to retain
their antlers for two or more years. It appears, however, that in peninsular India
the pairing-season usually takes place in October and November, although in the
Himalaya it occurs in the spring. Similarly, while in the former area the antlers
are most frequently shed in March, in the latter the shedding-time is deferred for a
month later. Usually there is but one fawn at a birth.
During the pairing-season sambar assemble in large numbers, and at that time
the old stags utter at morning and evening, and sometimes in the night, loud roar-
ings, which have been described as a " metallic-sounding bellow."
Sambar are very tenacious of life, and require a well-placed bullet to bring
them to the ground. They are usually either stalked or driven by a line of beaters ;
but Sir Samuel Baker, when in Ceylon, was in the habit of hunting them with
hounds, and giving the coup-de-grdce with a knife. Describing his experiences in
that country, Sir Samuel writes that " we never drove the jungles with beaters, but
simply strolled through the most promising country, either upon ponies or on foot,
and took our chance of any game that we might meet. I rarely met sambar in the
low country ; and when living on the mountains at' Newera Ellia, 6200 feet above
the sea, shooting was out of the question. Although the interminable forests of
that elevated district abounded with these animals, I have never seen one, unless
discovered by the hounds. The jungles are thick, and it is impossible to get through
them without noise and considerable exertion. The animals of course are alarmed,
and retreat before you are near enough to hear their rush. I have often taken my
rifle and sallied out before sunrise upon the wild patinas (open ground), where
nature rested in profound solitude ; but I have never seen a sambar in the
open."
The hunting was conducted with a mixed pack of about fourteen couple of
hounds of various breeds, which were found better suited to this kind of sport than
pure-bred foxhounds ; and the pack was always directed to the neighbourhood of
a stream, where the scent would be freshest, as the sambar drinks before retiring
to the densest depths of the jungle, in order to enjoy its day's repose. The speed
of the sambar is, according to Mr. Blanford, but very moderate ; and on the rare
DEER. 359
occasions when these deer are found in open country, any good horse which is
not overweighted by its rider, ought to have no difficulty in running them down.
In the islands of the Malayan region there occur several small
sambar-like deer, in regard to which it is difficult to determine
whether they indicate races of the ordinary sambar which have been introduced
by the natives, and have gradually dwindled in size, or whether they are entitled
to rank as distinct species. Such is the Timor deer (C. timorensis), a small, thick-
set animal, scarcely half the size of the smaller race of the true sambar ; and also
the Moluccan deer ((7. moluccensis), in which the general build is more slight and
graceful. In the Philippine and Ladrone Islands, there occurs another of these small
sambar-like deer (C. philippinus), belonging to the variety in which the anterior
tines of the antlers are shorter than the posterior. This form is scarcely larger
than the under-mentioned hog-deer, but its build is more slender, and the colour a
uniform dark brown, save for a pale ring round each eye, and the white on the
under-parts of the tail and the inner surface of the thighs.
On the other hand, there can be no doubt as to the specific distinctness of
Kuhl's deer (C. kuhli), from the Bavian Islands between Borneo and Java. This
deer, while resembling most of the forms noticed above, in that its fur has the same
uniform coloration throughout life, differs in having a skull resembling that of
the hog-deer, and displaying the same absence of tusks in the upper jaw. The
colour of the fur in this deer is pale brown ; but the individual hairs are
ringed wTith alternate tints, instead of having the uniform hue of those of the
hog-deer.
Very different from all the other members of this group is Prince Alfred's
deer (C. alfredi), from the Philippines, which resembles the chital in having at all
ages and all seasons a spotted coat. This deer stands about 2| feet at the withers ;
and its colour is a dark chocolate-brown, with about six longitudinal rows of
somewhat indistinctly-marked yellowish spots. The antlers are comparatively
short, and have the front tine of the terminal fork directed inwardly, while the
outer surfaces of the ears are nearly devoid of hairs.
The last and smallest representative of this group is the hog-
deer, or para (C. porcinus), of India and Burma, which stands only
some 24 inches in height at the withers. In build, this species is characterised by
the relative shortness of its legs, while the tail is rather long, and there is no mane
on the neck and throat. The comparatively short antlers are mounted on very
long bony pedicles, and after giving off the brow-tine have a nearly straight beam
till the small terminal fork, the front branch of which is longer than the hind one.
There are no tusks in the upper jaw. In colour, the fur of the para is brownish,
with a more or less decided yellowish or reddish tinge ; each hair being tipped
with white, so as to produce a speckly appearance. The under-parts are paler,
and the under surface of the tail and the insides of the ears white. The fur
becomes paler in summer, and is then generally marked with light brown or white
spots, which may be limited to one or two rows on either side of a dark streak
down the back. The young have the whole body spotted, till they attain the age
of some six months. The antlers seldom exceed 10 or 12 inches in length.
In India the hog-deer is confined to the great Indo-Gangetic plain, where it
36o UNGULATES.
ranges from Assam to the Punjab and Sind, and is quite unknown in the peninsula,
though a small colony has "been introduced into Ceylon. It occurs along the Terai
at the foot of the Himalaya ; and from Assam its range extends into Burma and
Tenasserim.
The para swarms on many of the low alluvial plains of India, to which
situations it is mainly, if not exclusively, restricted. Here it frequents the grass-
jungles of moderate height, avoiding the taller ones which give shelter to the
buffalo and rhinoceros. Sometimes, however, they may be met with among trees.
As a rule, hog-deer are solitary creatures, and it is but seldom that more than two
or three are found together, although several may inhabit one patch of jungle.
The pairing-season is said to be in September and October ; and the antlers are
generally shed in April
The hog-deer is an ungainly animal when moving, and General Kinloch states
that both " its English and specific names have been derived from the hog-like
manner in which it rushes through the long grass when disturbed ; keeping its
head low down, and galloping without that bounding action which characterises
most deer." Hog-deer are generally shot from elephants and afford good sport,
although they are difficult to hit, since as a rule the only indication of their
presence is a sudden rush in the long grass, in the direction of which the sportsman
must fire. General Kinloch says, that "hog-deer may be speared on favourable
ground, and give splendid runs; they are very fast, and usually give a much
longer chase than a boar. I have heard of instances of their deliberately charging
a horse ; and with their sharp horns they can inflict a very severe wound."
THE SWAMP-DEER GROUP (Cervus duvauceli, etc.).
The swamp-deer, of which the antlers are figured in the woodcuts on pp. 340
and 353, differs from all the Indian deer hitherto noticed, in that the antlers
carry more than three tines. This distinctive character of the swamp-deer has not
escaped the notice of the natives of India, by whom it is designated barasingha,
that is, " twelve-tined." This deer is a rather large species, the bucks standing
from 3 feet 8 inches to 3 feet 10 inches at the withers. The neck is maned, the
tail of moderate length, the muzzle long, and the hair rather fine and rather woolly.
The antlers are smooth and somewhat flattened, and give off the brow-tine nearly
at right angles to the beam ; after which the beam continues without branching
for a considerable distance, finally dividing into a fork, of which the two prongs
again branch. Generally, as in the figure on p. 353, the inner branch of the main
fork has two, and the outer three tines, but the number of points is often much
greater, reaching from sixteen to twenty, or even more. In its winter dress the
colour of the swamp-deer is yellowish brown above and paler underneath ; but
in summer the upper-parts are reddish brown, generally more or less spotted
with white, while the under-parts and the lower surface of the tail are pure white.
The young are spotted.
Average-sized antlers of the barasingha measure about 30 inches along the
curve ; but a length of 38 inches has been recorded. Large stags have weighed
from 460 to 570 Ibs. (32 stone 12 Ibs. to 40 stone 10 Ibs.)
DEER.
361
Distribution.
Habits.
The swamp-deer is confined to India, where it has a local
distribution ; being found along the foot of the Himalaya, from
Assam to some distance west of the Jumna, and in some districts in the Indo-
Gangetic plains, such as the Bengal sandarbans and Rohri in Sind. It is also
common in certain portions of Central India, especially in the valley of the Narbada,
where its habitat is limited to the area clothed with forests of the sal tree.
The swamp-deer, although sometimes found in open forest,
generally keeps in the outskirts of the woods, and frequents flat or
undulating grass-lands, more or less interspersed with trees. In winter it is
gregarious, herds of from thirty to fifty head being frequently met with, while in
some districts herds of several hundreds have been observed during September and
October. In Assam the bucks are met with singly, with the antlers for the most
part still in the velvet, so that the shedding-time is probably, as a rule, not later
than February. The swamp-deer is mainly a grazer, and it is said to be much less
nocturnal in its habits than the
sambar, being not unfrequently
seen grazing in the forenoon, and
again early in the afternoon.
Scfcomburgk's Schomburgk's deer
Deer. (£? schomburgki), of
Siam, is an allied species, of which
the antlers, as shown in the figure
on this page, are distinguished by
the extreme shortness of the beam
below the bifurcation, and the
great length of the brow - tine.
Each antler usually carries five
points ; and specimens vary in
length from 27 to 30 inches in good
examples.
An altogether
unique form of antler
is that of Eld's deer (C. eldi), as
shown in the figure on p. 340.
Here the brow -tine curves down
over the forehead, so as to form an
almost continuous sweep with the
beam ; the latter being curved at
first backwards and outwards, and
then slightly forwards, after which it divides into a short fork, of which the two
prongs may split up into as many as eight or ten points. The upper surface of the
brow-tine often carries a number of short points, and there is very generally a
distinct snag at the point where that tine joins the beam. In some cases the
upper part of the beam is much flattened. In height this species stands nearly
the same as the swamp-deer. In winter the colour of the fur of the bucks is
dark brown, tending to black, but in summer it is fawn-coloured, nearly like that
Eld's Deer.
HEAD OF SCHOMBURGK'S DEER.
(From Sclater, Proc. ZooL Soc., 1877.)
362 UNGULATES.
of the does at all seasons ; the under-parts being pale brown in winter and white
in summer. The fawns lose their spots at an early age. In the winter the hair is
coarse and very shaggy. Average-sized antlers measure about 40 inches from the
tip of the brow-tine along the curve to the extremity ; but one specimen of 54,
and another of 59 inches have been recorded.
Eld's deer frequents low swampy grounds in Manipur, Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, Cambodia, and the island of Hainan. Mr. Blanford states that they
are " usually seen in herds of from ten to fifty or more ; but occasionally much larger
numbers are found associating. They may enter the fringe of the forest in places
for shade, during the day, but they generally keep in the open plain. In some
places in the Irawadi delta, and in Martaban, they are found in plains, where,
during the dry season, no fresh water is procurable. They are frequently seen in
swamps, and feed on wild rice and other plants growing in such places." The
period of shedding the antlers varies from June in Manipur to September in Lower
Burma. The hinds utter a short barking grunt, while the call of the stags is a
more prolonged sound of the same nature.
DAVID'S DEER (Cervus davidianus).
Mantchuria, or some neighbouring region in Northern China, is the habitat of
a remarkable deer differing from all other Old World types in the absence of a
brow-tine to the antlers. Instead of the brow-tine, each antler has a single very
long and nearly straight tine given off just above the beam, and directed backwards ;
above which the beam ascends for a considerable distance, and then forks. The
normal number of points on each antler is accordingly three, but this may be
increased by a splitting of each tine of the fork. It appears that the long back-
tine represents the hinder branch of the antler of the swamp-deer, and the terminal
fork the front branch of the latter. David's deer is of about the same size as the
swamp-deer, and is clothed with long and rather shaggy hair, while the tail is of
unusual length, and also thickly haired. It has been stated that the fawns are
uniformly coloured, but this requires confirmation.
These deer are kept in the imperial hunting-park at Pekin, and specimens have
been exhibited alive in England, but we have no information as to their habits
in the wild state. The largest antlers on record have a length of 32f inches.
THE FALLOW DEER GROUP (Cervus dama, etc.).
The fallow deer is the representative of a distinct group of the genus Cervus,
characterised by the antlers being rounded at the base, but widening in the upper
part into a flattened palmate expansion. In front there is a large brow-antler,
forming rather more than a right angle with the beam, above which there is a
trez-tine given off at some distance below the commencement of the palmation ;
while the hinder edge of the latter carries three or four small sharp snags, of which
the lowest is longer and placed considerably below the others, so that it may rank
as a distinct back-tine.
In height the fallow deer usually stands nearly 3 feet at the withers, and has
DEER. 363
a small head, large ears, and a relatively long tail. The general colour of the fur
is some shade of fawn or yellowish brown, darker on the head and neck, and
marked on the body with a number of large white spots. The under-parts, inner
sides of the limbs, and the under surface of the tail are white ; and there is a dark
line running down the back from the nape of the neck to the end of the tail.
There is, however, a dark brown variety in which the spots are scarcely distinguish-
able, or wanting, and specimens may be seen exhibiting every gradation in colour
from pure white nearly to black. The hair is comparatively short and fine, and
there is no mane on the neck and throat. The upper jaw has no tusks. Good
antlers vary in length from 19 to 27 inches, 28£ being the maximum length on
record.
The fallow deer is a native of Northern Africa and the countries
bordering the Mediterranean, and in a wild state is still abundant in
Sardinia, Spain, and some of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. From these
countries it has been introduced into Central Europe, where it flourishes well,
although needing some protection during the winter in the more northerly regions.
At what period this introduction took place is, however, quite uncertain, although
in Britain it was evidently many centuries ago. From the occurrence of antlers of
the general type of those of the fallow deer in some of the superficial deposits, it
lias been supposed that this species was really an indigenous British animal. These
fossil antlers belong, however, to an extinct although nearly-allied species, known
as C. broivni, and there is no evidence of the occurrence of fossil remains of the
true fallow deer in this country.
Bell observes that " fallow deer are gregarious to a great extent, associating
in large herds, the bucks apart from the does, except in the pairing-season and
early winter, when the sexes consort in company. Most persons must be familiar
with their boldness and the confident manner in which they will approach man-
kind, where they are well accustomed to his presence. . . . Like the other species,
the fallow deer feeds on herbage. It has been noted that it is especially fond
of horse-chestnuts, which the bucks knock down from the branches with their
antlers, and this tree is consequently frequently planted in deer-parks. The pairing-
season begins in September, and the doe goes eight months with young." As a
general rule but a single fawn is produced at a birth, although there may
occasionally be two. The alleged instances of triplets appear to be incorrect.
The young male exhibits the first signs of his antlers in his second year, when they
make their appearance as simple snags ; the animal being then called a pricket. In the
fifth year the antlers attain their full development, although some additional small
points may be added in the following season.
It has been stated that the dark variety of the fallow deer was introduced from
Norway by James the First, on account of its hardy constitution. This, however,
has been proved to be incorrect by Mr. Harting, who has shown that this breed
existed in Windsor Park as far back as the year 1465. The fallow deer of Windsor
Park include both the spotted and the brown breeds ; but in Epping Forest only
the latter occur.
Writing of the fallow deer of Epping, Mr. Harting states that they " have held
their own, in spite of all difficulties, until the present time, and have strangely
364 UNGULATES.
preserved their ancient character in regard to size and colour. Locally they are
referred to as 'the old forest breed,' and are comparatively small in size, of a
uniformly dark brown colour, and with very attenuated antlers — peculiarities which
have no doubt been brought about by continued isolation, without the admixture
of any fresh stock for many generations. It is remarkable that no individuals of
the true fallow colour (i.e. yellow dun) or spotted with whito are ever seen in this
forest. This in some measure proves the antiquity of the stock, which would
otherwise show in their progeny a reversion to one or other of these varieties,
which elsewhere are so common. The keepers assert that not only are there no
spotted or fallow varieties here, but that they have never observed any spotted
fawns, the latter being dark like their parents. If this observation be correct, it
is very remarkable ; for it is generally supposed that the fawns of all fallow deer
are spotted at birth, and that, except in the permanently spotted variety, the spots
disappear with age. The attenuation of the antlers is also very noticeable, the
palmation being reduced from a hand's-breadth to about the width of two fingers.
There can be no doubt that, from long isolation and continued breeding in and in,
the herd has considerably degenerated. . . . At present [1884] the number of fallow
deer in Epping Forest is estimated to be about eighty or one hundred head. They
do not associate in one herd, but roam about in small parties, keeping to the thickest
underwood and most unfrequented parts of the forest." The venison of the fallow
deer is generally considered superior to that of the red deer.
Persian Fallow The Persian fallow deer (C. mesopotamicua), from the mountains
Deer. of Luristan, in Mesopotamian Persia, differs from the ordinary kind
in that the trez-tine of the antlers is placed nearer to the small brow-tine, and that
the main palmation of the beam takes place below instead of above the middle of
the length. The two species are, however, very closely allied, and will freely breed
together. The Persian species appears to be always spotted.
Extinct Irish In this place may be noticed two extinct deer from the superficial
Deer. deposits of Europe, which appear to be nearly related to the fallow
deer, although of course it is impossible to tell now whether they had spotted or
uniformly-coloured coats. The first and largest of these is the gigantic Irish deer
(C. giganteus), often, but incorrectly, spoken of as the Irish elk, in which the
widely-palmated antlers were larger and more massive than in any other species.
In this magnificent deer the antlers have a short and nearly cylindrical basal
portion of the beam, given off almost at right angles to the axis of the skull.
Above the burr there is a descending brow-tine (b) which is flattened and generally
forked. As soon as the beam expands it gives off from the front edge a trez-tine
(c), and nearly opposite to it, on the hinder edge, a back-tine (h), corresponding to
the one similarly situated in the fallow deer. Above these tines the antlers expand
to their fullest width, and generally terminate in five or six snags, of which the
topmost have a nearly upright direction. In unusually fine examples the antlers
of the Irish deer may have a span of over 11 feet from tip to tip, and the height of
the animal was fully 6 feet at the shoulder.
Although the Irish deer takes its name from the common occurrence of its
remains in the bogs of Ireland, it is by no means confined to that country, but is
found in the caverns and superficial deposits of England and parts of Scotland, as
DEER.
365
well as on the Continent, where its range extends from Italy in the south to Russia
in the north. That the Irish deer lived within the human period is proved by the
occurrence of its remains in association with stone implements. It has, indeed,
been considered that the word Schelk, which occurs in the Nibelungenlied of the
13th century, refers to the Irish deer, but Prof. Nehring is of opinion that it more
probably means either an elk or a wild stallion.
The Irish deer differs considerably from the fallow deer in the form and
direction of its antlers, but a connecting link between them is found in RufFs
ANTLERS OP THE IRISH DEER. (From Nehring.)
deer (C. ruffi), from the superficial deposits of Germany, which was of somewhat
inferior dimensions to the former. In RufFs deer the antlers are directed upwards
and outwards nearly after the fashion obtaining in the fallow deer, while the plane
of the palmated portion is placed in the same longitudinal direction as in the latter.
Moreover, the terminal snags are shorter and inclined more inwardly than in the
Irish deer, but the flattened and expanded form of the brow-tine indicates a closer
connection with the latter.
THE MUNTJACS.
Genus Cervulus.
The small Asiatic deer, commonly known as muntjacs, differ so decidedly from
all those hitherto noticed that they are referred to a distinct genus. They are
distinguished from all the members of the genus Cervus by their short, simple, two-
tined antlers being mounted on pedicles of the skull, which are as long or longer
than the antlers themselves, and diverge from the middle line of the lower part of
the forehead, where they commence as rib-like bars. From this feature these
animals are often spoken of as rib-faced deer. The brow-tine of the antlers is short
and directed upwards, while the tip of the undivided beam is more or less inclined
inwards. The skull has a very large depression for the reception of the gland
below the eye ; and the bucks are furnished with long projecting tusks in the upper
jaw. The lateral toes are peculiar in that they consist of only the hoofs, without
any trace of the bones of the digits themselves.
366
UNGULATES.
The muntjacs are confined to India, Burma, and the Malayan region, and
evidently indicate a very ancient and generalised type of the Deer family. They
appear to be represented in the Pliocene formations of Europe, and are probably
nearly related to a still earlier group of extinct European deer, known as Palceomeryx,
in which the antlers were either totally wanting, or of very small dimensions.
The best known representative of the group is the common
Indian muntjac, also known as the barking deer, and in Hindustan as
the kakar (Cervulus muntjac). This animal stands from 20 to 22 inches in height
at the shoulder ; and has fur of a deep chestnut colour, becoming darker on the
back, and paler and less brilliant below ; the chin and upper part of the throat, as
Indian Muntjac.
THE INDIAN MDNTJAC
well as the hinder portion of the under surface of the body, and the inner sides of
the thighs and lower surface of the tail, being white. The face and limbs are brown,
and there is a black line on the inner surface of the pedicles of the antlers, extend-
ing some distance down the ribs on the face. The antlers are generally only some
3 or 4 inches in length, on pedicles of some 4 or 5 inches, but sometimes reach the
length of 5, and, it is said, even 11 inches.
The kakar is essentially a forest-dwelling deer, and appears to
be restricted to hilly regions. Its range includes suitable districts
throughout India, Ceylon, and Burma, whence it extends through the Malay
Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Hainan.
These deer are solitary creatures, usually found singly or in pairs ;
the name of barking deer being derived from their peculiar cry. On
Distribution.
Habits.
DEER.
367
this point General Kinloch observes that many visitors to the various hill-stations
of the Himalaya, who may never have seen a kakar, must probably be well
acquainted with its voice, which is wonderfully powerful for such a small animal.
It is rather difficult to convey a correct idea of it by words, but it may perhaps be
best described as a hoarse resonant bark. The cry may frequently be heard in the
mornings and evenings, and it is also often uttered when the deer is alarmed, when
it hears any loud or unusual sound, or suspects the existence of any danger.
Occasionally a kakar will continue to bark, at short intervals, for an hour at a
time, and advantage may be taken of his betraying his whereabouts to stalk him.
Kakar are adepts at making their way at speed through the most dense
jungle, and run with their head low and their hind-quarters elevated. When
running, a peculiar rattling sound
is produced by these animals,
which is thought to originate
in the mouth, although in what
manner is still unknown. The
bucks, when attacked by dogs,
appear to use their tusks, which
curve outwards in a peculiar
manner, as their chief weapons of
defence, and are able with them to
inflict gashes of considerable depth.
Although young kakar are appar-
ently to be met with at all seasons
of the year, the chief pairing-time
in Northern India is during the
months of January and February ;
the fawns, which may be one or
two in number, being born in the
following June or July. The
bucks shed their antlers in May,
and their renewal is completed by August.
superior to that of most of the Indian deer.
In regard to the sport afforded by these deer, General Kinloch
writes : " I have stalked and shot kakar at various times, and have
also had them driven out of cover ; many may be found in this manner, but, unless
one knows their usual runs, it is difficult to know where to post oneself. Like
many other animals, the kakar objects to being driven, and will break back through
the beaters in order to make his point. As they probably only give a chance of a
snap-shot at short range, it is easier to kill them with a charge of shot than with
a rifle-bullet."
There are four other species of muntjac, in addition to the common
Indian form. Of these, Fea's muntjac (C. fece), from Tenasserim, is
rather smaller and darker than the Indian species, with a short tuft of hair between
the antlers, and a much shorter tail ; the latter appendage being altogether white,
save for a narrow streak of black down the middle of its upper surface.
HEAD OF HAIRY-FRONTED MUNTJAC.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1885.)
The venison of the kakar is considered
Hunting.
Other Species.
368
UNGULATES.
The other three species are Chinese. In Eastern Tibet and the neighbourhood
of Hangchow there occurs Sclater's muntjac (C. lacrymans), characterised by the
bright yellowish-coloured hair of the head and neck, while that clothing the body and
limbs is of a much more sombre hue. The smallest member of the group is Reeves's
muntjac (C. reevesi), from Southern China and Formosa, in which the colour of the
whole fur is brighter than in any other species, while the pedicles of the antlers
diverge less from one another, and the hollow in the skull for the gland below the
eye is of unusually large size.
Finally, the hairy-fronted muntjac (C. crinifrons), which is perhaps the hand-
somest of all and comes from the neighbourhood of Ningpo, is distinguished at a
glance by the long tuft of hair on the forehead and top of the head, in which the
minute antlers are almost entirely hidden. This species stands about 24 inches in
height at the shoulder ; and the general colour of its fur is brown. The upper part
of the head is, however, of a bright chestnut, which, with the white of the under-parts
and lower surface of the tail, forms a striking contrast to the sombre coloration of
the body.
THE TUFTED DEER.
Genus Elaphodus.
Nearly related to the muntjacs are two small deer from Chinese territory, of
which the one known as Michie's deer (Elaphodus michianus) inhabits Eastern
MICHIE'S DEER. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.)
China, while the other, which may be called the' Tibetan tufted deer (E. cephalophus),
is from Moupin, in Eastern Tibet. In the males of these deer, as represented in the
DEER. 369
accompanying illustration, the antlers are extremely minute and unbranched, while
their supports take the form of long pedicles, which, instead of diverging as in the
muntjacs, are convergent. Then, again, the rib-like ridges occurring on the face of
the muntjacs are absent, as are likewise some small glands found on the forehead of
the latter. Like the muntjacs, the bucks of these two deer are furnished with long
tusks in the upper jaw, although their extremities are not turned outwards. In
both species the hair is so coarse as to have been compared to small quills ; and on
the forehead the hair is lengthened so as to form a kind of horseshoe-like crest on
the tuft.
In Michie's deer the general colour of the fur is greyish black, each individual
hair being white for a considerable distance above its base, and the face and neck
uniformly dark grey ; while the crest on the forehead and portions of the ears are
dark brown. In the Tibetan tufted deer the fur on the head, neck, and fore-quarters
is dark brown, each hair being brown above and whitish beneath, while a pure
white ring divides the two colours ; consequently there is a speckled appearance in
the fur of the anterior part of the animal. In the hinder part of the body the
white rings on the hairs are absent, and the colour of the fur is consequently
uniform dark brown, becoming of a still deeper shade on the feet and the crest on
the forehead. The ears have a transverse black bar, with white tips and edges ;
the under-parts of the body and the lower surface of the tail being likewise white.
Michie's deer is abundant in the reeds bordering the rivers in the neighbour-
hood of Ningpo and other parts of Eastern China.
THE REINDEER.
Genus Rangifer.
The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) differs from all other members of the deer-
tribe in that the antlers are not borne only by the male, although those of the
female are of smaller dimensions ; and together with all the deer remaining for
notice, it differs from those already described in the structure of the fore-foot. In
these, which, with the single exception of the wapiti, are Old World types, the lateral
metacarpal bones of the fore-foot, which originally supported the lateral toes, are
represented only by two small splints lying on either side of the upper end of the
cannon-bone, as shown in the foot of the sheep on p. 370. On the other hand, in
the reindeer and the under-mentioned genera, these same lateral metacarpal bones
are represented only by their lower extremities, and thus still support the toe-bones
of the lateral hoofs, as shown in the figure on the next page. This difference may
not, perhaps, appear to be of much significance, but as there are other indications of
affinity between the members of the two groups into which the deer family is
thereby divided, it is probably of considerable importance in classification. The
majority of the deer belonging to the present group are either common to the
northern regions of both hemispheres, or are restricted to the New World, the roe
and the Chinese water-deer being the only exclusively Old World forms.
Reverting to the consideration of the reindeer, we have first to observe that in
addition to the presence of antlers in both sexes, the genus is distinguished from
VOL. ii. — 24
37°
UNGULATES.
all other deer by the form and position of these appendages. Thus instead of being
placed low down on the forehead, the antlers take their origin on the upper part of
the skull, immediately over the occipital ridge, and are accordingly far behind the
eyes ; while as regards form they are distinguished by the great
development of the brow-tines in the males, which are more or
less laterally compressed, branched, and palmated, and descend
to a greater or less degree over the face, so that their lower edge
sometimes almost touches the nose. Then, again, there is such
an amount of individual variation that scarcely any two reindeer
can be found in which the antlers are precisely similar; while
frequently the two antlers of the same individual are widely
different from one another.
The antlers are very long in proportion to the length of
the skull, and above the brow-tine, which is also branched
and often palmated, after giving off the bez-tine, the narrow
beam is continued backwards for some distance, till it bends
forward at an angle, usually giving off a small back-tine at
the bend. The beam is then continued upwards and forwards
THE BONES OF THE till it becomes palmated near the extremity, with a variable
LEFT FORE-FOOT OF number of points on its hinder border. In the reindeer of the
Dawkins.) New World the antlers exhibit the greatest complexity of
structure, the brow-tine of one side becoming enormously
developed and greatly palmated, while on the other it is aborted.
In build the reindeer is a somewhat heavy animal, with short and rather stout
limbs, terminating in large hoofs. The main pair of hoofs, as shown in our figure,
are rounded, broad and short, with the intervening cleft
very deep and wide ; while the lateral hoofs are
unusually large and flattened from front to back. In
traversing snowfields the two main hoofs spread out
sideways, while the lateral pair come in contact with
the snow, by which means a large extent of surface is
afforded to support the weight. The muzzle of the
reindeer differs from that of all the deer hitherto
mentioned in being clothed with soft hairs of moderate
length. The neck has no distinct mane, but the throat
is fringed with long and rather stiff hair. The ears are
smaller than in any other deer, and thickly covered on
both sides with hair. The hair clothing the body is
from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and is
somewhat crimped or waved, while beneath this is a
coat of woolly under-fur. The general colour of the
reindeer is brownish grey, with the face, neck, and throat whitish, and the nose,
ears, and limbs brown. There are, however, great individual variations as regards
colour, some specimens being nearly or quite white throughout. In general the
tail is white, with a tinge of brown at the root and on the upper surface ; and there
is a distinct white ring round each fetlock. The hoofs are black, and the antlers
UNDER SURFACE OF FOOT OF
REINDEER.
DEER.
37i
yellowish, wearing white in places. Reindeer fawns are uniformly coloured like
the adult.
The various races of reindeer differ considerably from one another in respect
of height ; but the bucks of the larger American variety stand about 4| feet at the
withers, and usually weigh some 350 Ibs., although unusually fine specimens may
reach nearly 400 Ibs. In regard to the length of the antlers, it appears that fine
examples vary from 48 to just over 57 inches, although one pair is known in which
REINDEER (A nat. size).
the length reaches to upwards of 60 inches. There is great variation in regard to the
span of antlers, and the number of points they carry ; while it is not unfrequently
the case that the longest specimens have by no means the greatest girth.
Reindeer inhabit the northern regions of both the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres, and English zoologists are pretty generally
agreed that there is but a single species. In America, however, where they are
known by the French-Canadian name caribou (a corruption of carrebceuf, literally
"square-ox"), it is considered that there are either one or two species distinct
from the Old World form. Thus, whereas Mr. Caton regards the smaller North
Distribution.
372
UNGULATES.
American form, known as the barren-ground caribou, as a distinct species, while
he identifies the larger southern kind termed the woodland caribou with R.
tarandus, other writers, like Dr. Hart Merriam, consider that both the American
forms are entitled to rank as distinct species. We shall, however, follow the view
that all kinds of reindeer are merely local varieties or races of a single widely
spread species.
In the Old World reindeer are found nearly as far north as the extreme limits
of land, while they extend from Scandinavia in the west to Eastern Siberia. In
the Ural region their southern limit reaches in the Kirghiz steppes to about the
52nd parallel of north latitude, and they are still to be met with in the wild state,
in the neighbourhood of Orenburg. In European Russia they are found in the
forests of the Government of Kazan as far south as latitude 54° ; and it is stated that
in this district they attain very large dimensions, while the females are without
antlers. In Scandinavia wild reindeer are, however, now becoming rare. Domes-
ticated reindeer are kept in Siberia, Lapland, and part of Norway, as well as in the
northern districts of the Government of Perm, but appear to be unknown in the
Orenburg region. They were introduced into Iceland in 1870, where they flourish
well, and in 1892 sixteen head were landed in Alaska. The Scandinavian domes-
ticated breed, which is chiefly used by the Laps for purposes of draught, is consid-
erably smaller than the wild race ; but in Siberia there is a tamed breed of larger
size, mainly used for riding. The importance of the reindeer to the Laplander
has been so often written of that we may be excused for making any further
mention of it.
In regard to the northern extension of the Old World reindeer, Baron
Nordenskiold observes that although it has not been found in Francis Joseph Land,
it occurs at Cape Chelyuskin, as well as in Novaia Zemlia and Spitzbergen, and in
the still more northerly Phipps and Parry Islands, which lie between the 80th and
81st parallels of north latitude. In some of these desolate regions reindeer are
still very numerous, even where, as in Spitzbergen, they are incessantly hunted.
Regarding their abundance in the islands last-named, Baron Nordenskiold says
that it has been suggested that they immigrate from Novaia Zemlia; but he
considers it more probable that if such an immigration does take place, it must be
from some unknown Arctic land to the north-north-east.
The same writer observes that " the life of the wild reindeer is best known in
Spitzbergen. During the summer it betakes itself to the grassy plains in the ice-free
valleys of the island; in late autumn it withdraws — according to the walrus-
hunter's statements — to the sea-coast, in order to eat the seaweed that is thrown up
on the beach. In winter it goes back to the lichen-clad mountain heights in the
interior of the country, where it appears to thrive exceedingly well, though the
cold during winter must be excessively severe ; for when the reindeer in spring
return to the coast they are still very fat, but some weeks afterwards, when the
snow has frozen on the surface, and a crust of ice makes it difficult for them to get
at the mountain-sides, they become so poor as to be scarcely eatable. In summer,
however, they speedily eat themselves back into condition, and in autumn they are
so fat that they would certainly take prizes at an exhibition of fat cattle."
Further observations on the mode of life of the reindeer will be deferred till we
DEER. 373
come to the American varieties, but it is important that the periodical migrations
of these animals which take place in Siberia should be noticed here. Admiral von
Wrangel, when in Eastern Siberia, had an opportunity of seeing such migrations
on more than one occasion ; and he relates that the moving masses might be
reckoned to include thousands of individuals, split up into herds of two or three
hundred head. On one of these occasions the Admiral states that " two large
migrating bodies of reindeer passed at no great distance. They were descending
the hills from the north-west, and crossing the plain on their way to the forests,
where they spend the winter. Both bodies of deer extended further than the eye
could reach, and formed a compact mass narrowing to the front. They moved
slowly and majestically along, their broad antlers resembling a moving wood of
leafless trees. Each body was led by a deer of unusual size, which my guides
assured me was always a female."
These southerly winter migrations of the reindeer are of considerable import-
ance in regard to the former occurrence of this animal in Southern Europe ; for
since its remains are not unfrequently found in association with those of the
hippopotamus, we can scarcely assume that in such localities at any rate the climate
could have been otherwise than comparatively mild. Accordingly, the most
probable hypothesis seems to be that in the Pleistocene period the reindeer, driven
by the intense cold of the more northern portions of its habitat, must have travelled
so far south during the winter till it reached regions where the rivers were suitable
for the habitation of the hippopotamus.
At the present day reindeer are unknown in the Old World to the south of a
parallel running a little below the southern shore of the Baltic ; it appears, however,
that in the time of Caesar they were met with in the Black Forest of Northern
Germany, although whether as permanent residents or as winter immigrants, cannot,
of course, be now ascertained. In the British Isles, remains of reindeer are com-
monly met with in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and it was long considered that
in Caithness this deer survived till the middle of the 12th century, although the
latest researches tend to discountenance this idea. Reindeer remains are also found
over the Continent, occurring as far south as the valleys of the Dordogne and
Garonne in France.
Turning: now to the American reindeer, which, as aforesaid, are
Caribou.
characterised by the great development and palmation of one brow-
tine of the antlers, and the abortion of the other, we find there are two well-marked
varieties. The first and smaller of these is the barren-ground caribou, the R.
grcenlandicus of those who regard it as a distinct species. This reindeer is found
only in the barren Arctic districts lying to the northwards of the forest-region of
North America. It is abundant in the desolate regions to the northward of Fort
Churchill, whence it extends to the confines of the Arctic Ocean. This form,
although much inferior in point of size to the woodland caribou, has larger
antlers ; and it is mainly on the latter ground that American zoologists urge its
right to be reckoned as a distinct species. Although confined in summer to the
so-called " barren-grounds," this variety of the reindeer makes extensive southerly
migrations in autumn, in order to spend the winter in the forest-regions tenanted
by the woodland caribou. It appears, however, that even when inhabiting the
374 UNGULATES.
same districts, the two races invariably remain completely apart from one another,
and show no tendency to intermingle.
woodland The larger woodland caribou, of which the dimensions have
Caribou. already been mentioned, is an inhabitant of the forest districts lying
to the south of the barren northern lands. Mr. Lett states that "it inhabits
Labrador and Northern Canada, and thence may be found south to Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, and Newfoundland, the northern part of the State of Maine and
Lower Canada on both sides of the St. Lawrence, thence westerly in the country
north of Quebec to the vicinity of Lake Superior. It never migrates towards the
north in summer, as is the habit of the barren-ground caribou, but makes its
migration in a southerly direction." This difference in the direction of the migration
of the two varieties is certainly very remarkable ; and when taken in conjunction
with the difference in the size of their antlers, and their refusal to mingle together,
indicates their marked distinctness from one another.
Mr. Caton says, that the woodland caribou feeds on leaves,
"grasses, and aquatic plants, but its great resource is lichens. It
frequents marshy and swampy grounds more than any other of the Deer family ;
for which it is admirably adapted, and where it is well protected from pursuit.
In the winter it resorts to the dense forests on higher ground." Like the European
variety, the American reindeer is an animal of great endurance and speed, and can
trot faster than most horses. In disposition, the caribou is shy and wary, and to
ensure a successful stalk requires all the powers of the sportsman. To hunt these
animals in deep snow on foot, or on the open ground with dogs, is said to be mere
waste of time, as in the one case the animal, by the aid of its broad hoofs, makes
its way over the snow without difficulty, while in the other it easily distances and
tires out its pursuers.
Woodland caribou migrate in herds of from one hundred to two hundred, or even
as many as five hundred head. During these periodical migrations, Mr. Lett says
that " they are easily killed in vast numbers by taking advantage of the wind, and
shooting them as they pass along. They are also frequently surprised crossing
rivers or lakes that intersect their line of march, when they become an easy prey
to hunters in canoes. In winter they are often seen upon the ice on inland lakes.
On such occasions they can be easily shot, provided they neither see nor smell the
hunter. The instant, however, they catch the scent of their hidden foe, they
vanish like a streak of light. I have heard it said by those who have seen
them scudding over the ice, like shadows, that in an incredibly short space of
time they appeared to the naked eye not larger than rabbits." Indeed, so swift
are they on the ice, that when caribou once set foot on it, the hunter who
knows his business immediately gives up the pursuit as hopeless. Solitary
caribou are more wary, and consequently more difficult to stalk, than those
in a herd.
The time when caribou are most easily killed is during the months of March
and April, the snow having then a thin cake of ice on the surface, through which
the animals are constantly breaking, and are thus run down without much
difficulty by hunters on snow-shoes.
There appears to be a lack of information as to the breeding-habits both of
DEER. 375
the caribou and of the wild reindeer of the Old World. The pairing-season of the
barren-ground caribou is, however, said to be in the winter; while that of the
woodland variety is in September. In the case of the latter, the antlers of the
bucks are shed in December, while those of the does do not fall until the spring.
The fawns are produced in May, and are either one or two in number.
Owing to incessant pursuit, in season and out of season, the numbers of the
caribou have been greatly reduced in many districts ; but, in Newfoundland, these
animals are now protected by special laws.
THE ELK OR MOOSE.
Genus Alces.
The largest living representative of the Deer family is the somewhat ungainly-
looking animal known in Europe as the elk, and in North America as the moose
(Alces machlis). This fine animal dift'ers from all other deer in the form and
setting-on of the antlers of the male ; and it is not improbable that these append-
ages have really no connection with those of the true deer, but were independently
acquired.
In build, the elk is characterised by the length of its limbs, its short neck,
very long and flapping ears, and the great length and narrowness of the head,
which terminates in a broad overhanging muzzle, completely covered with short
fine hair, save for a small triangular spot just below the nostrils. The extremity
of the muzzle is flexible, and the eyes are small and sunken. The antlers, instead
of emerging from the forehead at an acute angle with its middle line and inclining
forwards, as is the case with all living representatives of the genus Cervus, project
on either side at right angles to the middle line of the forehead, and in the same
plane as its surface. Their basal portion consists of a short, cylindrical beam,
without any tine, and beyond this beam they expand into an enormous basin-like
palmation. In young animals, and more especially in the Swedish elk, the
antlers have their palmated portion divided into a smaller anterior and a larger
posterior moiety ; but in the adult of the American form these two coalesce
into a single palmation, elongated from back to front, and containing a number
of short and irregular snags on its outer edge. The antlers of fine specimens
may weigh as much as 60 Ibs. ; and in a head in the possession of Mr. Otho Shaw
the antlers have a span of 65 inches, a length along the palmation of 41 inches,
and a width across the same of 24 inches, but a span of 66 inches is on record.
The antlers do not attain their full dimensions till the animal has attained its
ninth year.
The skull of the elk differs from that of other deer in the extreme shortness
of the nasal bones, and the consequently very large size of the cavity of the nose.
The upper molar teeth have very low and broad crowns. The tail is so short that
it is scarcely more than a rudiment.
The elk carries its short neck nearly horizontally, and therefore somewhat
lower than the elevated withers ; and it is this feature which so largely contributes
to the ungainly and ugly appearance of the animal. The feet have long and
376
UNGULATES.
Dimensions.
UNDER SURFACE OP FOOT
OF ELK.
sharply-pointed hoofs, very different in appearance from those of the reindeer ;
and the lateral hoofs are relatively large and loosely attached. In the male the
hair is long, coarse, and somewhat brittle, and is elongated
into a slight mane on the neck, shoulders, and throat ;
while in colour it varies from very dark brown to yellowish
grey. The female is lighter coloured than the male during
the winter season. In both sexes the hair is softer and
finer in the summer than in the winter ; and during the
later season an abundant supply of woolly under-fur is
developed. Young animals have also brighter-coloured
and sleeker coats than aged individuals ; and in the latter
the fading of the winter coat with the advance of spring is
much more noticeable than in the former. The fawns are
uniformly coloured like the adults.
The height of the elk has been much
exaggerated, some writers asserting that the
male may stand as much as 8 feet at the withers. Mr.
Caton observes, however, that it is safe to say that it
may attain a height of 6 feet, or occasionally rather more,
and we may probably put the extreme limits as not
exceeding 6^ feet. The weight of an average adult male
elk is given by the writer last cited as TOO Ibs., but large specimens will reach
900 or 1000, and, it is said, even as much as 1200 Ibs.
Adult male elk, and occasionally the females, have a curious pendulous
appendage on the throat formed by a dilatation of the skin, and covered with long
and coarse blackish hairs. This appendage may vary in length from 4 to 10
inches, and is known to the American hunters as the bell ; its use is unknown.
The elk has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the
reindeer, although it does not extend so far north, and is, indeed,
limited by the northern extension of trees, being essentially a forest animal. In
Europe, although now greatly diminished in numbers, it is found locally in
Scandinavia, Eastern Prussia, Lithuania, and parts of Russia, such as the neigh-
bourhood of Orenburg, the government forest near Moscow, and the districts
bordering the river Samara in Astrakhan. Thence it extends eastwards into the
subarctic portions of Siberia, although its extreme limits in this direction are not
fully ascertained. A few years ago an elk was shot in Galicia, which had
probably wandered from more northern latitudes. In the time of Pallas, elk were
also found on the northern slopes of the Caucasus ; while Caesar mentions them as
inhabiting the Black Forest. During the prehistoric period, their distribution
was still more extensive in Europe ; and their remains have been found in many
parts of England, the most southern point being Walthamstow in Essex. In the
still earlier deposits of the Norfolk forest-bed, the species was preceded by the
broad-fronted elk (A. latifrons).
In North America the range of the elk appears to have extended originally
from about the 43rd to the 70th parallel of latitude, its northern limit being
marked by the southern border of the so-called barren grounds. Mr. Caton says
Distribution.
DEER.
377
that elk have been seen as far south as the Ohio, and as far north as the Mackenzie
River. Writing in the year 1865, Mr. J. G. Lockhart states that elk were then
common over the whole of British America as far north as the barren grounds,
although absent from particular localities. Thus they were especially abundant
on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, and continued so to Behring Strait,
but were unknown on the shores of Hudson Bay in the neighbourhood of York
A FAMILY OF ELK (Ji Hat. size.)
Factory. Although specially protected in Ontario, the elk is, however, now
rapidly disappearing from the forests of North America ; and this is not to be
wondered at, when we learn that some years ago several hundreds of these animals
were shot on one occasion in New Brunswick merely for the sake of their hides ;
their carcases being left to rot on the ground. Elk are still comparatively
common in Alaska, but have more or less completely disappeared from certain
districts where they were formerly abundant. As far back as 1881, Mr. Caton
wrote, that " they have probably entirely ceased their visits to Newfoundland ; but
378
UNGULATES.
in Labrador many still remain, though gradually retreating thence towards the
more secluded and inaccessible portions of the country. From Upper Canada all
are gone, and but few remain in Lower Canada, where, fifty years since, they
were abundant. What are left have retreated to the great dense forests of the
north."
Elk feed more upon the leaves and twigs of trees than upon
grass ; and their length of limb enables them to pluck such nutri-
ment with facility, while the shortness of their necks renders them unfitted for
grazing, unless in places where the grass is unusually tall, when they merely pluck
the tops. In Northern Europe and Asia birch, willows, aspens, and poplars afford
a large proportion of the leafy food of the elk ; but in North America both ever-
green and deciduous trees contribute their quota. Various lichens and mosses are,
however, also eaten ; but in winter, when the whole country is deeply buried in snow,
the elk have to depend solely on twigs and buds of trees. In order to obtain the
foliage of saplings which are above their reach, elk in America, at least, have a
curious habit of straddling on either side of the stem with their fore-legs, and then
gradually pressing down the tree with the weight of their body.
In America elk commence feeding with the first signs of dawn, and continue
till sunrise, after which they repose or ruminate till ten or eleven o'clock.
From that time they again feed till about two, when they take another period of
repose till four or five, and then feed till dusk, when they lie down for the night.
Mr. Lockhart says that elk "generally lie down with their tails to windward, trusting
to their senses of hearing and smelling, which are remarkably acute, to warn them
of approaching danger from that quarter. They can use their eyes to warn them
from danger to leeward, where hearing, and especially smelling, would be of little
use. While sleeping or chewing the cud, their ears are in perpetual motion, one
backward, the other forward, alternately. They also have the remarkable instinct
to make a short turn and sleep below the wind of their fresh track, so that any
one falling thereon and following it up is sure to be heard or smelt before he can
get within shooting distance."
In summer the favourite resorts of the American elk are in the neighbourhood
of swamps, rivers, or lakes, where long grasses which can be easily reached grow in
rank abundance. In winter, however, they generally betake themselves to higher
grounds, although always those clothed with dense and almost impenetrable forest.
When disturbed, the elk, in spite of his great bulk, makes off with extreme rapidity
and almost perfect silence, even in the thickest cover, always when possible
selecting moss-clad and yielding ground over which to make its way.
In winter, elk in America are in the habit of consorting in small parties, often
comprising a male, female, and the young of two seasons, and taking up their
quarters in what is termed a moose-yard. " The yard," writes Mr. C. C. Ward, " is
situated in some part of the country where there is an abundant growth of young
deciduous trees, such as the white birch, poplars, maple, and mountain-ash ; these,
together with a few of the coniferous trees, the balsam-fir and juniper, form the
staple diet of the moose. Some writers maintain that the bull moose never yards
with the female and young, but this is disproved by my own experience as a moose-
hunter. ... I have on many occasions found and killed males occupying the same
DEER. 379
yard with the old and young females." It appears, however, that very old males
generally make a yard for themselves, and remain alone throughout the winter.
The antlers of the adult elk are shed in America during January, and the new
pair attain their full development in August. During the time that the antlers
have been in the velvet, the male elk has spent most of his time in the marshes
and swamps, feeding on the leaves of the yellow water-lily, and frequently protect-
ing himself from the attacks of mosquitoes and other insect torments by standing
neck-deep in the water. With the complete development of his antlers, he sallies
forth from these retreats to commence calling, and to enter upon a series of com-
A MOOSE-YARD.
bats with his rivals for the possession of the females. These contests appear to be
fully as fierce and determined as those of the red deer ; and Mr. Ward records
finding in a lake the skulls of two elk, with their antlers inextricably interlocked,
which had evidently perished after one of these encounters. The fawns are born
in the following May, and are either one or two, or, very exceptionally, three in
number. They are of a dark fawn-colour, but, according to Mr. Ward, with a
slight dappling. The females, before the birth of the fawns, seek out the most
sequestered spots, such as islands in lakes and rivers, and swamps and prairies,
which are liable to be overflowed at certain seasons of the year, where they will
most likely be free from the attacks of wolves and bears. Some writers aver that
at such seasons they likewise endeavour to avoid the males, but this is denied by
38o
UNGULATES.
Mr. Ward, who believes that the male is never very far away from his consort.
Mr. Lockhart says that when the fawns are very young and helpless, " the mother
in their defence will even attack man. At such times her appearance reminds one
forcibly of a vicious horse. She raises her head, throws back her ears upon her
neck, and sniffs or blows like a horse; then she bounds towards her enemy,
striking the ground with her fore-feet, and her eyes glittering with rage."
The favourite pace of the elk when in rapid motion is a long swinging trot ;
and it is said that so long as the animal keeps to this pace it cannot be overtaken
by any ordinary horse. If, however, it can be forced into a gallop, the elk soon
becomes blown, and can then be readily ridden down.
We have already alluded to the ungainly appearance of the elk ; and this un-
gainliness is certainly most strongly marked in specimens exhibited alive in
menageries or mounted in museums. Mr. Ward states, however, that when seen
among his native forests no one can fail to be impressed with the majesty and
grandeur of the male elk in all the glory of his spreading antlers.
In Sweden and Norway elk are either hunted by being driven or
stalked. In the autumn of 1885 the elk in the forest of Huneberg,
which had been preserved for thirty-five years, were hunted by a royal party,
when fifty-one head were shot; and in 1888 upwards of sixty-six were killed
in the same forest. In America there are now three legitimate methods of elk-
hunting, namely, stalking or still-hunting, fire-hunting, and calling ; the wholesale
slaughter of the animals when imprisoned in their yards by the snows of winter
having fortunately been prohibited by the legislature. In the " Far West," the
best season for elk-hunting is during the months of October and November; the
first snowfalls occurring in the mountains during the latter month, and the males
being then incessantly calling or fighting with their fellows. To be successful in
elk-stalking requires the aid of an experienced Indian guide, as very few men of
European descent can attain that marvellous skill in tracking which appears to
come naturally to the Indian.
It appears to be only in the north-eastern districts that the practice of calling
with a birch-bark pipe is followed, as the custom is said to be quite unknown in
the Kocky Mountains. In regard to the mode of procedure, Mr. Ward says that
" the Indian, having selected a favourable position for his purpose, generally on the
margin of a lake, heath, or bog, where he can readily conceal himself, puts his
birchen trumpet to his mouth, and gives the call of the cow moose in a manner so
startling and truthful that only the educated ear of an Indian could detect the
counterfeit. If the call is successful, presently the responsive' bull moose is heard
crashing through the forest, uttering his blood-curdling bellow or roar, and rattling
his antlers against the trees in challenge to all rivals." In other districts the call
of the male is imitated by drawing the shoulder-bone of a moose against the dry
bark of a young tree, and any male that may be in the neighbourhood advances to
answer the challenge of the supposed rival. In the Rocky Mountains the male
moose instead of uttering the bellowing call mentioned above, only gives vent to a
loud and prolonged kind of whistle, while the female is completely silent.
Fire-hunting, or hunting by torchlight, is practised, says Mr. Ward, by ex-
hibiting a bright light, formed by burning bunches of birch-bark in places known
DEER. 381
to be frequented by moose. The brilliant light seems to fascinate the animal, and
he will readily approach within range of the rifle. The torch placed in the bow of
a canoe is also used as a lure on a lake or a river, but is attended with considerable
danger, as a wounded or enraged moose will not unfrequently upset the canoe.
A favourite mode of moose-hunting, when the snow lay very deep on the
ground, was by running them down in snow-shoes. Accidents were, however,
frequent in this kind of hunting, more especially during the spring, when the snow
is covered with a thin crust. At such times, if the hunter happened incautiously
to run too near the moose, the animal would turn suddenly, and leaping upon his
pursuer trample him under foot. Mr. Lockhart also says that in British America
the Indians during the winter were accustomed in deep snow to make a kind of
fence of three poles, tied equidistant from each other, a little taller than a man,
stretching perhaps for two days' march between lakes, or a lake and a river, or
between two mountains, or in any particular place where the moose were
accustomed to pass. Spaces were left vacant here and there in this fence, and in
these snares were set, in which the unfortunate animals became entangled.
The flesh of the elk, in spite of some coarseness of grain, is generally regarded
as forming excellent venison, although it is said to have a slightly musky taste.
The large and fleshy nose is, however, esteemed the greatest delicacy, and is
reported by those who have had the opportunity of tasting it to be absolutely
unrivalled. Elk manage to maintain themselves in fair condition throughout the
winter, so that their flesh is eatable when that of the ordinary American deer is so
poor and dry as to be unpalatable.
THE ROE DEER.
Genus Capreolus.
The roe deer (Capreolus caprea), while agreeing with the reindeer and the elk
in the conformation of the bones of the lower part of the fore-legs, differs entirely
from both in the form of its antlers, as well as by its greatly inferior dimensions,
being, in fact, one of the smallest representatives of the family. Moreover, whereas
the two genera just mentioned have a circumpolar distribution, the roe is strictly
confined to the Old World.
The roebuck when fully adult stands about 26 inches in height; and has
antlers somewhat less than twice the length of the head. These antlers are rough,
and have a straight" and nearly cylindrical beam, rising for some distance nearly
vertically from the skull, and then giving off" one forwardly-directed tine from its
front edge ; after which the beam curves backwards and terminates in a simple
fork. The roe's antler is therefore three-tined like that of the Indian spotted deer,
but differs in that instead of having a true brow-tine, the first tine is not given off
till about the middle of the entire length. The average length of the antlers is
from 8 to 9 inches, but it is said that a pair from Austria have been recorded in
which the length was 15 inches. The antlers of the roe are more subject to mal-
formations than those of any other species ; and they sometimes show a mass of
ill-formed tines.
382
UNGULATES.
The roe has a relatively short head, with moderate ears, a very small gland
below the eye, and the naked portion of the sharp muzzle small and not extending
beyond the nostrils. Normally there are no tusks in the upper jaw ; and the tail
is short and rudimentary. The neck is rather long and slender, and carried high
above the level of the back ; and the limbs are likewise slight and delicately formed.
In summer the colour of the fur is reddish brown, but in winter, when it becomes
MALE AND FEMALE ROE DEER (•£, nat. size).
thicker and finer, the tint changes to yellowish grey. There are some black and
white markings on the lips, and there is a large patch of white on the buttocks
enclosing the tail, while the under-parts and the insides of the limbs are pale
yellowish fawn. The fur of the fawns is spotted with white. The weight of a
full-grown buck may reach 60 Ibs.
The common roe is an indigenous inhabitant of the British Isles
and the greater part of Europe, extending northwards to the south of
Sweden, and southwards to Italy and Spain. In Russia it is confined to the regions
Distribution.
DEER. 383
of the Caucasus and the Ukraine, and it extends into Western Asia in Persia.
Its fossil remains occur in the superficial deposits of England and the Continent ;
but at the present day roe deer are found wild within the limits of the British
Isles only in Scotland, and in the neighbourhood of the Blackmoor Vale, in Dorset-
shire, where they were reintroduced in the early part of the century. In the year
1884 a few head were, however, turned out in Epping Forest; and some are
kept in certain English parks.
In Turkestan and the mountains separating Russia from China,
the place of the ordinary roe is taken by the nearly-allied Tartarian
roe (C. jyygargus), distinguished by its superior size, the more hairy ears, and the
larger white patch on the rump. In Mantchuria there is a third form, of small
size, and differing somewhat in coloration from both the others.
In Scotland roe deer are found chiefly in the woods, or on the
immediately adjacent moors, but never wander far out on the open
hills, although they will venture on to the cultivated lands in search of food. They
feed in the early morning and towards evening, and generally associate in small
family parties, while they make regular tracks through the woods to their feeding
grounds. Their usual food is grass and other herbage, as well as the young shoots
of such trees and bushes as they are able to reach. The speed of the roe is not
great ; but the animal is a great leaper, and, when running, its usual pace is a
bounding gallop.
The antlers of the adult bucks are shed about the end of the year, and the
new ones are generally fully developed by the latter part of February. The
pairing-season takes place during July and August, at which time the bucks are
exceedingly pugnacious. Scrope relates that in the summer of 1820 two were
found dead in a hollow after one of these contests, lying one on the top of the
other, with the antlers of the one firmly driven into the shoulder of the other,
and vice versa. The fawns are born in the spring, usually early in May; and
in Scotland about one doe out of five or six will produce two fawns at a birth
in favourable seasons. No account of the roe would be complete without
some reference to the extraordinary fact that although the pairing-season takes
place in July or August, and the young are not produced till the following
May, yet the period of gestation is only five months. The explanation of this
appears to be that the ovum lies dormant for some four and a half months, that is
until December, after which it develops in the ordinary manner.
Certain extinct deer found in the Pliocene deposits of the Continent have been
considered to belong to the same genus as the roe.
THE CHINESE WATER-DEER.
Genus Hydropotes.
Among the tall reeds fringing the banks of the Yang-tse-Kiang, there occur
numbers of a small deer differing from any of the species hitherto noticed in that
while both sexes are totally devoid of antlers, the males are provided with long
scimitar-like tusks in the upper jaw, as shown in the figure on the next page. This
384
UNGULATES.
SKULL OF THE CHINESE WATER-DEER WITH PART OF THE UPPER JAW CUT
AWAY TO SHOW THE BASE OP THE TUSK. (From Sir V. Brooke,
Proc. Zool. Soc., 1872.)
deer is the Chinese water-deer (Hydropotes inermis), which in both these features
resembles the musk-deer, although in other respects it is allied to the more typical
representatives of the pre-
sent section of the family.
The Chinese water-deer
is of the approximate
dimensions of the Indian
muntjac (p. 366); and is a
long - bodied and short-
limbed creature, with light
reddish-brown fur. One of
the most remarkable peculi-
arities about this small deer
jg that yie Jogg produce from
. „ , . .
three to six lawns at a birth.
The pelage of the young is faintly marked with white spots, arranged in ill-defined
rows. The number of young produced, coupled with the absence of antlers in the
bucks, indicates that the Chinese water-deer is in all probability a survivor from
a very ancient type of the Deer family. These deer are commonly found on the
Yang-tse-Kiang, in parties of two or three. When disturbed, they arch their backs
and scud away at a great pace in a series of quick leaps. They are usually killed
with buckshot.
The resemblance of the skull of the male water-deer to that of the musk-deer,
is merely due to both forms being apparently direct descendants of the common
ancestral type, from which the more specialised members of the family have
been evolved ; it being well ascertained that in most or all of the early Tertiary
deer the males were devoid of antlers and furnished with long upper tusks.
When antlers were developed to their full extent, so as to become efficient weapons
of defence, the need for tusks disappeared, and the tusks consequently dwindled
or were lost. The muntjacs, in which the antlers are short, present a kind of
middle stage of evolution, the tusks having become much smaller than in the
Chinese water-deer, though larger than in many species of superior size.
THE AMERICAN DEER.
Genus Cariacus.
With the exception of the wapiti, the reindeer, and the elk, which are either closely
allied to, or identical with, Old World types, the whole of the deer of America differ
essentially from those of Asia and Europe, and are referred (with the exception of one
small species which forms a genus by itself) to a totally distinct genus, Cariacus.
These deer resemble the reindeer in the structure of the bones of the lower
part of the fore-limb ; and also in that in the dry skull the aperture of the nasal
passage is completely divided by a longitudinal vertical partition of bone. The
latter feature is, indeed, peculiar to the reindeer and the American deer, and serves
at once to distinguish their skulls from those of any species of the genus Cervus.
DEER.
385
The American deer are, however, still better distinguished from their Old
World cousins, by the characters of their antlers, which are either in the form of
simple spikes, or are divided in a fork-like manner, with the anterior prong directed
forwards, and no brow-tine. These characteristic features are well shown in the
PROFILE VIEWS OP THE ANTLERS OF THE
MARSH -DEER (A), THE VIRGINIAN DBER
(£), AND THE MULE-DEER (C).
accompanying figures, from which
it will be seen that while in one
case the two prongs of the antler
may be nearly equally developed
(A), in another the anterior prong
(a) may be greatly developed at
the expense of the posterior (6),
as in the middle figure. It will
also be seen that there may be
either a large or small sub-basal
tine (c) rising from the inner side
of the front of the antler, some
distance above the burr, and directed upwardly. It was long considered that this
sub-basal tine represented the brow-tine of the antlers of the Old World deer, and
attempts were made to correlate the other tines of the American deer with those of
the genus Cervus. Mr. Allan Gordon Cameron has, however, pointed out that this
is a totally erroneous notion ; the truth being, that while the members of the genus
VOL. ii. — 25
386
UNGULATES.
Cervus have originated in Europe from an early antlerless deer-like creature
(Palceomeryx), the representatives of Cariacus have been independently derived in
North America from a totally distinct ancestral deer (Blastomeryx), which was
likewise unprovided with antlers. And it will accordingly be self -apparent that
the antlers of the Old and New World deer are not mutually comparable. Start-
ing from the simple spike-like antlers of the brockets of South America, we shall
find that there is a transition through a simply-forked antler to the complex type
exhibited by the mule-deer ; and it will accordingly be most convenient to commence
our notice of these deer with those in which the antlers are simple, and finish with
those in which they are most complex.
Before proceeding to the various species, it may, however, be added that all
THE BED BROCKET (^ nat. size).
the American deer are uniformly coloured above in the adult condition, and that
they all have narrow and naked muzzles. The length of the tail is subject to a
great amount of specific variation. In addition to the peculiar feature already
noticed as distinguishing the hinder aperture of the nasal passage, the skulls of the
American deer are characterised by the large dimensions of the unossified space in
front of the eye, and the small size of the pit for the reception of the gland.
The first group of the American deer is represented by several
small species known as brockets, which are confined to the southern
half of the continent, and are distinguished by their unbranched spike-like antlers,
and by the hair on the middle line of the face radiating in all directions from two
points, one of which is situated on the crown of the head, and the other just below
the eyes. They are further characterised by the large extent of the naked portion
of the muzzle, which completely surrounds the nostrils ; and likewise by the spotted
coat of the fawns. The tail is of medium length ; and the upper jaw may or may
Brockets.
DEER. 387
not carry tusks. The best known species is the common red brocket (C. rufus) —
the one represented in our illustration — of North-Eastern Brazil and Guiana, where
it ranges from Surinam to Pernambuco. It is a rather clumsily-built animal,
standing 27 inches in height at the withers, and of a uniform reddish brown colour.
The nearly allied Brazilian brocket (C. simplicicornis), is a rather smaller species,
standing only 21 inches in height, and distinguished by its lighter and more elegant
shape, as well as by the more decided brown colour of the fur, especially in the
young. This species ranges over the greater part of Brazil, and extends westwards
into Colombia. The other two species are the Ecuador brocket (C. rufinus), found
in Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Guatemala ; and the wood-brocket (C. nemori-
vagus), from Surinam and Trinidad, both of which are only 19 inches in height.
The former has fur of a full glossy red colour, with the face and legs shaded
bluish brown; while the latter differs from all the rest by the pepper-and-salt
colour of its hair. Fossil remains of brockets occur in the caverns of Lagoa
Santa, in Brazil, which probably belong to species still inhabiting the same
districts.
Brockets are found either alone or in pairs, and never collect in
Habits.
herds ; a male and female apparently associating for life. The does
produce usually but a single fawn at a birth, in December or January ; and the
young are able to follow their mother in from three to five days. The speed of
the brockets is considerable, but not enduring, and they can be easily ridden down
by a good horse, while, when the cover is not too thick, hounds will generally
capture them within half an hour.
The Costa Rica deer (C. clavatus), of Central America, is another
Costa Rica Deer. . .1-1.1 , •
small species with spike-like antlers, which appears to iorm a group
by itself, connecting the brockets with the succeeding groups. This deer is of a
uniform reddish yellow colour, like the Virginian deer ; and differs from the brockets,
and agrees with the following groups in that the hair of the face is directed
uniformly backwards, while it likewise resembles those that follow in the smaller
size of the naked portion of the muzzle, and in the less arched profile of the face.
The third group of the genus is represented by two South
American species of medium size, which are confined to the Andes,
where they are known as guemals. They are distinguished by the antlers forming
a single fork, of which the front prong is the longer, and is projected forwards in
the manner characteristic of the genus ; by the presence of tusks in the upper jaws
of both sexes, and also by the uniform coloration of the fawns. Of the two species,
the Chilian guemal (C. chilensis) ranges from Santiago to Magellan, but is far more
scarce in the northern than the southern portion of this tract ; while the Peruvian
guemal (C. antisiensis) is a northern form from the highlands of Peru.
The pampas, or Guazuti deer (C. campestris), represented in the
illustration on the next page, brings us to a fourth group of the
genus, confined to South America, and characterised by the antlers being regularly
forked, with the hinder prong — and sometimes also the front one — again forking ;
while there is no sub-basal snag above the burr. The two species of this group are
further characterised by the absence of tusks in the upper jaw, the shortness of
the tail, and the uniform coloration of the fawns. They are confined to the eastern
388
UNGULATES.
and southern portions of South America ; and do not attain such large dimensions
as the members of the next group.
The pampas deer is the smaller of the two species, standing about 2| feet at
the shoulder ; and its range extends from Paraguay and Uruguay through Argen-
tina into Northern Patagonia. The antlers (as shown in the profile view in our
illustration) are characterised by the great development of the forked posterior
tine, at the expense of the unbranched front-tine; the number of points thus
being three. The hair is thick, coarse, and glossy ; its colour on the upper-parts
mim
Habits.
THE PAMPAS DEER (^ nat. Size).
being light reddish brown. The lower parts of the flanks, as well as the chin,
throat, chest, and a stripe on the limbs, are dusky ; while the under-parts, inner
sides of the limbs, under side and tip of the tail, and insides of the ears are white.
The pampas deer is the largest and most common ruminant in
the districts from which it takes its name. It frequents dry and
open parts of the country, and is generally found in pairs or small parties, the old
bucks being, however, solitary. Mr. Darwin says that " if a person crawling close
along the ground, slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, out of
curiosity, approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means killed, from one"
spot, three out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet when
approached on horseback they are exceedingly wary. In this country nobody
DEER. 389
goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only when he is mounted and
armed with the bolas."
The male of the pampas deer possesses an unpleasant and penetrating effluvium,
which, as we can personally attest, can be detected at a distance of several
miles. During the day these deer generally lie concealed among the tall pampas-
grass, coming out to feed at sunset, and continuing throughout the night. Their
speed is very great, and it is only by the very best horses they can be ridden down,
while even then, if they have any considerable start, they are pretty sure to escape.
The fawns are born in the winter and spring, and it does not appear that there is
ever more than one at a birth. Both parents aid in protecting their young, and
the doe is especially clever in aiding the escape of her fawn, as the following
narrative by Mr. Hudson shows. " When the doe with fawn is approached by a
horseman," writes this observer, "even when accompanied by dogs, she stands
perfectly motionless, gazing fixedly at the enemy, the fawn motionless at her side ;
and suddenly, as if at a preconcerted signal, the fawn rushes directly away from
her at its utmost speed ; and going to a distance of six hundred to a thousand yards
conceals itself in a hollow in the ground, or among the long grass, lying down very
close with neck stretched out horizontally, and will thus remain until sought by
the dam. When very young, if found in its hiding-place, it will allow itself to be
taken, making no further effort to escape. After the fawn has run away, the doe
still maintains her statuesque attitude, as if resolved to await the onset, and only
when the dogs are close to her side she also rushes away, but invariably in a
direction as nearly opposite to that taken by the fawn as possible. At first she
runs slowly, with a limping gait, and frequently pausing, as if to entice her enemies
on ; but as they begin to press her more closely, her speed increases, becoming
greater the further she succeeds in leading them from the starting-point." The
alarm-cry of the pampas deer is a low, whistling bark, but this is never uttered
when the doe has a fawn by her side.
The marsh, or guazu deer (C. palustris) is a somewhat larger
species, found in South Brazil, Paraguay, Rio Grande do Sul,
and Uruguay; its westerly range being limited by the Parana River. The
antlers of this deer, of which an example is represented in the figure on p. 385, are
larger and more complex than those of the pampas-deer, both prongs of the main
fork being strongly developed, and each again subdividing ; the hinder prong
being also generally rather the heavier of the two. In contrast to the pampas-
deer, the marsh-deer seeks out swamps and lakes, where it delights to enter the
water or wallow in the mud.
The last main group of the American deer is typically repre-
Virginian Deer. . . . .
sented by the well-known Virginian deer (C. v^rg^n^anus), with its
numerous varieties, and includes the largest representatives of the genus, as well as
the whole of those found in the northern half of the continent. The group is
distinguished by the large size and complexity of the antlers, which differ from
those of the other groups by the presence of a larger or smaller sub-basal snag
(c of the figure on p. 385), and likewise by the absence of tusks in the upper jaw,
and the spotted coat of the fawns.
The Virginian deer occurs typically in eastern North America, but the so-called
39°
UNGULATES.
white-tailed deer (C. leucurus) of the western side of the continent can scarcely
be regarded as anything more than a variety, while it is doubtful if the more
southern form known as the Mexican deer (C. mexicanus) is really entitled to
specific distinction. Considering all these forms as referable to a single species, the
Virginian deer will have a range extending right across the American continent
from east to west, and from south to north from Canada to Mexico. The main
distinctive characteristic of this species is to be found in the antlers (shown in profile
VIRGINIAN DEER (^ liat. size).
in the figure on p. 385, and from the front in the figure of the entire animal), in
which the anterior prong of the main fork shows a great development at the
expense of the hinder one. This abortion of the hinder prong is, however, com-
pensated by a corresponding growth of the sub-basal snag. These snags, like the
main prongs of the antler, are subject to extraordinary abnormal developments,
so that the variations which occur in the antlers of the Virginian deer are only
paralleled by those found in the reindeer. The tail is long. The summer pelage of
the Virginian deer is a bright bay, from which it derives its common local title of
red deer, but in winter the coat becomes of a greyer tinge. At all seasons of the
DEER. 391
yrar the throat, a ring above the muzzle, a spot above and below the eye, portions
of the inside of the ear, the inner surfaces of the limbs and the under-parts are,
however, white. The upper surface of the tail is dark brown, and even in winter
there is a more or less reddish tinge throughout the pelage. In build this deer is the
most elegant and graceful of all its compatriots. Its variation in size is so great that
it would be useless to give any measurements, although it may be mentioned that
unusually fine bucks are said to weigh as much as 200 Ibs., and occasionally more.
With regard to the variation in size and colour in this, the commonest North
American species, Mr. Caton writes that, although in a given neighbourhood there
is a great difference in the size of individuals, in widely different localities there
is a permanent and constant difference of size. Thus, whereas in the north all
the deer are large, as we proceed south there is a progressive diminution, till in
Northern Mexico and the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Mexico the deer have so
diminished that ic is at first difficult to believe that they are specifically identical
with their northern representatives. Similarly we find in the mountainous regions
of the west an increase in the amount of white on the tail and body, which has
given rise to the notion that the so-called white-tailed deer is a distinct species ;
but Mr. Caton states that this difference is not constant even among the deer of the
west, where many specimens cannot be distinguished from those found in Illinois
or Wisconsin. The more northerly race appears, however, to be characterised by
the absence of the black markings on the face and tail, which so frequently occur
in the southern and eastern portion of the animal's range.
In the Adirondack region of New York Dr. Hart Merriam says
Habits. *
that the Virginian deer " is found high upon the mountain-sides, as well
as in the lowest valleys and river-bottoms. It frequents alike the densest and most
impenetrable thickets and the open beaver-meadows and frontier clearings. From
the 1st of May to the 1st of November its food consists of a great variety of herbs,
grasses, marsh and aquatic plants, the leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs,
blueberries, blackberries, other fruits that grow within its reach, and the nutritious
beech-nut. While snow covers the ground — which it commonly does about half
the year — the fare is necessarily restricted, and it is forced to subsist chiefly upon
the twigs and buds of low deciduous trees and shrubs, the twigs and foliage of the
arbor vitae, hemlock, and balsam, and a few mosses and lichens. In winters succeed-
ing a good yield of nuts the mast constitutes its staple article of diet, and is
obtained by following the beech ridges and pawing up the snow beneath the trees."
Although shy and timid in the extreme, and at first retreating rapidly before
the advance of cultivation, these deer soon regain confidence, and come back to
their ancient haunts. Their speed is great, and they are excellent and rapid
swimmers, even young fawns while still in the spotted coat taking readily to the
water. During long-continued deep snow these deer frequently collect together
in parties, sometimes of considerable size, and form " yards," like the elk.
There is considerable variation in the time of changing the grey dress of winter
for the red coat of summer, as there is in the date when the antlers of the bucks are
shed, these differences being apparently mainly due to the severity or mildness of
the winters. The pairing-season, during which the bucks, like those of other deer,
are exceedingly pugnacious, lasts from the latter part of October till the beginning
392
UNGULATES.
of December. The fawns, which are nearly always two in number, are mostly born
in May. They retain their white spots till September, when both young and old
assume their winter dress. The fawns are easily tamed, if captured sufficiently
young. In bucks of the first year the antlers form unbranched spikes, while in
the second year they are simply forked, without any branching of the two prongs,
although the sub-basal snag makes its appearance at the same time.
VIRGINIAN DEER SWIMMING.
Hunting.
The most legitimate mode of hunting the Virginian deer is by
stalking, but in the south they are frequently pursued by hounds,
followed by mounted hunters armed with rifles. In other cases hounds are em-
ployed to drive the deer to water or down the paths in the woods, where the
sportsmen lie in wait. In summer, when deer are abundant, many are killed by
what is termed "jacking"; that is to say, a lantern or some other light is carried,
upon seeing which the deer becomes dazzled, and, while standing to gaze, offers a
ready shot. Finally, "breasting" is employed, according to Mr. G. B. Grinnell,
" where the deer make their home among very high grass, such as is to be found
on some of the prairies of the south-west or in the great beds of the dry lakes of
Northern and Western Nebraska. Here the thick cane-grass stands seven or eight
DEER.
393
Naked-Eared
Deer.
Mule-Deer.
feet high, and the head of a mounted man is only just visible above the tops.
Several huntsmen armed with shot-guns form a line on the leeward side of the
space to be hunted over, and ride through it, a little more than a gun-shot apart.
The deer that lie in their course are started from the grass, and bound off ahead of
the hunters, every now and then showing their backs above the tops of the grass.
The horsemen have to shoot from the saddle, and very quickly, to secure their
game." Sometimes these deer are shot from canoes as they swim from island
to island.
The naked-eared deer (C. gymnotis) from Colombia and Ecuador
appears to be a distinct species, distinguished from the Virginian deer
by the large flapping ears, of which the outer surface is naked, by the extreme
narrowness of the head, and the more slender form.
The most specialised of all the American deer as regards size and
complexity of antlers is the mule-deer (C. macrotis), so called on
account of the enormous size of its ears. In this deer the antlers (as shown in a
front view in the accompanying
figure, and in profile in the figure
on p. 385), when compared with
those of the Virginian deer, have
recovered the relative importance
of the posterior prong, concomit-
antly with a proportionate re-
duction of the subbasal snag, and
are therefore much more regularly
forked "At the same time,"
writes Mr. A. G. Cameron, "the
main strength of the beam is
drawn into the anterior prong,
and intermediate forms occur both
in this and the last-named species,
which bridge the gap between the
extremes on either side, and leave
no doubt as to their intimate
relationship." In general the
front prong is simply forked,
while the second divides into three
or more snags in adult bucks ; but
HEAD OF MULE-DEER.
instances occur where the hinder
prong is unbranched, while in
some individuals of the Virginian deer the same prong is divided. The antlers
of the second year are simply forked, in the third year the hinder prong is also
forked ; but the forking of the front prong and the development of the subbasal
snag does not take place till the assumption of the fourth set of antlers. In the left
antler represented in the figure on p. 385, which is from a head in the collection
of Mr. A. G. Cameron, the length of the upper prong is 28, and that of the lower
prong 29 inches along the curve, the basal girth being 5f inches; but in the
394 UNGULATES.
opposite one the upper prong measures 29 and the lower 27 inches. The extreme
span of these antlers is 32 inches. In another head in the same collection the
total length of the antlers is 32 inches, with an extreme span of 37 inches. The
right antler of this head has an additional tine depending from just below the
main fork — an aberration not unfrequently found in the Virginian deer, where it
may occur on both sides.
In height the mule-deer is fully equal to the Virginian deer, but it is a more
stoutly built and much less graceful animal, with proportionately shorter limbs,
while the ears are nearly double the dimensions of those of the latter. The tail is
short, and quite unlike that of any other deer, being cylindrical, naked below, and
covered above with short white hairs, terminating in a long brush of black ones.
In summer the coat of the mule-deer is very thin and sparse, and generally of a
reddish colour, with a large white patch on the buttocks ; but in winter the general
colour is steel-grey, the individual hairs being tipped with black. There is much
more white on the face than in the Virginian deer. In a variety from California
the colour of the pelage is more decidedly red, and there is a black line running
along the middle of the upper surface of the tail.
Mr. Grinnell states that the mule-deer " is found throughout the
greater part of the Missouri River district, and thence westward on
the plains, in the Rocky Mountains, and in the Sierra Nevada. It is an inhabitant
of rough, broken country, and on the plains is usually only to be found about high
buttes, in the bad-lands, or where the country is diversified with rocky ridges,
dotted here and there with scattered pines or junipers. Its favourite resorts are
the coulees, gulches, and canons which so often break up the high table-lands of
the central plateau of the continent ; but it is as often to be found among the green
valleys high up on the mountain-sides, or, in summer, among the low trees that
grow just below the snow-line. It is to such localities as the last-named that the
bucks resort during the summer when they are growing their antlers, and when
their thin coat of hair affords them little or no protection against the flies."
It appears that the habitat of this deer has not been very much restricted by
advancing civilisation, as it is much less alarmed by the invasion of its haunts
than is the wapiti. Instead of running in the even manner of the Virginian deer,
mule-deer progress by a series of bounds, all their feet leaving the ground simul-
taneously. For a short distance their pace is rapid, but it soon slackens. As in
the case of the Virginian deer, the number of fawns produced at a birth is nearly
always two. These are born at the end of May or beginning of June, and retain
their spots till September. The pairing-season is in September and October.
By the hunters in Colorado this deer is commonly spoken of as the black-tail,
although that name properly belongs to C. columbianus.
Black-Tailed The Columbian black-tailed deer (C. columbianus) is a species
with a very restricted distribution, being apparently confined to the
mountain-ranges bordering the Pacific in the neighbourhood of the Columbia River,
and unknown to the eastwards of the Sierra Nevada. This deer is rather smaller
than the mule-deer, with relatively smaller ears, but nearly similar antlers. The
comparatively short cylindrical tail is black throughout, except for a short strip of
about one-fourth the circumference running along the under surface. The general
DEER. 395
colour of the pelage in winter is tawny grey, with white on the under-parts and
throat, and the face is grey, with a darker forehead, the legs being dark cinnamon
colour. In summer the colour changes to bay.
In habits and gait this deer closely resembles the mule-deer, but
it is said to occasionally produce as many as three fawns at a birth.
Mr. Grinnell states that the black-tail is chiefly found in the deepest recesses of the
coniferous forests of the Pacific ranges, and seldom wanders far away from the
protection of the woods. Where they have been but little molested, these deer
frequently come down to the shore to feed upon a particular kind of seaweed, and
during such visits many are killed by the Indians, who paddle stealthily along the
shore in their canoes.
THE PUDU DEER.
Genus Pudua.
The tiny little deer from the Chilian Andes, known as the pudu (Pudua
humilis), although allied to the brockets, is so distinct from all others as to
necessitate its reference to a separate genus.
This deer, which is scarcely larger than a hare,
has a rounded head, with rather large ears,
between which in the males are a pair of
minute spike-like antlers, placed comparatively
near together. The fur is of a reddish brown
colour, becoming paler on the under-parts. There
are no tusks in the upper jaw, and the skull
differs from those of all the other American
deer except the guemals in that the premaxillary
bones, which form the extremity of the muzzle,
extend upwards to join the nasal bones covering
the cavity of the nose. The ankle-joint ex-
* . . . HEAD OF THE PUDU DREE. (From Sclater,
hibits certain peculiarities of structure unknown proc. Zool. Soc., 1866.)
in any other species.
THE MUSK-DEER.
Genus Moschus.
The musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus) of the Himalaya differs so remarkably
in several important points from all other deer that it must certainly be regarded
as forming a subfamily by itself, while some authorities consider it entitled to
rank as the representative of a distinct family. These peculiarities are chiefly
internal. Among the most important is the presence of a gall-bladder to the liver,
as in the Ox family, while the brain is much less convoluted than in other deer The
absence of antlers in both sexes cannot, however, be taken as a character of more
than generic importance, since the same feature occurs in the Chinese water-deer.
The musk-deer is a somewhat clumsily built animal, standing about 20 inches
396
UNGULATES.
in height at the shoulder, and clothed with peculiarly coarse, brittle, and rather
long hair, somewhat resembling pith in structure. In addition to the absence of
antlers, the skull is characterised by the presence of tusks, which in the males may
be as much as 3 inches in length, and project considerably below the mouth.
All the limbs are of considerable length, and the hinder pair are longer than the
front ones ; the hoofs are narrow and pointed, and the lateral pair unusually large.
The ears are very large and the tail is short, terminating in the male in a tuft, but
MALE AND FEMALE MUSK DEER (-fa nat. size).
hairy throughout in the female. The male has a peculiar sac-like gland in the
skin of the abdomen, which yields the musk of commerce. The general colour of
the fur is a rich dark brown, more or less speckled and mottled with grey and
tawny ; the individual hairs having black tips, beneath which is a ring of white,
while for three-quarters of their length they are white at the base. The chin, the
inner borders of the ears and the inside of the thighs, and not unfrequently a spot
on each side of the throat, are whitish, while the under- parts and the inner surfaces
of the limbs are paler than the body. Some individuals are, however, considerably
paler than ordinary, while in others there is a more or less marked yellowish tint ;
and others, again, are blacker. The young are spotted.
Distribution. ^e musk-deer is found throughout the Himalaya as far west as
Gilgit, and thence extends through Central Asia into Siberia. In
DEER. 397
Kansu, on the north-west of China, it is replaced by a nearly allied species
(M. sifanicus). In the Himalaya it is seldom found below elevations of eight
thousand feet in summer, and in Sikhim it occurs above twelve thousand feet.
„ ^.x Musk-deer are found either in pairs or alone, and in the Kashmir
Habits.
Himalaya are generally met with in the birch-forests above the zone
of pines. Sometimes, however, they may be seen at lower levels among thick
cover. In habits they have been compared by General Kinloch to hares, and, like
these animals, they make a " form," in which they lie concealed during the day,
their feeding-time being in the morning and evening. Musk-deer seem capable of
enduring almost any degree of cold, against which the peculiar nature of their
thick fur is doubtless a sufficient protection. In early spring they may be seen
among the steep birch-forests around Kashmir, when the ground is deeply buried
in snow, making their way from tree to tree in search of the young twigs and buds
upon which they then chiefly subsist. On such ground they are very active
and sure-footed, their large lateral hoofs being apparently adapted to aid them
in obtaining a foothold on hard snow-slopes and smooth slippery rocks.
General Kinloch states that musk-deer utter a kind of hiss when alarmed,
and it is ascertained that when captured they give vent to a series of screams ; with
these exceptions they appear to be silent, even in the pairing -season. From
observations on some musk-deer kept in captivity in Nipal, it appears that the
sexes come together in January, and that the fawns are born in June. Usually
there is but a single young one at a birth, but occasionally two are produced.
The musk, which, as already mentioned, is found in the male
alone, when fresh is soft and moist, of a brownish colour, and with a
rather unpleasant smell. It soon, however, hardens and dries, and at the same
time acquires the all-powerful scent of musk. When removed from the dead
animal, the secretion is tied up in a portion of the hairy skin covering the gland,
and is then known as a " musk-pod." Each pod will contain on an average about
an ounce of musk, and in India will fetch some sixteen rupees in the market.
English sportsmen hunt musk-deer either by walking through
the forests they frequent, and carefully examining every ravine and
hollow, or by having the jungles driven by natives. On the other hand, the
natives themselves capture these little deer in a wholesale manner, which is de-
scribed as follows by General Macintyre. " A low fence is made of boughs, etc.,
along the ridge of a hill, sometimes a mile or more in length. At intervals of
100 or 150 yards are gaps. The musk-deer, crossing the ridge from one valley
to another, come across this fence, and, to save themselves the trouble of jumping
over it, walk alongside until, seeing a little gap, they try to go through it. But
in each gap a noose of strong string is placed on the ground and tied to a stout
sapling bent downwards. The noose is so arranged that, when the deer tread
inside it, the sapling is loosed and flies back, leaving the noose tied tightly round
the animal's leg. The people visit these fences every two or three days, and secure
the deer thus caught, and repair the fences and nooses, which are often carried
away or destroyed by larger game." In spite of the constant persecution to which
they are subject, musk-deer are still fairly common in many parts of the Himalaya,
where they are known by the name of kastura.
CHAPTER XXIV.
UNGULATES, — continued.
CHEVROTAINS AND CAMELS.
Families TRAGULIDJE AND CAMELID^E.
WITH the Deer family we took leave of the last of the two Kuminants — the Pecora
of the scientific zoologist — and we now come to -two smaller groups of Ungulates,
which, although Ruminants in the general sense of that term, yet differ so widely
from the Pecora, and also from one another, that they are each regarded as consti-
tuting sections of equal value with the latter. These two groups are, firstly, the
small deer-like animals commonly known as chevrotains, and, secondly, the camels ;
the latter term including not only the true camels of the Old World, but likewise
the South American llamas.
Both these groups agree with the true Ruminants in having crescent-like
(selenodont) molar teeth; but whereas the chevrotains are probably descended
from the same ancestral stock as that which gave rise to the deer, it appears that
the camels have originated from a totally different stock, and have thus acquired
their crescent-like teeth quite independently of the true Ruminants. In addition
to forming two distinct families, these two groups have also received names of a
superior grade, thus bringing them on to a platform equivalent to that occupied by
the Pecora. For the chevrotains the term Tragulina is adopted, while that of
Tylopoda is taken for the camels.
THE CHEVROTAINS.
Family Tragulidce.
The elegant little creatures known as chevrotains, or mouse-deer, are so like
small antlerless deer in general outward appearance, that they are commonly
regarded as nearly allied to the musk-deer; near which they were indeed long
placed by zoologists. In zoology, as in many other things, outward appearance is,
however, very often deceptive ; and when the chevrotains are examined anatom-
ically they are found to depart very widely from the deer family.
Chevrotains agree with the true Ruminants in the absence of any incisor teeth
in the upper jaw ; and they resemble the musk-deer in the presence of upper tusks,
or canine teeth, which in the males attain a considerable length, and project below
the mouth. They likewise agree with the true Ruminants in that the canine teeth
of the lower jaw resemble the incisors, to the outermost pair of which they are
CHEVROTAINS.
399
approximated so as to form a continuous series. When we have added that the
three molar teeth and the last premolar tooth in the upper jaw, together with the
lower molars, are of a crescent-like type, the resemblances to the true Ruminants
cease. In the first place, the three premolar teeth, with the exception of the
last in the upper jaw, instead of being crescent-like, have their crowns elongated
and narrow, with sharp cutting edges. Then the second, or axis, vertebra of the
neck has a simple conical peg (odontoid process)
projecting in front, by which it articulates with the
lirst, or atlas, vertebra ; whereas in all the true
Ruminants the same process is spout-like. On ex-
amining the limbs in the skeleton of a chevrotain,
it will be found that the fibula, or smaller bone of the
lower leg, is complete, instead of being represented
only by its lower end. Moreover, each foot has four
complete digits, that is to say, the metacarpal and
metatarsal bones, respectively supporting the toes of
the fore and hind-feet, are complete, and extend
alongside of the cannon-bone from the basal joints of
the toes to the wrist and ankle joints; whereas, as
we have seen, in the true Ruminants these bones are
represented either by their upper or lower extremities LEFT FORE - FOOT OF THE WATER-
alone, or are wanting. Then, again, in one of the CHEVROTAIN (A) AND INDIAN
, . ,, 5 AU « V V « CHEVROTAIN (B).
chevrotams the cannon-bone or the tore -limb is
T-IJ-I-, 11 2 and 5 indicate the lateral digits
divided into its two component metacarpal elements; and 3 and 4 the middle pair (Frgom
while in the other it is wider and less completely Dawkins.)
soldered than in the true Ruminants. These differ-
ences will be apparent by comparing the figures herewith given, with the one on
p. 213. Finally, instead of the four distinct compartments characteristic of the true
Ruminants, the stomach of the chevrotains has but three such chambers.
THE TRUE CHEVROTAINS.
Genus Tragulus.
The chevrotains are divided into two genera, the first of which is Asiatic and
the second African. The true or Asiatic chevrotains are represented by five species,
of which the range extends from India and Ceylon through the Malayan Archi-
pelago to the Philippines. They are characterised by the two median metacarpal
bones of the fore-limb being fused into a cannon-bone (B of the figure), and also the
small size of the lateral toes. With one exception, they are the smallest of living
Ungulates, and much resemble the American Rodents known as agutis in general
appearance and habits.
Of the five living species of the genus, one is confined to India and Ceylon,
while the others are found in the regions to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal.
The Indian chevrotain (Tragulus meminna} differs from all the others in having
the body spotted with white, and the whole of the chin and throat uniformly
400
UNGULATES.
covered with hair. It is of medium height, standing from 10 to 12 inches at the
withers, and weighing from 5 to 6 Ibs. In colour, the upper-parts are brown of
variable shade, minutely speckled with yellow ; while the flanks are spotted with
white or buff on a brown ground ; the spots being more or less elongated, and often
passing into short longitudinal stripes. This chevrotain is found in Southern
India and Ceylon at elevations below two thousand feet, extending northwards as
far as Orissa on the east coast, and to the Western Ghats near Bombay on the
west. The other four species have the upper-parts of the body uniformly coloured,
and the skin between the two branches of the lower jaw completely naked and
glandular. Of these the largest species is the larger Malayan chevrotain (T. napu),
standing 13 inches in height at the shoulder, and characterised by its dark smoky-
THE SMALLER MALAYAN CHEVROTAIN (i"z nat. size).
grey colour, with the under-parts greyish-white without any rufous or fulvous
edging. This species occurs in South Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and the
islands of Sumatra and Borneo.
The two other Malayan species are rufous either over the whole of the upper-
parts or on the flanks and the edges of the white area of the under-parts.
Stanley's chevrotain (T. Stanley anus), from some of the Malayan Islands, is inter-
mediate in size between the preceding and following species, and has all the upper-
parts bright rufous. On the other hand, the smaller Malayan chevrotain (T.
javanicus), which is the one represented in our illustration, is the most diminutive
member of the group, and is greyish above, with the sides brightening to rufous,
and a dark line, which may be nearly black, running along the nape of the neck.
The under-parts are whitish, more or less mixed with rufous, but there is generally
(as in our illustration) a broad reddish or brown stripe running up the front of the
chest. With the exception of the royal antelope (p. 307), this chevrotain is the
CHE VROTAINS, 40 1
smallest of all living Ungulates; it has a very wide geographical distribution,
being found in Cambodia, Cochin-China, South Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The last species is the Philippine chevrotain (T. nigri-
cans), confined to the islands from which it takes its name. Remains of a fossil
chevrotain have been discovered in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the
foot of the Himalaya.
All the chevrotains appear to be very similar in their habits.
Habits. ™ 11 • • • •
They have a peculiar way or walking in a mincing manner on the
extreme tips of their hoofs, which communicates a stiff and rigid appearance to the
legs, and has thus given rise to the popular notion that these animals have no
joints. Chevrotains lie concealed in grass or jungle, and only venture out to feed
in the evenings and mornings. They are timid and shy, but in confinement soon
become tame and gentle, and have been known to breed. Writing of the Indian
species, Colonel Tickell observes that it " is found throughout the jungly districts
of Central India (i.e., Chutia Nagpur), but from its retired habits is not often seen.
It never ventures into open country, but keeps among rocks, in the crevices of
which it passes the heat of the day, and into which it retires on the approach of
an enemy. In these the female brings forth her young (two in number), generally
at the close of the rains or the commencement of the cold season. The male keeps
with the female during the rutting season (about June or July), but at other times
they live solitary." The smaller Malayan chevrotain, which is very common in the
Peninsula, inhabits dense thickets, and produces either one or two fawns at a birth.
THE WATER-CHEVROTAIN.
Genus Dorcatherium.
The water-chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum) of the West Coast of Africa,
is the only surviving representative of a genus which appears to have been widely
spread in the Old World during the Pliocene and Miocene epochs of the Tertiary
period. Indeed, the genus was originally founded upon the evidence of one of these
extinct species, the living form having been subsequently described under the name
of Hyomoschus, and it is only recently that zoologists have generally recognised
the generic identity of the recent and fossil species.
The water-chevrotain is mainly distinguished from the true chevrotains of
Asia by the feet being shorter and stouter, with relatively larger lateral toes, and,
above all, by the circumstance that the two middle metacarpal bones remain com-
pletely separate, as shown in the figure on p. 399. The living species is slightly
superior in size to the largest of the Asiatic chevrotains, and resembles the Indian
representative of the latter in having the body spotted and striped with white.
The general colour of the fur is a rich brown, with a large amount of white on the
throat and chest, as well as on the under surface of the tail ; the upper part of the
body is spotted, while the flanks are marked with longitudinal white stripes, which
are larger and more continuous than those of the Indian chevrotain.
As is the case with so many West African animals, we have but scanty in-
formation as to the habits of the water-chevrotain in its native state. It is, however,
VOL. ii. — 26
402
UNGULATES.
generally found near the banks of river and lakes, and its mode of life is said to be
much like that of pigs.
The water-chevrotain has but three premolar teeth in the lower jaw, but in
the somewhat larger species found in the Pliocene and Miocene strata of Europe
there were four of these teeth. The species occurring in the Pliocene of the Punjab
was of still larger dimensions ; and affords one more instance of the intimate
connection existing between the Tertiary Mammalian fauna of India and that of
Africa at the present day.
In its separate metacarpal bones, the water-chevrotain makes a
decided approach towards the pigs ; and in the Tertiary deposits of
Europe and North America there occur numerous small Ungulates, which appear
to have connected the chevrotains with the deer. Such is Gelocus, from the lower
Miocene of France, in which the middle metacarpal bones were separate, while the
metatarsals were fused into a cannon-bone, which has been regarded as the common
ancestor of the two families. Prodremotheriuin of the upper Eocene of France,
has cannon-bones in both limbs ; while in the American Hypertragulus both the
metacarpals and metatarsals were separate.
Extinct Forms.
THE CAMELS AND LLAMAS.
Family Camelidce.
The camels of the Old World, and the llamas of the New, form, as already
stated, a group of ruminating Ungulates distinguished widely both from the true
SKELETON OP THE ARABIAN CAMEL.
Ruminants and the chevrotains, and which probably have had a totally distinct
origin from more primitive even-toed Ungulates.
CAMELS AND LLAMAS.
403
THE LEFT
FOKE-FOOT OF THE
CAMEL. (From
Dawkins.)
An important point of distinction is that the front of the upper jaw is furnished
with incisor teeth ; it is true, indeed, that in the adult state there is only a single
pair of these teeth remaining, but in young animals there are, as in pigs, three
pairs. Then, again, both jaws are furnished with tusks or canine teeth ; those of
the lower jaw being sharply pointed, and separated by an interval
from the incisors, instead of resembling the latter and forming
with them a continuous series, as we have seen to be the case in
the chevrotains and the true Ruminants. The molar teeth have
tall and crescent-shaped crowns, which, however, are not precisely
similar to those of the group last-named ; and one, or sometimes
more, of the premolar teeth generally has a simple pointed crown,
like that of a canine, and is not in contact with the other teeth
of the cheek-series. These isolated premolar teeth are seen in
the figure of the skeleton of the camel, in the gap between the
tusks and the other cheek-teeth.
The limbs are long, and the thigh is placed nearly vertically,
so that the true knee is more detached from the small hind-
quarters of the body than is usually the case in Ungulate
mammals. The lower portion of the legs is composed of a
cannon-bone supporting two toes, without any trace of the lateral
BOr*ES OK
toes or their metacarpal bones. The cannon-bone differs, how-
ever, from that of the true Ruminants, in that the two pulley-like
surfaces at the lower end, instead of being placed side by side
and furnished with a distinct ridge in the middle of each, are divergent and perfectly
smooth. The bones of the first joint of the toes are also longer and more expanded
at their lower ends than in the true Ruminants ; the second pair being broad and
flattened, while the third form mere nodules, quite unlike the symmetrical ones of
the latter group. The feet form broad expanded cushion-
like pads (from which the group derives its title of
Tylopoda), of which the under surface is undivided, while
the front shows a division into two toes, each, of which
bears a broad nail on the upper surface. The ankle-joint
differs from that of the true Ruminants in that the two
bones lying immediately below the astragalus, remain
distinct, whereas in the former they unite into a compound
bone, termed the naviculo-cuboid. A further distinction is
to be found in the divided upper lip, like that of a hare ;
while the elongated neck is characterised by the great
length of its component vertebrae. These vertebrae ex-
hibit certain peculiarities of structure into the considera-
tion of which we need not enter here; but it must be
observed that they resemble those of the true Ruminants
in that the process in front of the second vertebra, by which it articulates with
the first, is spout-shaped. Here, then, we have another instance of a similar
structure being independently acquired in two distinct groups. The head is carried
high in the air, with the upper part of the neck nearly vertical ; and is unprovided
WATER-CELLS IN STOMACH OF
CAMEL.
404 UNGULATES
with either horns or antlers. The stomach has but three compartments ; the first
two of these being provided with a number of cells or pouches which can be closed
by the action of muscles, and these contain only fluid. The bones of all the
members of the family are remarkable for their extremely solid and ivory-like
structure.
The camel family, in proportion to its extent, is more valuable to mankind
than any other group of even-toed Ungulates, only one species being unknown in
the domesticated condition, while two are now found exclusively in that state.
The Old and New World representatives constitute two distinct genera, the former
of which we take first.
THE CAMELS.
Genus Camelus.
The camels of the Old World, of which there are two distinct species, are
characterised by their great bodily size and bulk, and the presence of one or two
large fatty humps on the back, as well as by having six upper and five lower
cheek-teeth on each side of the jaws, the total number of teeth being thirty-four.
Their ears are comparatively short and rounded ; and the hair is very irregularly
disposed, being in some places very long and shaggy, and in others short and close,
although never partaking of the nature of true wool. The feet are broad, with the
toes very imperfectly separated ; and the tail is comparatively long, reaching nearly
to the hocks, and furnished near the end with long hair forming a terminal tuft.
Callous pads, on which the animal rests when lying down, and which are present
at birth, are found on the chest, the elbows, the wrists (commonly called the knees),
and the knees. Needless to say, the whole form of these animals is far from
beautiful, while the head is ugly in the extreme ; and this want of bodily beauty
is accompanied by a viciousness of temper and general stupidity of disposition
which can scarcely be paralleled elsewhere among domesticated animals.
The two species of camel are both now unknown in the wild condition,
although in some localities there are half -wild herds of which the parents
have escaped from captivity. There is also a half-breed between the two species,
which is said by the tribes among which it is bred to display better qualities than
either of the parent stocks.
The first of these two species is the true or Arabian camel
Arabian Camel. . „ . *
(Camelus dromedamus), which is found both in Africa and Asia, and
is characterised by its single hump. It is a long-limbed animal, with a compara-
tively short coat of hair, and soft feet, adapted for walking on yielding sandy soil,
and standing from about 6 feet 8 inches to 7 feet in height. The head is compara-
tively short, with a long and sloping muzzle, and convex forehead ; the eyes are
large, with a soft expression ; and the small rounded ears are placed far back on
the sides of the head. The upper lip overhangs the lower; and the large slit-
like nostrils can be closed at will. The long neck is laterally compressed, and
thickest in the middle ; and the body is massive and rounded. The contour of the
back rises from the setting on of the neck to the loins, and then falls rapidly away
ARABIAN CAMEL.
CAMELS AND LLAMAS. 407
to the tail. The hump, when the animal is in good condition, stands upright, but it
alters considerably in shape according to age. The richer the food of the camel,
the larger is its hump ; while, when the food is poor and dry, the hump decreases
in size ; and accordingly in the rainy season this appendage attains its maximum
development, while in the dry months it proportionately shrinks. In high-con-
ditioned animals, the hump should form a regular pyramid, and occupy at least a
quarter of the whole length, but when the animals are half-starved it almost dis-
appears. The hair is soft, and on the hinder part of the head, the neck and throat,
the shoulders, the hump, and the upper part of the fore-legs, is longer than else-
where. The colour of the hair is very variable, although a light sandy is the
most common hue ; there are, however, white, grey, brown, and even totally black
camels ; but those of the last-named colour are held by the Arabs to be worthless.
There are numerous breeds of camels differing more or less
Various Breeds.
from another, and the Arabs recognise no less than twenty distinct
strains. Roughly speaking, they may, however, be divided into two classes,
namely, baggage-camels and riding-camels, or dromedaries ; and Sir Samuel Baker
observes that there " is the same difference between a good hygin, or dromedary,
and a baggage-camel, as between the thoroughbred and the cart-horse; and it
appears absurd in the eyes of the Arabs that a man of any position should ride a
baggage-camel. Apart from all ideas of etiquette, the motion of the latter animal
is quite sufficient warning. Of all species of fatigue, the back-breaking monotonous
swing of a heavy camel is the worst." The peculiarly unpleasant motion of even
the best camels is due to the circumstance that the two legs of one side are moved
simultaneously. The ordinary pace of a baggage-camel is from two and a half to
three miles an hour when fully loaded, but a good dromedary will keep up a pace
of from eight to ten miles an hour for a long period.
„ ,_... ^ Arabian camels are now found in the domesticated condition in
Habitat.
all parts of Africa, lying between the Mediterranean and the 12th
parallel of north latitude, while in Somaliland they extend as far south as the 5th
parallel. They are also widely distributed in South-Eastern Asia, ranging from the
lowlands of Afghanistan and Bokhara, where they impinge on the habitat of the
two-humped Bactrian camel, through North- Western India, Persia, Asia Minor,
Syria, and Arabia. In Asia Minor and Khorasan, there is a race of half-breeds
between the Arabian and the Bactrian camel ; this breed being known in the last-
named country as the Boghdi camel. According to Elphinstone, it has the two
humps of the Bactrian species, but the long limbs of the Arabian ; and it appears
to be generally a product of crossing a male of the former with a female of the
latter. Arabian camels have also been introduced into the Canaries, Australia,
North America, Italy, the south of Spain, and Zanzibar.
There has been much discussion as to what country was the original home of
the Arabian camel ; but it has been considered that Arabia has the best title to
this honour. This conclusion appears to rest partly on the statements of Diodorus
Siculus and Strabo that wild camels existed in Arabia at the commencement of
the Christian era, and partly on the circumstance that no representations of camels
occur in the ancient Egyptian frescoes. Whatever may be the value of the state-
ments referred to, there can be no question but that the absence of pictures of
4o8 UNGULATES.
these animals from the frescoes of Egypt does not support the conclusion that
they were introduced at a comparatively late date into that country. For there is
evidence furnished by a papyrus of the 14th century B.C. that camels were at
that early period well known in Egypt. Possibly there were some superstitious
or other reasons which led to the exclusion of their portraits from the frescoes.
A certain amount of light is thrown on the question by the occurrence of
fossilised remains of extinct camels in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills, at
the foot of the Himalaya, and also in beds belonging to the succeeding Pleistocene
period in Algeria. And knowing, as we do, that so many of the African genera of
Mammals have taken origin in India, from whence they have migrated to their
present home, it would seem highly likely that the same may have been the case
with the camels. The Arabian camel, or its immediate parent, may, therefore,
have sprung from an Indian ancestor, and thence made its way through Arabia
and Syria into Northern Africa.
The Arabian camel is essentially an animal fitted to exist only in dry or desert
districts, and consequently all attempts to introduce it into the moist and wooded
regions of Southern India and Equatorial Africa have signally failed. Where,
however, the climate is at all favourable, its introduction into new regions has
generally been attended with success. Camels are reported to have been introduced
into Italy in the year 1622, and again in 1738. On a flat plain near Pisa the number
in 1810 was forty, and in 1840 forty-one, while later it had increased to upwards of
two hundred. Their attempted introduction into Sicily, as beasts of burden in the
sulphur mines, was, on account of the climate, a failure ; but in Spain they appear
to have thriven.
In the year 1856 a drove of seventy-five camels was procured from Smyrna
by the United States Government, and distributed over Texas, Arizona, and New
Mexico. During the war of secession, the whole of these animals fell into the
hands of the Confederates, and were used for carrying the mails, some of them
making journeys of upwards of 120 miles in a day. At the conclusion of the war
the remnant of these once more came under the Government of the United States,
and others were purchased in 1866. These were distributed through Arizona and
Texas for breeding purposes ; but many died, and the experiment proved unsatis-
factory. Consequently, those that survived were turned adrift to shift for them-
selves ; and it appears that some still remain in the wilder districts of California
and Arizona, and wander over a considerable area in the course of the year.
In Australia, the introduction of camels has been a greater success, and they have
proved invaluable in the expeditions which have been undertaken to explore the
deserts of the interior.
The food of the camel in its natural state probably consisted
Habits. .
entirely of branches and leaves of trees, and although grain is now
largely given, a certain amount of green -food is absolutely essential to the
animal's health. No matter how thorny the boughs may be, they are quite
acceptable to the camel ; and it is perfectly marvellous how the animals manage to
eat such food without injury to their mouths. On such a diet, or even on dates,
camels will do well ; but when compelled to work for days with little or no food,
they soon break down, as was disastrously shown in the expedition to Khartum.
CAMELS.
409
For a few days, owing to the peculiar conformation of their stomachs, camels can
exist comfortably without water, but their endurance in this respect is often taxed
sadly beyond its natural capability.
Although the camel is undoubtedly the most valuable and useful of all animals
in dry and desert countries, its disposition and temper are decidedly of the very
worst description. In addition to its ordinary surliness and want of attachment
to its master, the male camel during the pairing-season is subject to almost uncon-
trollable outbreaks of rage; and, at the same time, owing to a swelling of the
uvula, makes a loud bubbling noise which is most unpleasant to the human
occupants of the camp. An instance of the savage disposition of camels is
afforded by the habit they have, when passing a mounted man on a narrow path,
of turning their heads suddenly round and endeavouring to inflict a bite on the
rider's arm or shoulder; a camel's bite being, by the way, exceptionally severe.
Writing of the character of the camel, Dr. Robinson observes, that these animals
" are commonly represented as patient, but if so, it is the patience of stupidity.
They are rather exceedingly impatient, and utter loud cries of indignation when
receiving their loads, and not seldom on being made to kneel down. They are also
obstinate, and frequently vicious ; and the attempt to urge them forwards is often
very like trying to drive sheep the way they do not wish to go."
So again, Palgrave writes that the camel " takes no heed of his rider, pays no
attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on when once set
agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside, and then should some
tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of the path, continues to walk on
in the new direction, simply because he is too dull to turn back into the right road.
In a word, he is from first to last an undomesticated and savage animal, rendered
serviceable by stupidity alone, without much skill on his master's part, or any
co-operation of his own save that of an extreme passiveness."
In addition to its value as a beast of burden, the camel is also
Uses
esteemed by the natives of many countries on account of its milk and
flesh, while its hair is woven into ropes and cloth, and in some parts of India its
bones are used in lieu of ivory for inlaying and turning. The milk is extremely
thick and rich, but is unsuitable for use with tea or coffee, as it then immediately
curdles. From remote antiquity camels have been kept in enormous herds by
Eastern nations. In modern times the Arabs of the Sudan possess immense herds,
which in the rainy season are driven northwards in thousands ; and in some parts
of North- Western India the number of camels kept by the natives must be very
large. When the young camels are too feeble to undergo the fatigues of a day's
march, they are slung in nets on the backs or by the sides of some adult members
of the drove. But a single calf is produced at a birth, after a gestation of rather
more than eleven months; and the calf is suckled by the dam for at least a
twelvemonth.
In the Sudan the price of a riding-camel varies from about £10 to £15,
while a good baggage-camel can be purchased for about £4, 10s. Young or weak
camels may be bought for as little as 80s.
Aversion to Camels have a great aversion to crossing even the smallest
water. stream, and swim either imperfectly, or not at all, without assistance ;
4io
UNGULATES.
this aversion doubtless indicating that the original home of the animal was in
desert lands. On this subject Sir Samuel Baker observes, that " a camel either
cannot or will not swim, unless it is supported by inflated skins ; thus the passage
of the broad river, Atbara (about 300 yards wide), is an affair of great difficulty.
Two water-skins are inflated, and attached to the camel by a band passed like
a girth beneath the belly. Thus arranged, a man sits upon its back, while one or
two swim by the side as guides. The current of the Atbara runs at a rapid rate ;
and the camel is generally carried at least half a mile down the river before it can
gain the opposite bank."
The Bactrian camel (C. bactrianus), of Central Asia, is dis-
tinguished from the Arabian species, not only by its double hump,
THE BACTRIAN CAMEL (A Hat. size).
but likewise by its inferior height, stouter and more clumsy build, shorter legs,
and harder and shorter feet, as well as by the greater length and abundance of the
hair. This animal is, indeed, in all respects, better adapted for a rocky and hilly
country than its southern congener ; its shorter and stouter limbs rendering it far
less liable to accidents in traversing precipitous ascents. The largest develop-
ment of hair occurs upon the top of the head, the neck and shoulders, the upper
part of the fore-limbs, and the humps.
CAMELS. 411
The Bactrian camel is found in nearly all the desert-regions of
Central Asia lying between Afghanistan and Turkestan, and China
and Southern Siberia. In the regions lying to the eastward of Yarkand, there
occur droves of these camels now living in a wild condition, which there is every
reason to believe are descended from domesticated individuals escaped from
captivity. According to Prejevalski, these wild camels differ from the ordinary
domestic race by the smaller size of their humps, the more distinct pads on their
wrists (front knees), and certain peculiarities in the conformation of the skull.
Major C. S. Cumberland states that " the habitat of the wild camel is the Gobi
steppe, from Khotan to Lob Nor. Except when snow lies on the ground, these
animals may be met with here and there along the old bed of the Yarkand and
Tarim Rivers, which they frequent for the pools of brackish water that are to be
found here and there. But as soon as the snow falls, they move off into the desert,
as if then independent of the water-supply. They prefer the snow, I imagine, as
being less salt than the water, although it also is impregnated to a certain extent
soon after it falls. The camel is very shy in its habits, and, so far as I could
ascertain, has never been caught and domesticated. The natives told me that no
horse in the country could catch the camels in the deep sand of the region they
frequent. . . . They vary in colour, like the domestic species, from dark brown to
lightish dun . Their origin has yet to be traced. I take it that they have sprung
from camels which escaped when the district known as Takla Makun was buried
in a great sand-storm some two centuries ago. Tradition relates that no human
beings survived, but it is likely enough that some of the camels and horses did so,
and that this was the origin of the wild camels and ponies which are found in the
district."
The Bactrian camel feeds chiefly upon the saline and bitter
plants of the steppes which are rejected by almost all other animals ;
and displays a curious partiality for salt, drinking freely at the brackish water
and salt lakes, which are so common throughout its habitat. Instead of confining
itself to a strictly vegetable diet, the Bactrian camel, according to the reports of
Prejevalski, will, when pressed by hunger, readily devour almost anything that it
may come across, including felt-blankets, bones and skins of animals, flesh and
fish.
The pairing-season occurs during February, March, and April ;
and the young (of which but one is produced at a birth) are not born
till thirteen months later, so that the period of gestation is considerably longer
than in the Arabian camel. At birth the young are so helpless when the animals
are kept in the domesticated state that they have to be attended with the greatest
care ; but they very soon gain strength, and in about a week are able to eat. They
are weaned at an early period for the sake of the milk of the parents, which is
largely used by their owners. In their third year they are ridden on short
journeys, while in their fifth year they attain their full stature and vigour ; and
with good management they are said to be serviceable until they attain the age of
some five-and-twenty years. In Mongolia and on the Kirghiz steppes the Bactrian
camel is fully as important to the nomad inhabitants as is its southern cousin in
Arabia.
4I2
UNGULATES.
THE LLAMAS.
Genus
Under the general title of llamas may be conveniently included all the exist-
ing South American representatives of the camel family, although that name
properly belongs only to a domesticated variety of one of the two wild species.
A DROVE OF VICUNIAS (^ nat. size).
All the llamas are smaller in size and lighter in build than the camels, and owing
to the absence of any hump on the back depart less widely from the ordinary type
of Ungulates. Their pointed ears are relatively much longer than in the camels,
while their thickly-haired tails are reduced to little more than a stump. The feet,
again, are narrower and more pointed than in their Old World relatives, and have
LLAMAS. 413
their toes more completely separated, each toe being furnished with a distinct pad
on the sole. The whole of the body is covered with a thick coat of long hair
partaking of a woolly nature ; and there are fewer callosities on the limbs than in
the camels. As characters of minor import, it may be added that the head is pro-
portionately longer than in the latter, and has a tapering and sharply-pointed
muzzle, while the neck is relatively thinner.
The skull has one tooth on each side of the upper jaw less than in the camels,
the missing tooth being the isolated sharp-pointed preinolar which is found in the
latter in the middle of the gap between the tusk and the main series of cheek-teeth.
Consequently the total number of teeth is only thirty-two instead of thirty -four.
The premolar tooth in the lower jaw, which is of very small size, not unfrequently,
however, falls out in the adult, and thus reduces the number to thirty.
Llamas at the present day are entirely confined to the western and
southern regions of South America, and can live only where the climate
is temperate. Thus on the western side of the continent they are restricted to the
higher ranges of the Andes and Cordilleras, but in many parts, Patagonia and
Tierra-del-Fuego, they flourish on the plains at the sea-level. In the neighbour-
hood of the Equator they are generally found at elevations of between twelve
thousand and sixteen thousand feet above the sea, and they never descend lower
than between six thousand and seven thousand feet. During the rainy part of the
year the wild species which inhabit the mountains ascend to the limits of vegeta-
tion, but in the hot season they descend to the valleys where alone sustenance is to
be found. They live in larger or smaller parties, and sometimes congregate in
herds comprising many hundreds of individuals. All the species are characterised
by their very objectionable habit of spitting, as many visitors to zoological gardens
well know.
There are two wild species of llama now existing, respectively
known as the vicunia and the guanaco, and likewise two domestic-
ated races, namely, the llama and the alpaca. For a long period much uncertainty
existed as to the relationship of these domesticated races to the wild species, but
the researches of Mr. O. Thomas have led to the conclusion that both the former
are in all probability derived from the wild guanaco, with which they agree
in the proportionately large size of their skulls, and the presence of naked patches
on the hind-limbs.
The vicunia (Lama vicunia) is the smaller of the two wild
Vicuniti
species, and is of a uniform light-brown colour, becoming paler on the
under-parts and limbs, and with light markings on the face and jaws. The build
of the animal is very light and graceful ; its head is relatively short, and it has no
naked callosities on the hind-legs. In correlation with the shortness of the head,
the skull is of proportionately small size. This species has a somewhat restricted
range, being confined to the mountains in the district between Southern Ecuador
and Central Bolivia, which includes the whole of Peru.
According to the account of Tschudi, during the wet season of the
year the vicunias seek the highest ridges of the Cordillera, where
plant-life is but sparse. On account of the softness of their feet, they prefer
upland meadows, and avoid the stony, naked peaks, while they still more carefully
4I4 UNGULATES.
shun glaciers and snow-fields. In the hot season, on the other hand, they descend
into the higher valleys. The reason of this reversal of the usual plan of migration
appears to be that in the Cordillera the vegetation on the higher ridges is completely
withered up by the heat of the dry summer season, and that such herbage as
remains is only to be found in the valleys, where it is nourished by springs or
swamps. Vicunias feed all day, and it is seldom that a flock is seen lying down.
During the pairing-season the males fight with great fierceness for the supremacy
of the flocks, each of which comprises one male accompanied by from six to fifteen
females. The male always remains a few paces behind the flock, and gives notice
of any approaching danger by uttering a shrill whistle, at the same time
rapidly advancing; the flock then collects, and takes to immediate flight in a
swift gallop, the male bringing up the rear, and often stopping to observe the foe.
In the month of February the females give birth to a single fawn, which as
soon as it comes into the world is endowed with remarkable speed and endurance.
The young males remain with their dams until full grown, when they are expelled
from the flock by the united force of females. These young males unite together
in separate flocks of from twenty to thirty head ; and as such flocks have no
special guardian, but all the members are constantly on the alert, they are exceed-
ingly difficult to approach. During the pairing-season incessant fights take- place
among these male flocks, and the animals then utter a peculiar neighing sort of cry
which can be heard at a great distance.
The Indians hunt vicunias by forming a circular enclosure of
stakes connected by cords, with a diameter of about half a mile, and
an entrance of some couple of hundred feet in width. The cords connecting the
stakes are hung with bright-coloured pieces of cloth, which flutter in the wind and
prevent the animals from trying to break through. When the enclosure is ready,
the hunters make a wide circuit on the mountains, and drive in all the flocks of
vicunias there may be in the neighbourhood ; the animals being despatched by the
bolas — a weapon consisting of two large balls connected by a string, which is
whirled round the hunter's head and then hurled with unerring aim at his victim.
The flesh is divided among the Indians, but the skins belong to the priests. The
wool, although small in quantity, is fine and of excellent quality ; and in 1826 a law
was made that the vicunias should be caught and shorn, instead of killed, but the
wildness of the animals rendered this impracticable. In the time of the Incas vicunia-
hunts, in which as many as thirty thousand men took part, were organised upon a
large scale. An area of some twenty miles would be completely surrounded, and
every living thing driven in ; and it is said that at times as many as forty thousand
head of game, including bears, pumas, foxes, deer, vicunias, and guanacos, would be
thus surrounded. Such a hunt would last for a week, during which many hundred
head of game would be killed, Tschudi mentioning that in a hunt which he joined,
upwards of one hundred and twenty -two vicunias were slaughtered.
The guanaco (L. guanacus} is a rather larger and heavier-built
animal than the vicunia, with a longer head, larger skull, and distinct
naked patches on the knees of the hind-legs. A full-grown male will measure 4
feet in height at the shoulder, and from 7 to 8 feet in length. The thick and
woolly hair is of a pale reddish colour, longest and palest on the under-parts. The
LLAMAS. 415
geographical range of this species is very wide, extending from the lofty mountains
of Ecuador and Peru, where it is found in company with the vicunia, to the plains
of Patagonia and the islands of Tierra-del-Fuego.
In the mountains the habits of the guanaco appear to be very
similar to those of the vicunia, but it is not unfrequently seen in
larger flocks, which may occasionally reach as many as one hundred or even five
hundred head. The pairing-season occurs in August and September, and the young
are born ten or eleven months afterwards. Darwin states that these animals
are very wild and wary, and that frequently the first evidence of their presence in
the neighbourhood of the hunter is their loud, neighing alarm-cry, which makes
itself heard at a great distance. If the hunter looks attentively, he will then,
writes Darwin, "probably see the herd standing in a line on the side of some
•distant hill. On approaching nearer, a few more squeals are given, and off they set
at an apparently slow but really quick canter, along some narrow beaten track to
a neighbouring hill. If, however, by chance he abruptly meets a single animal, or
several together, they will generally stand motionless and intently gaze at him,
then perhaps move on a few yards, turn round, and look again." The writer then
proceeds to give instances of their extreme curiosity, and adds that they are easily
domesticated, and in the wild state have no notion of defending themselves. He
continues that " guanacos take readily to the water ; several times at Port Valdes
they were seen swimming from island to island. Byron, in his voyage, says he
saw them drinking salt-water. Some of our officers likewise saw a herd apparently
drinking the briny fluid from a salina near Cape Blanco. I imagine in several
parts of the country if they do not drink salt-water they do not drink at all. In
the middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust, in saucer-shaped hollows.
The males fight together ; two one day passed quite close to me, squealing and
trying to bite each other ; and several were shot with their hides deeply scored.
Herds sometimes appear to set out on exploring parties ; at Bahia Blanca, where,
within thirty miles of the coast, these animals are extremely unfrequent, I one day
saw the tracks of thirty or forty, which had come in a direct line to a muddy salt-
water creek. They then must have perceived that they were approaching the sea,
for they had wheeled with the regularity of cavalry, and had returned in as
straight a line as they had advanced."
The most singular circumstance connected with the guanacos is
Dying-Places.
their habit of resorting to certain particular spots when they feel
their end approaching. On this point Darwin observes that "on the banks of
the Santa Cruz, in certain circumscribed spaces, which were generally bushy and
always near the river, the ground was actually white with bones. On one such spot
I counted between ten and twenty heads. I particularly examined the bones ; they
did not appear, as some scattered ones which I had seen, gnawed or broken, as if
dragged together by beasts of prey. The animals in most cases must have crawled
before dying beneath and amongst the bushes." Although mentioning that
wounded guanacos invariably make their way towards the river, Darwin did
not attempt any explanation of this strange habit. A later observer, Mr. W. H.
Hudson, after stating that this habit is only developed among the guanacos of
Southern Patagonia, suggests, however, that it is due to an inherited instinct,
416
UNGULATES.
derived from a time when the animals were accustomed during a period of
exceptional cold to seek refuge beneath the cover of the bushes growing in the
sheltered river- valleys. " Once we accept this explanation as probable," writes Mr.
Hudson, " namely, that the guanaco, in withdrawing from the herd to drop down
and die in the ancient dying-ground, is in reality only seeking an historically-
remembered place of refuge, and not of death — the action of the animal loses much
of its mysterious character ; we come on to firm ground, and find that we are no
longer considering an instinct absolutely unique, with no action or instinct in any
other animal leading up to or suggesting any family likeness to it."
With the true llama (L. glama) we come to the first of the two
domesticated representatives of the genus, both of which are now
considered to have originated from the wild guanaco. The llama attains larger
Llama.
THE LLAMA (r'g nat. size).
dimensions than the guanaco, and is very variable in colour, although generally
white, or white spotted with brown or black, and more rarely completely brown or
black. The skull is very similar to that of the guanaco, and the knees have the same
naked patches. In general appearance the llama is a long-necked and long-limbed
LLAMAS. 417
creature, with comparatively short hair falling but little below the lower line of
the body. It was bred by the ancient Peruvians mainly as a beast of burden, or
for riding, and was chiefly characteristic of the southern portion of Peru, where,
before the Spanish conquest, enormous numbers of these animals were kept. The
introduction of horses and mules has, however, gradually led to the displacement
of the llama as a beast of burden. When, however, llamas and alpacas were the
only domesticated Ungulates in South America, their importance to the Peruvians
was fully as great as is that of the reindeer to the modern Laplander, since between
them they not only did all the carrying work of the country, but likewise supplied
their masters with wool and flesh. The complete distinction between llamas and
alpacas from as far back as tradition or records extend, coupled with the extreme
antiquity of the Peruvian civilisation, indicates that the domestication of the
wild guanaco must in all probability have taken place at a very early period. As
showing the security of the country it may be mentioned that, soon after the
Spanish conquest, it was not uncommon to meet droves of from three hundred to five
hundred or even one thousand llamas, each laden with silver ingots, and the whole
in charge of a single native. Such droves slept in the open fields without the
slightest danger from loss by robbers. Only the male llamas were used as beasts
of burden, while the smaller females were kept for their milk and flesh. In travel-
ling along the roads the droves marched in single file, under the guidance of a
leader ; and such a line would traverse the highest passes of the Cordillera, and
skirt the most stupendous precipices with perfect safety. When not in active use, the
herds of llamas were kept on the higher mountain-pastures, where they would often
temporarily associate with wild guanacos. The Spanish conquerors of Peru spoke of
llama-flesh as being fully equal to the best mutton, and they established in the towns
shops for its regular sale. At the period of the conquest it is estimated that upwards
of three hundred thousand llamas were employed in the transport of the product of
the mines of Potosi alone. Llamas produce only one offspring at a time, so that
their rate of increase is not very rapid. Usually the young are suckled by the
mother for about four months, but in one race the period is longer ; and it is stated
that the young of two successive seasons may not unfrequently be seen suckling at
the same time.
The alpaca (L. pacos) is a considerably smaller animal than the
llama, and is bred for the sake of its wool, which is of great fineness
and length, reaching in some specimens almost to the ground. The usual colour
of the wool is very dark brown or black. In regard to the origin of the alpaca,
Mr. Thomas has come to the conclusion that the old view of the vicunia being the
parent -stock is untenable, and that we must look to the guanaco as the true
ancestor. He observes, for instance, that the size of the alpaca, " although less than
that of the llama, is far greater than that of the vicunia. Its skull and teeth
wholly agree with those of the former, and the naked patches on the legs, so
distinctive of the guanaco as compared with the vicunia, are very often, although
not always, present, the exceptions being easily explainable in the case of an animal
bred and selected for generations solely with an eye to the thickness and extent of
its furry covering. The occasional growth of the fur over the naked patches is
not therefore to be wondered at. The probabilities also are much in favour of the
VOL. n. — 27
4i8 UNGULATES.
Peruvians having domesticated one wild species only rather than two, and of their
having gradually developed two races out of it — the one large, strong, and suitable
for the carriage of burdens, and the other smaller in size, but exceptional in its
capacitj" for producing a quantity of useful wool."
Alpacas are kept throughout the year in large herds on the high
plateaus of Bolivia and Southern Peru, and are only driven down to
the villages at the shearing-season. The wool is of two kinds — a longer and
coarser, and a finer and shorter; the former being termed by the Peruvians
Uses.
THE ALPACA (& nat. size.)
hanaska, and the latter kumbi. The Incas dyed both kinds with bright and
lasting colours, and wove them into cloth and blankets ; and alpaca wool has been
introduced into England, the late Sir Titus Salt having established mills for its
manufacture into cloth at Bradford.
Acclimatisation. Attempts have also been made to acclimatise the alpaca in Europe
and Australia. A large herd was imported by a late Earl of Derby
and established at Knowsley, and it was thought that these animals might be
successfully introduced into the highlands of Scotland; but if the attempt was
ever made, it had no permanent results. In Australia, after great difficulties in
LLAMAS. 419
getting permission from the Peruvian and Bolivian Governments for the export of
such a large number, three hundred head were introduced, but in five years these
had dwindled down to a dozen, and the experiment does not appear to have been
repeated. Probably one of the great difficulties to be contended with in the
successful introduction of llamas into other countries would be to find a locality
where they could be left almost to themselves, and yet where they would be safe.
The climate of Britain is doubtless far too damp for them, and in this respect parts
of Australia would be much more suitable.
The alpaca goes with young eleven months, and produces but one at a birth.
Its flesh is as excellent as that of the llama.
EXTINCT CAMEL-LIKE UNGULATES.
It has already been mentioned that extinct camels occur in India and Northern
Africa, while fossil species of llamas — some as large as camels — are found in eastern
South America. In addition to these, the Pliocene and Miocene formations of the
United States have, however, yielded the remains of a number of extinct genera
of camel-like Ungulates, from which both camels and llamas have probably been
derived ; and as no such forms have hitherto been discovered in Europe, we may
probably regard North America as the original home of the family, from which the
modern representatives have migrated southwards across the Isthmus of Darien,
and westwards over Behring Strait into Asia. In the older Tertiary formations
of Patagonia the group is unknown.
Some of these North American Pliocene types, like Procamelus, were not
unlike existing members of the family, but had four premolar teeth in each jaw.
In the Miocene we come to still more generalised forms, having the typical number
of forty-four teeth (that is to say, with three pairs of incisors in each jaw), while
one kind (Poebrotherium), which was no larger than a fox, had the main meta-
carpal and metatarsal bones of the feet separate, and also showed traces of the bones
of the lateral toes. From this form a transition can be traced to others with four
complete toes and bunodont * molar teeth ; and we thus reach the important con-
clusion that camels and llamas were derived from pig -like animals quite in-
dependently of the true Ruminants.
1 The meaning of this term is explained in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XXV.
UNGULATES, — continued.
THE PIG-LIKE UNGULATES.
Family SUID&
THE whole of the even-toed Ungulates described in the five preceding chapters are
characterised by their power of ruminating, with which is associated their crescent-
like, or selenodont, molar teeth (see figures on p. 155), and, with but one exception,
the presence of a cannon-bone in the limbs (see p. 154). We now come to more
SKELETON OP WILD BOAR.
Extinct Links.
generalised forms of the same great group of Ungulates, such as pigs and
hippopotami, which lack the power of rumination, and in which the structure of
the molar teeth and lower portion of the limbs is of different nature.
At the present day there is a great gap between the types with
crescent-like molars and the pig-like animals ; a gap so wide that the
earlier naturalists failed to recognise the intimate relation that really exists between
the two. This gap is, however, almost completely bridged over by a number of
extinct Ungulates, and since, in order to have any adequate idea of the relations of
the existing groups, some knowledge of the fossil forms is absolutely essential, we
must devote a brief space to their consideration.
First, with regard to the molar teeth. On p. 155 there is figured an upper
molar of a modern Ruminant, showing that the crown is surmounted by four
PIGS, PECCARIES, AND HIPPOPOTAMI 421
crescentic columns of great height, and separated by deep pocket-like pits, while
on the same page there is also represented the corresponding tooth of an extinct
Ungulate, in which the same columns, although still crescent-like, are very much
lower, and are separated by quite shallow valleys, of which the base is visible from
the surface. Now from such a tooth there is but a step to the teeth represented in
the woodcuts on the present page, marked 1 and 2. It will be observed, however,
that the front inner column of the Ruminant molar is here divided into two
moieties (pi. p), so that the tooth becomes five-columned. The molar represented
in Fig. 1 is that of the anoplothere, a two or three-toed Ungulate from the
upper Eocene rocks of Europe, furnished with the full number of forty-four teeth.
The one marked 2 belongs to the so-called Hyopotamus, which also occurs in the
upper Eocene rocks. It will be noticed that the columns of the latter, although
very low, still have an imperfect crescentic shape ; but in the allied anthracothere
Fig. 2
LEFT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OF EXTINCT PIG-LIKE ANIMALS.
1, Anoplothere (after Gaudry) ; 2, Hyopotamus ; 3, Hy other e. (The specimen represented in the
second figure is imperfect on the anterior side).
of the same horizon this structure is far less apparent, and the columns assume
the form of flattened cones. From such a tooth the transition is easy to the type
of the pair marked 3 in our illustration, which belonged to an extinct pig known
as the hyothere. In the latter figure it will be seen that each tooth carries four
low, conical, hillock-like columns, or tubercles, the column marked pi in the molar
of the anoplothere having almost completely disappeared. From the hillock-like
form of the columns the type of tooth found in the pigs is known as the bunodont
(Gr. bounos, a hillock) form, in contradistinction to the selenodont (Gr. selene, the
crescent-moon) form distinctive of all the ruminating Ungulates. This essential
distinction in the structure of their molar teeth is the most readily recognised
characteristic by which the pig-like Ungulates are distinguished from all those
treated in the preceding chapters ; but from the transition between one type and
the other indicated by extinct forms, it is perfectly clear that the true Ruminants,
the chevrotains, and the camels, are all severally descended from bunodont
ancestors.
Characters of The pigs and their allies are further distinguished from the true
Pi£B- Ruminants and camels, by the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the
two main digits of the feet remaining distinct instead of being fused into a cannon-
422
UNGULATES.
bone, while in the fore-limb at least the lateral toes are likewise furnished with
complete metacarpals, as shown in the accompanying figure. In these respects the
pigs are, however, approached by the water- chevrotain (p. 401) ; and they also
resemble all the chevrotains in having a conical process on
the front of the second vertebra of the neck for articulation
with the first of that series.
All members of the pig-like group — technically known
as the Suina — have front or incisor teeth in their upper
jaws, and their lower tusks are quite unlike, and distinct from
the incisors. Further, in correlation with the absence of
the power of rumination, the stomachs of these animals are
always less complex than those of the Ruminants, and they
may be perfectly simple, and comprise only a single chamber.
It is, perhaps, well to add that pig-like animals existed at a
date when Ruminants were unknown, as, indeed, must neces-
sarily have been the case if the one group be the ancestor of
the other.
With these introductory remarks as to the character-
THE BONES OF THE LEFT igtics of the members of the group, and their relationship
wo"5 (Fr°om Dawki™E) tnrougn extinct f orms with the Ruminants, we may proceed
to the consideration of the existing pig -like Ungulates,
which are divided into the three families of the Pigs, the Peccaries, and the
Hippopotami.
THE PIGS.
Family SuiD^E.
The pigs, or swine, of which there are three existing generic types, are such
well-known animals that but little description is necessary. They are, however,
SKULL OF THE BEARDED PIG. (From Nehring.)
distinguished from the other members of the group to which they belong by the
following assemblage of characters. The head and skull are greatly elongated,
and the muzzle terminates in an abruptly-truncated mobile snout, with a disc-like
PIGS. 425
naked surface at the extremity, in which are situated the nostrils, the disc being
supported by an additional separate bone at the extremity of the skull, as shown
in our figure. The feet are narrow, and carry four completely -developed toes,
of which the hindmost do not touch the ground in walking, while the inner
surfaces of the main pair are flattened. The molar teeth are narrow, the last
one in both the upper and lower jaw being more or
less elongated ; and the large tusks grow continuously
throughout life, those of the upper jaw curving up-
wards, instead of pointing downwards, after the usual
fashion. Swine have large flapping ears, and rather
long cylindrical tails, with a tuft at the end. Their
. THE LAST RIGHT LOWER MOLAR
bodies are more or less sparsely clothed with bristly TOOTH OF A PIG.
hairs, and their stomachs are quite simple. Like all
unspecialised Ungulates, swine have the neck short and thick, and imperfectly
differentiated both from the body and the head, the latter being consequently
carried low. The whole of the existing members of the family are restricted to
the Old World ; and they chiefly frequent damp or swampy districts, and are fond
of wallowing in wet mud.
THE TRUE PIGS.
Genus Sus.
The typical representatives of the Pig family, such as the European wild
boar, are characterised by having forty-four teeth, among which the last molar in
each jaw is greatly elongated, while the thick and short upper tusk is turned
sharply upwards, and has a large smooth facet worn on the outer side of its
upturned extremity by the abrasion of the inner surface of the extremity of the
lower tusk. Consequently, if either tusk happens to be broken, the opposing
one continues to grow indefinitely, and, from its curved form, generally pierces
some portion of the skull with its tip, thus ultimately leading to the death of
the animal which has had the misfortune to meet with an accident of this nature.
In addition to the bristly hairs, there is generally a more or less developed woolly
under-fur. The skull of the pigs, besides the presence of the additional bone in
the snout already mentioned, is remarkable for the great length of the nasal
bones, and also for the high elevation of the crest of the occiput, which is generally
even more developed than in the specimen figured here. In wild pigs the profile
of the face is straight, although in most domesticated races it is more or less
concave. Pigs are exceedingly prolific animals; and the young of all the wild
species (as shown in our illustration) are marked with light longitudinal stripes,
although these markings are very rarely observed in those of domesticated
breeds.
The distributional area of the genus, before curtailed by human
Distribution.
agency, was extensive, comprising the greater part of Europe,
Southern, and a portion of Central, Asia, Japan, the islands of the Malayan
region, and Africa. The two species inhabiting Africa south of the Sahara
426 UNGULATES.
and a third from Madagascar, belong, however, to a group distinct from that in-
cluding the rest. Domesticated pigs have been turned loose in many parts of the
world, such as America, the West Indies, and New Zealand, where they have
formed feral races tending to revert more or less completely to the wild type, some
even producing striped young.
Although some of the species are markedly distinct, the pigs
(exclusive of those from Southern Africa) are an exceedingly
puzzling group, scarcely any two zoologists being in accord as to the number
of existing species. Some of the most important distinctive features are afforded
by the cheek-teeth ; but as such differences, after all, are but slight, and
difficult to recognise, we shall, in the main, confine our attention to some of the
better-known species, such as those of Europe and India.
European wild The type of the genus is the European wild pig, or wild boar
Boar. (Sus scrofa), ranging over Europe, Northern Africa, and part of
Western and Central Asia. In Asia, it is believed by Mr. Blanford to extend into
Mesopotamia, Persia, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, while northwards it ranges
to the neighbourhood of Yarkand. It was formerly abundant throughout the
British Islands, as is attested not only by historical evidence, but also by the
abundance of its remains in the peat-mosses and fens ; and boar-hunting was a
favourite pursuit of our ancestors. Although the exact date of the extermination
of wild boars from the British Islands does not appear to be ascertained, Mr. J. E.
Harting has shown that they still existed in Oxfordshire in the year 1339, in
Suffolk in 1572, and in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, as -late as 1593 ; and it
is quite probable that in Scotland, and perhaps in Ireland also, they may have
lingered on till a still more recent date. In many parts of the Continent, and
especially in the Black Forest, wild boars are still abundant.
Indian wad The Indian wild boar (8. cristatus) is so closely allied to its
Boar. European cousin that it is frequently regarded as specifically
inseparable. It is, however, a somewhat taller animal, with a thinner coat of
hair and no under-fur ; but it is more especially distinguished by the presence
of a crest or mane of long black bristles running from the nape of the neck
along the back, and by the more complex structure and larger size of the last
molar tooth in each jaw. As regards the latter characteristic, it may be observed
that in the European wild boar the hindmost of the three lobes constituting
the last lower molar, is not more complex than in the specimen figured on
p. 425 ; but in the Indian species, and more especially in the males, this lobe
(the one on the left of the figure) is complicated by the addition of one or more
extra tubercles to the hinder extremity, thus making the whole of this tooth
considerably longer and more complex. Analogous but less strongly - marked
differences may be observed between the corresponding upper teeth of the two
species. The usual height of the Indian wild boar varies from 30 to 40 inches
at the shoulder, but it is stated that one specimen has been killed standing
upwards of 43 \ inches ; while the weight ranges from 200 to considerably over
300 Ibs. When extracted from the jaw, the lower tusk of a fine boar will
measure somewhere about 8 or 9 inches in length; but specimens measuring
9£ and 10 inches have been recorded, and one is said to have been obtained
PIGS.
427
Habits.
which measured upwards of 12 inches. The Indian wild boar is found in
suitable spots throughout India, Ceylon, and Burma, and also in the wooded
districts of the outer Himalaya, extending into the interior as far as Kashmir.
Since the habits of all swine are very similar, while those of
the Indian wild boar are best known to Englishmen, we may give
an account of them in this place. As we have said, pigs generally frequent
moist or marshy situations, where there is plenty of cover, and their great
characteristic is their habit of turning up the ground with their snouts in search
of food, leaving marks by which their presence in a district can be instantly
recognised. It is this habit which renders these animals so especially obnoxious
to the cultivator. During the day the Indian wild boar makes his lair in any
convenient cover, sometimes in tall grass, at others in reeds or sugar-cane, and
A " SOUNDER " OF WILD SWINE.
at others in bushes or forest, while not unfrequently standing crops other than
sugar-cane afford the necessary shelter. In the mornings and evenings he
wanders forth in search of food, in cultivated districts devastating the crops,
but away from human haunts he depends chiefly upon roots, those of a
kind of sedge being especial favourites. Wild pigs will, however, readily
feed on the carcases of animals and other carrion, while in Assam they are stated
to be in the habit of digging out the fish which bury themselves in the mud
during the dry season. According to Mr. Blanford, pigs are less nocturnal in
their habits in remote districts than in those where they are much disturbed.
While the females and young associate in droves or " sounders," usually comprising
from ten to a dozen head, and rarely exceeding twenty, the old boars are solitary.
The number of young produced at a birth by the European species varies from
six to ten, after a gestation of four months ; and frequently at least two litters
are produced in a year.
428
UNGULATES.
The lower tusks of the male wild boar, which project about 3 inches from
the jaw, and are kept with edges as sharp as razors by wear against those of the
upper jaw, are most formidable weapons, capable of ripping open a horse at
a single stroke. Both the European and the Indian species are among the boldest
and fiercest of all animals, charging men, horses, or elephants time after time
without a moment's hesitation, and in spite of the most desperate wounds. Indeed,
the injuries that a wild boar will sustain without loss of life are perfectly
marvellous. A correspondent of the Asian newspaper relates that he once killed
an old boar, in the skull of which the broken extremity of the tusk of another
r
BERKSHIRE PIG (^ nat. size).
boar was firmly embedded, with its point penetrating into the brain-cavity a short
distance behind the left eye.
Although the speed of a wild pig is considerable, yet it cannot be maintained
for any long distance, and accordingly, either a boar or a sow may be easily over-
taken by a well-mounted horseman after a comparatively short run. Both as
regards speed and inclination to fight there is, however, considerable local variation
among the wild pigs of India; the large heavily-built animal found in Bengal
being much more disposed to show fight than the lighter pig of the Punjab, which
has a greater turn of speed. In spite of its boldness, the Indian wild boar seldom
makes unprovoked attacks ; but when once roused nothing will stop it. An instance
is on record of a boar charging, overthrowing, and ripping open a camel; and
there are several well-authenticated cases of boars having attacked and killed or
beaten off tigers.
PIGS. 429
In Germany the European wild boar is hunted with boarhounds ;
and when in the highlands of Ceylon Sir Samuel Baker was in the
habit of hunting the Indian pig with a pack of dogs, and despatching his quarry
single-handed with a hunting-knife. In all parts of India where riding is possible
the wild boar is, however, always speared ; and the sport of " pig-sticking," as it is
commonly called, is undoubtedly by far the finest and most exciting of all the
many kinds of Indian shikar. One of the best grounds for pig- sticking is the old
valley of the Ganges in the neighbourhood of Mirut, locally known as the Khadir.
Here " the ground," writes General Kinloch, " consists of level plains covered with
grass and intersected with deep nullas or ravines, some dry, others full of water ;
with deep but invisible ditches ; holes varying in size, from pits large enough to
swallow up horse and rider to others just big enough to admit a horse's leg ;
hidden stumps, and tangled bushes ; and over this one has to gallop at racing pace."
Falls are of course frequent, although severe accidents are less common than might
have been expected.
A smaller species of pig inhabits the forests of the Andaman
Islands in the Bay of Bengal, arid stands only some 20 inches in
height at the shoulder. In addition to its small stature, the Andaman pig
(S. andamanensis) is further distinguished by its relatively short tail, the shaggi-
ness of the coat, the absence of the crest of long hair on the neck, and, above all,
by the relative shortness of the hindmost lobe of the last molar tooth in the lower
jaw. The third Indian representative of the genus is the pigmy hog
(S. salvanius), of the forests at the foot of the Himalaya in Bhutan,
Sikhim, and Nipal. These tiny little pigs are scarcely larger than hares, standing
only about 11 inches at the shoulder. They are brown or blackish brown in
colour, with small, naked ears, very short tail, and only three pairs of teats in the
female instead of the usual six. From the little that is known of the habits of
these pigs in the wild state, it appears that they generally live in herds of from
five to twenty head in grass-jungle, and that the old boars remain with the sows.
Probably the number of young produced at a birth is less than in other pigs.
We have now to consider briefly the wild pigs of the islands of
Malayan Pigs. *
the Malayan region and Japan ; and it is among these that the
greatest uncertainty prevails among zoologists, as to the real number of species
discoverable. These pigs may, however, be divided into three groups, of which
the first is nearly related to the Indian pig. The best known representative of
the first group is the collared pig (S. vittatus) of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo,
characterised by the white streak running along the sides of the face to the neck,
and by the absence of any crest of hair on the back of the neck, and of warts
on the face ; the last lower molar tooth being large and complex. The white-
whiskered Japan pig (S. leucomystax), as well as the Papuan pig (S. papuensis),
and the Formosan pig {S. taevanus) are nearly allied species. The second group is
represented by a well-marked species known as the warty pig (S. verrucosus),
from Java and Borneo, readily distinguished by the presence of three small warts
on each side of the face, the largest of these carrying a number of bristles and
being situated just below the eye. The skull in this pig is of ordinary length ;
while the last lower molar tooth is of medium size and complexity. The Ceram
43°
UNGULATES.
pig (S. ceramensis) and the Celebes pig (S. celebensis) belong to this group. Lastly,
we have the bearded pig (S. barbatus) of Borneo, which is markedly distinct from
all the others, having a fringe of long hairs on the cheeks, an extremely elongated
skull (shown in the figure on p. 422), and the last molar tooth in the lower jaw
relatively short, and of simple structure. The great elongation of the skull is
shown by the circumstance that the first cheek-tooth of the upper jaw is separated
by a considerable interval from the tusk, whereas in other species the two are
placed close together.
Since there is nothing in the habits of these pigs to distinguish them from the
Indian wild pig, we may pass on to the consideration of some of the domesticated
HARRISON PIG (^ nat. Size).
breeds of swine. It may, however, be mentioned that with the exception of the
European wild boar, which ranges into Algeria and the adjacent districts, the only
typical representative of the genus found in Africa is the Senaar pig (S. senaar-
ensis) of the north-eastern regions of that continent.
Much discussion has taken place as to the origin of the numerous
domesticated breeds of swine, and very different views on this subject
have been expressed by different writers ; some urging that certain of the earlier
races found in Europe had an eastern origin, while others regard the whole of
them as descended directly from the European wild boar. The earliest evidence of.
the existence of domesticated swine in Europe is afforded by remains found on the
sites of the prehistoric lake-dwellings of Switzerland. These were regarded by
Professor Rtitimeyer, of Basle as indicating two distinct breeds — one nearly allied
Domestic Swine.
PIGS. 431
to the European wild boar, and the other more resembling some of the Asiatic
kinds. The late Professor Rolleston failed, however, to detect evidence of Asiatic
affinity in any of the prehistoric swine of Europe, and accordingly came to the
conclusion that they were all probably derived from the European wild species,
although these might possibly have some crossing with an Asiatic stock. It must
be confessed that this view is, at first sight, the most probable; and that the
original domesticated races of different parts of the world have been derived from
the wild species inhabiting the same districts. This is the opinion of Mr. Blanford,
who states that the tame pig of India is doubtless derived from the wild 8.
cristatus, with which it probably interbreeds. In modern times, however, there has
certainly been a great amount of intercrossing between the various breeds of
domestic swine ; and many of the races now most esteemed in Europe have a large
proportion of Asiatic blood in their veins.
The effects of domestication have been very marked on the swine, although
the degree of variation from the wild type depends largely upon the amount of care
that has been bestowed upon the breed. We have already mentioned that the
European domestic breed differs from all wild species by the concave profile of the
face ; while as a rule domesticated races have uniformly-coloured young. Indeed,
whenever the young of domestic swine are striped, a recent crossing with a wild
race may not unreasonably be suspected. When domesticated pigs revert to a
wild condition, the striping of the young is, however, frequently resumed.
Domestication invariably greatly reduces the size of the tusks of the boars, which
in some breeds are very small indeed ; and in this respect we have a reversion to
extinct species of swine, in the earlier forms of which the tusks were but slightly
developed. There are also modifications in the form of the hinder part of the
skull, in the number of joints in the backbone, and in the length of the intestines.
Equally marked differences obtain in the shape of the ears, which in some of the
inferior breeds are large, flapping, and pendent, while in the superior breeds they
are small and erect. As regards bodily form, we have but to contrast the long-
legged, large-headed, and thin-bodied " greyhound pig " of Ireland, with some of
the best modern breeds, like the Harrison swine represented on p. 430, to see how
enormous is the difference in this respect. Darwin remarks, however, that the
observations of Professor Nathusius tend to show " that the peculiar form of the
skull and body in the most highly-cultivated races is not characteristic of any one
race, but is common to all when improved up to the same standard. Thus the
large-bodied, long-eared English breed with a convex back, and the small-bodied,
short-eared, Chinese breeds with a concave back, when bred to the same state of
perfection, nearly resemble each other in the form of the head and body. This
result, it appears, is partly due to similar causes of change acting on the several
races, and partly to man breeding the pig for one sole purpose, namely, for the
greatest amount of flesh and fat ; so that selection has always tended towards one
and the same end. With most domestic animals the result of selection has been
divergence of character, here it has been convergence."
Domesticated pigs are now found over the greater part of the habitable world ;
but while those kept in more northern regions are generally confined more or less
closely to the homestead, the races of the warmer parts of the world are allowed to
432
UNGULATES.
run more or less fully at liberty. Those kept in confinement are generally larger
and fatter, although often more delicate animals, than the breeds which are allowed
to roam almost at will; the latter being longer-limbed and thinner than the
former, but at the same time bolder and more independent in disposition. In
Southern Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, Servia, Turkey, and Spain, the herds of
swine are allowed to run in the woods throughout the year, but in less warm
districts they have to be taken in and fed during the winter. In the Sierra
Nevada of Spain, these herds ascend to an elevation of some nine thousand feet
above the sea, and thus become expert climbers.
European Breeds.
DWARF CHINESE PIG (fa nat. size).
The different breeds of European domestic pigs vary so much
''that it is almost impossible to classify them, and only a few of the
more important ones can even be mentioned in this work. Many of the best
breeds have been produced by crossing original stocks with the so-called Siamese
breed, which is distributed over a great part of the Malayan region, and has been
imported into China. This breed (frequently termed S. indicus) is characterised
by its small size, cylindrical trunk, hollow back, short limbs, and the approximation
of the belly to the ground. The colour is generally black, with the skin externally
of a rich copper colour, and the bristles are soft ; but there is also a white variety.
The ears are small and somewhat erect, and the face is short. According to Mr. D.
Low, these pigs " are less hardy and prolific than the native races of Europe, and
the females do not yield the same quantity of milk ; but they arrive very soon at
433
maturity, they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and
delicate." The native breeds of Britain, according to the same authority, may be
divided into those of small size, with erect or semi-erect ears ; and those with larger
bodies and long pendent ears. Nearly all these have, however, been more or
less largely crossed with the Siamese, or, as it is often called, the Chinese breed ;
and the general tendency of modern breeding is towards a reduction in size
and uniformity in character. Of the smaller kinds, with short, erect ears, one
of the most distinct is the Highland breed ; these pigs being lean, wiry, greyish
animals, of great hardihood, roaming over the Scottish moors almost at will, and
doing great harm to game and other birds. Near the sea they will feed on
molluscs and dead fish, and their flesh, at all times coarse, then acquires a fishy
taste. They are also found in the Hebrides and Orkneys.
The larger breeds with pendent flapping ears are chiefly characteristic of
the lowlands, but few now remain which have not been crossed with foreign
blood. In colour they are mostly white, or white spotted with black. They
are long in coming to maturity and fatten slowly, but they attain enormous
dimensions, and 'have the advantage of producing large litters, and being excellent
mothers. The Yorkshire and Lincolnshire breeds, as well as those of the Eastern
counties, are large white pigs, with pendent ears; the Essex breed (which has
now been largely crossed with the Chinese) being remarkable for the fineness
of the skin and the softness of the bristles. The Hampshire is also a noted
breed ; while the largest of all is the Rudgwick. One of the most valuable is,
however, the Berkshire breed, which is somewhat inferior in point of size.
Originally these pigs, as shown in the illustration on p. 428, were generally
of a reddish brown colour, with brown or black spots ; but by crossing with the
Chinese breed, or derivates thereof, the size has been reduced, and the colour
changed to black, although, when the crossing has been with the white breed,
it is more generally black mixed with white. The original Berkshire, writes
Mr. Low, " is still regarded as one of the superior breeds of England, combining
size with a sufficient aptitude to fatten, and being fitted for pork and bacon,
and it is held to be the hardiest of the more improved races." The Harrison
pig, figured on p. 430, is intended to exhibit one of the best types of fattening breeds :
while the white dwarf Chinese pig, represented in the illustration on p. 432,
exhibits the greatest diminution in size, coupled with an almost completely
cylindrical form of body.
It may be observed that although the usual mode of life led by pigs in
England is not calculated to develop their intellectual faculties, yet they
are by no means deficient in intelligence, and display a remarkable acuteness
of scent. Indeed, a pig has been trained to stand to game as steadily as the
best-bred pointer.
Before taking leave of domesticated swine, we must not omit
Masked Swine. » . .
to mention the curious Japanese masked pig, represented in the
figure on p. 434. This pig, writes Darwin, "has an extraordinary appearance,
from its short head, broad forehead, and nose, great fleshy ears and deeply-
furrowed skin. Not only is the face furrowed, but thick folds of skin, which
are harder than the other parts, almost like the plates on the Indian rhinoceros,
VOL. n. — 28
434
UNGULATES.
hang about the shoulders and rump. It is coloured black, with white feet, and
breeds true. That it has long been domesticated, there can be little doubt ; and
this might have been inferred even from the circumstance that its young are not
longitudinally striped." From a study of its skull, Professor Nathusius regards the
masked pig as nearly allied to the Chinese breed ; but, as Darwin remarks, " if this
be really the case, it is a wonderful instance of the amount of modification which
can be effected under domestication."
Bush-Pigs.
MASKED JAPANESE PIG (^ nat. size).
The African bush-pigs — the Bosch-Varks of the Cape Boers-
differ from the typical members of the genus by always having
one pair less of cheek-teeth, owing to the absence of the first premolar on each
side of the lower jaw, while frequently the corresponding upper tooth is like-
wise wanting in the adult. The molar teeth are also distinguished by their
simpler structure, the last in the lower jaw having the third lobe much reduced
in size. The tusks are scarcely larger than those of domestic pigs, and the
snout is unusually elongated. On each side of the face immediately below the
eye there is a large swelling, due to the great development of a ridge of bone
on the sheath of the upper tusk. The grey bush-pig (S. africanus), ranging
from South to Central Africa, has the hair of a greyish brown colour, and no
pencils of hair on the ears. It generally frequents thick forest, although
occasionally found in thorny bush and among reeds in the river valleys. Mr.
E. H. Drummond says that "the ingulabi, as it is called by the natives, does
an immense amount of damage to their sweet potatoes and fields, and has in
PIGS.
435
consequence been exterminated in many districts." Its habits appear to be very
similar to those of the ordinary swine.
The red bush-pig or river-hog (8. porcus) is a rather smaller species than
the last, inhabiting West Africa, and distinguished by the long pencils of hairs
with which the ears terminate, and also by the brilliant reddish colour of the
hair. As in the last species, the bristles of the neck, back, chin, and throat are
elongated into a distinct mane, and the tail terminates in a distinct tuft. The
prevailing colour is either a shining brownish red with a tinge of yellow, or
THE RED BUSH-PIG.
a dark reddish yellow ; the forehead, ears, and limbs are, however, blackish, while
the mane on the back, part of the margins of the ears, and the tips of their
pencils of hair, the eyebrows, and a streak under the eyes and the margins
of the cheeks, are white or whitish. The under-parts are whitish grey, and
the snout grey. These brilliant contrasts of colour make the red bush-pig
decidedly the handsomest member of the Swine family. These pigs are found in
large herds, and frequent moist forests and the banks of rivers, while they are
occasionally seen on the mountains. The first living example of this species
brought to Europe was exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, 1852, since
which date many specimens have been imported into Europe. A third species
(»S'. edwardsi) inhabits Madagascar.
Numerous fossil pigs are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene
Tertiary deposits of the Old World, which may be referred to the
genus Sus, and several of which differ markedly from all existing species; these
fossil pigs occurring in Europe, North Africa, India, and China. One of the most
remarkable is the titan pig (S. titan) from the Siwalik Hills, at the foot of the
Extinct Pigs.
436 UNGULATES,
Himalaya. In this monster the length of the skull was 23 inches, against 16 in
an average-sized Indian wild pig, so that the height of the animal could not have
been much less than that of a fair-sized mule. The same deposits have also yielded
remains of an extinct species which did not exceed the living pigmy hog in point
of size. Still more noteworthy are Falconer's pig (S. falconeri) from the Siwalik
Hills, and some allied species from the Pleistocene deposits of Southern India and
Algeria, which, in the extreme complexity of the lower teeth, approximated to the
under-mentioned wart-hogs. The Auvergne pig (S. arvernensis) from the Pliocene
of France, is believed, on the other hand, to be related to the African bush-pigs.
In most of these extinct species the tusks of the boars, as already mentioned,
were relatively small.
THE BABIRUSA.
Genus Babirusa.
The extraordinary development of the tusks in the males of the animal to
which the Malays have given the name of Babirusa (meaning pig -deer) is so
remarkable as to suggest at first sight the idea of a malformation. The babirusa
(Babirusa alfurus), which is an inhabitant of Celebes and Boru, and is the sole
representative of its genus, has, indeed, derived its name from these abnormally-
developed tusks, which have led the Malays to liken them to the antlers of
the deer. In the boars, as is well exhibited in our figure of the skull, the
upper tusks, while curving upwards like those of an ordinary wild pig, instead
of protruding from the margins of the jaws, arise close together near the middle
line of the face, and thence, after being directed upwards for a short distance,
sweep backwards, frequently coming into contact with the surface of the forehead,
and are then finally directed forwards at the tip. The lower tusks have the same
up wards-and-back wards direction as those of the upper jaw, but are frequently
less strongly curved, although in other cases the direction of their sweep is not
very different from that of the latter. Both pairs of tusks are quite devoid of
enamel, and, as there is no abrasion of the one pair against the other, both grow
uninterruptedly ; the upper tusks occasionally attaining a length of 14 1 inches, we
believe, exclusive of the portion buried in the socket. In addition to the peculiar
conformation of its tusks, the babirusa differs from ordinary pigs in the diminished
number of its teeth, of which the total is only thirty-four; the missing teeth
comprising the outermost incisors and the first two premolars on each side of both
the upper and lower jaws. The molar teeth are characterised by their simple
structure and the small development of the third lobe of the last one in each
jaw.
The babirusa has a nearly naked skin of a dark ashy grey colour, sparsely covered
with hair along the line of the back, and thrown into numerous wrinkles. The
ears are small, the tail is short and devoid of a terminal tuft, and the back is much
arched. The female has small tusks, and only a single pair of teats. The height
at the middle of the back is about 42 inches. The young, of which there are either
one or two at a birth, are devoid of stripes.
PIGS.
437
The peculiar character of the tusks, the reduction in the number of the teeth,
and the uniform coloration of the young, indicate that the babirusa is a more
specialised creature than the ordinary pigs. At the same time, the simple structure
of the molar teeth indicates that it must be directly descended from one of the
extinct genera of pigs in which a similar type of dentition obtains.
The habits of the babirusa seem to be very similar to those of
other wild swine ; moist forests, cane-brakes, and the banks of rivers
and lakes where abundance of water-plants are to be found, being its favourite
resorts. Here these animals collect in larger or smaller herds, sleeping by day and
going forth to feed at night. The babirusa is an excellent swimmer, not only
entering lakes to feed on water-plants, but likewise traversing small channels of
Habits.
THE BABIRUSA (J nat. size).
the sea separating one island from another. Its gallop is lighter than that
of the wild boar. The senses of smell and hearing are very acute in the babirusa,
and its grunt is very similar to that of other swine. The young are born in
February, and of very small size, and require great attention on the part of the
sow.
Babirusa are frequently tamed in Celebes, and may be found in the houses of
some of the chiefs. The first living examples brought to Europe were a pair
exhibited in Paris in the year 1820.
Much discussion has arisen as to the use of the tusks of the male
babirusa. It has been suggested that they may be for the purpose of
protecting the eyes when the animal is rushing through dense forest ; but if this
were so, as Mr. Wallace points out, how are we to account for the slight develop-
ment of these organs in the sows. On the whole, the same observer considers it
most probable that the tusks were at one period useful to their owner, and were
Use of Tusks.
438
UNGULATES.
Hunting.
then kept of moderate size by mutual attrition, but that, for some reason or other,
they have become of 110 benefit to the animal, and have assumed a monstrous
growth like that occurring in the lower tusk of a wild boar when the corresponding
upper one has been accidentally broken off.
The natives of Celebes organise carefully-planned hunts for the
capture of the babirusa, an account of one of these being given by Dr.
Guillemard in the following words : — " The animals being driven into a curral, with
a V-shaped opening and flanked by netting, we had plenty of time to wait before
the sport began, and meanwhile the natives arranged themselves at their posts.
One stood at the door of the curral, ready to close it directly any animal rushed
in; others took up their places on either side of the wide entrance, while the
remainder crouched in front of the long net at intervals of a few yards, each
grasping his spear, and hidden from view by a huge Livistonia (a kind of palm)
frond. We had not
long been settled
before a peculiar
barking grunt in the
distance announced
the arrival of the
first victim. Every-
one was instantly
motionless, and
directly afterwards
a dark object dashed
up at great speed
and buried itself in
the net a short way
down the slope.
There was a short
struggle, and in less
than five minutes
the captive, a full-
grown female babi-
rusa, was quietly reposing on her back, with her legs tied together with rattan, and
we were once more in ambush for the next comer. We were hardly quiet before
the same peculiar sound was heard rapidly approaching, and the next moment a
magnificent old boar babirusa rushed past within five yards of us, and plunged into
the net between our tree and the entrance to the curral. His long tusks became
entangled in the meshes, and the natives ran up to spear him. Just at this moment,
however, he broke loose, and, turning on his antagonists, scattered them in all
directions. It was a most determined charge, and, as we were unable to fire for
fear of hitting some of our own men, it might have proved a serious affair for
the native he singled out." After some trouble the animal was, however, finally
despatched with a spear-thrust ; but, " even with four spears buried in his body,
the old boar died game, striving to the very last to get at his antagonists."
1 We are indebted to Mr. Murray and the author of the book named for the use of this figure.
SKULL OF BABIRUSA. (From Guillemard's Cruise of the Marchesa.) :
PIGS.
439
THE WART-HOGS.
Genus Phacochoerus.
As Africa possesses in the red bush-pig the handsomest representative of the
Swine family, so in the wart-hogs it presents us with the most hideous members,
not only of that group, but of the whole Ungulate order.
The wart-hogs, of which there are two nearly allied species, are characterised
by the enormous size of their heads, in which the lower part of the face is
extremely flat and broad, while below each eye is a huge warty protuberance
^ELIAN'S WART-HOG (^ nat. size).
between which and the tusk there are two other of smaller size. The head is likewise
distinguished by the great length of the muzzle, and the consequent backward
position of the eyes ; the hideous physiognomy being completed by the huge tusks
with which the jaws of both sexes are armed, those of the upper jaw being
considerably longer than those of the lower, or just the reverse of what occurs in
the true pigs. This difference in the proportionate length of the upper and lower
tusks in the two groups is due to the circumstance that in the wart-hogs the lower
pair only bite against the inferior surface of the upper ones, instead of abrading
their whole summits. The upper tusks are devoid of enamel except at their tips,
440
UNGULATES.
and these small caps are worn away at an early period. They curve in an upward
and inward direction, and sometimes project as much as 8f inches from the jaw,
having a basal girth of 5 inches. The shorter and more slender lower tusks have a
nearly similar curvature, and are coated throughout with enamel.
The tusks are not, however, the only peculiarity in the dentition of the wart-
hogs. In young animals there are thirty-four teeth, namely, one pair of upper and
three pairs of lower incisors, a pair of tusks in each jaw, and six cheek-teeth on each
side of the upper, and five in the lower jaw. In the adult, the incisors and anterior
cheek-teeth tend, however, to disappear, till in some instances the tusks and the
last molars alone remain, thus leaving a total of eight teeth. This paucity in the
number of cheek-teeth is compensated, however, by the enormous size and complex
structure of the single molar remaining in each jaw. The tooth in question is
composed of a number of small elongated cylindrical denticules, closely packed
together ; its total length from back to front, being something over 2 inches, and
its height proportionately great, although its width is small. This is, however, only
an extreme development of the structure already referred to as occurring in certain
extinct species of the genus Sus ; and in possessing such a single tooth on each
side of the jaws in the adult condition, the wart-hogs may be compared to the
elephants.
The body in these animals is massive and nearly cylindrical, the ears are small
and sharply-pointed, the tail is long and tufted at the tip, and the neck and back
are furnished with a mane of long bristly hair, the rest of the body being nearly
naked. The young are uniformly coloured.
Of the two species, ^Elian's wart-hog (Phacochcerus africanus) (figured on
p. 439) is distributed over a large part of the eastern side of Africa, ranging as far
north as Abyssinia. On the
other hand, Pallas's wart-
hog (P. pallasi), of which
the head is here figured, is
confined to South-Eastern
Africa. Both species stand
about 27£ inches at the
shoulder. The second is
distinguished from the first
species by its shorter head,
which is more convex be-
tween the eyes ; and it has
also the warts below the
latter very long and pen-
dent, instead of projecting
outwards, while the tusks are more inclined outwards. The mane is also wider
and shorter, and there is a greater development of hair on the top of the
head and the ears. It has also been considered that it is only this species in
which all the teeth, except the tusks and last molars are habitually shed, but
this is doubtful. The colour of Pallas's wart-hog is redder than that of its
northern relative.
HEAD OF PALLAS'S WART-HOG.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1869.)
PIGS. 441
Our accounts of the habits of the wart-hogs are not so full as
Habits. .
might be desired, and there is some discrepancy between those given
by different observers. The statement made by Heuglin that these animals habitu-
ally repose on swampy ground, or even in water, is, however, not borne out by later
writers. The northern species is found everywhere in Abyssinia, from the level of
the sea at Annesley Bay to heights of nine thousand or ten thousand feet in the
highlands of the interior. Mr. Blanford writes, that " its habits are very similar to
those of ordinary pigs. It lives amongst bushes or in ravines during the day, and
comes out to feed in the evening, still keeping much to bush-jungle. The large
males are usually solitary ; the younger animals and females live in small herds,
apparently not exceeding eight or ten in number. I never saw large ' sounders,'
such as are so commonly met with in the case of the Indian hog. It feeds much
on roots, which it digs up by means of its huge tusks. It also appears to dig large
holes, in which it occasionally lies; these are perhaps intended for the young.
Despite its formidable appearance, the Abyssinian wart-hog is a comparatively
timid animal, far inferior in courage to the Indian wild hog. Several which I
wounded showed no inclination to charge under circumstances in which an Indian
pig would certainly have shown fight. The flesh is savoury, but dry and hard,
even in comparatively young animals."
The foregoing opinion of the courage of these animals is confirmed by
Sir Samuel Baker, who states that it is but rarely that they ever charge. One
kept in confinement at Khartum on one occasion, however, broke out from its
cage and deliberately charged at Sir Samuel Baker's party, when its rush was
effectually stopped by having a huge rhinoceros horn hurled at its head. When
brought tO' bay by dogs, wart-hogs make a determined stand, and inflict severe
injuries on their assailants. If excited, they carry their long tails stuck straight
upright.
In South-Eastern Africa — where they are known to the natives by the name of
Indhlovudawani — wart-hogs, according to Mr. E. H. Drummond, are found on the
plains in light thorn -jungles ; and they are abundant in the districts around Mount
Kilima-Njaro. In those regions they generally occupy the deserted burrow of
an aard-vark, or other animal. Mr. Drummond states that wart-hogs, occupy-
ing such burrows, " have a most curious mode of exit when they bolt — a dangerous
one if you are not up to it. As they emerge from a hole, they turn a somer-
sault on to the back of it, instead of coming straight out like an ordinary animal,
and as that is just the spot where one would naturally stand, more than one
man has had his legs ripped open before he learnt the wisdom of experience."
The same writer mentions that he has on more than one occasion seen a male
wart-hog walk deliberately through a pack of large hounds without taking the
slightest notice of them, so long as they refrained from biting. Did, however,
one bolder than the rest, venture to come to close quarters, the wart-hog with a
sudden jerk would either lay its assailant crippled on the ground, or send it
howling away.
We have no information as to the breeding-habits of the wart-hogs, but from
the number of teats in the female being only four, it may be inferred that but
few young are produced at a birth. The young are striped.
442
UNGULATES.
THE PECCARIES.
Family DlCOTYLID^:.
The peccaries, which are the American representatives of the swine, differ so
markedly from the latter that they are regarded as belonging to a separate family,
of which there is but a single genus. The most important differences between the
two groups are that the upper tusks of the peccaries have their points directed
downwards instead of upwards, that their hind-limbs have three instead of four
toes, while instead of the simple stomach of the Old World swine, the peccaries
have a complex one approaching that of the Ruminants.
Peccaries have a total of thirty-eight teeth, that is to say, they have a pair of
THE COLLARED PECCAHY AND YOUNG (j Hat. size).
incisors in the upper jaw, and a premolar on each side of both jaws less than the
wild boar. The downwardly-directed upper tusks, which are at first completely
covered with enamel, are of small size, with sharp cutting-edges behind ; while
those of the lower jaw are directed upwards, outwards, and slightly backwards,
and are received in notches in the sides of the opposite jaw just in front of the
upper tusks. The last molar tooth in each jaw lacks the hind lobe characteristic
of the Old World swine (see fig. on p. 421), and the fourth premolar tooth in the
upper jaw resembles the first molar in having four tubercles on its crown, instead
of only three. In addition to the difference in the number of toes in the hind-feet,
the peccaries are further distinguished by the upper ends of the two larger meta-
carpal and metatarsal bones being united, so that we have here an approach to the
formation of cannon-bones. In this respect, as well as in the complex structure of
their stomachs, and the presence of four tubercles on their last upper premolar
teeth, the peccaries are clearly one step in advance of their allies of the Old World.
PECCARIES. 443
An altogether unique feature in these animals is the presence of a large gland
in the middle of the back, from which is secreted in great abundance a most evil-
smelling oily substance. In appearance, peccaries are not unlike small hogs but
with very slender limbs ; they are devoid of any externally visible tails, and their
snouts are much elongated and extremely mobile. Their ears are small and
pointed ; and their bodies are covered with thick bristle-like hairs, elongated into
a mane on the neck, and forming a fringe on the throat and hind- quarters. The
young are uniformly-coloured, like their parents, and never exceed two in number
at a birth.
Of the two well-defined species, the collared peccary (Dicotyles
tajacu) is the smaller, and has the most northerly habitat, its range
extending from Arkansas and Texas to the Rio Negro in Patagonia. This species
stands from about 13| to 15 J inches in height at the shoulder. The bristly hairs
are parti-coloured, and the general hue of the pelage is blackish brown, becoming
yellowish brown mingled with white on the flanks. The under-parts are brown,
and the upper part of the chest white, while a broad yellowish white stripe runs
from the hinder part of the shoulders obliquely downwards to the chest.
The white-lipped peccary (D. labiatus) is a rather larger species than the last,
its height at the shoulder varying from 15£ to nearly 18 inches. It is further
distinguished by the presence of a large white spot on the lower jaw, and the white
lips ; the general colour of the hair being greyish black. There is also a difference
in the mane and fringe on the neck of the two species. The range of the white-
lipped peccary is comparatively small, including only the region lying between
British Honduras and Paraguay.
All peccaries are essentially forest-dwelling; animals, but whereas
Habits. . J &. . .
the collared peccary is found only singly or in pairs, or in small
parties of from eight to ten individuals, the white-lipped species associates in large
herds, of which the members may be numbered by scores. Moreover, there is a
marked difference in the disposition of the two species, the former being a
harmless and inoffensive creature, whereas the other is comparatively fierce, and
not unfrequently inflicts severe wounds with its tusks. Indeed, when a herd of
these animals is encountered in the forest, the hunter frequently has to seek
protection by climbing a tree. Both species frequent only the densest and most
extensive forests, dwelling either in the hollows of trees, in burrows excavated by
other animals, or among bushes and grass ; and in parts of South America they
ascend in the mountains to heights of between 3000 and 4000 feet above the sea.
The herds or parties are under the leadership of an old boar. Peccaries wander
about both during the day and at night ; and when food is scarce they make long
migrations in search of it. Their chief food consists of fruits and roots ; and their
teeth and jaws are of such strength as to enable them to crack with ease the hard
seeds of palms. In inhabited districts peccaries inflict much damage on growing
crops ; and, in addition to roots and fruits, they are by no means averse to varying
their diet with carrion, worms, or insects. Their flesh is not much esteemed ; and
it is essential that immediately the animals are killed, the ill-smelling gland on the
back should be removed, as otherwise the flesh will become tainted. As a general
rule, but a single young one is produced at a birth, two being comparatively rare.
444 UNGULATES.
When taken young, peccaries are easily tamed, although it does not appear that
any attempts have been made to establish a domesticated breed. Large numbers
of them are destroyed by jaguars and pumas.
Fossil remains of peccaries, some belonging to living and others
to extinct species, occur in the Pleistocene deposits of both North and
South America. In addition to these, certain extinct Pliocene and Miocene hog-
like animals seem to indicate the parent-stock from which both the peccaries and
the true pigs have been derived. Of these Chcerohyus, from North America, comes
closest to the peccaries, while the Old World Hyotherium, of which two upper
molar teeth are figured on p. 421, is more like the pigs. Listriodon is another
European type, in which the molars have a pair of transverse ridges instead of
four tubercles. Finally Chceropotamus, from the upper Eocene of England and
France, connects the type of molar tooth characteristic of the pigs with that of the
extinct anthracothere referred to on p. 421.
THE HIPPOPOTAMI.
Family HlPPOPOTAMlD^;.
Although the Greek term hippopotamus, and its English equivalent river-
horse, are etymologically decidedly objectionable ones to denote the animals we have
now to describe, yet the former at least is so firmly established in European
languages that it would be impossible to attempt to change it. The Dutch term
see-kuh, commonly translated sea-cow, but which we think might equally bear the
interpretation lake-cow, and a name used by the Arabs which means water-buffalo,
are far less objectionable ; but a title equivalent to river-swine, which is said to
have been conferred on these animals by the ancient Egyptians, is, from a zoological
standpoint, far arid away the best of all.
The common hippopotamus, together with a much smaller species from West
Africa, constitute a family by themselves, which is also the last group of the even-
toed Ungulates. Hippopotami are bulky animals, with round, barrel-like bodies of
great length, very short and thick legs, and enormous heads, in which the muzzle
is angular and greatly expanded transversely, and has no trace of the terminal disc
characteristic of the swine and peccaries. Indeed, the ugly head of a hippopotamus
appears as if it were too large and heavy for its owner, since the animal may fre-
quently be seen resting its ungainly muzzle on the ground, as though to relieve the
neck from the strain of its weight. The portion of the skull in front of the eyes
is very much, longer than that behind them ; and the sockets of the eyes (as
seen in our figure of the skeleton) are completely surrounded by a very prominent
bony ring, which has an almost tubular form. In the pigs, on the other hand, the
socket of the eye is open behind (compare the figure on p. 422). The prominence
of these sockets causes the relatively small eyes of the hippopotamus to project far
above the level of the forehead. The ears are small and rounded, and the slit-like
nostrils are placed rather close together on the highest point of the broad bristly
muzzle ; while both ears and nostrils alike can be completely closed at the will of
the animal. The neck is extremely short and powerful ; and the body is so deep,
HIPPOPOTAMI.
445
that when the animal is walking on soft mud, the under surface comes in contact
with the ground. Disproportionately short for the size of the animal, the tail is
laterally compressed from side to side. The short and broad feet are furnished
with four well-developed short toes, all of which touch the ground when walking ;
and are encased in rounded black hoofs, of which the middle pair have not their
inner surfaces flattened ; so that the hippopotamus lacks the cloven hoof of the
pigs and the Ruminants. The toes of the feet are partially connected by webs.
Although there are a number of bristles on the muzzle, and also a few on the sides
of the head and neck, as well as at the extremity of the tail, tho skin of the hippo-
potamus is naked ; it is also rather rough and warty, and of enormous thickness.
The gigantic mouth of a hippopotamus, when opened to the widest, is one of
the ugliest sights imaginable, looking like a huge red cavern, from the edges of
which project the enormous tusks and incisor teeth. The tusks, or canines, are the
largest of the teeth in the jaws, and are curved backwards in a bold sweep, with
SKELETON OF HIPPOPOTAMUS.
their extremities obliquely bevelled off by mutual attrition ; they grow through-
out the life of the animal, and their points are directed downwards. The incisor
teeth likewise grow during the whole period of existence, and thereby differ from
those of the pigs, which form roots. In the existing species, there are not more
than two pairs of these teeth, and whereas those of the upper jaw are directed
downwards, the lower ones project forward in advance of the jaw. The sides of
the jaws are severally provided with seven cheek-teeth, of which the four premolars
have subconical pointed crowns, while the broad molar teeth carry four distinct
columns, which, when worn by use, show on their summits well-defined trefoil-
shaped surfaces of ivory surrounded by a rim of enamel. A peculiarity in the
lower jaw of the hippopotamus is the presence of a hook -like flange at its hinder
extremity, as shown in our figure of the skeleton.
Summarising the result of the foregoing description, it may be observed that
the hippopotami are entitled to rank as a distinct family on account of the following
differences from the pigs and peccaries, viz. the broad and expanded muzzle, not
terminating in a disc ; the subequal size of the hoofs, all of which touch the ground,
and the absence of flattening in the opposing surfaces of the middle pair; the
446 UNGULATES.
continually-growing incisor teeth ; the complete ring of bone round the socket of
the eye; and the hook-like flange at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw.
Common The common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) is by
Hippopotamus. far the larger of the two living species, and next to the elephant
would seem to be the bulkiest of all existing terrestrial Mammals. A male which
lived for many years in the London Zoological Society's Gardens measured 12 feet
from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, the length of the latter appendage
being 22 inches, and its total weight was about 4 tons. Sir Samuel Baker states
that in an old male measured by himself the length was 14 feet 3 inches from the
snout to the end of the tail, the latter being about 9 inches. And the same writer
estimates the weight of the hide, when freshly removed, at about 5 cwts. The
height at the shoulder is some 3 feet 8 inches. This species is further characterised
by having two pairs of incisor .teeth in each jaw, the middle lower pair being of
far larger dimensions than the others. The general colour of the skin is a slaty
copper-brown, tending more to blackish brown on the back and purplish brown
beneath. There is, however, considerable sexual and individual variation in this
respect ; and the hue of the skin also varies according to whether the animal has
recently emerged from the water, or whether it is thoroughly dry. Dr. Livingstone
says that while the males are of a dark colour, the females are of a yellowish brown ;
and when hippopotami first leave the water the upper-parts appear brownish blue
and the under-parts almost flesh-coloured, but when thoroughly dry the colour of
the back is blackish brown or slaty. Sir John Kirk observed in East Africa nearly
pure white and also spotted individuals, while in others only the feet were white.
In certain cases, however, a more or less distinct reddish, purple, or yellow tinge
has been noticed. The largest recorded pair of lower tusks of the hippopotamus
have a total length of 31| inches along the curve, and a basal circumference of
just over 9 inches.
That the hippopotamus formerly inhabited Lower Egypt is indicated by the
occurrence of its remains in the mud of the delta, while this is also confirmed by
the frequency with which it is depicted in the ancient frescoes of that country.
One of these frescoes preserved in the temple of Edfu shows that the ancient
Egyptians were in the habit of harpooning these animals in much the same manner
as is now practised on the upper reaches of the Nile. Teeth of the hippopotamus
have been dug up at Kalabshi, a short distance above the first cataract ; but at the
present day the animal is not to be met with north of the neighbourhood of
Dongola, in the Sudan, between the second and third cataracts. And even there}
according to Sir S. Baker, it is comparatively rare, although a certain number take
refuge in the wooded islands between Abou Hamed and Berber. Above Khartum,
hippopotami are still to be found in large numbers. Generally, it may be stated
that at the present day the hippopotamus inhabits most of the African rivers and
lakes lying between the 17th parallel of north and the 25th of south latitude ; that
is to say, in the south it is found in the upper course of the Limpopo. Formerly,
however, its distribution embraced the greater part of the Cape Colony. In East,
South, and West Africa the hippopotamus comes much nearer to the coast than in
the north, and in many districts it is to be found quite close to, or even in the sea
itself. On the other hand, in Abyssinia these animals are found dwelling in Lake
HIPPOPOTAMI.
447
Tzana-Dembea, at an elevation of over six thousand feet above the sea-level. The
existing species is unknown in Madagascar ; but from the reference to it in the
A FAMILY PARTY OF HIPPOPOTAMI (»'„ nat. size).
Bible, under the name of Behemoth, it is just possible that it may have inhabited
Palestine within the historic period.
In the Pleistocene and upper portion of the Pliocene epoch a large hippopotamus
448 UNGULATES.
which appears specifically indistinguishable from the living kind was widely spread
over Europe, extending from Italy in the south to England in the north. These
fossil hippopotami were, however, of considerably larger dimensions than at least
the average of the existing race. In England the range of the animal extended as
far north as Yorkshire; and it is a remarkable circumstance that in several English
localities remains of the hippopotamus are found lying side by side with those of
the reindeer. It has been attempted to explain this association of such southern
and northern types by assuming that in the Pleistocene period the summers were
very hot and the winters very cold, and that during the summer the hippopotami
wandered northwards into regions tenanted in winter by the reindeer. There are,
however, difficulties in the way of accepting this explanation, not the least being
the circumstance that the living African hippopotamus is not a migratory animal.
We may, however, be pretty confident that wherever remains of hippopotami are
found, there the rivers must have been free from ice throughout at least the greater
part of the year.
The hippopotamus is more essentially an aquatic animal than any
other Ungulate, the greater portion of its time being spent in the
water, where its movements are far more rapid and natural than they are on land.
As the carcase of a hippopotamus when freshly killed sinks rapidly to the bottom,
the specific gravity of the animal when the lungs are inflated with air cannot be
far, if at all, below that of water, and the animal is consequently enabled to stay
without difficulty at the bottom of a river or lake, where it can run with ease and
speed. Sir S. Baker states that, when undisturbed, the average duration of time
during which a hippopotamus remains under water does not exceed five minutes ;
but in regions where these animals are much hunted the length of the immersion
is often much greater, sometimes extending to as much as ten minutes. The same
writer also mentions that when on the upper Nile in a steamer that was travelling
about ten knots an hour, it was not till the engineer increased the pace by putting
on full steam, they were able to overtake a hippopotamus swimming about a
hundred yards in advance of the vessel. When a hippopotamus comes to the
surface it generally spouts up a column of water by the violent blowing-out of air
through the nostrils, accompanied by a loud snorting noise ; but, as we shall again
notice, these animals learn caution in these respects when much persecuted. A
peculiarity of the hippopotamus is that when swimming in the water and about to
dive, it gradually subsides by slowly sinking the hind-quarters and afterwards the
rest of the body, instead of sinking down head-foremost. When on a high bank
and suddenly frightened, it will not, however, hesitate to precipitate itself
headlong into the water.
As the giraffe may be regarded as the most characteristic and striking animal
in an African desert-landscape, so the hippopotamus forms the most distinctive
living feature in a river-scene ; and nothing can be more impressive than to come
suddenly upon a herd of these gigantic animals on the margin of some unfrequented
lake or river. Such a scene is graphically described by Mr. Selous, who writes
that on one occasion his companion and himself, after making their way through a
thick bush -jungle, suddenly emerged upon a river-bank. " Upon a spit of white
sand which jutted into the pool from the opposite bank, stood, high and dry, a herd
HIPPOPOTAMI. 449
of at least twenty hippopotami, their huge, bulky carcases looking, as they stood
all huddled together, like so many black rocks." After mentioning that a water-
buck standing on the further shore soon took alarm, Mr. Selous continues that the
hippopotami, " though we were in full view and only about two hundred and fifty
yards from them, did not seem to notice us, but stood quite motionless and appar-
ently asleep, except that now and then one would move his enormous head slowly
to the one side or the other. ... At length they heard us talking, and commenced,
one after the other, to walk into the river. When their bodies were half immersed
they let themselves down with a splash, and either swam into deep water with just
the tips of their heads out, or dived out of sight at once ; I suppose there must have
been a ledge beside which the water deepened suddenly. There were some quite
small calves amongst them, and these little beasts all ran into the water with a
splash, whilst the full-grown animals stepped in slowly and sedately." Similar
testimony as to the ease with which hippopotami may be approached in undisturbed
districts is afforded by Sir J. Willoughby in East Africa. When stealthily punting
on a raft towards a small herd, this writer observes that the hippopotami, " did not
seem to mind our approach in the least degree, but continued to enjoy themselves
by puffing and snorting and blowing water in jets from their nostrils, and now and
again sinking down, to reappear at the end of two or three minutes, and, with their
heads half out of the water, to take a look round. When we were within thirty
yards, they ceased their gambols to gaze with astonishment at what I suppose was
the first attempt to navigate these waters."
On the White Nile Sir S. Baker states, that during the dry season he has seen
a bend of the river so crowded with hippopotami, that it seemed impossible that
his steamer would be able to make its way without coming into collision with some
of the monsters. All, however, managed to steer clear of the path of the vessel,
which passed through a perfect crowd of snorting and blowing heads.
Kegarding the general habits and haunts of the hippopotamus, Dr. Livingstone
states, that on the Chobi and other large rivers, the banks are marked by numerous
furrows made by these animals in ascending during the night to graze on the
herbage of the adjacent lands; and he adds that as they are guided back to these
paths solely by scent, if a heavy rain comes on during their nocturnal excursions
they are unable to find their way back to the river, and stand helpless on the land.
The males generally remain in company with the females, although a few very
aged individuals of the former sex may lead more or less solitary lives. " The still
reaches," continues the same observer, " are their favourite haunts, as elsewhere the
constant exertion necessary to keep themselves from being carried down the stream
disturbs their nap. They remain by day in a drowsy yawning state, taking little
notice of things at a distance. The males utter loud, snorting grunts, which may
be heard a mile off. The young ones stand on the necks of their dams, and their
small heads appear first above the surface as they rise to breathe. The dam,
knowing the more urgent need of her calf, rises more frequently when it is in her
care. In the rivers of Londa, where they are in danger of being shot, the hippo-
potami gain wit by experience ; for while those in the Zambesi expose their heads,
the others keep their noses among the water-plants, and breathe so quickly as to
elude all observation."
VOL. n. — 29
45°
UNGULATES.
On the banks of the White Nile, Sir S. Baker states that the favourite haunts
of hippopotami are the dense masses of tall reeds fringing the river. There
they pass a considerable portion of their time in marshy retreats among the canes ;
such dens would be impervious to human beings, and would not be observed
unless from a vessel upon the river. The tangled mass of vegetation is pierced
in numerous places by dark tunnels, which have been bored out by their bulky
forms, and these gloomy routes form their channels of retreat, where they retire
to sleep. Females, with their calves, are especially fond of these impervious
bowers, where they are secure from all chances of molestation by man or beast.
The hippopotamus is a purely herbivorous animal, and from its gigantic bulk
consumes an enormous amount of food. The capacious stomach, which, when
extended, measures some 11 feet in length, is indeed capable of containing between
five and six bushels, which gives some idea of the vast quantity of nutriment the
creature requires. In uncultivated districts, grass and various water-plants — more
especially the lotus and papyrus — afford the chief food-supply; but where the
land adjoining the rivers is under cultivation, the damage done to growing crops of
rice, millet, maize, and sugar by hippopotami is incalculable. It is not only the
amount they actually eat (although this is large enough), but the quantity damaged
in their passage from one part of a field to another. Water-plants are dragged
up by the roots from the beds of rivers and lakes, when not too deep, by the
hippopotamus in its capacious mouth, and after being brought to the surface,
are devoured at leisure. When starting for their nocturnal excursions in the
fields, these animals seldom leave the river till about an hour after sunset, and do
not return till dawn. On such expeditions they make a prodigious snorting and
grunting, which may be heard for long distances.
There is usually but a single offspring produced at a birth, and Sir S. Baker
says that he has never seen a female hippopotamus accompanied by more than two
calves. The period of gestation is a little short of eight months, and it would seem
that the young may be brought forth at any season of the year. The mother, as
we have already noticed, is sedulous in her attention to her offspring, but the male
is apt to be evilly disposed towards it. Males, according to Sir S. Baker's
account, are constantly fighting among themselves at night, and apparently irre-
spective of any particular pairing-season ; and it is also stated by the same observer
that a wounded animal may be furiously attacked by a comrade.
The full age attained by the hippopotamus in its wild state has not been
ascertained, but, since a calf brought to the London Zoological Society's Gardens
in 1850 survived till 1878, the span of life must be considerable.
In disposition the hippopotamus is generally described as comparatively timid,
but when a boat passes unexpectedly into the middle of a sleeping herd, or comes
close to a solitary individual at night, the results are apt to be serious. Sir S.
Baker says that, when travelling by night in an ordinary boat on the Nile, " there
is no possibility of escape should a hippopotamus take into his head that your
vessel is an enemy. The creature's snort may be heard at a few yards' distance
in the darkness, and the next moment you may be overturned by an attack from
beneath, where the enemy was unseen." Dr. Livingstone relates how that on the
Chobi a solitary male issued from its lair and charged some of his company with
HIPPOPOTAMI. 451
considerable speed, and it was reported to him that another had completely smashed
a canoe with a single blow from its hind foot. On another occasion a female
hippopotamus, whose young had been speared the previous day, rose suddenly
beneath the canoe containing Livingstone and seven natives, and with her head
lifted one half of it completely out of the water, so as nearly to overturn it. On
the White Nile one of these animals boldly charged one of Sir S. Baker's steamers,
and, not content with breaking several floats from one of the paddle-wheels, actually
knocked two large holes with its tusks in the bottom of the vessel. The same
writer also relates that a hippopotamus once struck the bottom of a " dug-out ;'
canoe measuring twenty-seven feet in length with such force as to lift it partially
out of the water. The most extraordinary incident of wanton maliciousness on
HIPPOPOTAMI AT HOME.
Hunting.
the part of these animals is, however, one also recorded by Sir S. Baker. His
natives were swimming a herd of about twenty cattle across the Nile, when they
were suddenly attacked by a party of hippopotami, some of which seized with open
jaws several of the cows and dragged them beneath the water, never to reappear.
As already mentioned, the ancient Egyptians were in the habit
of harpooning the hippopotamus, and this custom is still kept up by
the Sudanis on the upper Nile. The usual plan when a party of these animals
has been observed in the river, is for a couple of hunters, each armed with a
harpoon to which a line is attached, to enter the river some distance above, and
swim cautiously down on the herd. When within striking distance, both men hurl
their weapons at the same time. To each line is attached a wooden float, which
marks the position of the animal while below the surface, and the chase is taken
up by other hunters on the bank armed with harpoons and lances. By an ingenious
452 UNGULATES.
arrangement, the float is at length captured by a rope and the animal dragged to
shore, where it is despatched with lances. This, however, Sir S. Baker states, is
frequently not accomplished without the death of one or more of the intrepid
hunters. In Central Africa, on the other hand, the hippopotamus is harpooned
from canoes. In other parts the favourite method is to suspend a weighted spear,
frequently tipped with poison, over a branch of a tree near the tracks of the
hippopotamus, and to make fast the end of the line, to which it is attached to stakes
on either side of the path. When the animal comes along, it strikes against the
line, the stakes are loosened, and the heavy spear comes down with a thud on its
head or back. Yet another plan is to construct pitfalls in the paths frequented by
these animals, and to cover them over carefully on the top with boughs, reeds,
or grass.
The most cruel method is, however, one sometimes employed by the Kaffirs of
South-Eastern Africa, who, as Mr. Selous relates, are in the habit of starving the
unfortunate brutes. They select a pool in a river where the bottom is sandy, and
consequently where there is no vegetation ; and for choice they prefer a pool with
a high bank on one side. Having driven or watched a party of hippopotami into
such a pool, the Kaffirs form a hedge round the open sides, and thus render egress
impossible. Mr. Selous states that on one occasion he came across such a pool,
where, so far as he could ascertain, the animals had been enclosed for about three
weeks. When his party reached the scene of operations there were still ten living
hippopotami in the pool. " Eight of these seemed to be standing on the bank in
the middle of the water, as more than half their bodies were exposed ; the poor
brutes were all huddled up in a mass, each with his upraised head resting on
another's body. Two more were swimming about, each with a very heavily-shafted
assegai sticking in his back ; these assegais are plunged into them at night when
the starving beasts come near the fences seeking for a means of exit from their
horrible prison."
Europeans are in the habit of shooting hippopotami with rifles, but most who
have tried this sport agree that, when the novelty has worn off, it is not of a very
exciting nature. Although when first killed the carcase of a hippopotamus sinks
to the bottom immediately after death, it will rise within twenty-four hours, owing
to the generation of gases in the stomach, if the depth of water does not exceed
some twenty-five feet.
Formerly hippopotamus ivory was valued for the manufacture
of artificial teeth, and in the early part of this century it fetched as
much as twenty -five shillings per Ib. Now, however, the animal is hunted solely
for its hide and fat, or for the sake of its flesh as food. The hide is used for whips,
arid, according to Sir S. Baker, also for facing revolving wheels employed in
polishing steel. A good hippopotamus will yield about 200 Ibs. of pure fat ; and
the writer last named states that the flesh of the hippopotamus is always palatable,
that of the young calf being delicious ; the feet of the latter making an excellent
stew, and its skin soup which has been compared to turtle.
in Captivity Hippopotami thrive well in captivity, and breed not unfrequently.
The first specimen exhibited in the London Zoological Society's
Gardens was captured on the upper Nile in 1849, and brought to England in
HIPPOPOTAMI, 453
the following year, where, as already mentioned, it lived till 1878. This was a
male, and although a consort was obtained for it in 1853, no young were produced
till 1871. The calf born in that year did not, however, long survive, and the same
untimely fate also befell a second calf produced in the spring of the following year.
A third calf was born in the autumn of 1872, and is still living (1894).
Pigmy The Liberian or pigmy hippopotamus (H. liberiensis) from
Hippopotamus. Western Africa is a much smaller animal, not exceeding a pig in
dimensions, and weighing only about 400 Ibs. This species differs structurally from
the common one in having only a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw,
although a small representative of the second pair may sometimes occur on one
side. The colour of the back is slaty black, while that of the under-parts is dirty
greyish white, and the sides greenish slaty grey. The height at the shoulder is
about 2 feet 6 inches, and the total length 6 feet, of which 7 inches are occupied
by the tail.
This diminutive species appears to be confined to Upper Guinea,
and according to Herr Btittikofer is found only in swamps and damp
forests, and not in rivers. Its habits are said, indeed, to be more like those of wild
swine than those of its gigantic cousin, and, instead of traversing well-beaten paths,
it wanders great distances in the woods. The author quoted is uncertain whether
the Liberian hippopotamus is nocturnal or diurnal in its habits, although he is
inclined to believe that it is the latter. It is, however, certain that it lives either
solitary or in pairs, and that it never associates in troops like the larger species.
Extinct Among extinct species of the genus, the Maltese hippopotamus
Hippopotami, (jj minutus), of which the remains are found in such enormous
quantities in the caverns of Malta and Sicily, appears to have been no larger than
the Liberian species, though it resembled the ordinary living African one in the
number of its lower incisor teeth. Intermediate in size between the Maltese and
the common hippopotamus was Pentland's hippopotamus {H. pentlandi), found in
the same deposits as the former. The vast quantities in which the remains of these
two extinct species are found in the Sicilian caves presents a puzzle, since hippo-
potami are not the sort of animals which one would expect to frequent such
habitations. Some years ago many shiploads of teeth and bones of these species
were imported into England from Palermo for the manufacture of charcoal.
Although hippopotami are now quite unknown in India, during the Pleistocene
and Pliocene epochs they were abundant in that country. In the Pleistocene of the
Narbada Valley in Central India remains of two species of the genus are met with ;
one of these (H. palceindicus) being characterised by the presence on each side of
the lower jaw of a small incisor tooth between the two larger ones, corresponding
to those of the common African hippopotamus ; while in the second Narbada
species (H. namadicus) both upper and lower jaws were provided with three
nearly equal-sized pairs of incisor teeth. The same condition also obtains in the
Siwalik hippopotamus (H. sivalensis) from the Pliocene rocks at the foot of the
Himalaya, and likewise in the Pliocene Burmese hippopotamus (H. iravadicus) and
the Algerian hippopotamus (H. bonariensis), which was likewise of Pliocene age.
An extinct hippopotamus (H. lemerlei) has also been discovered in the superficial
deposits of Madagascar.
CHAPTER XXVI.
UNGULATES, — continued.
TAPIRS, RHINOCEROSES, AND HORSES.
WITH the three groups of animals known as tapirs, rhinoceroses, and horses, we
come to an assemblage of Ungulates differing in many important respects from all
those described in the preceding chapters, and collectively constituting a distinct
primary division of the order to which they belong. The most obvious external
SKELETON OF MALAYAN TAPIR.
characteristics of this assemblage of animals are displayed by their feet, in which, as
we have already had occasion to mention (p. 153), the toe corresponding to the third
or middle finger of the human hand, or to the middle toe of the human foot, is always
larger than either of the others, and is symmetrical in itself. This peculiarity of
foot-structure is exhibited in the accompanying figure, and likewise in the smaller
figures on p. 455 ; and how essentially different it is from the type of foot obtaining
in the even-toed Ungulates will be apparent by contrasting these figures with the
illustration of the foot of the pig given on p. 422. In all the Even-toed Ungulates,
we may once again remind our readers, instead of the third toe being symmetrical
in itself and larger than either of the others, it is symmetrical to a line drawn
between itself and the fourth toe, and is equal in size to the latter, with which it
forms a pair.
Although in the members of the present group the number of toes in the foot
is frequently three, it may be increased to four or diminished to one ; yet in all
ODD-TOED GROUP.
455
these variations the symmetry of the third digit is preserved. And it is on account
of the prominence of this same digit that the group has received the designation of
the Odd-toed, or Perissodactyle Ungulates.
Another distinctive feature of this group is to be found in the conformation of
the astragalus of the ankle-joint of the hind-foot. This
bone, which forms the upper right-hand corner of the
accompanying figure of the hind-foot of a rhinoceros, is
characterised by its deeply-grooved pulley-like superior
surface, while inferiorly it is abruptly truncated ; and,
unlike that of the Even-toed group, it has not a facet for
articulation with the fibula, or smaller bone of the leg.
The astragalus of an Even -toed Ungulate is, on the
other hand, a more elongated bone, with its lower surface
highly convex, and divided into two distinct moieties.
A third very important characteristic of the limbs of the
Odd -toed Ungulates is that the femur, or bone of the
upper segment of the hind-leg, is furnished with a pro-
jecting crest on the. upper part of its hinder surface
known as the third trochanter ; this trochanter (of which
the position is clearly shown in the left hind -limb of
the figure of the skeleton of the tapir) being quite un-
known among the Even-toed Ungulates.
The foregoing characteristics of the feet are alone
sufficient to distinguish the Odd-toed Ungulates from the
even-toed group, but there are also certain other features — especially some connected
with the teeth — which it is advisable to notice. As regards the cheek-teeth, it
may be observed that in the upper jaw the premolars (as shown in the accom-
panying figure) are generally
as complex as the molars,
whereas in most members of
the Even-toed group they are
simpler. Then, again, all the
upper cheek-teeth, with the THE LEFT UPPER CHEEK-TEETH OF THE ANCHITHERE. (From Osborn.)
exception of the first, in most
of the earlier and more primitive representatives of the group are characterised
by carrying six columns or cusps on their crowns, of which the two innermost pairs
tend to unite more or less completely, and thus form a pair of oblique transverse
ridges, extending across the crown to the two outer columns ; the two latter also
uniting to form a longitudinal outer wall to the tooth. From this primitive type
of tooth all the more specialised developments may be derived, and, as we shall have
occasion to notice later on, while the earlier forms have low-crowned molar teeth,
like those represented in the figure, some of the later types have the crowns greatly
elongated in the vertical direction. In this respect, therefore, the Odd-toed
Ungulates have developed in a manner exactly paralleled among the Even-toed
group, a similar parallelism being also noticeable in respect to the reduction of
the number of toes on the feet. Moreover, as we find in the Even-toed Ungulates
BONES OF THE RIGHT HIND-FOOT
OF AN EXTINCT RHINOCEROS.
(From Osborn.)
456 UNGULATES.
an increased length in the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of those forms in which
but two functional bones remain, so in the present group there is a similar elonga-
tion of the single metacarpal and metatarsal (cannon) bones in its one-toed repre-
sentatives, namely, the horses. It is only of late years that the great importance
played by parallelism in the development of allied groups of animals has been
fully recognised, and fresh instances of it are being constantly discovered. In no
group are there better examples of this phenomenon than among the Ungulates,
where it is displayed among several groups, and affects totally different parts of
the skeleton.
The lower cheek-teeth of the Odd-toed Ungulates very generally differ from
those of the other main group in that the last of the series resembles those in
advance of it in having two lobes, this feature being distinctive of the whole of the
existing members of the group. On the other hand, in all the living representatives
of the even-toed group, with the single exception of one small antelope (Neotragus,
p. 309), the corresponding tooth has three distinct lobes. Generally, the lower
cheek-teeth of the present group carry either two transverse ridges or a pair of
crescents, one in front of the other, on their crowns. It may be added that all the
Odd-toed Ungulates have simple stomachs, and that in all cases the liver is not
provided with a gall-bladder.
The whole of the living Odd-toed Ungulates may be divided into three well-
marked family groups, which are commonly designated as tapirs, rhinoceroses, and
horses (the latter term including zebras, asses, etc.); and according to the classifica-
tion adopted in this work, each of these three families is now represented only by
a single genus. With the exception of the tapirs, which are common to the
Malayan region and Central and South America, all the existing Odd-toed Ungulates
are Old World animals. Moreover, all the three groups are represented by a com-
paratively small number of species, while, with the exception of the horses, these
species are far inferior in the number of individuals by which they are represented
to the majority of the Even-toed Ungulates. All these circumstances point to the
conclusion that, as a whole, the Odd-toed Ungulates are a waning group ; and this
conclusion is fully supported by the discoveries of pala3ontology. Thus, in the
first place, both rhinoceroses and horses were abundantly represented during former
epochs in the New World ; while, in the second place, the rocks of both hemispheres
have yielded fossil remains of an enormous number of extinct generic, and even
family, types of Odd-toed Ungulates, several of which serve to connect very closely
together the three living groups. What may have been the reason of this gradual
waning of the Odd-toed Ungulates, and the enormous development of the Even-toed
group during the later geological epochs, it is not easy to divine. Perhaps, however,
it may be that the former group is one of a lower and less adaptive nature than the
latter. The horses are, however, an exception to the other members of the present
group, both as regards the number of species and individuals (irrespective of those
bred by man), and belong to a specialised branch which has been raised to a platform
of evolution as high as that occupied by the Ox family in the other group. Even here,
however, it is hard to understand why horses (until reintroduced by the Spaniards)
became extinct throughout the New World, unless indeed Mr. W. H. Hudson's
suggestion that they were exterminated by pumas should prove to be well founded.
TAPIRS. 457
THE TAPIRS.
Family TAPIRID^E.
The tapirs are the least specialised of all the existing Odd-toed Ungulates,
and their peculiarly antediluvian appearance would indeed suggest this even to the
unscientific observer. Their generalised character is indicated by the circumstance
that they differ from all other living members of the same great group by having
four toes to their fore-feet, although their hind-feet resemble those of the rhinoceroses
in being tridactyle. In the fore-feet the three main toes correspond to the three
middle fingers of the human hand, while the small external one represents the
fifth, or little finger. The tapirs are further characterised by the production of the
extremity of the muzzle into a short cylindrical proboscis or trunk, at the extremity
of which are situated the nostrils. The general form of the body is heavy and
ungainly, the limbs being relatively short and stout, and the tail scarcely more
than a rudiment. The eyes are small in proportion to the size of the head, and
the erect and oval ears of moderate size. The thick skin is smooth and covered
with a rather scanty coat of short hair, which is usually of uniform colour.
The skull, as seen in the figure of the skeleton on p. 454, is rather short,
narrow, and high, its most distinctive features being the enormous size of the
aperture of the nose, and the absence of any bony bar dividing the socket of the
eye from the great channel on the side of the brain-case. The teeth are forty-
two in number, or two less than the full typical number, the missing ones being the
first premolar on each side of the lower jaw. The short-crowned cheek-teeth are
separated from those in the front of the jaws by a long gap, and the tusks, or
canines, are small, those of the upper jaw being inferior in dimensions to the
outermost pair of incisors. The upper cheek-teeth have two transverse ridges
and an outer longitudinal wall, while those of the lower jaw carry a pair of
transverse ridges alone. In the limbs all the bones are fully developed and quite
distinct from one another. It may be added that the toes are encased in long and
rather oval hoofs, while inferiorly the foot is furnished with a large callous pad,
which takes a share in supporting the weight of the body. Except when the soil
is soft and yielding, the small outermost toe of the fore-foot scarcely touches the
ground.
The existing tapirs, all of which may be included in the one genus
Distribution.
Tapirus, have a most remarkable geographical distribution, a solitary
species being found in the Malayan region, while the whole of the other four are
restricted to Central and South America. Still more remarkable is the circumstance
that, instead of all the American species being closely allied, two of them are
nearly related to the Malayan tapir, while the other two form a totally distinct
group. A flood of light on this remarkable instance of what is known as dis-
continuous distribution is, however, thrown by palaeontology, remains of extinct
tapirs having been discovered in the middle and upper Tertiary rocks of Europe
(including those of England) and China, while nearly-allied or identical forms occur
in those of the United States. Such remains are also found in the cavern-deposits
of Brazil, which belong to the later Pleistocene epoch. Since these extinct forms
458 UNGULATES.
belong to the existing genus, tapirs may be regarded as among the oldest of living
Mammals. It was considered by Mr. Wallace that the Old World was the original
home of the group, from whence they migrated to North America ; but subsequent
discoveries have rendered this doubtful. Probably, however, they are but com-
paratively recent immigrants into Central and South America. And it is interesting
to notice, as Mr. Wallace observes, that while in the Old World, where they were
once so abundant, they have dwindled down to a single species, existing in small
numbers in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo only, in the western
THE MALAYAN TAPIR (T
continent they occupy a much larger area, and are represented by several distinct
species. With regard to the probable ancestors of the tapirs, we shall have some
remarks to make at the conclusion of this chapter.
Save for the circumstance that the Malayan species differs from all the rest in
coloration, the various kinds of tapirs are remarkably alike, both in respect of
bodily form and habits. Whereas, however, four of the species are found at or near
the sea-level, the fifth inhabits comparatively high elevations in the Cordilleras.
Speaking of tapirs in general, Sir W. H. Flower remarks that
" they are solitary, nocturnal, shy, and inoffensive, chiefly frequenting
Habits.
TAPIRS. 459
the depths of shady forests and the neighbourhood of water, to which they frequently
resort for the purpose of bathing, and in which they often take refuge when
pursued. They feed on various vegetable substances, as shoots of trees and bushes,
buds and leaves."
The Malayan tapir (T. indicus) is the largest of the whole group,
' and differs from all the others in its parti-coloured skin. In height
this animal stands from 3 to 3| feet at the withers, and about 4 inches more at the
rump, its length along the curves from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail
being about 8 feet. In the adult the colour of the head and front of the body, as
well as the limbs, is dark brown or black, while the body from behind the shoulders
to the rump and the upper part of the thighs is greyish white, as are also the ears.
On the other hand, the newly-born young are brownish or velvety black, marked
with spots and longitudinal streaks of brownish yellow on the sides, and of white
beneath ; the change from the young to the adult coloration taking place, accord-
ing to Mr. Blanford, between four and six months after birth.
The Malayan tapir is found in the peninsula from which it takes its name,
extending northwards to Tenasserim, and it also occurs in the island of Sumatra,
and perhaps in Borneo. Although one of its skulls had been sent to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal in Calcutta as far back as the year 1806, it was not till Diard
in 1817 sent to Cuvier a portrait and description of a specimen then living in the
viceroy's menagerie in Barrakpur, near Calcutta, that it was recognised in Europe
as a distinct species. Apart from a notice by Wahlfeldt in 1772, Sir Stamford
Raffles had, however, knowledge of the creature's existence in 1805, and in 1816
Major Farquhar sent a description of the animal to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Owing to its retiring nature, the Malayan tapir is but seldom seen in its
native haunts, and our information as to its habits is consequently meagre in the
extreme. Indeed, nothing is known as to its breeding-habits, although it seems to
be ascertained that but one young is produced at a birth. Mr. Mason writes that,
" though seen so rarely, the tapir is by no means uncommon in the interior of the
Tavoy and Mergui provinces. I have frequently come upon its recent footmarks,
but it avoids the inhabited parts of the country." When taking to the water, it is
reported to plunge in and walk along the bottom, instead of swimming. In spite
of its shy and retiring habits, this tapir, if captured at a sufficiently early period,
can be readily tamed, and is said to exhibit considerable attachment to its master.
Of the New World tapirs the best known species is the common
American Tapirs. . . . v • • « j «v j v T •
South American tapir (T. amencanus), originally described by Lmna3us
as a terrestrial species of hippopotamus. In common with the other American
kinds, the adult is of a uniform dark brown or blackish colour, although the young
are striped and spotted after the manner of the Asiatic species. The snout is
shorter than in the latter, the hinder part of the head more elevated, and the crown
of the head and neck furnished with a short, stiff, upright mane. The margins of
the ears are white. This species inhabits the forest-districts of Brazil, Paraguay, and
the northern part of Argentina. The second member of this group is Roulin's tapir
(T. roulini), which is a mountain species inhabiting the Cordilleras of Ecuador and
Colombia at an elevation of from seven thousand to eight thousand feet above the
Hea, and locally known as the pinchaque. It has a less vaulted skull and a rounder
460
UNGULATES.
neck, without distinct crest, than the lowland species, from which it is further
distinguished by the presence of a long white spot on the chin.
The two remaining species are Baird's tapir (T. bairdi), ranging from Mexico
to Panama, and Dow's tapir (T. dowi), restricted to Guatemala, Nicaragua, and
Costa Eica, which constitute a second group of the genus distinguished by the
characters of the skull. In all the three species of the first group, as seen in the
figure of the skeleton given on p. 454, the nasal cavity is perfectly open in advance
of the roofing bones of the skull ; but in those of the second group this cavity is
Habits.
THE AMERICAN TAPIR (^ nat. size).
divided by a vertical partition in the middle line, similar to one shown later on in
the figure of the skull of an extinct rhinoceros.
The following notes on the habits of the American tapirs refer
mainly or exclusively to the common species. These tapirs confine
themselves exclusively to the thickest parts of the forests, carefully avoiding all
open spaces, and forming regular pathways along which they travel in search of
food and water. In the forest itself it is generally difficult to come across them,
but Humboldt and others state that, when travelling on the rivers by boat, tapirs
may be often seen in the early morning, when they come to the bank for the
purpose of drinking. Although mainly nocturnal, it is stated that in the densest
and darkest portions of the forest tapirs may be encountered abroad during the
TAPIRS. 461
daytime. They are fond of gamboling in the water and rolling in soft mud, their
hides being often thickly plastered with the latter, probably as a protection against
the bites of insects. Indeed, in many respects their mode of life is very similar
to that of swine, although in their more solitary habits they present a closer
resemblance to their cousins the rhinoceroses. Thus the males, except during the
pairing-season, are said to be completely solitary, and even family parties are but
rarely met with ; and, except when several have been temporarily collected by the
attraction of unusually good pasture, it is but very seldom that more than three
individuals are seen in company. Tapirs commence to feed in the evening, and
probably continue throughout the greater part of the night.
These animals are slow and deliberate in their movements, usually walking
with their snouts close to the ground, and by the aid of scent or sound detecting
the presence of foes with extreme acuteness. When frightened, however, they rush
blindly forwards, crashing through bushes or splashing through water in precipitate
flight. The American tapir is an excellent swimmer, crossing the largest rivers
with facility, and even diving beneath the surface of the water, although with what
object is not ascertained. Not improbably it may also walk along the beds of
shallow rivers and lakes, as was observed to be the habit of a specimen of the
Malayan species kept in captivity at Barrakpur.
The chief sound uttered by the American tapir is a peculiar shrill whistle,
which, according to Azara, has but little volume in comparison with the size of the
animal by which it is emitted. This whistle is uttered at all seasons, and is not,
as has been supposed, restricted to the pairing -season; the Malayan species is
reported to give vent to a very similar sound. When suddenly disturbed, the
American tapir utters a loud snort.
Although in general perfectly harmless animals, fleeing precipitately before
the smallest dog, tapirs will sometimes attack their enemies fiercely, this being
more especially the case with females that have been deprived of their young. In
such instances they rush violently at their foes — human or otherwise — and after
knocking them down will trample upon and bite them after the manner of wild
swine.
In Brazil, the food of the tapir is largely composed of palm-leaves in districts
remote from cultivation, but at certain seasons of the year these animals subsist
almost exclusively on fallen fruits, while in other districts swamp-grasses and water-
plants form their chief nutriment. In the neighbourhood of plantations they
frequently do much harm to the crops of sugar-cane, melons, etc., and they are
especially dreaded by the proprietors of cacao-plantations for the amount of
damage they inflict on the young plants. Salt seems especially grateful to their
palate, and in order to obtain it they will eat the saline earth found in many parts
of South America. In captivity they are fond of any sweet substances, and it is
also said that in this condition they frequently become almost as omnivorous as
swine. The American species can be as easily tamed as their Asiatic cousin, and
tame individuals may sometimes be seen at large in the streets of some of the
South American towns.
Although on account of their affording no trophies in the shape
of horns, antlers, or tusks, tapirs offer no attraction to European
462 UNGULATES.
sportsmen, yet they are much sought after by the native South- American hunters
for the sake of their flesh and hide. The flesh is said to be juicy and well-
flavoured, and both in appearance and taste resembles beef. The skin, which is of
great thickness and strength, is cut into long thongs, which, after being rounded
and treated with fat, are used for reins and bridles. It is, however, unsuited for
shoe-leather, as it becomes very hard and unyielding when dry, and very soft and
spongy when wetted. The hairs, hoofs, and certain other parts are used by the
natives as medicine ; the hoofs being sometimes hung round the neck as charms,
and in other cases ground to powder and taken internally.
In South America tapirs are generally hunted with the aid of dogs, which
chase the animals through the forest until they enter the water. Here they are
attacked by the hunters, who have lain concealed among the reeds on the river
bank, and by them they are pursued as they dive and swim in the water. When
the area of water is not too large, the chase is frequently of no great duration, and
the animal is before long despatched either with a club or a hunting-knife. Some-
times, however, the hunt is more protracted, the tapir leaving the water and
breaking away from the dogs among the dense reeds or bushes, until again brought
to bay in another pool or river. The traveller Schomburgk gives a graphic account
of a tapir hunt he once witnessed when in South America. As his vessel rounded
a headland on the river, a female tapir with her young came into view standing on
a sandbank. Scarcely, however, had his Indians time to utter the word " Maipuri "
(the native name of the common species), than the two animals caught sight of the
party, and dashed into the thick cover on the bank. This cover was in the form
of giant reeds and grass, with sharp-cutting edges, some seven feet in height,
which offered a formidable obstacle to the progress of Europeans. The Indians,
however, wriggled their way between the stems like snakes ; and soon two shots
in quick succession, followed by a shout of triumph, told that they had come up
with their quarry. When Schomburgk reached the scene, he passed the female
tapir lying dead with a bullet through the lungs. The dogs then took up the trail
of the young one, which was concealed among the reeds. As soon as the creature
perceived that it was discovered by the dogs, it uttered the peculiar whistling
cry, mentioned above, by which the hunters were guided to its place of con-
cealment. Eventually the young tapir, which was about the size of an ordinary
full-grown pig, broke cover, and after an exciting although short chase was
despatched.
In some parts the South American Indians track the tapir to its lair, and
shoot it as it lies. In Paraguay, when the hunters capture a young tapir of too
large a size to be carried on a horse in front of the rider, they bore a hole in one
side of the snout through which they pass a thong, and the animal will then follow
readily enough when led.
Next to man, the worst foes of the tapir are the larger cats ; the
jaguar preying largely on the American species (as depicted in the
coloured Plate in the first volume), and the tiger attacking its Malayan cousin.
It is said that when an American tapir is attacked by a jaguar, it immediately
rushes into the thickest cover in the hope of dislodging its assailant, which from
the thickness of the animal's hide is unable to obtain a firm hold on its back.
RHINOCEROSES. 463
It is further reported that the tapir is not unfrequently successful ; and, in
an}T case, many of these animals are killed with the marks of jaguar's claws
on their backs.
succession of Before leaving these animals, it may be mentioned that the
Teeth. whole of the four premolar teeth on each side of the upper jaw are
preceded by milk-teeth, whereas in the pig and other Even-toed Ungulates the first
of these teeth never has a deciduous predecessor, as, indeed, is the case with other
groups of Mammals. Some rhinoceroses, however, resemble the tapirs in having
the first premolar preceded by a milk-tooth, although this seems to be merely
an individual, and not a specific peculiarity.
THE RHINOCEROSES.
Family RHINOCEROTID^:.
Although inferior in length of body, and probably also in weight, to the
hippopotamus, the larger species of rhinoceros exceed it in height, and, there-
fore, vie with it in claiming the position of being the Mammals next in point
of size to the elephants. Unlike the tapirs, the various species of rhinoceros, all
of which are now confined to the Old World, differ very markedly from one
another in structure — so much so, indeed, that by many writers they are divided
into several genera ; and there is also considerable disparity in point of size. In
spite, however, of these minor differences, all these animals are so much alike in
general appearance, that it seems preferable to include the whole of them in the
single genus Rhinoceros. All the existing rhinoceroses differ from tapirs in having
but three toes on both fore and hind-feet, but since there are some extinct species
with four toes to the front limbs, this point of distinction cannot be regarded as a
very important one. The presence of one or two horns in the middle line of the
front of the head might at first sight be regarded as a more valuable diagnostic
character, but since these appendages are always or frequently absent in the
female of one of the living Indian rhinoceroses, and are invariably wanting in
certain extinct kinds, it will be obvious that other features must be sought that
will distinguish these animals from the tapirs.
Such characteristics are to be found in the cheek-teeth, of which
Teeth.
two from the upper jaws of certain extinct species are represented
in the figures on next page. In the molar teeth of the upper jaw the two outer
columns have completely coalesced so as to form a continuous external wall to
the crown ; this wall being sinuous, and in some cases (as in the upper figure)
forming a prominent buttress at the front outer angle of the crown. From this
outer wall proceed two continuous oblique transverse ridges, separated from one
another by a deep valley, interrupted by projecting processes from one or both
ridges, and sometimes also from the outer wall. This middle valley is usually
quite free from cement ; and its form, as likewise the relative height of the whole
crown, varies considerably in the different species. Instead of having the simple
transverse ridges found in those of the tapirs, the lower cheek-teeth of the
rhinoceroses have a pair of crescents, placed one in front of the other. On each
464
UNGULATES.
side of both the upper and lower jaw there are seven cheek-teeth ; but the last molar
in the upper jaw differs from the rest in having its hinder ridge more or less
aborted, so that the form of the crown is generally triangular.
As regards their front teeth, the
different species of rhinoceros present
a considerable amount of variation,
some of them having such teeth in
both jaws, while in others they are
totally absent ; but there are never
any canine teeth or tusks in the upper
jaw, and the number of upper incisor
teeth never exceeds two pairs. In
the lower jaw there may be a pair
of large pointed and nearly horizontal
tusks, and between them a small pair
of incisor teeth.
All the living rhin-
Form. . &
oceroses are animals or
large size and heavy build, with the
legs comparatively short and stout,
although less so than in the hippo-
potamus. Each of the toes is furnished
with a relatively small, but broad and
well-defined hoof -like nail. The head
is large and elongated, with a concave
profile, and the erect oval ears placed
very far back. The eyes are very
small in proportion to the size of the
head ; and the upper lip is generally,
although not invariably, prehensile,
and prolonged beyond the extremity
of the lower one. The thick skin is
either naked, or but sparsely clad with
hair, and may be thrown in certain
parts of the body into a series of deep
folds. The tail is thin and of moderate
length.
The horns, which
form the characteristic
feature of the physiognomy of the
living species, are composed of a
closely-packed mass of horny fibres,
growing from the skin, and having no connection with the bones of the
skull, although there are prominences on the latter beneath each horn. The
skull, as shown in the figure of that of an extinct species given in the sequel,
is characterised by its elevated occipital region, long curved profile, the absence of
LEFT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OF TWO EXTINCT SPECIES
OF RHINOCEROS.
Both considerably worn by use.
RHINOCEROSES. 465
any bony bar at the hinder part of the socket of the eye, and the large size of the
nasal bones, which are completely fused together. In those species with but one
horn this is carried upon the nasal bones, and the front horn of those with two of
these appendages has a similar situation ; but the second horn, when present, is
placed on the frontal bones.
Rhinoceroses are stupid and somewhat timorous beasts, generally
striving to escape from man, although when brought to bay exceed-
ingly fierce, and consequently from their great size very dangerous. Although the
African species are entirely dependent on their enormous horns, as weapons of
offence and defence, the Asiatic kinds, in which the horns are smaller, seem to rely
chiefly upon their sharply-pointed lower tusks, which are capable of inflicting
terrific gashes. All are mainly nocturnal ; and while some resemble the tapirs in
frequenting tall grass-jungles and swampy districts, others seem to prefer more or
less open plains. Their food is entirely vegetable ; but whereas some species
subsist almost exclusively on grass, the food of others consists mainly of twigs and
small boughs of trees ; this difference in diet being correlated with a difference in
the structure of the molar teeth. At the present day these animals are restricted
to South-Eastern Asia and Africa ; and they may be divided into two main groups
according to their geographical distribution, the Asiatic group being again sub-
divided into two minor groups.
THE ASIATIC RHINOCEROSES.
The whole of the three species of rhinoceroses inhabiting Asia are character-
ised by the skin being thrown in places into thick folds, and by the presence of
teeth in the front of the jaws ; the horns being either one or two in number.
Indian By far the largest of these three is the great one-horned Indian
Rhinoceros, rhinoceros (R. unicornis), which may be conveniently designated as
the Indian rhinoceros par excellence, and is the one which has been longest
known in Europe from living examples, a specimen having been sent to Portugal
as long ago as the year 1513. In this species there is but a single nasal horn ; and
the skin, with the exception of that of the tail and ears, is naked, and on the sides
of the body studded with a numbe* of large convex tubercles, reminding one of
the rivets in an iron boiler, which are largest on the fore and hind-quarters, where
they may be as much as an inch in diameter. The skin of the body is divided
into a number of shield-like pieces by the aforesaid folds. Thus there is a fold
before and behind each shoulder, marking off a large triangular shield covering the
shoulder; and another in front of each thigh dividing the large saddle-shaped
body-shield from the one on the hind-quarters. The folds behind the shoulder
and in front of the hind-quarters continue completely across the back, but the one
in front of the shoulder inclines backwards and dies out close to the second great
fold. Other folds form great rolls of skin on the neck, while there are others below
the shields on the fore and hind-quarters and one situated behind the buttocks
which forms a groove for the reception of the tail. The head is very large in
proportion to the body, with the occipital region of the skull very much elevated ;
and the ears are large, with their tips fringed with hairs. The horns are large in
VOL. ii. — 30
466
UNGULATES.
both sexes ; and the colour of the skin is a uniform blackish grey. In height the
Indian rhinoceros stands from 5 feet to 5| feet at the shoulder. In a male standing
5 feet 9 inches at the shoulder, measured by General Kinloch, the length from the
tip of the snout to the root of the tail was 10 feet 6 inches, the length of the tail
2 feet 5 inches, and the girth of the body 9 feet 8 inches. The length of the horn
is seldom more than a foot, although Jerdon says that there are instances on
record of horns of 2 feet in length, and one in the British Museum measures
19 inches.
The Indian rhinoceros is further characterised by its teeth. As
a rule, there is but a single pair of broad incisors in the upper jaw,
although in some cases there may be a smaller pair behind them. In the lower
Teeth.
GREAT INDIAN RHINOCEROS IN THE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS.
jaw there is one pair of long, triangular, pointed tusks, and between them a pair
of small cylindrical incisors which can be of no functional importance. The upper
molar teeth have tall crowns, and in the absence of a buttress at their front outer
angle, and the flat plane formed by their worn surface, resemble the one represented
in the lower figure on p. 464. They are, however, distinguished from the latter
by the^ presence of a small vertical plate, projecting from the outer wall into the
extremity of the middle valley. It will be obvious that this flat plane of wear of
the cheek-teeth implies that the jaws have a backwards-and-forwards grinding
motion, and not a champing action; such a mode of mastication being similar to
that existing in horses and cattle.
RHINOCEROSES, 467
This rhinoceros is exclusively confined to India, and at the
Distribution.
present day, according to Mr. Blanford, is almost restricted to the
Assam plain, being rarely, if ever, found to the westward of the Tista River.
Twenty or thirty years ago, it was, however, still common in the so-called terai
country at the foot of the Sikhim Himalaya, while some years earlier it frequented
the sub-Himalayan districts of Nipal, and ranged as far west as Rohilcund ; while
the writer last quoted believes that, about the year 1850, it also occurred in the
grass-jungles of the Ganges valley at the north end of the Rahmahal Hills in
Bengal. In the early part of the sixteenth century it ranged over the Punjab as far
westwards as Peshawur ; and since its fossilised remains are found in the North-
West Provinces, the Narbada valley, and Madras, it may be inferred that the
Indian rhinoceros formerly ranged over the greater part of Peninsular India, in
localities suited to its habits.
The Indian rhinoceros is a denizen of the great grass-jungles that
cover such a large portion of the plains of India, and from this
circumstance, coupled with the general resemblance of its molar teeth to those of
the African Burchell's rhinoceros, which is known to be a grass-eater, it may be
assumed that its food is chiefly grass. Regarding the density and height of these
jungles, General Kinloch writes that, " year after year, in the short space of two or
three months, these giant grasses shoot up to a height of from twenty to thirty feet,
forming, with the wild cardamum, various other broad-leaved plants, and numerous
creepers, a tangled cover which shelters the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the
buffalo, as effectually as a field of standing corn affords concealment to the
partridge or the quail. I have seen a line of about fifteen elephants beating a
strip of reeds not more than two hundred yards in width, and I could hardly
see the grass shake. There was not as much commotion or indication of what
was going on, as would be caused by a pack of beagles drawing a gorse-cover.
Runs or tunnels among the high reeds, like magnified ' meuses ' of hares and
rabbits, show that the same paths through the thick jungle are generally made
use of."
The rhinoceros chiefly frequents such portions of these grass-jungles as are on
swampy ground ; and although it is in general a solitary animal, the writer just
quoted states that he has known half a dozen individuals roused from a belt of not
more than half a mile in length by three hundred or four hundred yards in width.
Like tapirs, the Indian rhinoceros is fond of a mud-bath. Although there are
many stories extant as to its ferocity, and more especially its enmity to the
elephant, it appears that this animal is generally quiet and harmless. Even when
wounded, according to Mr. Blanford, it is but seldom that it charges home ; but
when it does attack, the sharp lower tusks are used much after the same manner
as those of a wild boar. The only sound that this rhinoceros utters is a peculiar
grunt, which is repeated at frequent intervals during excitement. The usual gait
of this rhinoceros is a long swinging trot, but when disturbed, it can break into an
awkward but very rapid gallop. Only a single calf is produced at a birth, but
there is some uncertainty as to the length of the period of gestation, an old writer
stating that it is nine months, while a more recent authority affirms that it is
nearly or quite double as long. Since rhinoceroses, so far as we are aware, have
468
UNGULATES.
not bred in captivity in Europe, the point is one not likely to be soon cleared
up. The Indian rhinoceros thrives well in confinement, and frequently lives in
that state for a long period. One specimen acquired by the London Zoological
Gardens in 1834 lived till 1849, while a second, purchased in 1850, died in 1874,
and a third presented in 1864 is still (1894) flourishing. Mr. Blanford states that
he has heard of captive specimens living fifty or sixty years, and Mr. Brian
Hodgson was of opinion that the natural term of this animal's life is upwards
of a century.
From the immense thickness and apparent toughness of its enormous folds, it
was long considered that the hide of the Indian rhinoceros was bullet-proof, and
that the only places where the animal was vulnerable were the joints of the
armour. General Kinloch relates an amusing story of a soldier in India, who had
heard of this legend, firing point-blank at a tame rhinoceros which had been
captured by his regiment during the Mutiny, in order to obtain ocular proof of its
GREAT INDIAN RHINOCEROS.
truth. Needless to say, as the shot was well aimed, the unfortunate animal fell
dead, which meant a considerable loss to the regimental prize-fund. And we may
mention here that the Indian rhinoceros, like all its kindred, when shot sinks down
in its tracks, and lies as if asleep, instead of falling over on its side like most
other mammals.
As a matter of fact, the skin of the living animal is quite soft, and can readily
be penetrated in any place by a bullet, or easily pierced by a hunting-knife. When
dried it becomes, however, exceedingly hard ; and it was formerly employed by
the Indian princes in the manufacture of shields for their soldiery. General
Kinloch states that if polished the hide " is very handsome and semi-transparent,
and when held up to the light looks exactly like tortoise-shell, the tubercles giving
it a beautiful mottled appearance."
The horn is used by the Hindus (to whom in common with the natives of
most parts of India, the animal is known by the name of gainda) in some of their
religious ceremonies ; when manufactured into cups it is considered by the Chinese
to possess the property of indicating the presence of poison.
RHINOCEROSES. 469
There are two modes, according to General Kinloch, of hunting
the Indian rhinoceros — " one by quietly tracking up the animal on a
single elephant until he is at last found in his lair, or perhaps standing quite
unconscious of danger; the other, by beating him out of jungle with a line of
elephants, the guns being stationed at the points where he is most likely to break
cover. In the latter case it is necessary to have reliable men with the beaters,
who can exercise authority and keep them in order, for both mahouts and
elephants have the greatest dread of the huge brute, who appears to be much more
formidable than he really is."
The same writer gives his experience of rhinoceros-hunting as follows. On a
certain occasion the General and his party " had tracked a wounded buffalo into a
large and very thick cover, into which it was useless to follow him with any chance
of getting a shot. The three guns, therefore, went on ahead, and took up their
positions at the other end of the cover, while the pad-elephants were ordered to
form line and beat steadily through the jungle. After waiting a long time at my
post I heard some large animal crashing through the reeds, and as the line of
beaters advanced the waving of the grass betrayed its movements. It came on
very slowly, occasionally stopping for some time to listen, and again making a
cautious advance. I remained still as death, but I was in a great state of anxiety
lest my elephant should become uneasy and give the alarm. Fortunately, he
remained silent, and at length the rhinoceros, anticipating no danger ahead, and
pressed by the steadily advancing line of elephants behind him, poked his ugly
head out of the reeds within twenty yards of me. I could only see his snout and
his horn, and aimed above the latter for his forehead. I either took a bad aim, or
my elephant moved slightly as I fired, for, as I afterwards found, my bullet merely
grazed the snout, cutting a deep furrow along the base of the horn. As the
rhinoceros wrheeled round, I gave him another bullet in the centre of his ribs, and
he rushed back into the reeds and through the beaters with an angry grunt." On
search being made in the jungle, it was found that the second bullet had done its
work, the huge animal lying dead with its legs folded beneath the body in the
usual recumbent posture.
Javan The Javan, or lesser one-horned rhinoceros (R. sondaicus), is an
Rhinoceros, altogether smaller animal than the preceding, with the head relatively
less large in proportion to the body, although its height at the shoulder is scarcely,
if at all, inferior. The skin, which is nearly or quite naked, lacks the large
tubercles of the Indian rhinoceros ; while the fold in front of the shoulder, instead
of inclining backwards, is continued right across the body like the other two main
folds. Superficially, the skin is divided by a network of cracks into a number of
small mosaic-like discs. The great folds of skin which are so conspicuous in the
neck of the Indian rhinoceros are in this species much less strongly developed.
The general colour is a uniform dusky grey. The skull is less elevated than in
the larger species in the occipital region ; but there are the same number of front
teeth. In structure the upper molar teeth are, however, simpler, resembling the
lower of the two figured on p. 464 ; and their crowns are not so tall. Measure-
ments of wild individuals appear to be very few ; but in a large female the height
at the shoulder was 5| feet. The female is generally or invariably hornless.
4?0 UNGULATES.
This species has a much more extensive distribution than its
larger cousin. There is no evidence that it ever occurred in Peninsular
India, but it is found in the Bengal sundarbans and portions of Eastern Bengal,
while it has been met with in the Sikhim " terai." From the valley of Assam
it ranges eastwards through Burma and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java,
and Borneo ; its partially fossilised remains occurring in the latter island.
Mr. Blanford observes that this species " is more an inhabitant
of the forest than of grass, and although it is found in the alluvial
swamps of the sundarbans, its usual habitat appears to be in hilly countries. It
has been observed at considerable elevations both in Burma and Java." Indeed,
there is evidence that it probably ascends occasionally to as much as seven thousand
feet above the sea-level. This species being a forest-dwelling one, while its molar
teeth are of the same pattern as those of the leaf and branch-eating common
African rhinoceros, it is pretty certain that its food must be of the same general
nature as that of the latter. In disposition the Javan rhinoceros is said to be
more gentle than the large Indian species, and it is not unfrequently tamed
by the Malays. The horns are never large, and afford but poor trophies to the
sportsman.
Allied siwalik In the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the
Rhinoceroses. Himalaya there occur remains of a single - horned rhinoceros
(R. sivalensis), which appears to have been closely allied to the Javan species, of
which the original home may accordingly have been India. More remarkable,
however, is the occurrence of a fossil rhinoceros in the interior of the Himalaya,
at an elevation of about sixteen thousand feet above the sea-level, which likewise
seems to have been related to the same species. It may be added that another
fossil Indian rhinoceros (R. palceindicus), of which an upper molar teeth is repre-
sented in the lower figure on p. 464, appears to have been the forerunner of the
living great Indian rhinoceros ; its molar teeth approximating to those of the
latter, although of a rather less complex structure.
sumatran Reverting to the living Asiatic species, the last of all is the
Rhinoceros. Sumatran rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis), which is mainly characteristic
of the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal, occurring but rarely in
Assam, although a single example has been obtained from Bhutan. From Assam
it ranges through Burma and the Malay Peninsula to Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo ;
but it is quite unknown in Java.
Characters ^n*s *s ^e smallest of all the living species of rhinoceros, and
differs from the preceding kinds in carrying two horns. It is further
distinguished by its hairiness, although there is a certain amount of individual
variation in this respect. As a rule, the greater part of the body is thinly covered
with brown or black hair of considerable length, while there are larger or smaller
fringes of hair on the ears and tail. The skin, which is rough and granular, and
varies in colour from earthy brown almost to black, has the folds much less
developed than in the single-horned species, and only the one behind the shoulders
is continuing right across the back. The two horns are placed some distance apart,
and when fully developed are thick and massive at the base, but very slender
above, the front and longer one sweeping backwards in a graceful curve. In
RHINOCEROSES. 471
many specimens the horns are, however, very short, and in examples kept in
confinement like the one from which our figure is taken, they become worn down
to mere stumps. The Sumatran rhinoceros differs from its two Asiatic cousins in
having lost the pair of small incisor teeth in the lower jaw, in the front of which
only the tusks remain, and even these are sometimes shed in old age. In these
respects, therefore, this species, concomitantly with the presence of two horns,
shows an indication of approximating to the African rhinoceroses.
In addition to the variation in the degrees of development of the hair, this species
THE 8UMATHAN RHINOCEROS.1
The horns, as in most captive specimens, are abnormally short.
shows considerable individual differences in colour, and also in the relative breadth of
the skull. A specimen purchased in 1872 by the Zoological Society of London for
over a £1000, and exhibited in their gardens, differed from the ordinary form by
its superior size, paler and browner colour, smoother skin, shorter and more thickly-
tufted tail, and the longer, finer, and more reddish-coloured hair; the latter
forming a long fringe on the ears, of which the insides were naked. This animal
had also a much wider head than ordinary. It was accordingly regarded as a
distinct species, under the name of the hairy-eared rhinoceros (R. lasiotis) ; but
there is little doubt that it cannot be considered as anything more than a well-
marked variety of the Sumatran species.
There is considerable variation in regard to the dimensions of this species, but
1 Messrs. Macmillau & Co. have favoured the Editor with this figure.
472 UNGULATES.
Mr. Blanford considers that from 4 feet to 4£ feet will represent about the
average height at the shoulder. In the above-mentioned specimen the height at
the shoulder was 4 feet 4 inches, and the length from the tip of the snout to the
root of the tail 8 feet ; the weight of the animal being about 2000 Ibs. On the
other hand, in an adult female from the Malay Peninsula, the shoulder-height was
only 3 feet 8 inches. There is also great variation in regard to the length of the
horns, the hinder one being in some cases reduced to an almost invisible knob.
Mr. E. Bartlett gives the following particulars of Bornean specimens. In one
example the front horn was 4| and the second 2 inches in length ; in a second,
while the front horn measured 5 inches, the hind one was a mere knob ; and in a
third, the front horn had a length of 19 inches with a girth of 16 inches, the
second horn being fairly developed, although not more than about 3 inches in
height. A single specimen of a front horn had a length of 11 inches, with a basal
girth of 11 1 inches; but the maximum recorded length is upwards of 32 inches
along the curve.
The molar teeth of this species are almost indistinguishable from
those of the Javan rhinoceros, and as its habits appear to be very
much the same as those of the latter, the diet of the two is probably also similar.
The Sumatran rhinoceros inhabits hilly forest-districts, and it has been observed
in Tenasserim at an elevation of four thousand feet above the sea. It is a good
swimmer, and is reported to have been seen swimming in the sea in the Mergui
Archipelago. Although shy and timid in the wild state, in captivity it soon
becomes tame.
Mr. E. Bartlett states that in Borneo the dyaks are very partial to the flesh of
this species as an article of diet. And he adds that the kyans — a race very
distinct from the dyaks — procure the horns for barter, for which they receive a
high price from the Chinese, who import them to China for medicine. The horns
are ground into powder for some diseases, while others are cut into minute
fragments to carry about the person. The same writer further states that this
rhinoceros is becoming extremely rare in the province of Sarawak, on account
of the value set upon its horns, but in Central and North Borneo in the very old
jungle it is more plentiful.
In 1872 a Sumatran rhinoceros, recently imported into London, gave birth to
a calf; and this event afforded Mr. A. D. Bartlett data for considering that the
period of gestation was a little over seven months. This however, as Mr. Blanford
points out, seems a very short period for such a large animal, and contrasts very
markedly with the length of time assigned by Hodgson to 'the great Indian
rhinoceros.
Allied Extinct No fossil species allied to the Sumatran rhinoceros has hitherto
species. been obtained from the Tertiary deposits of India, whence we may
conclude that the latter is probably a comparatively recent immigrant into North-
Eastern India. Schleiermacher's rhinoceros (R. schleiermacheri) of the Miocene
and lower Pliocene deposits of France and Germany appears, however, to have
been very closely allied to the Sumatran species; and thus affords, in common
with some other fossil mammals, evidence of an eastward migration of types
formerly inhabiting Western Europe.
RHINOCEROSES.
AFRICAN RHINOCEROSES.
473
Although it is commonly reported by hunters, who in many cases derive their
information from native sources, that there are several kinds of rhinoceros
inhabiting Africa, we have at present definite acquaintance with only two species,
namely, the common African rhinoceros, frequently spoken of as the black
THE COMMON AFRICAN RHINOCEROS (^ liat. size).
rhinoceros, and the square-mouthed, or Burchell's rhinoceros, commonly termed
the white rhinoceros. Since there is but little, if any, marked difference in the
colour of the two animals, the names founded on this character are best discarded.
It is possible, however, that a third species may inhabit East Africa.
Both species are furnished with two horns, which attain a
greater development than in either of their Asiatic relatives. From
Characters.
474
UNGULATES.
all the latter the African rhinoceroses are distinguished by the absence of any
permanent folds in the skin, and also by the want of both incisor teeth and tusks
in the adult state ; such teeth if they occur even in the young being rudimentary
and functionless. In consequence of this want of front teeth, the extremities
of both the upper and lower jaws are much shorter than in the Asiatic species.
Moreover, whereas in the latter the nasal bones are narrow and terminate in a
point, in the African rhinoceroses they are rounded and truncated in front. In
both kinds the skin of the body is almost entirely naked and comparatively
smooth ; but there is generally a little fringe or tuft of hairs on the ears and tail,
common African The common African rhinoceros (R. bicornis) is the smaller of
Rhinoceros. fae two species, and is also the one wThich has by far the wider
distribution, extending, in suitable districts, through Eastern and Central Africa,
from Abyssinia in the north to the Cape Colony in the south. From the character
of the upper lip
this species is
sometimes spoken
of as the pre-
hensile - lipped
rhinoceros, while
in Southern and
Eastern Africa it is
variously termed
the boreli or
upetyani, the
keitloa, and the
kulumani ; these
different native
names, as we
shall notice later,
referring to differences in the relative proportions of the two horns. This
species is best characterised by the pointed and slightly prehensile upper lip,
the small and rounded nostrils, and the position of the eyes being a little behind
the continuation of the axis of the second horn. The ears are of moderate
length, and furnished with a fringe of hair along the upper edge, while in some
cases they are rounded above, although in others more pointed. There is a
considerable amount of individual variation as to the length and amount of the
fringe of hairs on the margins of the ears. The molar teeth of this rhinoceros are
of the type of the uppermost of the two represented on p. 464. That is to say, they
have comparatively low crowns, a well-marked buttress at their front outer angle,
the middle valley not divided into two moieties by a cross-partition, and the surface
of the crown when worn raised into two distinct ridges. The latter feature shows
that the jaws have a somewhat champing, instead of a completely grinding action ;
and since we know that this species feeds almost exclusively on twigs and leaves,
it may be assumed that molar teeth of this pattern always indicate a similar diet
for their owners. The horns are well developed in both sexes.
As regards dimensions, in an adult female from Abyssinia, described by Mr.
HEAD OF THE COMMON AFRICAN RHINOCEROS.
RHINOCEROSES. 475
Blanford, the length of the tip of the snout to the end of the tail measured along
the curves was 6 feet 9 inches, of which 1 foot 9i inches was occupied by the tail,
and the height at the shoulder 4 feet 8£ inches. These dimensions are, however,
exceeded by males, which, according to Sir S. Baker, may stand from 5 feet 6
inches to 5 feet 8 inches at the shoulder.
The proportions of the two horns to one another vary greatly, the front one
being in some cases much longer than the hinder, while in others the two are
nearly or quite equal, and, more rarely, the second horn may be the longer of the
two. The native name boreli is applied to those individuals in which the second
horn is the shorter, while keitloa is restricted to such as have horns of equal
length, or the second longer than the first. Mr. Selous has shown that there is a
complete transition from the one to the other type, and consequently that such
differences cannot have any specific value.
f „ In regard to the length attained by the horns of this species, it
Size of Horns. . ° *
appears that in Abyssinia and other parts of North-East Africa, from
Sir S. Baker's experience, the front horn rarely or never exceeds 23 or 24 inches,
but much larger dimensions are recorded in South and East African specimens.
Thus examples of the front horn are described as measuring 44, 43, 41, 40, and 38|
inches in length ; but with the exception of the last, in which its length is 21
inches, in none of these examples are the dimensions of the second horn recorded.
In one specimen the length of the first and second horns were respectively 31 and
19£ inches, in another 28f and 15£, in a third 28J and 8f, in a fourth 27 and 16£,
in a fifth 21£ and 18f, and in a sixth 14f and 14f inches. The front horn is
generally nearly circular in section and slightly curved backwards, while the second
is nearly straight, much compressed, and with its hinder edge often sharper than
the front one. Sir J. Willoughby killed in East Africa an example of this rhinoceros
having a small rudimental third horn behind the normal pair.
In Abyssinia Mr. Blanford states that this rhinoceros is confined
to the lower elevations, not ascending above some five thousand feet.
In the valley of the Anseba he writes that it " inhabits the dense thickets on the
bank of the stream, which are intersected in all directions by the paths made by
these animals. In the densest parts, where roots and stems render the jungle
almost impervious, there are places known by the inhabitants as rhinoceros-houses.
The stems and branches have generally been broken away or pushed back, so as to
leave a clear space, about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, at the bottom of which
the ground has been worn into a hollow by the trampling and rolling of the animal
in wet weather. These houses are used as retreats during the heat of the day. On
two or three occasions we disturbed a rhinoceros from one of these, and he rushed
off with much noise and loud snorts through the bushes. So far as we could learn
from our observations, these animals enter the thick jungle early in the morning
and rest until one or two o'clock in the day, then they leave their thickets and go
out to feed, usually remaining, however, amongst high bushes. At the time of year
in which we visited the country, rain generally set in in the afternoon, and, even if
it did not rain, the sky was overcast. In the clear weather the rhinoceroses are
said never to appear before evening. They are great browsers, feeding chiefly on
the young shoots and branches of acacia and other trees, or on fruits ; so far as I
476 UNGULATES.
could see, they do not generally eat grass. Their movements are very quick, their
usual pace being a smart trot, and the numerous tracks show that they move about
a good deal." After expressing his doubts as to the statements of the natives that
a man on horse cannot escape from one of these animals, Mr. Blanford adds that
" they are easily eluded by turning, as they are not quick of sight, and, like most
mammals, they never look for enemies in trees ; consequently, a man two or three
feet from the ground will remain unnoticed by them if he keeps quiet. They are
said to be extremely savage, and unquestionably the first one killed by us charged
most viciously. ... I cannot help thinking, however, that their savage disposition
has been somewhat exaggerated." Most of these animals seen by the members of
the Abyssinian Expedition were in pairs, — an old female with a nearly full-grown
calf^ — but on one occasion four were observed. Mr. Blanford compares the snort
of alarm or rage uttered by these animals when disturbed to the noise of a loco-
motive rather than to the sound of any other animal.
The foregoing account is confirmed in all essential particulars by the observa-
tions of Mr. Selous in South-Eastern Africa, who writes that this species of rhinoceros
" lives exclusively upon bush and roots, eating not only the young leaves as they
sprout from the end of a twig, but also chewing up a good deal of the twig itself.
It is owing to the fact that this species lives upon bush that its range is very much
more extended than that of the square-mouthed rhinoceros; for there are many
large districts of country in the neighbourhood of the Zambesi to the eastward of
the Victoria Falls covered almost entirely with an endless succession of rugged
hills, almost devoid of grass, though well wooded, in all of which districts the
prehensile-lipped rhinoceros is numerous, as it thrives well upon the scrubby bush
with which the hillsides and valleys are covered; whereas the square -mouthed
species, though common in the forest -clad sand -belts and broad grassy valleys
which always skirt the hills, is seldom or never found among the hills themselves,
which is doubtless because the pasturage is too scanty to enable it to exist."
The same writer also tells us that this rhinoceros, like the larger African
species, exhibits extraordinary activity in getting over hilly and rocky ground,
and that it can traverse places which at first sight appear utterly impracticable for
an animal of its bulky and apparently clumsy build. We also learn from the same
observer that while the present species of rhinoceros always walks with its nose
carried high in the air, the other kind walks with its muzzle close to the ground.
Again, whereas in the common species the calf invariably follows its mother, the
offspring of Burchell's rhinoceros as constantly precedes its parent.
Mr. Selous agrees with Mr. Blanford that the ferocity of the prehensile-lipped
rhinoceros has been much exaggerated, and he is, indeed, inclined to regard it as
an animal of a rather cowardly, if not exactly peaceable, disposition. It must,
however, be borne in mind that those sportsmen who have attributed a ferocious
disposition to this species, always make a distinction in this respect between the
boreli and the keitloa, and give to the latter a much better character than they
assign to the former. Whether any difference in this respect is really associated
with the variations to which these names refer, we are not prepared to say (although
it seems most unlikely); but it is important to notice that even those who attribute
extreme ferocity of disposition to some individuals of this species have never
RHINOCEROSES. 477
asserted that this applies to all. Mr. Selous states that he was only once charged
by a common rhinoceros, and this after strong provocation, and even then the
animal did not charge home ; and he considers that vicious individuals are com-
paratively few and far between. " These animals," writes the same observer, " are
very quick and restless in their movements, and either very inquisitive or mistrust-
ful of their eyesight, for usually, when disturbed by anyone approaching from below
the wind, they will jump up with a snort, gaze fixedly at the intruder, then, with
another snort, trot quickly a few steps nearer, stand again, move their heads with
a quick motion, first to one side then to the other, advance again perhaps, and
finally, when shouted at, whisk quickly round and trot away in grand style, with
tail screwed up over their backs." Recounting his experiences in Mashonaland,
where he sometimes met with five, six, or even eight in a day, Mr. Selous says
that whenever these animals met his wind, they invariably made off at once, but
when they only saw him, they acted in the manner above described. On occasions
of the latter kind the Kaffirs would take refuge up the nearest tree, and would urge
their master to do likewise. He, however, always stood his ground, and found that
although the rhinoceroses would sometimes advance in his direction from about
forty to twenty yards' distance, yet, that if he threw stones or assegais at them, or
even simply shouted, they always eventually turned tail and fled. If, however, a
rhinoceros is fired upon when thus facing a man, it will, after dropping upon its
knees, very often spring up and rush straight forwards ; but Mr. Selous attributes
such action not to any intention of making a charge, but merely to the animal
being maddened by the shock and rushing blindly ahead ; and he considers that
it is thus that many of the accounts of its fierceness and aggressiveness have
originated. He adds, however, that one of these animals when in full career, and
either wounded or tired, will not hesitate to charge any obstacle that may be in its
path, even a waggon and a team of oxen. Finally, Mr. Selous states that he believes
the pursuit of the common African rhinoceros to be attended with less danger than
that of either the lion, elephant> or buffalo; and he supports this opinion by
observing that both Kaffirs and Hottentots, who but seldom care to molest a lion,
never have the slightest hesitation in attacking a rhinoceros. The foregoing
account is confirmed in all essential particulars by Sir John Willoughby, who
suggests, however, that the rhinoceros is apt to be dangerous at certain seasons.
In South-Eastern Africa Mr. Drummond states that both species of rhinoceros
generally leave their lairs about four o'clock in the afternoon, or, in districts where
there are. many human beings, somewhat later. They commence feeding in the
direction of their drinking-places, to which they travel by regular beaten paths,
and arrive at the same somewhere about dark. If the drinking-place is a mud-
hole they frequently refresh themselves with a roll, after drinking their fill. They
then start for their favourite thorn feeding-grounds, where they remain till day-
break, when they generally again drink. At an earlier or later hour after this, the
time being to some extent dependent on the freedom of the district from human
intrusion, they retire to their sleeping-places, which they reach at any rate before
the heat of the day. The lair is always in an extremely sheltered and deeply-
shaded spot, and so heavily do they slumber that a practised stalker could almost
touch them with the muzzle of a gun, unless they are awakened by the birds which
478 UNGULATES.
accompany them in search of the ticks with which they are infested. Mr. Hunter
states, however, that in the Kilima-Njaro district rhinoceroses lie out in the open
plain during the day.
The common rhinoceros is met with in Southern Africa generally either
solitary or in family-parties of two or three. In the latter case it is usually a
female accompanied by her calf ; but Sir J. Willoughby met a male, female, and
half -grown calf together, and as in this instance the horns of the male were much
shorter than those of the female, it may be that the longer horns generally belong
to the latter sex. Occasionally several full-grown individuals are seen together,
Mr. Drummond stating that on one occasion he met with a party of six or seven.
Sir J. Willoughby relates that once he shot one of a pair of these rhinoceroses,
which was immediately fiercely attacked and rolled over by its companion. When
a cow rhinoceros is killed, the calf generally remains by the dead body of its
parent, from which it can with difficulty be dragged away.
Like most other large African animals, the common rhinoceros is
Hunting.
rapidly decreasing in numbers from the incessant pursuit to which it
is subjected in the southern and eastern portion of the continent. Writing in
1881, Mr. Selous said that it was still fairly common in South-Eastern Africa,
although it had been nearly exterminated in the regions to the westward. Only a
few then remained on the Chobi, while between that river and the Zambesi there
were none, and the natives said that there never had been any in that district.
Northwards of the Zambesi they were, however, again met with, and from thence
they doubtless extend through the whole of Central Africa to Abyssinia and the
Sudan. In the Kilima-Njaro district Sir J. Willoughby 's party found these
rhinoceroses very plentiful in 1886, having on one occasion seen as many as
sixteen head during a single day's march.
In Southern Africa the common rhinoceros is hunted either by being followed
up when out feeding on the plains, or by the hunter lying in wait at its drinking-
places. In the Sudan the Hamram Arabs are, however, in the habit of chasing
the rhinoceros on horseback, and of ham-stringing it by a dexterous stroke of a
long two-handed sword. This sport, according to Sir S. Baker, tries the speed of
the best horses, and that writer's account of the chase of a couple of these animals,
which, after running more than two miles, defied further pursuit by escaping into
thick cover, is probably known to many of our readers. An Arab hunter explained
to Sir S. Baker, " that at all times the rhinoceros was the most difficult animal to
sabre, on account of his extraordinary swiftness, and, although he had killed many
with the sword, it was always after a long and fatiguing hunt, at the close of
which the animal becoming tired generally turned to bay, in which case one
hunter occupied his attention, while another galloped up behind and severed the
hamstring. The rhinoceros, unlike the elephant, can go very well upon three legs,
which enhances the danger, as one cut will not disable him." A less sporting
method adopted by the Arabs of the same regions is to dig a hole about two feet
deep by fifteen inches in diameter in the animal's run, and to place in the centre a
rather elaborately -constructed snare, to which is attached a rope with a heavy log
of wood at the other end. When the rhinoceros steps on the pit, one of its feet is
caught in the running noose. When caught, the first effort of the rhinoceros is to
RHINOCEROSES. 479
escape, and he forthwith pulls the log from the trench in which it was buried.
This log, writes Sir S. Baker, " acts as a drag, and, by catching in the jungle and
the protruding roots of trees, it quickly fatigues him. On the following morning
the hunters discover the rhinoceros by the track of the log that has ploughed along
the ground, and the animal is killed by lances or by the sword."
The same writer adds that the hide of a rhinoceros will produce seven
shields ; these being worth about two dollars each, as simple hide before manufacture.
The horn is sold in Abyssinia for about two dollars per pound, for the manufacture
of sword-hilts, which are much esteemed if of this material. In South Africa the
flesh of the common rhinoceros is much appreciated by the natives as food ; but as
the animal never has any fat, the meat is somewhat dry.
Like other members of the genus, this rhinoceros appears to be long-lived
even in captivity, a specimen from Nubia, acquired by the Zoological Society of
London in 1868, having lived in the menagerie till 1891.
The immediate ancestor of this species appears to have been the
Extinct Ally
extinct thick-jawed rhinoceros (R. pachygnathus), of which a series
of finely -preserved remains have been obtained from the well-known fresh-water
deposits of Pikermi, near Attica, belonging to the Pliocene period.
Burcheii's The largest of the group is the square-mouthed, or Burchell's,
Rhinoceros, rhinoceros (R. simus), commonly known as the white rhinoceros,
which is now, alas, practically exterminated. In addition to its great size, this
species is characterised by its bluntly -truncated muzzle and the absence of a
prehensile extremity to the upper lip, as well as by the great proportionate length
of the head, which in large specimens is more than a. foot longer than in the
common species. Moreover, the nostrils form long narrow slits ; the eye is placed
entirely behind the line of the second horn ; and the ear is very long, sharply
pointed at the extremity, where it has but a very small tuft of hairs, and has its
lower portion completely closed for some distance, so as to form a tube. The front
horn attains a greater length than in the common species. In the skull the
extremity of the lower jaw forms a much wider and shallower channel than in
the R. bicornis, and the structure of the upper cheek-teeth is different. These
teeth resemble in general structure those of the great Indian rhinoceros, having
very tall crowns, with flat grinding surfaces, no distinct buttress at the front outer
angle, and the outer portion of the middle valley cut off by a partition. They are,
however, quite peculiar among existing species, in having a large amount of cement
investing the interior and filling up the valleys of the crown. Moreover, the third
molar in the upper jaw, instead of being triangular in shape, closely resembles the
tooth in front of it; a peculiarity found elsewhere only among certain extinct
hornless species. In colour Burchell's rhinoceros differs but little from the common
species, the general hue of both being a slaty grey.
In height this rhinoceros is known to reach 6| feet at the
shoulder, and it is said that specimens were formerly obtained which
slightly exceeded these dimensions. As regards length, our information is far from
satisfactory. It has been stated that the length may be something between 18 and
19 feet; but this seems quite incredible, more especially as the proportions of our
figure indicate that the length was rather more than double the height, which
UNGULATES.
would make it about 14 feet. One of the specimens referred to below has a length
of 12 feet 1 inch, and a height at the shoulder of 6 feet 2 inches.
There is fully as much variation in the relative length of the horns as in the
common species, the second horn being sometimes a mere stump, and at others
attaining a length of 2 feet, while in some instances both are comparatively
short. The front horn is, moreover, liable to considerable variation in shape. Thus,
in the typical form of the species, it curves backwards in a more or less bold sweep,
as shown in our figure of the head, the individuals exhibiting this form being
BURCHELL'S RHINOCEROS (^ nat. size).
known to the Bechuanas by the name of mohohu. In other cases, as shown in our
illustration of the entire animal, the front horn is nearly straight, with a forward
inclination, specimens with this type of horn being designated by the natives as
the kabaoba. When the anterior horn is straight and attains the length of about
a yard, the point touches the ground as the animal walks along when feeding, and
such horns consequently always show a flat surface on the front of the tip pro-
duced by friction. It was at one time considered that the mohohu and the kabaoba
were distinct species, but Mr. Selous has shown not only that they consort together,
but that there is a complete transition from the one type of horn to the other. As
a rule, the horns of females are longer and more slender than those of males.
RHINO CER OSES. 48 1
The longest known horn is one of the kabaoba type in the British Museum, of
which the total length is 56^ inches. The history of this specimen is unknown,
but it has been in the collection for a very long period. Next to this is an example
of the mohohu type recorded by Mr. Selous, of which the length is given as 54
inches. Other fine specimens of the front horn measure 44, 42|, 40, and 38| inches.
In examples where both horns have been preserved, the length of the front one in
one case is 37f and that of the hinder 17| inches, while in another these dimensions
are 33 and 13 inches. At the time when these rhinoceroses were abundant it was
the ambition of every South African chief to possess a long staff, or kerrie, made
from a front horn ; and it is, therefore, as Mr. H. A. Bryden suggests, highly probable
that the largest dimensions recorded above may have been considerably exceeded.
The range of this rhinoceros was always limited, and apparently
Distribution. »
never extended north of the Zambesi; this restricted distribution being,
as already mentioned, largely due to the creature's grass-eating habits. For the last
seventy or eighty years it has been unknown to the south of the Orange Kiver,
but, according to Mr. Bryden, there is a tradition that it formerly roamed over the
greater part of the Cape Colony. About the middle of the present century, when
Gordon Gumming, and afterwards Andersson, made their well-known hunting-
tours, Burchell's rhinoceros was comparatively common in parts of the Kalahari
Desert, Ngamiland, and various districts between the Orange and Zambesi Rivers.
Indeed, Gordon Gumming states that on one occasion he saw upwards of twelve of
these magnificent animals together in long grass, while Andersson and Chapman
speak of having shot as many as eight in a single night, while they were drinking
at a water-hole during the dry season. Mr. Selous remarks, however, that the
numbers thus met with were probably drawn together from over a large tract of
country, as at such times drinking-places are few and far between. In 1874 Mr.
Selous met with a considerable number of these rhinoceroses on the Chobi, but on
again visiting the same district in 1877 he only came across traces of two, while in
1879 they had completely disappeared. In North Mashonaland there were, how-
ever, still a considerable number between 1878 and 1880, while others were to be
met with in a small tract on the Sabi River in South-East Africa. About ten years
ago Mr. Selous was, however, only able to find a single specimen in Mashonaland,
and it was then thought that this animal, which fell to his rifle, was actually the
last of its race. In a remote corner of Mashonaland this indefatigable hunter
found, however, some half-dozen individuals still living in 1892, two of which were
subsequently shot by Mr. R. T. Coryndon. In the north Kalahari Desert the
species had been completely exterminated some years previously to 1890.
The extirpation of this rhinoceros is the more to be regretted since our museums
are very badly off for specimens. It is, however, fortunate that Mr. Coryndon
has succeeded in bringing home the skeletons and skins of two adult examples,
which are preserved in the British Museum and the Rothschild Museum at Tring ;
while there is also a stuffed specimen in the Museum at Leyden. In addition to a
magnificent skull, with horns, the British Museum likewise possesses a fine series
of detached horns.
In treating of the common African rhinoceros, we have already
had occasion to refer to the exclusively grass-eating habits of this
VOL. ii. — 31
482
UNGULATES.
species, and the consequent restriction of its habitat to open grassy plains. We
have also alluded to its habit of walking with its head carried close to the ground ;
and likewise to the circumstance that the calf always precedes its mother when
walking. It may be added that the mother appears to direct the course of her
offspring with her long front horn. As regards its time of feeding and taking
repose, the animals of this species closely resemble those of the ordinary kind.
Mr. Selous states that " their sight is very bad, but they are quick of hearing and
their scent is very keen; they are, too. often accompanied by rhinoceros-birds,
which, by running about their heads, flapping their wings, and screeching at the
HEAD OF BUECHELL'S RHINOCEROS.— After Sclater.
same time, frequently give them notice of the approach of danger. When
disturbed, they go off at a swift trot, which soon leaves all pursuit from a man on
foot far behind ; but if chased by a horseman they break into a gallop, which they
can keep up for some distance. However, although they run very swiftly, when
their size and heavy build are considered, they are no match for an average good
horse. They are, as a rule, very easy to shoot on horseback, as, if one gallops a
little in front of and on one side of them, they will hold their course, and come
sailing past, offering a magnificent broadside shot, while under similar circum-
stances a prehensile-lipped rhinoceros will usually swerve away in such a manner
as only to present his hind-quarters for a shot."
These animals were generally found in pairs or in parties of three, although,
RHINOCEROSES. 483
as already mentioned, sometimes considerably more were seen together. Although,
as we have seen, there is some difference of opinion as to the temper and
disposition of the other species, all sportsmen agree that Burchell's rhinoceros was
generally a harmless and inoffensive creature. Still, sometimes it would when
wounded make a charge ; and from the enormous size of the animal such a charge
was a serious matter for those against whom it was directed. On one occasion
Mr. Oswell caught sight of one of these rhinoceroses, and, putting spurs to his
horse, soon came up alongside. He fired with good effect, but the animal, instead
of attempting to escape, eyed its adversary for a moment, and then deliberately
advancing, made a sudden rush at his horse, thrusting the long front horn
completely through the animal's body, so that the point of the weapon struck the
rider's leg through the flap of the saddle on the other side. Fortunately, Mr.
Oswell was so little injured, that he was enabled to disengage himself from the
body of his dead horse, and kill his formidable opponent.
When shot through the heart or both lungs this rhinoceros, like the other
species, Mr. Selous tells us, is quickly killed. If, however, the bullet penetrates but
one lung, they will go on for miles, although blood may be streaming from their
mouth and nose. Similarly, they will hold on their course, at first at a gallop and
then at a trot, with a broken shoulder, for more than a mile ; but a broken hind-leg
brings them immediately to a stop. The latter circumstance is somewhat at
variance with Sir S. Baker's account of hunting the common rhinoceros in the
Sudan, referred to on p. 478.
Burchell's rhinoceros differed from the other African species in that during
the autumn and winter months, that is to say from March till August, it accumu-
lated an enormous quantity of fat ; and at such times its flesh is stated to have
been of excellent quality, somewhat resembling beef, but with a peculiar and
characteristic flavour of its own. The favourite dish was the hump on the withers,
which was cut out and cooked with the skin on in a hole in the ground. The
flesh of the calf was excellent at any season, and has been compared to very
tender veal.
Hoimwood's Certain very remarkable front horns of a rhinoceros obtained
Rhinoceros, from traders at Zanzibar, and doubtless belonging to an East African
form, may possibly indicate a third species, which may be known as Hoimwood's
rhinoceros. These horns, one of which measures 42 inches, are characterised by
their great length and slenderness, coupled with the small size of the base. It has
been suggested that they are abnormal horns of the female of the common species,
but it is quite probable that they belong to a totally different animal, which may
be more nearly allied to Burchell's rhinoceros.
EXTINCT RHINOCEROSES.
In the course of the preceding paragraphs, some reference has been made to
certain extinct species of rhinoceroses which approximate closely to some of the
existing members of the group. Besides these, there are, however, a multitude of
extinct species, which ranged not only over Europe and Asia, but likewise North
America. It has, indeed, been suggested that America was the original home of
484
UNGULATES.
these animals, from whence they migrated to Asia and Europe ; but it appears to
us that the evidence is equally in favour of the migration having been in the
opposite direction. These rhinoceroses occur throughout the Tertiary period as
far down as the upper Eocene division ; and even at that low horizon many of the
species may be referred to the living genus, although in most cases they were
unprovided with horns, while some of them had four toes to each fore-foot.
Rhinoceroses are, therefore, even more ancient animals than tapirs.
Mention has already been made of a rhinoceros from Greece, which was
closely allied to the common living African species ; but there were also several
other extinct Old World kinds resembling the existing African rhinoceroses in
the presence of two horns and in the absence of front teeth, while in some
cases there is evidence to prove that their skins were of the smooth type.
One of the most remarkable of these species is the broad -nosed rhinoceros
(R platyrhinus) from the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya, which was an
enormous animal,
with upper molar-
teeth resembling
in structure those
of Burchell's rhin-
oceros, although
the last one was
of the ordinary
triangular shape.
The other species,
with molar teeth
of similar type,
is the woolly
rhinoceros (R.
antiquitatis), so
called from the
thick coat of woolly hair with which its body was covered. Skeletons, bones, and
teeth of this species have been found in the cavern and other superficial deposits
of the greater part of Europe, including England, while entire carcases occur
frozen in the ice of the Siberian " tundra." From these frozen specimens it has
been ascertained not only that the skin was covered with woolly hair, but likewise
that it was devoid of the permanent folds characterising the Asiatic species. The
horns of the woolly rhinoceros appear to have rivalled in size those of the living
African Burchell's rhinoceros. From the structure of their upper molar teeth it
may be inferred that both the broad-nosed and the woolly rhinoceros were grass-
eaters. In Siberia, however, portions of needles of conifers and of twigs of other
trees have been found in the interstices of the molar teeth of the latter; from
which it has been assumed that the animal was a branch-eater. It is, however,
quite probable that while in Siberia it may have been compelled from lack of its
proper food to take to feeding upon leaves and twigs, yet that in the more southern
portion of its range it resembled its allies in being entirely a grass-eater.
During the Pleistocene period there were three other species of two-horned
SKULL OF EXTINCT RHINOCEROS FROM THE BRICK-EARTH OF ESSEX.
RHINOCEROSES, 485
rhinoceroses without front teeth, inhabiting England and other parts of Europe,
which had upper molar teeth of the general type of those of the common African
species, although their skulls were very different. Of these, the Leptorhine
rhinoceros (R. leptorhmus) and the Megarhine rhinoceros (R. megarhinus) are
found in the brick-earths of the Thames valley and other superficial deposits;
while the Etruscan rhinoceros (R. etruscus) occurs in the somewhat older " forest-
bed " of the Norfolk coast, and likewise in the upper Pliocene beds of Italy and
France. The Leptorhine and Megarhine species have tall-crowned cheek-teeth,
and (as shown in the accompanying figure) are characterised by the presence of a
vertical bony partition in the skull dividing the two chambers of the cavity of
the nose. In this respect they resemble the woolly rhinoceros ; a rudiment of the
same feature also occurring in the living Javan rhinoceros. The Etruscan
rhinoceros, on the other hand, has shorter-crowned cheek-teeth, and no such bony
septum in the nasal cavity. That all these three species browsed on leaves and
twigs may be pretty confidently asserted from the structure of their upper molar
teeth ; while a carcase found embedded in the ice of Siberia belonging to either the
Leptorhine or the Megarhine species, shows that these had smooth skins like the
living rhinoceroses of Africa. The Deccan rhinoceros (R. deccanensis) and the
Karnul rhinoceros (R. karnuliensis), from the superficial deposits of Southern
India, indicate that smaller representatives of the two-horned branch-eating group
likewise inhabited that country.
Reference has already been made to the occurrence in the Miocene deposits of
Europe of an extinct two-horned rhinoceros provided with upper and lower front
teeth, which was allied to the living Sumatran species. Throughout the middle
Tertiary rocks of Europe, as well as in the Pliocene and Miocene of India, there
are found, however, a number of rhinoceroses differing from any living species in
the total absence of horns, while in those cases where their limbs are known the
fore-feet were provided with four toes. Some of these animals were of very large
size, and all of them had molar teeth of the type of that represented in the upper
figure on p. 464 (which belongs to one of the Indian species), and their jaws were
furnished with large front teeth. Moreover, in one of the Indian representatives
of this hornless group, the last molar tooth was of nearly the same form as that
in front of it, instead of being triangular. That all these species subsisted on
leaves and boughs, may be inferred from the structure of their short-crowned
molar teeth ; and it may be observed here that all the older Ungulates had short-
crowned cheek-teeth, adopted for champing twigs and leaves rather than for
masticating grass ; whence it may be concluded that grassy plains are probably a
comparatively recent feature in the history of our globe. Hornless rhinoceroses
also occur in the Tertiary deposits of North America, but at least the majority of
these resembled existing types in having but three toes on each fore-foot ; while
their limbs were relatively shorter than in their Old World allies, and their bodies
more elongated. Finally, there were certain other small rhinoceroses from the
lower Miocene of both Europe and the United States, in which the front of the
skull carried a very small pair of horns placed transversely instead of longi-
tudinally.
The above are all the forms which can be included in the genus Rhinoceros.
486 UNGULATES.
There are, however, a number of allied extinct animals which connect the true
rhinoceroses with more generalised extinct types of Odd-toed Ungulates. Such for
instance is the Amynodon, from the Miocene Tertiary of North America, which
was a rhinoceros-like animal with no horn, and the full typical number of forty-four
teeth. That is to say, there were three incisors, a tusk, and seven cheek-teeth on
each side of both jaws ; the front teeth being like those of ordinary mammals, and
not having the peculiarly modified form presented by those of the true rhinoceroses.
Moreover, the whole of the three upper molar teeth were alike ; and none of them
had the processes projecting into the middle valley which are found in those of all
true rhinoceroses. Probably the Amynodon also occurred in the lower Miocene
and upper Eocene rocks of France. There were other allied types, but the above
example is sufficient to show that the earlier rhinoceroses were far less different
from tapirs and some extinct generalised forms to be noticed later on than are
their modern representatives.
We must not, however, take leave of the rhinoceros family without referring
to a most remarkable creature known as the elasmothere, which flourished during
the Pleistocene period in Siberia. This creature was probably as large as Burchell's
rhinoceros, and like that species had no teeth in the front of the jaws. The skull
had a bony partition in the cavity of the nose, and carried on the forehead an
enormous protuberance which, during life, doubtless supported a horn of very large
size. The most remarkable feature about the elasmothere is, however, to be found
in the structure of its cheek-teeth, which while formed on the type of those of the
rhinoceroses, are greatly elongated, and have their enamel so much folded as to
present some resemblance to those of the horse. Indeed, the elasmothere may be
regarded as a highly-specialised grass-eating creature, presenting a relationship to
an ordinary rhinoceros somewhat similar to that which the horse exhibits to
certain extinct Ungulates noticed in the sequel.
THE HORSE TRIBE.
Family
Under the general title of horses, zoologists include not only the animals to
which that name is restricted in ordinary language, but likewise the asses, zebras,
and quaggas, together with certain nearly-allied extinct animals. All these are
characterised by having very high-crowned cheek-teeth, in which the enamel is
thrown into a series of complicated foldings, and the deep valleys between the
component columns completely filled up with cement. In the upper cheek-teeth,
as shown in B and C of the accompanying figure, the outer columns (pa, me) of
each tooth are flattened, and the premolars somewhat exceed the molars in size ;
while in the lower jaw the ridges are crescent-like, although much complicated by
the foldings of the enamel. So different, indeed, are the molars of the horses from
those of other Odd-toed Ungulates, that it is at first sight somewhat difficult to
realise their fundamental unity of structure. A comparison of the three figures in
the accompanying illustration will, however, clearly indicate how the structure of
the tall-crowned molar of the horse is essentially the same as that of the low-
HORSES. 487
crowned molar of the extinct anchithere, while that of the latter does not differ
very widely from the molars of the rhinoceros represented on p. 481. Remembering
that the figured molar of the anchithere belongs to the opposite side of the jaws to
those of the horses, it will be apparent that it would only require a heightening of
its columns and ridges, accompanied by the formation of a series of foldings in
their investing enamel, and the filling up of the deepened intervening valleys
with cement, to produce a very similar type of tooth. It is almost superfluous
to add that the tall-crowned molars of the horse, with their completely filled
valleys, and their alternating ridges of harder and softer constituents, are far
more efficient instruments of mastication than the low-crowned teeth of the
anchithere, with their perfectly open valleys. Indeed, while the horse's are
adapted for a grinding action, and have nearly flat surfaces, the anchithere's
molars are suited to a champing motion, and have ridged surfaces.
incisors Another peculiarity in the dentition of the horses is that the
incisor or front teeth in both jaws have an infolding of the enamel
at the summit of their crowns, as shown in the figures A, B, C, on p. 490.
p pi
UPPER MOLAR TEETH OP THE ANCHITHERE (A), THE HORSE (B), AND THE HIPPARION (C).
A is from the left, and B and C from the right side of the jaw.
This peculiar structure, of which we shall have more to say in the sequel, may
be imitated by taking the finger of a glove and pushing in the top, and afterwards
filling the whole of the inside with wax.
The skull of the horses differs from that of all other living Odd-
other Characters.
toed Ungulates in having the socket of the eye completely surrounded
by bone. In all existing horses the number of toes on each foot is reduced to
one, which is enclosed in a large solid hoof. This toe, which corresponds in the
fore-limb to the human middle finger, is supported by a single long cannon-bone.
On the sides of this cannon-bone there are, however, small splints representing
the remnants of the second and fourth toes ; and in certain extinct forms (as
shown in the figures on p. 153) these lateral toes were complete and furnished
with hoofs, although they were much inferior in size to the middle toe, and
could have been of little, if any, functional importance. In defining the horse
family, it must accordingly be stated that although the toes may vary from
one to three in number, it is only the middle one that is functionally important.
Another distinctive feature of the family is that in the fore-limb the ulna is
represented only by its upper extremity, which becomes united with the radius ;
488
UNGULATES.
while in the hind-limb the remnant of the fibula becomes similarly fused with
the tibia.
So far as their extremely specialised organisation is concerned
the horses hold a position among the Odd-toed Ungulates precisely
analogous to that occupied by the true Ruminants, or Pecora, in the Even-toed
division of the order; and it is curious to observe how the two groups have
undergone an almost
exactly parallel de-
velopment, although
differing so essentially
from one another in
the structure of their
limbs and teeth. In
both, for instance, the
cheek-teeth have ac-
quired tall crowns,
with complicated fold-
ings of the enamel, and
the front teeth are
separated by a long
gap from those of the
cheek - series. Then,
again, both have the
feet supported by a
long cannon -bone,
although in the Ruminants this is formed by the fusion of two distinct elements,
and in the horses of but one original constituent. Moreover, both groups have
the two bones of the lower segment in the fore and hind-limbs fused together,
and in both the process by which the second vertebra of the neck articulates
with the first has assumed a spout-like form.
The whole of the existing representatives of the horses are
included in the genus Equus, of which the following are dis-
tinctive characteristics. In the upper cheek-teeth the portion called the anterior
pillar (marked p in the middle figure on p. 487) is connected by a narrow neck of
enamel and ivory with the adjacent crescent in the middle of the same side of
the tooth; and each foot has but a single toe. The total number of teeth
in the males of all the living species is 42 ; these comprising | incisors,
j canines, and £ cheek-teeth. The first upper tooth of the cheek -series, that
is to say the first premolar, is, however, very small in all the living species,
and is frequently wanting, thus reducing the number of teeth to 40. It is,
however, larger in many fossil species, and a few of these also have a small
first premolar in the lower jaw, thus bringing up the number to the typical
44. The canines of the males are rather small and pointed, and in the
females are either rudimentary or wanting. When present, they are placed
near to the incisors, but are separated by a long gap from the teeth of the
cheek-series.
SIDE AND PALATAL VIEWS OF SKULL OF EXTINCT THREE-TOED
HORSE.— After Zittel.
Equus.
HORSES.
489
I The horses are such well-known and familiar animals, that it
Form.
would be superfluous to describe their form and appearance in detail.
It may be observed, however, that the ears are long, and that the tail is likewise
elongated, but may be either clothed with long hairs throughout its length, or
merely tufted at the extremity. The neck carries a mane, which may be either
erect or pendent, and the fore-limb has a hard naked callosity above the wrist
joint. In most wild species some portions, or the whole, of the body and limbs are
SHIRE STALLION ("MARS VICTOR"). — The property of Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart.
marked with transverse dark stripes, but these disappear more or less completely
in the domesticated breeds.
With the exception of those that have been* introduced by man
into other regions, horses are now confined to the Old World, and are
especially characteristic of Africa. They may be divided into true horses, zebras,
and asses.
Before, however, proceeding to the consideration of these groups,
mav be well to mention that the terms commonly applied to the
various segments of the limbs of the members of the horse family are not the
same as those used by the zoologist and anatomist. For instance, what is commonly
designated the knee of the horse is really its wrist, while the so-called hock in the
hind-limb is the ankle-joint. The true knee is, of course, in the hind-limb, and is
commonly known as the stifle-joint, while in the fore-limb the elbow -joint is
situated, as in other animals, at the lower end of the humerus. The fore and hind
cannon-bones respectively correspond to the human middle metacarpal and meta-
tarsal bones, and the so-called pastern and coronet bones to the three joints of the
Distribution.
Nomenclature
of Limbs.
49°
UNGULATES.
middle finger and toe; the fetlock being the joint at the lower end of the
cannon-bone.
It will thus be evident that the horse is an animal which is supported ex-
clusively by a bone in each fore-foot corresponding to the terminal joint of the
human middle finger, and in the hind-foot by the representative of the same joint
of the middle toe. In this respect the members of this family differ from all
other mammals. Indeed, as is well remarked by Sir W. H. Flower, had we not
become so thoroughly accustomed to the horse, we should regard it as a very
strange and wonderful animal, as in truth it is.
indications In this place it will be convenient to refer briefly to the changes
of Age. which take place in the incisor teeth of the horse, with age. As
already mentioned, the summits of these incisors are characterised by an infolding
THE UPPER INCISOR AND CANINE TEETH OF THE HORSE AT VARIOUS AGES.
A at 30 days ; B at 3 years ; C at 6 years ; D at 8 years ; E at 15 years ; F at 30 years.
of the enamel, deeper in those of the upper than in those of the lower jaw, and
common to both the milk and the permanent series. When the teeth are first
protruded, as in A of the accompanying figure, the whole of the fold is covered
with enamel, but when the teeth are worn (as in C) the edges are cut through,
and the centre of the crown is occupied by a pit surrounded with a ring of enamel,
this being technically known as the " mark." In the figures, A shows the jaw of a
very young colt, with only the first and second milk-incisors protruded, both being
unworn ; the third milk-incisor would appear later. In B, which indicates a horse
about three years old, the first permanent incisor has just appeared, after pushing
out the corresponding milk-tooth. Between three and a half and four years the
second permanent incisor would have likewise appeared, and about half a year
later the tusk protrudes from the gum. At five years the third incisor would have
displaced its predecessor, and the dentition would then be complete. This state is
HORSES. 491
shown at C, which represents the jaw of a six-year-old horse, in which the third
incisor is partly worn, although still retaining a large mark. Up to five years
the age of a horse can consequently be determined with accuracy, and also approxi-
mately for some years longer. As a rule, the mark disappears in the first
incisor of the lower jaw at six years, in the second at seven, and in the third at
eight, while in the corresponding upper teeth it persists about two years longer.
D shows the upper jaw of a horse about eight years of age, when the mark has
nearly disappeared in the first incisor. After the mark has been lost in all the
incisors no indications of age are afforded. In old horses, as in E, a kind of spurious
mark is, however, produced, owing to the tooth having become so much worn down
that the pulp-cavity of its basal portion is exposed. Such spurious marks have,
however, no ring of enamel, and cannot be made to counterfeit the true mark,
although attempts to make them pass for this were, and perhaps still are, made by
unscrupulous dealers. When the spurious mark makes its appearance, the section
of each incisor forms a wide triangle, the broad and flattened crown having been
completely worn away ; and in extreme old age, when the teeth are ground down
to their very roots, as at F, they become very narrow.
THE HORSE (Equus caballus).
The horse differs from the other members of the genus in having the tail
thickly covered with long hairs from the root to the extremity, and also by the
mane being longer and more flowing. It has also a bare callosity on the inner
side of the hind-limb a little below the heel -joint, or hock, so that such callosities
are present in all the four limbs. Moreover, the head is smaller, the ears are
shorter, the limbs proportionately more elongated, and the hoofs broader than in
any of the other species. In colour, domesticated horses vary greatly, but they
seldom show any definite markings beyond a more or less distinct dappling. The
wild horses of the Asiatic steppes are, however, of a dun colour ; and since domesti-
cated dun-coloured individuals — especially in India and Argentina — frequently show
a dark streak down the middle of the back, and sometimes two or even three
transverse shoulder-stripes, and likewise dark bands on the limbs, it has been
inferred that originally the horse was a dun-coloured animal, more or less marked
with dark stripes. The height among the domesticated breeds is no less varied than
the coloration. Thus, while cart-horses frequently attain the height of 17 or 18
hands (5 feet 8 inches or 6 feet) at the withers, the Shetland pony seldom
exceeds 11 hands (3 feet 8 inches), and is occasionally as low as 8| hands (2
feet 10 inches). The Asiatic wild horses are of medium stature.
From what is known of the present wild or half- wild races, it is probable that
the horse was originally an inhabitant of open steppes, where it dwelt in large
droves headed by an old stallion. And from the habit displayed by domestic horses
of clearing away the snow from their pasture in winter by scraping with the front
hoof, Darwin was of opinion that the original habitat of the species was in
regions where the ground is covered during a portion of the year with snow.
So far as we know at present, the true horse in its original wild
Distribution.
state was mainly confined to Europe and Asia, although it extended
492
UNGULATES.
eastwards from the latter continent into Alaska. It has, indeed, been stated that
certain wild horses found in the Argentine in 1530 could not have been introduced,
and must accordingly have been indigenous. Even, however, if this be so (and the
story is denied by Dr. Trouessart), there is no evidence to show that the horses in
question were identical with E. caballus, of which fossil remains appear to be
unknown in the New World south of Alaska.
Fossilised remains of horses are extremely common in the brick-earths, cavern-
deposits, etc., of England and the Continent, and since these are indistinguishable
from the teeth and bones of the existing species, it may be pretty confidently con-
sidered thev indicate the former existence of that animal in a wild state. And it
ENGLISH HACK-HOUSE (" DONCASTER ").
may be observed that the researches of Dr. Nehring have afforded reason to believe
that during part of the Pleistocene period there existed in Western Europe a
condition very similar to that now obtaining in the Russian steppes, where wild
horses now live. Further evidence of the identity of these Pleistocene horses with
the living species is afforded by certain rude drawings incised on fragments of slate,
bone, or antler, which have come down to us from the ancient inhabitants of Europe
during the later Stone Implement period. These drawings show that the Pleistocene
horse was a rather small, heavily -built animal, with a large head, and a rough mane
and tail, in all of which respects it agreed with the under-mentioned tarpan or wild
horse of the steppes.
Dr. Nehring is of opinion that the wild horse of Western Europe was domesti-
cated and tamed by the men of the later Stone Implement period at a time when
HOUSES.
493
steppe-like conditions still prevailed in those regions ; and there can be but little,
if any, doubt that the horses used by the ancient Britons and Germans in the time
of Caesar were derived from the same native stock. It is, however, probable that
the existing domesticated horses of Europe have a twofold origin, and that, while
the so-called thorough-bred and half-bred races have an Asiatic or perhaps partially
North African descent, the breeds denominated by the Germans " cold-blooded " are
derived from the primitive European stock.
To how late a date the original wild horses of Western Europe existed as such,
cannot now be definitely ascertained. It is true that Strabo relates that wild horses
existed in his time in Spain and the Alps, and Pliny speaks of their existence
throughout a great part of the north of Europe. The occurrence of these animals
in the Ardennes is alluded to by Venantius Fortunatus, and in Italy a reference to
them is made by Pope Gregory III. in the year 732. There is also evidence that
about the year 1000 the monks of St. Gall were in the habit of using the flesh
of wild horses as an article of diet, while so late as 1316 a document alludes to their
existence in Westphalia. Moreover, Rosslin, in the year 1593, states that wild
horses, which were more shy and difficult to approach than stags, were found in
the Vosges, and were captured and tamed by the inhabitants of those districts.
In all these cases it is, however, quite probable that these horses were feral rather
than truly wild ; that is to say, that they were derived from tamed races which
had again taken to a wild life. This view is rendered the more probable from the
circumstance that, during the historic period the greater part of Western Europe
had become a forest-clad region quite different from the open steppes which we have
reason to believe were the original home of the horse ; but it is not impossible
that a certain number of troops of wild horses might have adapted themselves to the
changed conditions of their surroundings, and have lived on to the Middle Ages.
Although at the present day the tarpan, or wild horse of the
steppes, is now confined to Central Asia, there is evidence that in the
time of Pallas (circa 1760) its range extended westward to the region of the Urals
and Volga. This explorer states that at that period the tarpan abounded in the
steppes of Tartary and Mongolia, from the Dnieper to the Altai, and thence through-
out Central Asia, in small droves seldom exceeding fifty head. The majority are
of a reddish grey (dun) or pale grey colour ; but from intermixture with individuals
which have escaped from captivity, these colours are not invariable. In the pure-
bred race, the mane, a streak along the back, and the tail, are reddish brown, while
the nose is whitish, and the rest of the muzzle nearly black. They are smaller
than the average domestic horse, and have thinner limbs, larger heads, with a
convex profile, and longer ears which at their summits are bent backwards in a
sickle-like manner. The hoofs are small and cylindrical; and the mane, which
extends far on to the forehead and backwards on to the shoulders, is comparatively
short, thick, and half-erect. In winter the coat is long, rough, and shaggy ; and the
bushy tail rather short. Young colts are easily tamed, but the adults are utterly
intractable. Tarpan exhibit wonderful speed, and strenuously avoid the neigh-
bourhood of man. They frequent the open steppes, and are never found in forests
and mountainous districts.
Since the time of Pallas the tarpan has been steadily driven back to the
494
UNGULATES.
more remote parts of Central Asia, where it was met with by Colonel Prejevalski.
The troops there are under the leadership of an old stallion, and they always move
against the wind, with their ears and nostrils alert to detect the least trace of
danger. During the winter the tarpan scrapes away the snow with its front
hoofs in order to reach the scanty herbage beneath ; and its coat at this season
becomes so thick as to form a kind of thin fur.
It has been frequently stated that tarpan are feral rather than truly wild
THE TAKPAN (jg nat. size).
horses. This opinion is, however, vehemently opposed by Dr. Nehring, who
believes that in these animals we have the last survivors of the ancient prehistoric
wild horses of Europe, which have been more or less modified by an infusion of
domesticated blood through the intermixture of individuals escaped from captivity.
Darwin be right in concluding that the primitive horse was more or less striped,
it is possible that this infusion of domesticated blood has led to the nearly uniform
coloration of the tarpan.
Prejevaiski's It may be mentioned in this place that a wild horse from Central
Asia, described as E. prejevalskii, has been regarded as indicating
Horse.
UOJtSES.
495
a distinct species. It is of dun colour, becoming darker on the back, where, how-
ever, there is no distinct stripe, and nearly white on the under-parts. Although
agreeing in most respects with the horse, it differs by the mane being erect and
without a forelock on the forehead, and by the hairs on the tail being confined to
the lower half. Sir W. H. Flower suggests that this animal may prove to be a
hybrid between the tarpan and the kiang.
„ . . We have seen that in Europe the horse was probably domesticated
Domestication. . . . *•
during the prehistoric period; and we turn now to the evidence
afforded by the Egyptian monuments as to the date of its first use in that ancient
country. It appears that no pictorial representations of the animal occur in the
frescoes of the so-called old kingdom ; and that such are seen for the first time at
about the 18th dynasty (1800 or 1900 B.C.), when the reign of the Asiatic
Hyksos, or shepherd-kings, who had for so long a period ruled over the valley of
the Nile, came to an end. At this period the horse seems to have only been used
in war ; and it is possible that it may have been introduced by the kings of the
18th dynasty from Syria. Both in Egypt and in Europe it was only at a com-
paratively late period that the horse replaced the ox as a beast of draught.
In regard to Western Asia, it appears that the horse is of comparatively recent
introduction into Arabia, the earliest accounts of the nomads of the Arabian deserts
referring only to their possessing camels and asses ; while the Arabs in the army
of Xerxes are stated to have been mounted on camels. The sculptures of Nineveh
show, however, that the war-horse was known at a very early date in Assyria ;
and it is hence probable that it was from Mesopotamia that the horse was intro-
duced at first to the Syrians on the Mediterranean, and from them to the Egyptians
in the valley of the Nile. It is a somewhat curious circumstance that in all the
Assyrian sculptures in which mounted warriors armed with the bow are depicted,
the horse is invariably led by a second horseman, thus suggesting that at this date
the Assyrians were by no means such good riders as the Persians and Parthians
subsequently became. The Greeks may have derived their war-horses from the
same Asiatic stock ; and from Greece and Italy these Asiatic horses probably
became intermingled with the native breed originally domesticated in Western
Europe. From Mesopotamia the horse probably spread westwards as a domesti-
cated animal into Persia and India, in neither of which countries is there any
evidence of the existence of an original wild breed.
Apart from the question whether an indigenous species may have
still lingered on in Argentina, at the time of the Spanish conquest
horses were unknown in at least the greater part of America. When introduced,
from Europe, they soon multiplied, and reverted to a semi-wild condition, and
spread over large areas of the country, where they now exist in vast numbers in
the open plains. Mr. W. H. Hudson states, however, that in certain parts of
Patagonia wild horses are unable to exist owing to the number of pumas ; and he
suggests that it may have been these animals which led to the practical if not
total extinction of the indigenous horses of the New World. In the Falkland
Islands the horses introduced by the French in 1764 have become thoroughly wild,
and have multiplied to a considerable extent, although not so much so as might
have been expected. At the time of Darwin's visit these wild horses were, for
496
UNGULATES.
some unknown reason, restricted to the eastern corner of the island; and their
comparatively slow rate of increase is attributed to the wandering habits of the
stallions, which compel the mares to accompany them, whether or no the foals are
able to follow. These Falkland horses have roan and grey for their predominating
colours ; and in one part of the island are small and pony-like. The late Prof.
Moseley was, however, informed that their small stature in this locality was due
to the inferior size of the stock from which they are descended. In the peninsula
of Lafonia, where the wild horses of the Falklands are of larger size, Prof. Moseley
writes that "the strong and active horses each guard their own herd of mares.
They keep the closest watch over them, and if one strays at all, drive her back
into the herd by kicking her. The younger horses live in herds apart, but the
more vigorous ones
are always on the
look-out to pick up
a niare from the
herds of the older
ones, and drive her
off with them, and
they sometimes
gather a few mares
for a short time
and hold them, till
they are recap-
tured. When they
think they are
strong enough, they
try the strength of
the old horses in
battle, and eventu-
ally each old horse
is beaten by some
rival and displaced. The fighting is done mainly with the tusks, and front to
front, not with the heels. Thus the most active and strongest males are constantly
selected naturally for the continuation of the herds." As in the continent of
South America, these wild horses are captured either by the lasso or the bolas.
When caught, Moseley states that they " are often broken in by tying them with
a raw-hide halter to a post, and leaving them for several days without food or
water. After long ineffectual struggles to break loose, the animals become con-
vinced of the absolute power over them of the halter, and in future become cowed
and docile directly a halter or lasso is over their heads. The wild horses, when
broken in, are very tame and quiet to ride."
The habits of the wild horses of continental South America appear to be very
similar to the above. There they are known by the name of cimarrones ; and are
captured and tamed by the Gauchos, who generally mount them at once and ride
them till they are tired out. The Gaucho rides with a loose rein, and his horse's
head almost at liberty ; and so well are the animals broken, that merely pressing
ENGLISH RACE-HORSE ("BEND-OR" by " DONCASTER ").
HOUSES. 497
the part of the reins next to the hand against that side of the neck from which
the horse is required to turn is sufficient, without making him feel the bit at all.
Australia. Feral horses are as abundant in Australia, where they are known
as brumbies, as in Southern America, Indeed, so numerous are they
in certain districts as to become a positive nuisance to the settlers, by whom they
are sometimes shot down in large numbers.
Barbs and Arabs. Proceeding to the consideration of some of the leading breeds of
domesticated horses, we may commence with those known as Barbs
and Arabs, which have had such an important share in the production of the
modern race-horse. With regard to the Barbs, which take their name from their
native region, Barbary, it may be premised that the generality of African horses
are distinguished from those of Asia by their long limbs and small girth at the
loins, thus resembling the foals of other breeds. They display great powers of
enduring hunger and thirst ; and are fleet, with a high and graceful action. The
Barb comes nearest to this general African type, but displays some variation
owing to a crossing with other breeds. Low says that these horses " are about
14| hands high. They are sufficiently deep at the girth, but tucked up in the
belly, giving that peculiar grey hound -aspect which is characteristic of this race.
Their necks are long and well-formed, their heads moderately fine, the chafron
tending to the convex; their shoulders are oblique, and the withers thin and
well raised. Their limbs, though thin and delicate, are sinewy; their pasterns
are oblique, and the feet well formed. They are gentle and full of spirit ; they are
somewhat careless in their paces, but distinguished by their graceful action. As
compared with the Arabians, they are more swift, but less enduring."
The Arab horse is strictly a product of the country from which
it takes its name ; and the breed appears to have been derived from
horses introduced into Arabia from the Caucasus or Asia Minor somewhere about
the Christian era. They resemble in many respects the horses of these regions,
"but," writes Low, "inhabiting a very dry and arid region, their characters
have become adapted to these conditions of climate and food. They are more
compact than the horses of Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with
more of sinew, or what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses,
very little exceeding, on a medium, 14 hands, or 56 inches in height. As compared
with the horses of countries abounding in the grasses, their aspect is lean, their
form slender, and their chest narrow. But the slimness of figure of these horses
is not inconsistent with muscular force ; and their movements are agile, their
natural paces swift, and their spirit is unmatched. The power of their delicate
limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting
sinews of the leg. The shoulder is sufficiently oblique ; the withers are elevated ;
the back is moderately short ; and the quarters are good. The head is well formed ;
the forehead is broad ; the ears are somewhat long, but alert ; the eyes full and
clear ; the veins prominent — the whole rather indicating a happy union of gentle-
ness and spirit, than the fiery temper which is commonly associated with the desert
horse." Although not remarkable for great speed, the Arab is pre-eminent for its
endurance, hardy constitution, and the scanty fare on which it can exist. On a
cold morning in Northern India, when the horses have been picketed round the
VOL. II. — 32
498
UNGULATES.
camp during the night, the Arabs will be found with their coats as sleek as if they
had just come from a warm stable, while those of other breeds will be all awry.
In their native home Arab horses will subsist on the scanty herbage found
here and there in the desert, and, in the absence of these, on a little barley, chopped
straw, dates, and, in extreme cases, camels' milk. They drink only at long intervals,
and then but scantily ; while their power of making long marches under a scorch-
ing sun is unrivalled. The affection with which the Arab treats his horse is too
well known to need comment.
Levant and The horses of the Levant and Persia are more or less closely
Persian Horses, related to the Arab, but are often of larger size. Indeed, in Southern
Persia the horses are very similar to Arabs, though less delicately formed ; but in
GERMAN HALF-BRED HORSE (^ nat. size).
the northern districts they are all larger. The Turkoman horses, which often stand
16 hands in height, are allied to those of Northern Persia.
The English The English race-horse, of which examples are represented in the
Race-Horse, figures on pp. 492, 496, has been produced by a gradual improvement
of the original native breed, which had been going on for several centuries, and
subsequently by a large infusion of Eastern and African blood. The present breed
is mainly the product of three foreign horses ; of which the first was from the
Levant, belonging to Capt. Byerly in 1689, and hence called the " Byerly Turk."
From him was descended " Herod," which, as being the most celebrated of this
stock, has given the name of the Herod-line to all his descendants. In the reign
of Queen Anne the " Barley Arabian " (so called from the name of its owner) like-
499
wise exerted great influence upon the breed From him were directly descended
" Flying Childers " and " Bartlett's Childers " ; while from the latter was derived
" Eclipse," the fastest horse which has ever run on the turf. The horses descended
from the latter are designated the Eclipse-line. The third horse was the " Godolphin
Barb," born about 1724; from whose grandson, "Matchem," is derived the name of
the third great line of English race-horses. It should be remembered that both
" Herod," " Eclipse," and " Matchem " were closely related to one another ; and it
is only the descendants of the breed thus produced to which the term " thorough-
bred " applies. The form of the race-horse is designed solely for speed, and cannot
be taken as a model of equine beauty; the frequent presence of a "ewe-neck"
detracting from perfect symmetry. Neither are such horses safe to ride. They
have the broad forehead, brilliant eyes, delicate muzzle, expanded nostrils, and wide
throat of the Arab and the Barb ; while the body is long and light, with the last
rib widely separated from the pelvis. The chest is deep but narrow, thus affording
due space for the lungs without making the fore-limbs too wide apart. The
obliquity of the shoulder gives full play to the upper part of the leg ; while the
extreme length of the haunch, and the elongated hind-limbs, with their long sloping
pasterns, are essentially adapted for the maximum development of speed. The
most common colour is bright bay or brown, with black legs, mane, and tail;
but chestnut is not unf requent. Black and grey are rarer ; while dun, roan, or
piebald but seldom occur.
The English hunter has been produced by infusing the blood of
the race-horse with the native races to a larger or smaller degree ;
but it does not form an exclusive breed like the racer. Indeed, any good riding-
horse may be a hunter. The requisite qualities of the hunter are strength, good
action, and the power of enduring fatigue, coupled with a speed second only to
that of the race-horse. The neck must be muscular, and the chest of sufficient
breadth to indicate strength without being heavy. The long stride of the racer
not being needed, the body should be comparatively short and well " ribbed home,"
that is to say the last rib should be close to the pelvis. The legs should also be
relatively shorter and stouter. In fact, the English hunter may be described as
the perfect development of the horse. In Germany the half-bred or three-quarter-
bred horse in use as a hunter is commonly known as the Trakehner, and is repre-
sented in our illustration. From half-bred horses of the hunter type there is a
complete transition to the ordinary saddle and carriage-horses, which, although
formerly with but little or no foreign blood in them, now generally exhibit more
or less breeding. The Cleveland bay is the most highly esteemed English carriage-
breed; and has been produced by mingling thorough-bred blood with a native
horse of stouter build than the one selected as the stock for the hunter.
With regard to the length a horse can leap, " Chandler's " big
'jump at Warwick in 1847 is still the subject of occasional discussion.
The distance was variously measured ; and for a number of years was thought to
have been 39 feet, but the editor of the sporting paper in which the record was first
published afterwards explained that this was a printer's error, and that the distance
was in reality 37 feet. This in itself is big enough ; so big, in fact, that there are
many horsemen in England who will regard it as exaggerated. The portion of the
500 UNGULATES.
race in which the jump occurred, is reported as follows in a description of the race
in Bell's Life of March 28, 1847 :—
This left the lead with " King of the Valley," but he refused at the top of the
hill, and soon after " Regalia " caught up with him. They raced together to the
brook, with " Chandler " following them. " Chandler's " rider pulled back as they
approached it, expecting that " Regalia " would bring grief to somebody, and when
they arrived at it sent the spurs into his horse and followed them with all steam
on. Both went into the brook, and while they were there " Chandler," who was
not able to stop, whatever inclination he may have had to do so, made an extra-
ordinary jump and cleared the brook, horses and riders together. The account
goes to say that " Chandler " won the race with ease. The length of the leap was
immediately measured, but there was some doubt as to where the animal had
landed, as the ground was soft and a number of hoofprints had been made.
Captain Broadley, the rider, said that the distance was 37 feet. This beats the
record, so far as known, the best previous record being that of " Lottery," who
cleared between 33 feet and 34 feet. One of the witnesses of the jump was William
Archer, who stated that the distance was 39 feet. The Hon. F. Sawley, a well-
known sporting writer in England, was also present, and declared that the tape
measured but 34 feet. This is the minimum estimate. Summing up, it may be
said that while there is some doubt as to the exact number of feet cleared,
" Chandler's " performance was an unusual and important one. The same may be
said of a horse called " Proceed," who is said to have cleared 37 feet while running
in a steeplechase about the time of the above event. A horse called " Culverthan "
is reported to have jumped 33 feet on one occasion, and " Lather," a hunter owned
by Lord Ingestre, is said to have jumped 37 feet and 5 inches over a pit. None of
these measurements are absolutely authentic. With regard to speed it may be
noted that " Flying Childers " ran a distance of 4 miles 1 furlong and 138 yards
in seven and a half minutes ; but this pace was considerably exceeded by " Eclipse."
The American trotter is an excellent instance of the results
American Trotter. ,..,,,,.„ .. , , . ,, . -,
obtained by breeding for a particular end ; in this case, extreme speed
in trotting. The breed appears to have been produced by the infusion of both
Barb and Arab blood on an English stock ; and the breeders of the United States
strongly controvert the common opinion that the trot is not a natural pace of the
horse. The maximum recorded pace of the American trotter up to the year 1885
was one mile in 2 minutes 8f seconds.
Shetland and The Shetland Islands have long been famed for the hardihood
other Ponies. an(j docility of their indigenous ponies, the small size of which has
already been mentioned (p. 496). These ponies are allowed to run almost wild,
with no shelter, and but little food beyond what they can procure for themselves.
Their coats are very long and thick, and in winter become matted upon their bodies
in a manner calculated to afford them most efficient protection from the inclemency
of the climate. They are generally bay or brown in colour, but sometimes blackish,
and at others more or less mixed with white. From their agility and cleverness,
these ponies are in great request for equestrian exhibitions. The ponies of
Scandinavia and Iceland are very similar to those of Shetland ; but those of the
Orkneys are larger and coarser, and of less pure breed. In the Hebrides there are
HOUSES. 501
two races of ponies, the one small and long-haired, and the other taller ; and there
are likewise indigenous breeds in the hilly and forest-districts of several parts of
the British mainland. Among the latter may be mentioned the hardy and sure-
footed, but coarse and ugly Dartmoor breed ; and the smaller long-haired race of
Exmoor, which are extremely active, and run nearly wild. The New Forest
Cart Horses.
PERCHERON CART-HORSE (fa nat. size).
ponies, again, form a race which although ugly, large-headed, and short-necked,
are hardy, sure-footed, and capable of bearing the roughest treatment.
Under the title of cart-horses may be included all the heavily-
built European breeds which originally contained no admixture of
foreign blood, and are specially adapted for heavy draught. In England there are
four chief races, known as the English black or Shire horse, the breeds of the north-
eastern counties, the Clydesdale, and the Suffolk punch.
The old English black or Shire horse was characteristic of the fen-districts and
some of the other midland counties from whence it has extended north and south,
502
UNGULATES.
and it also occurs in the so-called Low Countries and other parts of the Continent.
Typically the black horse, as shown in the illustration on p. 489, has a round
and massive body, a broad chest, a powerful muscular neck, and short, stout, and
long-haired limbs ; its physical strength being great, but its speed slight. The size
varies considerably ; the larger and most powerful races being produced in the
fens. The more modern breed generally has a white star on the forehead, and
more or less of the same colour on the feet and legs, and often on the muzzle. Low
says that "the main defects of his conformation and temperament are his too
great bulk of body, and want of action and mettle. For a pull with a heavy
CLYDESDALE MARE (" WOODBINE"). — The property of the Marquis of Londonderry.
weight he is admirable ; but he steps out short, and is slow in all his motions."
Of recent years the aim of breeders has been to remove these defects.
To the north of the Humber the native breeds of cart-horses are of smaller
bulk, and generally brown, or still lighter in colour; while they are altogether
more active than the black horse. This lighter build appears to be largely due to
an infusion of the blood of the higher races among the horses of these districts,
which is not wanting even among those employed solely for heavy draught.
The Clydesdale breed takes its name from the valley of the Clyde
in Lanarkshire ; and is supposed to have originated by crossing the
black horse of the Low Countries with the native breeds. Clydesdales may be
either black, brown, bay, or grey in colour, and usually stand about 16 hands,
which is considerably less than the height of the black horse. They are also
longer in the body and less weighty, with a compact and muscular build, and a
characteristic free and long stride.
Clydesdale.
HORSES. 503
Lastly, we have the well-known Suffolk punch of East Anglia,
famed for its steadiness of draught, and the pertinacity with which it
will exert itself against a dead pull. The original breed derived its name from the
stout and " punchy " form, and was further distinguished by the colour being light
dun or sorrel, sometimes darkening to chestnut, with lighter mane and tail. The
height was medium, the pace rather slow, but the power of endurance very great,
and the constitution hardy. The form was, however, somewhat ugly, the head
being large, with a coarse muzzle, the neck short, and the shoulder low and heavy.
On the other hand, the limbs were short, and the back straight, with wide loins
and well-developed haunches. The breed, which has of late years been much
modified by mixture, is believed to have been introduced from Normandy ; and
Low is of opinion that its dun or sorrel colour indicates a near affinity with the
wild tarpan of the Asiatic steppes.
Among well-known Continental breeds, the percheron, repre-
Foreign Breeds.
sented on p. 501, while somewhat deficient in bulk and strength,
is remarkable for its energy and pluck. Belgium possesses two distinct original
breeds known as the Ardennes breed, from the valley of the Meuse, and the Frisian,
from the sea-coast. By crossing there has been produced the Braban9on horse,
which although inferior in bulk and strength to the Clydesdale, has more breed
and energy. Harnessed to heavy country carts, weighing about 3000 Ibs., they
will drag a load of from 6000 to 10,000 Ibs. on the level ; and thus vastly exceed in
power the original light Ardennes horse, which is fast disappearing.
THE ZEBRAS (Equus zebra, etc.).
The three species of zebra, together with the quagga, form a group agreeing
in essential character with the asses, but distinguished by their more or less
completely striped heads and bodies. In both these groups the mane is erect,
and the upper part of the tail is free from long hairs; while there are naked
callosities on the fore-limbs only, and the ears are longer, the head relatively
larger, and the hoofs narrower than in the horse.
The true or mountain zebra (E. zebra) is the typical repre-
True zebra. . . .
sentative of the striped group, and is essentially an inhabitant of hilly
districts. It is the smallest of the three species, standing from 4 feet to 4 feet 2
inches (12 to 12^ hands) at the withers, and has relatively long ears and a compara-
tively short mane, with the tail but scantily haired. The general ground-colour of
the hair is white, while the stripes are black, and the lower part of the face is
bright brown. With the exception of the under-parts of the body and the inner
sides of the thighs, the whole of the head, body, and limbs, as well as the upper
part of the tail, are striped. On the hind-quarters, the dark longitudinal stripe
running down the middle of the back is connected with the uppermost of the
oblique longitudinal stripes by a series of transverse bars, which are wanting in the
next species ; and there may be a longitudinal stripe running up the middle of
the chest. This species was originally common in the mountains of the Cape
Colony, but has now been exterminated except in some of the districts on the
east side. Here a few herds remain on the summits of the Zwartberg,
5°4
UNGULATES.
Sneuwberg, and Winterhock ranges, where they are strictly protected by special
laws.
Burchell's zebra (E. burchelli), commonly known by the Boers
BurcheU's zebra. ag ^e quagga, is a rather stouter and taller animal than the last,
standing from 4 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 6 inches (13 to 13£ hands) at the shoulder.
It is further distinguished by its shorter ears, longer and more fully-developed
mane, and more thickly-haired tail, as well as by the absence of the transverse
bars connecting the stripe on the middle of the back with the uppermost of those
BURCHELL'S ZEBRA (^ nat. size).
oii the haunches, and likewise by the union of every alternate body-stripe with its
fellow on the middle of the under surface of the body. In the typical form (as
represented in our illustration) the tail and legs are quite devoid of stripes, but in
the so-called Chapman's zebra, which is only a variety of this species, both may be
striped, although the stripes never extend on to the pasterns. The general ground-
colour of the hair varies from white to yellowish brown, and the stripes may be
dark brown or black. The hoofs are said to be much more like those of a pony
than are those of the preceding species.
Distribution Burchell's zebra is a plain-dwelling animal, which never appears
and Habits, to have ranged southwards of the Orange River. It now appears to
be practically exterminated in the Transvaal, but is still to be met with in numbers
tfe
^J ft
cc
CD
UJ
N
in the di
in wet season*
on the plaiii-
wards it
Me*
be fouiv:
ten to til'
beests, .• bocatft.
they keep '_f
pursued they rn)
to overtake
remainder <>> op.
whining bar
relished by <
large numbt
others fall n
attempt^
con i
more or
hippoti^
individr.-
All wb-
appearan
and then
trophies
has beci.
harmoni.^
! • ': ' •
Th»
)>U! II.
*M iciatin^
i' not \\i
hv
onwards to ;
known t
animal than
striped right
body, an-
long mane ai-
greater numl
separated b}-
moreover, qu
a much gren
haunches beii.
Habits.
Victoria Nyn
individuals.
HORSES.
5°7
Distribution.
When Sir C. Harris visited the Cape Colony in the year 1839, he
described the quagga as existing in immense herds, but it is now,
owing to incessant persecution for the sake of its hide, either completely or very
nearly exterminated. According to Mr. H. A. Bryden, the quagga always had a
very restricted distribution, and, although " formerly so abundant upon the far-
spreading ' karroos ' of the Cape Colony and the plains of the Orange Free State,
appears never to have been met with north of the Vaal River. Its actual habitat
may be precisely defined as within Cape Colony, the Orange Free State, and Griqua-
THE QUAGGA.
Habits.
land West. I do not find that it ever extended to Namaqualand and the Kalahari
Desert to the west, or beyond the Kei River, the ancient eastern limit of the Cape
Colony to the east."
The name couagga is derived from the shrill bark-like neigh of
the animal. In habits this species appears to have been very similar
to the other members of this group ; and it was formerly much sought after by the
Boers in order to supply their native servants with food. It may be added that all
the zebras, with the exception of E. grevyi, which has not hitherto been exhibited
in this country, will interbreed with either the horse or the ass. Indeed, the
skeletons of all the living Equidm are so alike that, except from size, it appears
impossible to distinguish the teeth or limb-bones of the various species from one
another.
508
UNGULATES.
THE ASSES (Equus hemionus and asinus).
The true asses differ from the zebras in having their bodies without a series of
stripes, although there is always a dark streak down the back, and sometimes
another across the shoulders, and likewise irregular transverse bars on the limbs.
Wild asses are widely distributed over the more arid regions of
*S> Asia, ranging from Syria to Persia and Western India, and northwards
THE TIBETAN WILD ASS, OR KIANG (£g nat. Size).
over a large extent of Central Asia. It was long considered that there were three
distinct species of these animals, but although there are at least two well-marked
varieties, Mr. Blanford is of opinion that the whole of these form but a single
species (E. hemionus). These asses have moderate-sized ears and rather long tails,
and stand from 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet (11 to 12 hands) at the withers. They
have a dark brown stripe, sometimes bordered with white, running from the back
of the head to the upper portion of the tail, the fore-part of this stripe being formed
HORSES.
5°9
only by the mane ; the colour of the rest of the upper parts varying from reddish
grey to fawn or pale chestnut, while the under-parts are creamy white. In some
cases there is a dark shoulder-stripe, while in others the legs are faintly barred
with rufous, and the end of the tail is dark.
Varieties and There are three varieties of Asiatic wild asses, of which the first
Distribution. js the kiang or kulan, of Tibet and Mongolia, characterised by its
large size, dark reddish colour, and the narrowness of the stripe down the back.
The ghorkhar, or onager, from Western India and Baluchistan, is a smaller and
paler -coloured variety, with a broader dorsal stripe, its general colour being
sometimes silvery white. Lastly, there is a third variety from Syria and Persia,
which apparently differs very slightly from these. In Western Tibet the kiang
lives at elevations of fourteen thousand feet and over, while in Cach the ghorkhar
is found at the sea-level.
The Asiatic wild ass is remarkable for its fleetness and its capacity
for getting over rough and stony ground at a great pace. As a rule,
these animals inhabit desert plains or open rolling table-lands, and are generally
found in small parties of from two to four or five individuals, or in herds varying
in number from twenty to thirty or forty. In North- Western Afghanistan a herd
estimated to contain upwards of one thousand head has, however, been seen in
the month of April, and it is stated that the larger herds are composed solely of
mares and foals. In the districts to the west of the Indus the foals are born during
the summer from June to August ; and it is probable that the period of gestation
is about eleven months, as with the other members of the genus.
The food of these wild asses consists in the lowlands of different kinds of
grasses, which are frequently dry ; but in Tibet it is chiefly composed of various
woody plants, which form the main vegetation of those arid regions. In the hills
to the west of the Indus these animals are to be found wandering pretty well
throughout the year ; but in the early summer, when the grass and the water in
the pools have dried up from the hot winds, the greater number, if not all, of the
ghorkhars migrate to the hills for grass and water. It is stated that in Western
India and Persia the wild asses are very shy and difficult to approach. This is,
however, by no means the case with the kiang of Western Tibet, which is one of
the most curious and inquisitive of all animals, frequently approaching within
fifty yards or less of any strange object. Indeed, these asses are often a positive
nuisance to the sportsman, as they will come up to him as he is engaged in a
stalk, and thus alarm and drive away his quarry. In Ladak I have frequently
ridden among a herd of kiang, who would gallop close round my pony in circles ;
and on one occasion a kiang, apparently actuated by extreme curiosity, walked
straight into the middle of my camp, where the cooking was going on, much to
the alarm of the Indian servants.
The speed of the ghorkhar is so great that it appears to be impossible for a
single horseman to ride down an adult in good condition. It is stated, indeed, that
this has been done in Cach, but Mr. Blanford is of opinion that in such cases mares
in foal were the objects of pursuit. In the Bikanir Desert the foals are captured
during the summer by mounted parties of Baluchis, who, by relieving one another,
hunt them till they fall from sheer exhaustion, when they are taken and bound.
510
UNGULATES.
Such of these foals as can be reared are taken into India and sold to the native
princes, by whom high prices are given for these animals. Whether ghorkhars
thus taken are capable of being tamed and broken to harness or the saddle, I am
not aware ; but a kiang which I once saw in captivity in Leh was a most vicious
and intractable brute, with which nothing could be done. The late Sir O. B. St.
John states that it was told him by the Persians that if the sportsman can manage
to conceal himself and his horse in the vicinity of a spring, and wait till the wild
A TROOP OF PERSIAN WILD ASSES.
asses have quenched their thirst, they can readily be come up with when full of
water by a short spurt on a fast horse. At other times they are caught by relays
of horsemen and greyhounds. It is further stated by the same writer that the
flesh of the ghorkhar is only eaten by the Persians when other food is scarce.
There has been some amount of discussion as to the nature of the voice of the
kiang, some observers comparing it to that of the common ass, while others think
it has more resemblance to the neigh of the horse. The general opinion is, however,
that it is decidedly ass-like, and it has been described as a shrieking bray.
HORSES. 5II
African Wild Ass.. The African wild ass (E. asinus) is a very distinct animal from
its Asiatic cousin, having much longer ears, a shorter mane, and the
tail more scantily haired. The general colour of the hair is a creamy or bluish
grey, without any decided rufous tinge, and there is usually a well-defined dark
shoulder-stripe, as well as dark bars on the limbs. The muzzle, a patch under the
throat, and the under-parts are white, and there is frequently a large amount of
A
THE AFRICAN WILD ASS (-fa flat. size).
white on the limbs. There is some amount of individual variation in regard to the
relative length of the ears, mane, tail, and limbs ; and the degree of development of
the shoulder and leg-stripes is also variable, the former being sometimes very narrow
and faintly marked, while in other cases the latter markings may be absent. The
height may reach 4 feet 8 inches (14 hands) at the withers.
Distribution and The African wild ass is widely distributed in the desert regions
Habits. Of North -Eastern Africa, occurring in Abyssinia, Somaliland, the
Sudan, and other districts in the neighbourhood of the Red Sea. Sir Samuel Baker
5I2 UNGULATES.
says that on the margin of the Atbara Desert " the tracks of wild asses had been
frequent, but hitherto I had not seen the animals, as their drinking hour was at
night, after which they travelled far into the desert. However, on the morning of
the 29th June, shortly after the start at about 6 A.M., we perceived three of these
beautiful creatures on our left — an ass, a female, and a foal. They were about half
a mile distant when first observed, and upon our approach to within half that
distance they halted and faced about. They were evidently on their return to the
desert from the river. Those who have seen donkeys in their civilised state have
no conception of the beauty of the wild and original animal. Far from the passive
and subdued appearance of the English ass, the animal in its native desert is the
perfection of activity and courage ; there is a high-bred tone in the deportment, a
high-actioned step when it trots freely over the rocks and sand, with the speed of
a horse. When it gallops freely over the boundless desert, no animal is more
difficult to approach, and, although they are frequently captured by the Arabs,
those taken are invariably the foals, which are ridden down by fast dromedaries,
while the mothers escape." The author then proceeds to notice how admirably the
coloration of these animals harmonises with that of their desert surroundings.
Their food consists of the wiry herbage found in such regions, but, in spite of such
apparently poor diet, these animals are always found in fine condition. The flesh
is eaten by the Arabs. It appears that these asses are found either in parties of
two or three or in small herds, but that they do not assemble in large troops.
Their bray is practically indistinguishable from that of the domestic race.
. The domestic ass is evidently the tamed African ass, in most cases
deteriorated by bad food and hard usage. Any description of such
a well-known animal would be superfluous ; but it may be observed that, while
grey is the ordinary colour, the tint may vary in one direction until it passes into
white, while in the other it gradually darkens into a deep brown or even black. The
dark stripe running down the back is usually distinct in the lighter -coloured
varieties, but the shoulder-stripe is less constant, being frequently absent, although
in some instances duplicated. The bars on the legs are generally wanting in the
adult, although they are frequently more or less distinctly marked in the foal.
The ass was known to the ancient Egyptians long before the horse, and was,
indeed, probably first domesticated in the valley of the Nile, whence it has spread
over almost the whole of the habitable regions of the globe. We are not aware,
however, of any instances where these animals have reverted to a semi-wild
condition. In Europe, the largest and finest breeds are produced in the more
southern countries, such as Spain, Italy, and Malta ; but there are others of still
finer proportions in the United States, where they reach a height of 15 or 16 hands.
These larger races are mainly kept for the purposes of mule-breeding, and show
that the small size of the ordinary form is due in great part to the rough treatment
and bad food which is usually its share. In England the ass was known in the
reign of Ethelred, when it fetched the then high price of twelve shillings ; but it
has been considered that it subsequently became extinct, and was reintroduced about
the time of Queen Elizabeth ; and it is certain that it did not become common till
after the reign of the latter.
The ass is valued not only as a beast of burden and draught, but likewise on
HORSES. 5,3
account of its milk ; and it is stated that in one district of Equatorial Africa large
droves of these animals are kept solely for the sake of their milk. A peculiarity
in the disposition of the ass, is its reluctance to cross even the smallest stream of
water ; this aversion being doubtless a direct inheritance from its desert-haunting
wild ancestors.
DOMESTIC ASS.
The term mule is strictly applicable only to the hybrid between
the male ass and the mare ; the product of the union of the opposite
sexes of these two species being known as the hinny. Mules, although they
frequently display the stubbornness and obstinacy of the ass in an intensified
degree, are for some purposes more valuable than either of their parents, being
very sure-footed and with great powers of endurance. Some of the finest mules are
bred in Spain, the United States, and North- Western India, where they frequently
attain the height of 16 hands. In Spain they are generally employed to carry
burdens, and march in long droves, following in single file a leader distinguished
VOL. ii.— 33
5H UNGULATES.
by a bell. Among the dun-coloured mules of the Punjab, dark stripes on the legs
are very common.
There appear to be no authenticated instances of mules breeding among them-
selves ; although the female mule will occasionally produce offspring with the male
horse or ass. And it is somewhat remarkable that it does not appear that the
hybrids between any other members of the Equine family are mutually fertile.
FOSSIL HORSES.
It has already been mentioned that remains, undistinguishable from the
existing horse, occur in the superficial deposits of Europe and Arctic America ; but
that those found in the corresponding formations of the United States and South
America appear to belong to extinct species of the genus Equus. In the upper
molar teeth of all these species the front inner pillar marked p in figure B on p.
487 is much elongated from front to back. In the figured tooth which belongs to an
extinct species (E. sivalensis) from the Siwalik Hills of India, that pillar is, how-
ever, shorter; and in Steno's horse (E. stenonis), from the Pliocene deposits of
Europe, it is so much shortened as to be almost cylindrical. The same is the case
with certain extinct species from the later deposits of the United States and
Argentina, which, on account of the great length of the slit for the nose in the
skull, are separated as a distinct genus, under the name of Hippidium. All the
foregoing have but a single toe to each foot, but we now come to certain other
species in which there, were three distinct hoofs. One of these is the Protohippus
of the lower Pliocene strata of the United States, in which the upper molar teeth
approximate to the one represented in Fig. B on p. 487, but have shorter crowns.
The other is the European and Asiatic hipparion, or three-toed horse, of which an
upper molar tooth is represented in Fig. C of the page quoted. From that
figure it will be seen that the front inner pillar p is completely separated from
the portion pi. That the Protohippus was the ancestor of the true extinct horses
of America, there can be but little doubt ; but, from the separation of the inner
pillar of the molars, it is not so certain that the hipparion gave rise to the existing
European members of the family.
OTHER EXTINCT ODD-TOED UNGULATES.
Ancestry of the The foregoing observations indicate that there is a complete
Horse. transition from the modern single-toed horse to species with three
distinct toes to each foot, and with rather shorter-crowned and simpler molar teeth.
From these three-toed horses there is a further gradation to other extinct Ungulates,
which cannot be included in the Equine family, but some of which were doubtless
the direct progenitors thereof. One of these was the Miocene anchithere, common
to both Europe and the United States. From the figures given on p. 487, it will
be seen that the upper molar teeth of these animals, although formed on the general
plan of those of the horse, have very low crowns, with a simpler arrangement of
the pillars and ridges, and the intervening valleys perfectly open, owing to the
absence of cement; and it may be added that other species show a complete
EXTINCT FORMS, 515
transition from the molars of the anchithere to those of the earlier horses. Further,
the lateral toes of the anchithere, as shown in the figures on p. 153, were relatively
larger than in the three-toed horses. Moreover, in the anchithere, the radius and
ulna in the fore, and the tibia and fibula in the hind-limb, were perfectly distinct
and fully-developed bones. The largest anchithere approached an ordinary pony
in size, while the smallest was not larger than a sheep ; and in all these animals
there was the full typical number of forty-four teeth, while the " mark " character-
istic of the incisors of the horse was but faintly indicated in one species alone.
Passing downwards in the geological scale, by a complete transition from the
anchithere, we arrive in the lower Eocene London Clay at a small animal known
as the hyracothere, which was not larger than a fox, and had four toes to the front,
and three to the hind-feet ; while the forty-four low-crowned teeth were of still
simpler structure than in the anchithere, although formed on the same general
plan. The last lower molar tooth of the hyracothere differs however from that of all
existing Odd-toed Ungulates in having three complete lobes, and thus approximates
to the corresponding tooth of the Even-toed group ; and it may be added that the
essential correspondence in the structure of the upper molars of the two groups
will be apparent by a comparison of the figure of the molar of the anoplothere on
p. 421, with that of the anchithere on p. 487.
A step from the hyracothere brings us to the still earlier phenacodus, in which
each foot, as shown in the figure on p. 8 of the first volume, had five complete
toes ; while the molar teeth had their crowns with small isolated tubercles instead
of ridges. This small primitive animal, with a most generalised type of structure,
appears then to be the undoubted ancestral stock from which the modern horse
has been slowly produced by some process of evolution, which was going on through-
out the long ages of the whole Tertiary period ; and it is at least noteworthy that
the true horse only made its appearance on the globe at or about the same time as
his master, man.
Paiaeotiieres and In addition to the animals referred to above, as forming the direct
LopModons. ancestral line of the modern horse, there were a number of other more
or less closely-allied types belonging to the Odd-toed group. Among these some of
the best and longest
known are the palseo-
theres, from the upper
Eocene strata of Europe,
of which, as far back as
the early portion of the
present century, nearly
THE LEFT UPPER CHEEK-TEETH OF THE GREAT ?AI^EOTHERE
Covered in the gypsum ^ nat> size).— After Gaudry.
quarries, near Paris,
were described by Cuvier. These palseotheres were tapir-like animals, with three
toes to each foot, and molar teeth approximating to those of the anchithere in
structure, but having a somewhat elongated neck While some of the species were
not taller than a sheep, others must have fully equalled the largest tapirs in size.
They probably resembled the tapirs in having a short proboscis to the snout, and
5i6 UNGULATES.
likewise in their general mode of life. The lophiodons are somewhat older animals,
being mainly characteristic of the middle Eocene strata of Europe. Some of them
were as large as a rhinoceros ; and their upper molar teeth approximate to those of
the tapirs having their outer columns conical, instead of aissuming the flattened form
characteristic of the palseotheres. The lower molars, moreover, differ from those of
the palseotheres in having their transverse ridges nearly straight instead of crescent-
like ; and the total number of teeth is only forty, owing to the loss of the first
premolar in each jaw. So far as known, the number of toes to the feet was the
same as in the tapirs ; and while the true lophiodons apparently indicate a group
which died out without leaving any descendants, certain allied forms probably
indicate the ancestral stocks of both the tapirs and the rhinoceroses.
Titanotneres and In the Miocene period there existed in North America and the
Chaiicotheres. Balkans certain gigantic rhinoceros-like Ungulates, which, while
belonging to the Odd-toed group, were quite unlike any other forms, and approxi-
mated in bulk to the elephants. These titanotheres, as they are called, had skulls
somewhat like those of rhinoceroses, but furnished with a pair of bony processes
placed transversely in the region of the nose, which were doubtless furnished
with horny sheaths during life. The limbs were massive, and furnished with
four toes in front, and three behind, one of the fore-feet being figured on p. 152.
Some of the species had the full number of forty-four teeth, placed in close
apposition to one another; but in others the whole of the lower and one pair
of the upper incisors were wanting. The molar teeth are of the type of those
shown in the accompanying figure, and differ very markedly from those of other
Odd-toed Ungulates; they consist of four columns, of which the outer ones are
flattened, and those on the inner side more or less conical. The teeth are further
remarkable for the extreme lowness of
their crowns. North America also yields
remains of smaller but allied Ungulates,
such as PalcEosyops, which extend down-
wards to the highest beds of the Eocene,
and have no bony processes on the skull.
The most extraordinary modification
/ " "^ 2 *"
of the Odd-toed Ungulate type is, however,
TWO RIGHT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OP ....
PAL^OSYOPS. (From Earie.) presented by the chalicothere, which is
common to the Pliocene and Miocene
deposits of Southern Asia, Europe, and the United States. In these animals the
molar teeth were of the type of the titanothere ; but the limbs terminated in long
curved claws, very similar to those of the pangolins or scaly ant-eaters, described in
the next volume. Indeed, so like are the limbs of the chalicothere to those of the
last-named animals, that they were originally regarded as indicating a member of
the same group. Apparently, however, the chalicotheres must be regarded as
specially modified Ungulates, more or less closely allied to the Odd-toed group, and
adapted for a fossorial, or possibly arboreal mode of life.
CHAPTER XXVII.
UNGULATES, — comluded.
HYRACES, ELEPHANTS, ETC.
WITH the exception of the extinct phenacodus, noticed among the ancestors of
the horse, the whole of the Ungulates described in the seven preceding chapters are
characterised by certain peculiarities in the structure of the wrist-joint. On
referring to the figure of the fore-foot of the titanothere on p. 152, it will be seen
that the bones of the two rows of the wrist are arranged alternately to one
another, that is to say, the bone marked I is placed immediately over the line of
division between the bones u and m. Moreover, none of these animals have more
than four toes to any one foot ; while in no case do they walk on the whole sole
of the foot after the so-called plantigrade fashion. Then, again, the huckle-bone,
or astragalus, in the ankle-joint, is always deeply grooved, as shown in the hind-
foot of a deer represented on p. 154, and in that of a rhinoceros on p. 455.
On the other hand, in most of the Ungulates remaining for consideration the
component bones of the two rows of the wrist-joint,
as shown in the accompanying figure of the fore-foot
of an elephant, are placed directly one over the other,
so that the line of division between the bones I and c
is continuous with that between m and u, instead of
being placed immediately above m. And it will be
obvious that this type of structure is inferior from
a mechanical point of view to that distinguishing
the wrist-joint of the typical Ungulates. The existing
and many of the extinct Ungulates described in this
chapter frequently have five toes on each foot, and THE BONES OP THE LEFT FORE-FOOT
, , ,, ,, „ . , .,, ,. OF AN ELEPHANT (i nat. size).
not less than four functional ones, with a rudiment —After Osbom.
of a fifth on the fore-foot. They may likewise walk
partly or entirely in the plantigrade manner ; while in the ankle-joint the upper
surface of the huckle-bone is generally flat. In all respects, therefore, so far as
foot-structure is concerned, these animals are less highly organised than the
Ungulates of which we have hitherto treated. The sole living representatives of
Ungulates with this generalised type of foot structure are the small hyraces, of
which there are numerous kinds, and the two species of elephant. The latter are,
however, the last survivors from a number of kindred animals ; and there formerly
existed several other groups of more or less nearly -allied Ungulates which are
now totally extinct. Beyond the generalised structure of their feet, there is but
5,8 UNGULATES.
little in common between the hyraces and the elephants, which respectively form
the representatives of two groups as distinct from one another as is the Odd-toed
from the Even-toed group of the typical Ungulates. The elephants have been
enabled to survive to the present day by the development of a highly-specialised
dentition, and, perhaps, also owing to their huge bodily size; while the small
hyraces are sufficiently protected by their habits.
THE HYRACES.
SUBORDER Hyracoidea.
Family PROG A VIIDJE.
The small animals now generally known as hyraces (from one of their
scientific names) are so like Rodents in external appearance and habits, that in
our translation of the Bible they are designated by the term coney, which belongs
properly to the rabbit.
This Rodent-like appearance is largely due to the circumstance that (as
shown in the figure of the skeleton) their jaws are armed in front with long,
SKELETON OF THE CAPE HYRAX.
curved teeth, adapted for gnawing, and separated by a long gap from the teeth of
the cheek-series. Their front teeth are, however, in reality very different, both in
form and number, from those of the Rodent mammals. In the upper jaw there
are a pair of incisor teeth, of semicircular form, and growing throughout life in
the Rodent manner. Instead,, however, of being chisel-like, they are triangular
in section, and terminate in sharp points, their outer and inner front surfaces
being covered with enamel, which is wanting on the hinder surface. In the lower
jaw there are two pairs of front teeth, of which the outermost are nearly straight,
with long conical crowns divided into three lobes ; both pairs of these teeth are,
however, rooted, and therefore quite unlike the continually -growing single pair of
the Rodents. The cheek-teeth are seven in number on each side of both the upper
and lower jaw; and in structure approximate to those of either the rhinoceros or
HYRACES. 519
the palaeothere, there being some amount of variation in the form and height of
the crowns of these teeth in the different species.
Like other Ungulates, hyraces have no collar-bones (clavicles) ; and the tail is
reduced to a mere stump. In the fore-foot there are four functional toes, of which
the outermost is smaller than the others ; the first digit being represented by a
mere rudiment. The hind-foot has only three toes, of which the innermost is
furnished with a long curved claw, while the other two, like all those in the fore-
foot, carry broad and short nails, somewhat like those of a rhinoceros. All the
bones of the limbs are fully developed and separate from one
another ; and the thigh-bone, or femur, lacks the distinct third
trochanter characterising the Odd -toed Ungulates. In many
species the socket of the eye is completely surrounded by bone,
but in others it is partially open behind.
The hyraces have sharply-pointed muzzles and small rounded
ears ; and their bodies are covered with a thick coat of nearly
uniformly-coloured hair, which varies in length in the different
species. Near the middle of the back there is a gland, surrounded
r THE BONES OP THE
and partly covered by a patch of hairs differing in colour from UPPER PART OF THE
LEFT FORE-FOOT OF
those on the rest of the body. Frequently the central part of
THE TREE - HYRAX.
this gland is naked, — in one species for a length of lully two (FromOsbom.)
inches, — but it is generally concealed by the convergence of the
surrounding hairs. In most species the female has three pairs of mammae, one of
which is placed near the fore-limbs, while the other two are situated posteriorly ;
but in three species of tree-hyrax there is but a single pair.
The various species of Hyrax, about fourteen in number, are
confined to Africa, Arabia, and Syria. In Africa they are found in
the extreme south at the Cape, and thence range along the eastern and western
coasts about as far north as the 20th parallel of north latitude ; while they also occur
in the central equatorial regions. They are usually found in rocky districts, at
elevations varying from near the sea-level to upwards of eleven thousand feet.
Abyssinian The whole of the species of hyrax are now included by Mr. O.
Hyraces. Thomas in the single genus Procavia ; and as it will be unnecessary
to notice all of them, we shall confine our remarks to some of the best known.
Of these the Abyssinian hyrax ( P. abyssinica) agrees with the majority in the
light colour of the patch of hairs surrounding the gland on the back. It is of
medium size ; the total length along the curves of a female specimen measured by
Mr. Blanford being 20 inches, and the height at the shoulder 8 inches. Its fur
is coarse and harsh, and in specimens from high elevations somewhat elongated,
but short in those from the lowlands. The light spot round the gland is very
small and inconspicuous.
Mr. Blanford says " that these hyraces live in rocky or stony
places, in communities, like rabbits, haunting holes beneath the
rocks. A large pile of loose blocks, especially if there are precipices around, is
sure to be inhabited by them. They are frequently found, too, in rocky water-
courses. They appear to feed at night and very early in the morning, their
principal food being the leaves and young shoots of trees and bushes. During the
520
UNGULATES.
day they lie out upon rocks in the shade, or retire, especially towards midday,
beneath the rocks. They are timid and wary, rushing into their holes at the
smallest intimation of danger. The only sound I heard made by them was a shrill
squeak when suddenly alarmed. They can climb over smooth surfaces of rock in
a wonderful manner, their large feet aiding them in obtaining a hold." The typical
race of this species occurs in the highlands of Abyssinia, the lowland form being
of considerably smaller size. Its habits .may be taken as characteristic for all the
species, with the exception of those frequenting trees. Two other species inhabit
Southern Abyssinia, viz. the Shoan hyrax (P. shoana), and Bruce's hyrax
(P. brucei). The former of these inhabits Southern Abyssinia and Shoa, and is
nearly or quite the largest of the group ; it differs from all others, except the Cape
hyrax, in having the spot on the back entirely black, and is distinguished from the
SYRIAN HYRAX.
Cape Hyrax.
latter by the great length of its soft and silky hair. Bruce's. hyrax, which ranges
from Southern Abyssinia to Somaliland and Mozambique, is a small and rare species,
with the spot on the back long and narrow, and yellowish or whitish in colour.
It has been found at elevations of from seven thousand to eight thousand feet.
The Cape hyrax (P. capensis) is confined to the Cape Colony
and Natal, where it is known to the Dutch colonists as the klip-das,
or rock-badger. It is characterised by the hair being soft and fine, and of medium
length, with the spot on the back of an irregular oval form, and black in colour :
the general hue of the fur being dark sepia-brown, speckled with pale yellow or
white. The late Professor Moseley writes that these animals " come out to feed in
the mornings and evenings, but also bask sometimes in the hot sun at midday.
They are very inquisitive, and sit up on a rock, and look at one, and then suddenly
dash into their hiding-place. After a time, if one remains quiet, they come out
for another look, and afford a good chance for a shot. Their cry of alarm is a
HYRACES. 52I
short, hissing noise. They had young at the time of our visit [November], and I
met with two litters, each of three young, which were about the size of very large
rats, with soft chocolate-brown downy hair. The young play about on the rocks
together like kittens, chasing one another, and darting in and out among the
clefts."
Syrian Hyrax The Syrian hyrax (-P- syriaca) is the coney of Scripture, and the
only species found out of Africa, its range including Syria, Palestine,
the Sinaitic Peninsula, and the whole of Arabia. It is a small or medium-sized
and rather variable species, with somewhat soft and shaggy hair of a dull orange-
yellow or fawn colour; and the spot on the back rather small, oval, and its com-
ponent hairs yellow throughout their length. Canon Tristram states that these
hyraces produce
from three to six
young at a birth,
but that four ap-
pears to be the
ordinary number.
He observes that
"they are far too
wary to be taken in
traps, and the only
chance of securing
one is patiently to
lie concealed, about
sunset or before
sunrise, on some
overhanging cliff,
taking care not to
let the shadow be cast below, and thus to wait till the little creatures cautiously
peep forth from their holes. . . . They make a nest of dried grass and fur, in which
the young are buried like those of a mouse. The flesh is much prized by the
Arabs. We found it good, but rather dry and insipid, as dark in colour as that of
the hare."
Three species of the genus, of which one is from Western and
two are from Eastern Africa, and not improbably a third from the
central equatorial region, differ from the rest in their arboreal habits. These three
species agree in that the females have but a single pair of teats ; and are respect-
ively known as P. valida from Mount Kilima-Njaro, readily distinguished from all
the others by the bright fulvous hue of the under-parts, P. arborea from Eastern
and South- Eastern Africa, and P. dor satis ranging on the west coast from Liberia
to the Cameruns and Fernando Po. The latter species is of large size, and
characterised by its long shaggy fur, black at the base and white at the tips of the
hairs, and the relatively large size of the head compared to the body. The
Kilima-Njaro species is found at elevations of from seven thousand to eleven thousand
feet in the dense forests clothing the mountain. They live entirely in the trees,
making their lairs and breeding-places in holes in the boughs and trunks ; and
TREE-HYRAX.— After Thomas.
Tree-Hyraces.
522 UNGULATES.
they are stated to make a great noise at night. A female captured by Mr. H. H.
Johnston gave birth to three young. Mr. H. C. V. Hunter states that many of
them are captured alive by the natives for the sake of their skins, of which several
are sewn together to make cloaks.
It is somewhat remarkable that at present no extinct animals have been
discovered which appear allied to the hyraces.
ELEPHANTS.
SUBORDER Proboscidea.
Family ELEPHANTIDJt.
From their peculiar bodily conformation, their huge size, which exceeds that
of all other terrestrial mammals, and the high degree of intelligence which they
have been supposed to display, elephants have always excited an amount of
popular interest far surpassing that accorded to most other animals. And in truth
this deep and widespread interest is by no means misplaced, since elephants
really are among the most extraordinary and remarkable forms with which the
zoologist is acquainted. Through long experience we are now thoroughly familiar-
ised with their appearance, but if we were to see one for the first time we
should probably regard it as the strangest mammal that ever existed; and,
indeed, we should not be far wrong in doing so. It has already been mentioned
that, so far as regards the structure of their feet, elephants are some of the most
generalised of all living mammals ; and a similar remark will apply with equal
truth to the structure of the rest of their limbs. When, however, we take into
consideration the peculiar nature of their dentition, and their marvellously con-
structed proboscis, we find them possessing characters of the highest specialisation ;
and it is this combination of generalised and specialised features which render
elephants so peculiarly interesting to the zoologist.
At the present day these animals are represented only by the Indian and
African species, but in past epochs there were a number of extinct forms, some of
which serve to connect the living ones, to a certain limited extent, with other
Ungulates ; and since it is only by a thorough comprehension of the characters
presented by the dentition of these extinct elephants that the structure of the teeth
of their living representatives can be understood, it will be necessary in our account
of the group to devote almost as much attention to the fossil as to the existing
species. It is worthy, however, of note that although some of the extinct elephants
do, as already stated, depart less widely from ordinary Ungulates than is the case
with the living Indian and African species, yet such approximation to the normal
type is only one of degree, and we are at present totally unacquainted with any
animals which are absolutely intermediate between elephants and other Ungulates.
The origin of the group is, therefore, still totally known, although their nearest
relations may prove to be certain extinct groups noticed in the sequel.
The most striking external peculiarity of elephants, and the one
from which their title of proboscidians is derived, is the long, flexible
ELEPHANTS.
523
proboscis, into which the nose is produced ; this proboscis having the nostrils at its
extremity, and being used as an organ of prehension, and for the purpose of con-
veying water to the mouth. Their build is extremely massive and bulky, the head
being of great proportionate size, the ears large and flapping, the neck very short
and thick, and the limbs long and stout. A peculiarity of the limbs, as shown in
the figure of the skeleton, is that the humerus in the fore, and the femur in the
hind-leg, are very long in proportion to the lower segments ; the feet themselves
being very short indeed. It will also be noticed that the bones of the limbs are
set nearly vertically one above another ; and from this cause, together with the
SKELETON OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.
great relative length of their upper segments, the knee and elbow-joints are not
partially enclosed within the skin covering the body, as is the case in most Ungulates.
Consequently, the knee of the elephant is more readily identified with that of man
than is the case with that of a horse. It is further owing to this peculiarity in
the structure of its limbs that an elephant kneels down, with its fore-feet stretched
out in front and the hinder ones behind. The short feet are extremely broad, and
have five toes each, of which the middle one (as shown in the figure on p. 517) is
the largest ; and from the extreme shortness of the feet the ankle-bone is placed
close to the ground, instead of being raised half-way up the leg as in the horse.
The whole of the toes are enclosed in a common skin, with a flat cushion-like sole ;
the position of the toes being indicated by the broad flat nails, of which there may
S24 UNGULATES.
be either three or four in the hind-foot. The fore-foot is broader than the hinder
one, and generally has five nails.
In most cases the males, and sometimes the females also, have a pair of tusks
in the upper jaw ; these tusks corresponding to one of the pairs of incisors of other
mammals, and not to the tusks of the wild boar and hippopotamus, which are
canines. There are no other front teeth in the upper, and none at all in the lower
jaw of the living species. The eyes are small in proportion to the size of the head ;
the tail is nearly cylindrical, and of considerable length, with a tuft of bristly hairs
at the end ; but the skin is nearly naked in the two existing species. The female
has a single pair of teats placed between the fore-legs.
In addition to the proportions and position of the bones of the limbs already
referred to, it may be observed in connection with the skeleton that the two bones
of the lower segment of each leg are perfectly distinct from one another ; and that
in the ankle the huckle-bone, or astragalus, is nearly flat both above and below,
and is of slight vertical thickness, but of great horizontal extent. The vertebrae of
the back have very tall spines for the attachment of the powerful ligaments neces-
sary to support the enormous weight of the head ; and the ribs are of great length,
and thus afford ample space for the viscera. It will be noticed in the figure of the
skeleton that the blade-bone, or scapula, has a backwardly recurved process pro-
jecting from its space ; and it is remarkable that a nearly similar condition of this
acromial process is found in the Rodents.
From the enormous size of the skull it might be inferred that
elephants have very large brains. This, however, is far from the
case, the brain not only being very small in proportion to the size of the animal,
but likewise of a low degree of organisation. The brain of an elephant occupies
indeed only a comparatively small portion of the space lying between the socket
of the eye and the region where the vertebrae of the neck articulate with the skull.
The whole of the elevated upper portion of the skull is occupied by a mass of bone,
honeycombed into cells, and thus affords space for the attachment of the huge
muscles of the jaws, and forms an adequate support for the trunk without unduly
adding to the weight ; the great size of this region being also essential in order to
harmonise with the immense development of the lower part of the skull, which has
to accommodate the enormous tusks and molar teeth. Similar cells also enter into
the structure of the hinder and basal region of the skull. There are many other
peculiarities in the conformation of the elephant's skull, but it must suffice to
mention here that the nasal aperture is situated high up in the front of the face,
and that the nasal bones are reduced to mere triangular nodules, instead of having
the elongated form characteristic of most mammals.
Of the teeth a more detailed notice is necessary, since these afford
some of the most essential characteristics of the group. As already
mentioned, elephants have no canine teeth in either jaw ; while in the living species
the tusks are developed only in the upper jaw. In the young elephant there is a
minute pair of milk-tusks, which are shed at a very early age. The permanent
tusks, which are nearly cylindrical in section, and taper to their extremities,
continue to grow throughout the life of their owners, and thus remain permanently
open at their bases, which are enclosed in sheaths of the premaxillary bones extend-
ELEPHANTS.
525
ing as high up in the skull as the aperture of the nasal cavity. In the young state
the tusks of the living species of elephants are tipped with enamel ; but this is soon
rubbed off by use, and they then consist of ivory alone. This ivory differs from
that of other mammals in its structure, which renders it easy to distinguish
elephant-ivory from all other ; and if a transverse section of a tusk be examined, it
will be found to present a pattern like the engine-turning on the back of a watch-
case ; this peculiar pattern being absolutely distinctive of true ivory.
We come now to the consideration of the molar or cheek-teeth of the elephants,
which in their structure and mode of succession are unlike those of all other
mammals. In the first place, an elephant has six cheek-teeth on each side of both
the upper and lower jaws ; but instead of all these being in use at once, in the
existing species only two
are ever above the gums
at any one time, and one of
these is but partly pro-
truded; while in old animals
there is but a single tooth
remaining. The molar
teeth are elongated from
front to back, and are com-
posed of a number of trans-
verse ridges closely packed
The anterior
together.
teeth, as shown in the
accompanying figure, are
small, and include but few
ridges ; but each succeeding tooth is larger, and comprises a greater number of ridges,
reaching in the last molar of the Indian species to as many as twenty-four. The
individual teeth succeed one another from before backwards in an arc of a circle ;
and as the tooth in front is worn away, its place is gradually taken by the one rising
from behind, till at length the sixth and last tooth alone remains. Although this
mode of succession appears strange and peculiar, it is in reality only an ultra-develop-
ment of what takes place among the pigs, and more especially in the African wart-
hogs. In all the pigs the last molar does not come into use till the teeth in front
of it are considerably worn ; and in the wart-hogs, as we have already seen, the
last molar is of unusually large size, and may be the only cheek-tooth remaining
in the adult condition, owing to those in front being shed. It should be added that
while the last three cheek-teeth of the elephants correspond to the true molars of
an ordinary mammal, the three anterior ones represent the last three milk-molars
of such an animal as the pig, and not, as would at first sight appear to be the case,
the premolars. That the three teeth in question are really milk-molars is proved
by the circumstance that in some of the extinct species they were vertically suc-
ceeded by teeth of simpler structure corresponding to the premolars of the pig.
In order to undei-stand the structure of the molar teeth of the elephants, it
will be advisable to take those of one of certain extinct species which, like Cliffs
elephant, exhibit a simpler conformation than those of the existing species. Such
THE FIRST AND SECOND RIGHT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OF THE
MAMMOTH (nat size). — After Sir R. Owen.
526
UNGULATES.
a tooth is represented in the accompanying woodcut, and will be seen to be
composed of a number of low roof -like transverse ridges (in this case six), separated
by open valleys. When unworn, as on the right side of the figure, such ridges are
crowned by a number of small tubercles ; but the effect of wear, as shown in the
three ridges on the left side of the figure, is to perforate the enamel of which the
ridges are externally composed, and thus to reveal an elliptical surface of ivory
surrounded by a narrow border of enamel. In the figured tooth the valleys
between the ridges are completely open and devoid of cement, but in the teeth of
other species of nearly similar type they contain a certain amount of this
constituent. Now it only requires that the ridges in a tooth like that of Cliffs
elephant should be greatly increased in height, with a concomitant diminution of
their basal width, which would
admit of a greater number being
borne in the same length of space,
and by the intervening valleys
being completely filled with
cement, to produce a tooth like
that of the Indian elephant. In
such a tooth, as shown in the
figures on pp. 525 and 528, the
ridges have become so tall as to
assume the appearance of thin
and nearly parallel plates, with
their investing enamel thrown
into a series of fine plications,
or puckers ; and the intervening
valleys have become so deepened and narrowed, that their contained cement
is also in the form of exceedingly thin plates. When worn, as in the figure on
p. 528, such a tooth presents on its surface a series of very narrow ellipses of
yellow ivory, surrounded by an elevated rim of the harder white enamel, marked
by its characteristic puckers ; while between the ellipses of enamel-bordered ivory
come the layers of cement. The succession of layers in such a tooth is therefore
arranged in the following order, viz. cement, enamel, ivory, and so on. The worn
crown forms a slightly convex or concave surface, marked by transverse ridges of
different degrees of hardness and height, arid thus yields a masticating instrument
of the greatest power and efficiency.
In their food, elephants are strictly herbivorous, subsisting
chiefly upon roots, twigs, leaves, and young shoots of trees, or grass
and other herbage ; such food being conveyed to the mouth by the aid of the flexible
trunk, which is admirably adapted for such a purpose, as it is for drawing up
water. There is, however, much popular misapprehension as to the other uses of
the elephant's trunk, in regard to which a few words are expedient. In addition
to its use as a purveyor of food and water to the mouth, the trunk is the organ of
touch and smell, and is altogether extremely delicate and sensitive. When any
danger is impending, elephants, except in some cases when charging an enemy,
invariably curl up the trunk out of harm's way. In regard to the alleged
A LEFT UPPER MOLAR TOOTH OF CLIFT'S ELEPHANT (^ nat. size).
Habits.
ELEPHANTS, 527
employment of the trunk of the Indian elephant for all manner of purposes,
Sanderson observes that "the idea that he can use it for any purpose, from
picking up a needle to dragging a piece of ordnance from a bog, is, like many
others, founded entirely on imagination. An elephant might manage the former
feat, though I doubt it ; the latter he would not attempt. Elephants engaged in
such work as dragging timber, invariably take the rope between their teeth ; they
never attempt to pull a heavy weight with the trunk. In carrying a light log,
they hold it in the mouth as a dog does a stick, receiving some little assistance in
balancing it from the trunk. Tuskers generally use their tusks for this and
similar purposes, and are more valuable than females for work. An elephant is
powerful enough to extricate a cannon from a difficult situation, but he does it by
pushing with his head or feet, or in harness — never by lifting or drawing with
his trunk."
An equal degree of misapprehension is prevalent as to the
intelligence of elephants, at least so far as the Indian species is
concerned ; and all competent observers who have had much practical experience
of these animals are of opinion that their intellectual faculties have been greatly
overrated in popular estimation. It is true, that when in captivity the Indian
elephant exhibits a marvellous docility and obedience, and is also capable of
learning to perform certain kinds of labour, such as stacking logs of timber, which
at first sight appear to demand a considerable amount of intellectual power.
There is here, however, a considerable amount of confusion, as Mr. Blanford
remarks, between high intelligence and mere docility and capacity for receiving
instruction ; and there can be little doubt that the usefulness of the elephant is
due to the latter rather than to the former trait. Indeed, the size and structure of
the brain is quite sufficient to prove that the intellectual capacity of elephants is
far inferior to that of dogs, and is probably below that of most other Ungulates.
This view of their intelligence is strongly confirmed by the circumstance that
elephants, in spite of many statements to the contrary, are wanting in originality,
and do not rise to the occasion when confronted by any sudden emergency or
event beyond the range of their ordinary daily experience. As Sir Samuel Baker
pertinently observes, an elephant " can be educated to perform certain acts, but he
would never volunteer his services. There is no elephant that I ever saw who
would spontaneously interfere to save his master from drowning or from attack.
An enemy might assassinate you at the feet of your favourite elephant, but he
would never attempt to interfere in your defence ; he would probably run away,
or remain impassive, unless guided and instructed by his mahout. This is incon-
testable; the elephant will do nothing useful unless he is specially ordered to
perform a certain work or movement." At the same time, in addition to its
capacity for receiving instruction, an elephant undoubtedly appears to have a very
retentive memory, both for acts of kindness and of cruelty ; and this has doubtless
partly contributed to its character for general intelligence.
In this connection it may be observed that the Indian species, at any rate,
differs from all other mammals in the readiness with which it may be tamed and
domesticated when fully adult ; nearly all those which are captured in India being
fully mature.
528
UNGULATES.
A curious circumstance in connection with these animals is, that
Never found dead. ^ bones of tjlose wnich have died a natural death are scarcely ever
found in the forests of India, and we believe that the same is true with regard to
Africa. It has accordingly been suggested that elephants are in the habit of
resorting to particular spots when about to die, as is known to be the case with
the guanaco in South America (supra, p. 415), but as no such mortuaries have
ever been discovered in India, this seems scarcely tenable, and the subject accord-
ingly still remains a complete mystery.
THE INDIAN ELEPHANT (Elephas indicus).
The Indian, or, as it might be better termed, the Asiatic elephant, is the more
specialised of the two living species, and at the same time the one most familiarly
known. It is characterised by its comparatively flat forehead, and relatively
A RIGHT UPPER MOLAR TOOTH OF AN ELEPHANT, allied to the existing Indian species (f nat. size).
small ears ; as well as by the nearly naked skin being smooth, and the tail having
a row of long bristly hairs at the tip, and a few inches upwards, before and behind
only. The fore-feet have each, as a rule, five nails, and the hinder ones four.
Generally the males only have large tusks, those of the females being small and
scarcely protruding beyond the jaws. In some males — known in India as mackna,
the tusks are, however, not longer than those of females. The back of the Indian
elephant is regularly convex, its middle point being higher than the withers.
Perhaps, however, the most important characteristic of this species is to be
found in the structure of the molar teeth, which are of the same type as the
example represented in the accompanying illustration. In these teeth the plates
of enamel-bordered ivory are very thin and closely approximated, and may reach
as many as twenty-four in the last of the series. The enamel is thrown into a
number of fine puckerings, and each enamel - bordered area forms a greatly
elongated and irregular ellipse. In the first tooth (as shown in the figure on
p. 525), the number of the ridges is usually four, in the second eight, in the third
and fourth about twelve, in the fifth sixteen, while in the last it may, as already
mentioned, be as many as twenty-four.
ELEPHANTS. 529
The general colour of the skin is blackish grey, but there are
frequently flesh-coloured mottlings on the forehead, the root of the
trunk, and the ears. Occasionally so-called white elephants are met with, which
are really albinos ; the dark pigment being absent from a larger or smaller area of
the skin ; in Burma and Siam such albinos being highly valued, and considered as
sacred or royal animals. Although, as already mentioned, the skin is nearly
naked, it has a few sparsely - scattered hairs; and it has been quite recently
discovered that there are faint remnants of a woolly fur, similar to that so fully
developed in the extinct mammoth. This discovery is very important, since, taken
in connection with the Indian elephant's well-known intolerance of heat, it
indicates that the animal is descended from one inhabiting temperate or cold
climates.
As in the case of most large animals, the height of the Indian
Dimensions.
elephant has been greatly exaggerated ; but the tendency of recent
observers has been rather to depreciate the maximum size which it may occasionally
attain. On the average, the height of the adult male does not exceed 9 feet,
and that of the female 8 feet ; but these dimensions are occasionally considerably
exceeded. Sanderson measured a male standing 9 feet 7 inches at the shoulder,
and measuring 26 feet 2£ inches from the tip of the trunk to the extremity of the
tail ; and he records others respectively reaching 9 feet 8 inches and 9 feet 10
inches at the shoulder. An elephant shot by General Kinloch stood upwards of
10 feet 1 inch ; and another measured by Sanderson 10 feet 7£ inches. These
dimensions are, however, exceeded by a specimen killed by the late Sir Victor
Brooke, which is reported to have reached a height of 11 feet; and there is a
rumour of a Ceylon elephant of 12 feet. That such giants may occasionally exist
is indicated by a skeleton in the Museum at Calcutta, which is believed to have
belonged to an individual living between 1856 and 1860 in the neighbourhood of
the Rajmehal Hills, in Bengal. As now mounted, this enormous skeleton stands
11 feet 3 inches at the shoulders, but Mr. O. S. Fraser, in a letter to the Asian
newspaper, states that it is made to stand too low, and that its true height was
several inches more. If this be so, there can be no doubt that, when alive,
this elephant must have stood fully 12 feet. It may be added that the height
of an Indian elephant is almost precisely twice the circumference of its fore-
foot.
With regard to the maximum weight of this species, we have no information.
An immature male of 8 feet in height weighed, however, 2 tons 17 cwt. 1 qr.
and 25 Ibs. ; while a second, of 7| feet in height, turned the scale at 2 tons
11 cwt. and 23 Ibs.
The tusks of the male vary greatly in length and weight. A pair obtained
by Mr. Sanderson measured 5 feet along the curve, with a girth of 16 inches at
the point of emergence from the jaw, their weight being 74£ Ibs. The single
perfect tusk of the elephant re'ferred to above as having been killed by Sir V.
Brooke measured 8 feet in length, and nearly 17 inches in circumference, and
weighed 90 Ibs. This weight is, however, exceeded by a shorter tusk of about
6 feet in length, which reached 100 Ibs. ; and specimens obtained from the Garo
Hills are reported to have respectively weighed 155 and 157 Ibs.
VOL. ii. — 34
530 UNGULATES.
It is of course impossible to obtain any accurate data as to the
which the Indian elephant may attain in its wild state, and we
can only, therefore, suggest an approximation to what this may be from captive
specimens. Although full grown at the age of twenty-five, an elephant, as
determined by the condition of its teeth, is not then mature. A female captured
in Coorg in 1805, when about three years of age, did not appear to be particularly
old-looking in 1878, although she had then passed her prime. Other individuals
have been known to live in captivity for over a century ; and since it is obvious
that the artificial mode of life which prevails in this state cannot be one tending
to promote longevity, it is probable that the estimate of a century and a half as
the duration of life in the wild state is not excessive.
At the present day the Indian elephant inhabits the forest-
regions of India, Ceylon, Assam, Burma, Siam, Cochin - China,
Sumatra, and Borneo ; although Mr. Blanford is of opinion that its occurrence in
the island last named may be due to human agency. According to the same writer,
in India elephants " are still found wild along the base of the Himalaya as far
west as Deira Dun ; also in places in the great forest country between the Ganges
and Kistna as far west as Bilaspur and Mandla, in the Western Ghats as far north
as 17° or 18°, and in some of the forest-clad ranges of Nagpore and farther south.
They do not appear to ascend the Himalayas to any elevation, but are sometimes
found at considerable elevations above the sea in Southern India, and in Ceylon
they range near Newera Ellia, over seven thousand feet." In former times their
distributional area in India was still more extensive.
'For full accounts of the habits of the Indian elephant, both in
the wild and domestic state, we are largely indebted to the writings
of Sir Emerson Tennent, Mr. G. P. Sanderson, and Sir Samuel Baker. The
accounts of the former were, however, largely drawn from native sources, and are
therefore, in some respects, less reliable than those of the other two. It is accord-
ingly mainly from the latter that the following summary is compiled.
Elephants chiefly frequent districts covered with tall forest, where the ground
is undulating or hilly, and where bamboos grow in profusion. During the hot
months, in the early part of the year, they keep chiefly to the densest portions of
the forest, in the neighbourhood of water; but with the commencement of the
rains they venture out into the open glades to feed upon the young succulent grass,
and in the late summer in the Madras districts descend at times to the lower
jungles. Contrary to general opinion, the Indian elephant is exceedingly intolerant
of the burning rays of the sun, to which it never voluntarily exposes itself. As
Sir S. Baker observes, "its dark colour and immense surface attract an amount
of heat which becomes almost intolerable to the unfortunate creature when forced
to carry a heavy load in the hot season in India. Even without a greater weight
than its rider, the elephant exhibits signs of distress when marching after 9 A.M."
In cloudy and showery weather elephants move about a good deal during the time
that they are in the open country ; and when travelling from one forest to another
they almost invariably march in single file.
Herds of elephants usually consist of from about thirty to fifty individuals, all
of which belong, as a rule, to a single family ; although females and young males
INDIAN ELEPHANT.
ELEPHANTS.
533
are said occasionally to migrate from their own proper herd to another. In some
cases a herd may include as many as a hundred head ; but when fodder is scarce all
the larger herds break up into smaller parties of from ten to twenty individuals, these
smaller parties keeping within a distance of two or three miles of one another,
INDIAN ELEPHANT DRINKING.
and reuniting when conditions are more favourable. A female seems to be
invariably the leader of the herd, although in it may be included males of all
ages, and on the march the females with their calves occupy the van, while the
tusked males bring up the rear. The old bulls are frequently solitary for a time,
but generally each belongs to a particular herd, which it visits occasionally.
Solitary male elephants are known as " rogues," and are generally characterised
by their fierce and quarrelsome disposition ; according to Mr. Sanderson, elephants
534 UNGULATES.
that are permanently solitary are, however, comparatively rare, the majority of
the so-called rogues really belonging to herds. These leave their companions,
as a rule, merely for a time, in order to visit the cultivated lands, where the less
venturesome females hesitate to follow, and where they inflict enormous damage
on the growing crops.
The food of the Indian elephant is mainly composed of grass, leaves, and
young shoots of the bamboo, stems, leaves, and fruits of the wild plantain, and the
leaves, twigs, and bark of certain trees, more especially figs. The generally
succulent nature of its food is in harmony with the structure of the molar
teeth, which present a relation to those of the African species almost exactly
analogous to that which exists between the molars of Burchell's and the common
African rhinoceros. In plucking tussocks of grass or branches of trees, the
elephant coils the end of its trunk around them and then tears them off; and the
same method is employed in stripping leaves from a bough, or bark from a stem.
Small objects such as fruit are, however, picked up by the small finger-like process
forming the termination of the trunk above the aperture of the nostrils. When
drinking, elephants immerse the end of the trunk in water, which is sucked up to
a distance estimated at from 15 to 18 inches in its tubes, and then emptied into the
mouth. As a rule, the times of drinking are soon after sunset and shortly before
sunrise. Grain is drawn up into the trunk, and then blown out into the mouth.
Wild elephants are in the habit of roaming about and feeding both during
the day and night, although they usually rest from nine or ten o'clock in the
morning till three in the afternoon, and again from eleven at night till three in
the morning. When sleeping, they lie down in the usual manner, and although
the members of a herd at once scatter in all directions on any sudden alarm while
feeding, they quickly reassemble.
When the season of the year is not too cold, elephants are fond of bathing,
or rolling themselves in wet mud, but unless the weather be unusually warm they
seldom indulge in such pastimes after sundown. When heated, they squirt water
over their backs from their trunks, and when unable to obtain water externally,
they have the power of drawing fluid from their mouths or throats by the aid of
the trunk. At times, when exposed to a scorching sun, they protect themselves by
throwing dust, leaves, or straw on their backs.
„_, , In common with its African cousin, the Indian elephant is an
Swimming.
excellent swimmer, and is perhaps more thoroughly at home in the
water than any mammal whose habits are not essentially amphibious or aquatic.
Mr. Sanderson states that a herd of seventy -nine elephants under his charge once
had a swim of six hours' duration, and after a short rest on a sandbank accom-
plished their journey by water in three hours more. An elephant swims very
deep in the water, sometimes only showing the end of its trunk, but at others
allowing the greater part of its head to appear above the surface. In the case of
tame individuals the mahout, or driver, generally stands on the neck of his animal.
The pace that an elephant swims is estimated at about a mile an hour ; but this,
of course, depends largely on whether the animal is swimming with or against
the stream. Unlike that of a hippopotamus, the body of a freshly -killed elephant
floats in water.
ELEPHANTS.
535
Paces. In reSartl to movement on land, Mr. Sanderson says that " the
only pace of the elephant is the walk, capable of being increased to
a fast shuffle of about fifteen miles an hour for very short distances. It can
neither trot, canter, nor gallop. It does not move with the legs on the same side
together, but nearly so. A very good runner might keep out of an elephant's way
INDIAN ELEPHANTS ENJOYING THEMSELVES.
on a smooth piece of turf, but on the ground in which they are generally met with,
any attempt to escape by flight, unless supplemented by concealment, would be
unavailing." An elephant is totally unable to leap in either the horizontal or the
vertical direction, and since its maximum length of stride is about 6^ feet, a 7-foot
ditch forms an effectual barrier to its progress. Elephants are, however, capable
of ascending or descending steep and difficult places with great facility, sometimes
sliding down on their bent hind-limbs. When a herd of them descends one of the
steep alluvial banks bordering most of the Indian rivers, it is surprising how
536
UNGULATES.
rapidly the soil becomes broken down under their weight so as to form a regular
sloping road.
The Indian elephant, under different circumstances, gives vent
to a variety of sounds, some of which are produced in the trunk,
while others originate in the throat. Of these utterances, the first, writes Mr.
Blanford, is "the shrill trumpet, varying in tone, and expressive, sometimes of
fear, sometimes of anger. Secondly, a roar from the throat caused by fear or pain.
A peculiar hoarse rumbling in the throat may express anger or want, as when
a calf is calling for its mother. Pleasure is indicated by a continued low squeaking
through the trunk. Lastly, there is a peculiar metallic sound made by rapping
the end of the trunk on the ground and blowing through it at the same time.
This indicates alarm or dislike, and is the well-known indication of a tiger's
presence."
The intelligence of the animal having been already sufficiently
S6US6S
discussed, all that need be said about its senses is that while smell
is strongly developed, both sight and hearing appear to be by no means acute.
At most seasons of the year the Indian elephant is a timid
animal, much more ready to flee from a foe than to make an attack.
Solitary " rogues " are, however, frequently an exception to this rule, and some-
times make unprovoked attacks on passers-by. Indeed, there are instances on
record where a " rogue " elephant has taken up a position near a road, and
rendered it impassable to travellers. Females with calves are at all times
dangerous to approach. Contrary to what is stated to be the case with the
African species, when an Indian elephant makes a charge, it does so with its
trunk tightly curled up, and it makes its attack by trampling its victim with its
feet or knees, or, if a male, by pinning it to the ground with its tusks. At certain
periods of the year the male elephant is subject to paroxysms of excitement,
generally supposed to be due to sexual causes, and is then highly dangerous, not
only to human beings, but to its fellow-animals. The creature is then said to be
niast, or mad ; and the approach of such attacks is indicated by the copious flow
of a dark tar-like liquid from two small orifices in the forehead. At the first
indications of one of those seizures, domesticated elephants should be promptly
secured.
Not the least remarkable fact connected with elephants in
Breeding1.
captivity, is the circumstance that in India at least they very rarely
breed when in this condition ; thus showing what a profound effect the change
from a wild to a domesticated mode of life must have on the animal's entire
organisation. It is stated, however, that in some parts of Burma and Siam, young
are produced much more freely from captive females. The ordinary period of
gestation is about nineteen months, but it appears that in some cases it may be
a month less, while in others its duration may be as much as twenty-two months.
As a rule, the young are born in the autumn, from September to November ; and
there is generally but one produced at a birth, although in rare instances twins
occur. The new-born calf stands about a yard in height, and weighs about
200 Ibs. ; it suckles its parent with its mouth, and not, as has sometimes been
supposed, with its trunk.
ELEPHANTS. 537
Elephant- Elephant-shooting, which is always practised on foot, is pro-
Shooting. nounced to be the most dangerous of all sports by Sir Samuel Baker,
since although many elephants may be killed without any danger or harm, it is
almost inevitable that the charge of a wounded animal will have to be encountered
sooner or later by the sportsman. In shooting the Indian elephant a thorough
knowledge of the position of the brain in the skull is essential ; as the three chief
head-shots depend entirely on this. Of these three shots the one known as the
front-shot should be planted in the forehead about three inches above the line of
the eyes when the elephant is standing with its head in the ordinary position and
facing the sportsman. When, however, the elephant is charging with its head
thrown up, the front shot to prove fatal must be aimed much lower down, in the
upper part of the trunk, and as the bullet has then to traverse a great thickness of
flesh and bony tissue before reaching the brain, everything depends upon its pene-
trating power. Indeed, although elephants have frequently been killed by well-
planted bullets from small-bore rifles, all who have had much experience of this
sport are unanimous as to the importance of shooting with rifles of heavy
calibre. The other two fatal shots in the head are the side, or temple-shot, and
the rear-shot just behind the ear. The shot behind the shoulder is not in much
favour.
Allusion has already been made to the generally timid and pacific nature of
the wild Indian elephant ; and there can be little doubt that in many cases, when
these animals charge, they do so more from sudden alarm and fright than from any
innate viciousness.
When an elephant does charge, it requires all the coolness and presence of
mind of the sportsman to avoid a catastrophe. "A grander animated object,"
writes Mr. Sanderson, " than a wild elephant in full charge can hardly be imagined.
The cocked ears and broad forehead present an immense frontage; the head is
held high, with the trunk curled between the tusks, to be uncoiled in the moment
of attack ; the massive fore-legs come down with the force and regularity of
ponderous machinery ; and the whole figure is rapidly foreshortened, and appears to
double in size with each advancing stride. The trunk being curled and unable to
emit any sound, the attack is made in silence, after the usual premonitory shriek,
which adds to its impressiveness. The usual pictorial representations of the Indian
elephant charging with upraised trunk are accordingly quite incorrect."
In some cases the sportsman has to stalk a herd of elephants, and to pick out
the finest tusker from among the males in the rear ; while at other times he has to
track up a particular solitary male, which may be either a " rogue " or a herd-tusker
temporarily separated from his companions. When a herd discovers the presence
of a foe, the individual that first scents him usually gives vent to a short, shrill
trumpet, upon which the rest stand perfectly still for a few minutes before making
up their minds in which direction to flee. But at other times the whole herd may
make off at once, without a sound being uttered. Sometimes the herd will mistake
the direction of the danger, and stampede straight for the sportsmen, whose position
is then one of considerable danger ; his best plan being to stand alongside a tree or
clump of bamboo. In cases where they are unaccustomed to the sound of firearms,
Mr. Sanderson states that elephants will stand huddled together, shrinking at the
538 UNGULATES.
shots, which they perhaps mistake for thunder. When first starting, they make off
at a rapid pace, but soon settle down to a steady walk.
In shooting single tuskers, it is advisable that the sportsmen should be at his
work betimes, as in the case of bulls belonging to a herd they usually rejoin their
companions by eight or nine in the morning. When such solitary animals are
feeding, the noise they make allows of a close approach without much risk of
discovery. Bulls that are permanently solitary usually rest at about ten o'clock,
and after that time may be found asleep, either lying down, or resting against the
trunk of a tree. When first disturbed, one of these solitary tuskers makes off with
a tremendous rush, but soon subsides into a walk, when he proceeds so quietly that
he may disappear without the sportsman being in the least aware of it.
The following account of the death of a tusker, by Sanderson, gives some idea
of the danger often encountered in this kind of sport. The narrator writes, that
having ascertained that the herd comprised about fifty head, " a shrill trumpeting
and crashing of bamboos about two hundred yards to our left broke the stillness,
and from the noise we knew it was a tusker-fight. We ran towards the place
where the sounds of combat were increasing every moment : a deep ravine at last
only separated us from the combatants, and we could see the tops of the bamboos
bowing as the monsters bore each other backwards and forwards with a crashing
noise in their tremendous struggles. As we ran along the bank of the nalla to find
a crossing, one elephant uttered a deep roar of pain, and crossed the nalla some
forty yards in advance of us, to our side. Here he commenced to destroy a bamboo-
clump (the bamboos in these hills have a very large hollow, and are weak and
comparatively worthless) in sheer fury, grumbling deeply the while with rage and
pain. Blood was streaming from a deep stab in his left side, high up. He was a
very large elephant, with long and fairly thick tusks, and with much white about
the forehead ; the left tusk was some inches shorter than the right. The opponent
of this Goliath must have been a monster indeed to have worsted him. An
elephant-fight, if the combatants are well matched, frequently lasts for a day or
more, a round being fought every now and then. The beaten elephant retreats
temporarily, followed leisurely by the other, until by mutual consent they meet
again. The more powerful elephant occasionally keeps his foe in view till he
perhaps kills him ; otherwise, the beaten elephant betakes himself off for good on
finding he has the worst of it. Tails are frequently bitten off in these encounters.
This mutilation is common amongst rogue-elephants, and amongst the females in a
herd ; in the latter case it is generally the result of rivalry amongst themselves.
The wounded tusker was evidently the temporarily-beaten combatant of the occa-
sion, and I have seldom seen such a picture of power and rage as he presented,
mowing the bamboos down with trunk and tusks, and bearing the thickest part
over with his fore-feet. Suddenly his whole demeanour changed. He backed from
the clump and stood like a statue. Not a sound broke the sudden stillness for an
instant. His antagonist was silent, wherever he was. Now the tip of his trunk
came slowly round in our direction, and I saw that we were discovered to his fine
sense of smell. We had been standing silently behind a thin bamboo-clump,
watching him, and when I first saw that he had winded us, I imagined he might
take himself off. But his frenzy quite overcame all fear for the moment ; forward
ELEPHANTS. 539
went his ears and up went his tail, in a way which no one who has once seen the
signal in a wild elephant can mistake the significance of, and in the same instant
he wheeled round with astonishing quickness, getting at once into full speed, and
bore straight down upon us. The bamboos by which we were partly hidden were
useless as cover, and would have prevented a clear shot, so I stepped out into open
ground the instant the elephant commenced his charge. I gave a shout in the
hope of stopping him, which failed. I had my No. 4 double smooth-bore loaded
with ten drams in hand. I fired when the elephant was about nine paces distant,
aiming into his curled trunk about one foot below the fatal bump between the
eyes, as his head was held very high, and this allowance had to be made for its
elevation. I felt confident of the shot, but made a grand mistake in not giving
him both barrels ; it was useless to reserve the left as I did at such close quarters,
and I deserved more than what followed for doing so. The smoke from the ten
drams obscured the elephant, and I stooped quickly to see where he lay. Good
heavens ! he had not been even checked, and was upon me ! There was no time
to step right or left. His tusks came through the smoke (his head being now held
low) like the cow-catchers of a locomotive, and I had just time to fall flat to avoid
being hurled along in front of him. I fell a little to the right ; the next instant
down came his ponderous fore-foot within a few inches of my left thigh, and I
should have been trodden on had I not been quick enough, when I saw the fore-
foot coming, to draw my leg from the sprawling position in which I fell. As the
elephant rushed over me he shrieked shrilly, which showed that his trunk was
uncoiled; and his head also being held low instead of in charging position, I
inferred rightly that he was in full flight. Had he stopped I should have been .
caught, but the heavy bullet had taken all the fighting out of him. Jafler had
been disposed of by a recoiling bamboo, and was now lying almost in the elephant's
line ; fortunately, however, the brute held on. I was covered with blood from the
wound inflicted by his late antagonist in his left side ; even my hair was matted
together when the blood became dry. The mahout had jumped into the deep and
precipitous nalla to our left at the commencement of hostilities."
Since the elephant in India will not breed to any appreciable
extent in captivity, the stock has to be continually replenished by the
capture of wild individuals. The methods in vogue are, by driving into keddas, or
enclosures ; by hunting with trained females ; by means of pitfalls ; and by noosing
from the backs of specially-trained tame animals. Of these, the first only is
employed for the capture of whole herds.
A kedda-party in Bengal comprises three hundred and seventy men, who go
out during the winter prepared for a sojourn of two or three months in the jungle.
When a herd is discovered, the party divide and go off in opposite directions so as
to surround it, leaving two of their number at distances of about every fifty yards,
or rather more. When complete, the circle should have a circumference of six or
eight miles ; and when once found, it must be the fault of the men if the herd is
not captured. A light fence of split bamboo is rapidly formed round the ring, as
are likewise shelters for the men ; and the animals are kept in by firing shots by
day and by lighting bonfires at night. After the first two days, however, if the
ring be sufficiently large and contain plenty of cover, the elephants give but little
54°
UNGULATES.
trouble. In the middle of the circle the construction of the kedda is then pushed
on apace. This is built in a secluded spot, and is formed of massive posts of about
twelve feet high, supported by props, and arranged in a circle of from twenty to
fifty yards in diameter, with an entrance of about four yards in width. From the
entrance proceed two diverging lines of palisades, which at their terminations, a
hundred yards or so from the gate, are about fifty yards asunder. When all the
arrangements are complete, the herd is driven down the funnel-shaped entrance,
and when within the kedda itself imprisoned by dropping a kind of portcullis at
the gate. After a time the process of securing the various members of the herd
commences ; for which purpose tame elephants, each carrying a mahout on its neck
and a rope-tier behind are employed. These tame elephants separate the wild ones
INDIAN ELEPHANT KNEELING.
from their companions one by one, when the hind-legs of the captives are tied
together with ropes. Each captive then has a rope placed round its neck, and
another round one hind-leg • after which it is led out and secured to a tree in the
neighbouring forest, where it remains until sufficiently tamed to undergo further
treatment.
As the finest tuskers are seldom caught in the keddas, another plan is adopted
for their capture. A party of four or five trained female elephants, with their
mahouts (who partially conceal themselves under blankets), proceed to the resorts
of a solitary wild tusker ; and gradually approach him by grazing in an uncon-
cerned manner, unless the male saves them this trouble by coming up of his own
accord. Having established an acquaintance, the females remain constantly with
the male until he is thoroughly tired out and in need of sleep, which may not take
place for two or three days ; during which time the mahouts have been relieved
ELEPHANTS. 541
one by one by relays. When the wild tusker is sound asleep, the females close up
around him, upon which two of the mahouts slip off, and tie his hind-legs securely
together. Sometimes this is all that is then done, but in other cases he is made
fast to a tree. When awakened, the male, if tied to a tree, makes every effort to
escape, but in vain ; while, when his legs are merely hobbled, he makes off in the
best way he can. In the latter case he is followed by the females until exhausted,
when he is made fast to a neighbouring tree. The efforts made by elephants thus
caught to escape from their trammels, frequently produce such injuries as to result
in the death of a large percentage of the number.
The pitfall mode is chiefly or entirely employed by natives, and
is a barbarous one, owing to the frequency with which the bones of
the animals are broken or dislocated in the fall. To obviate this a bar is usually
fixed across the middle of the pit, which, although itself broken, somewhat mitigates
the shock of the fall. The pits are about fifteen feet in depth, by ten and a half in
length, and seven and a half in width ; this relatively small area being intended to
hinder the animal from digging his way out with his tusks. It is remarkable that
an animal which displays such caution in venturing over bridges and other artificial
structures as does the Indian elephant, should so readily fall into these pits.
The fourth method of capture employed in India is by far the
most exciting, and is in fact a simple chase. Three or four fast tame
elephants, each carrying a mahout on its neck, a nooser kneeling on a small pad on
the back, and a driver near the tail, are fitted with a girth round the body, attached
to which is a rope with a running noose. When the wild elephants are approached,
they make off at their topmost speed, closely followed by the tame ones. Two of
the tame elephants select a single wild animal, and urged to their utmost speed by
the blows of a spiked mallet wielded by the drivers behind, perhaps eventually
come alongside of it. When this takes place, the nooses are thrown, and generally
encircle the victim by the neck. The tame elephants are then checked, but if this is
done too suddenly the captive may be choked ; indeed, the whole party are liable
to injury from being dragged down ravines or other precipitous places ; and the
work is at all times very harassing to the tame animals employed. This method,
which is only employed in Bengal and Nipal, has the further disadvantage that
only the less fleet, and therefore inferior, animals can be captured by its means.
In Ceylon wild elephants are noosed by a couple of hunters on
foot, who with marvellous skill encircle the hind-legs of an animal
running away from them, and make fast the end of the trailing rope to a tree.
An immature female elephant is worth about £150 (we presume
counting the rupee at its nominal value of two shillings), while good
working females will fetch from £200 to £300. Tuskers are, however, far more
valuable, ranging from £800 to £1500 or £1600, or even more if all their " points "
be perfect.
Uses of The domesticated elephant is largely employed in India for the
Elephants, transport of heavy camp-equipage, for dragging timber to the rivers,
and in lieu of horses for artillery ; and is of especial value in traversing districts
where roads are either wanting, or are so bad as to be impassable for other animals
when laden. Elephants may be employed either as beasts of burden or of draught ;
542
UNGULATES.
and in the former case their loads should not exceed half a ton for continuous
marching, while in hilly districts they should be reduced to about 7 cwt.
In dragging timber of moderate dimensions, a short rope is attached to
one end of each log, which the elephant seizes between his teeth, and thus raising
his burden from the ground, half carries and half drags it away. Tuskers are
both stronger and more useful than females, since their tusks often aid them in the
performance of their duties.
The majority of the animals employed in tasks like the above, belong to what
ELEPHANT STACKING TIMBER.
the natives term the inferior castes ; tuskers of the finest and most approved form
being far too expensive to be put to such uses. The majority of such animals are,
indeed, purchased by the native princes, by whom they are used in state pageants,
and the taller the animal, the greater his value.
By the sportsman the elephant, as we have already had occasion to mention,
is extensively employed in tiger-shooting ; and, indeed, in many districts this sport
can only be enjoyed by the aid of these animals. For sporting purposes, the
elephant carries a howda, which should be so constructed as to combine lightness
with strength, and to allow of the occupant firing from it with equal ease in any
direction. One of the most remarkable features connected with the taming of the
Indian elephant, is the extent to which its natural timidity in presence of its
dreaded enemy the tiger may be overcome by means of careful training. To enter
ELEPHANTS. 543
into any particulars with regard to the mode of employment of elephants in tiger-
hunting, would, however, be entirely beyond the scope of a work on Natural
History.
As being extremely closely allied to the living Indian species,
the extinct elephant of the Pleistocene deposits of Europe and
Northern Asia, commonly known as the mammoth (E. primigenius), may be
conveniently noticed in this place. So close, indeed, is the relationship between
the mammoth and the Indian elephant, that it may be a great question whether
they are anything more than varieties of one single species, specially modified for
the climates of their respective habitats. It is true that the tusks of the mammoth
are much more curved upwards than are those of the Indian elephant, and assume
a spiral curvature; while the plates of the molar teeth are narrower and more
numerous. These, however, are differences which scarcely constitute more than a
well-marked variety ; and it is noteworthy that when we reach the warmer regions
of Asia Minor, the place of the mammoth was taken during the Pleistocene period
by an allied species known as the Armenian elephant (E. armeniacus), which had
molar teeth intermediate between those of the former and those of the living
Indian elephant. In Siberia, where its carcases have been found preserved in the
frozen soil, the body of the mammoth was covered with a thick coat of brownish
woolly fur, among which were a number of longer bristly black hail's ; but it is
by no means certain that the animal was thus protected from cold in the more
southern and warmer portions of its habitat. Apart, however, from this, the
discovery alluded to on p. 529, that the Indian elephant retains traces of a woolly
covering similar to that of the mammoth, shows that in this respect there is no
essential difference between the two forms ; and indicates that the development or
loss of the hairy coat was entirely due to climatic conditions.
The mammoth is found in great abundance in Siberia, its remains becoming
more numerous the further north we proceed. In Northern Europe, with the
exception of the district to the East of the White Sea, it is, however, rare or
unknown ; none of its remains having been discovered in Norway, and but few in
Denmark and Sweden. Although rare in Scotland and Ireland, mammoth-remains
are extremely common over the greater part of England, and a large area of
Central Europe. They abound in France and Germany, and in Italy extend as far
south as Home, but according to Sir H. H. Howorth are unknown southward of
the Pyrenees. Great numbers are dredged from the Dogger Bank in the North
Sea. From Eastern Asia the mammoth travelled across what is now Behring
Strait into Alaska ; but in the United States, and extending as far south as Texas
and Mexico, the place of the mammoth was taken by a closely-allied species or
variety, known as the Columbian elephant (E. columbi).
That the mammoth lived in Siberia in the area where its frozen remains are
found, may be considered certain ; and there is considerable evidence to indicate
that the climate of these regions was far less inclement than it is at present.
This, however, only renders it the more difficult to account for the manner in which
its remains were— as they must have been — frozen up in the soil immediately after
death. Sir H. Howorth calls in the aid of a sudden cataclysmic change from heat
to extreme cold : but it is somewhat difficult to accept such a theory. However,
544 UNGULATES.
without some such explanation, the mode of entombment remains a complete
puzzle. In Europe the mammoth seems to have made its first appearance before
the great cold of the glacial period ; a fact, which so far as it goes, is in favour of
Sir H. Howorth's view, as tending to show that the creature never inhabited a very
cold climate.
Numerous finds of frozen carcases of mammoths in the soil of Siberia have
been recorded ; but it may be pretty safely asserted, that these form only a small
proportion of those which have been brought to light by the action of the weather
during the historic period. Of the recorded examples, almost the earliest is one
found on the river Alasega in the year 1787 ; and somewhere about the same time
another appears to have been discovered at the mouth of the Lena ; while a third
occurred in 1805 on the shores of the Polar Sea. The most celebrated of the earlier
finds is, however, the one recorded by the naturalist Adams, in 1806, which had
been disclosed by the gradual melting of the ice on a peninsula at the mouth of
the Lena. The first indication of this carcase was noticed by a native in the year
1799, who observed a hummocky mass in the ice, which melted in the summer of
1801 sufficiently to show one tusk and the side of the monster. The carcase was
then entire, showing the eyes and trunk well preserved, and the thick coat of wool
and hair clothing the skin. During the cold summer of 1802 the ice melted little,
but in the following year the carcase slid down on to a sandbank ; and in 1804 a
native hacked out and carried off both tusks. It was not till two years later, that
Adams arrived on the scene ; by which time the dogs of the yakuts had consumed
nearly all the flesh, while one limb had been removed bodily. The rest of the
skeleton, together with a large amount of hair, were, however, taken to St. Peters-
burg, where they are now preserved.
Another mammoth-mummy was discovered in 1840 on a tributary of the
Yenisei, and its skeleton taken to the Museum at Moscow. Some long stiff hair,
of a reddish colour, found with this specimen, probably belonged to the mane ; the
existence of such a mane having been proved by the rough sketches made by the
yakuts of Adams's specimen. A half-grown mammoth, with part of the skin
remaining, was discovered in 1843 near the river Taimyr, only a comparatively short
distance from the Polar Sea, in 1843. Some time between 1840 and 1850, a well-
preserved carcase was discovered in the circle of Yakutsk, on the banks of the
river Kolyma. It had a long mane, extending from the head to the tail; and
fragments of twigs, on which the animal had been browsing shortly before its
death, were found between its teeth.
Between 1860 and 1862 the yakuts discovered another frozen carcase on a
tributary of the Lena ; and an expedition from St. Petersburg, which unfortunately
arrived too late, was despatched to secure the prize. The summer 1867 revealed
another of these frozen carcases, this time near the Polar Sea in the neighbourhood
of the River Alasega, and some distance beyond the northern limit of trees. About
the same time news arrived of the discovery of a mammoth on the river Kolyma ;
while a third was discovered in 1870 near the Alasega.
These isolated finds of frozen carcases give no idea of the number of mammoths
that inhabited Siberia at a time when its climate must apparently have been far
less rigorous than at present ; and in order to obtain some adequate conception on
X
CL
LJ
_J
LU
o
or
this poii:
that iii i
imp.
class ivor
rnal form, I
Tli,
'
more convex in
forehead, th
the
processes
nail^
but
appear to be
worn (as ^lunvn is
area of i\
the first mol;i
the fifth
Dimensions.
i
-^^
THE HAUNT OF THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT,
ELEPHANTS.
549
certain seasons of the year to an elevation of nine thousand or ten thousand feet
among the damp forests clothing the sides of the mountain ; while they are found
at heights of from seven thousand to eight thousand feet above the sea-level in
the Abyssinian highlands.
H wta ^ observers seem to agree that the African elephant is a more
powerful and more active animal than its Asiatic cousin, displaying
marvellous capacities for getting over precipitous and rocky ground, and being
altogether more rapid in its movements. Moreover, most writers consider its
disposition is decidedly fiercer than that of the other species.
Although there is probably some local difference in this respect, the African
elephant, according to Sir Samuel Baker, is far less intolerant of intense solar
heat than the Indian species ; and in the Sudan these animals may frequently be
observed " enjoying themselves in the burning sun in the hottest hours of the day,
among plains of withered grass, many miles from a jungle."
The difference in the structure of their molar teeth would of itself be an
indication of a marked distinction in the diet of the two species ; and from what
we know in the analogous instance of the two African species of rhinoceros it
would be inferred that the nutriment of the African elephant is composed of
coarser and harder substances than those eaten by the Indian species. This
inference appears to be supported by the results of observation. Thus, in parts of
South Africa, Livingstone states that great numbers of trees may be seen " broken
off by elephants a foot or two from the ground, in order that they may feed on
the tender shoots at the tops ; the trees thus seem pollarded from that point. In
spite of this practice, the elephant never seriously lessens the number of trees ;
indeed, I have often been struck by the very little damage he does in a forest.
His food consists for the most part of bulbs, tubers, roots, and branches; the
natives in the interior believe that he never touches grass ; and the only instance
I saw of his having grazed was near Teti, when the grass was in seed, and when
he might have been attracted by the farinaceous matter, which exists in such
quantities in the seed that the natives collect it for their own food." In another
passage the great explorer states that the African elephant "is a most dainty
feeder, and particularly fond of certain sweet-tasted trees and fruits, such as the
mohonono [a tree said to resemble the cedar in appearance], the mimosa, and
others, which contain much saccharine matter, mucilage, and gum. He may be
seen putting his head to a lofty palmyra, and swaying it to and fro to shake off
the seeds; he then picks them up singly and eats them. Or he may be seen
standing by the masuka and other fruit-trees, patiently picking off the sweet
fruits one by one. The selection of these kinds of food accounts for the fact that
herds of elephants produce but small effect on the vegetation of a country — quality
being more requisite to them than quantity."
From his experience in the Sudan, Sir Samuel Baker observes that "the
African elephant is a more decided tree-feeder than the Indian, and the destruction
committed by a large herd of such animals when feeding in a mimosa-forest is
extraordinary ; they deliberately march forward, and uproot or break down every
tree that excites their appetite. The mimosas are generally from 16 to 20 feet
high, and, having no tap-root, they are easily overturned by the tusks of the
55o UNGULATES.
elephants, which are driven like crowbars beneath the roots, and used as levers,
in which rough labour they are frequently broken. Upon the overthrow of a tree,
the elephants eat the roots and leaves, and strip the bark from the branches by
grasping them with their rough trunks." In another passage the same writer
expresses his belief that two elephants may sometimes unite their strength in
order to overthrow a tree of more than ordinary size. The discrepancy in the two
foregoing accounts as to the amount of damage inflicted by elephants in a forest,
may be accounted for by the circumstance that while in the one district their food
consists largely of twigs and fruits, in the other it is mainly composed of bark and
roots. In South-Eastern Africa Mr. Selous bears testimony to the digging habits
of the elephant, stating that he has seen large areas of sandy soil ploughed up by
the tusks of these animals in their search for roots.
In digging, as already incidentally mentioned, it appears that the elephant
always uses one particular tusk, which, in consequence, is much more worn than
the other. According to Sir S. Baker, it is nearly always the right tusk which is
selected for this duty ; and the one so used is termed by the Sudanis the hadam,
or servant. A curious question arises whether this preferential use of the right
tusk has any connection with our own right-handedness.
In Southern Africa, at least, elephants drink almost every night, but only
rarely during the day. In that part of the continent they seek the deepest shades
of the forest during the heat of the day, and generally appear to sleep in a standing
posture.
The African elephant associates in herds of varying size, which appear to be
generally family parties ; but the old bulls may be solitary, in pairs, or in small
parties, and keep apart from the larger herds, which usually consist of young
males, females, and calves. One of the largest herds seen by Mr. Selous was
estimated to contain from one hundred to two hundred head, but such assemblages
are rare. In many parts of Africa, including Abyssinia, Kilima-Njaro, and the
Sudan, elephants undertake periodical migrations, apparently necessitated by the
supply of food, or induced by the ripening of certain kinds of fruit in particular
districts. At such times it appears that the old bulls rejoin the herds to which they
belong. Once, and once only, Sir S. Baker had the opportunity of witnessing
such a migration, which he describes as follows : — " We were marching through an
uninhabited country for about thirty miles, and, in the midst of beautiful park-like
scenery, we came upon the magnificent sight of vast herds of elephants.
" These were scattered about the country in parties varying in number from
ten to one hundred, while single bulls dotted the landscape with their magnificent
forms in all directions. In some places there were herds of twenty or thirty,
entirely composed of large tuskers ; in other spots were parties of females with
young ones interspersed, of varying growth ; and this grand display of elephantine
life continued for at least two miles in length as we rode parallel with the groups
at about a quarter of a mile distant. It would have been impossible to guess the
number, as there was no regularity in their arrangement, neither could I form any
idea of the breadth of the area that was occupied."
In describing his first view of the largest company of elephants he ever
encountered, Oswell writes that " as I got clear of the bush I came upon at least
ELEPHANTS. 551
four hundred elephants standing drowsily in the shade of the detached clumps of
mimosa-trees. Such a sight I had never seen before, and never saw again. As
far as the eye could reach, in a fairly open country, there was nothing but
elephants. I do not mean in joined masses, but in small separate groups. Lying
on the pony's neck, I wormed in and out, looking for the bulls whose ' spoor ' we
had been following, and while doing so was charged by a very tall, long-legged,
ugly beast, who would take no denial, and I was obliged to kill him."
p It has already been stated that the maximum pace of the Indian
elephant is estimated at about fifteen miles an hour; but this can
only be maintained for a couple of hundred yards or so, after which the rate
sinks to eight or six miles an hour. On the other hand, Sir Samuel Baker is of
opinion that the African elephant might be able to maintain the maximum pace of
fifteen miles an hour for a hundred yards longer than its Asiatic cousin, and that
it would settle down to a pace of ten miles an hour, which could be kept up for at
least that period of time. The relatively longer limbs and stride of the African
species fully bear out this view as to its speedier movements.
The sense of scent appears to be very strongly developed in this
species, inasmuch as it can discover the presence of a human being at
an immense distance when the wind is favourable. As soon as an elephant scents
a man, it starts oft' at once at a rapid pace, which will be maintained sometimes for
hours; and since in most parts of Africa the wind is constantly veering, this
constitutes one of the great difficulties in elephant-stalking. On the other hand,
the sight of these animals is most defective ; and it does not appear that their
hearing is particularly good. On account of these deficiencies, it is possible to
approach a wild African elephant from the leeward to within a very short distance ;
and we have been informed, on good authority, that a hunter once wagered that he
would write his initials on the hind-quarters of one of these animals while alive,
and that he actually succeeded in doing so.
It is somewhat curious that the natives of Africa display no
aptitude for the domestication of the wild animals of their country,
in which respect they stand in marked contrast to the Malays and other Eastern
nations. In the later ages of Rome, as shown on coins, the African elephant was
tamed and exhibited in the arena ; and these animals are commonly stated to have
been employed by the Carthaginians in the Punic wars (B.C. 264-216), no less than
thirty- seven of them accompanying Hannibal's army across the Alps. On this
point, however, Oswell writes as follows: — "I believe some people suppose the
Carthaginians tamed and used the African elephants ; they could hardly have had
mahouts, Indian fashion, for there is no marked depression in the nape of the neck
for a seat, and the hemming of the ears, when erected, would have half smothered
them. My knowledge does not allow me to raise any argument on this point ; but
might not the same market have been open to the dwellers at Carthage, as was
afterwards to Mithridates, who, I suppose, drew his supply from India, where they
have been broken and made to do man's work from time immemorial." In a note
he adds that " I know in the representations on the medals of Faustina and of
Septimius Severus the ears are African, though the bodies and heads are Indian ;
but these were struck nearly four hundred years after Carthaginian times, when
552 UNGULATES.
the whole known world had been ransacked by the Romans for beasts for their
public shows; and I still think it possible that the Carthaginians — the great
traders and colonisers of old — may have obtained elephants, through some of these
colonies, from India." From the disposition of " Jumbo," it may be inferred that
the species could be as easily tamed, and would prove as docile as the Indian
elephant ; but there is the difficulty that the natives of Africa probably could not
be trained to act as efficient drivers, and without a dependable native attendant
the best elephant would be worse than useless.
The general testimony of those who have had experience of both
the African and the Indian elephant points to the conclusion that the
former is the more dangerous animal of the two, and the one that is more ready
to charge. The females, especially those that are barren and have small tusks, are
said to be far more dangerous than males, frequently charging without the least
provocation, even when unwounded ; and it is stated that hunters will sometimes
take the trouble to kill one of these worthless females before attacking the tuskers.
Indeed, Mr. W. H. Drummond is of opinion that the greater number of accidents
that have occurred in African elephant-shooting may be set down to females.
From the testimony of Gordon Gumming, supported by that of the writer last
quoted, it would appear that the African elephant, unlike its Indian cousin, charges
with its trunk uplifted, and loudly trumpeting.
Previous to the introduction of firearms, it appears that in South
and South-Eastern Africa, at any rate, the natives but seldom attacked
the elephant, and effected little, if any, diminution in its numbers. Occasionally,
as narrated by Livingstone, they attacked the unfortunate animal with assegais,
and gradually harried it to death from the loss of blood caused by hundreds of
weapons. In other cases poisoned arrows were the weapons used. A more general
method is that of digging pits in the paths frequented by the elephants on their
way to water. These pits, according to Sir S. Baker, are usually twelve or fourteen
feet in depth, and are covered with light wood and branches or reeds, upon which
a thin covering of grass is spread. In some cases Sir Samuel states that several
individuals out of a herd may be captured in this manner in Central Africa ; the
animals being put to death, when thus helpless, with spears. In the Kilima-Njaro
district, however, the pit system, according to Mr. Hunter, does not appear to be
very successful.
During the dry season, when the grass of ten or fourteen feet in
height is as inflammable as tinder, the natives of Central Africa have
a cruel way of killing elephants by forming a circle of fire round a herd. As the
fiery circle, which may be a couple of miles in diameter, gradually contracts, the
elephants (to quote from Sir S. Baker's graphic description) " at first attempt to
retreat, until they become assured of their hopeless position ; they at length become
desperate, being maddened by fear, and panic-stricken by the wild shouts of the
thousands who have surrounded them. At length, half-suft'ocated by the dense
smoke, and terrified by the close approach of the roaring flames, the unfortunate
animals charge recklessly through the fire, burnt and blinded, to be ruthlessly
speared by the bloodthirsty crowd awaiting this last stampede." As many as a
hundred, or even more, may be, it is said, killed by this method on a single occasion.
ELEPHANTS. 553
Hamstringing. The intrePid Hamram Arabs of the Sudan slay the elephant in
the same manner as the rhinoceros, by hamstringing it with a long
two-edged sword. Three or four mounted hunters, singling out a tusker and
separating it from its fellows, follow it until, tired out, the animal faces its pursuers,
and prepares to charge. Directly it does so, the hunter who is the object of the
charge puts his horse to a gallop, and is closely followed by the elephant. There-
upon, two of his companions follow at their best pace behind ; and as soon as they
come up with the fleeing animal, one seizes the reins of the horse of his fellow,
who immediately leaps to the ground, and with one blow of his huge sword
divides the tendon of the elephant's leg a short distance above the heel. The
ponderous beast is at once brought to a standstill, and is at the mercy of its
aggressors.
A somewhat similar method, according to Mr. Selous, was formerly practised
in Mashonaland, only there the hunters went on foot, and their weapon was a
broad-bladed axe ; with this they crept up behind a sleeping elephant, and severed
the back tendon of the leg in the same manner as above.
weighted s ears Other tribes in the same district employ a heavily- weigh ted
spear, which is plunged into the animal's back by a hunter seated on
a bough overhanging one of the most frequented pathways. On receiving the
weapon, the elephant of course immediately rushes off, and the weight of the spear,
aided by blows from boughs, soon so enlarges the wound, that the animal quickly
sinks to the ground, exhausted from loss of blood. In other districts, as in parts
of Equatoria, the weighted spear is suspended from a horizontal bar fixed between
two tiers or poles. The spear or knife, according to Major Casati's description, is
kept in position "by a cord, which is held down by a stake that is directed
horizontally towards the middle of the trap ; and by another which, at a convenient
angle, is interposed between this and the end. The animal, striking with his feet,
loosens the contrivance, which then falls violently ; the knife wounds the animal
with singular exactness in the spot where the brain unites with the nape of the
neck. The blow falls like a thunder-clap ; and if the trap is well made, the elephant
struggles and dies."
The European sportsman kills the African elephant either by
By Europeans. x
lying in wait at one of its drinking-places, or by attacking it in the
open, either on foot or on horseback. At the present day, however, most or all
of the elephants remaining in South-Eastern Africa are restricted to districts
infested by the tsetsi fly, where horses cannot exist, and the pursuit must conse-
quently be undertaken on foot. Owing to the conformation of its skull, the front-
shot, so frequently employed in the case of the Indian elephant, is ineffectual with
the African species, and there are but two spots where a bullet may be expected to
prove fatal ; one of these being in the head behind the eye, and the other in the
shoulder immediately behind the flap of the ear.
Stories of hairbreadth escapes from charges of the African elephant may be
reckoned by the score, but we cannot refrain from quoting one narrated by Mr.
Selous. That gentleman had wounded a female elephant at a time when his horse
was thoroughly knocked up. On a sudden the beast turned to charge, before there
was time to get a fair start. " Digging the spurs into my horse's ribs," writes the
554 UNGULATES.
narrator, " I did my best to get him away, but he was so thoroughly done that,
instead of springing forwards, which was what the emergency required, he only
started at a walk, and was just breaking into a canter when the elephant was
upon us. I heard two short sharp screams above my head, and had just time to
think it was all over with me, when, horse and all, I was dashed to the ground.
For a few seconds I was half stunned by the violence of the shock, and the first
thing I became aware of was a very strong smell of elephant. At the same instant
I felt that I was still unhurt, and that, though in an unpleasant predicament, I
had still a chance for life. I was, however, pressed down on the ground in such a
way that I could not extricate my head. At last, with a violent effort, I wrenched
myself loose, and threw my body over sideways so that I rested on my hands. As
I did so I saw the hind-legs of the elephant standing like two pillars before me,
and at once grasped the situation. She was on her knees, with her head and tusks
in the ground, and I had been pressed down under her chest, but luckily behind
her fore-legs. Dragging myself from under her, I regained my feet, and made a
hasty retreat, having had rather more than enough of elephants for the time
being."
Although highly appreciated by the natives, the flesh of the
African elephant is coarse and rank in the extreme ; portions of the
trunk, although tough, are however said to be fairly good. Baked elephant's foot,
cooked in the skin, and scooped out like a Stilton cheese, was formerly considered
a dainty, but most of those who have tasted it of late years express their dis-
approval.
EXTINCT ELEPHANTS.
In addition to the mammoth, there are a number of other extinct elephants
more or less closely allied to the living species, together with others of a totally
different type. The whole of these are confined to Europe, Asia, and North
Africa; the only American species being the Columbian elephant alluded to
above.
Sutiedje The earliest of the species allied to the living Indian one is the
Elephant. Sutiedje elephant (E. hysudricus) from the Pliocene rocks of the
Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya. This species had the plates of
the molar teeth very thin, but less tall and less numerous than in the Indian
elephant. Its skull resembled that of the latter ; and it is quite possible that in
this species we may have the ancestor of both the Indian elephant and the
mammoth.
The Narbada The Pleistocene deposits of the Narbada Valley in India yield
Elephant, the remains of a very large elephant (E. namadicus), which takes its
name from the locality in question. In the structure of its molar teeth, one of
which is represented on p. 528, this species connects the Indian elephant with
the one following. It is characterised by its very short skull, which has an
enormous ridge running transversely across the forehead, and some of the bones of
this species appear to indicate animals of 13 or 14 feet in height, since they are
vastly longer than those of the Calcutta skeleton of the Indian elephant mentioned
on p. 529. This species ranged eastwards into Japan.
ELEPHANTS. 555
straight-Tusked The straight-tusked elephant (E. antiquus) from the Pleistocene
Elephant, deposits of Europe, differs from the mammoth by its smaller and
comparatively straight tusks, and the fewer and wider plates in the molar teeth,
of which the crowns are generally narrow. Indeed, some of these teeth come so
close to those of the African elephant as to indicate the near relationship between
that species and the fossil one. The straight-tusked elephant ranged from
Yorkshire to Algeria.
We are so accustomed to regard elephants as the giants of
Pigmy Elephants.
creation, that it is at first difficult to believe in the existence of a
species not exceeding 3 feet in height. Yet pigmy elephants (E. mnaidriensis
and E. melitensis), of which the smallest is considered to have reached only
those diminutive proportions, were abundant in Malta and some of the neigh-
bouring islands during the Pleistocene period ; their remains occurring in the
caverns and the rock-fissures. These elephants, many of which were not larger
than a donkey, appear to have been closely related to the living African species,
and were doubtless dwarfed in size from the small area of the 'islands they
inhabited.
southern The southern elephant (E. meridionalis), from the upper
Elephant. Pliocene rocks of Italy and France, and also found in the forest-
bed on the coast of Norfolk, and at Dewlish in Dorsetshire, was the largest of all
the European species, its height at the shoulder having been estimated at upwards
of 15 feet. The molar teeth of this giant have very wide crowns, with the plates
very broad and widely separated from one another, and somewhat less numerous
than in the African species. The flat-headed elephant (E. planifrons) from the
Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills, was an allied Indian species, distinguished
from all the other true elephants by the circumstance that two of the milk-molar
teeth were vertically replaced by premolars ; this elephant thus having eight more
teeth than any other species, and thereby showing evident traces of closer kinship
with the mastodons.
stegodont The so-called stegodont elephants (so named from the roof-like
Elephants, form assumed by the ridges of their molar teeth) of India and other
parts of South-Eastern Asia, form an exceedingly interesting group, which almost
completely connects the true elephants with the under-mentioned mastodons.
A molar tooth of one of the species of this group is represented on p. 526 ; this
tooth, as already mentioned, being characterised by the small number of its ridges
(in this instance six), which are very low and wide, with the shallow intervening
valleys devoid of cement. In other species of the group the ridges were, however,
somewhat more numerous and more elevated, while the valleys were partially
filled with cement ; and these serve to connect the figured Cliffs elephant with
species like the southern elephant. It will be observed that the tooth of Cliffs
elephant, represented on p. 526, agrees with existing species in having the
transverse ridges undivided by any distinct longitudinal cleft. One of the
stegodont elephants (E. ganesa) is remarkable for the enormous size of its tusks,
those in a skull from the Siwalik Hills, preserved in the British Museum, measuring
upwards of 12 feet 9 inches in length, with a maximum girth of 26 inches.
Representatives of this group also occur in China, Japan, and Java.
556
UNGULATES.
THE MASTODONS.
Genus Mastodon.
The above-mentioned stegodont elephants so closely connect the genus Elephas
with the extinct animals known as mastodons, that the division between the two
genera is a somewhat arbitrary one. It is noteworthy that the species of mastodon
most nearly related to the stegodont elephants are found in the same regions as
THE LAST LEFT UPPER MOLAR TEETH OP TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN MASTODONS.
The upper figure (§ nat. size) belongs to M. latidens ; and the lower (J nat. size) to M.
cautleyi. In the specimen represented in the upper figure the first two ridges are
partially worn, while in the lower one they are intact.
the latter, from which we may infer that the evolution of the elephants from the
mastodons took place in South-Eastern Asia.
Mastodons are distinguished by their molar teeth, as shown in the accompanying
figure and the one on p. 557, having comparatively few transverse ridges, which
are low, and more or less completely divided by a longitudinal cleft into inner and
outer columns. These ridges are separated by valleys in which there is little or
no cement ; and when worn down by use they exhibit more or less trefoil-shaped
surfaces of ivory, quite different from the elongated ellipses formed in those of the
ELEPHANTS.
557
true elephants. In the third, fourth, and fifth molar teeth of the stegodont
elephants, the number of transverse ridges is usually more than six, but in the
mastodons it is generally either four (as shown in the figure below) or three, although
occasionally there may be as many as five. Moreover, the sixth or last molar gener-
ally has only four or five such ridges, in place of from nine to eleven found in the
stegodont elephants. In all these respects the mastodons exhibit a less specialised
type of structure than that existing in the elephants, and thereby approximate to
ordinary Ungulates. This simpler dental structure is further evidenced by the
TWO SPECIMENS OF MOLAR TEETH OF INDIAN MASTODONS (nat size).
Both teeth are unworn ; and while the upper belongs to M. cautleyi, the lower
belongs to M. perimensis.
circumstance that portions of three molar teeth may be in use at the same time,
whereas in elephants only two such teeth are ever present contemporaneously on
one side of the jaw. Then, again, nearly all the mastodons had premolar teeth
vertically replacing their milk-molars, in the same manner as in other Ungulates.
Another peculiarity of some, although by no means all mastodons, is the
presence of a pair of larger or smaller tusks in the lower as well as in the upper
jaw ; the extremity of the lower jaw in such species being prolonged into a spout-
like projection.
S5S UNGULATES.
There are a larger number of species of mastodon, ranging over a great part
of Europe, South-Eastern Asia, and the whole of America ; the earliest representa-
tives of the group occurring in Europe in the middle division of the Miocene
period. And it is noteworthy that all these earlier species had but three transverse
ridges in the third, fourth, and fifth molar teeth, thus approximating the closest to
other Ungulates.
One of the best known species is the North American mastodon (Mastodon
americanus), of which teeth and bones, and sometimes entire skeletons, are found
in enormous quantities in the peat and lacustrine deposits of Ohio and Missouri.
This animal had enormous tusks in the upper jaw, but either none or mere
rudiments in the lower jaw : and its molar teeth, with the exception of the last,
had only three ridges, in which the longitudinal cleft was but slightly marked.
Some of the teeth are so fresh-looking as to appear almost like those of recent
elephants, and it seems that this mastodon lived on till within the human period.
In height the skeleton stood about 12 feet at the shoulder.
In the Old World mastodons disappeared at an earlier date, none being
known to have survived the close of the Pliocene period. Remains of several
species occur in the Miocene and Pliocene deposits of the Continent, while
detached teeth are occasionally found in the shelly deposits on the coast
of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk, locally known as crags. In Northern India
there were an extraordinary number of species of these animals: and among
these the broad-toothed mastodon (M. latidens), ranging from India through
Burma to Borneo, is the one approaching most closely to the elephants. In some
of these Indian mastodons, as in one of those from the English crags, the inner
and outer columns of the ridges of the molar teeth are completely separated from
one another, and are arranged somewhat alternately ; and from the nipple-like
form assumed by these columns in the species in question, the generic name of
Mastodon takes its origin.
THE DIXOTHERE.
Family DlNOTHERIID^
A remarkable animal known as the dinothere (Itinotherium giganteum), the
remains of which are found in the Miocene and Pliocene rocks of Europe and India,
presents us with the most generalised type of Proboscidian yet known. In this
animal, which must have been fully as large as an elephant, there appear to have
been no upper tusks, but the extremity of the lower jaw was sharply bent down.
and terminated in a pair of very massive and somewhat curved tusks. As in t he-
elephants and mastodons, there were no canine teeth, and the cheek-teeth carried
transverse ridges. The whole of the permanent series of cheek-teeth were, how-
ever, in use at the same time, as in ordinary Ungulates, and their ridges were low
and simple, and either two or three in number. Very little else is known of the
skeleton of this strange animal, and there have been many conjectures as to the
use of the downwardly-curved lower tusks. Possibly the creature may have been
more or less aquatic in its habits, and have used these weapons to drag up water-
plants from the beds and bunks of lakes or rivers. On the other hand, it may
SHORT-FOOTED GROUP.
559
equally well have been purely terrestrial, and have used its tusks, after the manner
the African elephant, in turning up the soil in search of roots and tubers.
With this animal, an illustration of whose skull is given below, our present
knowledge of the Proboscidians and their ancestors comes to an abrupt termination.
THE SHORT-FOOTED UNGULATES.
SUBORDER Amblypoda.
There are several extinct groups of Ungulates differing so markedly from the
living forms that they cannot be included in any of the groups into which the
latter arc divided, and consequently
have to be classed in groups by
themselves.
The name of Short -footed
Ungulates is applied to one of these
groups which is confined to the
Eocene division of the Tertiary
period, and is more developed in
the United States than in Europe.
It is represented in both con-
tinents by the coryphodons of the
lower and middle Eocene beds, and
in America by the uintatheres of
the upper Eocene. In these animals
the feet, as shown in the figure on
p. 152, were very short, and were
each provided with five toes, the
mode of walking being partly
plantigrade. The molar teeth were
of the type as shown in figure on
the next page, having short crowns
and the ridges arranged in a
V-shape in those of the upper jaw. The two bones in the fore-arm, as well an
those in the lower leg, were quite distinct from one another.
The coryphodons were animals which may be compared in size to a bear, and
possessed the full typical number of forty-four teeth, with the tusks (canines) well
developed They had no horn-like processes to the skull In the fore-feet (see
p. 152) only the terminal bones of the toes touched the ground, but in the hind
ones the whole sole was applied to the ground, in the same manner as in a bear.
The American uintatheres, on the other hand, were much larger animals,
rivalling the Indian rhinoceros in bulk. Their skulls were provided with three
pairs of bony processes, which during life were probably covered with horn ; and
the upper tusks were developed into enormous sabre-like teeth, protected by a
descending flange on each side of the front of the lower jaw. There were no
incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and the first premolar tooth was wanting in both jaws,
56o UNGULATES
the total number of teeth being thirty-four. Both feet resembled the fore-feet of the
coryphodons in general structure, and the bones of the limbs approximate to those
of the elephants. The brain was marvellously small in proportion to the size of
the skull and body, indicating that these animals must have been of a stupid and
sluggish nature. The uintatheres are evidently a specialised development of the
coryphodon stock, which died out with the appearance of the former.
Professor Cope, who considered that the hind-feet of the coryphodon were of
the same type as the front pair, remarks that the movements of this animal
" doubtless resembled those of the elephant in its shuffling and ambling gait, and
may have been even more awkward from the inflexibility of the ankle. But in
compensation for the probable lack of speed, these animals were most formidably
armed with tusks. These weapons, particularly those of the upper jaw, were more
formidable than those of the Carnivora, and generally more robust." In length,
one of the American species was probably about 6 feet.
THE LEFT UPPER CHEEK-TEETH OF THE UINTATHERE (f nat. size). (From Marsh.)
Although the uintatheres have only been known to science for rather more
than twenty years, their skulls and bones long ago attracted the attention of the
wandering Indians, and such squatters and trappers whose business led them into
the district known as the "Bad Lands." On returning to civilisation, these
pioneers brought news of the skeletons of marvellous monsters staring at them
from the rockbound canons; and at length these attracted the attention of the
late Professor Leidy, to whom belongs the honour of having made known these
strange creatures to a wondering world. Describing • the region where these
remains occur, Professor Marsh writes that bare, treeless wastes of naked stone
rise here and there into terraced ledges and strange tower-like prominences, or
sink into hollows where the water gathers in salt or bitter pools. Under the
cloudless sky, and in the clear, dry atmosphere, the extraordinary colouring of the
rocks forms, perhaps, the most striking feature of the weird landscape.
THE MACRAUCHENIA AND ITS ALLIES.
SUBORDER Litopterna.
South America was the home of numerous extinct Ungulates, quite unlike
those found in any other part of the world, and which, while allied in some respects
to the Odd-toed group, appear to represent three distinct suborders. Among these,
MACRAUCHENIA AND ASTRAPOTHERE. 561
not the least remarkable was the so-called Macrauchenia, the typical representative
of the suborder Litopterna. The members of this group are characterised by having
cheek-teeth approximating in structure to those of the European palaeotheres
(p. 515), the upper molars having their outer wall divided into two distinct lobes.
Although the long toes were arranged in the same manner as in the Odd-toed
group of Ungulates, and were never more than three in number, the structure of
both the wrist and ankle-joints were different. Thus, in place of the component
bones of these joints alternating with one another, they were arranged directly one
above another, after the so-called linear type characterising the modern elephants
(see p. 528). The huckle-bone, or astragalus, of the ankle resembles that of the
Odd-toed group in being grooved superiorly; but the heel-bone, or calcaneum,
differed in having a small surface for the articulation of the fibula, or smaller bone
of the leg, as in the Even-toed group. The long vertebrae of the neck, although
showing the same flat terminal ends characterising the allied extinct South
American groups, are peculiar in regard to the position of the canal for the great
artery of the neck, and in this respect agree with the camels and llamas alone
among living Ungulates. The thigh-bone, or femur, has a small third trochanter
representing the larger one characteristic of the Odd-toed group. In build, the
members of the present group were tall, slender Ungulates, with long legs, feet,
and neck ; and thus very different in appearance from the under-mentioned
toxodonts, which were short-limbed, short-necked, and heavily-built creatures.
The Litopterna are divisible into two families, of which the first (Macrau-
cheniidce) is represented by the macrauchenia and certain allied forms, and is
characterised by the presence of forty-four teeth, forming an uninterrupted series
in the jaws. Macrauchenia itself, which was discovered by Darwin in the super-
ficial deposits of Patagonia, was an animal somewhat larger than a horse, presenting
the remarkable peculiarity of having the aperture of the nostrils in the skull
situated in the middle of the forehead ; although during life it is probable that they
terminated in a short trunk. In the lower, or Miocene Tertiaries of Patagonia the
family was represented by smaller and less specialised forms (such as Oxyodonto-
therium), in which the nostrils were more normal in position, and the crowns of
the molar teeth lower and simpler.
In the second family, or Proterotheriidce, represented principally in the lower
Patagonian Tertiary deposits, the teeth were reduced in number, and formed an
interrupted series, a pair in both the upper and lower jaw being much longer than
the rest. In these proterotheres the molar teeth had a considerable resemblance to
those of the palseotheres ; but the feet were of the general type of those of the
three-toed horses, or hipparions, and in some cases it appears that only the middle
toe was functionally developed.
THE ASTRAPOTHERES AND THEIR KlN.
SUBORDER Astrapotheria.
In this second South American group, represented only in the Miocene deposits
of Patagonia, all the species are of large size, and possess rooted cheek-teeth of a
VOL. II. 36
562
UNGULATES.
rhinocerotic type, and lacking the marked curvature of the crown characterising
those of the toxodonts. The vertebrae of the neck are comparatively short, with
flattened articular surfaces, and the lateral canal piercing the transverse process in
the ordinary manner. The wrist and ankle-joints were probably of the linear
type ; the calcaneum articulated largely with the fibula ; and the astragalus was
quite flat, and furnished with a large head for articulation with the navicular bone.
The femur, when known, had a large third trochanter.
In both families the upper cheek-teeth were of a rhinocerotic type of structure,
having a continuous external wall undivided into lobes. The group is widely
distinguished from the Amblypoda by the structure of the cheek-teeth, and not
improbably by the number of digits having been three in place of five. It is,
however, decidedly the most generalised of the three South American extinct
suborders, as is especially shown by the flattened astragalus. The remarkable
similarity of the molars of
Astrapotherium to those of
rhinoceroses must probably
be considered as largely due
to parallelism, since the
structure of the ankle in
the allied Homalodonto-
therium indicates that the
group diverged from the
common ancestor before the
modern Odd-toed Ungulates
had acquired their charac-
teristic foot-structure.
In the homalodonto-
there, representing the first
family, the teeth, as shown
in the accompanying figure,
comprise the full number of
ci' 294> m!> and have
no gap; the canines being
rooted and of relatively
small size, and the molars
with comparatively short
crowns. The upper pre-
molars are nearly as complex as the molars; and the third upper molar is not
very markedly different from the two preceding teeth. The lower molars are
in the form of double crescents, of which the anterior develops a loop like
that found in the horses. It is stated that the toes terminated in claws. The
one known species of the genus was an animal of the approximate size of the
Sumatran rhinoceros.
The gigantic astrapothere, which alone represents the second family, differs
from the last genus by the more specialised and reduced dentition, the enlarged
teeth of each jaw taking the form of permanently growing tusks, which are worn
PALATE OF THE HOMALODONTOTHERE, WANTING SOME OF THE
FRONT TEETH (much reduced).
ASTRAPOTHERE.
563
in nearly the same manner as those of the pigs. The molars are more distinctly
rhinocerotic in structure, those of the upper jaw having taller crowns than those of
the homalodontothere, with a large posterior valley, and a well-developed projection
in the middle valley. The last of the series has the same triangular form as in
the majority of species of rhinoceros ; while the premolars are simpler than the
molars. In the lower jaw the molars form nearly simple crescents, very similar to
those of rhinoceroses, but the hinder crescent of the third of the series is more
elongated.
The dentition may apparently be represented by the formula, i%, c$, p\ , m§ ;
the premolars being separated from the incisors or canines by a long gap.
The front of the apex of the upper tusk is worn to an oblique facet by the
attrition of the lower canine. In the lower jaw the tusk is considerably smaller
LOWER JAW OF THE ASTRAPOTHERE (much reduced).
than in the upper jaw, but is still triangular in section, although with the sharp
edge in front. The inner surface is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly ;
while the outer one is wholly convex, and passes imperceptibly into the small
hinder surface. The extremity of the latter is worn into a long oblique facet, in
the same manner as in the corresponding tooth of a peccary. The six lower
incisors are inclined forwards, and arranged in a circle so as to fill up the interval
between the tusks. Their crowns, which, vary in shape in the two species of the
genus, are short and spatulate, with the upper surface slightly concave, and the
lower one convex; a deep longitudinal groove traversing the middle of each of
these two surfaces, and uniting in a notch in the middle of the unworn crown.
The lower cheek-teeth call for no special remark, as they are very similar to those
of the rhinoceroses. In the lower jaw, the tusks certainly correspond to the
canines ; and it would appear at first sight that the same would hold good with
those of the upper jaw, but from the analogy of the proterothere it is more prob-
able that the latter really belong to the incisor seriea
564
UNGULATES,
TOXODONTS. 565
THE TOXODONTS.
SUBORDER Toxodontia.
The toxodonts may be defined as a group of more or less aberrant Ungulates
with tall-crowned and curved cheek-teeth, some or all of which grow from
persistent pulps, either permanently or during life; while at least one pair of
incisors in each jaw are rootless, and the third upper incisor, when present, is
placed in the line of the cheek-teeth. The vertebrae of the neck are short, with
flattened articular faces to the bodies, and the vertebral artery piercing the
transverse process in the ordinary manner. The wrist (when known) is of the
alternating type, while the ankle-joint is formed on the linear plan. The astragalus
is slightly grooved on its superior face, and inferioiiy is like that of the Odd-toed
group, having no head for the navicular ; but the calcaneum, which is truncated
inferiorly, has a large articular surface for the fibula, as in the Even-toed section.
The number of toes varies from five to three ; the middle one being larger than
either of the others, and symmetrical in itself. The femur may or may not have a
third trochanter. The number of trunk-vertebrae in the typical genus is twenty,
or intermediate between that of the Even and Odd-toed groups. In form the
cheek-teeth of the less specialised forms approximate to the Odd-toed plan of
structure ; and in all the genera the enamel is most developed on, or even confined
to, the outer sides of the cheek-teeth, although there may be vertical bands on some
of the other surfaces. More specialised in the structure of the feet and teeth than
the last group, phylogenetically the toxodonts may apparently be regarded as
related to the Odd-toed Ungulates, but as retaining certain features now common
to the Even-toed group, which have probably been inherited from common
ancestors.
While, as aforesaid, the more generalised members of the suborder approximate
in the structure of their teeth and feet to the Odd-toed group, the specialised forms
assume a more or less Rodent-like type of dentition and limb-structure, which
must probably be regarded as an instance of parallelism. It may be added that,
from the retention of clavicles, these Rodent-like types must be derived from some
form less specialised than toxodon, in which those bones have disappeared.
The toxodon was of the size of a large rhinoceros, and characterised by the
long and curved crowns of its molar teeth, which continued to grow throughout
life. There were only two pairs of incisor teeth and no tusks in the upper jaw,
although in the lower jaw the full number of these teeth were developed. The feet
were furnished with three toes.
This genus occurs in the superficial deposits of Argentina, but is replaced in
the Miocene Tertiaries of Patagonia by certain allied forms known as nesodons,
which may be briefly defined as including toxodonts of medium or small size, in
which the limbs, and probably also the neck, were relatively longer and more
slender than in the typical genus ; while all the teeth, with the exception of the
second upper and third lower incisors developed roots in the adult state, and the
upper molars were of a type approaching that of the Odd-toed group, with a
distinct posterior valley, and the middle column forming a distinct lobe projecting
566
UNGULATES.
into the median valley. The second upper and the third lower incisors formed a
pair of permanently growing tusks, which were, however, not fully developed till
late in life.
Even more strange than the toxodon was the smaller typothere of the same
region, which represents a remarkable approximation in the characters of its skull
and teeth to the Rodents. While the
molars were not unlike those of the
toxodon, the upper incisors were
reduced to a single chisel -shaped pair,
and there were no tusks in either
jaw. The lower jaw carried one large
pair of chisel -like incisor teeth,
behind which there came a much
smaller second pair. The typothere
differed from all living Ungulates, and
thereby again resembled Rodents, in
having collar-bones (clavicles).
Finally, certain animals from
the Eocene of North America, known
as tillodonts, seem to combine the
characters of the modern Ungulates,
Carnivores, and Rodents, and thus
almost defy classification.
The occurrence of all these
remarkable Ungulates, so utterly
different from those of all other
parts of the world, indicates that
during the Miocene period South
America, with its many peculiar
types of Edentates, must have been
UNDER-SURFACE OP SKULL OF THE NESODON (J nat. size).
completely cut off from the northern
half of the continent. During the
later Pleistocene period, the two areas must, however, have become connected,
since at that epoch we first meet with horses, deer, llamas, and other northern
types in South America; while some southern forms obtained an entrance into
North America.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
MANATIS AND DUGONGS, — Order SIRENIA.
THE purely aquatic mammals known as manatis and dugongs, together with the
northern sea-cow, which has become extinct within the last century and a half,
constitute an order by themselves, and may be collectively known as Sirenians.
Although they are as well fitted for an aquatic life as the Cetaceans, these animals
have no sort of relationship with the members of that order, and have evidently
been derived quite independently from terrestrial mammals. Such resemblances
as do exist between Sirenians and Cetaceans are entirely of an adaptive nature, and
have been produced merely by the two groups of animals leading a somewhat
similar mode of life.
Characteristics Although the existing Sirenians resemble the Cetaceans in having
their fore-limbs converted into flippers, and having lost all traces of
the hind -limbs, while the tail is converted into a horizontally-expanded rudder-
like organ, comparable to the flukes of the whales and dolphins, their general
conformation is very different. In the first place, although the body is somewhat
cetacean-like, without any well-defined neck and with no distinction between
trunk and tail, it is markedly depressed, instead of being more or less com-
pressed from side to side. Then, again, the head departs but little from the
ordinary mammalian type, being comparatively small in proportion to the body,
with the summit rounded, and the nostrils, which are double and capable of
being closed at will by valve-like flaps, placed above the extremity of the
abruptly-truncated muzzle. The back-fin, so commonly present in the Cetaceans,
is totally wanting. In the flippers, although the whole of the toes are enclosed
in a paddle-shaped mass of integument, traces of nails are still in some cases
retained. The eyes are small, with imperfectly-developed lids, and the minute
aperture of the ear is unprovided with any external conch. The mouth is small,
with thick, fleshy lips, upon which grow a number of bristly hairs, which
persist throughout life. The skin is thick, and either finely wrinkled or rugged
and bark-like, sometimes with fine hairs thinly distributed upon it. The female
has a single pair of teats placed on the breast. The teeth are very variable, being
totally wanting in the northern sea-cow, while in the other two living genera they
consist of incisors and cheek-teeth. The structure of the cheek-teeth is, however,
very different in the two latter, and in one of them their number is much greater
than among less aberrant mammals. The living forms have been recently discovered
to possess rudimental milk-teeth, and in some extinct species such teeth were well
developed. Certain extinct members of the order were, moreover, furnished with
a complete set of teeth, comparable to those of ordinary mammals. All the recent
568
MAN AXIS AND DUGONGS.
SKELETON OP MANATI.
forms have horny plates on the palate and on the opposing surface of the lower
jaw.
In the skeleton, the bones are distinguished by their solid and dense structure ;
this being especially noticeable in those of the skull and in the ribs. The skull is
depressed, and has a more or less distinctly deflected beak-like snout, much flattened
from side to side.- It is further characterised by the very large size of the aperture
of the cavity of the nose, which is somewhat pear-shaped, and placed relatively
further back than usual. In the living forms the nasal bones were either
rudimentary or totally absent ; but in some of the fossil species they were better
developed, and partially roofed over the nasal cavity in the ordinary manner.
This abortion of the nasal bones in both the Sirenians and Cetaceans is doubtless
due to the necessity for a large nasal aperture in the skull, owing to the peculi-
arities in the respiration of these animals. The vertebrae are peculiar in that during
the young state they
do not show separate
plate -like ossifications
at each end of their
bodies, like those
developed in other
mammals. Rudiments
of these so-called
epiphyses have, how-
ever, been shown to
exist in the extremely young state ; and they were more fully developed in certain
extinct forms. As in Cetaceans, none of the vertebras in the hinder region of the
trunk unite to form a sacrum ; and it is evident that a solid immovable structure
in this part of the backbone would be not only a serious disadvantage to a swim-
ming animal, but likewise of no possible use to one which has no hind-limbs to
support. Sirenians resemble Ungulates in having no collar-bones. In the fore-limb
the upper bone, or humerus, is of considerable length, and differs from that of the
Cetaceans in having distinct pulley-like surfaces at its lower end for the articu-
lation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna), thus permitting of a certain
amount of free motion at the elbow-joint. The two bones of the fore-arm are,
however, generally united at the lower end. The number of the digits is five, and
none of these contains more than the ordinary number of three joints, in addition
to the metacarpus. None of the recent Sirenians shows any trace of the hind-limb,
although the pelvis is represented by a pair of splint-like bones ; but in some fossil
forms there was a rudimentary thigh-bone, or femur.
There are several peculiarities connected with the soft internal parts ; but it will
suffice to mention here that the lungs are extremely long and narrow, extending
beneath the backbone nearly as far back as the last rib. To permit of this back-
ward extension, the midriff", or diaphragm, is placed very obliquely. The larger
arteries of the body form peculiar net-like expansions in certain regions, which
render the animals able to remain beneath the surface of the water for a longer
period than would otherwise be possible, as partly oxygenated blood can be retained
for some time in these structures before it is passed through the heart.
GENERAL CHARACTERS. 569
Although the manatis and dugongs never leave the water, and
are as well adapted for an aquatic life as the Cetaceans, yet they
cannot swim in the rapid manner characteristic of many of the latter, and are
never found inhabiting the open sea. On the contrary, they frequent shallow seas
and bays, lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers. As regards their food, these animals
are entirely herbivorous ; browsing upon sea- weeds or other aquatic plants growing
beneath the surface of the water. They are slow and sluggish in their movements,
while in disposition they are harmless and inoffensive, and appear to be endowed
with but a comparatively small amount of intelligence.
Both dugongs and manatis produce but a single offspring at a birth, which is
attended with assiduous care by its parent. When suckling, the females raise their
heads and breasts above the water, and exhibit the young clinging to them, and
partially supported by their flippers ; and there can be little doubt but that this
habit has given origin to the legendary mermaid. In describing the clugong, Sir
Emerson Tennent wrote as follows concerning this point : — " The rude approach
to the human outline observed in the shape of the head of this creature, and the
attitude of the mother when suckling her young, clasping it to her breast with one
flipper, while swimming with the other, holding the heads of both above water ;
and when disturbed, suddenly diving and displaying her fish-like tail, — these,
together with her habitual demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably
gave rise to the fable of the mermaid ; and thus that earliest invention of mythical
physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the Greeks, who had watched
the movements of the dugong in the waters of Manaar. Megasthenes records the
existence of a creature in the ocean near Taprobane [Ceylon], with the aspect of a
woman ; and ^Elian, adopting and enlarging upon his information, peoples the seas
of Ceylon with fishes having the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger
still, Cetaceans in the form of satyrs. Statements such as these must have had
their origin in the hairs which are set round the mouth of the dugong, somewhat
resembling a beard, which JElian and Megasthenes both particularise from their
resemblance to the hairs of a woman." The belief in the existence of mermaids
was firmly credited by the early Portugese and Dutch voyagers to the East.
The living members of the order, which generally associate in
Distribution. gmall ^^ frequent the coasts an(j iarger rivers on both sides of the
Atlantic, and also those of the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, parts of the Bay of
Bengal, and Australia. The northern sea-cow was, however, an inhabitant of the
cold regions of Behring Sea ; and during the Tertiary period Sirenians were distri-
buted over the greater part of the globe. The group is, therefore, evidently a
waning one. From their herbivorous habits and the structure of their molar teeth
the suggestion naturally arises that the Sirenians are connected with the Ungulates;
and the resemblances of their teeth are nearer to the Even-toed than to the Odd-toed
section of that order. The retention of five toes by the Sirenians seems, however, to
indicate that if they are really connected with the Ungulates, they must have
diverged from that group at a very early period of its existence.
It has been very generally considered that each of the three
Classification. genera of girenians that have existed during the historic period is
entitled to constitute a family by itself. The whole are, however, so nearly allied,
57°
MANATIS AND DUGONGS.
and are so closely connected by fossil forms, that it seems preferable to follow Mr.
Blanford in regarding them as members of a single family — the Halicoridce.
THE MANATIS.
Genus Manatus.
The manatis — so named from the hand-like use of the flippers when nursing
the young — are characterised by the nostrils being situated at the apex of the
AMERICAN MANATI (fa liat. size).
muzzle, by the rounded margin of the expanded tail, and the usual presence of
three minute rudimentary nails on each of the flippers. In the skull, the beak and
extremity of the lower jaw are comparatively small, and but very slightly bent
downwards. The incisor teeth are rudimentary, being concealed beneath the horny
plates of the mouth, and disappearing before the animal becomes adult. The cheek-
teeth, of which eleven are developed on each side of the jaws, have squared crowns,
with transverse ridges, thus presenting some resemblance to the lower teeth of the
tapir. Generally there are seldom more than six of these teeth in use at the same
time on one side of each jaw ; the front ones falling out before those further back
MAN AXIS. 571
have come into use. In the skeleton the manatis present the remarkable peculiar-
ity of having only six vertebra in the neck ; and are thereby almost unique among
mammals.
Manatis, when full grown, attain a length of about 8 feet. Their dark, greyish
coloured skin is marked by a number of fine wrinkles ; and, at least in the young
condition, is covered with a number of very fine, sparsely-distributed hairs.
One of the most peculiar features connected with the manatis is to be found in
the conformation of the mouth. On this point the late Professor Garrod observes
that " the upper lip is prehensile ; in other words, the animal is able, by its unaided
means, to introduce food placed before it into the mouth without the assistance of
the comparatively insignificant lower lip." The front of the muzzle of the manati
is of a triangular form, with the apex, in which are situated the nostrils, upwards.
The lower border of this triangle is bounded by two rounded fleshy pads, forming
the angles of the upper lip. These lip-pads can be either approximated to one
another, or widely separated, at the will of their owner. " When the animal,"
writes Professor Garrod, " is on the point of seizing, say a leaf of lettuce, the pads
are diverged transversely in such a way as to make the median gap of considerable
breadth. Directly the leaf is within grasp, the lip-pads are approximated, the leaf
is firmly seized between their contiguous bristly surfaces, and then drawn inwards
by a backward movement of the lower margin of the lip as a whole. The ap-
pearance produced by the movements of this peculiar organ is very much the same
as that of the mouth in the silkworm and other caterpillars whilst devouring a leaf,
the jaws in these insects diverging and converging laterally, in a very similar
manner during mastication." In regard to the mechanism for closing the nostrils
during submersion, the same writer adds that " these circular orifices have each a
flap- valve, which forms the floor or inferior wall of the nasal tubes when the animal
is breathing, but which rises and completely occludes it when closed."
Distribution Manatis are found in the rivers and on the coasts of the two
and Number of sides of the tropical portions of the Atlantic ; but are mainly fluvia-
Species. ^ile, ascending the larger rivers, such as the Amazon, almost to their
sources. There appear to be three well-defined species, namely, the American
manati (M. americanus), the African manati (M. senegalensis), readily distinguished
from the former by the characters of the skull, and the nailless manati (M.
inunguis), from the Amazon and Orinoco.
Owing to the constant persecution for the sake of their oil and
hides, manatis have been of late years much diminished in numbers,
and in most accessible districts they are now becoming comparatively scarce animals.
Their general habits are those noticed under the head of the order ; but some more
minute observations, which have been gathered from captive specimens, may be
noticed in detail. The first living manati brought to England was received in the
Zoological Gardens early in August 1875, but did not long survive ; and a second
specimen was obtained in March 1889. A third lived in the Brighton Aquarium for
upwards of sixteen months. All these animals were fed chiefly upon lettuce,
although they would also eat other vegetables. The following observations were
made by Professor Garrod on the one first acquired by the Zoological Society :—
"Looking at the living animal generally, the most striking peculiarity was the
572 MANATIS AND DUGONGS.
sluggishness of its movements, when crossing its pond there was none of the lateral
movement of the body so characteristic of the seals. All flexions were up and down,
the whole trunk bending a little in that direction, the base of the tail doing so
freely at a clearly-marked transverse fold-line in that region. An opportunity
occurred for seeing it out of water, when its pond was drained dry for a short time,
From my observations on this occasion, it was perfectly evident that the manati is
purely aquatic in habits, and that it never willingly quits the water. When on
land, it seemed perfectly unable to advance or recede, the only movements it
performed being that from its belly to its back, and vice versa. The power of
moving the slightly exserted elbow was considerable, whilst that of the wrist was
small but apparent. It used its limbs much more freely than do the seals, some-
times employing the extreme margins of the paddles to assist in introducing food
into its mouth, at others employing them in progression along the bottom of the
pond, during which time the swimming tail could not be brought into play to any
extent."
Beyond the fact that only a single young is produced at a time, there appears
to be no accurate observations as to the breeding-habits of the manati ; neither are
we acquainted with the length of time these animals can remain submerged.
The flesh of the manati, which is very light in colour, is eaten by the natives
of the Amazon region, and is compared by Bates to pork. The fat is reported,
however, to have a disagreeable flavour.
THE DUGONG.
Genus Hdlicore.
The dugong, or as it should properly be termed, from its Malayan name, duyong,
is a very different animal, both externally and as regards the structure of its skull
and teeth, from the manati. Externally, it is characterised by the nostrils being
situated on the upper part of the muzzle, by the tail being crescent-shaped and
concave posteriorly, and by the total absence of any trace of nails on the flippers.
The skull is characterised by the great thickness and massiveness of the beak and
the extremity of the lower jaw, both of which are sharply bent down, so as to form
almost a right angle with the long axis of the skull. The teeth grow throughout
life ; and in the adult state comprise a pair of incisors in the upper jaw, and five
molars on each side of both jaws. In the females, the incisors are small and do not
pierce the gum, but in the males they assume the form of rather large and nearly
straight tusks, which are partially coated with enamel, and are directed downwards.
The molars are cylindrical in form, the last in each jaw being more complex than
the others, and looking as if it were composed of two cylinders joined together.
These teeth have no enamel ; and, as in the manati, some of the front ones are shed
before those behind come into use. There can be little doubt but that the molar
teeth of the dugong present one step in the process of degeneration which has
resulted in their complete disappearance in the northern sea-cow. In colour, the
dugong is either uniformly bluish grey, or the under-parts may have a more or less
distinct whitish tinge. The normal length attained by these animals varies from
DUGONGS.
573
In a specimen o£
5 to 7 feet, but they occasionally measure from 8 to 9 feet.
feet in length, the maximum girth was 6 feet.
Distribution. Diigcmgs are found on the shores of the Indian Ocean, for about
fifteen degrees on each side of the Equator, from East Africa to
Australia, and likewise around the Red Sea. They are not uncommon on parts of
the coasts of Ceylon, and around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Although it
has been considered that the dugong of the Red Sea, and also the one found on the
Habits.
THE DUGONO (A nat. size).
Australian coasts, are specifically distinct from the Indian dugong (Halicore
dugong), this is extremely doubtful.
Except that it is a marine animal, never ascending rivers, and
feeding chiefly upon seaweed, the dugong appears to be very similar
in its general mode of life to the manati. Formerly, these animals are reported to
have been found in large herds, comprising several hundreds of individuals, and to
have been so fearless of man that they would allow themselves to be touched with
the hand. Now, however, they are only to be met with in twos or threes, or small
parties ; and they have become very shy and wary. Dugong-fishing is practised as
a regular industry on the Australian coast ; the clear, limpid oil obtained from these
animals bearing a high value. The flesh of the dugong is described as being of
excellent quality and flavour, by those who have tried it. The natives of Torres
Straits, according to the late Professor Moseley, are in the habit of using dugong
skulls and ribs for the decoration of their huts.
574 MANATIS AND DUGONGS.
THE NORTHERN SEA-COW.
Genus Rhytina.
On his return in 1741 from a voyage of discovery to Alaska, the navigator
Behring had the misfortune to be shipwrecked on the island which now bears his
name ; that island, together with the adjacent Copper
Island, constituting the Commander group, which lie in
Behring Sea, at a distance of about one hundred miles from
the coast of Kamschatka. At the time of their involuntary
sojourn, Behring and his companions found the shores of
these islands inhabited by a hitherto unknown animal, evi-
dently allied to the manati, but of much greater dimensions.
This creature was the northern sea-cow {Rhytina stelleri),
then found in vast numbers on the islands in question, but
which within a period of thirty years from that date appears
to have been totally exterminated by the hand of man.
Indeed, had it not been for the fortunate circumstance that
Behring was accompanied by the naturalist Steller, we
should probably never even have heard of the very exist-
ence of this animal, except through some slight mention
in the accounts of certain contemporary voyagers. Unfor-
tunately, no skins and only some imperfect skeletons of the
animal appear to have been preserved by the survivors of
Behring's party ; but of late years, a considerable number
of more or less imperfect skeletons have been reclaimed
from the frozen soil of the Commander Islands.
This gigantic Sirenian differed from all its allies in
having no teeth, the functions of which were performed by
the horny plates covering the palate and opposing surface
of the lower jaw. The head was very small in proportion
to the body ; and the extremities of the jaws were some-
what bent downwards. The tail was forked, after the
manner of that of the dugong. The flippers were very
small and truncated, and were covered with bristly hairs.
Steller expressly states that there were no bones in the
hand ; and it is certain that none have hitherto been found.
The skin was naked, and covered with a thick, rugged epi-
dermis, which was compared to the bark of a tree ; in places
this epidermis was an inch in thickness, and so tough that
it required the use of an axe to cut it. The skin, according
to Steller's description, was dark brown in colour, sometimes
marked with streaks or spots of white. A drawing of the animal left by Waxell,
the navigator of Behring's party, represents it, however, as being marked with
alternate dark and light transverse stripes. The skeleton herewith figured
measures 19J feet in length, which would indicate a length of about 20 feet in the
TERTIARY SIRENIANS. 575
living state ; but Steller states that the animal sometimes attained a length of from
25 to 30 feet. The girth of the body was 19 or 20 feet ; and the estimated weight
8000 Ibs.
Distribution and With the exception of a single rib from Altu, no remains of the
Habits. northern sea-cow have been obtained elsewhere than on Barren and
Copper Islands. It is, however, almost impossible to believe that such a large
animal could always have had such a restricted distribution; and it is hence
probable that, when discovered, this Sirenian was already on the wane, and that the
Commander Islands were its last resorts from a more extended distribution. Not
the least remarkable circumstance connected with this animal is that, although
closely allied to the typical dugong, it should have inhabited such a cold and
northerly region.
At the time of its discovery by Behring's party, the northern sea-cow was
abundant in the bays and river-mouths of the Commander Islands, where it lived
in herds of considerable size. It fed chiefly on seaweeds, and more especially on
the tangle which grows so abundantly in the northern seas. It was described as a
stupid, sluggish, and comparatively helpless animal, which was unable to dive, and
was not unf requently washed ashore by the waves. From its inability to dive, it
was compelled to obtain its food in shallow water ; and from being often unable to
approach the shore during the storms of winter, the animal was generally in poor
condition by the spring.
Within nine years of its discovery, the northern sea-cow was
I0n' exterminated on Copper Island; while on Behring Island it had
become very scarce by 1763, and the last of its race appears to have been killed in
the year 1767 or 1768. . It was long thought that the creature was practically ex-
terminated by Behring's party during their sojourn of ten months on the island
named after their leader. This, however, was not the case, as they killed but very
few. Soon after the return of Behring's crew to Kamschatka several expeditions
were fitted out for the purpose of wintering on the Commander Islands and hunt-
ing fur-bearing animals ; the sea-cows offering the inducement of an abundant
supply of fresh food. Ships sailing to Alaska were also in the habit of touching
at these islands to take in a supply of salted sea-cow meat. With such stupid and
helpless habits as characterised the animal, it is no wonder that its complete extirpa-
tion was soon accomplished. Generally the sea-cow was harpooned from a boat ;
but by approaching stealthily hunters were also enabled to kill them with lances
as they lay asleep near the shore.
TERTIARY SIRENIANS.
Throughout a large portion of the Tertiary period various species of extinct
Sirenians were common in Europe, and they have also been sparingly met with in
England. The best known of these was the halithere (Halitherium), which forms
in some respects a kind of connecting link between the manati and the dugong.
It resembled the latter in having the extremities of the jaws deflected, and in the
presence of a pair of tusks in the upper jaw ; but its molar teeth were more like
those of the manati, although with a pattern recaUing that obtaining on the crowns
576
MANA.TIS AND DUGONGS.
of those of the hippopotamus. The most interesting points about this animal are
the evidences it affords of being a more generalised type than either of its existing
allies. Thus the premolar teeth had milk-predecessors, the skull was furnished
with distinct nasal bones, and there was a rudimentary hind-limb.
There is, however, another extinct member of the order, which, although unfor-
tunately known only by the skull, presents indications of a still closer affinity with
ordinary mammals. This is the Prorastoma, of which the remains have been found
in strata, probably belonging to the upper portion of the Eocene period in Jamaica
and Italy. This creature had three pairs of incisors, and a pair of canines, as well
as seven or eight pairs of cheek-teeth in each, and thus approximated very closely
to the ordinary mammalian type ; the front and premolar teeth doubtless having
milk-predecessors. Although, therefore, we have not at present actually succeeded
in tracing the origin of the Sirenians into terrestrial mammals, yet we have been
able to go such a long way in this direction as to leave no doubt that they have
been so derived by some evolutionary process.
INDEX,
VOL. II.
Addnx, 280.
itasomaculatus, 280.
s, 32.
melanolcucus, 32.
.•El urns, 36.
fulgcns, 36.
s, 299.
mclampus, 299.
pelersi, 300.
jEquitun, 304.
A Ices, 375.
latifroHS, 376.
machlis, 375.
Alpaca, 417.
Amblypoda, 559.
Ammodm-cas, 295.
clarkei, 295.
Amynodon, 486.
Anchithere, 514.
Anoa, 207.
Antelopes, 267.
Addax, 280.
American, 325.
Baker's, 288.
Beatrix, 284.
Beisa, 282.
Beni-Israel, 308.
Black- Buck, 300.
Blaubok, 285.
Blessbok, 324.
Blue-Buck, 310.
Bohor, 303.
Bongo, 275.
Bontebok, 324.
Bubaline, 316.
Chiru, 296.
Clarke's, 295.
Duikerbok, 309.
Elands, 267.
Equine, 285.
Fossil, 288.
Four-Horned, 311.
Gazelles, 289.
Gemsbok, 281.
Gnu, 312.
Grysbok, 308.
Guib, 277.
Harnessed, 275.
Hartebeests, 316.
Herota, 322.
Impala, 299.
Impofo, 267.
Indian, 300.
Kirk's, 309.
Klipspringer, 306.
VOL. Jl. — 37
Konzi, 321.
Korigum, 323.
Kudus, 273.
Lichi, 304.
Madoqua, 310.
Nagor, 303.
Nakong, 276.
Nilgai, 278.
Nyala, 275.
Oribi, 307.
Oryx, 281.
Pala, 299.
Philantomba, 310.
Pigmy, 310.
Prong-Horned, 325.
Puku, 304
Red-Buck, 310.
Reed-Buck, 302.
Reitbok, 302.
Rhebok, 305.
Roan, 285.
Roi-Rhebok, 303.
Royal, 307.
Sable, 285.
Sabre-Horned, 284.
Saiga, 297.
Salt's, 308
Sassabi, 323.
Senegal, 323.
Sing Sing, 304.
Sititunga, 276.
Springbok, 290.
Steinboks 307.
Sunn, 304.
Tibetan, 296.
Titel, 316.
Tora, 320.
Water- Buck, 303.
Wildebeests, 312.
Wood, 311.
Zebra, 310,
Aiitilocapra, 325.
americamt, 325.
Antilocapridx,, 325.
Antilope, 300.
cervicapra, 300.
Aoudad, 231.
Aoul, 295.
Ardoccphalns, 107.
Arctonyx, 89.
collaris, 89.
taxoidcs, 89.
Arctothere, 34.
Argalis, 217.
Mongolian, 217.
Argalis — continued.
Tibetan, 217.
Ami, 231.
Asses, 508.
African, 511.
Asiatic, 508.
Domestic, 512.
A strapvt heria, 561.
Aswal, 26.
Aurochs, 161.
Awuk, 124.
L'abirusa, 436.
alfurus, 436.
Badgers, 84.
American, 83.
Chinese, 86.
Common, 84.
Fossil, 88.
Hog, 89.
Malayan, 88.
Persian, 86.
Sand, 89.
White-Tailed, 86.
Banting, 181.
Barusinglia, 360.
Bassaricyon, 43.
Bassaris, 42.
astuta, 42
sumichrasti, 43.
Bears, 1.
American Black, 18.
Brown, 9.
Cave, 25.
Crowther's, 13.
Grizzly, 14.
Himalayan Black 20.
Malayan, 24.
Parti-coloured, 32.
Polar, 4.
Sloth, 26.
Spectacled, 23.
Beisa, 283.
Beni-Israel, 308.
Bhalu, 26.
Bharal, 231.
Bighorn, 213.
Bison, 188.
American, 191.
European, 188.
Black-Buck, 300.
Slasf.omeryz, 386.
Blanbok, 285.
Blessbok, 324.
Blue-Buck, 310.
578
INDEX.
Bohor, 303.
Bongo, 275.
Bontebok, 324.
Bos, 160.
acuticoruis, 206.
acutifrom, 775.
amcricanus, 191.
bonassus, 188.
bubaliis, 204.
ca/er, 198.
deprcssicornis, 207.
ftruscus, 185.
frontalis, 179.
gaurus, 175.
grunniens, 185.
indicus, 173.
latifrons, 198.
mindorensis, 206.
namadicus, 174.
occipitalis, 206.
platyccros, 206.
pumUus, 202.
sondaicus, 181.
taurus, 161.
Bosch-Varks, 434.
Boselaphus, 278.
tragocamelus, 278.
Bovidae, 151, 157.
Bramatliere, 337.
Brock,. 86.
Brockets, 386.
Brazilian, 387.
Ecuador, 387.
Red, 387.
Wood, 387.
Bubalis, 316.
albifrons, 324.
cama, 319.
cookei, 320.
hunteri, 322.
jacksoni, 320.
lichtcnstcini. 321.
lunata, 323.
major, 319.
mauritanica, 316.
pygargus, 324.
scnegalcnsis, 323.
sivaynei, 320.
<ora, 320.
Budorcas, 259.
taxicolor, 259.
Buffalo, 198.
Cape, 198.
Indian, 204.
Red, 202.
Short-Horned, 202.
Bush-Bucks, 275.
Bongo, 275.
Guib, 277.
Nakong, 276.
Nyala, 275.
Sititunga, 276.
West African, 276.
Bush-Pigs, 434.
Cacomistle, 42.
Camelidx, 402.
Camels, 402.
Arabian, 404.
Bactrian, 410.
Camclus, 404.
bactrianus, 410.
Camelus — continued.
dromedarius, 404.
Capra, 234.
segagrus, 239.
caucasica, 236.
cyliiidricornis, 235.
dorcns, 241.
falconeri, 250.
hirciis, 241.
ife*, 244, 247.
pyrcnaica, 237.
severtzowi, 236.
sibirica, 247.
siiiaitica, 250.
walie, 250.
Caprcolus, 381.
caprca, 381.
pygargus, 383.
Carcajou, 72.
Cariacus, 384.
antisicnsis, 387.
campestris, 387.
chilensis, 387.
clavatus, 387.
columbiamis, 394.
gymnotis, 393.
Icucurus, 390.
macrotis, 393.
mexicanus. 390.
nemorivagus, 387.
palustris, 389.
nifinus, 387.
rufus, 387.
simplicornis, 387.
virginianus, 389.
Caribou, 374.
Cattle, 163.
Alderney, 169.
Ayrshire, 169.
Cadzow, 164.
Chartley, 164.
Chillingham, 163.
Continental, 171.
Devon, 170.
Galla, 174.
Galloway, 168.
Hereford, 170.
Highland, 168.
Humped, 173.
Indian, 172.
Jersey, 169.
Kerry, 168.
Longhorn, 170.
Niata, 172.
Park, 163.
Polled Angus, 168.
Shetland, 167.
Shorthorn, 170.
Suffolk, 168.
Welsh, 168.
Ccmns, 257.
ciiierca, 258.
goral, 257.
grisea, 258.
Ccplvalophus, 309.
abyssinicus, 310.
doriae, 310.
grimmi, 310.
jentinki, 311.
maxwdli, 310.
monticola, 310.
natalensis, 310.
sylvicultor, 311.
Cercolcptes, 44.
caudivolvulus, 44.
Cvrvicapra, 302.
arundineum, 302.
6o/tor, 303.
lalaiidi, 303.
redunca, 303.
Ccrvidee, 338.
Ccrvulus, 365.
crinifrons, 368.
/c«, 367.
lacrymans, 368.
muntjac, 366.
rccvesi, 368.
Ccrvus, 343.
ffl/fr/m, 348.
nlfredi, 359.
aarts, 353.
canadensis, 349.
cashmirianus, 347.
caspicus, 352.
dama, 362.
davidianus, 362.
duvauceli, 360.
dybowskii, 352.
elaphus, 343.
cWi, 361.
equinus, 357.
euslephanus, 348.
giganteus, 364.
hippelaphus, 357,
kashmirianus, 347.
£wM, 359.
leudorfi, 348.
inantehuricus, 352.
maral, 348.
mcsopotamicus, 364.
molucccmis, 359.
philippinus, 359.
porcinus, 359.
rif$, 365.
schomburgki, 361.
siJfca, 352.
taevanus, 352.
timorensis, 359.
unicolor, 356.
xanthopygus, 345.
Chalicothere, 516.
Cliamois, 261.
Chevrotains, 398.
Indian, 399.
Malayan, 400.
Philippine, 401.
Stanley's, 400.
Water, 401.
Chiru, 296.
Chital, 353.
Chitra, 353.
Chcerohyus, 444.
Chasropotamus, 444.
Chousingha, 311.
Coatis, 43.
Red, 43.
White-Nosed, 43.
, 303.
co&, 304.
defassa, 304.
ellipsiprymnus, 303.
ZccAe, 304.
leucotis, 304.
INDEX.
579
Cobus — continued.
vardoni, 304.
Conepatus, 75.
mapurilo, 75.
Connochates, 312.
gnu, 314.
tauriiui, 314.
Coryphodons, 559.
Couagga, 506.
Creodonts, 150.
Cystophwa, 144.
cristata, 144.
Deer, 338.
American, 384.
Axis, 353.
Barking, 366.
Black-Tailed, 394.
Brocket, 386.
Caribou, 373
Caspian, 352.
Costa Rica, 377.
David's, 362.
Dybowski's, 352.
Eld's, 361.
Extinct, 364.
Fallow, 362.
Formosan, 352.
Guazu, 389.
Guazuti, 387.
Hog, 359.
Irish, 364.
Japanese, 352.
Kashmir, 347.
Knlil's, 359.
Leudorfs, 348.
Mantchurian, 352.
Marsh, 389.
Mexican, 390.
Michie's, 368.
Moluccan, 359.
Moose, 375.
Mule, 393.
Mnntjac, 365.
Musk, 395.
Naked-Eared, 393.
Pampas, 387.
Persian Fallow, 364.
Prince Alfred's, 359.
Pudu, 395.
Red, 343.
Rein, 369.
Roe, 381.
Ruffs, 365.
Sambar, 356.
Schomburgk's, 361.
Shou, 348.
Spotted, 353.
Swamp, 360.
Thian Shan, 348.
Tibetan, 368.
Timor, 359.
Tufted, 368.
Virginian, 389.
Wapiti, 349.
Water, 383.
White-Tailed, 390.
Dicotyles, 443.
labialus, 443.
tajacu, 443.
Dicotylidse, 442.
Dinothere, 558.
Dinotlicriitlie, 558.
Dinotherium, 558.
giganteum, 558.
Donkeys, 512.
Dorcatherium, 401.
aquatieum, 401.
Dugong, 566, 572.
Duikerbok, 309.
Eland, 267.
Derbian, 273.
Elaphodus, 368.
michianus, 368.
cephalophus, 368.
Elasmothere, 486.
KleplMntidse, 522.
Elephants, 516.
African, 545.
Armenian, 543.
Cliffs, 555.
Flat-Headed, 555.
Indian, 528.
Mammoth, 543.
Narbada, 554.
Pigmy, 555.
Southern, 555.
Straight-Tusked, 555.
Stegodont, 555.
Sutledje, 554.
Elephant Seal, 145.
Elephas, 522.
africanus, 545.
antiquus, 555.
amneniacus, 543.
columbi, 543.
ganesa, 555.
hysudricus, 554.
indicus, 528.
tnelitcnsis, 555.
meridionalis, 555.
mnaidricnsis, .555.
namadicus, 554.
planifr&ns, 555.
primigenius, 543.
Elk, 375.
Equidte, 486.
Equus, 488.
asinus, 511.
burchelli, 504.
cabalhis, 491.
grevyi, 505.
hemionus, 508.
prejevahkii, 494.
quagga, 506.
zebra, 503.
Ermine, 64.
Fallow Deer, 362.
Ferret, 61.
Ferret- Badgers, 80.
Brown, 80.
Burmese. 80.
Chinese, 80.
Fur-Seals, 106, 122.
Cape, 123.
New Zealand, 123.
Northern Sea -Bear, 124.
South American, 123.
Galictis, 47.
allemandi, 49.
barbara, 48.
Galictis — continued.
vittcda, 49.
Gaur, 175.
Gayal, 179.
Gazella, 289.
arabica, 293.
bennetti, 293.
cuvieri, 293.
dama, 295.
dorcas, 292.
granti, 294.
gutturosa, 294.
euchore, 290.
isabcllina, 293.
Isevipes, 293.
leptoceros, 293.
mohr, 294.
picticaudata, 294.
rufifrons, 293.
spekei, 293.
scemmerringi, 295.
subguUurosa, 293.
thomsoni, 294.
tilonura, 293.
Gazelles, 289.
Arabian, 293.
Bennett's, 293.
Black-Tailed, 293.
Dama, 295.
Dorcas, 292.
Grant's, 294.
Indian, 293.
Isabelline, 293.
Korin, 293.
Mongolian, 294.
Mountain, 293.
Persian, 293.
Small-Horned, 293.
Speke's, 293.
Sundevall's, 293.
Swift, 294.
Thomson's, 294.
Tibetan, 294.
Waller's, 295.
Gelocus, 402.
Gemsbok, 281.
Gemse, 261.
Gerenuk, 2£5.
Ghorkar, 509.
Giraffa, 330.
camelopardalis, 330.
Giraffe, 333.
Giraffidse, 330.
Glutton, 71.
Gnu, 313.
Goa, 294.
Goats, 234.
Angora, 243.
Caucasian, 235.
Domestic, 241.
Egyptian, 243.
Feral, 244.
Giura, 241.
Ibex, 244.
Kashmir, 243.
Markhor, 250.
Nilgiri, 254.
Persian, 239.
Rocky Mountain, 260.
Spanish, 237.
Spiral-Horned, 250.
Sudan, 244.
580
INDEX.
Goats — continued.
Syrian, 243.
Corals, 257.
Ashy, 258.
Grey, 258.
Long-Tailed, 258.
Grison, 47.
Grysbok, 308.
Guanaco, 414.
Guemals, 387.
Chilian, 387.
Peruvian, 387.
Guib, 277.
Gulo, 71.
luscus, 71.
Hair-Seals, 107.
Australian, 115.
California!! Sea-Lion, 113.
Hooker's Sea-Lion, 115.
Northern Sea-Lion, 110.
Southern Sea-Lion, 105.
Halichosrus, 134.
grypus, 134.
ffalicore, 572.
dugong, 573.
Halicoridw, 570.
Halitherium, 575.
Bangui, 347.
Haploceros, 260.
montanus, 260.
Harnessed Antelopes, 275.
Bongo, 275.
Guib, 277.
Nakong, 276.
Nyala, 275.
Sititunga, 276.
West African, 276
Hartebeests, 31 6.
Bastard, 323.
Cooke's, 320.
Extinct, 324.
Hunter's, 322.
Jackson's, 320.
Swayne's, 320.
True, 319.
Tunisian, 319.
ffelictis, 80.
moschata, 80.
orientalis, 80.
personata, 80.
sabaurantiaca, 80.
Helladothere, 336.
Hemicyon, 34.
Hemitragus, 254.
hylocrius, 256.
jemlaicus, 254.
Herota, 322.
Hipparion, 487.
Hippidium, 514.
Hippopotami, 444.
Algerian, 453.
Burmese, 453.
Common, 446.
Indian, 453.
Liberian, 453.
Madagascar, 453.
Maltese, 453.
Narbada, 453.
Pentland's, 453.
Pigmy, 453.
Siwalik, 453.
Hippopotamidse, 444.
Hippopotamus, 444.
amphibius, 446.
bonariensis, 453.
iravadicus, 453.
lemcrlei, 453.
liberiensis, 453.
minutus, 453.
namadicus, 453.
palteindicus, 453.
pentlandi, 453.
sivalensis, 453.
Hippotragus, 285.
bakeri, 288.
equinus, 285.
leucophseus, 285.
niger, 285.
Hog-Deer, 359.
Hollow-Horned Ruminants,
157.
ffomalodontotherium, 562.
Hoofed Mammals, 151.
Horses, 486.
American, 500.
Arab, 497.
Barb, 497.
Cart, 501.
Clydesdale, 502.
Common, 491.
Fossil, 514.
Hunters, 4P9.
Levant, 498.
Persian, 498.
Prejeval ski's, 494.
Race, 498.
Shetland Ponies, 500.
Shire, 501.
Siwalik, 514.
Steno's, 514.
Suffolk, 503.
Tarpan, 493.
Trotters, 500.
ffyssnarctus 34.
Hysenodon, 150.
Hydaspithere, 337.
Hydropotes, 383.
inermis, 384.
Hyomoschus, 401.
Hyopotamus, 421.
ffyotherium, 444.
Hypertraguliis, 402.
Hyrax, 518.
Cape, 520.
Syrian, 521.
Tree, 521.
Hyracoidea, 518.
Hyracothere, 515.
Ibex, 244.
Abyssinian, 250.
Alpine, 247.
Arabian, 250.
Egyptian, 250.
Himalayan, 247.
Persian, 239.
Spanish, 237.
Ictonyx, 78.
frenata, 79.
zorilla, 78.
Impala, 299.
Impofo, 267.
Izard, 262.
151.
Kabaoba, 480.
Kakar, 366.
Kastura, 395.
Keitloa, 474.
Kiang, 509.
Kinkajou, 44.
Klipspringer, 306
Konzi, 320.
Korigum, 323.
Korin, 293.
Kudu, 273.
Lesser, 274.
Kulan, 509.
Lama, 412.
glama, 416.
guanacus, 414.
pacos, 417.
vicunia, 413.
Latax, 98.
lutris, 98.
Leopard-Seal, 142.
Leptonychotcs, 143.
weddelli, 143.
Liby there, 337.
Lichi, 304.
Listriodon 444.
Lithocranius, 295.
walleri, 295.
Litopterna, 561.
Llama, 412.
Lobodon, 143.
carcinophaga, 143.
Lophiodon, 515.
Liitra, 90.
brasiliensis, 95.
canadensis, 94.
capensis, 97.
cincrea, 97.
felina, 96.
macrodus, 96.
maculicollis, 97.
palasindica, 96.
paranensis, 96.
sumatrana, 96.
vulgaris, 91.
Madoqua, 310.
Macrauchcnia, 560.
Macrorhimts, 146.
leoninus, 146.
Mammoth, 543.
Manatis, 567.
African, 571.
American, 571.
Nailless, 571
Manatus, 570.
americanus, 571.
inunguis, 571.
sciicgalensis, 571.
Maral, 348.
Markhor, 250.
Astor, 250.
Baltistan, 250.
Cabul, 250.
Pir Panjal, 250.
Suliman, 250.
Martens, 50.
American, 55.
Beech, 51.
Fisher, 56.
Indian, 57.
INDEX.
Martens — continued.
Pine, 50.
americanus, 558.
ccutleyi, 556.
latidens, 558.
pi' r i tiioisix, DD< »
Mastodons, 556.
Broad-Toothed, 558.
Cautley's, 556.
North American, 558.
Old World, 558.
Mcles, 84.
anacuma, 86.
canescens, 86.
chinensis, 86.
leucunis, 86.
taxus, 84.
Mellivora, 81.
capensis, 82.
indica, 82.
Melursus, 26.
ursinus, 26.
Mephitis, 74.
inacrura, 75.
mephitica, 74
putorius, 75.
Miacis, 67.
Mink, 67.
European, 67.
Siberian, 67.
Moholiu, 480.
Monachua, 141.
albiventcr, 141.
tropicalis, 141.
Moose, 375.
Morse, 124.
Moschus, 395.
moschiferus, 395.
sifanicus, 397.
Mouflon, 225.
Mule, 513.
Muntjacs, 365.
Fea's, 367.
Hairy-Fronted, 368.
Indian, 366.
Reeves's, 368.
Sclater's, 368.
Musk-Deer, 395.
Musk-Ox, 208.
i, 50.
alpina, 67.
ifu/i fieana, 55.
cathia, 67.
<• i- mi urn, 64.
evcrsmanni, 59.
flaviyula, 57.
frcnata, 67.
hemachclana, 67.
larvata, 59.
fnH'jieauda, 67.
lutreola, 67.
martes, 50.
nigripes, 60.
pennant i, 56.
putorius, 58.
sarmaticus, 59.
sibirica, 67.
t-isow, 67.
vulgar is. 62,
Mustela — continued.
zibellina, 54.
, 46.
Mydaiis, 88.
Meliccps, 88.
Nagor, 303.
Nakong, 276.
Ji'iiitn/nigiis, 307.
campestris, "07.
niclanotis, 308.
mwtiauus, 308.
moschatus, 307.
pygmmts, 307.
scoparia, 307.
Ncmorhoedus, 258.
bubalinus, 258.
crispiis, 259.
sumatreiisis, 259.
swinhoei, 259
Neotragus, 308.
£jTA.»i, 309.
saltianus, 308.
Nesodon 564.
Nilgai, 278.
Northern Sea-Cow, 574.
Nyala, 275.
Ogmorkinus, 142.
leptonyx, 142.
Ommatophoca, 143.
rossi, 143.
Onager, 509.
Oreotrayus, 306.
saltator, 306.
, 267.
Gamut, 269.
derbianus, 273.
Oribi, 307.
Oryx, 281.
Fringe-Eared, 283.
On/x, 281.
beatrix, 284.
ictsa, 282.
i-uJlotis, 283.
gazella, 281.
leucoryx, 284.
Otaria, 106.
australis, 123.
cinerea, 123.
forsteri, 123.
(jillfspei, 113.
Jwokeri, 115.
jubata, 108.
lobala, 115.
pusUla, 123.
stdleri, 110.
ursina, 115,
<it<n-iidte, 106.
Otters, 90.
African, 97.'
ISra/ilian, 95.
Clawless, 97.
European, 91.
Extinct, 97.
Feline, 96.
Hairy- Nosed, 96.
North American, 94.
Sea, 98.
Smooth Indian, 96.
Spotted-Necked, 97.
Ovibos, 208.
moschatus, 208.
Ovis, 212.
ammon, 217.
arics, 227.
blanfordi, 224.
canadensis, 213.
ginnlini, 224.
hodgsoni, 217.
jubata,, 218.
karelini, 220.
musimon, 226.
nahura, 231.
niyrimontana, 208.
nivicola, 213.
ophion, 224.
jao/t, 220.
tragelaphus, 232.
vignei, 223.
Oxen, 160.
Oxyodotitotherium, 561.
Pal&omeryx, 386.
I'alieonictis, 150.
Palteosyops, 516.
Palseothere, 515.
Palas, 299.
Angola, 300.
Lesser, 300.
Panda, 36.
Pantholops, 296.
hodgsoni. 296.
Para, 359.
Park Cattle, 163.
Pasang, 239.
Peccaries, 442.
Collared, 443.
White-Lipped, 443.
, 305.
capreola, 305.
Phacochcerus, 439.
africaniis, 440.
jwllasi, 440.
Phenacodus, 515.
Pliilantomba, 310.
/Vioca, 130.
barbata, 140.
caspica, 140.
green land ica, 130.
hispida, 137.
*</>< rim, 140.
ri/nlina, 136.
Phocidae, 131.
Pigs, 420.
Andainan, 429.
Bush, 434.
Celebes, 430.
Ceram, 430.
Collared, 429.
Domestic, 430.
Extinct, 435.
Formosan, 429.
Indian, 426.
Japan, 429.
Malayan, 429.
Masked, 433.
Papuan, 429.
Pigmy, 429.
Senaar, 430.
Titan, 435.
True, 425.
Warty. 429.
582
INDEX.
Pigs — continued.
White-Whiskered, 429.
Pine- Marten, 50.
Plesictis, 67.
Poebrotherium, 419.
Paecilogale, 70,
albinueha, 70.
Polecats, 58.
Black-Footed, 60.
Cape, 70.
Sarmatian, 60.
Ponies, 500.
Primitive Carnivores, 150.
Proboscidea, 522.
Procavia, 518.
abyssinica, 519.
arborea, 521.
brucei, 520.
capensis, 520,
dorsalis, 521.
shoana, 520.
syriaca, 521.
valida, 521.
Pi-ocaviidie, 518.
Procamelus, 419.
Procyon, 38.
cancrivorus, 41.
Zofor, 39.
Procyonidse, 35.
Prongbuck, 324.
Prorastoma, 576.
Proterotheres, 561,
Proterothcriidte, 561.
Prodremotherium, 402.
Protohippus, 514.
Pterodon, 150.
Pudu, 395.
Piidjta, 395.
humilis, 395.
Pnku, 304.
Putorius, 50.
Quagga, 506.
Raccoons, 35, 38.
Common, 39.
Crab-Eating, 41.
Rangifer, 369.
grcenlandicus, 373.
tarandus, 369.
Ratels, 81.
Cape, 82.
Indian, 82.
Red Buck, 310.
Reed Buck, 302.
Reindeer, 369.
Reitbok, 302.
Rhebok, 305.
Vaal, 305.
Rhinoceros, 463,
antiquitatis, 484.
bicornis, 474.
deccanensis, 485.
etruscus, 485.
karnuliensis, 485.
lasiotis, 471.
leptorhinus, 485.
megarhinus, 485.
pachygnathus, 479.
pal&indicus, 470.
platyrhinus, 484.
schleiermacheri, 472.
Rhinoceros — continued.
simus, 479.
sivalensis, 470.
sondaicus, 469.
sumatrensis, 470.
unicornis, 465.
Rhinoceroses, 463.
African, 473, 474.
Asiatic, 465.
Boreli, 474.
Broad-Nosed, 484.
Burchell's, 479.
Deccan, 485.
Etruscan, 485.
Extinct, 483.
Holmwood's, 483.
Hornless, 485.
Indian, 465.
Javan, 469.
Kabaoba, 480.
Karnul, 485.
Keitloa, 474.
Kulumani, 474.
Leptorhine, 485.
Megarhine, 485.
Moliohu, 480.
Schleiermacher's, 472.
Siwalik, 470.
Square-Mouthed, 479.
Sumatran, 470.
Upetyani, 474.
White, 479.
Woolly, 484.
Rhinocerotidfe, 463.
Rhytina, 574.
stellcri, 574.
River-Hog, 435.
Roan Antelope, 285.
Rocky Mountain Goat, 260.
Roe Deer, 381.
Tartarian, 383.
Ruminants, 158.
Rupicapm, 261.
tragus, 261.
Sable, 54.
Sable Antelope, 285.
Saiga, 297.
,&a</a, 297.
tartarica, 297.
Snmbar, 356.
Samothere, 337.
Sand-Badgers, 89.
Sassabi, 323.
Sea-Bears, 115.
Northern, 115.
Sea-Cow, Northern, 574.
Sea-Lions, 108.
Californian, 113.
Hooker's, 115.
Northern, 110.
Southern, 108-.
Seals, 102.
Australian Hair, 115.
Baikal, 140.
Bearded, 140.
Bladder, 144.
Californian Sea-Lion, 113.
Cape, 123.
Caspian, 140.
Common, 136.
Crab-Eating, 143.
Seals — continued.
Crested, 144.
Eared, 106.
Earless, 131.
Elephant, 146.
Falkland Island, 123.
Fur, 106, 115.
Greenland, 136.
Grey, 134.
Hair, 106, 115.
Harp, 138.
Hooded, 144.
Hooker's Sea-Lion, 115.
Leopard, 142.
Monk, 141.
New Zealand, 123.
Northern Sea-Bear, 124.
Northern Sea-Lion, 110.
Ringed, 139.
Ross's, 143.
Saddle-Backed, 138.
Siberian, 140.
South American, 123.
Southern Fur, 122.
Southern Sea-Lion, 108.
Weddell's, 143.
West Indian, 142.
Sea-Otter, 98.
Serows, 2«F>8.
Burmese, 259.
Common, 258.
Japanese, 259.
Swinhoe's, 259.
Sha, 223.
Sheep, 212.
American, 213.
Armenian, 224.
Barbary, 232.
Bharal, 231.
Bighorn, 213.
Cheviot, 229.
Cretan, 224.
Cyprian, 224.
Domestic, 227.
Dorset, 230.
Flat-Tailed, 228.
Heath, 229.
Irish, 229.
Kamschatkan, 213, 216.
Long-Woolled, 231.
Merino, 230.
Mongolian. 217.
Mouflon, 225.
Moor, 230.
Norfolk, 229.
Pamir, 220.
Scotch, 229.
Shetland, 229.
Tibetan, 217.
Urial, 223.
Welsh, 229.
Shou, 348.
Sing-Sing, 304.
Sirenians, 567.
Dugongs, 572.
Manatis, 570.
Sea-Cow, 574.
Tertiary, 575.
Sititunga, 276.
Sivathere, 337.
Sloth-Bear, 26.
Skunks, 74.
Skunks — continued.
Common, 74.
Lesser, 75.
Long-Tailed, 75.
White-Backed, 75.
Springbok, 290.
Steinbok, 307.
Zanzibar, 307.
Stoat, 64.
Long-Tailed, 67.
Strepsiceros, 273.
imberbis, 274.
kudu, 273.
Suidas, 420.
Sunu, 304.
Sus, 425.
africanus, 434.
andamanensis, 429.
arvernensis, 436.
barbatux. 430.
celeboisis, 430.
ccramensis, 430.
cristatus, 426.
falcmicri, 436.
indicus, 432.
Uutomystax, 429.
papuensis, 429.
porcus, 435.
salvanius, 429.
scrofa, 426.
senctarensis, 430.
taevanus, 429.
lifcm, 435.
verrucosus, 429.
Swine, 420.
Andaman, 429.
Bush, 434.
Celebes, 430.
Ceram, 430.
Collared, 429.
Domestic, 430.
Extinct, 435.
Formosan, 429.
Indian, 426. .
Japan, 429.
Malayan, 429.
Masked, 433.
Papuan, 429.
Pigmy, 429.
Senaar, 430.
Titan, 435.
True, 425.
Warty, 429.
White-Whiskered, 429.
Tahr, 254.
INDEX,
Takin, 259.
Tamarao, 206.
Tupiridse, 457.
Tapirs, 457.
American, 459.
Baird's, 460.
Dow's, 460.
Malayan, 459.
Roulin's, 459.
Tapirtts, 457.
americanus, 459.
bairdi, 460.
dowi, 460.
indicus, 459.
roulini, 459.
Tarpan, 493.
Taxidea, 83.
americana, 83.
Tayra, 47.
Tetraceros, 311.
quadricornis, 311.
Tillodonts, 566.
Titanothere, 516.
Titel, 316.
Toxodon, 564.
Toxodmitia, 564.
Toxodonts, 564.
Tratjclaplim, 275.
angasi, 275.
euryceros, 275.
grains, 276.
scriptus, 277.
spekei, 276.
Tragulidse, 398.
Tragulina, 398.
Tragulus, 399.
javanicus, 400.
mcminna, 399.
nigricans, 401.
stanleyanus, 400.
TrichcchidsK, 124.
Trichechus, 124.
rosmarus, 124.
Tur, 235.
Caucasian, 236.
Pallas's, 236.
Severtzow's, 236.
Tylopoda, 398.
Typothere, 566.
Uintatheres, 559.
Ungulates, 151.
Even-Toed, 157.
Odd-Toed, 455.
Short- Footed, 559.
Upetyani, 474.
583
Urial, 223.
UraidK, 1.
Ursus, 4.
americanus, 18.
arctos, 9.
arvernensis, 26.
cinnamonus, 14.
crowtheri, 13.
gcdrosianus, 23.
horribilis, 14.
japonic-US, 23.
malayanus, 24.
maritimus, 4.
ornatus, 9.3.
richardsoni, 14.
spclietis, 25.
theobaldi, 26.
torquatus, 20.
Vicunia, 413.
Walrus, 124.
Wapiti, 349.
Warri-atu, 256.
Wart-Hogs, 439.
^Elian's, 440.
Pallas's, 440.
Water-Buck, 303
Water-Deer, 303.
Weasels, 46.
Bridled, 67.
Common, 62.
Himalayan, 67.
Pale, 67.
South-African, 70.
Striped, 67.
Yellow-Bellied, 67.
Wild Boars, 426.
European, 426.
Indian, 426.
Wildebeests, 312.
Blue, 314.
Brindled, 314.
White-Tailed, 314.
Wolverene, 69.
Yak, 185.
Zebras, 503.
Burchell's, 504.
Grevy's. 505.
Mountain, 503.
True, 503.
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK
ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO
50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE
SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE.
OKI 8 1968
itfctf ffilRARY
DUE
co
FEB 1 5 lii
UCD LIBRARY
DUE DEC 2 L 1970
DEC
SEP 3 1981
Book t-lip— 1
(C8107s4)45&
6499
New natural history
L9
v.2
Y.2.
7955
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11